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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28C16%29
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List of MeSH codes (C16)
|
The following is a partial list of the "C" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (C15). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (C17). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– congenital, hereditary, and neonatal diseases and abnormalities
– abnormalities
– abnormalities, drug-induced
– abnormalities, multiple
– Alagille syndrome
– Angelman syndrome
– Bardet–Biedl syndrome
– basal-cell nevus syndrome
– Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome
– Bloom syndrome
– branchio-oto-renal syndrome
– Cockayne syndrome
– cri du chat syndrome
– De Lange syndrome
– Down syndrome
– ectodermal dysplasia
– Ellis–van Creveld syndrome
– focal dermal hypoplasia
– neurocutaneous syndromes
– Gardner's syndrome
– holoprosencephaly
– incontinentia pigmenti
– Laurence–Moon syndrome
– Leopard syndrome
– Marfan syndrome
– Möbius syndrome
– nail–patella syndrome
– oculocerebrorenal syndrome
– orofaciodigital syndromes
– POEMS syndrome
– Prader–Willi syndrome
– proteus syndrome
– prune belly syndrome
– rubella syndrome, congenital
– Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome
– Short rib – polydactyly syndrome
– Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome
– Waardenburg syndrome
– Wolfram syndrome
– Zellweger syndrome
– abnormalities, radiation-induced
– cardiovascular abnormalities
– arterio-arterial fistula
– arteriovenous malformations
– arteriovenous fistula
– intracranial arteriovenous malformations
– central nervous system vascular malformations
– heart defects, congenital
– aortic coarctation
– arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia
– cor triatriatum
– coronary vessel anomalies
– crisscross heart
– dextrocardia
– Kartagener syndrome
– ductus arteriosus, patent
– Ebstein's anomaly
– Eisenmenger complex
– heart septal defects
– aortopulmonary septal defect
– endocardial cushion defects
– heart septal defects, atrial
– Lutembacher's syndrome
– Trilogy of Fallot
– heart septal defects, ventricular
– hypoplastic left heart syndrome
– Leopard syndrome
– levocardia
– Marfan syndrome
– Tetralogy of Fallot
– transposition of great vessels
– double outlet right ventricle
– tricuspid atresia
– truncus arteriosus, persistent
– pulmonary atresia
– scimitar syndrome
– chromosome disorders
– Angelman syndrome
– Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome
– branchio-oto-renal syndrome
– cri du chat syndrome
– De Lange syndrome
– Down syndrome
– holoprosencephaly
– Prader–Willi syndrome
– Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome
– sex chromosome disorders
– ectodermal dysplasia
– focal dermal hypoplasia
– fragile X syndrome
– gonadal dysgenesis, 46,xy
– gonadal dysgenesis, mixed
– Klinefelter syndrome
– orofaciodigital syndromes
– Turner syndrome
– WAGR syndrome
– Williams syndrome
– DiGeorge syndrome
– digestive system abnormalities
– anus, imperforate
– biliary atresia
– choledochal cyst
– Caroli disease
– diaphragmatic eventration
– esophageal atresia
– Hirschsprung's disease
– intestinal atresia
– Meckel's diverticulum
– eye abnormalities
– aniridia
– WAGR syndrome
– anophthalmos
– blepharophimosis
– coloboma
– ectopia lentis
– hydrophthalmos
– microphthalmos
– retinal dysplasia
– lymphatic abnormalities
– lymphangiectasis, intestinal
– monsters
– anencephaly
– twins, conjoined
– musculoskeletal abnormalities
– arthrogryposis
– craniofacial abnormalities
– cleidocranial dysplasia
– craniofacial dysostosis
– Hallermann's syndrome
– hypertelorism
– mandibulofacial dysostosis
– goldenhar syndrome
– craniosynostoses
– acrocephalosyndactylia
– holoprosencephaly
– Leopard syndrome
– maxillofacial abnormalities
– cherubism
– jaw abnormalities
– cleft palate
– micrognathism
– Pierre Robin syndrome
– prognathism
– retrognathism
– microcephaly
– Noonan syndrome
– orofaciodigital syndromes
– plagiocephaly, nonsynostotic
– platybasia
– Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome
– funnel chest
– gastroschisis
– Hajdu–Cheney syndrome
– hip dislocation, congenital
– Klippel–Feil syndrome
– limb deformities, congenital
– ectromelia
– foot deformities, congenital
– hand deformities, congenital
– lower extremity deformities, congenital
– polydactyly
– short rib – polydactyly syndrome
– proteus syndrome
– syndactyly
– acrocephalosyndactylia
– Poland syndrome
– thanatophoric dysplasia
– upper extremity deformities, congenital
– synostosis
– craniosynostoses
– acrocephalosyndactylia
– syndactyly
– acrocephalosyndactylia
– Poland syndrome
– nervous system malformations
– central nervous system cyst
– arachnoid cyst
– central nervous system vascular malformations
– hemangioma, cavernous, central nervous system
– central nervous system venous angioma
– sinus pericranii
– Dandy–Walker syndrome
– hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies
– Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
– Refsum disease
– spastic paraplegia, hereditary
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– holoprosencephaly
– hydranencephaly
– intracranial arteriovenous malformations
– neural tube defects
– anencephaly
– Arnold–Chiari malformation
– encephalocele
– meningocele
– meningomyelocele
– spinal dysraphism
– spina bifida cystica
– spina bifida occulta
– septo-optic dysplasia
– respiratory system abnormalities
– bronchogenic cyst
– bronchopulmonary sequestration
– choanal atresia
– cystic adenomatoid malformation of lung, congenital
– kartagener syndrome
– scimitar syndrome
– tracheobronchomegaly
– situs inversus
– dextrocardia
– kartagener syndrome
– levocardia
– skin abnormalities
– acrodermatitis
– dyskeratosis congenita
– ectodermal dysplasia
– Ellis–van Creveld syndrome
– focal dermal hypoplasia
– neurocutaneous syndromes
– Ehlers–Danlos syndrome
– epidermolysis bullosa
– epidermolysis bullosa acquisita
– epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica
– epidermolysis bullosa, junctional
– epidermolysis bullosa simplex
– ichthyosis
– ichthyosiform erythroderma, congenital
– hyperkeratosis, epidermolytic
– ichthyosis, lamellar
– ichthyosis vulgaris
– ichthyosis, x-linked
– Sjögren–Larsson syndrome
– incontinentia pigmenti
– port-wine stain
– pseudoxanthoma elasticum
– Rothmund–Thomson syndrome
– sclerema neonatorum
– xeroderma pigmentosum
– stomatognathic system abnormalities
– maxillofacial abnormalities
– jaw abnormalities
– cleft palate
– micrognathism
– Pierre Robin syndrome
– prognathism
– retrognathism
– mouth abnormalities
– cleft lip
– cleft palate
– fibromatosis, gingival
– macrostomia
– microstomia
– velopharyngeal insufficiency
– tooth abnormalities
– amelogenesis imperfecta
– dental enamel hypoplasia
– anodontia
– dens in dente
– dentin dysplasia
– dentinogenesis imperfecta
– fused teeth
– odontodysplasia
– tooth, supernumerary
– thyroid dysgenesis
– lingual thyroid
– lingual goiter
– urogenital abnormalities
– bladder exstrophy
– cryptorchidism
– epispadias
– frasier syndrome
– hypospadias
– multicystic dysplastic kidney
– nephritis, hereditary
– sex differentiation disorders
– freemartinism
– gonadal dysgenesis
– gonadal dysgenesis, 46,xx
– gonadal dysgenesis, 46,xy
– gonadal dysgenesis, mixed
– turner syndrome
– hermaphroditism
– hermaphroditism, true
– pseudohermaphroditism
– androgen insensitivity syndrome
– Denys–Drash syndrome
– Kallmann syndrome
– Klinefelter syndrome
– WAGR syndrome
– fetal diseases
– chorioamnionitis
– erythroblastosis, fetal
– hydrops fetalis
– fetal alcohol syndrome
– fetal hypoxia
– fetal growth retardation
– fetal macrosomia
– meconium aspiration syndrome
– genetic diseases, inborn
– adrenal hyperplasia, congenital
– anemia, hemolytic, congenital
– anemia, dyserythropoietic, congenital
– anemia, hemolytic, congenital nonspherocytic
– anemia, sickle cell
– hemoglobin SC disease
– sickle cell trait
– elliptocytosis, hereditary
– glucosephosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
– favism
– hemoglobin c disease
– spherocytosis, hereditary
– thalassemia
– alpha-thalassemia
– beta-thalassemia
– anemia, hypoplastic, congenital
– anemia, Diamond–Blackfan
– fanconi anemia
– ataxia telangiectasia
– blood coagulation disorders, inherited
– activated protein C resistance
– afibrinogenemia
– antithrombin III deficiency
– Bernard–Soulier syndrome
– factor V deficiency
– factor VII deficiency
– factor X deficiency
– factor XI deficiency
– factor XII deficiency
– factor XIII deficiency
– hemophilia A
– hemophilia B
– Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome
– hypoprothrombinemias
– protein C deficiency
– thrombasthenia
– Von Willebrand disease
– Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome
– CADASIL
– cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic, familial
– cherubism
– chromosome disorders
– angelman syndrome
– Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome
– branchio-oto-renal syndrome
– cri du chat syndrome – De Lange syndrome
– Down syndrome
– holoprosencephaly
– Prader–Willi syndrome
– Rubinstein–Taybi syndrome
– sex chromosome disorders
– ectodermal dysplasia
– focal dermal hypoplasia
– fragile X syndrome
– gonadal dysgenesis, 46,xy
– gonadal dysgenesis, mixed
– Klinefelter syndrome
– orofaciodigital syndromes
– Turner syndrome
– WAGR syndrome
– Williams syndrome
– cystic fibrosis
– dwarfism
– achondroplasia
– cockayne syndrome
– congenital hypothyroidism
– laron syndrome
– mulibrey nanism
– eye diseases, hereditary
– albinism
– albinism, ocular
– albinism, oculocutaneous
– Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome
– piebaldism
– aniridia
– WAGR syndrome
– choroideremia
– corneal dystrophies, hereditary
– Fuchs' endothelial dystrophy
– Duane retraction syndrome
– gyrate atrophy
– optic atrophies, hereditary
– optic atrophy, hereditary, leber
– optic atrophy, autosomal dominant
– Wolfram syndrome
– retinal dysplasia
– retinitis pigmentosa
– Usher syndromes
– familial Mediterranean fever
– genetic diseases, x-linked
– androgen insensitivity syndrome
– choroideremia
– dyskeratosis congenita
– fabry disease
– focal dermal hypoplasia
– glycogen storage disease type IIb
– glycogen storage disease type VIII
– granulomatous disease, chronic
– ichthyosis, x-linked
– hemophilia B
– mental retardation, x-linked
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– Coffin–Lowry syndrome
– fragile X syndrome
– Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
– Menkes kinky hair syndrome
– mucopolysaccharidosis II
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency disease
– Rett syndrome
– muscular dystrophy, Duchenne
– muscular dystrophy, Emery–Dreifuss
– oculocerebrorenal syndrome
– Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease
– Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome
– genetic diseases, y-linked
– Hajdu–Cheney syndrome
– hemoglobinopathies
– anemia, sickle cell
– hemoglobin sc disease
– sickle cell trait
– hemoglobin c disease
– thalassemia
– alpha-thalassemia
– hydrops fetalis
– beta-thalassemia
– heredodegenerative disorders, nervous system
– Alexander disease
– amyloid neuropathies, familial
– Canavan disease
– Cockayne syndrome
– dystonia musculorum deformans
– Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker disease
– Hallervorden–Spatz syndrome
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– hereditary central nervous system demyelinating diseases
– hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies
– Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease
– Refsum disease
– spastic paraplegia, hereditary
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– Huntington disease
– Lafora disease
– Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
– Menkes kinky hair syndrome
– mental retardation, x-linked
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– Coffin–Lowry syndrome
– fragile X syndrome
– Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
– Menkes kinky hair syndrome
– mucopolysaccharidosis II
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency disease
– Rett syndrome
– myotonia congenita
– myotonic dystrophy
– neurofibromatosis
– neurofibromatosis 1
– neurofibromatosis 2
– neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis
– optic atrophies, hereditary
– optic atrophy, hereditary, leber
– optic atrophy, autosomal dominant
– Wolfram syndrome
– Rett syndrome
– spinal muscular atrophies of childhood
– spinocerebellar degenerations
– Friedreich's ataxia
– myoclonic cerebellar dyssynergia
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– spinocerebellar ataxias
– Machado–Joseph disease
– Tourette syndrome
– tuberous sclerosis
– Unverricht–Lundborg syndrome
– hyperthyroxinemia, familial dysalbuminemic
– Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome
– kallmann syndrome
– kartagener syndrome
– marfan syndrome
– metabolism, inborn errors
– amino acid metabolism, inborn errors
– albinism
– albinism, ocular
– albinism, oculocutaneous
– Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome
– piebaldism
– alkaptonuria
– aminoaciduria, renal
– cystinuria
– Hartnup disease
– carbamoyl-phosphate synthase I deficiency disease
– citrullinemia
– homocystinuria
– hyperargininemia
– hyperglycinemia, nonketotic
– hyperhomocysteinemia
– hyperlysinemias
– maple syrup urine disease
– multiple carboxylase deficiency
– biotinidase deficiency
– holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency
– ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency disease
– phenylketonurias
– phenylketonuria, maternal
– tyrosinemias
– amino acid transport disorders, inborn
– Hartnup disease
– oculocerebrorenal syndrome
– amyloidosis, familial
– amyloid neuropathies, familial
– cerebral amyloid angiopathy, familial
– brain diseases, metabolic, inborn
– abetalipoproteinemia
– carbamoyl-phosphate synthase I deficiency disease
– cerebral amyloid angiopathy, familial
– citrullinemia
– galactosemias
– Hartnup disease
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– homocystinuria
– hyperargininemia
– hyperglycinemia, nonketotic
– hyperlysinemias
– Leigh disease
– Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
– lysosomal storage diseases, nervous system
– fucosidosis
– glycogen storage disease type II
– mucolipidoses
– sialic acid storage disease
– sphingolipidoses
– Fabry disease – gangliosidoses
– gangliosidoses GM2
– Sandhoff disease
– Tay–Sachs disease
– Tay–Sachs disease, AB variant
– gangliosidosis GM1
– Gaucher disease
– leukodystrophy, globoid cell
– leukodystrophy, metachromatic
– Niemann–Pick diseases
– maple syrup urine disease
– MELAS syndrome
– Menkes kinky hair syndrome
– MERRF syndrome
– oculocerebrorenal syndrome
– ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency disease
– peroxisomal disorders
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– Refsum disease
– Zellweger syndrome
– phenylketonurias
– phenylketonuria, maternal
– pyruvate carboxylase deficiency disease
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency disease
– tyrosinemias
– carbohydrate metabolism, inborn errors
– carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome
– fructose metabolism, inborn errors
– fructose-1,6-diphosphatase deficiency
– Hereditary fructose intolerance
– fucosidosis
– galactosemias
– glycogen storage disease
– glycogen storage disease type I
– glycogen storage disease type II
– glycogen storage disease type IIb
– glycogen storage disease type III
– glycogen storage disease type IV
– glycogen storage disease type V
– glycogen storage disease type VI
– glycogen storage disease type VII
– glycogen storage disease type VIII
– hyperoxaluria, primary
– lactose intolerance
– mannosidase deficiency diseases
– alpha-mannosidosis
– beta-mannosidosis
– mucolipidoses
– mucopolysaccharidoses
– mucopolysaccharidosis I
– mucopolysaccharidosis II
– mucopolysaccharidosis III
– mucopolysaccharidosis IV
– mucopolysaccharidosis VI
– mucopolysaccharidosis VII
– multiple carboxylase deficiency
– biotinidase deficiency
– holocarboxylase synthetase deficiency
– nesidioblastosis
– persistent hyperinsulinemia hypoglycemia of infancy
– pyruvate metabolism, inborn errors
– Leigh disease
– pyruvate carboxylase deficiency disease
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency disease
– cytochrome-c oxidase deficiency
– glucosephosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
– hyperbilirubinemia, hereditary
– Crigler–Najjar syndrome
– Gilbert disease
– jaundice, chronic idiopathic
– lipid metabolism, inborn errors
– hypercholesterolemia, familial
– hyperlipidemia, familial combined
– hypercholesterolemia, familial
– hyperlipoproteinemia type IV
– hyperlipoproteinemia type III
– hyperlipoproteinemia type IV
– hyperlipoproteinemia type V
– hypolipoproteinemia
– abetalipoproteinemia
– hypobetalipoproteinemia
– lecithin acyltransferase deficiency
– Tangier disease
– lipoidosis
– cholesterol ester storage disease
– lipoidproteinosis
– neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis
– refsum disease
– sjogren-larsson syndrome
– sphingolipidoses
– Fabry disease
– gangliosidoses
– gangliosidoses GM2
– Sandhoff disease
– Tay–Sachs disease
– Tay–Sachs disease, AB variant
– gangliosidosis GM1
– Gaucher disease
– leukodystrophy, globoid cell
– leukodystrophy, metachromatic
– Niemann–Pick diseases
– sea-blue histiocyte syndrome
– Wolman disease
– lipoprotein lipase deficiency, familial
– peroxisomal disorders
– acatalasia
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– chondrodysplasia punctata, rhizomelic
– Refsum disease
– Zellweger syndrome
– Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome
– xanthomatosis, cerebrotendinous
– lysosomal storage diseases
– cholesterol ester storage disease
– lysosomal storage diseases, nervous system
– fucosidosis
– glycogen storage disease type II
– mucolipidoses
– sialic acid storage disease
– sphingolipidoses
– Fabry disease
– gangliosidoses
– gangliosidoses GM2
– Sandhoff disease
– Tay–Sachs disease
– Tay–Sachs disease, AB variant
– gangliosidosis GM1
– Gaucher disease
– leukodystrophy, globoid cell
– leukodystrophy, metachromatic
– Niemann–Pick diseases
– mannosidase deficiency diseases
– alpha-mannosidosis
– beta-mannosidosis
– mucopolysaccharidoses
– mucopolysaccharidosis I
– mucopolysaccharidosis II
– mucopolysaccharidosis III
– mucopolysaccharidosis IV
– mucopolysaccharidosis VI
– mucopolysaccharidosis VII
– sphingolipidoses
– Fabry disease
– gangliosidoses
– gangliosidoses GM2
– Sandhoff disease
– Tay–Sachs disease
– Tay–Sachs disease, AB variant
– Gaucher disease
– leukodystrophy, globoid cell
– leukodystrophy, metachromatic
– niemann-pick diseases
– sea-blue histiocyte syndrome
– Wolman disease
– metal metabolism, inborn errors
– hemochromatosis
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– hypophosphatasia
– hypophosphatemia, familial
– Menkes kinky hair syndrome
– paralyses, familial periodic
– hypokalemic periodic paralysis
– paralysis, hyperkalemic periodic
– Andersen syndrome
– pseudohypoparathyroidism
– pseudopseudohypoparathyroidism
– porphyria, erythropoietic
– porphyrias, hepatic
– coproporphyria, hereditary
– porphyria, acute intermittent
– porphyria cutanea tarda
– porphyria, hepatoerythropoietic
– porphyria, variegate
– protoporphyria, erythropoietic
– progeria
– purine–pyrimidine metabolism, inborn errors
– gout
– arthritis, gouty
– Lesch–Nyhan syndrome
– renal tubular transport, inborn errors
– acidosis, renal tubular
– aminoaciduria, renal
– cystinuria
– Hartnup disease
– cystinosis
– Fanconi syndrome
– glycosuria, renal
– hypophosphatemia, familial
– oculocerebrorenal syndrome
– pseudohypoaldosteronism
– steroid metabolism, inborn errors
– adrenal hyperplasia, congenital
– mineralocorticoid excess syndrome, apparent
– ichthyosis, x-linked
– Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome
– muscular dystrophies
– distal myopathies
– glycogen storage disease type VII
– muscular dystrophies, limb-girdle
– muscular dystrophy, Duchenne
– muscular dystrophy, Emery–Dreifuss
– muscular dystrophy, facioscapulohumeral
– muscular dystrophy, oculopharyngeal
– myotonic dystrophy
– myasthenic syndromes, congenital
– nail–patella syndrome
– neoplastic syndromes, hereditary
– adenomatous polyposis coli
– Gardner's syndrome
– basal-cell nevus syndrome
– colorectal neoplasms, hereditary nonpolyposis
– dysplastic nevus syndrome
– exostoses, multiple hereditary
– hamartoma syndrome, multiple
– Li–Fraumeni syndrome
– multiple endocrine neoplasia
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2a
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b
– Wilms' tumor
– Denys–Drash syndrome
– WAGR syndrome
– Neurofibromatosis
– neurofibromatosis 1
– neurofibromatosis 2
– Peutz–Jeghers syndrome
– Sturge–Weber syndrome
– osteogenesis imperfecta
– pain insensitivity, congenital
– Romano–Ward syndrome
– skin diseases, genetic
– albinism
– albinism, ocular
– albinism, oculocutaneous
– Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome
– piebaldism
– cutis laxa
– dermatitis, atopic
– dyskeratosis congenita
– ectodermal dysplasia
– Ellis–van Creveld syndrome
– focal dermal hypoplasia
– neurocutaneous syndromes
– Ehlers–Danlos syndrome
– epidermolysis bullosa
– epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica
– epidermolysis bullosa, junctional
– epidermolysis bullosa simplex
– ichthyosiform erythroderma, congenital
– hyperkeratosis, epidermolytic
– ichthyosis, lamellar
– ichthyosis vulgaris
– ichthyosis, x-linked
– incontinentia pigmenti
– keratoderma, palmoplantar
– keratoderma, palmoplantar, diffuse
– Papillon–Lefèvre disease
– keratosis follicularis
– pemphigus, benign familial
– porokeratosis
– porphyria, erythropoietic
– porphyrias, hepatic
– coproporphyria, hereditary
– porphyria, acute intermittent
– porphyria cutanea tarda
– porphyria, hepatoerythropoietic
– porphyria, variegate
– protoporphyria, erythropoietic
– pseudoxanthoma elasticum
– Rothmund–Thomson syndrome
– Sjögren–Larsson syndrome
– xeroderma pigmentosum
– Werner syndrome
– infant, newborn, diseases
– amniotic band syndrome
– anemia, neonatal
– fetofetal transfusion
– fetomaternal transfusion
– asphyxia neonatorum
– birth injuries
– paralysis, obstetric
– cystic fibrosis
– epilepsy, benign neonatal
– erythroblastosis, fetal
– kernicterus
– hemorrhagic disease of newborn
– hernia, umbilical
– hydrocephalus
– Dandy–Walker syndrome
– hydrophthalmos
– hyperbilirubinemia, neonatal
– jaundice, neonatal
– jaundice, chronic idiopathic
– hyperostosis, cortical, congenital
– ichthyosis
– ichthyosiform erythroderma, congenital
– hyperkeratosis, epidermolytic
– ichthyosis, lamellar
– ichthyosis, x-linked
– Sjögren–Larsson syndrome
– infant, premature, diseases
– bronchopulmonary dysplasia
– leukomalacia, periventricular
– respiratory distress syndrome, newborn
– hyaline membrane disease
– retinopathy of prematurity
– meconium aspiration syndrome
– Möbius syndrome
– neonatal abstinence syndrome
– nystagmus, congenital
– ophthalmia neonatorum
– persistent fetal circulation syndrome
– persistent hyperinsulinemia hypoglycemia of infancy
– Rothmund–Thomson syndrome
– sclerema neonatorum
– severe combined immunodeficiency
– syphilis, congenital
– thanatophoric dysplasia
– toxoplasmosis, congenital
– Wolman disease
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (C17).
MeSH
C16
|
5115064
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28C10%29
|
List of MeSH codes (C10)
|
The following is a partial list of the "C" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (C09). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (C11). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– nervous system diseases
– autoimmune diseases of the nervous system
– demyelinating autoimmune diseases, cns
– diffuse cerebral sclerosis of schilder
– encephalomyelitis, acute disseminated
– leukoencephalitis, acute hemorrhagic
– multiple sclerosis
– multiple sclerosis, chronic progressive
– multiple sclerosis, relapsing-remitting
– neuromyelitis optica
– myelitis, transverse
– neuromyelitis optica
– neuromyelitis optica
– lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome
– leukoencephalitis, acute hemorrhagic
– myasthenia gravis
– myasthenia gravis, autoimmune, experimental
– myasthenia gravis, neonatal
– nervous system autoimmune disease, experimental
– encephalomyelitis, autoimmune, experimental
– myasthenia gravis, autoimmune, experimental
– neuritis, autoimmune, experimental
– polyradiculoneuropathy
– guillain-barre syndrome
– miller fisher syndrome
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– polyradiculoneuropathy, chronic inflammatory demyelinating
– stiff-person syndrome
– uveomeningoencephalitic syndrome
– vasculitis, central nervous system
– aids arteritis, central nervous system
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– temporal arteritis
– autonomic nervous system diseases
– aide syndrome
– autonomic dysreflexia
– complex regional pain syndromes
– causalgia
– reflex sympathetic dystrophy
– dysautonomia, familial
– horner syndrome
– shy-drager syndrome
– sweating, gustatory
– central nervous system diseases
– brain diseases
– akinetic mutism
– amblyopia
– amnesia, transient global
– auditory diseases, central
– auditory perceptual disorders
– hearing loss, central
– basal ganglia diseases
– basal ganglia cerebrovascular disease
– basal ganglia hemorrhage
– putaminal hemorrhage
– chorea gravidarum
– dystonia musculorum deformans
– hallervorden-spatz syndrome
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– huntington disease
– meige syndrome
– multiple system atrophy
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– shy-drager syndrome
– striatonigral degeneration
– neuroleptic malignant syndrome
– parkinsonian disorders
– lewy body disease
– parkinson disease
– parkinson disease, secondary
– mptp poisoning
– parkinson disease, postencephalitic
– supranuclear palsy, progressive
– tourette syndrome
– brain abscess
– toxoplasmosis, cerebral
– brain damage, chronic
– brain injury, chronic
– cerebral palsy
– persistent vegetative state
– brain death
– brain diseases, metabolic
– brain diseases, metabolic, inborn
– abetalipoproteinemia
– carbamoyl-phosphate synthase i deficiency disease
– cerebral amyloid angiopathy, familial
– citrullinemia
– galactosemias
– hartnup disease
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– homocystinuria
– hyperargininemia
– hyperglycinemia, nonketotic
– hyperlysinemias
– leigh disease
– lesch-nyhan syndrome
– lysosomal storage diseases, nervous system
– fucosidosis
– glycogen storage disease type ii
– mucolipidoses
– sialic acid storage disease
– sphingolipidoses
– fabry disease
– gangliosidoses
– gangliosidoses gm2
– sandhoff disease
– tay-sachs disease
– tay-sachs disease, ab variant
– gangliosidosis gm1
– sandhoff disease
– gaucher disease
– leukodystrophy, globoid cell
– leukodystrophy, metachromatic
– niemann-pick diseases
– maple syrup urine disease
– melas syndrome
– menkes kinky hair syndrome
– merrf syndrome
– oculocerebrorenal syndrome
– ornithine carbamoyltransferase deficiency disease
– peroxisomal disorders
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– refsum disease
– zellweger syndrome
– phenylketonurias
– phenylketonuria, maternal
– pyruvate carboxylase deficiency disease
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency disease
– tyrosinemias
– hepatic encephalopathy
– kernicterus
– mitochondrial encephalomyopathies
– myelinolysis, central pontine
– reye syndrome
– wernicke encephalopathy
– brain edema
– brain injuries
– brain concussion
– post-concussion syndrome
– brain hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain stem hemorrhage, traumatic
– cerebral hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain injury, chronic
– diffuse axonal injury
– epilepsy, post-traumatic
– pneumocephalus
– brain neoplasms
– cerebral ventricle neoplasms
– choroid plexus neoplasms
– papilloma, choroid plexus
– infratentorial neoplasms
– brain stem neoplasms
– cerebellar neoplasms
– neurocytoma
– pinealoma
– supratentorial neoplasms
– hypothalamic neoplasms
– pituitary neoplasms
– cerebellar diseases
– cerebellar ataxia
– spinocerebellar ataxias
– ataxia telangiectasia
– machado-joseph disease
– cerebellar neoplasms
– dandy-walker syndrome
– miller fisher syndrome
– paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration
– spinocerebellar degenerations
– friedreich ataxia
– myoclonic cerebellar dyssynergia
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– spinocerebellar ataxias
– machado-joseph disease
– cerebrovascular disorders
– basal ganglia cerebrovascular disease
– basal ganglia hemorrhage
– putaminal hemorrhage
– brain ischemia
– vertebrobasilar insufficiency
– subclavian steal syndrome
– carotid artery diseases
– carotid artery thrombosis
– carotid artery injuries
– carotid artery, internal, dissection
– carotid-cavernous sinus fistula
– carotid artery, internal, dissection
– carotid stenosis
– carotid-cavernous sinus fistula
– moyamoya disease
– cerebrovascular accident
– brain infarction
– brain stem infarctions
– lateral medullary syndrome
– cerebral infarction
– infarction, anterior cerebral artery
– infarction, middle cerebral artery
– infarction, posterior cerebral artery
– cerebrovascular trauma
– carotid artery injuries
– carotid artery, internal, dissection
– carotid-cavernous sinus fistula
– vertebral artery dissection
– dementia, vascular
– cadasil
– dementia, multi-infarct
– hypoxia-ischemia, brain
– brain ischemia
– ischemic attack, transient
– hypoxia, brain
– intracranial arterial diseases
– cerebral arterial diseases
– cadasil
– cerebral amyloid angiopathy
– cerebral amyloid angiopathy, familial
– infarction, anterior cerebral artery
– infarction, middle cerebral artery
– infarction, posterior cerebral artery
– intracranial aneurysm
– intracranial arteriosclerosis
– dementia, vascular
– intracranial arteriovenous malformations
– intracranial arteriovenous malformations
– intracranial embolism and thrombosis
– intracranial embolism
– intracranial thrombosis
– sinus thrombosis, intracranial
– cavernous sinus thrombosis
– lateral sinus thrombosis
– sagittal sinus thrombosis
– intracranial hemorrhages
– cerebral hemorrhage
– basal ganglia hemorrhage
– putaminal hemorrhage
– cerebral hemorrhage, traumatic
– intracranial hemorrhage, hypertensive
– intracranial hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain stem hemorrhage, traumatic
– cerebral hemorrhage, traumatic
– hematoma, epidural, cranial
– hematoma, subdural
– hematoma, subdural, acute
– hematoma, subdural, chronic
– hematoma, subdural, intracranial
– subarachnoid hemorrhage, traumatic
– pituitary apoplexy
– subarachnoid hemorrhage
– subarachnoid hemorrhage, traumatic
– leukomalacia, periventricular
– sneddon syndrome
– vascular headaches
– vasculitis, central nervous system
– aids arteritis, central nervous system
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– temporal arteritis
– vasospasm, intracranial
– vertebral artery dissection
– dementia
– aids dementia complex
– alzheimer disease
– primary progressive aphasia
– creutzfeldt-jakob syndrome
– dementia, vascular
– dementia, multi-infarct
– huntington disease
– Klüver-Bucy syndrome
– lewy body disease
– pick disease of the brain
– diffuse cerebral sclerosis of schilder
– encephalitis
– encephalomyelitis
– limbic encephalitis
– meningoencephalitis
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– encephalomalacia
– leukomalacia, periventricular
– epilepsy
– epilepsies, myoclonic
– myoclonic epilepsy, juvenile
– myoclonic epilepsies, progressive
– lafora disease
– merrf syndrome
– unverricht-lundborg syndrome
– epilepsies, partial
– epilepsy, complex partial
– epilepsy, frontal lobe
– epilepsy, partial, motor
– epilepsy, partial, sensory
– epilepsy, rolandic
– epilepsy, temporal lobe
– epilepsy, benign neonatal
– epilepsy, generalized
– epilepsy, absence
– epilepsy, tonic-clonic
– spasms, infantile
– epilepsy, post-traumatic
– epilepsy, reflex
– landau-kleffner syndrome
– seizures
– seizures, febrile
– status epilepticus
– epilepsia partialis continua
– headache disorders
– headache disorders, primary
– migraine disorders
– migraine with aura
– migraine without aura
– tension-type headache
– trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias
– cluster headache
– paroxysmal hemicrania
– sunct syndrome
– headache disorders, secondary
– post-dural puncture headache
– post-traumatic headache
– vascular headaches
– hydrocephalus
– dandy-walker syndrome
– hydrocephalus, normal pressure
– hypothalamic diseases
– bardet-biedl syndrome
– hypothalamic neoplasms
– pituitary neoplasms
– laurence-moon syndrome
– pituitary diseases
– empty sella syndrome
– hyperpituitarism
– acromegaly
– hyperprolactinemia
– pituitary acth hypersecretion
– hypopituitarism
– dwarfism, pituitary
– inappropriate adh syndrome
– pituitary apoplexy
– pituitary neoplasms
– acth-secreting pituitary adenoma
– nelson syndrome
– growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma
– prolactinoma
– intracranial hypertension
– hydrocephalus
– dandy-walker syndrome
– hypertensive encephalopathy
– pseudotumor cerebri
– intracranial hypotension
– kluver-Bucy syndrome
– neuroaxonal dystrophies
– hallervorden-spatz syndrome
– subdural effusion
– thalamic diseases
– central nervous system infections
– brain abscess
– toxoplasmosis, cerebral
– central nervous system bacterial infections
– brain abscess
– empyema, subdural
– epidural abscess
– lyme neuroborreliosis
– meningitis, bacterial
– meningitis, escherichia coli
– meningitis, haemophilus
– meningitis, listeria
– meningitis, meningococcal
– waterhouse-friderichsen syndrome
– meningitis, pneumococcal
– tuberculosis, meningeal
– neurosyphilis
– tabes dorsalis
– tuberculosis, central nervous system
– tuberculoma, intracranial
– tuberculosis, meningeal
– central nervous system fungal infections
– meningitis, fungal
– meningitis, cryptococcal
– neuroaspergillosis
– central nervous system parasitic infections
– central nervous system helminthiasis
– neurocysticercosis
– neuroschistosomiasis
– central nervous system protozoal infections
– malaria, cerebral
– toxoplasmosis, cerebral
– toxoplasmosis, congenital
– central nervous system viral diseases
– encephalitis
– encephalitis, viral
– encephalitis, arbovirus
– encephalitis, california
– encephalitis, japanese
– encephalitis, st. louis
– encephalitis, tick-borne
– west nile fever
– encephalitis, herpes simplex
– encephalitis, varicella zoster
– encephalomyelitis, equine
– encephalomyelitis, eastern equine
– encephalomyelitis, venezuelan equine
– encephalomyelitis, western equine
– leukoencephalopathy, progressive multifocal
– subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
– meningitis, viral
– lymphocytic choriomeningitis
– meningitis, aseptic
– myelitis
– paraparesis, tropical spastic
– poliomyelitis
– poliomyelitis
– poliomyelitis, bulbar
– postpoliomyelitis syndrome
– pseudorabies
– empyema, subdural
– encephalitis
– encephalitis, viral
– encephalitis, arbovirus
– encephalitis, california
– encephalitis, japanese
– encephalitis, st. louis
– encephalitis, tick-borne
– west nile fever
– encephalitis, herpes simplex
– encephalitis, varicella zoster
– encephalomyelitis, equine
– encephalomyelitis, eastern equine
– encephalomyelitis, venezuelan equine
– encephalomyelitis, western equine
– leukoencephalopathy, progressive multifocal
– subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
– meningoencephalitis
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– leukoencephalitis, acute hemorrhagic
– limbic encephalitis
– encephalomyelitis
– encephalomyelitis, equine
– encephalomyelitis, eastern equine
– encephalomyelitis, venezuelan equine
– encephalomyelitis, western equine
– epidural abscess
– meningitis
– arachnoiditis
– meningitis, aseptic
– meningitis, bacterial
– meningitis, escherichia coli
– meningitis, haemophilus
– meningitis, listeria
– meningitis, meningococcal
– waterhouse-friderichsen syndrome
– meningitis, pneumococcal
– tuberculosis, meningeal
– meningitis, fungal
– meningitis, cryptococcal
– meningitis, viral
– lymphocytic choriomeningitis
– meningitis, aseptic
– meningoencephalitis
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– meningoencephalitis
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– uveomeningoencephalitic syndrome
– myelitis
– paraparesis, tropical spastic
– poliomyelitis
– perimeningeal infections
– empyema, subdural
– epidural abscess
– subdural effusion
– prion diseases
– creutzfeldt-jakob syndrome
– encephalopathy, bovine spongiform
– gerstmann-straussler-scheinker disease
– insomnia, fatal familial
– Kuru
– scrapie
– wasting disease, chronic
– encephalomyelitis
– encephalomyelitis, equine
– encephalomyelitis, eastern equine
– encephalomyelitis, venezuelan equine
– encephalomyelitis, western equine
– fatigue syndrome, chronic
– leukoencephalitis, acute hemorrhagic
– high pressure neurological syndrome
– meningitis
– meningoencephalitis
– lupus vasculitis, central nervous system
– movement disorders
– angelman syndrome
– choreatic disorders
– chorea gravidarum
– huntington disease
– dystonic disorders
– dystonia musculorum deformans
– meige syndrome
– torticollis
– essential tremor
– hallervorden-spatz syndrome
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– multiple system atrophy
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– shy-drager syndrome
– striatonigral degeneration
– parkinsonian disorders
– lewy body disease
– parkinson disease
– parkinson disease, secondary
– mptp poisoning
– parkinson disease, postencephalitic
– supranuclear palsy, progressive
– Tic disorders
– Tourette syndrome
– ocular motility disorders
– pneumocephalus
– spinal cord diseases
– amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
– epidural abscess
– muscular atrophy, spinal
– spinal muscular atrophies of childhood
– myelitis
– myelitis, transverse
– paraparesis, tropical spastic
– poliomyelitis
– poliomyelitis
– postpoliomyelitis syndrome
– spinal cord compression
– spinal cord neoplasms
– epidural neoplasms
– spinal cord injuries
– central cord syndrome
– spinal cord vascular diseases
– anterior spinal artery syndrome
– spinal cord ischemia
– anterior spinal artery syndrome
– spinocerebellar degenerations
– friedreich ataxia
– myoclonic cerebellar dyssynergia
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– spinocerebellar ataxias
– machado-joseph disease
– stiff-person syndrome
– syringomyelia
– tabes dorsalis
– chronobiology disorders
– jet lag syndrome
– sleep disorders, circadian rhythm
– cranial nerve diseases
– abducens nerve diseases
– abducens nerve injury
– accessory nerve diseases
– cranial nerve neoplasms
– neuroma, acoustic
– neurofibromatosis 2
– optic nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve glioma
– cranial nerve injuries
– abducens nerve injury
– facial nerve injuries
– optic nerve injuries
– facial nerve diseases
– bell palsy
– facial hemiatrophy
– facial nerve injuries
– facial neuralgia
– herpes zoster oticus
– melkersson-rosenthal syndrome
– mobius syndrome
– facial neuralgia
– glossopharyngeal nerve diseases
– hypoglossal nerve diseases
– ocular motility disorders
– duane retraction syndrome
– miller fisher syndrome
– nystagmus, pathologic
– nystagmus, congenital
– oculomotor nerve diseases
– ophthalmoplegia
– ophthalmoplegia, chronic progressive external
– supranuclear palsy, progressive
– ophthalmoplegia, chronic progressive external
– kearns-sayer syndrome
– strabismus
– esotropia
– exotropia
– tolosa-hunt syndrome
– oculomotor nerve diseases
– aide syndrome
– olfactory nerve diseases
– esthesioneuroblastoma, olfactory
– optic nerve diseases
– optic atrophy
– optic atrophies, hereditary
– optic atrophy, hereditary, leber
– optic atrophy, autosomal dominant
– wolfram syndrome
– optic disk drusen
– optic nerve injuries
– optic nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve glioma
– optic neuritis
– neuromyelitis optica
– optic neuropathy, ischemic
– papilledema
– trigeminal nerve diseases
– trigeminal neuralgia
– trochlear nerve diseases
– vagus nerve diseases
– vocal cord paralysis
– vestibulocochlear nerve diseases
– neuroma, acoustic
– neurofibromatosis 2
– vestibular neuronitis
– demyelinating diseases
– demyelinating autoimmune diseases, cns
– diffuse cerebral sclerosis of schilder
– encephalomyelitis, acute disseminated
– encephalomyelitis, autoimmune, experimental
– leukoencephalitis, acute hemorrhagic
– multiple sclerosis
– multiple sclerosis, chronic progressive
– multiple sclerosis, relapsing-remitting
– neuromyelitis optica
– myelitis, transverse
– neuromyelitis optica
– neuromyelitis optica
– hereditary central nervous system demyelinating diseases
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– alexander disease
– canavan disease
– leukodystrophy, globoid cell
– leukodystrophy, metachromatic
– pelizaeus-merzbacher disease
– leukoencephalopathy, progressive multifocal
– myelinolysis, central pontine
– polyradiculoneuropathy
– polyradiculoneuropathy, chronic inflammatory demyelinating
– guillain-barre syndrome
– miller fisher syndrome
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– nervous system malformations
– central nervous system cysts
– arachnoid cysts
– central nervous system vascular malformations
– hemangioma, cavernous, central nervous system
– central nervous system venous angioma
– sinus pericranii
– dandy-walker syndrome
– hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies
– charcot-marie-tooth disease
– refsum disease
– spastic paraplegia, hereditary
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– holoprosencephaly
– hydranencephaly
– intracranial arteriovenous malformations
– neural tube defects
– anencephaly
– arnold-chiari malformation
– encephalocele
– meningocele
– meningomyelocele
– spinal dysraphism
– spina bifida cystica
– spina bifida occulta
– septo-optic dysplasia
– nervous system neoplasms
– central nervous system neoplasms
– brain neoplasms
– cerebral ventricle neoplasms
– choroid plexus neoplasms
– papilloma, choroid plexus
– infratentorial neoplasms
– brain stem neoplasms
– cerebellar neoplasms
– neurocytoma
– pinealoma
– supratentorial neoplasms
– hypothalamic neoplasms
– pituitary neoplasms
– central nervous system cysts
– arachnoid cysts
– meningeal neoplasms
– meningioma
– spinal cord neoplasms
– epidural neoplasms
– cranial nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve glioma
– neuroma, acoustic
– neurofibromatosis 2
– peripheral nervous system neoplasms
– nerve sheath neoplasms
– neurilemmoma
– neurofibroma
– neurofibroma, plexiform
– neurofibrosarcoma
– neurocutaneous syndromes
– ataxia telangiectasia
– hippel-lindau disease
– neurofibromatosis
– neurofibromatosis 1
– neurofibromatosis 2
– sturge-weber syndrome
– tuberous sclerosis
– neurodegenerative diseases
– heredodegenerative disorders, nervous system
– alexander disease
– amyloid neuropathies, familial
– canavan disease
– cockayne syndrome
– dystonia musculorum deformans
– gerstmann-straussler-scheinker disease
– hallervorden-spatz syndrome
– hepatolenticular degeneration
– hereditary central nervous system demyelinating diseases
– hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies
– charcot-marie-tooth disease
– refsum disease
– spastic paraplegia, hereditary
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– huntington disease
– lafora disease
– lesch-nyhan syndrome
– menkes kinky hair syndrome
– myotonia congenita
– myotonic dystrophy
– neurofibromatosis
– neurofibromatosis 1
– neurofibromatosis 2
– neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis
– optic atrophies, hereditary
– optic atrophy, hereditary, leber
– optic atrophy, autosomal dominant
– wolfram syndrome
– rett syndrome
– spinal muscular atrophies of childhood
– spinocerebellar degenerations
– friedreich ataxia
– myoclonic cerebellar dyssynergia
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– spinocerebellar ataxias
– machado-joseph disease
– tourette syndrome
– tuberous sclerosis
– unverricht-lundborg syndrome
– lewy body disease
– motor neuron disease
– amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
– bulbar palsy, progressive
– muscular atrophy, spinal
– spinal muscular atrophies of childhood
– multiple system atrophy
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– shy-drager syndrome
– striatonigral degeneration
– olivopontocerebellar atrophies
– paraneoplastic syndromes, nervous system
– lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome
– limbic encephalitis
– myelitis, transverse
– paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration
– paraneoplastic polyneuropathy
– parkinson disease
– postpoliomyelitis syndrome
– prion diseases
– encephalopathy, bovine spongiform
– gerstmann-straussler-scheinker disease
– insomnia, fatal familial
– Kuru
– scrapie
– wasting disease, chronic
– shy-drager syndrome
– tauopathies
– alzheimer disease
– supranuclear palsy, progressive
– neurologic manifestations
– bladder, neurogenic
– cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea
– cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea
– decerebrate state
– dyskinesias
– ataxia
– cerebellar ataxia
– spinocerebellar ataxias
– ataxia telangiectasia
– machado-joseph disease
– gait ataxia
– athetosis
– catalepsy
– chorea
– dystonia
– torticollis
– hyperkinesis
– hypokinesia
– myoclonus
– psychomotor agitation
– synkinesis
– tics
– tremor
– gait disorders, neurologic
– gait apraxia
– gait ataxia
– meningism
– neurobehavioral manifestations
– catatonia
– communication disorders
– language disorders
– agraphia
– anomic aphasia
– dyslexia
– alexia (acquired dyslexia)
– alexia, pure
– language development disorders
– speech disorders
– aphasia
– expressive aphasia
– aphasia, conduction
– primary progressive aphasia
– receptive aphasia
– articulation disorders
– dysarthria
– echolalia
– mutism
– stuttering
– learning disorders
– dyslexia
– alexia (acquired dyslexia)
– confusion
– delirium
– consciousness disorders
– unconsciousness
– coma
– brain death
– coma, post-head injury
– insulin coma
– persistent vegetative state
– syncope
– syncope, vasovagal
– memory disorders
– amnesia
– amnesia, anterograde
– amnesia, retrograde
– amnesia, transient global
– korsakoff syndrome
– mental retardation
– cri-du-chat syndrome
– de lange syndrome
– down syndrome
– mental retardation, x-linked
– adrenoleukodystrophy
– coffin-lowry syndrome
– fragile x syndrome
– glycogen storage disease type iib
– lesch-nyhan syndrome
– menkes kinky hair syndrome
– mucopolysaccharidosis ii
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency disease
– rett syndrome
– prader-willi syndrome
– rubinstein-taybi syndrome
– wagr syndrome
– williams syndrome
– perceptual disorders
– agnosia
– gerstmann syndrome
– prosopagnosia
– auditory perceptual disorders
– hallucinations
– illusions
– phantom limb
– psychomotor disorders
– apraxias
– apraxia, ideomotor
– gait apraxia
– psychomotor agitation
– neurogenic inflammation
– neuromuscular manifestations
– fasciculation
– muscle cramp
– muscle hypertonia
– muscle rigidity
– muscle spasticity
– muscle hypotonia
– muscle weakness
– muscular atrophy
– myokymia
– myotonia
– spasm
– hemifacial spasm
– trismus
– tetany
– pain
– back pain
– low back pain
– facial pain
– headache
– labor pain
– metatarsalgia
– neck pain
– neuralgia
– neuralgia, postherpetic
– sciatica
– pain, intractable
– paralysis
– facial paralysis
– hemiplegia
– ophthalmoplegia
– ophthalmoplegia, chronic progressive external
– supranuclear palsy, progressive
– paraplegia
– brown-sequard syndrome
– pseudobulbar palsy
– quadriplegia
– respiratory paralysis
– vocal cord paralysis
– paresis
– paraparesis
– paraparesis, spastic
– pupil disorders
– anisocoria
– miosis
– horner syndrome
– tonic pupil
– reflex, abnormal
– reflex, babinski
– seizures
– alcohol withdrawal seizures
– sensation disorders
– dizziness
– hearing disorders
– hearing loss
– deafness
– hearing loss, bilateral
– hearing loss, conductive
– hearing loss, functional
– hearing loss, high-frequency
– hearing loss, mixed conductive-sensorineural
– hearing loss, sensorineural
– hearing loss, central
– hearing loss, noise-induced
– presbycusis
– usher syndromes
– hearing loss, sudden
– hearing loss, unilateral
– hyperacusis
– tinnitus
– olfaction disorders
– somatosensory disorders
– hyperalgesia
– hyperesthesia
– hypesthesia
– paresthesia
– taste disorders
– ageusia
– dysgeusia
– vision disorders
– amblyopia
– blindness
– amaurosis fugax
– blindness, cortical
– color vision defects
– diplopia
– hemianopsia
– photophobia
– scotoma
– vision, low
– vertigo
– voice disorders
– aphonia
– hoarseness
– neuromuscular diseases
– fatigue syndrome, chronic
– isaacs syndrome
– motor neuron disease
– amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
– bulbar palsy, progressive
– muscular atrophy, spinal
– spinal muscular atrophies of childhood
– poliomyelitis
– postpoliomyelitis syndrome
– muscular atrophy, spinal
– spinal muscular atrophies of childhood
– muscular diseases
– muscular disorders, atrophic
– muscular dystrophies
– distal myopathies
– muscular dystrophies, limb-girdle
– muscular dystrophy, duchenne
– muscular dystrophy, emery-dreifuss
– muscular dystrophy, facioscapulohumeral
– muscular dystrophy, oculopharyngeal
– myotonic dystrophy
– postpoliomyelitis syndrome
– eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome
– fibromyalgia
– mitochondrial myopathies
– mitochondrial encephalomyopathies
– melas syndrome
– merrf syndrome
– ophthalmoplegia, chronic progressive external
– kearns-sayer syndrome
– myopathies, structural, congenital
– myopathies, nemaline
– myopathy, central core
– myositis
– dermatomyositis
– myositis, inclusion body
– polymyositis
– dermatomyositis
– myotonic disorders
– myotonia congenita
– myotonic dystrophy
– paralyses, familial periodic
– hypokalemic periodic paralysis
– paralysis, hyperkalemic periodic
– muscular disorders, atrophic
– postpoliomyelitis syndrome
– neuromuscular junction diseases
– botulism
– lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome
– myasthenia gravis
– myasthenia gravis, autoimmune, experimental
– myasthenia gravis, neonatal
– myasthenic syndromes, congenital
– peripheral nervous system diseases
– acrodynia
– amyloid neuropathies
– amyloid neuropathies, familial
– brachial plexus neuropathies
– brachial plexus neuritis
– complex regional pain syndromes
– causalgia
– reflex sympathetic dystrophy
– diabetic neuropathies
– guillain-barre syndrome
– miller fisher syndrome
– isaacs syndrome
– mononeuropathies
– femoral neuropathy
– median neuropathy
– carpal tunnel syndrome
– peroneal neuropathies
– radial neuropathy
– sciatic neuropathy
– sciatica
– tibial neuropathy
– tarsal tunnel syndrome
– ulnar neuropathies
– cubital tunnel syndrome
– ulnar nerve compression syndromes
– nerve compression syndromes
– carpal tunnel syndrome
– tarsal tunnel syndrome
– thoracic outlet syndrome
– cervical rib syndrome
– ulnar nerve compression syndromes
– cubital tunnel syndrome
– neuralgia
– causalgia
– neuralgia, postherpetic
– sciatica
– neuritis
– brachial plexus neuritis
– neuritis, autoimmune, experimental
– neurofibromatosis 1
– pain insensitivity, congenital
– peripheral nervous system neoplasms
– nerve sheath neoplasms
– neurilemmoma
– neurofibroma
– neurofibroma, plexiform
– neurofibrosarcoma
– polyneuropathies
– alcoholic neuropathy
– hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies
– charcot-marie-tooth disease
– refsum disease
– spastic paraplegia, hereditary
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– paraneoplastic polyneuropathy
– poems syndrome
– polyradiculoneuropathy
– guillain-barre syndrome
– miller fisher syndrome
– hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies
– dysautonomia, familial
– polyradiculoneuropathy, chronic inflammatory demyelinating
– polyradiculopathy
– radiculopathy
– tangier disease
– stiff-person syndrome
– neurotoxicity syndromes
– akathisia, drug-induced
– alcohol-induced disorders, nervous system
– alcohol amnestic disorder
– korsakoff syndrome
– alcohol withdrawal delirium
– alcohol withdrawal seizures
– alcoholic neuropathy
– botulism
– dyskinesia, drug-induced
– heavy metal poisoning, nervous system
– arsenic poisoning
– lead poisoning, nervous system
– lead poisoning, nervous system, adult
– lead poisoning, nervous system, childhood
– manganese poisoning
– mercury poisoning, nervous system
– acrodynia
– mptp poisoning
– neuroleptic malignant syndrome
– sleep disorders
– dyssomnias
– sleep deprivation
– sleep disorders, circadian rhythm
– jet lag syndrome
– sleep disorders, intrinsic
– disorders of excessive somnolence
– hypersomnolence, idiopathic
– kleine-levin syndrome
– narcolepsy
– cataplexy
– nocturnal myoclonus syndrome
– restless legs syndrome
– sleep apnea syndromes
– sleep apnea, central
– sleep apnea, obstructive
– obesity hypoventilation syndrome
– sleep initiation and maintenance disorders
– insomnia, fatal familial
– parasomnias
– nocturnal myoclonus syndrome
– nocturnal paroxysmal dystonia
– rem sleep parasomnias
– rem sleep behavior disorder
– sleep paralysis
– restless legs syndrome
– sleep arousal disorders
– night terrors
– somnambulism
– sleep bruxism
– sleep-wake transition disorders
– trauma, nervous system
– cerebrovascular trauma
– carotid artery injuries
– carotid artery, internal, dissection
– carotid-cavernous sinus fistula
– vertebral artery dissection
– craniocerebral trauma
– brain injuries
– brain concussion
– post-concussion syndrome
– brain hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain stem hemorrhage, traumatic
– cerebral hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain injury, chronic
– diffuse axonal injury
– epilepsy, post-traumatic
– pneumocephalus
– shaken baby syndrome
– cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea
– cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea
– coma, post-head injury
– cranial nerve injuries
– abducens nerve injury
– facial nerve injuries
– optic nerve injuries
– head injuries, closed
– brain concussion
– post-concussion syndrome
– head injuries, penetrating
– intracranial hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain hemorrhage, traumatic
– brain stem hemorrhage, traumatic
– cerebral hemorrhage, traumatic
– hematoma, epidural, cranial
– hematoma, subdural
– hematoma, subdural, acute
– hematoma, subdural, chronic
– hematoma, subdural, intracranial
– subarachnoid hemorrhage, traumatic
– skull fractures
– skull fracture, basilar
– skull fracture, depressed
– spinal cord injuries
– autonomic dysreflexia
– central cord syndrome
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (C11).
C10
|
5115099
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28C04%29
|
List of MeSH codes (C04)
|
The following is a partial list of the "C" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (C03). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (C05). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– neoplasms
– cysts
– arachnoid cysts
– bone cysts
– bone cysts, aneurysmal
– jaw cysts
– nonodontogenic cysts
– odontogenic cysts
– basal cell nevus syndrome
– dentigerous cyst
– odontogenic cyst, calcifying
– periodontal cyst
– radicular cyst
– branchioma
– breast cyst
– bronchogenic cyst
– chalazion
– choledochal cyst
– dermoid cyst
– epidermal cyst
– esophageal cyst
– follicular cyst
– ganglion cysts
– lymphocele
– mediastinal cyst
– mesenteric cyst
– mucocele
– ovarian cysts
– polycystic ovary syndrome
– pancreatic cyst
– pancreatic pseudocyst
– parovarian cyst
– pilonidal sinus
– ranula
– synovial cyst
– popliteal cyst
– thyroglossal cyst
– urachal cyst
– hamartoma
– hamartoma syndrome, multiple
– proteus syndrome
– tuberous sclerosis
– neoplasms by histologic type
– histiocytic disorders, malignant
– histiocytosis, malignant
– leukemia, monocytic, acute
– lymphoma, large-cell
– lymphoma, large-cell, ki-1
– leukemia
– enzootic bovine leukosis
– leukemia, experimental
– avian leukosis
– leukemia L1210
– leukemia L5178
– leukemia p388
– leukemia, feline
– leukemia, hairy cell
– leukemia, t-cell, htlv-ii-associated
– leukemia, lymphocytic
– leukemia, b-cell
– leukemia, b-cell, acute
– leukemia, B-Cell, chronic
– leukemia, pre-b-cell
– leukemia, lymphocytic, acute
– leukemia, b-cell, acute
– leukemia, calla-positive
– leukemia, lymphocytic, acute, L1
– leukemia, lymphocytic, acute, L2
– leukemia, mixed-cell
– leukemia, null-cell
– leukemia, t-cell, acute
– leukemia-lymphoma, t-cell, acute, htlv-i-associated
– leukemia, lymphocytic, chronic
– leukemia, B-Cell, chronic
– leukemia, prolymphocytic
– leukemia, T-Cell, chronic
– leukemia, t-cell
– leukemia, t-cell, acute
– leukemia-lymphoma, t-cell, acute, htlv-i-associated
– leukemia, T-Cell, chronic
– leukemia, t-cell, htlv-ii-associated
– leukemia, mast-cell
– leukemia, myeloid
– leukemia, myeloid, chronic
– blast crisis
– leukemia, monocytic, chronic
– leukemia, myeloid, aggressive-phase
– leukemia, myeloid, chronic-phase
– leukemia, myelomonocytic, chronic
– leukemia, neutrophilic, chronic
– leukemia, myeloid, philadelphia-negative
– leukemia, myeloid, philadelphia-positive
– leukemia, myelomonocytic, acute
– leukemia, nonlymphocytic, acute
– leukemia, basophilic, acute
– leukemia, eosinophilic, acute
– leukemia, erythroblastic, acute
– leukemia, mast-cell
– leukemia, megakaryocytic, acute
– leukemia, monocytic, acute
– leukemia, myelocytic, acute
– leukemia, promyelocytic, acute
– sarcoma, granulocytic
– leukemia, plasmacytic
– leukemia, radiation-induced
– leukemia, subleukemic
– lymphatic vessel tumors
– lymphangioma
– lymphangioma, cystic
– lymphangiomyoma
– lymphangioleiomyomatosis
– lymphangiosarcoma
– lymphoma
– histiocytosis, malignant
– hodgkin disease
– immunoproliferative small intestinal disease
– lymphoma, non-hodgkin
– B-cell lymphoma
– burkitt lymphoma
– lymphoma, aids-related
– lymphoma, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
– lymphoma, small-cell
– lymphoma, diffuse
– lymphoma, large-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, large-cell, immunoblastic
– lymphoma, lymphoblastic
– lymphoma, mixed-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, small cleaved-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, mantle-cell
– lymphoma, small lymphocytic
– lymphoma, small noncleaved-cell
– lymphoma, follicular
– lymphoma, large-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, mixed-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, small cleaved-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, high-grade
– lymphoma, large-cell, immunoblastic
– lymphoma, lymphoblastic
– lymphoma, small noncleaved-cell
– burkitt lymphoma
– lymphoma, intermediate-grade
– lymphoma, large-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, large-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, mixed-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, small cleaved-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, mantle-cell
– lymphoma, large-cell
– lymphoma, large-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, large-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, large-cell, immunoblastic
– lymphoma, large-cell, ki-1
– lymphoma, lymphoblastic
– lymphoma, low-grade
– lymphoma, mixed-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
– lymphoma, small cleaved-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, small lymphocytic
– lymphoma, mixed-cell
– lymphoma, mixed-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, mixed-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, small-cell
– lymphoma, small cleaved-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, mantle-cell
– lymphoma, small cleaved-cell, follicular
– lymphoma, small lymphocytic
– lymphoma, small noncleaved-cell
– lymphoma, t-cell
– lymphoma, lymphoblastic
– lymphoma, t-cell, cutaneous
– lymphoma, large-cell, ki-1
– mycosis fungoides
– sezary syndrome
– lymphoma, t-cell, peripheral
– lymphoma, undifferentiated
– lymphoma, large-cell, diffuse
– lymphoma, small noncleaved-cell
– burkitt lymphoma
– plasmacytoma
– multiple myeloma
– reticuloendotheliosis
– mast-cell sarcoma
– neoplasms, complex and mixed
– adenolymphoma
– adenoma, pleomorphic
– adenomyoma
– adenosarcoma
– carcinoma, adenosquamous
– carcinosarcoma
– carcinoma 256, walker
– hepatoblastoma
– mesenchymoma
– mixed tumor, malignant
– mixed tumor, mesodermal
– mixed tumor, mullerian
– myoepithelioma
– wilms tumor
– denys-drash syndrome
– wagr syndrome
– nephroma, mesoblastic
– pulmonary blastoma
– rhabdoid tumor
– sarcoma, endometrial stromal
– thymoma
– neoplasms, connective and soft tissue
– neoplasms, adipose tissue
– angiolipoma
– angiomyolipoma
– lipoma
– liposarcoma
– liposarcoma, myxoid
– myelolipoma
– neoplasms, connective tissue
– chondroblastoma
– chondroma
– chondromatosis
– chondrosarcoma
– chondrosarcoma, mesenchymal
– giant cell tumors
– giant cell tumor of bone
– mastocytosis
– mastocytoma
– mastocytosis, cutaneous
– urticaria pigmentosa
– mastocytosis, systemic
– leukemia, mast-cell
– mast-cell sarcoma
– myofibroma
– myxoma
– neurothekeoma
– myxosarcoma
– neoplasms, bone tissue
– fibroma, ossifying
– giant cell tumor of bone
– osteoblastoma
– osteochondroma
– osteochondromatosis
– exostoses, multiple hereditary
– osteoma
– osteoma, osteoid
– osteosarcoma
– osteosarcoma, juxtacortical
– sarcoma, Ewing's
– neoplasms, fibrous tissue
– fibroma
– fibroma, desmoplastic
– fibroma, ossifying
– fibromatosis, abdominal
– fibromatosis, aggressive
– fibrosarcoma
– dermatofibrosarcoma
– neurofibrosarcoma
– histiocytoma
– histiocytoma, benign fibrous
– histiocytoma, malignant fibrous
– myofibromatosis
– neoplasms, fibroepithelial
– adenofibroma
– brenner tumor
– fibroadenoma
– sarcoma, clear cell
– sarcoma, small cell
– sarcoma, synovial
– neoplasms, muscle tissue
– granular cell tumor
– leiomyoma
– angiomyoma
– leiomyoma, epithelioid
– leiomyomatosis
– leiomyosarcoma
– myoma
– rhabdomyoma
– myosarcoma
– rhabdomyosarcoma
– rhabdomyosarcoma, alveolar
– rhabdomyosarcoma, embryonal
– sarcoma, alveolar soft part
– smooth muscle tumor
– sarcoma
– adenosarcoma
– carcinosarcoma
– carcinoma 256, walker
– chondrosarcoma
– chondrosarcoma, mesenchymal
– fibrosarcoma
– dermatofibrosarcoma
– neurofibrosarcoma
– hemangiosarcoma
– histiocytoma, malignant fibrous
– leiomyosarcoma
– liposarcoma
– liposarcoma, myxoid
– lymphangiosarcoma
– mixed tumor, mesodermal
– myosarcoma
– rhabdomyosarcoma
– rhabdomyosarcoma, alveolar
– rhabdomyosarcoma, embryonal
– myxosarcoma
– osteosarcoma
– osteosarcoma, juxtacortical
– sarcoma, Ewing's
– phyllodes tumor
– sarcoma, alveolar soft part
– sarcoma, clear cell
– sarcoma, endometrial stromal
– sarcoma, experimental
– sarcoma 37
– sarcoma 180
– sarcoma, avian
– sarcoma, yoshida
– sarcoma, granulocytic
– sarcoma, kaposi
– sarcoma, small cell
– sarcoma, synovial
– neoplasms, germ cell and embryonal
– carcinoma, embryonal
– chordoma
– dermoid cyst
– germinoma
– dysgerminoma
– seminoma
– gonadoblastoma
– mesonephroma
– endodermal sinus tumor
– neuroectodermal tumors
– craniopharyngioma
– neoplasms, neuroepithelial
– ganglioneuroma
– glioma
– astrocytoma
– glioblastoma
– optic nerve glioma
– ependymoma
– glioma, subependymal
– ganglioglioma
– gliosarcoma
– medulloblastoma
– oligodendroglioma
– optic nerve glioma
– neurocytoma
– neuroectodermal tumors, primitive
– medulloblastoma
– neuroectodermal tumors, primitive, peripheral
– neuroblastoma
– esthesioneuroblastoma, olfactory
– ganglioneuroblastoma
– pinealoma
– retinoblastoma
– neuroectodermal tumor, melanotic
– neuroendocrine tumors
– adenoma, acidophil
– adenoma, basophil
– adenoma, chromophobe
– apudoma
– carcinoid tumor
– malignant carcinoid syndrome
– carcinoid heart disease
– carcinoma, neuroendocrine
– carcinoma, medullary
– carcinoma, merkel cell
– carcinoma, small cell
– somatostatinoma
– vipoma
– melanoma
– hutchinson's melanotic freckle
– melanoma, amelanotic
– melanoma, experimental
– neurilemmoma
– neuroma, acoustic
– neurofibromatosis 2
– paraganglioma
– paraganglioma, extra-adrenal
– carotid body tumor
– glomus jugulare tumor
– glomus tympanicum tumor
– pheochromocytoma
– teratocarcinoma
– teratoma
– struma ovarii
– trophoblastic neoplasms
– choriocarcinoma
– choriocarcinoma, non-gestational
– trophoblastic tumor, placental site
– gestational trophoblastic neoplasms
– choriocarcinoma
– trophoblastic tumor, placental site
– hydatidiform mole
– hydatidiform mole, invasive
– neoplasms, glandular and epithelial
– adenoma
– acth-secreting pituitary adenoma
– adenoma, acidophil
– adenoma, basophil
– adenoma, bile duct
– adenoma, chromophobe
– adenoma, islet cell
– insulinoma
– adenoma, liver cell
– adenoma, oxyphilic
– adenoma, pleomorphic
– adenoma, sweat gland
– acrospiroma, eccrine
– hidrocystoma
– syringoma
– adenoma, villous
– adenomatoid tumor
– adenomatosis, pulmonary
– adenomatous polyps
– adenomatous polyposis coli
– gardner syndrome
– adrenal rest tumor
– apudoma
– cystadenoma
– cystadenoma, mucinous
– cystadenoma, papillary
– cystadenoma, serous
– growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma
– mesothelioma
– mesothelioma, cystic
– prolactinoma
– carcinoma
– adenocarcinoma
– adenocarcinoma, bronchiolo-alveolar
– adenocarcinoma, clear cell
– adenocarcinoma, follicular
– carcinoma, papillary, follicular
– adenocarcinoma, mucinous
– adenocarcinoma, papillary
– carcinoma, papillary, follicular
– adenocarcinoma, scirrhous
– linitis plastica
– adenocarcinoma, sebaceous
– adrenocortical carcinoma
– carcinoid tumor
– malignant carcinoid syndrome
– carcinoid heart disease
– carcinoma, acinar cell
– carcinoma, adenoid cystic
– carcinoma, ductal
– carcinoma, ductal, breast
– carcinoma, pancreatic ductal
– carcinoma, endometrioid
– carcinoma, hepatocellular
– carcinoma, intraductal, noninfiltrating
– paget's disease, mammary
– carcinoma, islet cell
– gastrinoma
– glucagonoma
– carcinoma, lobular
– carcinoma, mucoepidermoid
– carcinoma, neuroendocrine
– carcinoma, medullary
– carcinoma, merkel cell
– carcinoma, small cell
– somatostatinoma
– vipoma
– carcinoma, renal cell
– carcinoma, signet ring cell
– krukenberg tumor
– carcinoma, skin appendage
– cholangiocarcinoma
– choriocarcinoma
– choriocarcinoma, non-gestational
– trophoblastic tumor, placental site
– cystadenocarcinoma
– cystadenocarcinoma, mucinous
– cystadenocarcinoma, papillary
– cystadenocarcinoma, serous
– klatskin's tumor
– paget's disease, extramammary
– pulmonary adenomatosis, ovine
– carcinoma, adenosquamous
– carcinoma, basal cell
– basal cell nevus syndrome
– carcinoma, basosquamous
– carcinoma, ehrlich tumor
– carcinoma, giant cell
– carcinoma in situ
– cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
– prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia
– carcinoma, krebs 2
– carcinoma, large cell
– carcinoma, lewis lung
– carcinoma, non-small-cell lung
– carcinoma, papillary
– carcinoma, squamous cell
– bowen's disease
– carcinoma, transitional cell
– carcinoma, verrucous
– neoplasms, adnexal and skin appendage
– adenocarcinoma, sebaceous
– adenoma, sweat gland
– acrospiroma, eccrine
– hidrocystoma
– syringoma
– carcinoma, skin appendage
– neoplasms, basal cell
– carcinoma, basal cell
– basal cell nevus syndrome
– carcinoma, basosquamous
– pilomatrixoma
– neoplasms, cystic, mucinous, and serous
– adenocarcinoma, mucinous
– carcinoma, mucoepidermoid
– carcinoma, signet ring cell
– krukenberg tumor
– cystadenocarcinoma
– cystadenocarcinoma, mucinous
– cystadenocarcinoma, papillary
– cystadenocarcinoma, serous
– cystadenoma
– cystadenoma, mucinous
– cystadenoma, papillary
– cystadenoma, serous
– mucoepidermoid tumor
– pseudomyxoma peritonei
– neoplasms, ductal, lobular, and medullary
– carcinoma, ductal
– carcinoma, ductal, breast
– carcinoma, pancreatic ductal
– carcinoma, intraductal, noninfiltrating
– paget's disease, mammary
– carcinoma, lobular
– carcinoma, medullary
– paget's disease, extramammary
– papilloma, intraductal
– neoplasms, fibroepithelial
– adenofibroma
– brenner tumor
– fibroadenoma
– neoplasms, mesothelial
– adenomatoid tumor
– mesothelioma
– mesothelioma, cystic
– neoplasms, neuroepithelial
– ganglioneuroma
– glioma
– astrocytoma
– glioblastoma
– optic nerve glioma
– ependymoma
– glioma, subependymal
– ganglioglioma
– gliosarcoma
– medulloblastoma
– oligodendroglioma
– optic nerve glioma
– neurocytoma
– neuroectodermal tumors, primitive
– medulloblastoma
– neuroectodermal tumors, primitive, peripheral
– neuroblastoma
– esthesioneuroblastoma, olfactory
– ganglioneuroblastoma
– pinealoma
– retinoblastoma
– neoplasms, squamous cell
– acanthoma
– carcinoma, papillary
– carcinoma, squamous cell
– bowen's disease
– carcinoma, verrucous
– papilloma
– papilloma, inverted
– neoplasms, gonadal tissue
– gonadoblastoma
– sex cord-gonadal stromal tumors
– granulosa cell tumor
– luteoma
– sertoli-leydig cell tumor
– leydig cell tumor
– sertoli cell tumor
– thecoma
– neoplasms, nerve tissue
– meningioma
– nerve sheath neoplasms
– neurilemmoma
– neurofibroma
– neurofibroma, plexiform
– neurofibromatosis
– neurofibromatosis 1
– neurofibromatosis 2
– neurofibrosarcoma
– neurofibrosarcoma
– neuroma
– neurilemmoma
– neuroma, acoustic
– neurofibromatosis 2
– neurothekeoma
– neuroectodermal tumors
– craniopharyngioma
– neoplasms, neuroepithelial
– ganglioneuroma
– glioma
– astrocytoma
– glioblastoma
– optic nerve glioma
– ependymoma
– glioma, subependymal
– ganglioglioma
– gliosarcoma
– medulloblastoma
– oligodendroglioma
– optic nerve glioma
– neurocytoma
– neuroectodermal tumors, primitive
– medulloblastoma
– neuroectodermal tumors, primitive, peripheral
– neuroblastoma
– esthesioneuroblastoma, olfactory
– ganglioneuroblastoma
– pinealoma
– retinoblastoma
– neuroectodermal tumor, melanotic
– neuroendocrine tumors
– adenoma, acidophil
– adenoma, basophil
– adenoma, chromophobe
– apudoma
– carcinoid tumor
– malignant carcinoid syndrome
– carcinoid heart disease
– carcinoma, neuroendocrine
– carcinoma, medullary
– carcinoma, merkel cell
– carcinoma, small cell
– melanoma
– hutchinson's melanotic freckle
– melanoma, amelanotic
– melanoma, experimental
– neurilemmoma
– neuroma, acoustic
– paraganglioma
– paraganglioma, extra-adrenal
– carotid body tumor
– glomus jugulare tumor
– glomus tympanicum tumor
– pheochromocytoma
– neoplasms, vascular tissue
– angiofibroma
– angiokeratoma
– glomus tumor
– hemangioma
– central nervous system venous angioma
– hemangioendothelioma
– hemangioendothelioma, epithelioid
– hemangioma, capillary
– hemangioblastoma
– hemangioma, cavernous
– hemangioma, cavernous, central nervous system
– sturge-weber syndrome
– hemangiopericytoma
– hemangiosarcoma
– meningioma
– sarcoma, kaposi
– nevi and melanomas
– melanoma
– hutchinson's melanotic freckle
– melanoma, amelanotic
– melanoma, experimental
– nevus
– dysplastic nevus syndrome
– nevus, intradermal
– nevus, pigmented
– mongolian spot
– nevus, blue
– nevus of ota
– nevus, spindle cell
– nevus, epithelioid and spindle cell
– odontogenic tumors
– ameloblastoma
– cementoma
– odontogenic cyst, calcifying
– odontogenic tumor, squamous
– odontoma
– neoplasms by site
– abdominal neoplasms
– peritoneal neoplasms
– retroperitoneal neoplasms
– anal gland neoplasms
– bone neoplasms
– adamantinoma
– femoral neoplasms
– skull neoplasms
– jaw neoplasms
– mandibular neoplasms
– maxillary neoplasms
– palatal neoplasms
– nose neoplasms
– orbital neoplasms
– skull base neoplasms
– spinal neoplasms
– breast neoplasms
– breast neoplasms, male
– carcinoma, ductal, breast
– phyllodes tumor
– digestive system neoplasms
– biliary tract neoplasms
– bile duct neoplasms
– common bile duct neoplasms
– gallbladder neoplasms
– gastrointestinal neoplasms
– esophageal neoplasms
– gastrointestinal stromal tumors
– intestinal neoplasms
– cecal neoplasms
– appendiceal neoplasms
– colorectal neoplasms
– adenomatous polyposis coli
– gardner syndrome
– colonic neoplasms
– adenomatous polyposis coli
– gardner syndrome
– sigmoid neoplasms
– colorectal neoplasms, hereditary nonpolyposis
– rectal neoplasms
– anus neoplasms
– anal gland neoplasms
– duodenal neoplasms
– ileal neoplasms
– jejunal neoplasms
– stomach neoplasms
– liver neoplasms
– adenoma, liver cell
– carcinoma, hepatocellular
– liver neoplasms, experimental
– pancreatic neoplasms
– adenoma, islet cell
– insulinoma
– carcinoma, islet cell
– gastrinoma
– glucagonoma
– somatostatinoma
– vipoma
– carcinoma, pancreatic ductal
– peritoneal neoplasms
– endocrine gland neoplasms
– adrenal gland neoplasms
– adrenal cortex neoplasms
– adrenocortical adenoma
– adrenocortical carcinoma
– multiple endocrine neoplasia
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2a
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b
– pancreatic neoplasms
– adenoma, islet cell
– insulinoma
– carcinoma, islet cell
– gastrinoma
– glucagonoma
– somatostatinoma
– vipoma
– carcinoma, pancreatic ductal
– ovarian neoplasms
– granulosa cell tumor
– luteoma
– meigs syndrome
– sertoli-leydig cell tumor
– thecoma
– paraneoplastic endocrine syndromes
– parathyroid neoplasms
– pituitary neoplasms
– acth-secreting pituitary adenoma
– nelson syndrome
– growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenoma
– prolactinoma
– testicular neoplasms
– sertoli-leydig cell tumor
– thyroid neoplasms
– thyroid nodule
– eye neoplasms
– conjunctival neoplasms
– orbital neoplasms
– retinal neoplasms
– retinoblastoma
– uveal neoplasms
– choroid neoplasms
– iris neoplasms
– head and neck neoplasms
– esophageal neoplasms
– facial neoplasms
– eyelid neoplasms
– mouth neoplasms
– gingival neoplasms
– leukoplakia, oral
– leukoplakia, hairy
– lip neoplasms
– palatal neoplasms
– salivary gland neoplasms
– parotid neoplasms
– sublingual gland neoplasms
– submandibular gland neoplasms
– tongue neoplasms
– otorhinolaryngologic neoplasms
– ear neoplasms
– laryngeal neoplasms
– nose neoplasms
– paranasal sinus neoplasms
– maxillary sinus neoplasms
– pharyngeal neoplasms
– hypopharyngeal neoplasms
– nasopharyngeal neoplasms
– oropharyngeal neoplasms
– tonsillar neoplasms
– parathyroid neoplasms
– thyroid neoplasms
– thyroid nodule
– tracheal neoplasms
– hematologic neoplasms
– bone marrow neoplasms
– mammary neoplasms, animal
– mammary neoplasms, experimental
– nervous system neoplasms
– central nervous system neoplasms
– brain neoplasms
– cerebral ventricle neoplasms
– choroid plexus neoplasms
– papilloma, choroid plexus
– infratentorial neoplasms
– brain stem neoplasms
– cerebellar neoplasms
– neurocytoma
– pinealoma
– supratentorial neoplasms
– hypothalamic neoplasms
– pituitary neoplasms
– central nervous system cysts
– arachnoid cysts
– meningeal neoplasms
– meningioma
– spinal cord neoplasms
– epidural neoplasms
– cranial nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve glioma
– neuroma, acoustic
– neurofibromatosis 2
– paraneoplastic syndromes, nervous system
– lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome
– limbic encephalitis
– myelitis, transverse
– paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration
– paraneoplastic polyneuropathy
– peripheral nervous system neoplasms
– cranial nerve neoplasms
– neuroma, acoustic
– optic nerve neoplasms
– optic nerve glioma
– pelvic neoplasms
– skin neoplasms
– acanthoma
– sebaceous gland neoplasms
– sweat gland neoplasms
– soft tissue neoplasms
– muscle neoplasms
– vascular neoplasms
– splenic neoplasms
– thoracic neoplasms
– heart neoplasms
– mediastinal neoplasms
– respiratory tract neoplasms
– bronchial neoplasms
– lung neoplasms
– carcinoma, bronchogenic
– carcinoma, non-small-cell lung
– carcinoma, small cell
– coin lesion, pulmonary
– pancoast's syndrome
– pulmonary blastoma
– pulmonary sclerosing hemangioma
– pleural neoplasms
– pleural effusion, malignant
– tracheal neoplasms
– thymus neoplasms
– thymoma
– urogenital neoplasms
– genital neoplasms, female
– fallopian tube neoplasms
– uterine neoplasms
– endometrial neoplasms
– carcinoma, endometrioid
– endometrial stromal tumors
– sarcoma, endometrial stromal
– uterine cervical neoplasms
– vaginal neoplasms
– vulvar neoplasms
– genital neoplasms, male
– penile neoplasms
– prostatic neoplasms
– testicular neoplasms
– urologic neoplasms
– bladder neoplasms
– kidney neoplasms
– carcinoma, renal cell
– wilms tumor
– denys-drash syndrome
– wagr syndrome
– nephroma, mesoblastic
– ureteral neoplasms
– urethral neoplasms
– venereal tumors, veterinary
– neoplasms, experimental
– carcinoma 256, walker
– carcinoma, brown-pearce
– carcinoma, ehrlich tumor
– carcinoma, krebs 2
– carcinoma, lewis lung
– leukemia, experimental
– avian leukosis
– leukemia L1210
– leukemia L5178
– leukemia p388
– liver neoplasms, experimental
– mammary neoplasms, experimental
– melanoma, experimental
– sarcoma, experimental
– sarcoma 37
– sarcoma 180
– sarcoma, avian
– sarcoma, yoshida
– tumor virus infections
– avian leukosis
– epstein-barr virus infections
– burkitt lymphoma
– marek disease
– sarcoma, avian
– neoplasms, hormone-dependent
– neoplasms, multiple primary
– hamartoma syndrome, multiple
– lipomatosis, multiple symmetrical
– multiple endocrine neoplasia
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2a
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b
– proteus syndrome
– neoplasms, post-traumatic
– neoplasms, radiation-induced
– leukemia, radiation-induced
– neoplasms, second primary
– neoplastic processes
– anaplasia
– cell transformation, neoplastic
– blast crisis
– cell transformation, viral
– cocarcinogenesis
– neoplasm invasiveness
– leukemic infiltration
– neoplasm metastasis
– lymphatic metastasis
– neoplasm circulating cells
– neoplasm seeding
– neoplasms, unknown primary
– neoplasm recurrence, local
– neoplasm regression, spontaneous
– neoplasm, residual
– neoplastic syndromes, hereditary
– adenomatous polyposis coli
– gardner syndrome
– basal cell nevus syndrome
– colorectal neoplasms, hereditary nonpolyposis
– dysplastic nevus syndrome
– exostoses, multiple hereditary
– hamartoma syndrome, multiple
– li-fraumeni syndrome
– multiple endocrine neoplasia
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2a
– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b
– wilms tumor
– denys-drash syndrome
– wagr syndrome
– neurofibromatosis
– neurofibromatosis 1
– neurofibromatosis 2
– peutz-jeghers syndrome
– sturge-weber syndrome
– paraneoplastic syndromes
– paraneoplastic endocrine syndromes
– acth syndrome, ectopic
– zollinger-ellison syndrome
– paraneoplastic syndromes, nervous system
– lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome
– limbic encephalitis
– myelitis, transverse
– paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration
– paraneoplastic polyneuropathy
– precancerous conditions
– erythroplasia
– leukoplakia
– leukoplakia, oral
– leukoplakia, hairy
– lymphomatoid granulomatosis
– lymphomatoid papulosis
– preleukemia
– uterine cervical dysplasia
– xeroderma pigmentosum
– pregnancy complications, neoplastic
– trophoblastic neoplasms
– gestational trophoblastic neoplasms
– choriocarcinoma
– trophoblastic tumor, placental site
– hydatidiform mole
– hydatidiform mole, invasive
– tumor virus infections
– avian leukosis
– epstein-barr virus infections
– burkitt lymphoma
– marek disease
– sarcoma, avian
– warts
– epidermodysplasia verruciformis
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (C05).
C04
|
5115139
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28B06%29
|
List of MeSH codes (B06)
|
The following is a partial list of the "B" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (B05). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (B07). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– plants
– chimera
– organisms, genetically modified
– plants, genetically modified
– plankton
– phytoplankton
– plant families and groups
– angiosperms
– acanthaceae
– adhatoda
– andrographis
– aceraceae
– acer
– acoraceae
– acorus
– adoxaceae
– agavaceae
– agave
– yucca
– aizoaceae
– mesembryanthemum
– alangiaceae
– alismatidae
– alismataceae
– alisma
– sagittaria
– hydrocharitaceae
– potamogetonaceae
– zosteraceae
– aloe
– amaranthaceae
– achyranthes
– amaranthus
– celosia
– anacardiaceae
– anacardium
– mangifera
– pistacia
– rhus
– semecarpus
– toxicodendron
– annonaceae
– annona
– asimina
– guatteria
– polyalthia
– rollinia
– uvaria
– apiaceae
– anethum graveolens
– angelica
– angelica archangelica
– angelica sinensis
– apium graveolens
– bupleurum
– carum
– centella
– cnidium
– coriandrum
– cuminum
– daucus carota
– eryngium
– ferula
– foeniculum
– hemlock
– cicuta
– conium
– heracleum
– levisticum
– ligusticum
– oenanthe
– pastinaca
– petroselinum
– pimpinella
– sanicula
– apocynaceae
– alstonia
– amsonia
– apocynum
– aspidosperma
– catharanthus
– holarrhena
– nerium
– ochrosia
– rauvolfia
– strophanthus
– tabernaemontana
– thevetia
– vinca
– voacanga
– aquifoliaceae
– ilex
– ilex guayusa
– ilex paraguariensis
– ilex vomitoria
– araceae
– alocasia
– amorphophallus
– arisaema
– arum
– calla
– colocasia
– cyrtosperma
– philodendron
– pinellia
– xanthosoma
– zantedeschia
– araliaceae
– acanthopanax
– aralia
– eleutherococcus
– hedera
– kalopanax
– oplopanax
– panax
– arecaceae
– areca
– calamus
– cocos
– serenoa
– aristolochiaceae
– aristolochia
– asarum
– asclepiadaceae
– asclepias
– calotropis
– cryptolepis
– cynanchum
– gymnema
– gymnema sylvestre
– hemidesmus
– marsdenia
– periploca
– tylophora
– asteraceae
– achillea
– achyrocline
– ageratina
– ageratum
– ambrosia
– ammi
– arctium
– arnica
– artemisia
– artemisia absinthium
– artemisia annua
– aster plant
– atractylis
– atractylodes
– baccharis
– bidens
– calendula
– callilepis
– carduus
– carthamus
– carthamus tinctorius
– centaurea
– chamomile
– anthemis
– chamaemelum
– matricaria
– tripleurospermum
– chicory
– chromolaena
– chrysanthemum
– chrysanthemum cinerariifolium
– cirsium
– cnicus
– conyza
– coreopsis
– crepis
– cynara
– cynara scolymus
– dahlia
– echinacea
– echinops plant
– eclipta
– erigeron
– eupatorium
– flaveria
– geigeria
– gnaphalium
– grindelia
– haplopappus
– helianthus
– helichrysum
– inula
– lettuce
– leuzea
– mikania
– milk thistle
– montanoa
– onopordum
– petasites
– ratibida
– rudbeckia
– saussurea
– scolymus
– scorzonera
– senecio
– solidago
– sonchus
– stevia
– tagetes
– tanacetum
– tanacetum parthenium
– taraxacum
– tragopogon
– tussilago
– verbesina
– vernonia
– wedelia
– xanthium
– balanophoraceae
– cynomorium
– balsaminaceae
– impatiens
– begoniaceae
– berberidaceae
– berberis
– caulophyllum
– epimedium
– mahonia
– podophyllum
– podophyllum peltatum
– betulaceae
– alnus
– betula
– corylus
– bignoniaceae
– tabebuia
– bixaceae
– bombacaceae
– adansonia
– bombax
– ceiba
– boraginaceae
– amsinckia
– borago
– comfrey
– cordia
– echium
– heliotropium
– lithospermum
– pulmonaria
– brassicaceae
– arabidopsis
– arabis
– armoracia
– barbarea
– brassica
– brassica napus
– brassica rapa
– mustard plant
– Capsella (plant)
– cardamine
– crambe plant
– erysimum
– isatis
– lepidium
– lepidium sativum
– nasturtium
– raphanus
– rorippa
– sinapis
– thlaspi
– wasabia
– bromeliaceae
– ananas
– bromelia
– tillandsia
– burseraceae
– boswellia
– bursera
– commiphora
– buxaceae
– buxus
– pachysandra
– cactaceae
– opuntia
– calycanthaceae
– campanulaceae
– codonopsis
– lobelia
– platycodon
– cannabaceae
– cannabis
– humulus
– capparaceae
– capparis
– cleome
– caprifoliaceae
– lonicera
– sambucus
– sambucus nigra
– symphoricarpos
– viburnum
– caricaceae
– carica
– caryophyllaceae
– agrostemma
– arenaria plant
– dianthus
– lychnis
– saponaria
– silene
– stellaria
– vaccaria
– cecropiaceae
– cecropia plant
– celastraceae
– catha
– celastrus
– euonymus
– maytenus
– salacia
– tripterygium
– chenopodiaceae
– atriplex
– bassia scoparia
– beta vulgaris
– chenopodium
– chenopodium album
– chenopodium ambrosioides
– chenopodium quinoa
– salsola
– spinacia oleracea
– cistaceae
– cistus
– clethraceae
– combretaceae
– combretum
– terminalia
– commelinaceae
– commelina
– tradescantia
– convolvulaceae
– bonamia plant
– calystegia
– convolvulus
– ipomoea
– ipomoea batatas
– ipomoea nil
– cornaceae
– cornus
– corsiaceae
– cucurbitaceae
– bryonia
– citrullus
– cucumis
– cucumis melo
– cucumis sativus
– cucurbita
– gynostemma
– luffa
– momordica
– momordica charantia
– trichosanthes
– cuscuta
– cyperaceae
– carex plant
– cyperus
– eleocharis
– dilleniaceae
– dioncophyllaceae
– dioscoreaceae
– dioscorea
– tamus
– dipsacaceae
– droseraceae
– drosera
– ebenaceae
– diospyros
– elaeagnaceae
– hippophae
– elaeocarpaceae
– ericaceae
– arctostaphylos
– calluna
– gaultheria
– ledum
– rhododendron
– vaccinium
– blueberry plant
– huckleberry plant
– vaccinium macrocarpon
– vaccinium myrtillus
– vaccinium vitis-idaea
– eriocaulaceae
– erythroxylaceae
– coca
– eucommiaceae
– euphorbiaceae
– aleurites
– croton
– euphorbia
– hevea
– hippomane
– jatropha
– mallotus plant
– manihot
– phyllanthus
– phyllanthus emblica
– ricinus
– castor bean
– sapium
– suregada
– fabaceae
– abrus
– acacia
– albizzia
– arachis hypogaea
– aspalathus
– astragalus plant
– astragalus gummifer
– astragalus membranaceus
– bauhinia
– butea
– caesalpinia
– cajanus
– canavalia
– caragana
– cassia
– castanospermum
– chamaecrista
– cicer
– clitoria
– crotalaria
– cyamopsis
– cytisus
– dalbergia
– derris
– dipteryx
– dolichos
– erythrina
– galega
– genista
– gleditsia
– glycyrrhiza
– glycyrrhiza uralensis
– griffonia
– indigofera
– laburnum
– lathyrus
– lens plant
– lespedeza
– lotus
– lupinus
– maackia
– medicago
– medicago sativa
– medicago truncatula
– melilotus
– millettia
– mimosa
– mucuna
– myroxylon
– oxytropis
– pachyrhizus
– peas
– phaseolus
– physostigma
– prosopis
– psoralea
– pterocarpus
– pueraria
– robinia
– senna plant
– sesbania
– sophora
– soybeans
– spartium
– sphenostylis
– tamarindus
– tephrosia
– tetrapleura
– trifolium
– trigonella
– ulex
– vicia
– vicia faba
– vicia sativa
– wisteria
– fagaceae
– fagus
– quercus
– flacourtiaceae
– casearia
– ryania
– fumariaceae
– corydalis
– fumaria
– gentianaceae
– centaurium
– gentiana
– gentianella
– swertia
– geraniaceae
– geranium
– pelargonium
– hamamelidaceae
– hamamelis
– liquidambar
– hernandiaceae
– hippocastanaceae
– aesculus
– hippocrateaceae
– hydrophyllaceae
– eriodictyon
– illicium
– iridaceae
– crocus
– iris plant
– juglandaceae
– carya
– juglans
– krameriaceae
– lamiaceae
– agastache
– ajuga
– ballota
– coleus
– hedeoma
– hyptis
– isodon
– lavandula
– leonurus
– lycopus
– marrubium
– melissa
– mentha
– mentha piperita
– mentha pulegium
– mentha spicata
– monarda
– nepeta
– ocimum
– ocimum basilicum
– origanum
– orthosiphon
– perilla
– perilla frutescens
– phlomis
– plectranthus
– prunella
– rabdosia
– rosmarinus
– salvia
– salvia miltiorrhiza
– salvia officinalis
– satureja
– scutellaria
– scutellaria baicalensis
– sideritis
– stachys
– teucrium
– thymus plant
– lauraceae
– cinnamomum
– cinnamomum aromaticum
– cinnamomum camphora
– cinnamomum zeylanicum
– cryptocarya
– laurus
– lindera
– litsea
– ocotea
– persea
– sassafras
– umbellularia
– lecythidaceae
– barringtonia
– bertholletia
– liliaceae
– allium
– chive
– garlic
– onions
– shallots
– alstroemeria
– anemarrhena
– asparagus plant
– camassia
– colchicum
– convallaria
– cordyline
– crinum
– curculigo
– dracaena
– fritillaria
– galanthus
– hemerocallis
– hosta
– hyacinthus
– hypoxis
– lilium
– liriope plant
– lycoris
– narcissus
– ophiopogon
– ornithogalum
– polygonatum
– ruscus
– sansevieria
– scilla
– smilacina
– trillium
– tulipa
– urginea
– veratrum
– zigadenus
– linaceae
– flax
– loganiaceae
– gelsemium
– strychnos
– strychnos nux-vomica
– lythraceae
– cuphea
– lagerstroemia
– lawsonia plant
– lythrum
– woodfordia
– magnoliaceae
– liriodendron
– magnolia
– malpighiaceae
– banisteriopsis
– galphimia
– malvaceae
– abelmoschus
– althaea (plant)
– gossypium
– hibiscus
– malva
– melastomataceae
– meliaceae
– aglaia
– azadirachta
– cedrela
– melia
– melia azedarach
– menispermaceae
– cissampelos
– cocculus
– cyclea
– menispermum
– sinomenium
– stephania
– stephania tetrandra
– tinospora
– mistletoe
– loranthaceae
– viscaceae
– phoradendron
– viscum
– viscum album
– molluginaceae
– monimiaceae
– peumus
– moraceae
– antiaris
– artocarpus
– broussonetia
– ficus
– maclura
– morus
– moringa
– moringa oleifera
– myoporaceae
– eremophila plant
– myoporum
– myricaceae
– myrica
– myristicaceae
– myristica fragrans
– myrsinaceae
– ardisia
– embelia
– myrtaceae
– eucalyptus
– eugenia
– feijoa
– kunzea
– leptospermum
– melaleuca
– myrtus
– pimenta
– psidium
– nelumbonaceae
– nelumbo
– nyctaginaceae
– mirabilis
– nymphaeaceae
– nuphar
– nymphaea
– nyssaceae
– camptotheca
– nyssa
– ochnaceae
– olacaceae
– oleaceae
– forsythia
– fraxinus
– jasminum
– ligustrum
– olea
– syringa
– onagraceae
– clarkia
– epilobium
– oenothera
– oenothera biennis
– orchidaceae
– dendrobium
– gastrodia
– vanilla
– orobanchaceae
– cistanche
– orobanche
– paeonia
– pandanaceae
– papaveraceae
– argemone
– chelidonium
– eschscholzia
– papaver
– sanguinaria
– passifloraceae
– passiflora
– pedaliaceae
– harpagophytum
– sesamum
– phytolaccaceae
– phytolacca
– phytolacca americana
– phytolacca dodecandra
– piperaceae
– peperomia
– piper
– kava
– piper betle
– piper nigrum
– plantago
– plumbaginaceae
– poaceae
– agropyron
– agrostis
– andropogon
– avena sativa
– bambusa
– brachiaria
– bromus
– cenchrus
– coix
– cymbopogon
– cynodon
– dactylis
– digitaria
– echinochloa
– eleusine
– Elymus (plant)
– eragrostis
– festuca
– holcus
– hordeum
– lolium
– oryza sativa
– panicum
– paspalum
– pennisetum
– phalaris
– phleum
– poa
– saccharum
– sasa
– secale cereale
– setaria plant
– sorghum
– triticum
– vetiveria
– zea mays
– polygalaceae
– polygala
– securidaca
– polygonaceae
– eriogonum
– fagopyrum
– polygonum
– polygonum cuspidatum
– rheum
– rumex
– pontederiaceae
– eichhornia
– portulacaceae
– portulaca
– primulaceae
– anagallis
– cyclamen
– primula
– proteaceae
– macadamia
– punicaceae
– pyrolaceae
– pyrola
– ranunculaceae
– aconitum
– actaea
– adonis
– anemone
– aquilegia
– cimicifuga
– clematis
– coptis
– delphinium
– helleborus
– hydrastis
– nigella
– nigella damascena
– nigella sativa
– pulsatilla
– ranunculus
– semiaquilegia
– thalictrum
– xanthorhiza
– resedaceae
– rhamnaceae
– ceanothus
– colubrina
– frangula
– karwinskia
– Rhamnus (plant)
– ziziphus
– rhizophoraceae
– rosales
– chrysobalanaceae
– connaraceae
– crassulaceae
– kalanchoe
– rhodiola
– sedum
– grossulariaceae
– ribes
– hydrangeaceae
– hydrangea
– rosaceae
– agrimonia
– alchemilla
– crataegus
– eriobotrya
– filipendula
– fragaria
– geum
– malus
– photinia
– potentilla
– prunus
– pygeum
– pyracantha
– pyrus
– quillaja
– rosa
– sanguisorba
– sorbus
– spiraea
– saxifragaceae
– heuchera
– rubiaceae
– cephaelis
– cinchona
– coffea
– galium
– gardenia
– hamelia
– hedyotis
– mitragyna
– morinda
– oldenlandia
– pausinystalia
– psychotria
– rubia
– uncaria
– cat's claw
– rutaceae
– aegle
– casimiroa
– citrus
– citrus aurantiifolia
– citrus paradisi
– citrus sinensis
– dictamnus
– evodia
– murraya
– phellodendron
– pilocarpus
– poncirus
– ruta
– zanthoxylum
– salicaceae
– populus
– salix
– salvadoraceae
– santalaceae
– pyrularia
– santalum
– sapindaceae
– blighia
– litchi
– paullinia
– sapindus
– sapotaceae
– madhuca
– manilkara
– mimusops
– palaquium
– pouteria
– synsepalum
– saururaceae
– schisandraceae
– kadsura
– schisandra
– scrophulariaceae
– antirrhinum
– bacopa
– buddleja
– craterostigma
– digitalis
– euphrasia
– linaria
– mimulus
– pedicularis
– penstemon
– picrorhiza
– rehmannia
– scoparia
– scrophularia
– striga
– verbascum
– veronica
– simaroubaceae
– ailanthus
– brucea
– eurycoma
– picrasma
– quassia
– simarouba
– smilacaceae
– smilax
– solanaceae
– atropa
– atropa belladonna
– capsicum
– cestrum
– datura
– datura stramonium
– duboisia
– hyoscyamus
– lycium
– lycopersicon esculentum
– Mandragora
– petunia
– physalis
– scopolia
– solanum
– solanum glaucophyllum
– solanum melongena
– solanum nigrum
– solanum tuberosum
– tobacco
– tobacco, smokeless
– withania
– stemonaceae
– sterculiaceae
– cacao
– cola
– sterculia
– styracaceae
– styrax
– tamaricaceae
– theales
– actinidiaceae
– actinidia
– clusiaceae
– calophyllum
– clusia
– garcinia
– garcinia cambogia
– garcinia kola
– garcinia mangostana
– hypericum
– mammea
– theaceae
– camellia
– camellia sinensis
– thymelaeaceae
– daphne
– wikstroemia
– tiliaceae
– corchorus
– grewia
– tilia
– triumfetta
– tropaeolaceae
– tropaeolum
– turnera
– typhaceae
– ulmaceae
– trema
– ulmus
– urticaceae
– boehmeria
– parietaria
– urtica dioica
– valerianaceae
– nardostachys
– patrinia
– valerian
– valerianella
– verbenaceae
– avicennia
– callicarpa
– clerodendrum
– lantana
– lippia
– verbena
– vitex
– violaceae
– viola
– vitaceae
– ampelopsis
– cissus
– vitis
– winteraceae
– drimys
– pseudowintera
– zingiberales
– costus
– heliconiaceae
– marantaceae
– musaceae
– musa
– strelitziaceae
– zingiberaceae
– alpinia
– amomum
– curcuma
– elettaria
– ginger
– zygophyllaceae
– balanites
– guaiacum
– larrea
– peganum
– tribulus
– zygophyllum
– anthocerotophyta
– bryophyta
– bryopsida
– sphagnopsida
– equisetum
– fern
– dennstaedtiaceae
– pteridium
– dryopteridaceae
– dryopteris
– polystichum
– marsileaceae
– polypodiaceae
– polypodium
– pteridaceae
– adiantum
– pteris
– gymnosperms
– coniferophyta
– cephalotaxus
– cupressaceae
– chamaecyparis
– cupressus
– juniperus
– libocedrus
– thuja
– pinaceae
– abies
– cedrus
– larix
– picea
– pinus
– pinus ponderosa
– pinus sylvestris
– pinus taeda
– pseudotsuga
– tsuga
– taxaceae
– taxus
– taxodiaceae
– cryptomeria
– cunninghamia
– sequoia
– sequoiadendron
– taxodium
– cycadophyta
– cycas
– zamiaceae
– ginkgo biloba
– gnetophyta
– ephedra
– ephedra sinica
– gnetum
– hepatophyta
– frullania
– marchantia
– lycopodiaceae
– huperzia
– lycopodium
– selaginellaceae
– plant components
– plant components, aerial
– flowering tops
– flowers
– pollen
– fruit
– nuts
– seeds
– plant epidermis
– plant bark
– plant leaves
– pulvinus
– plant shoots
– cotyledon
– hypocotyl
– meristem
– plant stems
– hypocotyl
– meristem
– rhizome
– plant roots
– meristem
– plant root cap
– mycorrhizae
– plant tubers
– rhizome
– plants, edible
– cereals
– crops, agricultural
– vegetables
– plants, medicinal
– plants, toxic
– seedling
– trees
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (B07).
B06
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5115158
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28B04%29
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List of MeSH codes (B04)
|
The following is a partial list of the "B" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (B03). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (B05). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– viruses
– arboviruses
– archaeal viruses
– fuselloviridae
– guttaviridae
– lipothrixviridae
– myoviridae
– rudiviridae
– siphoviridae
– bacteriophages
– bacillus phages
– caudovirales
– myoviridae
– bacteriophage mu
– bacteriophage p1
– bacteriophage p2
– bacteriophage t4
– podoviridae
– bacteriophage n4
– bacteriophage p22
– bacteriophage t3
– bacteriophage t7
– siphoviridae
– bacteriophage hk022
– bacteriophage lambda
– coliphages
– bacteriophage hk022
– bacteriophage lambda
– bacteriophage m13
– bacteriophage mu
– bacteriophage n4
– bacteriophage p1
– bacteriophage p2
– bacteriophage phi x 174
– bacteriophage prd1
– leviviridae
– allolevivirus
– levivirus
– t-phages
– bacteriophage t3
– bacteriophage t4
– bacteriophage t7
– corticoviridae
– cystoviridae
– bacteriophage phi 6
– inoviridae
– inovirus
– bacteriophage ike
– bacteriophage m13
– bacteriophage pf1
– plectrovirus
– leviviridae
– allolevivirus
– levivirus
– microviridae
– microvirus
– bacteriophage phi x 174
– mycobacteriophages
– prophages
– pseudomonas phages
– bacteriophage pf1
– bacteriophage phi 6
– rna phages
– cystoviridae
– bacteriophage phi 6
– leviviridae
– allolevivirus
– levivirus
– salmonella phages
– bacteriophage p22
– staphylococcus phages
– streptococcus phages
– tectiviridae
– bacteriophage prd1
– defective viruses
– hepatitis delta virus
– sarcoma viruses, murine
– harvey murine sarcoma virus
– kirsten murine sarcoma virus
– moloney murine sarcoma virus
– satellite viruses
– tobacco mosaic satellite virus
– tobacco necrosis satellite virus
– sspe virus
– dna viruses
– adenoviridae
– atadenovirus
– aviadenovirus
– fowl adenovirus a
– mastadenovirus
– adenoviruses, canine
– adenoviruses, human
– adenoviruses, porcine
– adenoviruses, simian
– siadenovirus
– anellovirus
– torque teno virus
– ascoviridae
– asfarviridae
– african swine fever virus
– baculoviridae
– granulovirus
– nucleopolyhedrovirus
– badnavirus
– caudovirales
– myoviridae
– bacteriophage mu
– bacteriophage p1
– bacteriophage p2
– bacteriophage t4
– podoviridae
– bacteriophage n4
– bacteriophage p22
– bacteriophage t3
– bacteriophage t7
– siphoviridae
– bacteriophage hk022
– bacteriophage lambda
– caulimovirus
– circoviridae
– circovirus
– gyrovirus
– chicken anemia virus
– fuselloviridae
– geminiviridae
– maize streak virus
– guttaviridae
– hepadnaviridae
– avihepadnavirus
– hepatitis b virus, duck
– orthohepadnavirus
– hepatitis b virus
– hepatitis b virus, woodchuck
– herpesviridae
– alphaherpesvirinae
– infectious laryngotracheitis-like viruses
– herpesvirus 1, gallid
– marek's disease-like viruses
– herpesvirus 2, gallid
– herpesvirus 3, gallid
– herpesvirus 1, meleagrid
– simplexvirus
– herpesvirus 2, bovine
– herpesvirus 1, cercopithecine
– herpesvirus 1, human
– herpesvirus 2, human
– varicellovirus
– herpesvirus 1, bovine
– herpesvirus 5, bovine
– herpesvirus 1, canid
– herpesvirus 1, equid
– herpesvirus 3, equid
– herpesvirus 4, equid
– herpesvirus 3, human
– herpesvirus 1, suid
– betaherpesvirinae
– cytomegalovirus
– muromegalovirus
– roseolovirus
– herpesvirus 6, human
– herpesvirus 7, human
– gammaherpesvirinae
– lymphocryptovirus
– herpesvirus 4, human
– rhadinovirus
– herpesvirus 4, bovine
– herpesvirus 8, human
– herpesvirus 2, saimiriine
– herpesvirus 1, ranid
– inoviridae
– inovirus
– bacteriophage ike
– bacteriophage m13
– bacteriophage pf1
– plectrovirus
– iridoviridae
– iridovirus
– ranavirus
– lipothrixviridae
– microviridae
– microvirus
– bacteriophage phi x 174
– nanovirus
– nimaviridae
– white spot syndrome virus 1
– papillomaviridae
– papillomavirus
– papillomavirus, bovine
– papillomavirus, cottontail rabbit
– papillomavirus, human
– human papillomavirus 6
– human papillomavirus 11
– human papillomavirus 16
– human papillomavirus 18
– parvoviridae
– densovirinae
– densovirus
– parvovirinae
– dependovirus
– erythrovirus
– parvovirus b19, human
– parvovirus
– aleutian mink disease virus
– feline panleukopenia virus
– mice minute virus
– parvovirus, canine
– parvovirus, feline
– parvovirus, porcine
– phycodnaviridae
– polydnaviridae
– polyomaviridae
– polyomavirus
– bk virus
– jc virus
– simian virus 40
– poxviridae
– chordopoxvirinae
– avipoxvirus
– canarypox virus
– fowlpox virus
– capripoxvirus
– lumpy skin disease virus
– leporipoxvirus
– fibroma virus, rabbit
– myxoma virus
– molluscipoxvirus
– molluscum contagiosum virus
– orthopoxvirus
– cowpox virus
– ectromelia virus
– monkeypox virus
– vaccinia virus
– variola virus
– parapoxvirus
– orf virus
– pseudocowpox virus
– suipoxvirus
– yatapoxvirus
– yaba monkey tumor virus
– entomopoxvirinae
– rudiviridae
– tectiviridae
– helper viruses
– hepatitis viruses
– adenoviruses, canine
– gb virus b
– GB virus C
– hepadnaviridae
– avihepadnavirus
– hepatitis b virus, duck
– orthohepadnavirus
– hepatitis b virus
– hepatitis b virus, woodchuck
– hepacivirus
– hepatitis delta virus
– hepatitis e virus
– hepatitis virus, duck
– hepatovirus
– hepatitis a virus
– hepatitis a virus, human
– murine hepatitis virus
– insect viruses
– ascoviridae
– baculoviridae
– granulovirus
– nucleopolyhedrovirus
– densovirinae
– densovirus
– entomopoxvirinae
– iridovirus
– nodaviridae
– polydnaviridae
– oncolytic viruses
– plant viruses
– badnavirus
– bromoviridae
– alfamovirus
– alfalfa mosaic virus
– bromovirus
– cucumovirus
– ilarvirus
– oleavirus
– carlavirus
– closteroviridae
– closterovirus
– crinivirus
– comoviridae
– comovirus
– fabavirus
– nepovirus
– geminiviridae
– maize streak virus
– luteovirus
– mosaic viruses
– alfamovirus
– alfalfa mosaic virus
– bromovirus
– caulimovirus
– comovirus
– cucumovirus
– potyvirus
– plum pox virus
– tobamovirus
– tobacco mosaic virus
– tymovirus
– nanovirus
– phycodnaviridae
– potexvirus
– potyviridae
– potyvirus
– plum pox virus
– sequiviridae
– sequivirus
– waikavirus
– tenuivirus
– tombusviridae
– carmovirus
– tombusvirus
– tospovirus
– tymoviridae
– tymovirus
– proviruses
– reassortant viruses
– rna viruses
– arenaviridae
– arenavirus
– arenaviruses, old world
– lassa virus
– lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
– arenaviruses, new world
– junin virus
– pichinde virus
– astroviridae
– astrovirus
– birnaviridae
– aquabirnavirus
– infectious pancreatic necrosis virus
– avibirnavirus
– infectious bursal disease virus
– entomobirnavirus
– bromoviridae
– alfamovirus
– alfalfa mosaic virus
– bromovirus
– cucumovirus
– ilarvirus
– oleavirus
– bunyaviridae
– hantavirus
– hantaan virus
– puumala virus
– seoul virus
– sin nombre virus
– nairovirus
– hemorrhagic fever virus, crimean-congo
– nairobi sheep disease virus
– orthobunyavirus
– bunyamwera virus
– encephalitis virus, california
– la crosse virus
– simbu virus
– phlebovirus
– rift valley fever virus
– sandfly fever naples virus
– uukuniemi virus
– tospovirus
– caliciviridae
– lagovirus
– hemorrhagic disease virus, rabbit
– norovirus
– norwalk virus
– sapovirus
– vesivirus
– calicivirus, feline
– vesicular exanthema of swine virus
– carlavirus
– closteroviridae
– closterovirus
– crinivirus
– comoviridae
– comovirus
– fabavirus
– nepovirus
– cystoviridae
– bacteriophage phi 6
– flaviviridae
– flavivirus
– dengue virus
– encephalitis viruses, japanese
– encephalitis virus, japanese
– encephalitis virus, murray valley
– encephalitis virus, st. louis
– west nile virus
– encephalitis viruses, tick-borne
– yellow fever virus
– gb virus a
– gb virus b
– GB virus C
– hepacivirus
– pestivirus
– border disease virus
– diarrhea viruses, bovine viral
– diarrhea virus 1, bovine viral
– diarrhea virus 2, bovine viral
– classical swine fever virus
– hepatitis e virus
– leviviridae
– allolevivirus
– levivirus
– luteovirus
– mononegavirales
– bornaviridae
– borna disease virus
– filoviridae
– ebola-like viruses
– marburg-like viruses
– paramyxoviridae
– paramyxovirinae
– avulavirus
– newcastle disease virus
– henipavirus
– hendra virus
– nipah virus
– morbillivirus
– distemper virus, canine
– distemper virus, phocine
– measles virus
– sspe virus
– peste-des-petits-ruminants virus
– rinderpest virus
– respirovirus
– parainfluenza virus 3, bovine
– parainfluenza virus 1, human
– parainfluenza virus 3, human
– sendai virus
– rubulavirus
– mumps virus
– parainfluenza virus 2, human
– parainfluenza virus 4, human
– simian virus 5
– pneumovirinae
– metapneumovirus
– pneumovirus
– murine pneumonia virus
– respiratory syncytial viruses
– respiratory syncytial virus, bovine
– respiratory syncytial virus, human
– rhabdoviridae
– ephemerovirus
– ephemeral fever virus, bovine
– lyssavirus
– rabies virus
– novirhabdovirus
– infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus
– vesiculovirus
– vesicular stomatitis-indiana virus
– mosaic viruses
– alfamovirus
– alfalfa mosaic virus
– bromovirus
– comovirus
– cucumovirus
– potyvirus
– plum pox virus
– tobamovirus
– tobacco mosaic virus
– tymovirus
– nidovirales
– arteriviridae
– arterivirus
– arteritis virus, equine
– lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus
– porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus
– coronaviridae
– coronavirus
– coronavirus, bovine
– coronavirus, canine
– coronavirus, feline
– coronavirus 229e, human
– coronavirus oc43, human
– coronavirus, rat
– coronavirus, turkey
– infectious bronchitis virus
– murine hepatitis virus
– sars virus
– transmissible gastroenteritis virus
– porcine respiratory coronavirus
– torovirus
– roniviridae
– nodaviridae
– orthomyxoviridae
– influenzavirus a
– influenza a virus
– influenza a virus, h1n1 subtype
– influenza a virus, h2n2 subtype
– influenza a virus, h3n2 subtype
– influenza a virus, h3n8 subtype
– influenza a virus, h5n1 subtype
– influenza a virus, h5n2 subtype
– influenza a virus, h7n7 subtype
– influenza a virus, h9n2 subtype
– influenzavirus b
– influenza b virus
– influenzavirus c
– isavirus
– thogotovirus
– picobirnavirus
– picornaviridae
– aphthovirus
– foot-and-mouth disease virus
– cardiovirus
– encephalomyocarditis virus
– Columbia sk virus
– maus elberfeld virus
– mengovirus
– theilovirus
– enterovirus
– enterovirus a, human
– enterovirus b, human
– echovirus 6, human
– echovirus 9
– enterovirus, bovine
– enterovirus c, human
– enterovirus d, human
– enteroviruses, porcine
– polioviruses
– poliovirus
– hepatitis virus, duck
– hepatovirus
– encephalomyelitis virus, avian
– hepatitis a virus
– hepatitis a virus, human
– parechovirus
– rhinovirus
– potexvirus
– potyviridae
– potyvirus
– plum pox virus
– reoviridae
– coltivirus
– colorado tick fever virus
– orbivirus
– african horse sickness virus
– bluetongue virus
– hemorrhagic disease virus, epizootic
– palyam virus
– orthoreovirus
– orthoreovirus, avian
– orthoreovirus, mammalian
– reovirus 3
– rotavirus
– retroviridae
– alpharetrovirus
– erythroblastosis virus, avian
– leukosis virus, avian
– myeloblastosis virus, avian
– sarcoma viruses, avian
– betaretrovirus
– mammary tumor virus, mouse
– mason-pfizer monkey virus
– ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma virus
– deltaretrovirus
– leukemia virus, bovine
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 1
– human t-lymphotropic virus 1
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 1
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 2
– human t-lymphotropic virus 2
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 2
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 3
– endogenous retroviruses
– epsilonretrovirus
– gammaretrovirus
– leukemia virus, feline
– leukemia virus, gibbon ape
– leukemia virus, murine
– abelson murine leukemia virus
– akr murine leukemia virus
– friend murine leukemia virus
– gross virus
– mink cell focus-inducing viruses
– moloney murine leukemia virus
– radiation leukemia virus
– rauscher virus
– spleen focus-forming viruses
– reticuloendotheliosis viruses, avian
– reticuloendotheliosis virus
– sarcoma virus, woolly monkey
– sarcoma viruses, feline
– sarcoma viruses, murine
– harvey murine sarcoma virus
– kirsten murine sarcoma virus
– moloney murine sarcoma virus
– lentivirus
– lentiviruses, bovine
– immunodeficiency virus, bovine
– lentiviruses, equine
– infectious anemia virus, equine
– lentiviruses, feline
– immunodeficiency virus, feline
– lentiviruses, ovine-caprine
– arthritis-encephalitis virus, caprine
– visna-maedi virus
– lentiviruses, primate
– HIV
– HIV-1
– HIV-2
– simian immunodeficiency virus
– retroviruses, simian
– leukemia virus, gibbon ape
– mason-pfizer monkey virus
– sarcoma virus, woolly monkey
– simian immunodeficiency virus
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 1
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 2
– spumavirus
– sequiviridae
– sequivirus
– waikavirus
– tenuivirus
– togaviridae
– alphavirus
– chikungunya virus
– encephalitis virus, eastern equine
– encephalitis virus, venezuelan equine
– encephalitis virus, western equine
– ross river virus
– semliki forest virus
– sindbis virus
– rubivirus
– rubella virus
– tombusviridae
– carmovirus
– tombusvirus
– totiviridae
– giardiavirus
– leishmaniavirus
– totivirus
– tymoviridae
– tymovirus
– vertebrate viruses
– blood-borne pathogens
– dna viruses
– adenoviridae
– atadenovirus
– aviadenovirus
– fowl adenovirus a
– mastadenovirus
– adenoviruses, canine
– adenoviruses, human
– adenoviruses, porcine
– adenoviruses, simian
– siadenovirus
– anellovirus
– torque teno virus
– asfarviridae
– african swine fever virus
– circoviridae
– circovirus
– gyrovirus
– chicken anemia virus
– dna tumor viruses
– gammaherpesvirinae
– lymphocryptovirus
– herpesvirus 4, human
– rhadinovirus
– herpesvirus 4, bovine
– herpesvirus 8, human
– herpesvirus 2, saimiriine
– herpesvirus 1, ranid
– leporipoxvirus
– fibroma virus, rabbit
– myxoma virus
– polyomaviridae
– polyomavirus
– bk virus
– jc virus
– simian virus 40
– papillomaviridae
– papillomavirus
– papillomavirus, bovine
– papillomavirus, cottontail rabbit
– papillomavirus, human
– human papillomavirus 6
– human papillomavirus 11
– human papillomavirus 16
– human papillomavirus 18
– yatapoxvirus
– yaba monkey tumor virus
– hepadnaviridae
– avihepadnavirus
– hepatitis b virus, duck
– orthohepadnavirus
– hepatitis b virus
– hepatitis b virus, woodchuck
– herpesviridae
– alphaherpesvirinae
– infectious laryngotracheitis-like viruses
– herpesvirus 1, gallid
– marek's disease-like viruses
– herpesvirus 2, gallid
– herpesvirus 3, gallid
– herpesvirus 1, meleagrid
– simplexvirus
– herpesvirus 2, bovine
– herpesvirus 1, cercopithecine
– herpesvirus 1, human
– herpesvirus 2, human
– varicellovirus
– herpesvirus 1, bovine
– herpesvirus 5, bovine
– herpesvirus 1, canid
– herpesvirus 1, equid
– herpesvirus 3, equid
– herpesvirus 4, equid
– herpesvirus 3, human
– herpesvirus 1, suid
– betaherpesvirinae
– cytomegalovirus
– muromegalovirus
– roseolovirus
– herpesvirus 6, human
– herpesvirus 7, human
– gammaherpesvirinae
– lymphocryptovirus
– herpesvirus 4, human
– rhadinovirus
– herpesvirus 4, bovine
– herpesvirus 8, human
– herpesvirus 2, saimiriine
– herpesvirus 1, ranid
– iridoviridae
– ranavirus
– parvoviridae
– parvovirinae
– dependovirus
– erythrovirus
– parvovirus b19, human
– parvovirus
– aleutian mink disease virus
– feline panleukopenia virus
– mice minute virus
– parvovirus, canine
– parvovirus, feline
– parvovirus, porcine
– poxviridae
– chordopoxvirinae
– avipoxvirus
– canarypox virus
– fowlpox virus
– capripoxvirus
– lumpy skin disease virus
– leporipoxvirus
– fibroma virus, rabbit
– myxoma virus
– molluscipoxvirus
– molluscum contagiosum virus
– orthopoxvirus
– cowpox virus
– ectromelia virus
– monkeypox virus
– vaccinia virus
– variola virus
– parapoxvirus
– orf virus
– pseudocowpox virus
– suipoxvirus
– yatapoxvirus
– yaba monkey tumor virus
– oncogenic viruses
– dna tumor viruses
– gammaherpesvirinae
– lymphocryptovirus
– herpesvirus 4, human
– rhadinovirus
– herpesvirus 4, bovine
– herpesvirus 8, human
– herpesvirus 2, saimiriine
– herpesvirus 1, ranid
– leporipoxvirus
– fibroma virus, rabbit
– myxoma virus
– papillomaviridae
– papillomavirus
– papillomavirus, bovine
– papillomavirus, cottontail rabbit
– papillomavirus, human
– human papillomavirus 6
– human papillomavirus 11
– human papillomavirus 16
– human papillomavirus 18
– polyomaviridae
– polyomavirus
– bk virus
– jc virus
– simian virus 40
– yatapoxvirus
– yaba monkey tumor virus
– retroviridae
– alpharetrovirus
– erythroblastosis virus, avian
– leukosis virus, avian
– myeloblastosis virus, avian
– sarcoma viruses, avian
– betaretrovirus
– mammary tumor virus, mouse
– mason-pfizer monkey virus
– ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma virus
– deltaretrovirus
– leukemia virus, bovine
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 1
– human t-lymphotropic virus 1
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 1
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 2
– human t-lymphotropic virus 2
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 2
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 3
– endogenous retroviruses
– epsilonretrovirus
– gammaretrovirus
– leukemia virus, feline
– leukemia virus, gibbon ape
– leukemia virus, murine
– abelson murine leukemia virus
– akr murine leukemia virus
– friend murine leukemia virus
– gross virus
– mink cell focus-inducing viruses
– moloney murine leukemia virus
– radiation leukemia virus
– rauscher virus
– spleen focus-forming viruses
– reticuloendotheliosis viruses, avian
– reticuloendotheliosis virus
– sarcoma virus, woolly monkey
– sarcoma viruses, feline
– sarcoma viruses, murine
– harvey murine sarcoma virus
– kirsten murine sarcoma virus
– moloney murine sarcoma virus
– retroviruses, simian
– leukemia virus, gibbon ape
– mason-pfizer monkey virus
– sarcoma virus, woolly monkey
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 1
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 2
– papillomaviridae
– papillomavirus
– papillomavirus, bovine
– papillomavirus, cottontail rabbit
– papillomavirus, human
– human papillomavirus 6
– human papillomavirus 11
– human papillomavirus 16
– human papillomavirus 18
– polyomaviridae
– polyomavirus
– bk virus
– jc virus
– simian virus 40
– rna viruses
– arenaviridae
– arenavirus
– arenaviruses, old world
– lassa virus
– lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
– arenaviruses, new world
– junin virus
– pichinde virus
– astroviridae
– astrovirus
– birnaviridae
– aquabirnavirus
– infectious pancreatic necrosis virus
– avibirnavirus
– infectious bursal disease virus
– entomobirnavirus
– bunyaviridae
– hantavirus
– hantaan virus
– puumala virus
– seoul virus
– sin nombre virus
– nairovirus
– hemorrhagic fever virus, crimean-congo
– nairobi sheep disease virus
– orthobunyavirus
– bunyamwera virus
– encephalitis virus, california
– la crosse virus
– simbu virus
– phlebovirus
– rift valley fever virus
– sandfly fever naples virus
– uukuniemi virus
– caliciviridae
– lagovirus
– hemorrhagic disease virus, rabbit
– norovirus
– norwalk virus
– sapovirus
– vesivirus
– calicivirus, feline
– vesicular exanthema of swine virus
– encephalitis viruses
– encephalitis virus, california
– la crosse virus
– encephalitis virus, eastern equine
– encephalitis virus, venezuelan equine
– encephalitis virus, western equine
– encephalitis viruses, japanese
– encephalitis virus, japanese
– encephalitis virus, murray valley
– encephalitis virus, st. louis
– west nile virus
– encephalitis viruses, tick-borne
– flaviviridae
– flavivirus
– dengue virus
– encephalitis viruses, japanese
– encephalitis virus, japanese
– encephalitis virus, murray valley
– encephalitis virus, st. louis
– west nile virus
– encephalitis viruses, tick-borne
– yellow fever virus
– gb virus a
– gb virus b
– GB virus C
– hepacivirus
– pestivirus
– border disease virus
– diarrhea viruses, bovine viral
– diarrhea virus 1, bovine viral
– diarrhea virus 2, bovine viral
– classical swine fever virus
– hepatitis delta virus
– hepatitis e virus
– mononegavirales
– bornaviridae
– borna disease virus
– filoviridae
– ebola-like viruses
– marburg-like viruses
– paramyxoviridae
– paramyxovirinae
– avulavirus
– newcastle disease virus
– henipavirus
– hendra virus
– nipah virus
– morbillivirus
– distemper virus, canine
– Phocine distemper|distemper virus, phocine
– measles virus
– sspe virus
– peste-des-petits-ruminants virus
– rinderpest virus
– respirovirus
– parainfluenza virus 3, bovine
– parainfluenza virus 1, human
– parainfluenza virus 3, human
– sendai virus
– rubulavirus
– mumps virus
– parainfluenza virus 2, human
– parainfluenza virus 4, human
– simian virus 5
– pneumovirinae
– pneumovirus
– respiratory syncytial viruses
– respiratory syncytial virus, bovine
– respiratory syncytial virus, human
– rhabdoviridae
– ephemerovirus
– ephemeral fever virus, bovine
– lyssavirus
– rabies virus
– novirhabdovirus
– infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus
– vesiculovirus
– vesicular stomatitis-indiana virus
– nidovirales
– arteriviridae
– arterivirus
– arteritis virus, equine
– lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus
– porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus
– coronaviridae
– coronavirus
– coronavirus, bovine
– coronavirus, canine
– coronavirus, feline
– coronavirus 229e, human
– coronavirus oc43, human
– coronavirus, rat
– coronavirus, turkey
– infectious bronchitis virus
– murine hepatitis virus
– sars virus
– transmissible gastroenteritis virus
– porcine respiratory coronavirus
– torovirus
– orthomyxoviridae
– influenzavirus a
– influenza a virus
– influenza a virus, h1n1 subtype
– influenza a virus, h2n2 subtype
– influenza a virus, h3n2 subtype
– influenza a virus, h3n8 subtype
– influenza a virus, h5n1 subtype
– influenza a virus, h5n2 subtype
– influenza a virus, h7n7 subtype
– influenza a virus, h9n2 subtype
– influenzavirus b
– influenza b virus
– influenzavirus c
– thogotovirus
– picobirnavirus
– picornaviridae
– aphthovirus
– foot-and-mouth disease virus
– cardiovirus
– encephalomyocarditis virus
– Columbia sk virus
– maus elberfeld virus
– mengovirus
– theilovirus
– enterovirus
– enterovirus a, human
– enterovirus b, human
– echovirus 6, human
– echovirus 9
– enterovirus, bovine
– enterovirus c, human
– enterovirus d, human
– enteroviruses, porcine
– polioviruses
– poliovirus
– hepatitis virus, duck
– hepatovirus
– encephalomyelitis virus, avian
– hepatitis a virus
– hepatitis a virus, human
– parechovirus
– rhinovirus
– reoviridae
– coltivirus
– colorado tick fever virus
– orbivirus
– african horse sickness virus
– bluetongue virus
– hemorrhagic disease virus, epizootic
– palyam virus
– orthoreovirus
– orthoreovirus, avian
– orthoreovirus, mammalian
– reovirus 3
– rotavirus
– retroviridae
– alpharetrovirus
– erythroblastosis virus, avian
– leukosis virus, avian
– myeloblastosis virus, avian
– sarcoma viruses, avian
– betaretrovirus
– mammary tumor virus, mouse
– mason-pfizer monkey virus
– ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma virus
– deltaretrovirus
– leukemia virus, bovine
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 1
– human t-lymphotropic virus 1
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 1
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 2
– human t-lymphotropic virus 2
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 2
– primate t-lymphotropic virus 3
– endogenous retroviruses
– epsilonretrovirus
– gammaretrovirus
– leukemia virus, feline
– leukemia virus, gibbon ape
– leukemia virus, murine
– abelson murine leukemia virus
– akr murine leukemia virus
– friend murine leukemia virus
– gross virus
– mink cell focus-inducing viruses
– moloney murine leukemia virus
– radiation leukemia virus
– rauscher virus
– spleen focus-forming viruses
– reticuloendotheliosis viruses, avian
– reticuloendotheliosis virus
– sarcoma virus, woolly monkey
– sarcoma viruses, feline
– sarcoma viruses, murine
– harvey murine sarcoma virus
– kirsten murine sarcoma virus
– moloney murine sarcoma virus
– lentivirus
– lentiviruses, bovine
– immunodeficiency virus, bovine
– lentiviruses, equine
– infectious anemia virus, equine
– lentiviruses, feline
– immunodeficiency virus, feline
– lentiviruses, ovine-caprine
– arthritis-encephalitis virus, caprine
– visna-maedi virus
– lentiviruses, primate
– HIV
– HIV-1
– HIV-2
– simian immunodeficiency virus
– retroviruses, simian
– leukemia virus, gibbon ape
– mason-pfizer monkey virus
– sarcoma virus, woolly monkey
– simian immunodeficiency virus
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 1
– simian t-lymphotropic virus 2
– spumavirus
– tenuivirus
– togaviridae
– alphavirus
– chikungunya virus
– encephalitis virus, eastern equine
– encephalitis virus, venezuelan equine
– encephalitis virus, western equine
– ross river virus
– semliki forest virus
– sindbis virus
– rubivirus
– rubella virus
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (B05).
B04
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28B03%29
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List of MeSH codes (B03)
|
The following is a partial list of the "B" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (B02). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (B04). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– bacteria
– atypical bacterial forms
– l forms
– spheroplasts
– bacteria, aerobic
– bacteria, anaerobic
– Bacteroidetes
– bacteroidaceae
– bacteroides
– Bacteroides fragilis
– Porphyromonas
– Porphyromonas endodontalis
– Porphyromonas gingivalis
– Prevotella
– Prevotella intermedia
– Prevotella melaninogenica
– Prevotella nigrescens
– Prevotella ruminicola
– flavobacteriaceae
– Capnocytophaga
– Chryseobacterium
– Flavobacterium
– Ornithobacterium
– flexibacteraceae
– Cytophaga
– Flexibacter
– Rhodothermus
– Sphingobacterium
– biofilms
– blood-borne pathogens
– Chlorobiota
– Chlorobium
– Chloroflexota
– Chloroflexus
– "Cyanobacteria"
– Anabaena
– Anabaena cylindrica
– Anabaena flos-aquae
– Anabaena variabilis
– Aphanizomenon
– Cyanothece
– Cylindrospermopsis
– Microcystis
– Nodularia
– Nostoc
– Nostoc commune
– Nostoc muscorum
– Plectonema
– Synechococcus
– Synechocystis
– endospore-forming bacteria
– gram-positive endospore-forming bacteria
– gram-positive endospore-forming rods
– bacillaceae
– Bacillus
– Bacillus anthracis
– Bacillus cereus
– Bacillus megaterium
– Bacillus stearothermophilus
– Bacillus subtilis
– Bacillus thuringiensis
– Clostridium
– Clostridium acetobutylicum
– Clostridium beijerinckii
– Clostridium bifermentans
– Clostridium botulinum
– Clostridium botulinum type A
– Clostridium botulinum type B
– Clostridium botulinum type C
– Clostridium botulinum type D
– Clostridium botulinum type E
– Clostridium botulinum type F
– Clostridium botulinum type G
– Clostridium butyricum
– Clostridium cellulolyticum
– Clostridium cellulovorans
– Clostridium chauvoei
– clostridium difficile
– Clostridium histolyticum
– Clostridium kluyveri
– Clostridium perfringens
– Clostridium sordellii
– Clostridium sticklandii
– Clostridium symbiosum
– Clostridium tertium
– Clostridium tetani
– Clostridium tetanomorphum
– Clostridium thermocellum
– Clostridium tyrobutyricum
– micromonosporaceae
– Micromonospora
– Saccharopolyspora
– streptomycetaceae
– Streptomyces
– Streptomyces antibioticus
– Streptomyces aureofaciens
– Streptomyces coelicolor
– Streptomyces griseus
– Streptomyces lividans
– Fusobacteriota
– Fusobacterium
– Fusobacterium necrophorum
– Fusobacterium nucleatum
– Leptotrichia
– Propionigenium
– Streptobacillus
– gram-negative bacteria
– anaplasmataceae
– Anaplasma
– Anaplasma centrale
– Anaplasma marginale
– Anaplasma ovis
– Anaplasma phagocytophilum
– Ehrlichia
– Ehrlichia canis
– Ehrlichia chaffeensis
– Ehrlichia ruminantium
– Neorickettsia
– Neorickettsia risticii
– Neorickettsia sennetsu
– Arcobacter
– bartonellaceae
– Bartonella
– Bartonella bacilliformis
– Bartonella henselae
– Bartonella quintana
– Buchnera
– Campylobacter
– Campylobacter coli
– Campylobacter fetus
– Campylobacter hyointestinalis
– Campylobacter jejuni
– Campylobacter lari
– Campylobacter rectus
– Campylobacter sputorum
– Campylobacter upsaliensis
– chlamydiales
– chlamydiaceae
– Chlamydia
– Chlamydia muridarum
– Chlamydia trachomatis
– Chlamydophila
– Chlamydophila pneumoniae
– Chlamydophila psittaci
– Chloroflexus
– Gastrospirillum
– gram-negative aerobic bacteria
– Caulobacter
– Caulobacter crescentus
– gallionellaceae
– gram-negative aerobic rods and cocci
– acetobacteraceae
– Acetobacter
– Acidiphilium
– Gluconobacter
– Gluconobacter oxydans
– Acidithiobacillus
– Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans
– Afipia
– alcaligenaceae
– Achromobacter
– Achromobacter cycloclastes
– Achromobacter denitrificans
– Alcaligenes
– Alcaligenes faecalis
– Bordetella
– Bordetella avium
– Bordetella bronchiseptica
– Bordetella parapertussis
– Bordetella pertussis
– Taylorella
– Taylorella equigenitalis
– Alteromonas
– Azorhizobium
– Azorhizobium caulinodans
– azotobacteraceae
– Azotobacter
– Azotobacter vinelandii
– Bdellovibrio
– Nitrobacteraceae
– Afipia
– Bradyrhizobium
– Nitrobacter
– Rhodopseudomonas
– Bradyrhizobium
– brucellaceae
– Brucella
– Brucella abortus
– Brucella canis
– Brucella melitensis
– Brucella ovis
– Brucella suis
– burkholderiaceae
– Burkholderia
– Burkholderia cepacia complex
– Burkholderia cepacia
– Burkholderia gladioli
– Burkholderia mallei
– Burkholderia pseudomallei
– Caulobacteraceae
– Caulobacter
– Caulobacter crescentus
– Cellvibrio
– comamonadaceae
– Comamonas
– Comamonas testosteroni
– Delftia
– Delftia acidovorans
– :eptothrix
– Sphaerotilus
– Coxiellaceae
– coxiella
– Coxiella burnetii
– flavobacteriaceae
– Chryseobacterium
– Flavobacterium
– Ornithobacterium
– flexibacteraceae
– Cytophaga
– Flexibacter
– Francisella
– Fancisella tularensis
– Gluconacetobacter
– Gluconacetobacter xylinus
– halomonadaceae
– Halomonas
– Halothiobacillus
– legionellaceae
– Legionella
– Legionella longbeachae
– Legionella pneumophila
– Leptospiraceae
– Leptospira
– Leptospira interrogans
– Leptospira interrogans serovar australis
– Leptospira interrogans serovar autumnalis
– Leptospira interrogans serovar canicola
– Leptospira interrogans serovar hebdomadis
– Leptospira interrogans serovar icterohaemorrhagiae
– Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona
– methylobacteriaceae
– Methylobacterium
– Methylobacterium extorquens
– methylococcaceae
– Methylococcus
– Methylococcus capsulatus
– Methylomonas
– methylophilaceae
– Methylobacillus
– Methylophilus
– Methylophilus methylotrophus
– moraxellaceae
– Acinetobacter
– Acinetobacter baumannii
– Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
– Moraxella
– Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis
– Moraxella (Moraxella) bovis
– Psychrobacter
– Neisseriaceae
– Kingella
– Kingella kingae
– Neisseria
– Neisseria cinerea
– Neisseria elongata
– Neisseria gonorrhoeae
– Neisseria lactamica
– Neisseria meningitidis
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup A
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup B
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup X
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup W-135
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup Y
– Neisseria mucosa
– Neisseria sicca
– nitrosomonadaceae
– Nitrosomonas
– Nitrosomonas europaea
– Ochrobactrum
– Ochrobactrum anthropi
– oxalobacteraceae
– Herbaspirillum
– Paracoccus
– Paracoccus denitrificans
– Paracoccus pantotrophus
– Pseudoalteromonas
– Pseudomonadaceae
– Pseudomonas
– Pseudomonas aeruginosa
– Pseudomonas alcaligenes
– Pseudomonas fluorescens
– Pseudomonas fragi
– Pseudomonas mendocina
– Pseudomonas oleovorans
– Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes
– Pseudomonas putida
– Pseudomonas stutzeri
– Pseudomonas syringae
– ralstoniaceae
– Ralstonia
– Ralstonia pickettii
– Ralstonia solanacearum
– Wautersia
– Wautersia eutropha
– rhizobiaceae
– Rhizobium
– Rhizobium etli
– Rhizobium leguminosarum
– Rhizobium phaseoli
– Rhizobium radiobacter
– Rhizobium tropici
– Sinorhizobium
– Sinorhizobium fredii
– Sinorhizobium meliloti
– rhodospirillaceae
– Azospirillum
– Azospirillum brasilense
– Azospirillum lipoferum
– Magnetospirillum
– Rhodospirillum
– Rhodospirillum centenum
– Rhodospirillum rubrum
– Rhodothermus
– Sphingobacterium
– Sphingomonas
– Thermus
– Thermus thermophilus
– Xanthobacter
– xanthomonadaceae
– Stenotrophomonas
– Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
– Xanthomonas
– Xanthomonas campestris
– Xanthomonas vesicatoria
– Xylella
– Zoogloea
– gram-negative chemolithotrophic bacteria
– Thiobacillus
– Thiotrichaceae
– Vitreoscilla
– gram-negative anaerobic bacteria
– gram-negative anaerobic cocci
– Megasphaera
– Thiocapsa
– Thiocapsa roseopersicina
– gram-negative anaerobic straight, curved, and helical rods
– acidaminococcaceae
– Acidaminococcus
– Pectinatus
– Selenomonas
– Veillonella
– Anaerobiospirillum
– bacteroidaceae
– Bacteroides
– Bacteroides fragilis
– Porphyromonas
– Porphyromonas endodontalis
– Porphyromonas gingivalis
– Prevotella
– Prevotella intermedia
– Prevotella melaninogenica
– Prevotella nigrescens
– Prevotella ruminicola
– Bilophila
– Butyrivibrio
– Chlorobium
– Chromatium
– Desulfovibrio
– Desulfovibrio africanus
– Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
– Desulfovibrio gigas
– Desulfovibrio vulgaris
– Desulfuromonas
– Dichelobacter nodosus
– ectothiorhodospiraceae
– Ectothiorhodospira
– Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii
– Halorhodospira halophila
– Fibrobacter
– Fusobacterium
– Fusobacterium necrophorum
– Fusobacterium nucleatum
– Geobacter
– Leptotrichia
– Oxalobacter formigenes
– Propionigenium
– Selenomonas
– Spirochaetaceae
– Borrelia
– Borrelia burgdorferi group
– Borrelia burgdorferi
– Serpulina
– Serpulina hyodysenteriae
– Spirochaeta
– Treponema
– Treponema denticola
– Treponema pallidum
– succinivibrionaceae
– Thauera
– Thermotoga maritima
– Thermotoga neapolitana
– Wolinella
– gram-negative facultatively anaerobic rods
– Actinobacillus
– Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans
– Actinobacillus equuli
– Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae
– Actinobacillus seminis
– Actinobacillus suis
– aeromonadaceae
– Aeromonas
– Aeromonas hydrophila
– Aeromonas salmonicida
– Azoarcus
– Capnocytophaga
– cardiobacteriaceae
– Cardiobacterium
– Dichelobacter nodosus
– Chromobacterium
– Eikenella
– Eikenella corrodens
– enterobacteriaceae
– Calymmatobacterium
– Citrobacter
– Citrobacter freundii
– Citrobacter koseri
– Citrobacter rodentium
– Edwardsiella
– Edwardsiella ictaluri
– Edwardsiella tarda
– Enterobacter
– Enterobacter aerogenes
– Enterobacter cloacae
– Enterobacter sakazakii
– Erwinia
– Erwinia amylovora
– Escherichia
– Escherichia coli
– Escherichia coli k12
– Escherichia coli o157
– Hafnia
– Hafnia alvei
– Klebsiella
– Klebsiella oxytoca
– Klebsiella pneumoniae
– Kluyvera
– Morganella
– Morganella morganii
– Pantoea
– Pectobacterium
– Pectobacterium carotovorum
– Pectobacterium chrysanthemi
– Photorhabdus
– Plesiomonas
– Proteus
– Proteus mirabilis
– Proteus penneri
– Proteus vulgaris
– Providencia
– Salmonella
– Salmonella arizonae
– Salmonella enterica
– Salmonella enteritidis
– Salmonella paratyphi A
– Salmonella paratyphi B
– Salmonella paratyphi C
– Salmonella typhi
– Salmonella typhimurium
– Serratia
– Serratia liquefaciens
– Serratia marcescens
– Shigella
– Shigella boydii
– Shigella dysenteriae
– Shigella flexneri
– Shigella sonnei
– Wigglesworthia
– Xenorhabdus
– Yersinia
– Yersinia enterocolitica
– Yersinia pestis
– Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
– Yersinia rucker
– Gardnerella
– Gardnerella vaginalis
– Moritella
– Pasteurellaceae
– Haemophilus
– Haemophilus ducreyi
– Haemophilus influenzae
– Haemophilus influenzae type B
– Haemophilus paragallinarum
– Haemophilus parainfluenzae
– Haemophilus paraphrophilus
– Haemophilus parasuis
– Haemophilus somnus
– Mannheimia
– Mannheimia haemolytica
– Pasteurella
– Pasteurella multocida
– Pasteurella pneumotropica
– Rahnella
– Shewanella
– Shewanella putrefaciens
– Streptobacillus
– vibrionaceae
– Photobacterium
– Vibrio
– Vibrio alginolyticus
– Vibrio cholerae
– Vibrio cholerae non-O1
– Vibrio cholerae O1
– Vibrio cholerae O139
– Vibrio fischeri
– Vibrio mimicus
– Vibrio parahaemolyticus
– Vibrio salmonicida
– Vibrio vulnificus
– Zymomonas
– gram-negative oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria
– cyanobacteria
– Anabaena
– Anabaena cylindrica
– Anabaena flos-aquae
– Anabaena variabilis
– Aphanizomenon
– Cyanothece
– Cylindrospermopsis
– Microcystis
– Nodularia
— Nostoc
– Nostoc commune
– Nostoc muscorum
– Plectonema
– Prochlorophytes
– Prochlorococcus
– Prochloron
– Prochlorothrix
– Synechococcus
– Synechocystis
– Helicobacter
– Helicobacter felis
– Helicobacter heilmannii
– Helicobacter hepaticus
– Helicobacter mustelae
– Helicobacter pylori
– Lawsonia bacteria
– Methylosinus
– Methylosinus trichosporium
– mollicutes
– acholeplasmataceae
– Acholeplasma
– Acholeplasma laidlawii
– Phytoplasma
– Entomoplasmataceae
– Erysipelothrix
– mycoplasmatales
– mycoplasmataceae
– Mycoplasma
– Mycoplasma agalactiae
– Mycoplasma arthritidis
– Mycoplasma bovigenitalium
– Mycoplasma bovis
– Mycoplasma capricolum
– Mycoplasma conjunctivae
– Mycoplasma dispar
– Mycoplasma fermentans
– Mycoplasma gallisepticum
– Mycoplasma genitalium
– Mycoplasma hominis
– Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae
– Mycoplasma hyorhinis
– Mycoplasma hyosynoviae
– Mycoplasma iowae
– Mycoplasma meleagridis
– Mycoplasma mycoides
– Mycoplasma orale
– Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae
– Mycoplasma penetrans
– Mycoplasma pneumoniae
– Mycoplasma pulmonis
– Mycoplasma salivarium
– Mycoplasma synoviae
– Ureaplasma
– Ureaplasma urealyticum
– spiroplasmataceae
– Spiroplasma
– Spiroplasma citri
– oceanospirillaceae
– Ornithobacterium
– piscirickettsiaceae
– Rhodobacter
– Rhodobacter capsulatus
– Rhodobacter sphaeroides
– Rhodomicrobium
– Rhodovulum
– rickettsiaceae
– rickettsieae
– Orientia tsutsugamushi
– Rickettsia
– Rickettsia akari
– Rickettsia conorii
– Rickettsia felis
– Rickettsia prowazekii
– Rickettsia rickettsii
– Rickettsia typhi
– Wolbachia
– Roseobacter
– spirillaceae
– Spirillum
– gram-positive bacteria
– Actinomycetota
– actinomycetales
– actinomycetaceae
– Actinomyces
– Actinomyces viscosus
– Mobiluncus
– Brevibacterium
– Cellulomonas
– Corynebacterium
– Brevibacterium flavum
– Corynebacterium diphtheriae
– Corynebacterium glutamicum
– Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
– Corynebacterium pyogenes
– Frankia
– Gordonia bacterium
– micrococcaceae
– Arthrobacter
– Micrococcus
– Micrococcus luteus
– micromonosporaceae
– Micromonospora
– mycobacteriaceae
– Mycobacterium
– mycobacteria, atypical
– Mycobacterium avium complex
– Mycobacterium chelonae
– Mycobacterium fortuitum
– Mycobacterium kansasii
– Mycobacterium marinum
– Mycobacterium scrofulaceum
– Mycobacterium smegmatis
– Mycobacterium ulcerans
– Mycobacterium xenopi
– Mycobacterium avium
– Mycobacterium bovis
– Mycobacterium haemophilum
– Mycobacterium leprae
– Mycobacterium lepraemurium
– Mycobacterium paratuberculosis
– Mycobacterium phlei
– Mycobacterium tuberculosis
– nocardiaceae
– Nocardia
– Nocardia asteroides
– Rhodococcus
– Rhodococcus equi
– propionibacteriaceae
– Propionibacterium
– Propionibacterium acnes
– Saccharopolyspora
– Streptomycetaceae
– Streptomyces
– Streptomyces antibioticus
– Streptomyces aureofaciens
– Streptomyces coelicolor
– Streptomyces griseus
– Streptomyces lividans
– Bifidobacterium
– Gardnerella
– Gardnerella vaginalis
– gram-positive cocci
– Deinococcus
– micrococcaceae
– Micrococcus
– Micrococcus luteus
– peptococcaceae
– Peptococcus
– Peptostreptococcus
– Ruminococcus
– Sarcina
– staphylococcaceae
– Staphylococcus
– Staphylococcus aureus
– Staphylococcus epidermidis
– Staphylococcus haemolyticus
– Staphylococcus hominis
– streptococcaceae
– Enterococcus
– Enterococcus faecalis
– Enterococcus faecium
– Lactococcus
– Lactococcus lactis
– Leuconostoc
– Pediococcus
– Streptococcus
– Streptococcus agalactiae
– Streptococcus bovis
– Streptococcus equi
– Streptococcus pneumoniae
– Streptococcus pyogenes
– Streptococcus suis
– Streptococcus thermophilus
– Viridans streptococci
– Streptococcus milleri group
– Streptococcus anginosus
– Streptococcus constellatus
– Streptococcus intermedius
– Streptococcus mitis
– Streptococcus mutans
– Streptococcus oralis
– Streptococcus sanguis
– Streptococcus sobrinus
– gram-positive endospore-forming bacteria
– gram-positive endospore-forming rods
– bacillaceae
– Bacillus
– Bacillus anthracis
– Bacillus cereus
– Bacillus megaterium
– Bacillus stearothermophilus
– Bacillus subtilis
– Bacillus thuringiensis
– Clostridium
– Clostridium acetobutylicum
– Clostridium beijerinckii
– Clostridium bifermentans
– Clostridium botulinum
– Clostridium botulinum type A
– Clostridium botulinum type B
– Clostridium botulinum type C
– Clostridium botulinum type D
– Clostridium botulinum type E
– Clostridium botulinum type F
– Clostridium botulinum type G
– Clostridium butyricum
– Clostridium cellulolyticum
– Clostridium cellulovorans
– Clostridium chauvoei
– Clostridium difficile
– Clostridium histolyticum
– Clostridium kluyveri
– Clostridium perfringens
– Clostridium sordellii
– Clostridium sticklandii
– Clostridium symbiosum
– Clostridium tertium
– Clostridium tetani
– Clostridium tetanomorphum
– Clostridium thermocellum
– Clostridium tyrobutyricum
– desulfotomaculum
– micromonosporaceae
– Micromonospora
– Saccharopolyspora
– streptomycetaceae
– Streptomyces
– Streptomyces antibioticus
– Streptomyces aureofaciens
– Streptomyces coelicolor
– Streptomyces griseus
– Streptomyces lividans
– gram-positive rods
– gram-positive asporogenous rods
– gram-positive asporogenous rods, irregular
– Acetobacterium
– Actinomycetota
– actinomycetaceae
– Actinomyces
– Actinomyces viscosus
– Mobiluncus
– Arthrobacter
– Bifidobacterium
– Brevibacterium
– Butyrivibrio
– Corynebacterium
– Corynebacterium diphtheriae
– Corynebacterium glutamicum
– Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
– Corynebacterium pyogenes
– Eubacterium
– propionibacteriaceae
– Propionibacterium
– Propionibacterium acnes
– Thermoanaerobacter
– Thermoanaerobacterium
– gram-positive asporogenous rods, regular
– Erysipelothrix
– lactobacillaceae
– Lactobacillus
– Lactobacillus acidophilus
– Lactobacillus brevis
– Lactobacillus casei
– Lactobacillus delbrueckii
– Lactobacillus fermentum
– Lactobacillus helveticus
– Lactobacillus leichmannii
– Lactobacillus plantarum
– Lactobacillus reuteri
– Lactobacillus rhamnosus
– Listeria
– Listeria monocytogenes
– mycobacteriaceae
– Mycobacterium
– mycobacteria, atypical
– Mycobacterium avium complex
– Mycobacterium chelonae
– Mycobacterium fortuitum
– Mycobacterium kansasii
– Mycobacterium marinum
– Mycobacterium scrofulaceum
– Mycobacterium smegmatis
– Mycobacterium ulcerans
– Mycobacterium xenopi
– Mycobacterium avium
– Mycobacterium bovis
– Mycobacterium haemophilum
– Mycobacterium leprae
– Mycobacterium lepraemurium
– Mycobacterium paratuberculosis
– Mycobacterium phlei
– Mycobacterium tuberculosis
– gram-positive endospore-forming rods
– bacillaceae
– Bacillus
– Bacillus anthracis
– Bacillus cereus
– Bacillus megaterium
– Bacillus stearothermophilus
– Bacillus subtilis
– Bacillus thuringiensis
– micromonosporaceae
– Micromonospora
– Saccharopolyspora
– streptomycetaceae
– Streptomyces
– Streptomyces antibioticus
– Streptomyces aureofaciens
– Streptomyces coelicolor
– Streptomyces griseus
– Streptomyces lividans
– Pseudomonadota
– Alphaproteobacteria
– anaplasmataceae
– Anaplasma
– Anaplasma centrale
– Anaplasma marginale
– Anaplasma ovis
– Anaplasma phagocytophilum
– Ehrlichia
– Ehrlichia canis
– Ehrlichia chaffeensis
– Ehrlichia ruminantium
– Neorickettsia
– Neorickettsia risticii
– Neorickettsia sennetsu
– bartonellaceae
– Bartonella
– Bartonella bacilliformis
– Bartonella henselae
– Bartonella quintana
– Beijerinckiaceae
– Nitrobacteraceae
– Afipia
– Bradyrhizobium
– Nitrobacter
– Rhodopseudomonas
– Brucellaceae
– Brucella
– Brucella abortus
– Brucella canis
– Brucella melitensis
– Brucella ovis
– Brucella suis
– Ochrobactrum
– Ochrobactrum anthropi
– Caulobacteraceae
– Caulobacter
– Caulobacter crescentus
– Holosporaceae
– hyphomicrobiaceae
– Azorhizobium
– Azorhizobium caulinodans
– Hyphomicrobium
– Rhodomicrobium
– Xanthobacter
– methylobacteriaceae
– Methylobacterium
– Methylobacterium extorquens
– Methylocystaceae
– Methylosinus
– Methylosinus trichosporium
– Rhodospirillales
– acetobacteraceae
– Acetobacter
– Acidiphilium
– Gluconacetobacter
– Gluconacetobacter xylinus
– Gluconobacter
– Gluconobacter oxydans
– Rhodospirillaceae
– Azospirillum
– Azospirillum brasilense
– Azospirillum lipoferum
– Magnetospirillum
– Rhodospirillum
– Rhodospirillum centenum
– Rhodospirillum rubrum
– rhizobiaceae
– Rhizobium
– Rhizobium etli
– Rhizobium leguminosarum
– Rhizobium phaseoli
– Rhizobium radiobacter
– Rhizobium tropici
– Sinorhizobium
– Sinorhizobium fredii
– Sinorhizobium meliloti
– Rhodobacteraceae
– Paracoccus
– Paracoccus denitrificans
– Paracoccus pantotrophus
– Rhodobacter
– Rhodobacter capsulatus
– Rhodobacter sphaeroides
– Rhodovulum
– Roseobacter
– rickettsiaceae
– rickettsieae
– Orientia tsutsugamushi
– Rickettsia
– Rickettsia akari
– Rickettsia conorii
– Rickettsia felis
– Rickettsia prowazekii
– Rickettsia rickettsii
– Rickettsia typhi
– Wolbachia
– sphingomonadaceae
– Sphingomonas
– Zymomonas
– Betaproteobacteria
– alcaligenaceae
– Achromobacter
– Achromobacter cycloclastes
– Achromobacter denitrificans
– Alcaligenes
– Alcaligenes faecalis
– Bordetella
– Bordetella avium
– Bordetella bronchiseptica
– Bordetella parapertussis
– Bordetella pertussis
– Taylorella
– Taylorella equigenitalis
– burkholderiaceae
– Burkholderia
– Burkholderia cepacia complex
– Burkholderia cepacia
– Burkholderia gladioli
– Burkholderia mallei
– Burkholderia pseudomallei
– comamonadaceae
– Comamonas
– Comamonas testosteroni
– Delftia
– Delftia acidovorans
– Leptothrix
– Sphaerotilus
– gallionellaceae
– hydrogenophilaceae
– Thiobacillus
– methylophilaceae
– Methylobacillus
– Methylophilus
– Methylophilus methylotrophus
– neisseriaceae
– Chromobacterium
– Eikenella
– Eikenella corrodens
– Kingella
– Kingella kingae
– Neisseria
– Neisseria cinerea
– Neisseria elongata
– Neisseria gonorrhoeae
– Neisseria lactamica
– Neisseria meningitidis
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup A
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup B
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup C
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup W-135
– Neisseria meningitidis, serogroup Y
– Neisseria mucosa
– Neisseria sicca
– Vitreoscilla
– nitrosomonadaceae
– Nitrosomonas
– Nitrosomonas europaea
– oxalobacteraceae
– Herbaspirillum
– Oxalobacter formigenes
– ralstoniaceae
– Ralstonia
– Ralstonia pickettii
– Ralstonia solanacearum
– Wautersia
– Wautersia eutropha
– rhodocyclaceae
– Azoarcus
– Thauera
– Zoogloea
– Spirillaceae
– Spirillum
– Deltaproteobacteria
NOTE: The class Deltaproteobacteria has been dismantled and its members have been assigned to new phyla (indicated in parentheses).
– Bdellovibrio (Bdellovibrionota)
– Bilophila (Thermodesulfobacteriota)
– Desulfovibrio (Thermodesulfobacteriota)
– Desulfovibrio africanus
– Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
– Desulfovibrio gigas
– Desulfovibrio vulgaris
– Desulfuromonas (Thermodesulfobacteriota)
– Geobacter (Thermodesulfobacteriota)
– Lawsonia bacteria (Thermodesulfobacteriota)
– myxococcales (Myxococcota)
– Myxococcus
– Myxococcus xanthus
– Stigmatella
– Stigmatella aurantiaca
– Campylobacterota
– Arcobacter
– Campylobacter
– Campylobacter coli
– Campylobacter fetus
– Campylobacter hyointestinalis
– Campylobacter jejuni
– Campylobacter lari
– Campylobacter rectus
– Campylobacter sputorum
– Campylobacter upsaliensis
– Gastrospirillum
– Helicobacter
– Helicobacter felis
– Helicobacter heilmannii
– Helicobacter hepaticus
– Helicobacter mustelae
– Helicobacter pylori
– Wolinella
– gammaproteobacteria
– Acidithiobacillus
– Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans
– aeromonadaceae
– Aeromonas
– Aeromonas hydrophila
– Aeromonas salmonicida
– alteromonadaceae
– Alteromonas
– Moritella
– Pseudoalteromonas
– Shewanella
– Shewanella putrefaciens
– Buchnera
– cardiobacteriaceae
– Cardiobacterium
– Dichelobacter nodosus
– chromatiaceae
– Chromatium
– Halothiobacillus
– Thiocapsa
– Thiocapsa roseopersicina
– coxiellaceae
– Coxiella
– Coxiella burnetii
– ectothiorhodospiraceae
– Ectothiorhodospira
– Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii
– Halorhodospira halophila
– enterobacteriaceae
– Calymmatobacterium
– Citrobacter
– Citrobacter freundii
– Citrobacter koseri
– Citrobacter rodentium
– Edwardsiella
– Edwardsiella ictaluri
– Edwardsiella tarda
– Enterobacter
– Enterobacter aerogenes
– Enterobacter cloacae
– Enterobacter sakazakii
– Erwinia
– Erwinia amylovora
– Escherichia
– Escherichia coli
– Escherichia coli k12
– Escherichia coli o157
– Hafnia
– Hafnia alvei
– Klebsiella
– Klebsiella oxytoca
– Klebsiella pneumoniae
– Kluyvera
– Morganella
– Morganella morganii
– Pantoea
– Pectobacterium
– Pectobacterium carotovorum
– Pectobacterium chrysanthemi
– Photorhabdus
– Plesiomonas
– Proteus
– Proteus mirabilis
– Proteus penneri
– Proteus vulgaris
– Providencia
– Rahnella
– Salmonella
– Salmonella arizonae
– Salmonella enterica
– Salmonella enteritidis
– Salmonella paratyphi A
– Salmonella paratyphi B
– Salmonella paratyphi C
– Salmonella typhi
– Salmonella typhimurium
– Serratia
– Serratia liquefaciens
– Serratia marcescens
– Shigella
– Shigella boydii
– Shigella dysenteriae
– Shigella flexneri
– Shigella sonnei
– Wigglesworthia
– Xenorhabdus
– Yersinia
– Yersinia enterocolitica
– Yersinia pestis
– Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
– Yersinia rucker
– Francisella
– Francisella tularensis
– halomonadaceae
– Halomonas
– legionellaceae
– Legionella
– Legionella longbeachae
– Legionella pneumophila
– methylococcaceae
– Methylococcus
– Methylococcus capsulatus
– Methylomonas
– moraxellaceae
– Acinetobacter
– Acinetobacter baumannii
– Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
– Moraxella
– Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis
– Moraxella (Moraxella) bovis
– Psychrobacter
– oceanospirillaceae
– pasteurellaceae
– Actinobacillus
– Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans
– Actinobacillus equuli
– Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae
– Actinobacillus seminis
– Actinobacillus suis
– Haemophilus
– Haemophilus ducreyi
– Haemophilus influenzae
– Haemophilus influenzae type B
– Haemophilus paragallinarum
– Haemophilus parainfluenzae
– Haemophilus paraphrophilus
– Haemophilus parasuis
– Haemophilus somnus
– Mannheimia
– Mannheimia haemolytica
– Pasteurella
– Pasteurella multocida
– Pasteurella pneumotropica
– piscirickettsiaceae
– pseudomonadaceae
– azotobacteraceae
– Azotobacter
– Azotobacter vinelandii
– Cellvibrio
– Pseudomonas
– Pseudomonas aeruginosa
– Pseudomonas alcaligenes
– Pseudomonas fluorescens
– Pseudomonas fragi
– Pseudomonas mendocina
– Pseudomonas oleovorans
– Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes
– Pseudomonas putida
– Pseudomonas stutzeri
– Pseudomonas syringae
– succinivibrionaceae
– Anaerobiospirillum
– thiotrichaceae
– vibrionaceae
– Photobacterium
– Vibrio
– Vibrio alginolyticus
– Vibrio cholerae
– Vibrio cholerae non-O1
– Vibrio cholerae O1
– Vibrio cholerae O139
– Vibrio fischeri
– Vibrio mimicus
– Vibrio parahaemolyticus
– Vibrio salmonicida
– Vibrio vulnificus
– xanthomonadaceae
– Stenotrophomonas
– Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
– Xanthomonas
– Xanthomonas campestris
– Xanthomonas vesicatoria
– Xylella
– spirochaetales
– leptospiraceae
– Leptospira
– Leptospira interrogans
– Leptospira interrogans serovar australis
– Leptospira interrogans serovar autumnalis
– Leptospira interrogans serovar anicola
– Leptospira interrogans serovar hebdomadis
– Leptospira interrogans serovar icterohaemorrhagiae
– Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona
– spirochaetaceae
– Borrelia
– Borrelia burgdorferi group
– Borrelia burgdorferi
– Serpulina
– Serpulina hyodysenteriae
– Spirochaeta
– Treponema
– Treponema denticola
– Treponema pallidum
– spores
– spores, bacterial
– sulfur-reducing bacteria
– Desulfitobacterium
– Desulfotomaculum
– Desulfovibrio
– Desulfovibrio africanus
– Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
– Desulfovibrio gigas
– Desulfovibrio vulgaris
– Desulfuromonas
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (B04).
B03
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28B01%29
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List of MeSH codes (B01)
|
The following is a partial list of the "B" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (A17). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (B02). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– animals
– animal population groups
– animals, domestic
– animals, inbred strains
– animals, congenic
– mice, congenic
– mice, inbred strains
– mice, inbred a
– mice, inbred akr
– mice, inbred balb c
– mice, inbred c3h
– mice, inbred c57bl
– mice, inbred mdx
– mice, inbred cba
– mice, inbred cftr
– mice, inbred dba
– mice, inbred hrs
– mice, inbred icr
– mice, inbred mrl lpr
– mice, inbred nod
– mice, inbred nzb
– mice, inbred sencar
– rats, inbred strains
– rats, inbred aci
– rats, inbred bb
– rats, inbred bn
– rats, inbred buf
– rats, inbred dahl
– rats, inbred f344
– rats, inbred lec
– rats, inbred lew
– rats, inbred oletf
– rats, inbred shr
– rats, inbred wf
– rats, inbred wky
– animals, laboratory
– animals, congenic
– mice, congenic
– animals, inbred strains
– animals, congenic
– mice, congenic
– mice, inbred strains
– mice, inbred a
– mice, inbred akr
– mice, inbred balb c
– mice, inbred c3h
– mice, inbred c57bl
– mice, inbred mdx
– mice, inbred cba
– mice, inbred cftr
– mice, inbred dba
– mice, inbred hrs
– mice, inbred icr
– mice, inbred mrl lpr
– mice, inbred nod
– mice, inbred nzb
– mice, inbred sencar
– rats, inbred strains
– rats, inbred aci
– rats, inbred bb
– rats, inbred bn
– rats, inbred buf
– rats, inbred dahl
– rats, inbred f344
– rats, inbred lec
– rats, inbred lew
– rats, inbred oletf
– rats, inbred shr
– rats, inbred wf
– rats, inbred wky
– animals, newborn
– animals, outbred strains
– animals, poisonous
– fishes, poisonous
– animals, suckling
– animals, wild
– animals, zoo
– chimera
– transplantation chimera
– radiation chimera
– organisms, genetically modified
– animals, genetically modified
– mice, transgenic
– mice, knockout
– chordata
– chordata, nonvertebrate
– hyperotreti
– hagfishes
– urochordata
– ciona intestinalis
– vertebrates
– amphibia
– anura
– bufonidae
– bufo arenarum
– bufo bufo
– bufo marinus
– pipidae
– xenopus
– xenopus laevis
– ranidae
– rana catesbeiana
– rana esculenta
– rana pipiens
– rana ridibunda
– rana temporaria
– urodela
– ambystomatidae
– ambystoma
– ambystoma mexicanum
– proteidae
– necturus
– necturus maculosus
– salamandridae
– notophthalmus
– notophthalmus viridescens
– pleurodeles
– salamandra
– triturus
– birds
– anseriformes
– ducks
– geese
– charadriiformes
– columbiformes
– columbidae
– falconiformes
– eagles
– hawks
– galliformes
– chickens
– quail
– colinus
– coturnix
– turkeys
– palaeognathae
– dromaiidae
– rheiformes
– struthioniformes
– poultry
– chickens
– ducks
– geese
– turkeys
– passeriformes
– songbirds
– crows
– finches
– canaries
– sparrows
– starlings
– swallows
– psittaciformes
– cockatoos
– parrots
– agapornis
– amazona
– parakeets
– melopsittacus
– psittacula
– raptors
– falconiformes
– eagles
– hawks
– strigiformes
– spheniscidae
– strigiformes
– fishes
– batrachoidiformes
– catfishes
– ictaluridae
– cypriniformes
– cyprinidae
– carps
– goldfish
– zebrafish
– eels
– freshwater eels
– elasmobranchii
– sharks
– dogfish
– squalus
– squalus acanthias
– skates (fish)
– torpedo
– electric fish
– gymnotiformes
– electrophorus
– skates (fish)
– torpedo
– esociformes
– esocidae
– umbridae
– fishes, poisonous
– flatfishes
– flounder
– gadiformes
– gadus morhua
– hagfishes
– lampreys
– petromyzon
– osmeriformes
– perciformes
– bass
– cichlids
– tilapia
– perches
– sea bream
– tuna
– salmoniformes
– salmonidae
– salmon
– oncorhynchus
– oncorhynchus keta
– oncorhynchus kisutch
– salmo salar
– trout
– oncorhynchus
– oncorhynchus mykiss
– smegmamorpha
– beloniformes
– oryzias
– cyprinodontiformes
– fundulidae
– killifishes
– poecilia
– tetraodontiformes
– takifugu
– mammals
– artiodactyla
– ruminants
– antelopes
– bison
– buffaloes
– camelids, new world
– camels
– cattle
– deer
– muntjacs
– reindeer
– goats
– rupicapra
– sheep
– sheep, bighorn
– sheep, domestic
– swine
– sus scrofa
– swine, miniature
– carnivora
– canidae
– coyotes
– dogs
– foxes
– jackals
– raccoon dogs
– wolves
– felidae
– acinonyx
– felis
– cats
– lynx
– panthera
– lions
– tigers
– puma
– herpestidae
– hyaenidae
– mephitidae
– mustelidae
– ferrets
– mink
– otters
– pinnipedia
– fur seals
– sea lions
– seals, earless
– phoca
– walruses
– procyonidae
– raccoons
– ursidae
– viverridae
– cetacea
– dolphins
– bottle-nosed dolphin
– common dolphins
– stenella
– whale, killer
– whales, pilot
– porpoises
– phocoena
– whales
– balaenoptera
– fin whale
– minke whale
– beluga whale
– bowhead whale
– humpback whale
– sperm whale
– chiroptera
– elephants
– hyraxes
– insectivora
– hedgehogs
– moles
– shrews
– lagomorpha
– hares
– rabbits
– marsupialia
– macropodidae
– opossums
– didelphis
– monodelphis
– phalangeridae
– trichosurus
– phascolarctidae
– potoroidae
– monotremata
– echidna
– platypus
– perissodactyla
– equidae
– horses
– primates
– haplorhini
– catarrhini
– cercopithecidae
– cercopithecinae
– cercocebus
– cercocebus atys
– cercopithecus
– cercopithecus aethiops
– erythrocebus
– erythrocebus patas
– macaca
– macaca fascicularis
– macaca mulatta
– macaca nemestrina
– macaca radiata
– mandrillus
– papio
– papio anubis
– papio cynocephalus
– papio hamadryas
– papio papio
– papio ursinus
– theropithecus
– colobinae
– colobus
– hominidae
– gorilla gorilla
– humans
– pan paniscus
– pan troglodytes
– pongo pygmaeus
– hylobatidae
– hylobates
– platyrrhini
– atelidae
– callitrichidae
– callimico
– callithrix
– leontopithecus
– saguinus
– cebidae
– alouattinae
– alouatta
– aotinae
– aotus trivirgatus
– cebinae
– cebus
– saimirinae
– saimiri
– tarsii
– tarsiidae
– strepsirhini
– cheirogaleidae
– lemuridae
– lemur
– lorisidae
– galago
– rodentia
– chinchilla
– dipodomys
– gophers
– guinea pigs
– mole rats
– spalax
– muridae
– arvicolinae
– cricetinae
– cricetulus
– mesocricetus
– phodopus
– gerbillinae
– murinae
– mice
– mice, congenic
– mice, inbred strains
– mice, inbred a
– mice, inbred akr
– mice, inbred balb c
– mice, inbred c3h
– mice, inbred c57bl
– mice, inbred mdx
– mice, inbred cba
– mice, inbred cftr
– mice, inbred dba
– mice, inbred hrs
– mice, inbred icr
– mice, inbred mrl lpr
– mice, inbred nod
– mice, inbred nzb
– mice, inbred sencar
– mice, mutant strains
– mice, biozzi
– mice, inbred mdx
– mice, jimpy
– Knockout mice|mice, knockout
– mice, neurologic mutants
– mice, nude
– mice, obese
– mice, quaking
– mice, scid
– mice, transgenic
– mice, knockout
– rats
– rats, inbred strains
– rats, inbred aci
– rats, inbred bb
– rats, inbred bn
– rats, inbred buf
– rats, inbred dahl
– rats, inbred f344
– rats, inbred lec
– rats, inbred lew
– rats, inbred oletf
– rats, inbred shr
– rats, inbred wf
– rats, inbred wky
– rats, long-evans
– rats, mutant strains
– rats, brattleboro
– rats, gunn
– rats, nude
– rats, zucker
– rats, sprague-dawley
– rats, wistar
– sigmodontinae
– peromyscus
– spalax
– myoxidae
– octodon
– porcupines
– sciuridae
– marmota
– scandentia
– tupaiidae
– tupaia
– sirenia
– dugong
– trichechus
– trichechus inunguis
– trichechus manatus
– xenarthra
– armadillos
– sloths
– reptiles
– alligators and crocodiles
– dinosaurs
– lizards
– iguanas
– snakes
– boidae
– colubridae
– elapidae
– bungarus
– cobra
– hydrophiidae
– viperidae
– agkistrodon
– bothrops
– crotalus
– russell's viper
– trimeresurus
– turtles
– invertebrates
– annelida
– leeches
– hirudo medicinalis
– oligochaeta
– polychaeta
– arthropods
– arachnida
– acari
– mites
– acaridae
– psoroptidae
– pyroglyphidae
– dermatophagoides farinae
– dermatophagoides pteronyssinus
– sarcoptidae
– sarcoptes scabiei
– tetranychidae
– trombiculidae
– ticks
– argasidae
– argas
– ornithodoros
– ixodidae
– dermacentor
– ixodes
– rhipicephalus
– rhipicephalus sanguineus
– scorpions
– spiders
– black widow spider
– crustacea
– amphipoda
– anostraca
– artemia
– arguloida
– cladocera
– daphnia
– copepoda
– decapoda (crustacea)
– anomura
– astacoidea
– brachyura
– crangonidae
– nephropidae
– palaemonidae
– palinuridae
– pandalidae
– penaeidae
– euphausiacea
– isopoda
– thoracica
– horseshoe crabs
– insects
– beetles
– fireflies
– tenebrio
– tribolium
– weevils
– cockroaches
– blattellidae
– periplaneta
– diptera
– ceratopogonidae
– chironomidae
– culicidae
– aedes
– anopheles
– anopheles gambiae
– culex
– ochlerotatus
– drosophilidae
– drosophila
– drosophila melanogaster
– glossinidae
– tsetse flies
– muscidae
– houseflies
– psychodidae
– phlebotomus
– simuliidae
– tephritidae
– ceratitis capitata
– fleas
– hemiptera
– aphids
– heteroptera
– cimicidae
– bedbugs
– reduviidae
– triatominae
– panstrongylus
– rhodnius
– triatoma
– hymenoptera
– ants
– bees
– wasps
– isoptera
– lepidoptera
– butterflies
– moths
– bombyx
– manduca
– spodoptera
– lice
– anoplura
– pediculus
– phthirus
– mallophaga
– mantodea
– orthoptera
– grasshoppers
– locusta migratoria
– gryllidae
– bryozoa
– chordata, nonvertebrate
– hyperotreti
– hagfishes
– urochordata
– ciona intestinalis
– cnidaria
– anthozoa
– renilla
– sea anemones
– cubozoa
– hydrozoa
– hydra
– scyphozoa
– sea nettle, east coast
– ctenophora
– echinodermata
– sea cucumbers
– cucumaria
– holothuria
– stichopus
– sea urchins
– anthocidaris
– arbacia
– hemicentrotus
– lytechnius
– paracentrotus
– strongylocentrotus
– strongylocentrotus purpuratus
– starfish
– asterias
– asterina
– helminths
– acanthocephala
– moniliformis
– nematoda
– adenophorea
– enoplida
– dioctophymatoidea
– mermithoidea
– trichuroidea
– capillaria
– trichinella
– trichinella spiralis
– trichuris
– secernentea
– ascaridida
– ascaridoidea
– anisakis
– ascaridia
– ascaris
– ascaris lumbricoides
– ascaris suum
– toxascaris
– toxocara
– toxocara canis
– oxyurida
– oxyuroidea
– enterobius
– rhabditida
– rhabdiasoidea
– strongyloides
– strongyloides ratti
– strongyloides stercoralis
– rhabditoidea
– caenorhabditis
– caenorhabditis elegans
– spirurida
– camallanina
– dracunculoidea
– dracunculus nematode
– spirurina
– filarioidea
– brugia
– brugia malayi
– brugia pahangi
– dipetalonema
– dirofilaria
– dirofilaria immitis
– loa
– mansonella
– microfilaria
– onchocerca
– onchocerca volvulus
– setaria nematode
– wuchereria
– wuchereria bancrofti
– spiruroidea
– thelazioidea
– gnathostoma
– strongylida
– ancylostomatoidea
– ancylostoma
– necator
– necator americanus
– heligmosomatoidea
– nematospiroides
– nematospiroides dubius
– nippostrongylus
– metastrongyloidea
– angiostrongylus
– angiostrongylus cantonensis
– strongyloidea
– oesophagostomum
– strongylus
– trichostrongyloidea
– dictyocaulus
– haemonchus
– ostertagia
– trichostrongylus
– tylenchida
– tylenchoidea
– platyhelminths
– cestoda
– diphyllobothrium
– sparganum
– echinococcus
– echinococcus granulosus
– echinococcus multilocularis
– hymenolepis
– hymenolepis diminuta
– hymenolepis nana
– mesocestoides
– spirometra
– sparganum
– taenia
– cysticercus
– taenia saginata
– taenia solium
– trematoda
– dicrocoeliidae
– dicrocoelium
– echinostomatidae
– echinostoma
– fasciolidae
– fasciola
– fasciola hepatica
– heterophyidae
– opisthorchidae
– clonorchis sinensis
– opisthorchis
– paramphistomatidae
– schistosomatidae
– schistosoma
– schistosoma haematobium
– schistosoma japonicum
– schistosoma mansoni
– troglotrematidae
– paragonimus
– paragonimus westermani
– turbellaria
– planarians
– rotifera
– mollusca
– bivalvia
– arcidae
– scapharca
– cardiidae
– corbicula
– dreissena
– mercenaria
– mya
– mytilidae
– mytilus
– mytilus edulis
– perna
– ostreidae
– crassostrea
– ostrea
– pectinidae
– pecten
– pinctada
– spisula
– unionidae
– anodonta
– unio
– cephalopoda
– decapodiformes
– loligo
– sepia
– nautilus
– octopodiformes
– gastropoda
– aplysia
– clione
– conus snail
– hermissenda
– pleurobranchaea
– snails
– biomphalaria
– bulinus
– helix (snails)
– lymnaea
– tritonia sea slug
– polyplacophora
– parasites
– plankton
– zooplankton
– porifera
– agelas
– axinella
– callyspongia
– crambe sponge
– dysidea
– geodia
– haliclona
–petrosia
– plakortis
– suberites
– theonella
– xestospongia
– protozoa
– apicomplexa
– coccidia
– eimeriida
– cryptosporidiidae
– cryptosporidium
– cryptosporidium parvum
– eimeriidae
– cyclospora
– eimeria
– eimeria tenella
– isospora
– sarcocystidae
– neospora
– sarcocystis
– toxoplasma
– eucoccidiida
– haemosporida
– plasmodium
– plasmodium berghei
– plasmodium chabaudi
– plasmodium cynomolgi
– plasmodium falciparum
– plasmodium gallinaceum
– plasmodium knowlesi
– plasmodium malariae
– plasmodium ovale
– plasmodium vivax
– plasmodium yoelii
– piroplasmia
– piroplasmida
– babesia
– babesia bovis
– babesia microti
– theileria
– theileria annulata
– theileria parva
– blood-borne pathogens
– ciliophora
– kinetofragminophorea
– trichostomatida
– trichostomatina
– balantidium
– oligohymenophorea
– hymenostomatida
– peniculina
– paramecium
– paramecium aurelia
– paramecium caudatum
– paramecium tetraurelia
– tetrahymenina
– tetrahymena
– tetrahymena pyriformis
– tetrahymena thermophila
– polymenophorea
– hypotrichida
– sporadotrichina
– euplotes
– oxytricha
– haplosporida
– myxomycetes
– physarida
– physarum
– physarum polycephalum
– phytoplankton
– sarcomastigophora
– mastigophora
– phytomastigophorea
– dinoflagellida
– pfiesteria piscicida
– euglenida
– euglena
– euglena gracilis
– volvocida
– chlamydomonas
– chlamydomonas reinhardtii
– zoomastigophora
– diplomonadida
– giardia
– giardia lamblia
– kinetoplastida
– trypanosomatina
– crithidia
– crithidia fasciculata
– leishmania
– leishmania braziliensis
– leishmania donovani
– leishmania enriettii
– leishmania guyanensis
– leishmania infantum
– leishmania major
– leishmania mexicana
– leishmania tropica
– trypanosoma
– trypanosoma brucei brucei
– trypanosoma brucei gambiense
– trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense
– trypanosoma congolense
– trypanosoma cruzi
– trypanosoma lewisi
– trypanosoma vivax
– trichomonadida
– dientamoeba
– trichomonas
– trichomonas vaginalis
– tritrichomonas
– tritrichomonas foetus
– sarcodina
– eumycetozoea
– dictyosteliida
– dictyostelium
– physarida
– physarum
– physarum polycephalum
– lobosea
– amoebida
– acanthopodina
– acanthamoeba
– acanthamoeba castellanii
– blastocystina
– blastocystis
– blastocystis hominis
– tubulina
– Amoeba
– endolimax
– entamoeba
– entamoeba histolytica
– hartmannella
– schizopyrenida
– naegleria
– naegleria fowleri
– spores
– spores, protozoan
– oocysts
– sporozoites
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (B02).
B01
|
5115251
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28D27%29
|
List of MeSH codes (D27)
|
The following is a partial list of the "D" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (D26). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (E01). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– chemical actions and uses
– pharmacologic actions
– molecular mechanisms of action
– alkylating agents
– antineoplastic agents, alkylating
– angiotensin ii type 1 receptor blockers
– antacids
– antimetabolites
– antilipemic agents
– anticholesteremic agents
– hydroxymethylglutaryl-coa reductase inhibitors
– lipotropic agents
– antimetabolites, antineoplastic
– antioxidants
– free radical scavengers
– chelating agents
– iron chelating agents
– siderophores
– enzyme activators
– gtp phosphohydrolase activators
– enzyme inhibitors
– aromatase inhibitors
– carbonic anhydrase inhibitors
– cholinesterase inhibitors
– cyclooxygenase inhibitors
– cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors
– folic acid antagonists
– hydroxymethylglutaryl-coa reductase inhibitors
– integrase inhibitors
– hiv integrase inhibitors
– lipoxygenase inhibitors
– monoamine oxidase inhibitors
– nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors
– reverse-transcriptase inhibitors
– phosphodiesterase inhibitors
– protease inhibitors
– angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
– cysteine proteinase inhibitors
– hiv protease inhibitors
– serine proteinase inhibitors
– trypsin inhibitors
– protein kinase inhibitors
– protein synthesis inhibitors
– uncoupling agents
– enzyme reactivators
– cholinesterase reactivators
– fibrin modulating agents
– antifibrinolytic agents
– fibrinolytic agents
– heparin antagonists
– hiv fusion inhibitors
– membrane transport modulators
– calcium channel agonists
– calcium channel blockers
– ionophores
– potassium channel blockers
– sodium channel blockers
– sodium chloride symporter inhibitors
– sodium potassium chloride symporter inhibitors
– mitosis modulators
– antimitotic agents
– tubulin modulators
– mitogens
– neurotransmitter agents
– adrenergic agents
– adrenergic agonists
– adrenergic alpha-agonists
– adrenergic beta-agonists
– adrenergic antagonists
– adrenergic alpha-antagonists
– adrenergic beta-antagonists
– adrenergic uptake inhibitors
– cholinergic agents
– cholinergic agonists
– muscarinic agonists
– nicotinic agonists
– cholinergic antagonists
– muscarinic antagonists
– nicotinic antagonists
– cholinesterase inhibitors
– cholinesterase reactivators
– dopamine agents
– dopamine agonists
– dopamine antagonists
– dopamine uptake inhibitors
– endocannabinoids
– excitatory amino acid agents
– excitatory amino acid agonists
– excitatory amino acid antagonists
– GABA agents
– GABA agonists
– GABA antagonists
– GABA modulators
– glycine agents
– histamine agents
– histamine agonists
– histamine antagonists
– histamine h1 antagonists
– histamine h1 antagonists, non-sedating
– histamine h2 antagonists
– neurotransmitter uptake inhibitors
– adrenergic uptake inhibitors
– dopamine uptake inhibitors
– serotonin uptake inhibitors
– serotonin agents
– serotonin agonists
– serotonin antagonists
– serotonin uptake inhibitors
– nitric oxide donors
– physiological effects of drugs
– antispermatogenic agents
– sperm immobilizing agents
– spermatocidal agents
– spermatogenesis-blocking agents
– astringents
– bone density conservation agents
– central nervous system depressants
– anesthetics
– anesthetics, combined
– anesthetics, general
– anesthetics, inhalation
– anesthetics, intravenous
– anesthetics, dissociative
– anesthetics, local
– hypnotics and sedatives
– narcotics
– tranquilizing agents
– anti-anxiety agents
– antimanic agents
– antipsychotic agents
– central nervous system stimulants
– aphrodisiacs
– appetite stimulants
– convulsants
– emetics
– endocrine disruptors
– growth substances
– angiogenesis modulating agents
– angiogenesis inducing agents
– angiogenesis inhibitors
– growth inhibitors
– angiogenesis inhibitors
– micronutrients
– trace elements
– vitamins
– vitamin b complex
– plant growth regulators
– hallucinogens
– hormones, hormone substitutes, and hormone antagonists
– hormone antagonists
– aldosterone antagonists
– androgen antagonists
– antithyroid agents
– estrogen receptor modulators
– estrogen antagonists
– estradiol antagonists
– selective estrogen receptor modulators
– insulin antagonists
– leukotriene antagonists
– prostaglandin antagonists
– hormones
– anabolic agents
– androgens
– endocannabinoids
– estrogens
– estrogens, non-steroidal
– phytoestrogens
– glucocorticoids
– mineralocorticoids
– progestins
– hypnotics and sedatives
– hypoglycemic agents
– immunologic factors
– agglutinins
– hemagglutinins
– biological response modifiers
– adjuvants, immunologic
– interferon inducers
– immunosuppressive agents
– complement inactivating agents
– myeloablative agonists
– muscle relaxants, central
– narcotic antagonists
– natriuretic agents
– antidiuretic agents
– diuretics
– diuretics, osmotic
– neurotransmitter agents
– adrenergic agents
– adrenergic agonists
– adrenergic alpha-agonists
– adrenergic beta-agonists
– adrenergic antagonists
– adrenergic alpha-antagonists
– adrenergic beta-antagonists
– adrenergic uptake inhibitors
– cholinergic agents
– cholinergic agonists
– muscarinic agonists
– nicotinic agonists
– cholinergic antagonists
– muscarinic antagonists
– nicotinic antagonists
– cholinesterase inhibitors
– cholinesterase reactivators
– dopamine agents
– dopamine agonists
– dopamine antagonists
– dopamine uptake inhibitors
– excitatory amino acid agents
– excitatory amino acid agonists
– excitatory amino acid antagonists
– GABA agents
– GABA agonists
– GABA antagonists
– GABA modulators
– glycine agents
– histamine agents
– histamine agonists
– histamine antagonists
– histamine h1 antagonists
– histamine h1 antagonists, non-sedating
– histamine h2 antagonists
– neurotransmitter uptake inhibitors
– adrenergic uptake inhibitors
– dopamine uptake inhibitors
– serotonin uptake inhibitors
– serotonin agents
– serotonin agonists
– serotonin antagonists
– serotonin uptake inhibitors
– peripheral nervous system agents
– autonomic agents
– antiemetics
– bronchoconstrictor agents
– bronchodilator agents
– emetics
– ganglionic blockers
– ganglionic stimulants
– miotics
– mydriatics
– parasympatholytics
– parasympathomimetics
– sympatholytics
– sympathomimetics
– neuromuscular agents
– muscle relaxants, central
– neuromuscular blocking agents
– neuromuscular depolarizing agents
– neuromuscular nondepolarizing agents
– sensory system agents
– analgesics
– analgesics, non-narcotic
– anti-inflammatory agents, non-steroidal
– cyclooxygenase inhibitors
– cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors
– anesthetics, local
– protective agents
– antidotes
– antimutagenic agents
– antioxidants
– cariostatic agents
– cryoprotective agents
– neuroprotective agents
– radiation-protective agents
– sunscreening agents
– radiation-sensitizing agents
– photosensitizing agents
– reproductive control agents
– abortifacient agents
– abortifacient agents, nonsteroidal
– abortifacient agents, steroidal
– contraceptive agents
– contraceptive agents, female
– contraceptives, oral
– contraceptives, oral, combined
– contraceptives, oral, hormonal
– contraceptives, oral, sequential
– contraceptives, oral, synthetic
– contraceptives, postcoital
– contraceptives, postcoital, hormonal
– contraceptives, postcoital, synthetic
– luteolytic agents
– menstruation-inducing agents
– sperm immobilizing agents
– spermatocidal agents
– contraceptive agents, male
– antispermatogenic agents
– spermatogenesis-blocking agents
– fertility agents
– fertility agents, female
– fertility agents, male
– luteolytic agents
– menstruation-inducing agents
– oxytocics
– tocolytic agents
– therapeutic uses
– anti-allergic agents
– anti-infective agents
– anti-bacterial agents
– antibiotics, antitubercular
– antitreponemal agents
– antitubercular agents
– antibiotics, antitubercular
– leprostatic agents
– antifungal agents
– antibiotics, antifungal
– anti-infective agents, local
– anti-infective agents, urinary
– antiparasitic agents
– anthelmintics
– antinematodal agents
– filaricides
– antiplatyhelmintic agents
– anticestodal agents
– schistosomicides
– antiprotozoal agents
– amebicides
– antimalarials
– antitrichomonal agents
– coccidiostats
– trypanocidal agents
– antiviral agents
– anti-retroviral agents
– anti-hiv agents
– hiv fusion inhibitors
– hiv integrase inhibitors
– hiv protease inhibitors
– reverse-transcriptase inhibitors
– disinfectants
– contact lens solutions
– dental disinfectants
– anti-inflammatory agents
– anti-inflammatory agents, non-steroidal
– cyclooxygenase inhibitors
– cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors
– antilipemic agents
– anticholesteremic agents
– hydroxymethylglutaryl-coa reductase inhibitors
– lipotropic agents
– antineoplastic agents
– angiogenesis inhibitors
– antibiotics, antineoplastic
– anticarcinogenic agents
– antimetabolites, antineoplastic
– antimitotic agents
– antineoplastic agents, alkylating
– antineoplastic agents, hormonal
– antineoplastic agents, phytogenic
– myeloablative agonists
– antirheumatic agents
– anti-inflammatory agents, non-steroidal
– gout suppressants
– uricosuric agents
– cardiovascular agents
– anti-arrhythmia agents
– antihypertensive agents
– calcium channel blockers
– cardioplegic solutions
– cardiotonic agents
– fibrinolytic agents
– natriuretic agents
– nitric oxide donors
– potassium channel blockers
– sclerosing solutions
– sodium channel blockers
– vasoconstrictor agents
– calcium channel agonists
– nasal decongestants
– vasodilator agents
– endothelium-dependent relaxing factors
– central nervous system agents
– adjuvants, anesthesia
– alcohol deterrents
– analgesics
– analgesics, non-narcotic
– analgesics, opioid
– anticonvulsants
– anti-dyskinesia agents
– antiparkinson agents
– antiemetics
– anti-obesity agents
– appetite depressants
– antitussive agents
– central nervous system depressants
– anesthetics
– anesthetics, combined
– anesthetics, general
– anesthetics, inhalation
– anesthetics, intravenous
– anesthetics, dissociative
– anesthetics, local
– hypnotics and sedatives
– narcotics
– tranquilizing agents
– anti-anxiety agents
– antimanic agents
– antipsychotic agents
– central nervous system stimulants
– aphrodisiacs
– appetite stimulants
– convulsants
– emetics
– hallucinogens
– hypnotics and sedatives
– muscle relaxants, central
– narcotic antagonists
– neuroprotective agents
– nootropic agents
– psychotropic drugs
– antidepressive agents
– antidepressive agents, second-generation
– antidepressive agents, tricyclic
– hallucinogens
– tranquilizing agents
– anti-anxiety agents
– antimanic agents
– antipsychotic agents
– dermatologic agents
– antipruritics
– astringents
– emollients
– keratolytic agents
– photosensitizing agents
– sunscreening agents
– gastrointestinal agents
– antidiarrheals
– antiemetics
– anti-ulcer agents
– cathartics
– cholagogues and choleretics
– emetics
– lipotropic agents
– hematologic agents
– anticoagulants
– antisickling agents
– blood substitutes
– plasma substitutes
– coagulants
– hemostatics
– antifibrinolytic agents
– heparin antagonists
– fibrinolytic agents
– hematinics
– platelet aggregation inhibitors
– renal agents
– anti-infective agents, urinary
– uricosuric agents
– reproductive control agents
– abortifacient agents
– abortifacient agents, nonsteroidal
– abortifacient agents, steroidal
– contraceptive agents
– contraceptive agents, female
– contraceptives, oral
– contraceptives, oral, combined
– contraceptives, oral, hormonal
– contraceptives, oral, sequential
– contraceptives, oral, synthetic
– contraceptives, postcoital
– contraceptives, postcoital, hormonal
– contraceptives, postcoital, synthetic
– luteolytic agents
– menstruation-inducing agents
– sperm immobilizing agents
– spermatocidal agents
– contraceptive agents, male
– antispermatogenic agents
– spermatogenesis-blocking agents
– fertility agents
– fertility agents, female
– fertility agents, male
– luteolytic agents
– menstruation-inducing agents
– oxytocics
– tocolytic agents
– respiratory system agents
– anti-asthmatic agents
– bronchodilator agents
– antitussive agents
– bronchoconstrictor agents
– expectorants
– nasal decongestants
– pulmonary surfactants
– stimulants (historical)
– specialty uses of chemicals
– adhesives
– agrochemicals
– fertilizers
– biomedical and dental materials
– biocompatible materials
– bone cements
– cariogenic agents
– cariostatic agents
– dental materials
– mouthwashes
– tissue adhesives
– caustics
– chelating agents
– iron chelating agents
– coloring agents
– chromogenic compounds
– fluorescent dyes
– food coloring agents
– contrast media
– cosmetics
– antiperspirants
– dentifrices
– toothpaste
– deodorants
– hair preparations
– hair dyes
– mouthwashes
– perfume
– sunscreening agents
– disinfectants
– contact lens solutions
– dental disinfectants
– dosage forms
– capsules
– colloids
– aerosols
– aerosol propellants
– emulsions
– gels
– suspensions
– delayed-action preparations
– drug implants
– tablets, enteric-coated
– drug carriers
– liposomes
– virosomes
– liniments
– ointments
– pharmaceutical solutions
– cardioplegic solutions
– dialysis solutions
– hemodialysis solutions
– ophthalmic solutions
– sclerosing solutions
– powders
– suppositories
– tablets
– tablets, enteric-coated
– vaginal creams, foams and jellies
– fixatives
– flame retardants
– flavoring agents
– sweetening agents
– food additives
– fat substitutes
– food coloring agents
– food preservatives
– ionophores
– irritants
– tear gases
– laboratory chemicals
– buffers
– ampholyte mixtures
– culture media
– culture media, conditioned
– culture media, serum-free
– coloring agents
– fluorescent dyes
– indicators and reagents
– affinity labels
– photoaffinity labels
– chromogenic compounds
– cross-linking reagents
– intercalating agents
– luminescent agents
– fluorescent dyes
– radiopharmaceuticals
– reagent kits, diagnostic
– reagent strips
– reducing agents
– sulfhydryl reagents
– thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
– ion exchange resins
– anion exchange resins
– cation exchange resins
– ligands
– molecular probes
– nucleic acid probes
– antisense elements (genetics)
– DNA, antisense
– oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense
– oligonucleotides, antisense
– oligodeoxyribonucleotides, antisense
– oligoribonucleotides, antisense
– rna, antisense
– oligoribonucleotides, antisense
– DNA probes
– DNA, complementary
– DNA primers
– DNA probes, hla
– DNA probes, hpv
– oligonucleotide probes
– rna probes
– rna, complementary
– oxidants
– oxidants, photochemical
– pesticides
– chemosterilants
– fungicides, industrial
– herbicides
– defoliants, chemical
– insect repellents
– insecticides
– molluscacides
– pesticide synergists
– rodenticides
– pharmaceutic aids
– adjuvants, pharmaceutic
– ointment bases
– preservatives, pharmaceutical
– vehicles
– excipients
– plasticizers
– poisons
– chemical warfare agents
– protective agents
– antidotes
– antimutagenic agents
– antioxidants
– cardiotonic agents
– cariostatic agents
– cryoprotective agents
– radiation-protective agents
– sunscreening agents
– riot control agents, chemical
– irritants
– tear gases
– solvents
– surface-active agents
– antifoaming agents
– detergents
– soaps
– emulsifying agents
– immunosorbents
– iodophors
– wetting agents
– sweetening agents
– toxic actions
– environmental pollutants
– air pollutants
– air pollutants, environmental
– oxidants, photochemical
– air pollutants, occupational
– air pollutants, radioactive
– endocrine disruptors
– hazardous substances
– industrial waste
– soil pollutants
– soil pollutants, radioactive
– water pollutants
– water pollutants, chemical
– water pollutants, radioactive
– noxae
– alkylating agents
– antineoplastic agents, alkylating
– antimetabolites
– antimetabolites, antineoplastic
– antispermatogenic agents
– sperm immobilizing agents
– spermatocidal agents
– spermatogenesis-blocking agents
– carcinogens
– carcinogens, environmental
– peroxisome proliferators
– caustics
– cytotoxins
– hemolysins
– leukocidins
– dermotoxins
– immunotoxins
– irritants
– tear gases
– mutagens
– aneugens
– neurotoxins
– oxidants
– oxidants, photochemical
– poisons
– chemical warfare agents
– pyrogens
– riot control agents, chemical
– irritants
– tear gases
– teratogens
– pesticides
– chemosterilants
– fungicides, industrial
– herbicides
– defoliants, chemical
– insect repellents
– insecticides
– molluscacides
– pesticide residues
– pesticide synergists
– rodenticides
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (E01).
D27
|
5115297
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28D08%29
|
List of MeSH codes (D08)
|
The following is a partial list of the "D" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (D06). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (D09). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– enzymes and coenzymes
– coenzymes
– biopterin
– neopterin
– biotin
– cobamides
– coenzyme a
– acyl coenzyme a
– acetyl coenzyme a
– malonyl coenzyme a
– palmitoyl coenzyme a
– flavins
– riboflavin
– flavin-adenine dinucleotide
– flavin mononucleotide
– nad
– nadp
– pqq cofactor
– pyridoxal phosphate
– sphingolipid activator proteins
– g(m2) activator protein
– saposins
– tetrahydrofolates
– formyltetrahydrofolates
– leucovorin
– thiamine pyrophosphate
– thioctic acid
– ubiquinone
– cytochromes
– cytochrome a group
– cytochromes a
– cytochromes a1
– cytochromes a3
– cytochrome b group
– cytochromes b
– cytochromes b5
– cytochromes b6
– cytochrome c group
– cytochromes c
– cytochromes c'
– cytochromes c1
– cytochromes c2
– cytochromes c6
– cytochrome d group
– cytochrome p-450 enzyme system
– aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylases
– aniline hydroxylase
– benzopyrene hydroxylase
– cytochrome p-450 cyp1a1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp1a2
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2b1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2d6
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2e1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp3a
– camphor 5-monooxygenase
– steroid hydroxylases
– aldosterone synthase
– aromatase
– cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase
– cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme
– 25-hydroxyvitamin d3 1-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 11-beta-hydroxylase
– steroid 12-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 16-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 17-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 21-hydroxylase
– trans-cinnamate 4-monooxygenase
– cytochromes f
– enzyme precursors
– chymotrypsinogen
– complement factor B
– pepsinogens
– pepsinogen a
– pepsinogen c
– plasminogen
– angiostatins
– protein c
– prothrombin
– trypsinogen
– enzymes
– dna repair enzymes
– deoxyribodipyrimidine photo-lyase
– dna glycosylases
– DNA-formamidopyrimidine glycosylase
– thymine dna glycosylase
– uracil-dna glycosidase
– dna ligases
– DNA-(apurinic or apyrimidinic site) lyase
– muts dna mismatch-binding protein
– muts homolog 2 protein
– polynucleotide 5'-hydroxyl-kinase
– dna restriction-modification enzymes
– dna modification methylases
– dna restriction enzymes
– deoxyribonucleases, type i site-specific
– deoxyribonucleases, type ii site-specific
– deoxyribonuclease bamhi
– deoxyribonuclease ecori
– deoxyribonuclease hindiii
– deoxyribonuclease hpaii
– deoxyribonucleases, type iii site-specific
– dna, catalytic
– enzymes, immobilized
– holoenzymes
– hydrolases (EC 3)
– acid anhydride hydrolases (EC 3.6)
– adenosinetriphosphatase
– ca(2+) mg(2+)-atpase
– ca(2+)-transporting atpase
– dynein atpase
– muts dna mismatch-binding protein
– muts homolog 2 protein
– n-ethylmaleimide-sensitive proteins
– proton-translocating atpases
– bacterial proton-translocating atpases
– chloroplast proton-translocating atpases
– h(+)-k(+)-exchanging atpase
– mitochondrial proton-translocating atpases
– vacuolar proton-translocating atpases
– kinesin
– myosins
– myosin type i
– myosin type ii
– cardiac myosins
– atrial myosins
– ventricular myosins
– nonmuscle myosin type iia
– nonmuscle myosin type iib
– skeletal muscle myosins
– smooth muscle myosins
– myosin type iii
– myosin type iv
– myosin type v
– na(+)-k(+)-exchanging atpase
– apyrase
– gtp phosphohydrolases
– dynamins
– dynamin i
– dynamin ii
– dynamin iii
– gtp-binding proteins
– gtp phosphohydrolase-linked elongation factors
– peptide elongation factor g
– peptide elongation factor tu
– peptide elongation factor 1
– peptide elongation factor 2
– heterotrimeric gtp-binding proteins
– gtp-binding protein alpha subunits
– gtp-binding protein alpha subunits, g12-g13
– gtp-binding protein alpha subunits, gi-go
– gtp-binding protein alpha subunit, gi2
– gtp-binding protein alpha subunits, gq-g11
– gtp-binding protein alpha subunits, gs
– transducin
– monomeric gtp-binding proteins
– adp-ribosylation factors
– ADP-ribosylation factor 1
– rab gtp-binding proteins
– rab1 gtp-binding proteins
– rab2 gtp-binding protein
– rab3 gtp-binding proteins
– rab3a gtp-binding protein
– rab4 gtp-binding proteins
– rab5 gtp-binding proteins
– ral gtp-binding proteins
– ran gtp-binding protein
– rap gtp-binding proteins
– rap1 gtp-binding proteins
– ras proteins
– oncogene protein p21(ras)
– proto-oncogene proteins p21(ras)
– rho gtp-binding proteins
– cdc42 gtp-binding protein
– cdc42 gtp-binding protein, saccharomyces cerevisiae
– rac gtp-binding proteins
– rac1 gtp-binding protein
– rhoa gtp-binding protein
– rhob gtp-binding protein
– nucleoside-triphosphatase
– pyrophosphatases
– inorganic pyrophosphatase
– thiamine pyrophosphatase
– thiamin-triphosphatase
– adenosylhomocysteinase
– amidohydrolases
– N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase
– allophanate hydrolase
– arylformamidase
– asparaginase
– aspartylglucosylaminase
– beta-lactamases
– cephalosporinase
– penicillinase
– biotinidase
– dihydroorotase
– glutaminase
– histone deacetylases
– nicotinamidase
– penicillin amidase
– peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminyl)asparagine amidase
– pyroglutamate hydrolase
– sirtuins
– urease
– aminohydrolases
– gtp cyclohydrolase
– guanine deaminase
– methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclohydrolase
– nucleoside deaminases
– adenosine deaminase
– cytidine deaminase
– cytosine deaminase
– nucleotide deaminases
– amp deaminase
– dcmp deaminase
– complement activating enzymes
– complement c1r
– complement c1s
– complement factor d
– epoxide hydrolases
– esterases (EC 3.1)
– carboxylic-ester hydrolases
– acetylesterase
– carboxylesterase
– cholesterol esterase
– cholinesterases
– acetylcholinesterase
– butyrylcholinesterase
– pseudocholinesterase
– dehydroascorbatase
– lipase
– pancrelipase
– lipoprotein lipase
– monoacylglycerol lipases
– naphthol as d esterase
– phospholipases
– lysophospholipase
– phospholipases a
– 1-alkyl-2-acetylglycerophosphocholine esterase
– deoxyribonucleases
– endodeoxyribonucleases
– aspergillus nuclease s1
– deoxyribonuclease (pyrimidine dimer)
– deoxyribonuclease i
– streptodornase and streptokinase
– deoxyribonuclease iv (phage t4-induced)
– dna restriction enzymes
– deoxyribonucleases, type i site-specific
– deoxyribonucleases, type ii site-specific
– deoxyribonuclease bamhi
– deoxyribonuclease ecori
– deoxyribonuclease hindiii
– deoxyribonuclease hpaii
– deoxyribonucleases, type iii site-specific
– holliday junction resolvases
– micrococcal nuclease
– exodeoxyribonucleases
– exodeoxyribonuclease V
– endonucleases
– endodeoxyribonucleases
– aspergillus nuclease s1
– dna restriction enzymes
– deoxyribonucleases, type i site-specific
– deoxyribonucleases, type ii site-specific
– deoxyribonuclease bamhi
– deoxyribonuclease ecori
– deoxyribonuclease hindiii
– deoxyribonuclease hpaii
– deoxyribonucleases, type iii site-specific
– flap endonucleases
– holliday junction resolvases
– micrococcal nuclease
– endoribonucleases
– aspergillus nuclease s1
– micrococcal nuclease
– ribonuclease h, calf thymus
– ribonuclease, pancreatic
– ribonuclease t1
– RNA-induced silencing complex
– exonucleases
– exodeoxyribonucleases
– exoribonucleases
– phosphoric diester hydrolases
– annexin A3
– 3',5'-cyclic-GMP phosphodiesterase
– 3',5'-cyclic-nucleotide phosphodiesterase
– 2',3'-cyclic-nucleotide phosphodiesterases
– glycerophosphoinositol inositolphosphodiesterase
– phosphodiesterase i
– phospholipases
– phospholipase c
– phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase
– phospholipase c gamma
– phospholipase d
– sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase
– phosphoric monoester hydrolases
– acid phosphatase
– alkaline phosphatase
– fructose-bisphosphatase
– glucose-6-phosphatase
– histidinol-phosphatase
– 4-nitrophenylphosphatase
– nucleotidases
– 5'-nucleotidase
– phosphatidate phosphatase
– phosphofructokinase-2
– phosphoprotein phosphatase
– calcineurin
– glycogen-synthase-d phosphatase
– myosin light-chain phosphatase
– phosphorylase phosphatase
– protein-tyrosine-phosphatase
– antigens, cd45
– cdc25 phosphatase
– pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide)-phosphatase
– 6-phytase
– pten phosphohydrolase
– phosphoric triester hydrolases
– aryldialkylphosphatase
– ribonucleases
– endoribonucleases
– aspergillus nuclease s1
– eosinophil cationic protein
– eosinophil-derived neurotoxin
– micrococcal nuclease
– ribonuclease h, calf thymus
– ribonuclease iii
– ribonuclease p
– ribonuclease, pancreatic
– ribonuclease t1
– RNA-induced silencing complex
– exoribonucleases
– sulfatases
– arylsulfatases
– n-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase
– cerebroside-sulfatase
– steryl-sulfatase
– chondroitinases and chondroitin lyases
– chondroitinsulfatases
– n-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase
– chondro-4-sulfatase
– iduronate sulfatase
– thiolester hydrolases
– acetyl-CoA hydrolase
– palmitoyl-coa hydrolase
– ubiquitin thiolesterase
– glycoside hydrolases
– amylases
– alpha-amylase
– beta-amylase
– beta-fructofuranosidase
– chitinase
– dextranase
– disaccharidases
– sucrase
– sucrase-isomaltase complex
– trehalase
– alpha-L-fucosidase
– galactosidases
– alpha-galactosidase
– beta-galactosidase
– lactase
– ceramide trihexosidase
– galactosylceramidase
– glucosidases
– alpha-glucosidases
– cellulases
– beta-glucosidase
– cellulase
– cellulose 1,4-beta-cellobiosidase
– endo-1,3(4)-beta-glucanase
– glucan 1,3-beta-glucosidase
– glucan 1,4-beta-glucosidase
– glucan endo-1,3-beta-d-glucosidase
– glucan 1,4-alpha-glucosidase
– glycogen debranching enzyme system
– glycosylceramidase
– glucosylceramidase
– glucuronidase
– hexosaminidases
– acetylglucosaminidase
– alpha-N-acetylgalactosaminidase
– Beta-N-acetylgalactosaminidase
– Beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase
– Mannosyl-glycoprotein endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase
– hyaluronoglucosaminidase
– iduronidase
– isoamylase
– mannosidases
– alpha-mannosidase
– beta-mannosidase
– muramidase
– neuraminidase
– n-glycosyl hydrolases
– dna glycosylases
– DNA-formamidopyrimidine glycosylase
– thymine dna glycosylase
– nad+ nucleosidase
– adp-ribosyl cyclase
– antigens, cd38
– oligo-1,6-glucosidase
– sucrase-isomaltase complex
– polygalacturonase
– xylosidases
– endo-1,4-beta xylanases
– xylan endo-1,3-beta-xylosidase
– pancreatin
– peptide hydrolases (EC 3.4)
– atp-dependent proteases
– endopeptidase clp
– protease la
– endopeptidases
– aspartic endopeptidases
– cathepsin d
– cathepsin e
– chymosin
– HIV protease
– pepsin a
– renin
– brinolase
– cathepsins
– carboxypeptidase c
– cathepsin b
– cathepsin d
– cathepsin e
– dipeptidyl peptidase i
– coagulase
– cysteine endopeptidases
– bromelains
– calpain
– caspases
– caspase 1
– cathepsin b
– chymopapain
– ficain
– papain
– metalloendopeptidases
– collagenases
– gelatinase a
– gelatinase b
– interstitial collagenase
– microbial collagenase
– neutrophil collagenase
– gelatinases
– gelatinase a
– gelatinase b
– insulysin
– lysostaphin
– matrix metalloproteinases
– gelatinase a
– gelatinase b
– interstitial collagenase
– matrilysin
– neutrophil collagenase
– stromelysin 1
– neprilysin
– pregnancy-associated plasma protein-a
– procollagen n-endopeptidase
– pronase
– thermolysin
– serine endopeptidases
– acrosin
– chymotrypsin
– complement factor b
– complement factor d
– complement factor i
– endopeptidase clp
– endopeptidase k
– enteropeptidase
– factor viia
– factor ixa
– factor xa
– factor xia
– factor xiia
– furin
– kallikreins
– plasma kallikrein
– prekallikrein
– prostate-specific antigen
– tissue kallikreins
– mannose-binding protein-associated serine proteases
– pancreatic elastase
– leukocyte elastase
– plasmin
– plasminogen activators
– anistreplase
– proprotein convertase 1
– proprotein convertase 2
– proprotein convertase 5
– pronase
– protease la
– subtilisins
– subtilisin
– thrombin
– tissue plasminogen activator
– trypsin
– urinary plasminogen activator
– venombin a
– ancrod
– batroxobin
– streptokinase
– anistreplase
– streptodornase and streptokinase
– exopeptidases
– aminopeptidases
– amino acid naphthylamidases
– leucyl-beta-naphthylamidase
– antigens, cd13
– cystinyl aminopeptidase
– glutamyl aminopeptidase
– leucyl aminopeptidase
– leucyl-beta-naphthylamidase
– pyroglutamyl-peptidase I
– carboxypeptidases
– carboxypeptidases A
– carboxypeptidase B
– carboxypeptidase C
– carboxypeptidase H
– carboxypeptidase U
– Serine-type D-Ala-D-Ala carboxypeptidase
– gamma-glutamyl hydrolase
– glutamate carboxypeptidase ii
– lysine carboxypeptidase
– muramoylpentapeptide carboxypeptidase
– dipeptidases
– dipeptidyl peptidases
– antigens, cd26
– dipeptidyl peptidase i
– metalloexopeptidases
– antigens, cd13
– carboxypeptidase b
– carboxypeptidase h
– carboxypeptidase u
– carboxypeptidases a
– cystinyl aminopeptidase
– glutamate carboxypeptidase ii
– glutamyl aminopeptidase
– leucyl aminopeptidase
– leucyl-beta-naphthylamidase
– lysine carboxypeptidase
– peptidyl-dipeptidase a
– metalloproteases
– metalloendopeptidases
– adam proteins
– collagenases
– gelatinase a
– gelatinase b
– interstitial collagenase
– microbial collagenase
– neutrophil collagenase
– gelatinases
– gelatinase a
– gelatinase b
– insulysin
– lysostaphin
– matrix metalloproteinases
– gelatinase a
– gelatinase b
– interstitial collagenase
– matrilysin
– neutrophil collagenase
– stromelysin 1
– neprilysin
– pregnancy-associated plasma protein-a
– procollagen n-endopeptidase
– pronase
– thermolysin
– metalloexopeptidases
– antigens, cd13
– carboxypeptidase b
– carboxypeptidase h
– carboxypeptidase u
– carboxypeptidases a
– cystinyl aminopeptidase
– glutamate carboxypeptidase ii
– glutamyl aminopeptidase
– leucyl aminopeptidase
– leucyl-beta-naphthylamidase
– lysine carboxypeptidase
– proprotein convertases
– carboxypeptidase h
– carboxypeptidase u
– furin
– proprotein convertase 1
– proprotein convertase 2
– proprotein convertase 5
– renin
– proteasome endopeptidase complex
– ureohydrolases
– arginase
– isoenzymes
– isomerases (EC 5)
– cis-trans-isomerases (EC 5.2)
– peptidylprolyl isomerase
– immunophilins
– cyclophilins
– cyclophilin A
– tacrolimus binding proteins
– tacrolimus binding protein 1a
– dna helicases
– xeroderma pigmentosum group d protein
– dna topoisomerases
– dna topoisomerases, type i
– dna topoisomerases, type i, archaeal
– dna topoisomerases, type i, bacterial
– dna topoisomerases, type i, eukaryotic
– dna topoisomerases, type ii
– dna topoisomerases, type ii, archaeal
– dna topoisomerases, type ii, bacterial
– dna gyrase
– dna topoisomerase iv
– dna topoisomerases, type ii, eukaryotic
– intramolecular lyases (EC 5.5)
– myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthase
– intramolecular oxidoreductases (EC 5.3)
– aldose-ketose isomerases
– autocrine motility factor
– glucose-6-phosphate isomerase
– mannose-6-phosphate isomerase
– neuroleukin
– triose-phosphate isomerase
– carbon-carbon double bond isomerases
– steroid isomerases
– sulfur-sulfur bond isomerases
– protein disulfide-isomerase
– thromboxane-a synthase
– intramolecular transferases (EC 5.4)
– 2-acetolactate mutase
– chorismate mutase
– prephenate dehydratase
– prephenate dehydrogenase
– methylmalonyl-coa mutase
– phosphotransferases (phosphomutases)
– bisphosphoglycerate mutase
– phosphoglucomutase
– phosphoglycerate mutase
– racemases and epimerases (EC 5.1)
– amino acid isomerases
– alanine racemase
– carbohydrate epimerases
– UDP-glucose 4-epimerase
– ligases (EC 6)
– carbon-carbon ligases (EC 6.4)
– acetyl-coa carboxylase
– polyketide synthases
– pyruvate carboxylase
– carbon-nitrogen ligases (EC 6.3)
– adenylosuccinate synthase
– amide synthases
– aspartate-ammonia ligase
– glutamate-ammonia ligase
– argininosuccinate synthase
– carbamoyl-phosphate synthase (ammonia)
– carbon-nitrogen ligases with glutamine as amide-n-donor
– carbamoyl-phosphate synthase (glutamine-hydrolyzing)
– formate-tetrahydrofolate ligase
– peptide synthases
– glutamate-cysteine ligase
– glutathione synthase
– carbon-oxygen ligases (EC 6.1)
– amino acyl-trna synthetases
– alanine—tRNA ligase
– arginine—tRNA ligase
– aspartate—tRNA ligase
– glutamate-trna ligase
– glycine-trna ligase
– histidine-trna ligase
– isoleucine-trna ligase
– leucine-trna ligase
– lysine-trna ligase
– methionine-trna ligase
– phenylalanine-trna ligase
– serine-trna ligase
– threonine—tRNA ligase
– tryptophan—tRNA ligase
– tyrosine—tRNA ligase
– valine—tRNA ligase
– carbon-sulfur ligases (EC 6.2)
– coenzyme a ligases
– acetate-coa ligase
– succinate-coa ligases
– polynucleotide ligases
– dna ligases
– rna ligase (atp)
– ubiquitin-protein ligase complexes
– Ubiquitin-activating enzyme
– ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes
– ubiquitin-protein ligases
– fanconi anemia complementation group l protein
– proto-oncogene proteins c-cbl
– proto-oncogene proteins c-mdm2
– skp cullin f-box protein ligases
– cullin proteins
– von hippel-lindau tumor suppressor protein
– lyases (EC 4)
– carbon-carbon lyases (EC 4.1)
– aldehyde lyases
– 2-dehydro-3-deoxyphosphoheptonate aldolase
– fructose-bisphosphate aldolase
– carboxy-lyases
– adenosylmethionine decarboxylase
– aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase
– dopa decarboxylase
– glutamate decarboxylase
– histidine decarboxylase
– indole-3-glycerol-phosphate synthase
– methylmalonyl-coa decarboxylase
– ornithine decarboxylase
– orotidine-5'-phosphate decarboxylase
– phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (atp)
– phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (gtp)
– phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase
– pyruvate decarboxylase
– ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase
– tyrosine decarboxylase
– uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase
– deoxyribodipyrimidine photo-lyase
– oxo-acid-lyases
– anthranilate synthase
– isocitrate lyase
– tryptophanase
– tyrosine phenol-lyase
– carbon-nitrogen lyases (EC 4.3)
– amidine-lyases
– adenylosuccinate lyase
– argininosuccinate lyase
– delta-crystallins
– ammonia-lyases
– aspartate ammonia-lyase
– ethanolamine ammonia-lyase
– histidine ammonia-lyase
– l-serine dehydratase
– phenylalanine ammonia-lyase
– threonine dehydratase
– carbon-oxygen lyases (EC 4.2)
– DNA-(apurinic or apyrimidinic site) lyase
– hydro-lyases
– aconitate hydratase
– iron regulatory protein 1
– iron regulatory protein 2
– carbonic anhydrases
– carbonic anhydrase i
– carbonic anhydrase ii
– carbonic anhydrase iii
– carbonic anhydrase iv
– carbonic anhydrase v
– cystathionine beta-synthase
– enoyl-coa hydratase
– fumarate hydratase
– phosphopyruvate hydratase
– tau-crystallins
– porphobilinogen synthase
– prephenate dehydratase
– propanediol dehydratase
– tryptophan synthase
– urocanate hydratase
– uroporphyrinogen iii synthetase
– polysaccharide-lyases
– chondroitinases and chondroitin lyases
– chondroitin lyases
– chondroitin abc lyase
– heparin lyase
– hyaluronoglucosaminidase
– carbon-sulfur lyases (EC 4.4)
– cystathionine gamma-lyase
– lactoylglutathione lyase
– ferrochelatase
– phosphorus-oxygen lyases (EC 4.6)
– adenylate cyclase
– adenylate cyclase toxin
– guanylate cyclase
– receptors, guanylate cyclase-coupled
– receptors, atrial natriuretic factor
– phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase
– multienzyme complexes
– anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase
– anthranilate synthase
– aspartate carbamoyltransferase
– aspartokinase homoserine dehydrogenase
– cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme
– electron transport chain complex proteins
– electron-transferring flavoproteins
– electron transport complex i
– electron transport complex ii
– succinate dehydrogenase
– electron transport complex iv
– succinate cytochrome c oxidoreductase
– electron transport complex ii
– succinate dehydrogenase
– electron transport complex iii
– fatty acid synthetase complex
– glycine decarboxylase complex
– aminomethyltransferase
– dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
– glycine decarboxylase complex h-protein
– glycine dehydrogenase (decarboxylating)
– ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
– dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
– lactose synthase
– phosphoenolpyruvate sugar phosphotransferase system
– photosynthetic reaction center complex proteins
– light-harvesting protein complexes
– cytochrome b6f complex
– cytochromes b6
– cytochromes f
– plastoquinol-plastocyanin reductase
– photosystem i protein complex
– photosystem ii protein complex
– polyketide synthases
– prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases
– cyclooxygenase 1
– cyclooxygenase 2
– proteasome endopeptidase complex
– pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
– dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
– dihydrolipoyllysine-residue acetyltransferase
– pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide)
– sucrase-isomaltase complex
– tryptophan synthase
– oxidoreductases (EC 1)
– alcohol oxidoreductases
– acetoin dehydrogenase
– alcohol dehydrogenase
– carbohydrate dehydrogenases
– fructuronate reductase
– galactose dehydrogenases
– glucose dehydrogenases
– glucose 1-dehydrogenase
– glucosephosphate dehydrogenase
– phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
– phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase
– sugar alcohol dehydrogenases
– aldehyde reductase
– d-xylulose reductase
– glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase
– glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (nad+)
– l-gulonolactone oxidase
– l-iditol 2-dehydrogenase
– mannitol dehydrogenase
– uridine diphosphate glucose dehydrogenase
– choline dehydrogenase
– galactose oxidase
– glucose oxidase
– homoserine dehydrogenase
– aspartokinase homoserine dehydrogenase
– 3-hydroxyacyl coa dehydrogenases
– hydroxymethylglutaryl coa reductases
– hydroxymethylglutaryl-coa reductases, nad-dependent
– hydroxymethylglutaryl-coa-reductases, nadp-dependent
– hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
– Hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase
– hydroxypyruvate reductase
– hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
– 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
– 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
– 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
– 3-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
– 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (B-specific)
– cholesterol oxidase
– progesterone reductase
– 17-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
– estradiol dehydrogenases
– 20-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases
– 20alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase
– cortisone reductase
– imp dehydrogenase
– isocitrate dehydrogenase
– 3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase
– ketol-acid reductoisomerase
– lactate dehydrogenases
– epsilon-crystallins
– l-lactate dehydrogenase
– l-lactate dehydrogenase (cytochrome)
– malate dehydrogenase
– malate dehydrogenase (nadp+)
– xanthine dehydrogenase
– xanthine oxidase
– ascorbate oxidase
– ceruloplasmin
– electron transport complex iv
– hydrogenase
– laccase
– luciferases
– 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (fadh2)
– nadh, nadph oxidoreductases
– apoptosis inducing factor
– cytochrome reductases
– cytochrome-b(5) reductase
– nadph-ferrihemoprotein reductase
– electron transport complex i
– nadh dehydrogenase
– nadh tetrazolium reductase
– nadp transhydrogenase
– nadph dehydrogenase
– nadph oxidase
– quinone reductases
– nad(p)h dehydrogenase (quinone)
– zeta-crystallins
– nitrogenase
– dinitrogenase reductase
– molybdoferredoxin
– nitroreductases
– gmp reductase
– nitrate reductases
– nitrate reductase
– nitrate reductase (nadh)
– nitrate reductase (nad(p)h)
– nitrate reductase (nadph)
– nitrite reductases
– ferredoxin-nitrite reductase
– nitrite reductase (NAD(P)H)
– oxidoreductases acting on aldehyde or oxo group donors
– aldehyde oxidoreductases
– aldehyde dehydrogenase
– omega-crystallins
– aldehyde oxidase
– aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase
– aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase
– benzaldehyde dehydrogenase (NADP+)
– betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase
– glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase
– glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenases
– glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (nadp+)
– glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (nadp+)(phosphorylating)
– glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (phosphorylating)
– glycolaldehyde dehydrogenase
– l-aminoadipate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase
– malonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (acetylating)
– methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (acylating)
– retinal dehydrogenase
– succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase
– succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (NAD(P)+)
– formate dehydrogenases
– ketone oxidoreductases
– ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
– dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
– 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate dehydrogenase (lipoamide)
– 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase (acylating)
– pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide)
– pyruvate oxidase
– pyruvate synthase
– oxidoreductases acting on ch-ch group donors
– acyl-coa dehydrogenases
– acyl-coa dehydrogenase
– acyl-coa dehydrogenase, long-chain
– acyl-CoA oxidase
– butyryl-coa dehydrogenase
– cholestenone 5alpha-reductase
– coproporphyrinogen oxidase
– dihydrodipicolinate reductase
– dihydroorotate oxidase
– dihydrouracil dehydrogenase (nad+)
– dihydrouracil dehydrogenase (nadp)
– electron transport complex ii
– succinate dehydrogenase
– enoyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase (nadh)
– enoyl-(acyl-carrier protein) reductase (nadph, b-specific)
– Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase
– isovaleryl-coa dehydrogenase
– 15-oxoprostaglandin 13-reductase
– prephenate dehydrogenase
– protoporphyrinogen oxidase
– succinate dehydrogenase
– testosterone 5-alpha-Reductase
– oxidoreductases acting on ch-nh group donors
– dihydropteridine reductase
– FMN reductase
– methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase (nad+)
– methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase (nadp)
– methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (nadph2)
– oxidoreductases, n-demethylating
– aminopyrine n-demethylase
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2e1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp3a
– dihydropteridine reductase
– dimethylglycine dehydrogenase
– ethylmorphine-n-demethylase
– sarcosine dehydrogenase
– sarcosine oxidase
– proline oxidase
– pyridoxamine-phosphate oxidase
– 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase
– pyrroline carboxylate reductases
– saccharopine dehydrogenases
– tetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase
– oxidoreductases acting on ch-nh2 group donors
– amine oxidase (copper-containing)
– amino acid oxidoreductases
– alanine dehydrogenase
– d-amino-acid oxidase
– d-aspartate oxidase
– glutamate dehydrogenase
– glutamate dehydrogenase (nadp+)
– glutamate synthase (NADPH)
– glutamate synthase (NADH)
– glycine decarboxylase complex
– glycine dehydrogenase (decarboxylating)
– glycine dehydrogenase
– l-amino acid oxidase
– leucine dehydrogenase
– nitric oxide synthase
– nitric oxide synthase type i
– nitric oxide synthase type ii
– nitric oxide synthase type iii
– proline oxidase
– protein-lysine 6-oxidase
– valine dehydrogenase (NADP+)
– monoamine oxidase
– benzylamine oxidase
– oxidoreductases acting on sulfur group donors
– dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase
– ferredoxin-nadp reductase
– glutathione reductase
– hydrogensulfite reductase
– protein-disulfide reductase (glutathione)
– sulfite dehydrogenase
– sulfite oxidase
– sulfite reductase (ferredoxin)
– sulfite reductase (nadph)
– thioredoxin reductase (nadph)
– oxidoreductases, o-demethylating
– nitroanisole o-demethylase
– oxygenases
– dioxygenases
– catechol 1,2-dioxygenase
– catechol 2,3-dioxygenase
– cysteine dioxygenase
– homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase
– 3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase
– 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase
– indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase
– lipoxygenase
– arachidonate lipoxygenases
– arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase
– arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase
– arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase
– protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase
– tryptophan oxygenase
– inositol oxygenase
– mixed function oxygenases
– benzoate 4-monooxygenase
– catechol oxidase
– monophenol monooxygenase
– cytochrome p-450 enzyme system
– aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylases
– 7-alkoxycoumarin o-dealkylase
– aniline hydroxylase
– benzopyrene hydroxylase
– cytochrome p-450 cyp1a1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp1a2
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2b1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2d6
– cytochrome p-450 cyp2e1
– cytochrome p-450 cyp3a
– camphor 5-monooxygenase
– alkane 1-monooxygenase
– steroid hydroxylases
– aldosterone synthase
– aromatase
– cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase
– cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme
– 25-hydroxyvitamin d3 1-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 11-beta-hydroxylase
– steroid 12-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 16-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 17-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 21-hydroxylase
– dopamine beta-hydroxylase
– fatty acid desaturases
– beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase
– Linoleoyl-CoA desaturase
– stearoyl-coa desaturase
– gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase
– heme oxygenase (decyclizing)
– heme oxygenase-1
– 4-hydroxybenzoate 3-monooxygenase
– kynurenine 3-monooxygenase
– phenylalanine hydroxylase
– procollagen-lysine, 2-oxoglutarate 5-dioxygenase
– procollagen-proline dioxygenase
– prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthases
– squalene monooxygenase
– steroid hydroxylases
– aldosterone synthase
– aromatase
– cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase
– cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme
– 25-hydroxyvitamin d3 1-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 11-beta-hydroxylase
– steroid 12-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 16-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 17-alpha-hydroxylase
– steroid 21-hydroxylase
– trans-cinnamate 4-monooxygenase
– tryptophan hydroxylase
– tyrosine 3-monooxygenase
– peroxidases
– catalase
– chloride peroxidase
– cytochrome-c peroxidase
– eosinophil peroxidase
– glutathione peroxidase
– horseradish peroxidase
– wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate
– iodide peroxidase
– lactoperoxidase
– peroxidase
– plastoquinol-plastocyanin reductase
– ribonucleotide reductases
– ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase
– selenoprotein r
– succinate cytochrome c oxidoreductase
– electron transport complex ii
– succinate dehydrogenase
– electron transport complex iii
– superoxide dismutase
– urate oxidase
– penicillin-binding proteins
– recombinases
– holliday junction resolvases
– integrases
– transposases
– hiv integrase
– rec a recombinases
– rad51 recombinase
– transposon resolvases
– vdj recombinases
– rna, catalytic
– ribonuclease p
– rna, ribosomal, self-splicing
– transferases (EC 2)
– acyltransferases (EC 2.3)
– acetyl-CoA C-acyltransferase
– acetyltransferases
– acyl-carrier protein s-acetyltransferase
– acetyl-CoA C-acetyltransferase
– amino-acid n-acetyltransferase
– carnitine O-acetyltransferase
– chloramphenicol o-acetyltransferase
– choline o-acetyltransferase
– dihydrolipoyllysine-residue acetyltransferase
– glucosamine 6-phosphate n-acetyltransferase
– histone acetyltransferases
– p300-CBP coactivator family
– creb-binding protein
– e1a-associated p300 protein
– phosphate acetyltransferase
– serine O-acetyltransferase
– acyl-carrier protein s-malonyltransferase
– 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferase
– 1-acylglycerophosphocholine O-acyltransferase
– aminoacyltransferases
– gamma-glutamylcyclotransferase
– gamma-glutamyltransferase
– peptidyl transferases
– transglutaminases
– factor xiiia
– 5-aminolevulinate synthetase
– arylalkylamine n-acetyltransferase
– arylamine N-acetyltransferase
– atp citrate (pro-s)-lyase
– carnitine acyltransferases
– carnitine O-acetyltransferase
– carnitine o-palmitoyltransferase
– citrate (Si)-synthase
– diacylglycerol o-acyltransferase
– glycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferase
– homoserine O-succinyltransferase
– hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase
– 2-isopropylmalate synthase
– malate synthase
– 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) synthase
– phosphatidylcholine-sterol O-acyltransferase
– retinol O-fatty-acyltransferase
– serine C-palmitoyltransferase
– sphingosine N-acyltransferase
– sterol O-acyltransferase
– aldehyde-ketone transferases (EC 2.2)
– acetolactate synthase
– transaldolase
– transketolase
– alkyl and aryl transferases (EC 2.5)
– cysteine synthase
– dihydropteroate synthase
– dimethylallyltranstransferase
– farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase
– farnesyltranstransferase
– geranylgeranyl-diphosphate geranylgeranyltransferase
– geranyltranstransferase
– glutathione transferase
– glutathione S-transferase pi
– hydroxymethylbilane synthase
– methionine adenosyltransferase
– 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase
– riboflavin synthase
– spermidine synthase
– spermine synthase
– glycosyltransferases (EC 2.4)
– n-acetylhexosaminyltransferases
– n-acetylgalactosaminyltransferases
– fucosyl galactose alpha-n-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase
– n-acetylglucosaminyltransferases
– hexosyltransferases
– fucosyltransferases
– galactosyltransferases
– n-acylsphingosine galactosyltransferase
– beta-n-acetylglucosaminylglycopeptide beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase
– ganglioside galactosyltransferase
– lactose synthase
– n-acetyllactosamine synthase
– glucosyltransferases
– 1,4-alpha-glucan branching enzyme
– chitin synthase
– glycogen debranching enzyme system
– glycogen synthase
– phosphorylases
– glycogen phosphorylase
– glycogen phosphorylase, brain form
– glycogen phosphorylase, liver form
– glycogen phosphorylase, muscle form
– phosphorylase a
– phosphorylase b
– starch phosphorylase
– starch synthase
– glucuronosyltransferase
– mannosyltransferases
– peptidoglycan glycosyltransferase
– pentosyltransferases
– adenine phosphoribosyltransferase
– adp ribose transferases
– cholera toxin
– diphtheria toxin
– nad+ nucleosidase
– adp-ribosyl cyclase
– pertussis toxin
– poly(adp-ribose) polymerases
– tankyrases
– sirtuins
– amidophosphoribosyltransferase
– anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase
– ATP phosphoribosyltransferase
– hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase
– orotate phosphoribosyltransferase
– purine-nucleoside phosphorylase
– thymidine phosphorylase
– uridine phosphorylase
– sialyltransferases
– nitrogenous group transferases (EC 2.6)
– transaminases
– alanine transaminase
– 2-aminoadipate transaminase
– 4-aminobutyrate transaminase
– aspartate aminotransferases
– aspartate aminotransferase, cytoplasmic
– aspartate aminotransferase, mitochondrial
– beta-alanine-pyruvate transaminase
– d-alanine transaminase
– Glutamate synthase (ferredoxin)
– glutamine-fructose-6-phosphate transaminase (isomerizing)
– glycine transaminase
– leucine transaminase
– l-lysine 6-transaminase
– ornithine-oxo-acid transaminase
– succinyldiaminopimelate transaminase
– tryptophan transaminase
– tyrosine transaminase
– one-carbon group transferases (EC 2.1)
– amidinotransferases
– carboxyl and carbamoyl transferases
– aspartate carbamoyltransferase
– ornithine carbamoyltransferase
– hydroxymethyl and formyl transferases
– aminomethyltransferase
– glutamate formimidoyltransferase
– glycine hydroxymethyltransferase
– phosphoribosylaminoimidazolecarboxamide formyltransferase
– phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase
– methyltransferases
– acetylserotonin n-methyltransferase
– betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase
– catechol O-methyltransferase
– dna modification methylases
– dna (cytosine-5-)-methyltransferase
– site-specific dna-methyltransferase (adenine-specific)
– site-specific dna methyltransferase (cytosine-specific)
– glycine N-methyltransferase
– guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase
– histamine N-methyltransferase
– homocysteine S-methyltransferase
– 5-methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine s-methyltransferase
– nicotinamide N-methyltransferase
– phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
– phosphatidyl-N-methylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
– phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
– protein methyltransferases
– histone-lysine n-methyltransferase
– o-6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase
– protein-arginine n-methyltransferase
– protein o-methyltransferase
– protein d-aspartate-l-isoaspartate methyltransferase
– thymidylate synthase
– trna methyltransferases
– phosphotransferases (EC 2.7)
– diphosphotransferases
– gtp pyrophosphokinase
– ribose-phosphate pyrophosphokinase
– thiamin pyrophosphokinase
– myosin type iii
– nucleotidyltransferases
– n-acylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase
– choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase
– dna nucleotidyltransferases
– dna-directed dna polymerase
– dna polymerase beta
– dna polymerase i
– dna polymerase ii
– dna polymerase iii
– RNA-directed dna polymerase
– hiv-1 reverse transcriptase
– telomerase
– taq polymerase
– dna nucleotidylexotransferase
– glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase
– nicotinamide-nucleotide adenylyltransferase
– 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase
– polynucleotide adenylyltransferase
– rec a recombinases
– rna nucleotidyltransferases
– dna, catalytic
– dna-directed rna polymerases
– dna primase
– rna polymerase i
– rna polymerase ii
– rna polymerase iii
– rna polymerase sigma 54
– polyribonucleotide nucleotidyltransferase
– q beta replicase
– rna helicases
– eukaryotic initiation factor-4a
– rna replicase
– rna, ribosomal, self-splicing
– sulfate adenylyltransferase
– transposases
– hiv integrase
– transposon resolvases
– UDP-glucose—hexose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase
– UTP—glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase
– UTP—hexose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase
– vdj recombinases
– phosphotransferases (alcohol group acceptor)
– adenosine kinase
– choline kinase
– deoxycytidine kinase
– diacylglycerol kinase
– fructokinases
– phosphofructokinases
– phosphofructokinase-1
– phosphofructokinase-1, liver type
– phosphofructokinase-1, muscle type
– phosphofructokinase-1, type c
– phosphofructokinase-2
– galactokinase
– glucokinase
– glycerol kinase
– hexokinase
– kanamycin kinase
– 1-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
– 1-phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase
– phosphoenolpyruvate sugar phosphotransferase system
– polynucleotide 5'-hydroxyl-kinase
– protein kinases
– phosphorylase kinase
– protein-serine-threonine kinases
– activin receptors
– activin receptors, type i
– activin receptors, type ii
– bone morphogenetic protein receptors
– bone morphogenetic protein receptors, type i
– bone morphogenetic protein receptors, type ii
– ca(2+)-calmodulin dependent protein kinase
– myosin-light-chain kinase
– casein kinases
– casein kinase i
– casein kinase ialpha
– casein kinase idelta
– casein kinase iepsilon
– casein kinase ii
– cyclic nucleotide-regulated protein kinases
– cyclic amp-dependent protein kinases
– beta-adrenergic-receptor kinase
– cyclic gmp-dependent protein kinases
– protamine kinase
– cyclin-dependent kinases
– cdc2-cdc28 kinases
– cdc2 protein kinase
– cdc28 protein kinase, s cerevisiae
– cyclin-dependent kinase 5
– cyclin-dependent kinase 9
– cyclin-dependent kinase 2
– cyclin-dependent kinase 4
– cyclin-dependent kinase 6
– maturation-promoting factor
– cdc2 protein kinase
– dna-activated protein kinase
– eif-2 kinase
– glycogen synthase kinases
– glycogen synthase kinase 3
– i-kappa B kinase
– map kinase kinase kinases
– map kinase kinase kinase 1
– map kinase kinase kinase 2
– map kinase kinase kinase 3
– map kinase kinase kinase 4
– map kinase kinase kinase 5
– proto-oncogene proteins c-mos
– raf kinases
– oncogene proteins v-raf
– proto-oncogene proteins b-raf
– proto-oncogene proteins c-raf
– mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases
– map kinase kinase 1
– map kinase kinase 2
– map kinase kinase 3
– map kinase kinase 4
– map kinase kinase 5
– map kinase kinase 6
– map kinase kinase 7
– mitogen-activated protein kinases
– extracellular signal-regulated map kinases
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 1
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 3
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 6
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 7
– jnk mitogen-activated protein kinases
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 8
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 9
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 10
– p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases
– oncogene protein v-akt
– phytochrome a
– proline-directed protein kinases
– cyclin-dependent kinases
– cdc2-cdc28 kinases
– cyclin-dependent kinase 5
– cyclin-dependent kinase 2
– cyclin-dependent kinase 4
– cyclin-dependent kinase 6
– glycogen synthase kinase 3
– mitogen-activated protein kinases
– extracellular signal-regulated map kinases
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 1
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 3
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 6
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 7
– jnk mitogen-activated protein kinases
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 8
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 9
– mitogen-activated protein kinase 10
– p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases
– protein kinase c
– protein kinase c-alpha
– protein kinase c-delta
– protein kinase c-epsilon
– proto-oncogene proteins c-akt
– proto-oncogene proteins c-bcr
– proto-oncogene proteins c-pim-1
– rhodopsin kinase
– ribosomal protein s6 kinases
– ribosomal protein s6 kinases, 70-kda
– ribosomal protein s6 kinases, 90-kda
– protein-tyrosine kinase
– focal adhesion protein-tyrosine kinases
– focal adhesion kinase 1
– focal adhesion kinase 2
– mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases
– map kinase kinase 1
– map kinase kinase 2
– map kinase kinase 3
– map kinase kinase 4
– map kinase kinase 5
– map kinase kinase 6
– map kinase kinase 7
– proto-oncogene proteins c-fes
– receptor protein-tyrosine kinases
– fms-like tyrosine kinase 3
– receptor, fibroblast growth factor, type 1
– receptor, fibroblast growth factor, type 2
– receptor, fibroblast growth factor, type 3
– receptor, fibroblast growth factor, type 4
– proto-oncogene proteins c-kit
– proto-oncogene proteins c-met
– proto-oncogene proteins c-ret
– receptor, epidermal growth factor
– receptor, erbb-2
– receptor, erbb-3
– receptor, igf type 1
– receptor, insulin
– receptor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor
– receptor, trka
– receptor, trkb
– receptor, trkc
– receptors, eph family
– receptor, epha1
– receptor, epha2
– receptor, epha3
– receptor, epha4
– receptor, epha5
– receptor, epha6
– receptor, epha7
– receptor, epha8
– receptor, ephb1
– receptor, ephb2
– receptor, ephb3
– receptor, ephb4
– receptor, ephb5
– receptors, platelet-derived growth factor
– receptor, platelet-derived growth factor alpha
– receptor, platelet-derived growth factor beta
– receptors, tie
– receptor, tie-1
– receptor, tie-2
– receptors, vascular endothelial growth factor
– vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1
– vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2
– vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3
– proto-oncogene proteins c-abl
– src-family kinases
– lymphocyte specific protein tyrosine kinase p56(lck)
– oncogene protein pp60(v-src)
– proto-oncogene proteins c-fyn
– proto-oncogene proteins c-hck
– proto-oncogene proteins c-yes
– proto-oncogene proteins pp60(c-src)
– zap-70 protein-tyrosine kinase
– pyridoxal kinase
– pyruvate kinase
– thymidine kinase
– uridine kinase
– phosphotransferases (carboxyl group acceptor)
– acetate kinase
– aspartate kinase
– aspartokinase homoserine dehydrogenase
– phosphoglycerate kinase
– phosphotransferases (nitrogenous group acceptor)
– arginine kinase
– creatine kinase
– creatine kinase, bb form
– creatine kinase, mb form
– creatine kinase, mitochondrial form
– creatine kinase, mm form
– phosphotransferases (paired acceptors)
– pyruvate, orthophosphate dikinase
– phosphotransferases (phosphate group acceptor)
– adenylate kinase
– atp synthetase complexes
– proton-translocating atpases
– bacterial proton-translocating atpases
– chloroplast proton-translocating atpases
– mitochondrial proton-translocating atpases
– vacuolar proton-translocating atpases
– guanylate kinase
– nucleoside-diphosphate kinase
– nucleoside-phosphate kinase
– transferases (other substituted phosphate groups)
– CDP-diacylglycerol—inositol 3-phosphatidyltransferase
– CDP-diacylglycerol—serine O-phosphatidyltransferase
– diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase
– ethanolaminephosphotransferase
– sulfur group transferases (EC 2.8)
– coenzyme a-transferases
– sulfotransferases
– aryl sulfotransferase
– sulfurtransferases
– thiosulfate sulfurtransferase
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (D09).
D08
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5115318
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28D03%29
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List of MeSH codes (D03)
|
The following is a partial list of the "D" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (D02). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (D04). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– heterocyclic compounds
– acids, heterocyclic
– cinoxacin
– indoleacetic acids
– etodolac
– hydroxyindoleacetic acid
– isonicotinic acids
– ethionamide
– iproniazid
– isoniazid
– nialamide
– prothionamide
– pyridoxic acid
– isonipecotic acids
– diphenoxylate
– meperidine
– promedol
– phenoperidine
– pirinitramide
– nicotinic acids
– arecoline
– clonixin
– etazolate
– niacin
– niacinamide
– 6-aminonicotinamide
– nicorandil
– nikethamide
– niceritrol
– niflumic acid
– pipemidic acid
– piromidic acid
– xanthinol niacinate
– nipecotic acids
– orotic acid
– picolinic acids
– fusaric acid
– picloram
– streptonigrin
– pipecolic acids
– xanthurenates
– kynurenic acid
– alkaloids
– aconitine
– acronine
– amaryllidaceae alkaloids
– galantamine
– aporphines
– apomorphine
– arecoline
– berberine alkaloids
– berberine
– bicuculline
– camptothecin
– topotecan
– cinchona alkaloids
– quinidine
– quinine
– colchicine
– demecolcine
– lumicolchicines
– dihydro-beta-erythroidine
– emetine
– ergot alkaloids
– ergolines
– ergonovine
– methylergonovine
– lisuride
– lysergic acid
– lysergic acid diethylamide
– metergoline
– methysergide
– nicergoline
– pergolide
– ergotamines
– bromocriptine
– dihydroergocornine
– dihydroergocristine
– dihydroergocryptine
– dihydroergotamine
– dihydroergotoxine
– ergoloid mesylates
– ergotamine
– harringtonines
– indole alkaloids
– curare
– toxiferine
– alcuronium
– tubocurarine
– harmaline
– harmine
– physostigmine
– psilocybine
– secologanin tryptamine alkaloids
– ajmaline
– prajmaline
– ellipticines
– ibogaine
– strychnine
– vinca alkaloids
– vinblastine
– vincamine
– vincristine
– vindesine
– yohimbine
– reserpine
– staurosporine
– lobeline
– mescaline
– muscarine
– opium
– morphinans
– benzomorphans
– pentazocine
– phenazocine
– buprenorphine
– butorphanol
– dextrorphan
– diprenorphine
– etorphine
– levallorphan
– levorphanol
– dextromethorphan
– morphine
– morphine derivatives
– codeine
– hydrocodone
– oxycodone
– dihydromorphine
– ethylmorphine
– heroin
– hydromorphone
– oxymorphone
– thebaine
– nalbuphine
– nalorphine
– naloxone
– naltrexone
– noscapine
– papaverine
– tetrahydropapaveroline
– pilocarpine
– pyrrolizidine alkaloids
– monocrotaline
– ryanodine
– salsoline alkaloids
– solanaceous alkaloids
– belladonna alkaloids
– atropine
– scopolamine
– capsaicin
– nicotine
– solanine
– tomatine
– sparteine
– swainsonine
– tropanes
– belladonna alkaloids
– atropine
– atropine derivatives
– ipratropium
– benztropine
– cocaine
– crack cocaine
– scopolamine
– scopolamine derivatives
– butylscopolammonium bromide
– n-methylscopolamine
– veratrum alkaloids
– cevanes
– germine acetates
– protoveratrines
– veratrine
– veratridine
– heterocyclic compounds, 1-ring
– azepines
– caprolactam
– dilazep
– meptazinol
– oxazepines
– pentylenetetrazole
– thiazepines
– zolazepam
– azetines
– azetidines
– azetidinecarboxylic acid
– azirines
– aziridines
– carbazilquinone
– triaziquone
– triethylenemelamine
– triethylenephosphoramide
– thiotepa
– mitomycins
– mitomycin
– porfiromycin
– azocines
– cyclazocine
– ethylketocyclazocine
– oxazocines
– nefopam
– azoles
– imidazoles
– aminoimidazole carboxamide
– antazoline
– biotin
– bis(4-methyl-1-homopiperazinylthiocarbonyl)disulfide
– 4-(3-butoxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-2-imidazolidinone
– carbimazole
– cimetidine
– clotrimazole
– creatinine
– dacarbazine
– dexmedetomidine
– econazole
– enoximone
– etimizol
– etomidate
– fadrozole
– fluspirilene
– histamine
– methylhistamines
– histidinol
– hydantoins
– allantoin
– dantrolene
– mephenytoin
– phenytoin
– thiohydantoins
– phenylthiohydantoin
– idazoxan
– imidazolidines
– ethylenethiourea
– imidazolines
– clonidine
– tolazoline
– impromidine
– levamisole
– losartan
– medetomidine
– methimazole
– miconazole
– naphazoline
– niridazole
– nitroimidazoles
– dimetridazole
– etanidazole
– ipronidazole
– metronidazole
– misonidazole
– nimorazole
– ornidazole
– ronidazole
– tinidazole
– ondansetron
– oxymetazoline
– phentolamine
– tetramisole
– trimethaphan
– urocanic acid
– isoxazoles
– alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid
– cycloserine
– ibotenic acid
– isocarboxazid
– oxazoles
– aminorex
– dimethadione
– fura-2
– muscimol
– oxadiazoles
– 5-amino-3-((5-nitro-2-furyl)vinyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole
– 4-chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan
– quisqualic acid
– sydnones
– molsidomine
– oxazolidinones
– cycloserine
– furazolidone
– nifuratel
– oxazolone
– pemoline
– trimethadione
– pyrazoles
– betazole
– 4,5-dihydro-1-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1h-pyrazol-3-amine
– epirizole
– indazoles
– benzydamine
– granisetron
– muzolimine
– oxypurinol
– pyrazolones
– aminopyrine
– ampyrone
– dipyrone (metamizole)
– antipyrine
– phenylbutazone
– oxyphenbutazone
– prenazone
– sulfinpyrazone
– pyrroles
– cromakalim
– maleimides
– ethylmaleimide
– porphobilinogen
– prodigiosin
– pyrrolnitrin
– tetrapyrroles
– bile pigments
– bilirubin
– biliverdine
– urobilin
– urobilinogen
– chlorophyll
– bacteriochlorophylls
– chlorophyllides
– pheophytins
– protochlorophyllide
– corrinoids
– vitamin b 12
– cobamides
– hydroxocobalamin
– porphyrins
– coproporphyrins
– deuteroporphyrins
– etioporphyrins
– hematoporphyrins
– hematoporphyrin derivative
– dihematoporphyrin ether
– mesoporphyrins
– metalloporphyrins
– chlorophyll
– bacteriochlorophylls
– chlorophyllides
– protochlorophyllide
– heme
– hemin
– porphyrinogens
– coproporphyrinogens
– uroporphyrinogens
– protoporphyrins
– uroporphyrins
– tolmetin
– tetrazoles
– cefotetan
– losartan
– tetrazolium salts
– nitroblue tetrazolium
– thiazoles
– benzothiazoles
– dithiazanine
– ethoxzolamide
– riluzole
– saccharin
– thiabendazole
– chlormethiazole
– famotidine
– fanft
– firefly luciferin
– levamisole
– niridazole
– nizatidine
– oxythiamine
– rhodanine
– ritonavir
– sulfathiazoles
– tetramisole
– thiadiazoles
– acetazolamide
– benzolamide
– methazolamide
– timolol
– thiamine
– fursultiamin
– thiamine monophosphate
– thiamine pyrophosphate
– thiamine triphosphate
– thiazolidinediones
– triazoles
– amitrole
– fluconazole
– guanazole
– itraconazole
– trapidil
– dioxins
– dioxanes
– idazoxan
– tetrachlorodibenzodioxin
– dioxoles
– benzodioxoles
– piperonyl butoxide
– safrole
– dioxolanes
– furans
– 4-butyrolactone
– citraconic anhydrides
– furaldehyde
– lasalocid
– maleic anhydrides
– monensin
– nafronyl
– nigericin
– nitrofurans
– 5-amino-3-((5-nitro-2-furyl)vinyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole
– fanft
– furagin
– furazolidone
– furylfuramide
– nifuratel
– nifurtimox
– nitrofurantoin
– nitrofurazone
– nitrovin
– psoralens
– ficusin
– khellin
– methoxsalen
– trioxsalen
– ranitidine
– lactams
– caprolactam
– monobactams
– aztreonam
– moxalactam
– oxathiins
– carboxin
– oxazines
– benzoxazines
– ifosfamide
– morpholines
– dextromoramide
– molsidomine
– moricizine
– phenmetrazine
– timolol
– viloxazine
– xamoterol
– oxepins
– oxocins
– piperazines
– almitrine
– cinnarizine
– cyclizine
– delavirdine
– diethylcarbamazine
– dimethylphenylpiperazinium iodide
– flunarizine
– flupenthixol
– hepes
– hydroxyzine
– cetirizine
– 1-(5-isoquinolinesulfonyl)-2-methylpiperazine
– itraconazole
– ketoconazole
– lidoflazine
– meclizine
– pipecuronium
– pipemidic acid
– pipobroman
– piribedil
– prospidium
– quipazine
– razoxane
– thiethylperazine
– trazodone
– trimetazidine
– piperidines
– alphaprodine
– anabasine
– betalains
– betacyanins
– betaxanthins
– biperiden
– cisapride
– clopamide
– cyproheptadine
– loratadine
– 1-deoxynojirimycin
– domperidone
– fentanyl
– alfentanil
– sufentanil
– flecainide
– fluspirilene
– imino pyranoses
– indoramin
– isonipecotic acids
– diphenoxylate
– meperidine
– promedol
– phenoperidine
– pirinitramide
– ketanserin
– ketotifen
– lobeline
– loperamide
– mepivacaine
– methylphenidate
– minoxidil
– nipecotic acids
– paroxetine
– pempidine
– penfluridol
– perhexiline
– phencyclidine
– pipecolic acids
– bupivacaine
– piperidones
– cycloheximide
– dexetimide
– glutethimide
– aminoglutethimide
– thalidomide
– triacetoneamine-n-oxyl
– piperoxan
– ritanserin
– terfenadine
– trihexyphenidyl
– pyrans
– aurovertins
– iridoids
– nigericin
– pyran copolymer
– pyrones
– pyrazines
– amiloride
– pyrazinamide
– pyridazines
– cilazapril
– luminol
– maleic hydrazide
– phthalazines
– hydralazine
– dihydralazine
– todralazine
– pyridines
– aminopyridines
– 4-aminopyridine
– amrinone
– milrinone
– methapyrilene
– phenazopyridine
– pyrilamine
– tripelennamine
– betahistine
– carbolines
– clopidol
– dihydropyridines
– amlodipine
– dicarbethoxydihydrocollidine
– felodipine
– isradipine
– nicardipine
– nifedipine
– nimodipine
– nisoldipine
– nitrendipine
– 3-pyridinecarboxylic acid, 1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-(2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-, methyl ester
– dimethindene
– 2,2'-dipyridyl
– disopyramide
– doxylamine
– indinavir
– isonicotinic acids
– ethionamide
– iproniazid
– isoniazid
– nialamide
– prothionamide
– pyridoxic acid
– 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine
– metyrapone
– naphthylvinylpyridine
– nevirapine
– nicotine
– nicotinic acids
– arecoline
– clonixin
– etazolate
– niacin
– niacinamide
– 6-aminonicotinamide
– nicorandil
– nikethamide
– niceritrol
– niflumic acid
– nimodipine
– pipemidic acid
– piromidic acid
– 3-pyridinecarboxylic acid, 1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-(2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-, methyl ester
– xanthinol niacinate
– nicotinyl alcohol
– omeprazole
– pheniramine
– brompheniramine
– zimeldine
– chlorpheniramine
– picolines
– amprolium
– vitamin b 6
– pyridoxal
– pyridoxal phosphate
– pyridoxamine
– pyridoxine
– picolinic acids
– fusaric acid
– picloram
– pyridoxic acid
– streptonigrin
– polyvinylpyridine n-oxide
– pyridinium compounds
– cetylpyridinium
– desmosine
– diquat
– isodesmosine
– 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium
– obidoxime chloride
– paraquat
– pyridostigmine bromide
– pyrithiamine
– trimedoxime
– viologens
– benzyl viologen
– pyridones
– bemegride
– iodopyridones
– iodopyracet
– propyliodone
– mimosine
– trazodone
– pyrithioxin
– quinolinic acids
– quinolinic acid
– tolperisone
– triprolidine
– tropicamide
– pyrimidines
– buspirone
– dipyridamole
– epirizole
– fursultiamin
– hexetidine
– minoxidil
– mopidamol
– morantel
– nicarbazin
– oxypurinol
– pyrantel
– pyrantel pamoate
– pyrantel tartrate
– pyrimethamine
– pyrimidinones
– alloxan
– barbiturates
– amobarbital
– barbital
– hexobarbital
– mephobarbital
– methohexital
– murexide
– pentobarbital
– phenobarbital
– primidone
– secobarbital
– thiobarbiturates
– thiamylal
– thiopental
– cytosine
– flucytosine
– 5-methylcytosine
– risperidone
– ritanserin
– sparsomycin
– uracil
– bromouracil
– fluorouracil
– tegafur
– hydroxyphenylazouracil
– orotic acid
– pentoxyl
– thiouracil
– methylthiouracil
– propylthiouracil
– thymine
– uracil mustard
– pyrithiamine
– thiamine
– fursultiamin
– thiamine monophosphate
– thiamine pyrophosphate
– thiamine triphosphate
– trapidil
– trimethoprim
– trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination
– pyrrolidines
– anisomycin
– bepridil
– clemastine
– 3,4-dichloro-n-methyl-n-(2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-cyclohexyl)-benzeneacetamide, (trans)-isomer
– glycopyrrolate
– imino furanoses
– kainic acid
– lincomycin
– clindamycin
– nafoxidine
– nitromifene
– n-nitrosopyrrolidine
– pentolinium tartrate
– procyclidine
– pyrrolidinones
– cotinine
– doxapram
– oxotremorine
– piracetam
– povidone
– povidone-iodine
– pyrrolidonecarboxylic acid
– rolipram
– succinimides
– bromosuccinimide
– ethosuximide
– tenuazonic acid
– tremorine
– thiazines
– chlormezanone
– nifurtimox
– piroxicam
– thiadiazines
– xylazine
– thiepins
– thiazepines
– thiophenes
– carticaine
– ketotifen
– morantel
– pizotyline
– pyrantel
– pyrantel pamoate
– pyrantel tartrate
– thenoyltrifluoroacetone
– ticlopidine
– ticrynafen
– tiletamine
– triazines
– almitrine
– altretamine
– apazone
– atrazine
– ferrozine
– oxonic acid
– prometryne
– simazine
– triethylenemelamine
– heterocyclic compounds, 2-ring
– benzazepines
– benzodiazepines
– alprazolam
– benzodiazepinones
– anthramycin
– bromazepam
– clonazepam
– devazepide
– diazepam
– nordazepam
– flumazenil
– flunitrazepam
– flurazepam
– lorazepam
– nitrazepam
– oxazepam
– pirenzepine
– prazepam
– temazepam
– chlordiazepoxide
– clorazepate dipotassium
– estazolam
– medazepam
– midazolam
– triazolam
– diltiazem
– fenoldopam
– galantamine
– harringtonines
– (r)-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-8-chloro-3-methyl-5-phenyl-1h-3-benzazepin-7-ol
– 2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-7,8-dihydroxy-1-phenyl-1h-3-benzazepine
– benzimidazoles
– albendazole
– astemizole
– benomyl
– bisbenzimide
– cambendazole
– domperidone
– droperidol
– fenbendazole
– mebendazole
– mibefradil
– nocodazole
– omeprazole
– pimozide
– thiabendazole
– benzodioxoles
– piperonyl butoxide
– safrole
– benzofurans
– amiodarone
– benzbromarone
– cantharidin
– citalopram
– fura-2
– griseofulvin
– pterocarpans
– benzopyrans
– aflatoxins
– aflatoxin b1
– aflatoxin m1
– chromans
– catechin
– centchroman
– chromones
– cromolyn sodium
– flavonoids
– anthocyanins
– benzoflavones
– beta-naphthoflavone
– biflavonoids
– catechin
– chalcones
– chalcone
– flavanones
– hesperidin
– flavones
– apigenin
– diosmin
– flavoxate
– luteolin
– flavonolignans
– silymarin
– flavonols
– kaempferols
– quercetin
– rutin
– hydroxyethylrutoside
– isoflavones
– coumestrol
– genistein
– pterocarpans
– rotenone
– proanthocyanidins
– citrinin
– coumarins
– aminocoumarins
– novobiocin
– chromonar
– coumestrol
– esculin
– 4-hydroxycoumarins
– acenocoumarol
– dicumarol
– ethyl biscoumacetate
– phenprocoumon
– warfarin
– isocoumarins
– ochratoxins
– psoralens
– ficusin
– khellin
– methoxsalen
– trioxsalen
– pyranocoumarins
– umbelliferones
– coumaphos
– hymecromone
– scopoletin
– cromakalim
– ellagic acid
– hematoxylin
– vitamin e
– tocopherols
– alpha-tocopherol
– beta-tocopherol
– gamma-tocopherol
– tocotrienols
– benzothiadiazines
– bendroflumethiazide
– chlorothiazide
– hydrochlorothiazide
– trichlormethiazide
– cyclopenthiazide
– diazoxide
– hydroflumethiazide
– methyclothiazide
– polythiazide
– benzothiazoles
– dithiazanine
– ethoxzolamide
– riluzole
– saccharin
– thiabendazole
– benzothiepins
– endosulfan
– benzoxazines
– benzoxazoles
– calcimycin
– chlorzoxazone
– cialit
– zoxazolamine
– benzoxepins
– bicyclo compounds, heterocyclic
– penicillins
– amdinocillin
– amdinocillin pivoxil
– cyclacillin
– methicillin
– nafcillin
– oxacillin
– cloxacillin
– dicloxacillin
– floxacillin
– penicillanic acid
– penicillin g
– ampicillin
– amoxicillin
– amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination
– azlocillin
– mezlocillin
– piperacillin
– pivampicillin
– talampicillin
– carbenicillin
– carfecillin
– penicillin g, benzathine
– penicillin g, procaine
– sulbenicillin
– penicillin v
– sulbactam
– ticarcillin
– indazoles
– benzydamine
– granisetron
– indoles
– adrenochrome
– alcian blue
– captan
– carbolines
– chlorisondamine
– cytochalasins
– cytochalasin b
– cytochalasin d
– delavirdine
– gliotoxin
– hydroxytryptophol
– ibogaine
– indapamide
– indican
– indigotindisulfonate sodium
– indocyanine green
– indole alkaloids
– curare
– toxiferine
– alcuronium
– tubocurarine
– harmaline
– harmine
– lyngbya toxins
– physostigmine
– psilocybine
– secologanin tryptamine alkaloids
– ajmaline
– prajmaline
– ellipticines
– ibogaine
– strychnine
– vinca alkaloids
– vinblastine
– vincamine
– vincristine
– vindesine
– yohimbine
– reserpine
– staurosporine
– indoleacetic acids
– etodolac
– hydroxyindoleacetic acid
– indolequinones
– mitomycins
– mitomycin
– porfiromycin
– pyrroloiminoquinones
– indomethacin
– ketorolac
– ketorolac tromethamine
– indoramin
– iprindole
– isatin
– mazindol
– methisazone
– molindone
– oxyphenisatin acetate
– perindopril
– skatole
– sporidesmins
– tryptamines
– dihydroxytryptamines
– 5,6-dihydroxytryptamine
– 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine
– N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
– bufotenin
– methoxydimethyltryptamines
– melatonin
– psilocybine
– serotonin
– bufotenin
– methoxydimethyltryptamines
– 5-methoxytryptamine
– sumatriptan
– indolizines
– isoquinolines
– benzylisoquinolines
– atracurium
– bicuculline
– papaverine
– tetrahydropapaveroline
– tretoquinol
– debrisoquin
– emetine
– 1-(5-isoquinolinesulfonyl)-2-methylpiperazine
– nelfinavir
– nomifensine
– noscapine
– praziquantel
– saquinavir
– tetrahydroisoquinolines
– salsoline alkaloids
– naphthyridines
– nalidixic acid
– pteridines
– flavins
– riboflavin
– flavin-adenine dinucleotide
– flavin mononucleotide
– pterins
– aminopterin
– methotrexate
– biopterin
– neopterin
– folic acid
– pteroylpolyglutamic acids
– tetrahydrofolates
– formyltetrahydrofolates
– leucovorin
– xanthopterin
– triamterene
– purines
– adenine
– 2-aminopurine
– cytokinins
– isopentenyladenosine
– kinetin
– zeatin
– allopurinol
– 6-mercaptopurine
– azathioprine
– purinones
– hypoxanthines
– guanine
– acyclovir
– ganciclovir
– azaguanine
– hypoxanthine
– xanthines
– caffeine
– theobromine
– pentoxifylline
– theophylline
– aminophylline
– dimenhydrinate
– dyphylline
– 1-methyl-3-isobutylxanthine
– xanthinol niacinate
– uric acid
– xanthine
– saxitoxin
– thioguanine
– pyrrolizidine alkaloids
– monocrotaline
– quinazolines
– ketanserin
– methaqualone
– metolazone
– prazosin
– doxazosin
– tetrodotoxin
– trimetrexate
– quinolines
– aminoquinolines
– amodiaquine
– chloroquine
– hydroxychloroquine
– 4-hydroxyaminoquinoline-1-oxide
– primaquine
– dibucaine
– ethoxyquin
– hydroxyquinolines
– decoquinate
– kynurenic acid
– oxamniquine
– oxyquinoline
– chloroquinolinols
– chlorquinaldol
– clioquinol
– iodoquinol
– procaterol
– mefloquine
– nitroquinolines
– 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide
– oxamniquine
– pyrroloiminoquinones
– quinaldines
– quinidine
– quinine
– quinolinium compounds
– dequalinium
– pyrvinium compounds
– quinolones
– 4-quinolones
– nalidixic acid
– nedocromil
– oxolinic acid
– carteolol
– fluoroquinolones
– ciprofloxacin
– fleroxacin
– enoxacin
– norfloxacin
– ofloxacin
– pefloxacin
– pqq cofactor
– quinpirole
– quipazine
– saquinavir
– quinolizines
– 2h-benzo(a)quinolizin-2-ol, 2-ethyl-1,3,4,6,7,11b-hexahydro-3-isobutyl-9,10-dimethoxy-
– sparteine
– tetrabenazine
– quinoxalines
– carbadox
– 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione
– echinomycin
– tyrphostins
– heterocyclic compounds, 3-ring
– acridines
– acronine
– aminoacridines
– acridine orange
– acriflavine
– aminacrine
– amsacrine
– ethacridine
– nitracrine
– proflavine
– quinacrine
– quinacrine mustard
– tacrine
– anthramycin
– carbazoles
– ellipticines
– ondansetron
– staurosporine
– carbolines
– harmaline
– harmine
– cinoxacin
– dactinomycin
– dibenzazepines
– carbamazepine
– clomipramine
– clozapine
– desipramine
– imipramine
– lofepramine
– mianserin
– opipramol
– trimipramine
– dibenzothiazepines
– dibenzothiepins
– dothiepin
– methiothepin
– dibenzoxazepines
– dibenz(b,f)(1,4)oxazepine-10(11h)-carboxylic acid, 8-chloro-, 2-acetylhydrazide
– loxapine
– amoxapine
– dibenzoxepins
– doxepin
– flavins
– riboflavin
– flavin-adenine dinucleotide
– flavin mononucleotide
– phenanthridines
– ethidium
– propidium
– phenanthrolines
– phenazines
– clofazimine
– methylphenazonium methosulfate
– neutral red
– pyocyanine
– phenothiazines
– acepromazine
– azure stains
– chlorpromazine
– fluphenazine
– mesoridazine
– methotrimeprazine
– methylene blue
– moricizine
– nonachlazine
– perazine
– perphenazine
– prochlorperazine
– promazine
– promethazine
– thiethylperazine
– thioridazine
– tolonium chloride
– trifluoperazine
– triflupromazine
– trimeprazine
– psoralens
– ficusin
– khellin
– methoxsalen
– trioxsalen
– quinpirole
– spectinomycin
– xanthenes
– fluoresceins
– eosine i bluish
– eosine yellowish-(ys)
– erythrosine
– fluorescein
– fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate
– rose bengal
– propantheline
– pyronine
– rhodamines
– rhodamine 123
– thioxanthenes
– chlorprothixene
– clopenthixol
– flupenthixol
– hycanthone
– lucanthone
– thiothixene
– xanthones
– lucanthone
– sterigmatocystin
– heterocyclic compounds with 4 or more rings
– aporphines
– apomorphine
– berberine alkaloids
– berberine
– cevanes
– germine acetates
– protoveratrines
– veratrine
– veratridine
– dihydro-beta-erythroidine
– ergolines
– bromocriptine
– ergonovine
– methylergonovine
– lisuride
– lysergic acid
– lysergic acid diethylamide
– metergoline
– methysergide
– nicergoline
– pergolide
– ergotamines
– bromocriptine
– dihydroergocornine
– dihydroergocristine
– dihydroergocryptine
– dihydroergotamine
– dihydroergotoxine
– ergoloid mesylates
– ergotamine
– harringtonines
– morphinans
– buprenorphine
– butorphanol
– dextrorphan
– diprenorphine
– etorphine
– levallorphan
– levorphanol
– dextromethorphan
– morphine
– morphine derivatives
– codeine
– hydrocodone
– oxycodone
– dihydromorphine
– ethylmorphine
– heroin
– hydromorphone
– oxymorphone
– thebaine
– nalbuphine
– nalorphine
– naloxone
– naltrexone
– pterocarpans
– rifamycins
– rifabutin
– streptovaricin
– rifampin
– rotenone
– tetrapyrroles
– bile pigments
– bilirubin
– biliverdine
– urobilin
– urobilinogen
– chlorophyll
– bacteriochlorophylls
– chlorophyllides
– pheophytins
– protochlorophyllide
– corrinoids
– vitamin b 12
– cobamides
– hydroxocobalamin
– porphyrins
– coproporphyrins
– deuteroporphyrins
– etioporphyrins
– hematoporphyrins
– hematoporphyrin derivative
– dihematoporphyrin ether
– mesoporphyrins
– metalloporphyrins
– chlorophyll
– bacteriochlorophylls
– chlorophyllides
– protochlorophyllide
– heme
– hemin
– porphyrinogens
– coproporphyrinogens
– uroporphyrinogens
– protoporphyrins
– uroporphyrins
– heterocyclic compounds, bridged-ring
– bicyclo compounds, heterocyclic
– penicillins
– amdinocillin
– amdinocillin pivoxil
– cyclacillin
– methicillin
– nafcillin
– oxacillin
– cloxacillin
– dicloxacillin
– floxacillin
– penicillanic acid
– penicillin g
– ampicillin
– amoxicillin
– amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination
– azlocillin
– mezlocillin
– piperacillin
– pivampicillin
– talampicillin
– carbenicillin
– carfecillin
– penicillin g, benzathine
– penicillin g, procaine
– sulbenicillin
– penicillin v
– sulbactam
– ticarcillin
– ramipril
– cyclazocine
– ethylketocyclazocine
– morphinans
– buprenorphine
– butorphanol
– dextrorphan
– diprenorphine
– etorphine
– levallorphan
– levorphanol
– dextromethorphan
– morphine
– morphine derivatives
– codeine
– hydrocodone
– oxycodone
– dihydromorphine
– ethylmorphine
– heroin
– hydromorphone
– oxymorphone
– thebaine
– nalbuphine
– nalorphine
– naloxone
– naltrexone
– quinuclidines
– quinidine
– quinine
– quinuclidinyl benzilate
– tropanes
– atropine
– atropine derivatives
– ipratropium
– benztropine
– cocaine
– crack cocaine
– nortropanes
– scopolamine
– scopolamine derivatives
– butylscopolammonium bromide
– n-methylscopolamine
– heterocyclic oxides
– cyclic n-oxides
– 4-hydroxyaminoquinoline-1-oxide
– 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide
– triacetoneamine-n-oxyl
– cyclic p-oxides
– cyclic s-oxides
– pyrans
– aurovertins
– benzopyrans
– aflatoxins
– aflatoxin b1
– aflatoxin m1
– chromans
– catechin
– centchroman
– chromones
– cromolyn sodium
– flavonoids
– anthocyanins
– benzoflavones
– beta-naphthoflavone
– biflavonoids
– catechin
– chalcones
– chalcone
– flavanones
– hesperidin
– flavones
– apigenin
– diosmin
– flavoxate
– luteolin
– flavonolignans
– silymarin
– flavonols
– kaempferols
– quercetin
– rutin
– hydroxyethylrutoside
– isoflavones
– coumestrol
– genistein
– pterocarpans
– rotenone
– proanthocyanidins
– citrinin
– coumarins
– aminocoumarins
– novobiocin
– chromonar
– coumestrol
– esculin
– 4-hydroxycoumarins
– acenocoumarol
– dicumarol
– ethyl biscoumacetate
– phenprocoumon
– warfarin
– isocoumarins
– ochratoxins
– psoralens
– ficusin
– khellin
– methoxsalen
– trioxsalen
– pyranocoumarins
– umbelliferones
– coumaphos
– hymecromone
– scopoletin
– cromakalim
– ellagic acid
– hematoxylin
– vitamin e
– tocopherols
– alpha-tocopherol
– beta-tocopherol
– gamma-tocopherol
– tocotrienols
– glaucarubin
– iridoids
– nigericin
– patulin
– pyran copolymer
– pyranocoumarins
– pyrones
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (D04).
D03
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28D02%29
|
List of MeSH codes (D02)
|
The following is a partial list of the "D" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (D01). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (D03). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– organic chemicals
– alcohols
– amino alcohols
– ethanolamines
– albuterol
– choline
– platelet activating factor
– clenbuterol
– deanol
– epinephrine
– ethanolamine
– 2-hydroxyphenethylamine
– isoproterenol
– labetalol
– midodrine
– norepinephrine
– normetanephrine
– octopamine
– orciprenaline
– fenoterol
– phenylephrine
– etilefrine
– procaterol
– sotalol
– synephrine
– terbutaline
– heptaminol
– isoetharine
– propanolamines
– acebutolol
– alprenolol
– dihydroalprenolol
– atenolol
– betaxolol
– bisoprolol
– bupranolol
– carteolol
– celiprolol
– ephedrine
– histidinol
– isoxsuprine
– levobunolol
– methoxamine
– metipranolol
– metoprolol
– nadolol
– nylidrin
– oxprenolol
– oxyfedrine
– penbutolol
– phenylpropanolamine
– p-hydroxynorephedrine
– metaraminol
– pindolol
– iodocyanopindolol
– practolol
– prenalterol
– propranolol
– ritodrine
– suloctidil
– timolol
– xamoterol
– sphingosine
– psychosine
– benzyl alcohols
– benzyl alcohol
– chlorohydrins
– alpha-chlorohydrin
– chlorobutanol
– ethchlorvynol
– ethylene chlorohydrin
– ethanol
– ethamoxytriphetol
– ethanolamines
– ethanolamine
– ethylene chlorohydrin
– mercaptoethanol
– phenylethyl alcohol
– trifluoroethanol
– fatty alcohols
– butanols
– 1-butanol
– chlorobutanol
– tert-butyl alcohol
– dodecanol
– sodium dodecyl sulfate
– dolichol
– dolichol phosphates
– farnesol
– heptanol
– hexanols
– octanols
– 1-octanol
– pentanols
– sodium tetradecyl sulfate
– glycols
– butylene glycols
– busulfan
– ethylene glycols
– chloral hydrate
– chloralose
– ethylene glycol
– methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol
– polyethylene glycols
– cetomacrogol
– hydrogel
– nonoxynol
– octoxynol
– poloxalene
– poloxamer
– polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate
– polysorbates
– propylene glycols
– alpha-chlorohydrin
– chloramphenicol
– thiamphenicol
– chlorphenesin
– mephenesin
– pentaerythritol tetranitrate
– propylene glycol
– tromethamine
– sphingosine
– hexanols
– cyclohexanols
– menthol
– tramadol
– methanol
– nicotinyl alcohol
– polyvinyl alcohol
– propanols
– 1-propanol
– 2-propanol
– propanolamines
– acebutolol
– alprenolol
– dihydroalprenolol
– atenolol
– betaxolol
– bisoprolol
– bupranolol
– carteolol
– celiprolol
– ephedrine
– histidinol
– isoxsuprine
– levobunolol
– methoxamine
– metipranolol
– metoprolol
– nadolol
– nylidrin
– oxprenolol
– oxyfedrine
– penbutolol
– phenylpropanolamine
– p-hydroxynorephedrine
– metaraminol
– pindolol
– iodocyanopindolol
– practolol
– prenalterol
– propranolol
– ritodrine
– suloctidil
– timolol
– xamoterol
– sugar alcohols
– dithioerythritol
– dithiothreitol
– erythritol
– erythrityl tetranitrate
– galactitol
– dianhydrogalactitol
– mitolactol
– glycerol
– glyceryl ethers
– phospholipid ethers
– nitroglycerin
– inositol
– inositol phosphates
– inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate
– phytic acid
– mannitol
– mannitol phosphates
– mitobronitol
– ribitol
– sorbitol
– isosorbide
– isosorbide dinitrate
– meglumine
– diatrizoate meglumine
– iothalamate meglumine
– xylitol
– aldehydes
– acetaldehyde
– paraldehyde
– acrolein
– benzaldehydes
– formaldehyde
– formocresols
– furaldehyde
– glutaral
– glyceraldehyde
– glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
– glyoxal
– phenylglyoxal
– pyruvaldehyde
– malondialdehyde
– thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
– o-phthalaldehyde
– retinaldehyde
– amides
– acetamides
– 2-acetylaminofluorene
– acetoxyacetylaminofluorene
– hydroxyacetylaminofluorene
– allylisopropylacetamide
– benzeneacetamides
– bufexamac
– iodoacetamide
– piracetam
– thioacetamide
– acrylamides
– acrylamide
– anilides
– acetanilides
– acetaminophen
– diamfenetide
– etidocaine
– inosine pranobex
– lidocaine
– phenacetin
– practolol
– trimecaine
– benzoylarginine nitroanilide
– bupivacaine
– carbanilides
– imidocarb
– nicarbazin
– carboxin
– encainide
– flutamide
– prilocaine
– propanil
– salicylanilides
– niclosamide
– oxyclozanide
– rafoxanide
– tocainide
– benzamides
– cisapride
– deet
– dinitolmide
– hippurates
– aminohippuric acids
– p-aminohippuric acid
– iodohippuric acid
– indoramin
– metoclopramide
– moclobemide
– procainamide
– procarbazine
– raclopride
– remoxipride
– sulpiride
– tiapride
– benzoylarginine-2-naphthylamide
– cerulenin
– dibucaine
– formamides
– dimethylformamide
– lactams
– beta-lactams
– carbapenems
– thienamycins
– imipenem
– cephalosporins
– cefamandole
– cefoperazone
– cefazolin
– cefonicid
– cefsulodin
– cephacetrile
– cefotaxime
– cefixime
– cefmenoxime
– cefotiam
– ceftizoxime
– ceftriaxone
– cefuroxime
– cephalothin
– cephapirin
– cephalexin
– cefaclor
– cefadroxil
– cefatrizine
– cephaloglycin
– cephradine
– cephaloridine
– ceftazidime
– cephamycins
– cefmetazole
– cefotetan
– cefoxitin
– clavulanic acids
– clavulanic acid
– amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination
– monobactams
– aztreonam
– moxalactam
– penicillins
– amdinocillin
– amdinocillin pivoxil
– cyclacillin
– methicillin
– nafcillin
– oxacillin
– cloxacillin
– dicloxacillin
– floxacillin
– penicillanic acid
– penicillin g
– ampicillin
– amoxicillin
– amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination
– azlocillin
– mezlocillin
– piperacillin
– pivampicillin
– talampicillin
– carbenicillin
– carfecillin
– penicillin g, benzathine
– penicillin g, procaine
– sulbenicillin
– penicillin v
– sulbactam
– ticarcillin
– caprolactam
– lactams, macrocyclic
– salicylamides
– salicylanilides
– niclosamide
– oxyclozanide
– rafoxanide
– sulfonamides
– benzolamide
– bumetanide
– chloramines
– chlorthalidone
– clopamide
– dichlorphenamide
– ethoxzolamide
– indapamide
– mafenide
– mefruside
– metolazone
– probenecid
– sulfanilamides
– furosemide
– sulfacetamide
– sulfachlorpyridazine
– sulfadiazine
– silver sulfadiazine
– sulfadimethoxine
– sulfadoxine
– sulfaguanidine
– sulfalene
– sulfamerazine
– sulfameter
– sulfamethazine
– sulfamethoxazole
– trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination
– sulfamethoxypyridazine
– sulfamonomethoxine
– sulfamoxole
– sulfaphenazole
– sulfapyridine
– sulfaquinoxaline
– sulfathiazoles
– sulfamethizole
– sulfisomidine
– sulfisoxazole
– sulfasalazine
– sumatriptan
– xipamide
– thioamides
– thioacetamide
– amidines
– benzamidines
– diminazene
– pentamidine
– chlorphenamidine
– guanidines
– agmatine
– bethanidine
– biguanides
– buformin
– chlorhexidine
– chloroguanide
– metformin
– phenformin
– cimetidine
– creatine
– gabexate
– guanabenz
– guanethidine
– guanfacine
– guanidine
– impromidine
– 3-iodobenzylguanidine
– methylguanidine
– mitoguazone
– nitrosoguanidines
– methylnitronitrosoguanidine
– pinacidil
– robenidine
– sulfaguanidine
– stilbamidines
– amines
– allylamine
– amino alcohols
– ethanolamines
– albuterol
– choline
– platelet activating factor
– clenbuterol
– deanol
– epinephrine
– ethanolamine
– 2-hydroxyphenethylamine
– isoproterenol
– labetalol
– midodrine
– octopamine
– orciprenaline
– fenoterol
– phenylephrine
– etilefrine
– procaterol
– sotalol
– synephrine
– terbutaline
– heptaminol
– isoetharine
– norepinephrine
– normetanephrine
– propanolamines
– ephedrine
– histidinol
– methoxamine
– phenoxypropanolamines
– acebutolol
– alprenolol
– dihydroalprenolol
– atenolol
– betaxolol
– bisoprolol
– bupranolol
– carteolol
– celiprolol
– levobunolol
– metipranolol
– metoprolol
– nadolol
– oxprenolol
– penbutolol
– pindolol
– iodocyanopindolol
– practolol
– prenalterol
– propranolol
– xamoterol
– phenylpropanolamine
– p-hydroxynorephedrine
– metaraminol
– nylidrin
– oxyfedrine
– ritodrine
– suloctidil
– timolol
– sphingosine
– psychosine
– aminopyridines
– 4-aminopyridine
– amrinone
– milrinone
– aniline compounds
– aminophenols
– phenetidine
– anilino naphthalenesulfonates
– benzophenoneidum
– bromhexine
– ambroxol
– benzenaminium, 4,4'-(3-oxo-1,5-pentanediyl)bis(n,n-dimethyl-n-2-propenyl-), dibromide
– p-dimethylaminoazobenzene
– methyldimethylaminoazobenzene
– diphenylamine
– gentian violet
– methyl green
– methylenebis(chloroaniline)
– phenylenediamines
– tetramethylphenylenediamine
– rosaniline dyes
– toluidines
– trifluralin
– benzylamines
– pargyline
– biogenic amines
– acetylcholine
– biogenic monoamines
– catecholamines
– dopamine
– epinephrine
– metanephrine
– norepinephrine
– droxidopa
– normetanephrine
– orciprenaline
– fenoterol
– histamine
– methylhistamines
– 2-hydroxyphenethylamine
– tryptamines
– N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
– methoxydimethyltryptamines
– serotonin
– 5-methoxytryptamine
– tyramine
– octopamine
– synephrine
– biogenic polyamines
– cadaverine
– putrescine
– spermidine
– spermine
– butylamines
– catecholamines
– dihydroxyphenylalanine
– cysteinyldopa
– levodopa
– methyldopa
– carbidopa
– dobutamine
– dopamine
– deoxyepinephrine
– hydroxydopamines
– oxidopamine
– epinephrine
– deoxyepinephrine
– metanephrine
– norepinephrine
– droxidopa
– nordefrin
– normetanephrine
– isoproterenol
– orciprenaline
– fenoterol
– cyclohexylamines
– bromhexine
– ambroxol
– ethylamines
– cystamine
– dibenzylchlorethamine
– diethylamines
– diethylpropion
– diphenhydramine
– dimenhydrinate
– histamine
– methylhistamines
– mercaptoethylamines
– cysteamine
– orphenadrine
– phenethylamines
– albuterol
– amphetamines
– amphetamine
– dextroamphetamine
– p-chloroamphetamine
– 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine
– p-hydroxyamphetamine
– iofetamine
– methamphetamine
– benzphetamine
– 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
– n-methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
– phentermine
– chlorphentermine
– mephentermine
– butoxamine
– dexfenfluramine
– dimethoxyphenylethylamine
– dobutamine
– fendiline
– fenfluramine
– norfenfluramine
– hexoprenaline
– 2-hydroxyphenethylamine
– isoxsuprine
– mescaline
– methoxamine
– p-methoxy-n-methylphenethylamine
– nylidrin
– octopamine
– oxyfedrine
– prenylamine
– ritodrine
– selegiline
– suloctidil
– verapamil
– gallopamil
– phenoxybenzamine
– hydroxylamines
– aminooxyacetic acid
– hydroxamic acids
– bufexamac
– deferoxamine
– ferrichrome
– 4-hydroxyaminoquinoline-1-oxide
– oximes
– fluvoxamine
– obidoxime chloride
– pralidoxime compounds
– technetium tc 99m exametazime
– trimedoxime
– mannich bases
– methylamines
– dimethylamines
– moxisylyte
– 1-naphthylamine
– sertraline
– 2-naphthylamine
– polyamines
– colestipol
– diamines
– cadaverine
– ethylenediamines
– aminophylline
– edetic acid
– egtazic acid
– ethambutol
– methapyrilene
– triethylenetetramine
– tripelennamine
– phenylenediamines
– tetramethylphenylenediamine
– putrescine
– hexadimethrine
– methenamine
– pentetic acid
– gadolinium dtpa
– technetium tc 99m pentetate
– spermidine
– spermine
– propylamines
– citalopram
– clorgyline
– fluoxetine
– mexiletine
– promethazine
– tranylcypromine
– quaternary ammonium compounds
– benzylammonium compounds
– ambenonium chloride
– benzalkonium compounds
– benzethonium
– bephenium compounds
– bretylium compounds
– bretylium tosylate
– betalains
– betacyanins
– betaxanthins
– bis-trimethylammonium compounds
– decamethonium compounds
– hexamethonium compounds
– hexamethonium
– emepronium
– gallamine triethiodide
– glycopyrrolate
– hemicholinium 3
– lissamine green dyes
– oxyphenonium
– phenylammonium compounds
– (4-(m-chlorophenylcarbamoyloxy)-2-butynyl)trimethylammonium chloride
– edrophonium
– neostigmine
– propantheline
– tetraethylammonium compounds
– tetraethylammonium
– toxiferine
– alcuronium
– trimethyl ammonium compounds
– betaine
– bethanechol compounds
– bethanechol
– carnitine
– acetylcarnitine
– palmitoylcarnitine
– cetrimonium compounds
– chlorisondamine
– chlormequat
– choline
– benzoylcholine
– carbachol
– cytidine diphosphate choline
– phosphorylcholine
– platelet activating factor
– propylbenzilylcholine mustard
– succinylcholine
– thiocholine
– acetylthiocholine
– butyrylthiocholine
– methacholine compounds
– methacholine chloride
– muscarine
– tubocurarine
– anhydrides
– acetic anhydrides
– citraconic anhydrides
– maleic anhydrides
– phthalic anhydrides
– polyanhydrides
– succinic anhydrides
– aza compounds
– azacitidine
– azaguanine
– azauridine
– azides
– azo compounds
– amaranth dye
– amido black
– p-aminoazobenzene
– o-aminoazotoluene
– arsenazo iii
– p-azobenzenearsonate
– azoxymethane
– cycasin
– methylazoxymethanol acetate
– diamide
– diazonium compounds
– diazomethane
– diazooxonorleucine
– dithizone
– Evans blue
– formazans
– tartrazine
– trypan blue
– boron compounds
– boranes
– borohydrides
– tetraphenylborate
– boric acids
– borates
– borinic acids
– boronic acids
– carboxylic acids
– acids, acyclic
– acetic acids
– acetamides
– 2-acetylaminofluorene
– acetoxyacetylaminofluorene
– hydroxyacetylaminofluorene
– allylisopropylacetamide
– iodoacetamide
– piracetam
– thioacetamide
– acetic acid
– acetates
– dichloroacetate
– fluoroacetates
– iodoacetates
– potassium acetate
– sodium acetate
– thioglycolates
– zinc acetate
– acetic anhydrides
– aminooxyacetic acid
– edetic acid
– egtazic acid
– iodoacetic acid
– iodoacetamide
– iodoacetates
– nitrilotriacetic acid
– pentetic acid
– gadolinium dtpa
– technetium tc 99m pentetate
– peracetic acid
– phosphonoacetic acid
– foscarnet
– trichloroacetic acid
– trifluoroacetic acid
– acrylates
– acrylamides
– acrylamide
– cyanoacrylates
– bucrylate
– enbucrilate
– methacrylates
– bisphenol a-glycidyl methacrylate
– polymethacrylic acids
– methyl methacrylates
– methyl methacrylate
– polymethyl methacrylate
– polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate
– urocanic acid
– butyric acids
– aminobutyric acids
– aminoisobutyric acids
– gamma-aminobutyric acid
– baclofen
– vigabatrin
– butyric acid
– butyrates
– bezafibrate
– clofenapate
– clofibrate
– clofibric acid
– bezafibrate
– clofenapate
– clofibrate
– gemfibrozil
– procetofen
– crotonic acids
– crotonates
– 3-hydroxybutyric acid
– hydroxybutyrates
– sodium oxybate
– caproates
– aminocaproic acids
– 6-aminocaproic acid
– hexanoic acids
– penicillic acid
– mycophenolic acid
– caprylates
– octanoic acids
– carbamates
– albendazole
– aldicarb
– benomyl
– carbadox
– carbamyl phosphate
– carbaryl
– carisoprodol
– diethylcarbamazine
– fenbendazole
– mebendazole
– meprobamate
– methocarbamol
– methomyl
– phenylcarbamates
– carbofuran
– chlorpropham
– methiocarb
– methocarbamol
– physostigmine
– propoxur
– pyridinolcarbamate
– thiocarbamates
– dimethyldithiocarbamate
– thiram
– ziram
– ditiocarb
– disulfiram
– ethylenebis(dithiocarbamates)
– maneb
– zineb
– tolnaftate
– triallate
– thiophanate
– urethane
– nitrosomethylurethane
– polyurethanes
– dicarboxylic acids
– adipic acids
– 2-aminoadipic acid
– dimethyl adipimidate
– bongkrekic acid
– fumarates
– glutarates
– formiminoglutamic acid
– ketoglutaric acids
– meglutol
– malates
– thiomalates
– gold sodium thiomalate
– maleates
– maleimides
– ethylmaleimide
– malonates
– methylmalonic acid
– phenylethylmalonamide
– oxalic acids
– oxalic acid
– oxalates
– calcium oxalate
– oxaloacetic acids
– oxaloacetates
– oxaloacetate
– pimelic acids
– diaminopimelic acid
– succinic acids
– argininosuccinic acid
– dioctyl sulfosuccinic acid
– succimer
– technetium tc 99m dimercaptosuccinic acid
– succinic acid
– succinates
– succinic anhydrides
– succinylcholine
– tartrates
– tartronates
– formic acids
– formamides
– dimethylformamide
– formates
– formic acid esters
– diethyl pyrocarbonate
– imino acids
– azetidinecarboxylic acid
– technetium tc 99m diethyl-iminodiacetic acid
– technetium tc 99m disofenin
– technetium tc 99m lidofenin
– propionates
– procetofen
– propionic acids
– flurbiprofen
– 3-mercaptopropionic acid
– nafenopin
– propoxyphene
– sugar acids
– ascorbic acid
– dehydroascorbic acid
– 2,3-diketogulonic acid
– glucaric acid
– gluconates
– antimony sodium gluconate
– calcium gluconate
– glyceric acids
– diphosphoglyceric acids
– 2,3-diphosphoglycerate
– muramic acids
– neuraminic acids
– sialic acids
– cytidine monophosphate n-acetylneuraminic acid
– n-acetylneuraminic acid
– tartrates
– tartronates
– uronic acids
– glucuronic acids
– glucuronic acid
– glucuronates
– glucuronides
– hexuronic acids
– iduronic acid
– tricarboxylic acids
– aconitic acid
– 1-carboxyglutamic acid
– citrates
– calcium citrate
– citric acid
– isocitrates
– potassium citrate
– valerates
– pentanoic acids
– gemfibrozil
– valproic acid
– proadifen
– acids, aldehydic
– glyoxylates
– oxamic acid
– uronic acids
– glucuronic acids
– glucuronic acid
– glucuronates
– glucuronides
– hexuronic acids
– iduronic acid
– acids, carbocyclic
– benzoic acids
– aminobenzoic acids
– 4-aminobenzoic acid
– acecainide
– benzocaine
– procainamide
– procaine
– penicillin g procaine
– propoxycaine
– tetracaine
– anthranilic acids
– flufenamic acid
– glafenine
– 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid
– meclofenamic acid
– mefenamic acid
– ethopabate
– benzamides
– aminohippuric acids
– p-aminohippuric acid
– cisapride
– deet
– dinitolmide
– hippurates
– indoramin
– iodohippuric acid
– metoclopramide
– moclobemide
– procainamide
– procarbazine
– raclopride
– remoxipride
– sulpiride
– tiapride
– benzoic acid
– benzoates
– bromobenzoates
– chlorobenzoates
– iodobenzoates
– triiodobenzoic acids
– acetrizoic acid
– diatrizoate
– diatrizoate meglumine
– iodamide
– iodipamide
– ioglycamic acid
– iohexol
– iopamidol
– iothalamate meglumine
– iothalamic acid
– ioxaglic acid
– metrizoate
– metrizamide
– mercuribenzoates
– chloromercuribenzoates
– p-chloromercuribenzoic acid
– hydroxymercuribenzoates
– nitrobenzoates
– dithionitrobenzoic acid
– sodium benzoate
– benzoyl peroxide
– benzoylcholine
– bumetanide
– dicamba
– hexobendine
– hydroxybenzoic acids
– gallic acid
– hydrolyzable tannins
– propyl gallate
– hydroxymercuribenzoates
– pactamycin
– parabens
– salicylic acids
– aminosalicylic acids
– p-aminosalicylic acid
– mesalamine
– anacardic acids
– aspirin
– diflunisal
– salicylic acid
– salicylates
– gentisates
– sodium salicylate
– vanillic acid
– trimebutine
– cinnamates
– caffeic acids
– eugenol
– chlorogenic acid
– cinanserin
– coumaric acids
– puromycin
– puromycin aminonucleoside
– cyclohexanecarboxylic acids
– abscisic acid
– aurintricarboxylic acid
– chlorogenic acid
– chorismic acid
– dicyclomine
– quinic acid
– shikimic acid
– tilidine
– tranexamic acid
– mandelic acids
– cyclandelate
– vanilmandelic acid
– phenylacetates
– cyclopentolate
– diclofenac
– 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid
– diphenylacetic acids
– benzilates
– benactyzine
– quinuclidinyl benzilate
– guanfacine
– homogentisic acid
– homovanillic acid
– methylphenidate
– propanidid
– phenylbutyrates
– phenylpropionates
– fenoprofen
– ibuprofen
– indoprofen
– ketoprofen
– suprofen
– phenylpyruvic acids
– phthalic acids
– dibutyl phthalate
– diethylhexyl phthalate
– o-phthalaldehyde
– phthalic anhydrides
– phthalimides
– thalidomide
– esters
– humic substances
– hydroxy acids
– benzilates
– benactyzine
– quinuclidinyl benzilate
– glycolates
– 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
– halofenate
– meclofenoxate
– 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid
– phenoxyacetates
– ethacrynic acid
– ticrynafen
– 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
– hydroxamic acids
– bufexamac
– deferoxamine
– ferrichrome
– 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid
– hydroxybenzoic acids
– gallic acid
– hydrolyzable tannins
– propyl gallate
– hydroxymercuribenzoates
– pactamycin
– parabens
– salicylic acids
– aminosalicylic acids
– p-aminosalicylic acid
– mesalamine
– anacardic acids
– aspirin
– diflunisal
– salicylic acid
– salicylates
– gentisates
– sodium salicylate
– vanillic acid
– 3-hydroxybutyric acid
– hydroxybutyrates
– sodium oxybate
– lactates
– lactic acid
– sodium lactate
– malates
– mandelic acids
– cyclandelate
– vanilmandelic acid
– mevalonic acid
– mycolic acids
– phosphoenolpyruvate
– quinic acid
– shikimic acid
– sugar acids
– ascorbic acid
– dehydroascorbic acid
– 2,3-diketogulonic acid
– glucaric acid
– gluconates
– antimony sodium gluconate
– calcium gluconate
– glyceric acids
– diphosphoglyceric acids
– 2,3-diphosphoglycerate
– muramic acids
– neuraminic acids
– sialic acids
– cytidine monophosphate n-acetylneuraminic acid
– n-acetylneuraminic acid
– tartrates
– tartronates
– uronic acids
– glucuronic acids
– glucuronic acid
– glucuronates
– glucuronides
– hexuronic acids
– iduronic acid
– keto acids
– acetoacetates
– hippurates
– aminohippuric acids
– p-aminohippuric acid
– iodohippuric acid
– ketoglutaric acids
– levulinic acids
– aminolevulinic acid
– oxaloacetic acids
– oxaloacetates
– oxaloacetate
– pyruvates
– phenylpyruvic acids
– pyruvic acid
– catenanes
– dna, catenated
– cyanates
– thiocyanates
– ethers
– acetals
– ethers, cyclic
– ciguatoxins
– crown ethers
– epoxy compounds
– epichlorohydrin
– ethylene oxide
– trichloroepoxypropane
– okadaic acid
– oxepins
– doxepin
– oxocins
– ethoglucid
– ethyl ethers
– ether, ethyl
– flurothyl
– methoxyflurane
– phenetidine
– glyceryl ethers
– phospholipid ethers
– methyl ethers
– anisoles
– anethole trithione
– butylated hydroxyanisole
– bis(chloromethyl) ether
– enflurane
– guaiacol
– guaifenesin
– methocarbamol
– isoflurane
– methoxyflurane
– phenyl ethers
– anisoles
– anethole trithione
– butylated hydroxyanisole
– guaiacol
– guaifenesin
– phenetidine
– triclosan
– free radicals
– peroxides
– artemisinins
– lipid peroxides
– tert-butylhydroperoxide
– tetraoxanes
– spin labels
– triacetoneamine-n-oxyl
– glycosylation end products, advanced
– hydrazines
– benserazide
– carbidopa
– hydrazones
– carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone
– carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone
– iproniazid
– isoniazid
– methylhydrazines
– dimethylhydrazines
– 1,2-dimethylhydrazine
– monomethylhydrazine
– phenelzine
– phenylhydrazines
– dithizone
– todralazine
– hydrocarbons
– hydrocarbons, acyclic
– alkanes
– alkanesulfonic acids
– alkanesulfonates
– mesna
– mesylates
– busulfan
– ethyl methanesulfonate
– methyl methanesulfonate
– hepes
– isethionic acid
– taurine
– taurocholic acid
– taurodeoxycholic acid
– taurochenodeoxycholic acid
– taurolithocholic acid
– butanes
– ethane
– ethylene dichlorides
– fumonisins
– heptanes
– diarylheptanoids
– curcumin
– hexanes
– methane
– tetranitromethane
– nitroparaffins
– tetranitromethane
– octanes
– pentanes
– propane
– alkenes
– allyl compounds
– allylamine
– allylglycine
– allylisopropylacetamide
– ethylenes
– dichloroethylenes
– polyenes
– alkadienes
– butadienes
– chloroprene
– aurodox
– diphenylhexatriene
– filipin
– mepartricin
– neoprene
– polyethylenes
– polyethylene
– polyethyleneimine
– polypropylenes
– polyvinyls
– squalene
– vinyl compounds
– polyvinyls
– polyvinyl alcohol
– polyvinyl chloride
– polyvinylpyridine n-oxide
– povidone
– povidone-iodine
– vinyl chloride
– alkynes
– acetylene
– carbocyanines
– (4-(m-chlorophenylcarbamoyloxy)-2-butynyl)trimethylammonium chloride
– hydrocarbons, cyclic
– bridged compounds
– adamantane
– amantadine
– memantine
– methenamine
– rimantadine
– bicyclo compounds
– bicyclo compounds, heterocyclic
– biperiden
– hydrocarbons, alicyclic
– cycloparaffins
– adamantane
– rimantadine
– cyclobutanes
– cyclodecanes
– taxoids
– paclitaxel
– cycloheptanes
– azulenes
– bencyclane
– tropolone
– cyclohexanes
– cuprizone
– cyclamates
– cyclohexanecarboxylic acids
– cyclohexanols
– cyclohexanones
– cyclohexylamines
– dicyclomine
– ketamine
– norisoprenoids
– tiletamine
– trans-1,4-bis(2-chlorobenzaminomethyl)cyclohexane dihydrochloride
– cyclooctanes
– iprindole
– cyclopentanes
– cycloleucine
– cyclopropanes
– cilastatin
– hypoglycins
– hydrocarbons, aromatic
– benzene
– benzene derivatives
– benzeneacetamides
– bufexamac
– benzenesulfonates
– calcium dobesilate
– 4-chloromercuribenzenesulfonate
– ethamsylate
– ferrozine
– polyanetholesulfonate
– tiron
– benzhydryl compounds
– diphenhydramine
– dimenhydrinate
– meclizine
– methylenebis(chloroaniline)
– orphenadrine
– terfenadine
– benzyl compounds
– benzyl alcohols
– benzyl alcohol
– benzylamines
– pargyline
– bibenzyls
– 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl bromide
– lignans
– flavonolignans
– nordihydroguaiaretic acid
– podophyllotoxin
– benzylidene compounds
– stilbenes
– 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid
– bibenzyls
– chlorotrianisene
– clomiphene
– diethylstilbestrol
– hexestrol
– 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid
– stilbamidines
– tamoxifen
– raloxifene
– toremifene
– styrenes
– styrene
– polystyrenes
– tyrphostins
– biphenyl compounds
– aminobiphenyl compounds
– benzidines
– 3,3'-diaminobenzidine
– dianisidine
– 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine
– losartan
– niclofolan
– polybrominated biphenyls
– polychlorinated biphenyls
– bromobenzenes
– chlorobenzenes
– chlorophenols
– hexachlorophene
– dicofol
– dinitrochlorobenzene
– hexachlorobenzene
– iodobenzenes
– 3-iodobenzylguanidine
– iopanoic acid
– iophendylate
– ipodate
– tyropanoate
– nitrobenzenes
– chloramphenicol
– thiamphenicol
– dinitrobenzenes
– dinitrochlorobenzene
– dinitrofluorobenzene
– trinitrobenzenes
– trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid
– sulfanilic acids
– terphenyl compounds
– polychloroterphenyl compounds
– toluene
– bromcresol green
– bromcresol purple
– bromphenol blue
– bromthymol blue
– toluene 2,4-diisocyanate
– toluidines
– tosyl compounds
– tosylarginine methyl ester
– tosyllysine chloromethyl ketone
– tosylphenylalanyl chloromethyl ketone
– trifluralin
– trinitrotoluene
– triparanol
– trityl compounds
– xylenes
– diarylheptanoids
– curcumin
– hydrocarbons, halogenated
– halothane
– hydrocarbons, brominated
– bromobenzenes
– bromotrichloromethane
– ethylene dibromide
– polybrominated biphenyls
– hydrocarbons, chlorinated
– aldrin
– carbon tetrachloride
– chlordan
– chlordecone
– chlorobenzenes
– dicofol
– dinitrochlorobenzene
– hexachlorobenzene
– chlorofluorocarbons
– chlorofluorocarbons, methane
– chloroform
– bromotrichloromethane
– dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane
– dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene
– ddt
– dichloroethylenes
– dieldrin
– endrin
– ethyl chloride
– ethylene dichlorides
– heptachlor
– heptachlor epoxide
– lindane
– methoxychlor
– methyl chloride
– methylene chloride
– mirex
– mitotane
– picryl chloride
– polychlorinated biphenyls
– aroclors
– aroclor 1254
– polychloroterphenyl compounds
– aroclors
– aroclor 1254
– tetrachloroethylene
– toxaphene
– trichloroepoxypropane
– trichloroethanes
– trichloroethylene
– vinyl chloride
– hydrocarbons, fluorinated
– chlorofluorocarbons
– chlorofluorocarbons, methane
– fluorobenzenes
– fluorocarbons
– hydrocarbons, iodinated
– iodobenzenes
– 3-iodobenzylguanidine
– iopanoic acid
– iophendylate
– ipodate
– tyropanoate
– mustard compounds
– mustard gas
– nitrogen mustard compounds
– aniline mustard
– chlorambucil
– prednimustine
– estramustine
– mannomustine
– mechlorethamine
– melphalan
– peptichemio
– phosphoramide mustards
– cyclophosphamide
– ifosfamide
– propylbenzilylcholine mustard
– quinacrine mustard
– uracil mustard
– trihalomethanes
– chloroform
– paraffin
– petrolatum
– mineral oil
– terpenes
– cannabinoids
– cannabidiol
– cannabinol
– tetrahydrocannabinol
– carotenoids
– beta carotene
– norisoprenoids
– retinoids
– acitretin
– etretinate
– fenretinide
– isotretinoin
– retinaldehyde
– vitamin a
– tretinoin
– xanthophylls
– canthaxanthin
– lutein
– zeta carotene
– diterpenes
– aconitine
– aphidicolin
– atractyloside
– diterpenes, abietane
– diterpenes, clerodane
– diterpenes, kaurane
– gibberellins
– forskolin
– ginkgolides
– bilobalides
– phorbols
– phorbol esters
– phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate
– tetradecanoylphorbol acetate
– phytanic acid
– phytol
– vitamin k
– vitamin k 1
– vitamin k 2
– vitamin k 3
– taxoids
– paclitaxel
– dolichol
– dolichol phosphates
– gefarnate
– hemiterpenes
– monoterpenes
– iridoids
– menthol
– norbornanes
– bornanes
– camphor
– mecamylamine
– toxaphene
– pyrethrins
– allethrin
– permethrin
– thymol
– bromthymol blue
– polyisoprenyl phosphates
– dolichol phosphates
– polyisoprenyl phosphate sugars
– polyisoprenyl phosphate monosaccharides
– dolichol monophosphate mannose
– polyisoprenyl phosphate oligosaccharides
– sesquiterpenes
– abscisic acid
– artemisinins
– farnesol
– gossypol
– santonin
– sesquiterpenes, eudesmane
– sesquiterpenes, germacrane
– sesquiterpenes, guaiane
– thapsigargin
– trichothecenes
– t-2 toxin
– trichodermin
– triterpenes
– ginsenosides
– glycyrrhetinic acid
– carbenoxolone
– glycyrrhizic acid
– limonins
– quassins
– glaucarubin
– sapogenins
– oleanolic acid
– squalene
– imides
– imidoesters
– dimethyl adipimidate
– dimethyl suberimidate
– maleimides
– ethylmaleimide
– pantothenic acid
– phthalimides
– chlorthalidone
– succinimides
– bromosuccinimide
– ethosuximide
– imines
– carbodiimides
– cme-carbodiimide
– dicyclohexylcarbodiimide
– ethyl(dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide
– imino acids
– azetidinecarboxylic acid
– technetium tc 99m diethyl-iminodiacetic acid
– technetium tc 99m disofenin
– technetium tc 99m lidofenin
– imino sugars
– imino furanoses
– imino pyranoses
– polyethyleneimine
– schiff bases
– isocyanates
– isothiocyanates
– 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid
– 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid
– fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate
– 1-naphthylisothiocyanate
– toluene 2,4-diisocyanate
– ketones
– acetone
– acetophenones
– benzoin
– omega-chloroacetophenone
– benzophenones
– chlorthalidone
– butanones
– acetoin
– diacetyl
– thenoyltrifluoroacetone
– butyrophenones
– azaperone
– benperidol
– droperidol
– haloperidol
– spiperone
– trifluperidol
– camphor
– cyclohexanones
– tiletamine
– hexanones
– methyl n-butyl ketone
– ketone bodies
– acetoacetates
– acetone
– mannich bases
– methadone
– methadyl acetate
– pentanones
– phosgene
– propiophenones
– bupropion
– chalcones
– chalcone
– hydroxypropiophenone
– phloretin
– polyphloretin phosphate
– kynuramine
– oxyfedrine
– propafenone
– tolperisone
– lactones
– 4-butyrolactone
– dehydroascorbic acid
– macrolides
– amphotericin b
– antimycin a
– brefeldin a
– candicidin
– epothilones
– erythromycin
– azithromycin
– clarithromycin
– erythromycin estolate
– erythromycin ethylsuccinate
– ketolides
– roxithromycin
– ivermectin
– josamycin
– leucomycins
– kitasamycin
– spiramycin
– lucensomycin
– maytansine
– mepartricin
– miocamycin
– natamycin
– nystatin
– oleandomycin
– troleandomycin
– oligomycins
– rutamycin
– sirolimus
– tacrolimus
– tylosin
– propiolactone
– spironolactone
– venturicidins
– zearalenone
– zeranol
– nitrates
– erythrityl tetranitrate
– nicorandil
– nitriles
– acetonitriles
– aminoacetonitrile
– acrylonitrile
– aminopropionitrile
– amygdalin
– carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone
– carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone
– o-chlorobenzylidenemalonitrile
– citalopram
– fadrozole
– pregnenolone carbonitrile
– technetium tc 99m sestamibi
– tyrphostins
– nitrites
– amyl nitrite
– nitro compounds
– aristolochic acids
– dinitrocresols
– nitrobenzenes
– chloramphenicol
– thiamphenicol
– dinitrobenzenes
– dinitrochlorobenzene
– dinitrofluorobenzene
– trinitrobenzenes
– picryl chloride
– trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid
– nitrofurans
– 5-amino-3-((5-nitro-2-furyl)vinyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole
– fanft
– furagin
– furazolidone
– furylfuramide
– nifuratel
– nifurtimox
– nitrofurantoin
– nitrofurazone
– nitrovin
– nitroglycerin
– nitroimidazoles
– dimetridazole
– etanidazole
– ipronidazole
– metronidazole
– misonidazole
– nimorazole
– ornidazole
– ronidazole
– tinidazole
– nitroparaffins
– tetranitromethane
– nitrophenols
– dinitrophenols
– 2,4-dinitrophenol
– 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl bromide
– niclofolan
– nitrohydroxyiodophenylacetate
– nitroxinil
– picrates
– nitroquinolines
– 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide
– nitroso compounds
– nitrosamines
– butylhydroxybutylnitrosamine
– diethylnitrosamine
– dimethylnitrosamine
– n-nitrosopyrrolidine
– nitrosoguanidines
– methylnitronitrosoguanidine
– nitrosomethylurethane
– nitrosourea compounds
– carmustine
– ethylnitrosourea
– lomustine
– semustine
– methylnitrosourea
– nimustine
– streptozocin
– reactive nitrogen species
– s-nitrosothiols
– s-nitroso-n-acetylpenicillamine
– s-nitrosoglutathione
– onium compounds
– quaternary ammonium compounds
– ambenonium chloride
– benzalkonium compounds
– benzethonium
– bephenium compounds
– betaine
– betalains
– betacyanins
– betaxanthins
– bethanechol compounds
– bethanechol
– bretylium compounds
– bretylium tosylate
– cetrimonium compounds
– chlorisondamine
– chlormequat
– (4-(m-chlorophenylcarbamoyloxy)-2-butynyl)trimethylammonium chloride
– choline
– benzoylcholine
– carbachol
– cytidine diphosphate choline
– phosphorylcholine
– platelet activating factor
– propylbenzilylcholine mustard
– succinylcholine
– thiocholine
– acetylthiocholine
– butyrylthiocholine
– edrophonium
– emepronium
– gallamine triethiodide
– glycopyrrolate
– hemicholinium 3
– lissamine green dyes
– methacholine compounds
– methacholine chloride
– bis-trimethylammonium compounds
– decamethonium compounds
– hexamethonium compounds
– hexamethonium
– muscarine
– neostigmine
– oxyphenonium
– propantheline
– tetraethylammonium compounds
– tetraethylammonium
– toxiferine
– alcuronium
– tubocurarine
– sulfonium compounds
– organometallic compounds
– antimony potassium tartrate
– antimony sodium gluconate
– arsenicals
– arsanilic acid
– arsenamide
– arsenates
– arsenazo iii
– arsenites
– arsphenamine
– p-azobenzenearsonate
– cacodylic acid
– melarsoprol
– roxarsone
– ferric compounds
– iron-dextran complex
– ferrous compounds
– gadolinium dtpa
– maneb
– organogold compounds
– aurothioglucose
– auranofin
– gold sodium thiomalate
– organomercury compounds
– alkylmercury compounds
– chlormerodrin
– ethylmercury compounds
– cialit
– ethylmercuric chloride
– thimerosal
– mersalyl
– methylmercury compounds
– merbromin
– phenylmercury compounds
– chloromercurinitrophenols
– 4-chloromercuribenzenesulfonate
– mercuribenzoates
– chloromercuribenzoates
– p-chloromercuribenzoic acid
– hydroxymercuribenzoates
– phenylmercuric acetate
– organoplatinum compounds
– carboplatin
– organotechnetium compounds
– technetium tc 99m aggregated albumin
– technetium tc 99m diethyl-iminodiacetic acid
– technetium tc 99m dimercaptosuccinic acid
– technetium tc 99m disofenin
– technetium tc 99m exametazime
– technetium tc 99m lidofenin
– technetium tc 99m medronate
– technetium tc 99m mertiatide
– technetium tc 99m pentetate
– technetium tc 99m sestamibi
– organotin compounds
– trialkyltin compounds
– triethyltin compounds
– trimethyltin compounds
– sucralfate
– tetraethyl lead
– zineb
– organophosphorus compounds
– aminoethylphosphonic acid
– armin
– carbamyl phosphate
– chlorfenvinphos
– dichlorvos
– diphosphoglyceric acids
– 2,3-diphosphoglycerate
– diphosphonates
– alendronate
– clodronic acid
– etidronic acid
– technetium tc 99m medronate
– fosinopril
– hempa
– isoflurophate
– mevinphos
– monocrotophos
– naled
– organothiophosphorus compounds
– amifostine
– azinphosmethyl
– chlorpyrifos
– coumaphos
– cystaphos
– diazinon
– dimethoate
– disulfoton
– echothiophate iodide
– fenitrothion
– fenthion
– fonofos
– leptophos
– malathion
– parathion
– methyl parathion
– phenylphosphonothioic acid, 2-ethyl 2-(4-nitrophenyl) ester
– phorate
– phosmet
– temefos
– thiophosphoric acid esters
– thiotepa
– paraoxon
– phosphamidon
– phosphines
– phosphinic acids
– phosphonic acids
– fosfomycin
– phosphonoacetic acid
– foscarnet
– trichlorfon
– phosphoramide mustards
– cyclophosphamide
– ifosfamide
– phosphoranes
– phosphoric acid esters
– phosphorous acids
– phosphites
– polyisoprenyl phosphates
– dolichol phosphates
– sarin
– soman
– tetrachlorvinphos
– tetraisopropylpyrophosphamide
– tritolyl phosphates
– organoselenium compounds
– selenocysteine
– selenomethionine
– organosilicon compounds
– silanes
– siloxanes
– silicones
– dimethylpolysiloxanes
– simethicone
– silicone gels
– silicone oils
– trimethylsilyl compounds
– peroxides
– artemisinins
– lipid peroxides
– tert-butylhydroperoxide
– tetraoxanes
– phenols
– aminophenols
– anisoles
– anethole trithione
– butylated hydroxyanisole
– guaiacol
– guaifenesin
– methocarbamol
– bisphenol a-glycidyl methacrylate
– bithionol
– bromphenol blue
– catechols
– curcumin
– estrogens, catechol
– hydroxyestrones
– guaiacol
– guaifenesin
– 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethanol
– nordihydroguaiaretic acid
– tiron
– chlorophenols
– dichlorophen
– hexachlorophene
– pentachlorophenol
– cresols
– bisacodyl
– brocresine
– bromcresol green
– bromcresol purple
– butylated hydroxytoluene
– creosote
– cyclofenil
– dinitrocresols
– formocresols
– tritolyl phosphates
– dienestrol
– humic substances
– hydroquinones
– hydroxybenzoic acids
– gallic acid
– hydrolyzable tannins
– propyl gallate
– hydroxymercuribenzoates
– pactamycin
– parabens
– salicylic acids
– aminosalicylic acids
– p-aminosalicylic acid
– mesalamine
– anacardic acids
– aspirin
– diflunisal
– salicylic acid
– salicylates
– gentisates
– sodium salicylate
– vanillic acid
– indophenol
– 2,6-dichloroindophenol
– nitrophenols
– dinitrophenols
– 2,4-dinitrophenol
– 2-hydroxy-5-nitrobenzyl bromide
– niclofolan
– nitrohydroxyiodophenylacetate
– nitroxinil
– picrates
– phenol
– phenolphthaleins
– phenolphthalein
– phenolsulfonphthalein
– sulfobromophthalein
– thymolphthalein
– phloroglucinol
– phloretin
– polyphloretin phosphate
– probucol
– propofol
– pyrogallol
– resorcinols
– hexylresorcinol
– zearalenone
– zeranol
– quinones
– anthraquinones
– carmine
– cascara
– emodin
– mitoxantrone
– benzoquinones
– carbazilquinone
– chloranil
– dibromothymoquinone
– plastoquinone
– ubiquinone
– indolequinones
– mitomycins
– mitomycin
– porfiromycin
– pyrroloiminoquinones
– naphthoquinones
– vitamin k 1
– vitamin k 2
– vitamin k 3
– rotaxanes
– semicarbazides
– diphenylcarbazide
– semicarbazones
– thiosemicarbazones
– methisazone
– thioacetazone
– sulfur compounds
– amino acids, sulfur
– cystathionine
– cysteic acid
– cysteine
– acetylcysteine
– carbocysteine
– cysteinyldopa
– cystine
– selenocysteine
– ethionine
– homocysteine
– s-adenosylhomocysteine
– homocystine
– methionine
– s-adenosylmethionine
– n-formylmethionine
– n-formylmethionine leucyl-phenylalanine
– methionine sulfoximine
– buthionine sulfoximine
– selenomethionine
– vitamin u
– penicillamine
– s-nitroso-n-acetylpenicillamine
– thiopronine
– thiorphan
– benzothiepins
– endosulfan
– cyclic s-oxides
– isothiocyanates
– 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid
– 4,4'-diisothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid
– fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate
– 1-naphthylisothiocyanate
– organothiophosphorus compounds
– amifostine
– azinphosmethyl
– chlorpyrifos
– coumaphos
– cystaphos
– diazinon
– dimethoate
– disulfoton
– echothiophate iodide
– fenitrothion
– fenthion
– fonofos
– leptophos
– malathion
– parathion
– methyl parathion
– phenylphosphonothioic acid, 2-ethyl 2-(4-nitrophenyl) ester
– phorate
– phosmet
– temefos
– thiophosphoric acid esters
– thiotepa
– phenothiazines
– acepromazine
– azure stains
– chlorpromazine
– fluphenazine
– mesoridazine
– methotrimeprazine
– methylene blue
– moricizine
– nonachlazine
– perazine
– perphenazine
– prochlorperazine
– promazine
– promethazine
– thiethylperazine
– thioridazine
– tolonium chloride
– trifluoperazine
– triflupromazine
– trimeprazine
– sulfhydryl compounds
– cysteine
– dimercaprol
– unithiol
– ergothioneine
– mercaptoethanol
– mercaptoethylamines
– cysteamine
– 3-mercaptopropionic acid
– 6-mercaptopurine
– mesna
– methimazole
– pantetheine
– s-nitrosothiols
– s-nitroso-n-acetylpenicillamine
– s-nitrosoglutathione
– succimer
– technetium tc 99m dimercaptosuccinic acid
– thioglycolates
– thiomalates
– gold sodium thiomalate
– sulfides
– disulfides
– cystine
– disulfiram
– sulfones
– dansyl compounds
– dapsone
– acedapsone
– phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride
– sulfonamides
– benzolamide
– benzothiadiazines
– bendroflumethiazide
– chlorothiazide
– hydrochlorothiazide
– trichlormethiazide
– cyclopenthiazide
– diazoxide
– hydroflumethiazide
– methyclothiazide
– polythiazide
– bumetanide
– chloramines
– chlorthalidone
– clopamide
– dichlorphenamide
– ethoxzolamide
– indapamide
– 1-(5-isoquinolinesulfonyl)-2-methylpiperazine
– mafenide
– mefruside
– metolazone
– probenecid
– sulfanilamides
– furosemide
– sulfacetamide
– sulfachlorpyridazine
– sulfadiazine
– silver sulfadiazine
– sulfadimethoxine
– sulfadoxine
– sulfaguanidine
– sulfalene
– sulfamerazine
– sulfameter
– sulfamethazine
– sulfamethoxazole
– trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination
– sulfamethoxypyridazine
– sulfamonomethoxine
– sulfamoxole
– sulfaphenazole
– sulfapyridine
– sulfaquinoxaline
– sulfathiazoles
– sulfamethizole
– sulfisomidine
– sulfisoxazole
– sulfasalazine
– sumatriptan
– xipamide
– sulfonylurea compounds
– acetohexamide
– carbutamide
– chlorpropamide
– gliclazide
– glipizide
– glyburide
– tolazamide
– tolbutamide
– tosyl compounds
– bromcresol green
– bromcresol purple
– bromphenol blue
– bromthymol blue
– tosylarginine methyl ester
– tosyllysine chloromethyl ketone
– tosylphenylalanyl chloromethyl ketone
– sulfonium compounds
– sulfoxides
– dimethyl sulfoxide
– omeprazole
– sulfur acids
– sulfenic acids
– sulfinic acids
– sulfonic acids
– alkanesulfonic acids
– alkanesulfonates
– mesna
– mesylates
– busulfan
– ethyl methanesulfonate
– methyl methanesulfonate
– sodium dodecyl sulfate
– sodium tetradecyl sulfate
– hepes
– isethionic acid
– taurine
– taurocholic acid
– taurodeoxycholic acid
– taurochenodeoxycholic acid
– taurolithocholic acid
– arylsulfonic acids
– arylsulfonates
– benzenesulfonates
– calcium dobesilate
– 4-chloromercuribenzenesulfonate
– ethamsylate
– ferrozine
– polyanetholesulfonate
– tiron
– lissamine green dyes
– naphthalenesulfonates
– amaranth dye
– amido black
– anilino naphthalenesulfonates
– congo red
– Evans blue
– suramin
– trypan blue
– sulfanilic acids
– trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid
– thiosulfonic acids
– sulfuric acids
– pentosan sulfuric polyester
– sulfuric acid esters
– thiazides
– benzothiadiazines
– bendroflumethiazide
– chlorothiazide
– hydrochlorothiazide
– trichlormethiazide
– cyclopenthiazide
– diazoxide
– hydroflumethiazide
– methyclothiazide
– polythiazide
– thiazines
– chlormezanone
– nifurtimox
– piroxicam
– thiadiazines
– xylazine
– thiazoles
– chlormethiazole
– dithiazanine
– ethoxzolamide
– famotidine
– fanft
– firefly luciferin
– levamisole
– niridazole
– nizatidine
– oxythiamine
– rhodanine
– riluzole
– ritonavir
– saccharin
– sulfathiazoles
– tetramisole
– thiabendazole
– thiadiazoles
– acetazolamide
– benzolamide
– methazolamide
– timolol
– thiamine
– fursultiamin
– thiamine monophosphate
– thiamine pyrophosphate
– thiamine triphosphate
– thiazolidinediones
– thiepins
– dibenzothiepins
– dothiepin
– methiothepin
– thiazepines
– dibenzothiazepines
– thioamides
– thioacetamide
– thiocarbamates
– dimethyldithiocarbamate
– thiram
– ziram
– ditiocarb
– disulfiram
– ethylenebis(dithiocarbamates)
– maneb
– zineb
– methomyl
– tolnaftate
– triallate
– thiocyanates
– thioglycosides
– dithioerythritol
– dithiothreitol
– sucralfate
– thiogalactosides
– isopropyl thiogalactoside
– thioglucosides
– glucosinolates
– thiones
– thionucleosides
– thioinosine
– methylthioinosine
– thiouridine
– thionucleotides
– guanosine 5'-o-(3-thiotriphosphate)
– thiophenes
– carticaine
– ketotifen
– morantel
– pizotyline
– pyrantel
– pyrantel pamoate
– pyrantel tartrate
– thenoyltrifluoroacetone
– thioctic acid
– ticlopidine
– ticrynafen
– tiletamine
– thiosemicarbazones
– methisazone
– thioacetazone
– thiourea
– beta-aminoethyl isothiourea
– burimamide
– dimaprit
– guanylthiourea
– isothiuronium
– methallibure
– metiamide
– noxythiolin
– phenylthiourea
– phenylthiazolylthiourea
– thiophanate
– triazenes
– dacarbazine
– diminazene
– urea
– biureas
– biuret
– bromisovalum
– hydroxyurea
– methylurea compounds
– nitrosourea compounds
– carmustine
– ethylnitrosourea
– lomustine
– semustine
– methylnitrosourea
– nimustine
– streptozocin
– phenylurea compounds
– carbanilides
– imidocarb
– nicarbazin
– celiprolol
– diflubenzuron
– diuron
– linuron
– sulfonylurea compounds
– acetohexamide
– carbutamide
– chlorpropamide
– gliclazide
– glyburide
– tolazamide
– tolbutamide
– thiourea
– beta-aminoethyl isothiourea
– burimamide
– dimaprit
– ethylenethiourea
– guanylthiourea
– isothiuronium
– methallibure
– metiamide
– noxythiolin
– phenylthiourea
– phenylthiazolylthiourea
– thiophanate
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (D03).
D02
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5115507
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartlett%20v%20Barclays%20Bank%20Trust%20Co%20Ltd
|
Bartlett v Barclays Bank Trust Co Ltd
|
Bartlett v Barclays Bank Trust Co Ltd (No. 2) [1980] 1 Ch 515 in an English trusts law case. In it Brightman J gave a comprehensive discussion of the duties of trustees in connection with companies whose shares are part of the trust property. Although it is common to hear lawyers refer to "the rule in Bartlett v Barclays Bank", the case only restated law that had been accepted since Speight v Gaunt.
Facts
Barclays Bank was the sole trustee of the Bartlett trust, set up by Sir Herbert Bartlett. The sole asset of the trust was 99.8% of the issued shares in the family company. On the company board were two surveyors, an accountant and a solicitor. The trustee appointed none. In an attempt to raise cash, the trust appointed merchant bankers to consider taking the company public. The bankers advised that a public offering would be much more successful if the company expanded its business from managing property to developing property as well. Barclays Bank as trustee agreed to this policy (so long as the income available to the beneficiaries was not affected). The board then embarked on speculative developments, one of which ended in disaster when planning permission could not be obtained for a large development (the Old Bailey project), and the trust suffered a significant loss.
Judgment
Brightman J held that the bank, as trustee, had not discharged its duty as trustee in failing to supervise the new ventures of the company. He held that, given the size of the shareholding, the bank should have obtained the fullest information on the conduct of the business, and it was not sufficient to rely merely on the supply of information that they received in the ordinary course as a shareholder. Their defence, that they honestly and reasonably believed the board of directors to be competent and capable of running the business, was rejected. The court reiterated older propositions as to the duty of trustees, "to conduct the business of the trust with the same care as an ordinary prudent man of business would extend to his own affairs." However, the implication was that where a prudent man of business holds the majority of shares in a company, he would actively engage himself in the company's undertakings rather than leaving it to the board. Brightman J distanced the court from suggestions made in Re Lucking's Will Trusts [1968] 1 WLR 866 (at 874) that a controlling shareholder should insist upon being represented on the board, although he agreed that this would be one way in which the trustee could ensure that all of the necessary information was available to him.
{{Cquote|The situation may be summed up as follows. Bartlett Trust (Holdings) Ltd. (BTH) made a large loss as a result of the involvement of itself and BTL in the Old Bailey project. This loss reduced the value of the BTH shares and thereby caused a loss to the trust fund of the 1920 settlement. The bank, had it acted in time, could by reason of its shareholding have stopped the board of BTL embarking upon the Old Bailey project; and, had it acted in time, could have stopped the board of BTL and later the board of BTH (it is unnecessary to differentiate) from continuing with the project; and could, had it acted in time, have required BTH to sell its interest in Far Investments Ltd. (Far) to Stock Conversion on the no-loss or small-loss terms which (as I find) were available for the asking. This would not have necessitated the draconian course of threatening to remove, or actually removing, the board in favour of compliant directors. The members of the board were reasonable persons, and would (as I find) have followed any reasonable policy desired by the bank had the bank's wishes been indicated to the board. The loss to the trust fund could have been avoided (as I find) without difficulty or disruption had the bank been prepared to lead, in a broad sense, rather than to follow.
What, then, was the duty of the bank and did the bank fail in its duty? It does not follow that because a trustee could have prevented a loss it is therefore liable for the loss. The questions which I must ask myself are (1) What was the duty of the bank as the holder of 99.8 per cent. of the shares in BTL and BTH? (2) Was the bank in breach of duty in any and if so what respect? (3) If so, did that breach of duty cause the loss which was suffered by the trust estate? (4) If so, to what extent is the bank liable to make good that loss? In approaching these questions, I bear in mind that the attack on the bank is based, not on wrongful acts, but on wrongful omissions, that is to say, non-feasance not misfeasance.
The cases establish that it is the duty of a trustee to conduct the business of the trust with the same care as an ordinary prudent man of business would extend towards his own affairs: In re Speight (1883) 22 Ch.D. 727 , per Sir George Jessel M.R. at p. 739 and Bowen L.J. at p. 762; affirmed on appeal, Speight v Gaunt (1883) 9 App.Cas. 1 , and see Lord Blackburn at p. 19. In applying this principle, Lindley L.J. (who was the third member of the court in the Speight case) added in In re Whiteley (1886) 33 Ch.D. 347 , 355:
“… care must be taken not to lose sight of the fact that the business of the trustee, and the business which the ordinary prudent man is supposed to be conducting for himself, is the business of investing money for the benefit of persons who are to enjoy it at some future time, and not for the sole benefit of the person entitled to the present income. The duty of a trustee is not to take such care only as a prudent man would take if he had only himself to consider; the duty rather is to take such care as an ordinary prudent man would take if he were minded to make an investment for the benefit of other people for whom he felt morally bound to provide. That is the kind of business the ordinary prudent man is supposed to be engaged in; and unless this is borne in mind the standard of a trustee's duty will be fixed too low; lower than it has ever yet been fixed, and lower certainly than the House of Lords or this Court endeavoured to fix it in Speight v Gaunt.”
See on appeal Learoyd v Whiteley (1887) 12 App.Cas. 727 , where Lord Watson added, at p. 733:
“Business men of ordinary prudence may, and frequently do, select investments which are more or less of a speculative character; but it is the duty of a trustee to confine himself to the class of investments which are permitted by the trust, and likewise to avoid all investments of that class which are attended with hazard.”
That does not mean that the trustee is bound to avoid all risk and in effect act as an insurer of the trust fund: see Bacon VC in In re Godfrey (1883) 23 Ch.D. 483 , 493:
“No doubt it is the duty of a trustee, in administering the trusts of a will, to deal with property intrusted into his care exactly as any prudent man would deal with his own property. But the words in which the rule is expressed must not be strained beyond their meaning. Prudent businessmen in their dealings incur risk. That may and must happen in almost all human affairs.”
The distinction is between a prudent degree of risk on the one hand, and hazard on the other. Nor must the court be astute to fix liability upon a trustee who has committed no more than an error of judgment, from which no business man, however prudent, can expect to be immune: see Lopes L.J. in In re Chapman [1896] 2 Ch. 763 , 778:
“A trustee who is honest and reasonably competent is not to be held responsible for a mere error in judgment when the question which he has to consider is whether a security of a class authorized, but depreciated in value, should be retained or realized, provided he acts with reasonable care, prudence, and circumspection.”
If the trust had existed without the incorporation of BTL, so that the bank held the freehold and leasehold properties and other assets of BTL directly upon the trusts of the settlement, it would in my opinion have been a clear breach of trust for the bank to have hazarded trust money upon the Old Bailey development project in partnership with Stock Conversion. The Old Bailey project was a gamble, because it involved buying into the site at prices in excess of the investment values of the properties, with no certainty or probability, with no more than a chance, that planning permission could be obtained for a financially viable redevelopment, that the numerous proprietors would agree to sell out or join in the scheme, that finance would be available upon acceptable terms, and that the development would be completed, or at least become a marketable asset, before the time came to start winding up the trust. However one looks at it, the project was a hazardous speculation upon which no trustee could properly have ventured without explicit authority in the trust instrument. I therefore hold that the entire expenditure in the Old Bailey project would have been incurred in breach of trust, had the money been spent by the bank itself. The fact that it was a risk acceptable to the board of a wealthy company like Stock Conversion has little relevance.
I turn to the question, what was the duty of the bank as the holder of shares in BTL and BTH? I will first answer this question without regard to the position of the bank as a specialist trustee, to which I will advert later. The bank, as trustee, was bound to act in relation to the shares and to the controlling position which they conferred, in the same manner as a prudent man of business. The prudent man of business will act in such manner as is necessary to safeguard his investment. He will do this in two ways. If facts come to his knowledge which tell him that the company's affairs are not being conducted as they should be, or which put him on inquiry, he will take appropriate action. Appropriate action will no doubt consist in the first instance of inquiry of and consultation with the directors, and in the last but most unlikely resort, the convening of a general meeting to replace one or more directors. What the prudent man of business will not do is to content himself with the receipt of such information on the affairs of the company as a shareholder ordinarily receives at annual general meetings. Since he has the power to do so, he will go further and see that he has sufficient information to enable him to make a responsible decision from time to time either to let matters proceed as they are proceeding, or to intervene if he is dissatisfied. This topic was considered by Cross J. in In re Lucking's Will Trusts''' [1968] 1 W.L.R. 866 , more fully reported in [1967] 3 All E.R. 726 . In that case nearly 70 per cent. of the shares in the company were held by two trustees, L and B, as part of the estate of a deceased; about 29 per cent. belonged to L in his own right, and 1 per cent. belonged to L's wife. The directors in 1954 were Mr. and Mrs. L and D, who was the manager of the business. In 1956 B was appointed trustee to act jointly with L. The company was engaged in the manufacture and sale of shoe accessories. It had a small factory employing about 20 people, and one or two travellers. It also had an agency in France. D wrongfully drew some £15,000 from the company's bank account in excess of his remuneration, and later became bankrupt. The money was lost. Cross J. said, at p. 874:
“The conduct of the defendant trustees is, I think, to be judged by the standard applied in Speight v. Gaunt, namely, that a trustee is only bound to conduct the business of the trust in such a way as an ordinary prudent man would conduct a business of his own. Now what steps, if any, does a reasonably prudent man who finds himself a majority shareholder in a private company take with regard to the management of the company's affairs? He does not, I think, content himself with such information as to the management of the company's affairs as he is entitled to as shareholder, but ensures that he is represented on the board. He may be prepared to run the business himself as managing director or, at least, to become a non-executive director while having the business managed by someone else. Alternatively, he may find someone who will act as his nominee on the board and report to him from time to time as to the company's affairs. In the same way, as it seems to me, trustees holding a controlling interest ought to ensure so far as they can that they have such information as to the progress of the company's affairs as directors would have. If they sit back and allow the company to be run by the minority shareholder and receive no more information than shareholders are entitled to, they do so at their risk if things go wrong.”
I do not understand Cross J. to have been saying that in every case where trustees have a controlling interest in a company it is their duty to ensure that one of their number is a director or that they have a nominee on the board who will report from time to time on the affairs of the company. He was merely outlining convenient methods by which a prudent man of business (as also a trustee) with a controlling interest in a private company, can place himself in a position to make an informed decision whether any action is appropriate to be taken for the protection of his asset. Other methods may be equally satisfactory and convenient, depending upon the circumstances of the individual case. Alternatives which spring to mind are the receipt of copies of the agenda and minutes of board meetings if regularly held, the receipt of monthly management accounts in the case of a trading concern, or quarterly reports. Every case will depend on its own facts. The possibilities are endless. It would be useless, indeed misleading, to seek to lay down a general rule. The purpose to be achieved is not that of monitoring every move of the directors, but of making it reasonably probable, so far as circumstances permit, that the trustee or (as in the Lucking case) one of them will receive an adequate flow of information in time to enable the trustees to make use of their controlling interest should this be necessary for the protection of their trust asset, namely, the shareholding. The obtaining of information is not an end in itself, but merely a means of enabling the trustees to safeguard the interests of their beneficiaries.
The principle enunciated in the Lucking case appears to have been applied in In re Miller (unreported), March 21, 1978 , a decision of Oliver J. No transcript of the judgment is available but the case is briefly noted in the Law Society's Gazette published on May 3, 1978. There is also a number of American decisions proceeding upon the same lines, to which counsel has helpfully referred me.
So far, I have applied the test of the ordinary prudent man of business. Although I am not aware that the point has previously been considered, except briefly in In re Waterman's Will Trusts [1952] 2 All E.R. 1054 , I am of opinion that a higher duty of care is plainly due from someone like a trust corporation which carries on a specialised business of trust management. A trust corporation holds itself out in its advertising literature as being above ordinary mortals. With a specialist staff of trained trust officers and managers, with ready access to financial information and professional advice, dealing with and solving trust problems day after day, the trust corporation holds itself out, and rightly, as capable of providing an expertise which it would be unrealistic to expect and unjust to demand from the ordinary prudent man or woman who accepts, probably unpaid and sometimes reluctantly from a sense of family duty, the burdens of a trusteeship. Just as, under the law of contract, a professional person possessed of a particular skill is liable for breach of contract if he neglects to use the skill and experience which he professes, so I think that a professional corporate trustee is liable for breach of trust if loss is caused to the trust fund because it neglects to exercise the special care and skill which it professes to have. The advertising literature of the bank was not in evidence (other than the scale of fees) but counsel for the defendant did not dispute that trust corporations, including the bank, hold themselves out as possessing a superior ability for the conduct of trust business, and in any event I would take judicial notice of that fact. Having expressed my view of the higher duty required from a trust corporation, I should add that the bank's counsel did not dispute the proposition.
In my judgment the bank wrongfully and in breach of trust neglected to ensure that it received an adequate flow of information concerning the intentions and activities of the boards of BTL and BTH. It was not proper for the bank to confine itself to the receipt of the annual balance sheet and profit and loss account, detailed annual financial statements and the chairman's report and statement, and to attendance at the annual general meetings and the luncheons that followed, which were the limits of the bank's regular sources of information. Had the bank been in receipt of more frequent information it would have been able to step in and stop, and ought to have stopped, Mr. Roberts and the board embarking on the Old Bailey project. That project was imprudent and hazardous and wholly unsuitable for a trust whether undertaken by the bank direct or through the medium of its wholly owned company. Even without the regular flow of information which the bank ought to have had, it knew enough to put it upon inquiry. There were enough obvious points at which the bank should have intervened and asked questions. Assuming, as I do, that the questions would have been answered truthfully, the bank would have discovered the gamble upon which Mr. Roberts and his board were about to embark in relation to the Old Bailey site, and it could have, and should have, stopped the initial move towards disaster, and later on arrested further progress towards disaster. I have indicated in the course of this judgment a number of obvious points at which the bank should have intervened, and it would be repetitive to summarise them.
I hold that the bank failed in its duty whether it is judged by the standard of the prudent man of business or of the skilled trust corporation. The bank's breach of duty caused the loss which was suffered by the trust estate. If the bank had intervened as it could and should have, that loss would not have been incurred. By “loss,” I mean the depreciation which took place in the market value of the BT shares, by comparison with the value which the shares would have commanded if the loss on the Old Bailey project had not been incurred, and reduction of dividends through loss of income. The bank is liable for the loss so suffered by the trust estate, except to the extent that I shall hereafter indicate.}}
Significance
This rule bears a striking similarity to that enacted in s 1 Trustee Act 2000. It can, however, be excluded in a trust instrument (see Sch 1, para 7 TA 2000). The Act essentially adopted and strengthened Brightman J's principles. There was also, under the Stewardship Code, a codification of principles regarding becoming active in use of corporate governance rights in companies.
See also
English trusts lawNestle v National Westminster Bank plc [1993] 1 WLR 1260
Notes
ReferencesEvans v London Co-operative Society'' [1976] CLY 2059, (6 July 1976) Times
English trusts case law
1979 in United Kingdom case law
Court of Appeal (England and Wales) cases
Barclays litigation
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5115643
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20MeSH%20codes%20%28D23%29
|
List of MeSH codes (D23)
|
The following is a partial list of the "D" codes for Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), as defined by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM).
This list continues the information at List of MeSH codes (D20). Codes following these are found at List of MeSH codes (D25). For other MeSH codes, see List of MeSH codes.
The source for this content is the set of 2006 MeSH Trees from the NLM.
– biological factors
– antigens
– allergens
– antigen-antibody complex
– antigens, archaeal
– antigens, bacterial
– adhesins, bacterial
– adhesins, escherichia coli
– lepromin
– polysaccharides, bacterial
– bacterial capsules
– lipopolysaccharides
– lipid a
– o antigens
– peptidoglycan
– teichoic acids
– staphylococcal protein a
– tuberculin
– antigens, dermatophagoides
– antigens, fungal
– coccidioidin
– histoplasmin
– trichophytin
– antigens, helminth
– antigens, heterophile
– forssman antigen
– antigens, neoplasm
– antigens, cd24
– antigens, cd30
– antigens, cd147
– antigens, tumor-associated, carbohydrate
– antigens, cd15
– ca-15-3 antigen
– ca-19-9 antigen
– ca-125 antigen
– antigens, viral, tumor
– adenovirus e1a proteins
– adenovirus e1b proteins
– antigens, polyomavirus transforming
– carcinoembryonic antigen
– neprilysin
– prostate-specific antigen
– tissue polypeptide antigen
– antigens, nuclear
– epstein-barr virus nuclear antigens
– ki-67 antigen
– proliferating cell nuclear antigen
– antigens, plant
– antigens, protozoan
– merozoite surface protein 1
– variant surface glycoproteins, trypanosoma
– antigens, surface
– antigens, differentiation
– antigens, cd
– activated-leukocyte cell adhesion molecule
– antigens, cd1
– antigens, cd2
– antigens, cd3
– receptor-cd3 complex, antigen, t-cell
– antigens, cd4
– antigens, cd5
– antigens, cd7
– antigens, cd8
– antigens, cd11
– antigens, cd11a
– antigens, cd11b
– antigens, cd11c
– lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1
– antigens, cd13
– antigens, cd14
– antigens, cd15
– antigens, cd18
– antigens, cd19
– antigens, cd20
– antigens, cd22
– antigens, cd24
– antigens, cd26
– antigens, cd27
– antigens, cd28
– antigens, cd29
– antigens, cd30
– antigens, cd31
– antigens, cd34
– antigens, cd36
– antigens, cd38
– antigens, cd40
– antigens, cd43
– antigens, cd45
– antigens, cd46
– antigens, cd47
– antigens, cd55
– antigens, cd56
– antigens, cd57
– antigens, cd58
– antigens, cd59
– antigens, cd79
– antigens, cd80
– antigens, cd86
– antigens, cd94
– antigens, cd95
– antigens, cd98
– antigens, cd98 heavy chain
– antigens, cd98 light chains
– large neutral amino acid-transporter 1
– antigens, cd146
– antigens, cd147
– antigens, cd164
– antigens, thy-1
– cd40 ligand
– cytokine receptor gp130
– e-selectin
– fms-like tyrosine kinase 3
– integrin alpha1
– integrin alpha2
– integrin alpha3
– integrin alpha4
– integrin alpha5
– integrin alpha6
– integrin alphav
– integrin beta3
– integrin beta4
– intercellular adhesion molecule-1
– kangai-1 protein
– lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1
– lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2
– neprilysin
– 5'-nucleotidase
– peptidyl-dipeptidase a
– platelet membrane glycoprotein iib
– proto-oncogene proteins c-kit
– receptor, anaphylatoxin c5a
– receptor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor
– receptors, complement 3b
– receptors, complement 3d
– receptors, ige
– receptors, igg
– receptors, interleukin-1
– receptors, interleukin-2
– receptors, interleukin-4
– receptors, interleukin-6
– receptors, interleukin-7
– receptors, interleukin-8a
– receptors, lymphocyte homing
– antigens, cd44
– integrin alpha4beta1
– lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1
– l-selectin
– receptors, tumor necrosis factor, type i
– receptors, tumor necrosis factor, type ii
– p-selectin
– vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
– antigens, differentiation, b-lymphocyte
– antigens, cd5
– antigens, cd19
– antigens, cd20
– antigens, cd40
– antigens, cd29
– antigens, differentiation, t-lymphocyte
– antigens, cd1
– antigens, cd2
– antigens, cd3
– receptor-cd3 complex, antigen, t-cell
– antigens, cd4
– antigens, cd5
– antigens, cd7
– antigens, cd8
– antigens, cd13
– antigens, cd18
– antigens, cd26
– antigens, cd27
– antigens, cd28
– antigens, cd56
– antigens, cd57
– antigens, differentiation, myelomonocytic
– antigens, cd14
– antigens, cd15
– antigens, cd31
– antigens, ly
– antigens, thy-1
– receptors, tumor necrosis factor, type i
– arrestin
– blood group antigens
– abo blood-group system
– duffy blood-group system
– i blood-group system
– kell blood-group system
– kidd blood-group system
– lewis blood-group system
– ca-19-9 antigen
– lutheran blood-group system
– mnss blood-group system
– p blood-group system
– rh-hr blood-group system
– cell adhesion molecules
– antigens, cd22
– antigens, cd24
– antigens, cd31
– antigens, cd146
– antigens, cd164
– cadherins
– desmosomal cadherins
– desmocollins
– desmogleins
– desmoglein 1
– desmoglein 2
– desmoglein 3
– carcinoembryonic antigen
– cd4 immunoadhesins
– cell adhesion molecules, neuronal
– cell adhesion molecules, neuron-glia
– activated-leukocyte cell adhesion molecule
– myelin p0 protein
– neural cell adhesion molecules
– antigens, cd56
– neural cell adhesion molecule l1
– integrin alphaxbeta2
– intercellular adhesion molecule-1
– receptors, lymphocyte homing
– antigens, cd44
– integrin alpha4beta1
– lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1
– l-selectin
– selectins
– e-selectin
– l-selectin
– p-selectin
– vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
– histocompatibility antigens
– histocompatibility antigens class i
– h-2 antigens
– HLA-A
– HLA-A1
– HLA-A2
– HLA-A3
– HLA-B
– HLA-B7
– HLA-B8
– HLA-B27
– HLA-B35
– HLA-C
– histocompatibility antigens class ii
– hla-d antigens
– HLA-DP
– HLA-DQ
– HLA-DR
– HLA-DR1
– HLA-DR2
– HLA-DR3
– HLA-DR4
– HLA-DR5
– HLA-DR6
– HLA-DR7
– hla antigens
– hla-a antigens
– hla-a1 antigen
– hla-a2 antigen
– hla-a3 antigen
– hla-b antigens
– hla-b7 antigen
– hla-b8 antigen
– hla-b27 antigen
– hla-b35 antigen
– hla-c antigens
– hla-d antigens
– hla-dp antigens
– hla-dq antigens
– hla-dr antigens
– hla-dr1 antigen
– hla-dr2 antigen
– hla-dr3 antigen
– hla-dr4 antigen
– hla-dr5 antigen
– hla-dr6 antigen
– hla-dr7 antigen
– minor histocompatibility antigens
– h-y antigen
– leukocyte l1 antigen complex
– calgranulin a
– calgranulin b
– lymphocyte antigen 96
– minor lymphocyte stimulatory antigens
– variant surface glycoproteins, trypanosoma
– antigens, t-independent
– antigens, viral
– adenovirus early proteins
– adenovirus e1 proteins
– adenovirus e2 proteins
– adenovirus e3 proteins
– adenovirus e4 proteins
– antigens, viral, tumor
– adenovirus e1a proteins
– adenovirus e1b proteins
– antigens, polyomavirus transforming
– deltaretrovirus antigens
– htlv-i antigens
– htlv-ii antigens
– epstein-barr virus nuclear antigens
– hemagglutinins, viral
– hn protein
– hepatitis antigens
– hepatitis a antigens
– hepatitis b antigens
– Hepatitis B core antigens
– hepatitis b e antigens
– Hepatitis B surface antigen
– hepatitis c antigens
– hepatitis delta antigens
– hiv antigens
– hiv core protein p24
– hiv envelope protein gp41
– hiv envelope protein gp120
– autoantigens
– centromere protein b
– desmoglein 1
– desmoglein 3
– heymann nephritis antigenic complex
– ldl-receptor related protein 2
– ldl-receptor related protein-associated protein
– epitopes
– antigens, tumor-associated, carbohydrate
– antigens, cd15
– ca-15-3 antigen
– ca-19-9 antigen
– ca-125 antigen
– epitopes, b-lymphocyte
– epitopes, t-lymphocyte
– haptens
– p-azobenzenearsonate
– cardiolipins
– dinitrochlorobenzene
– nitrohydroxyiodophenylacetate
– picryl chloride
– immunodominant epitopes
– immunoglobulin idiotypes
– isoantigens
– antigens, human platelet
– blood group antigens
– abo blood-group system
– duffy blood-group system
– i blood-group system
– kell blood-group system
– kidd blood-group system
– lewis blood-group system
– ca-19-9 antigen
– lutheran blood-group system
– mnss blood-group system
– p blood-group system
– rh-hr blood-group system
– histocompatibility antigens
– histocompatibility antigens class i
– h-2 antigens
– hla-a antigens
– hla-a1 antigen
– hla-a2 antigen
– hla-a3 antigen
– hla-b antigens
– hla-b7 antigen
– hla-b8 antigen
– hla-b27 antigen
– hla-b35 antigen
– hla-c antigens
– histocompatibility antigens class ii
– hla-d antigens
– hla-dp antigens
– hla-dq antigens
– hla-dr antigens
– hla-dr1 antigen
– hla-dr2 antigen
– hla-dr3 antigen
– hla-dr4 antigen
– hla-dr5 antigen
– hla-dr6 antigen
– hla-dr7 antigen
– hla antigens
– hla-a antigens
– hla-a1 antigen
– hla-a2 antigen
– hla-a3 antigen
– hla-b antigens
– hla-b7 antigen
– hla-b8 antigen
– hla-b27 antigen
– hla-b35 antigen
– hla-c antigens
– hla-d antigens
– hla-dp antigens
– hla-dq antigens
– hla-dr antigens
– hla-dr1 antigen
– hla-dr2 antigen
– hla-dr3 antigen
– hla-dr4 antigen
– hla-dr5 antigen
– hla-dr6 antigen
– hla-dr7 antigen
– minor histocompatibility antigens
– h-y antigen
– superantigens
– minor lymphocyte stimulatory antigens
– vaccines, synthetic
– vaccines, conjugate
– vaccines, dna
– vaccines, edible
– vaccines, virosome
– biological markers
– antibodies, antineutrophil cytoplasmic
– antigens, differentiation
– antigens, cd
– activated-leukocyte cell adhesion molecule
– antigens, cd1
– antigens, cd2
– antigens, cd3
– receptor-cd3 complex, antigen, t-cell
– antigens, cd4
– antigens, cd5
– antigens, cd7
– antigens, cd8
– antigens, cd11
– antigens, cd11a
– antigens, cd11b
– antigens, cd11c
– lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1
– antigens, cd13
– antigens, cd14
– antigens, cd15
– antigens, cd18
– antigens, cd19
– antigens, cd20
– antigens, cd22
– antigens, cd24
– antigens, cd26
– antigens, cd27
– antigens, cd28
– antigens, cd29
– antigens, cd30
– antigens, cd31
– antigens, cd34
– antigens, cd36
– antigens, cd38
– antigens, cd40
– antigens, cd43
– antigens, cd45
– antigens, cd46
– antigens, cd47
– antigens, cd55
– antigens, cd56
– antigens, cd57
– antigens, cd58
– antigens, cd59
– antigens, cd79
– antigens, cd80
– antigens, cd86
– antigens, cd94
– antigens, cd95
– antigens, cd98
– antigens, cd98 heavy chain
– antigens, cd98 light chains
– large neutral amino acid-transporter 1
– antigens, cd146
– antigens, cd147
– antigens, cd164
– antigens, thy-1
– cd40 ligand
– cytokine receptor gp130
– fms-like tyrosine kinase 3
– integrin alpha1
– integrin alpha2
– integrin alpha3
– integrin alpha4
– integrin alpha5
– integrin alpha6
– integrin alphav
– integrin beta3
– integrin beta4
– intercellular adhesion molecule-1
– kangai-1 protein
– lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1
– lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2
– neprilysin
– 5'-nucleotidase
– peptidyl-dipeptidase a
– platelet membrane glycoprotein iib
– proto-oncogene proteins c-kit
– receptor, anaphylatoxin c5a
– receptor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor
– receptors, complement 3b
– receptors, complement 3d
– receptors, ige
– receptors, igg
– receptors, interleukin-1
– receptors, interleukin-2
– receptors, interleukin-4
– receptors, interleukin-6
– receptors, interleukin-7
– receptors, interleukin-8a
– receptors, lymphocyte homing
– antigens, cd44
– integrin alpha4beta1
– lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1
– l-selectin
– receptors, tumor necrosis factor, type i
– receptors, tumor necrosis factor, type ii
– e-selectin
– p-selectin
– vascular cell adhesion molecule-1
– antigens, cd29
– antigens, differentiation, b-lymphocyte
– antigens, cd5
– antigens, cd19
– antigens, cd20
– antigens, cd40
– antigens, differentiation, t-lymphocyte
– antigens, cd1
– antigens, cd2
– antigens, cd3
– receptor-cd3 complex, antigen, t-cell
– antigens, cd4
– antigens, cd5
– antigens, cd7
– antigens, cd8
– antigens, cd13
– antigens, cd18
– antigens, cd26
– antigens, cd27
– antigens, cd28
– antigens, cd56
– antigens, cd57
– antigens, differentiation, myelomonocytic
– antigens, cd14
– antigens, cd15
– antigens, cd31
– antigens, ly
– antigens, thy-1
– chorionic gonadotropin, beta subunit, human
– fibrinopeptide a
– genetic markers
– oligoclonal bands
– tumor markers, biological
– alpha-fetoproteins
– antigens, cd30
– antigens, tumor-associated, carbohydrate
– antigens, cd15
– ca-15-3 antigen
– ca-19-9 antigen
– ca-125 antigen
– autocrine motility factor
– carcinoembryonic antigen
– chorionic gonadotropin, beta subunit, human
– hormones, ectopic
– ki-67 antigen
– neprilysin
– normetanephrine
– proliferating cell nuclear antigen
– prostate-specific antigen
– receptor, erbb-2
– receptor, erbb-3
– synaptophysin
– tissue kallikreins
– tissue polypeptide antigen
– blood coagulation factor inhibitors
– antithrombin iii
– lupus coagulation inhibitor
– protein c
– protein s
– blood coagulation factors
– beta-thromboglobulin
– calcium
– factor v
– factor va
– factor vii
– factor viia
– factor viii
– factor viiia
– factor ix
– factor ixa
– factor x
– factor xa
– factor xi
– factor xia
– factor xii
– factor xiia
– factor xiii
– factor xiiia
– fibrinogen
– fibrinogens, abnormal
– fibrinopeptide a
– fibrinopeptide b
– kallikreins
– prekallikrein
– kininogens
– kininogen, high-molecular-weight
– kininogen, low-molecular-weight
– plasminogen activator inhibitor 1
– plasminogen activator inhibitor 2
– platelet activating factor
– platelet factor 3
– platelet factor 4
– prothrombin
– thrombin
– thromboplastin
– tissue plasminogen activator
– von willebrand factor
– chemotactic factors
– chemokines
– beta-thromboglobulin
– chemokines, c
– chemokines, cc
– chemokines, cxc
– chemokines, cx3c
– interleukin-8
– macrophage inflammatory proteins
– macrophage inflammatory protein-1
– monocyte chemoattractant proteins
– monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
– platelet factor 4
– rantes
– chemotactic factors, eosinophil
– n-formylmethionine leucyl-phenylalanine
– chemotactic factors, macrophage
– n-formylmethionine leucyl-phenylalanine
– growth substances
– cyclins
– cyclin a
– cyclin b
– cyclin d1
– cyclin e
– epidermal growth factor
– fibroblast growth factors
– fibroblast growth factor 1
– fibroblast growth factor 2
– fibroblast growth factor 3
– fibroblast growth factor 4
– fibroblast growth factor 5
– fibroblast growth factor 6
– fibroblast growth factor 7
– fibroblast growth factor 8
– fibroblast growth factor 9
– fibroblast growth factor 10
– growth inhibitors
– angiogenesis inhibitors
– hematopoietic cell growth factors
– colony-stimulating factors
– colony-stimulating factors, recombinant
– granulocyte colony stimulating factor, recombinant
– filgrastim
– granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factors, recombinant
– erythropoietin
– erythropoietin, recombinant
– epoetin alfa
– granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
– granulocyte colony stimulating factor, recombinant
– filgrastim
– granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
– granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factors, recombinant
– interleukin-3
– macrophage colony-stimulating factor
– thrombopoietin
– stem cell factor
– intercellular signaling peptides and proteins
– angiogenic proteins
– angiopoietins
– angiopoietin-1
– angiopoietin-2
– angiostatic proteins
– angiostatins
– endostatins
– fibroblast growth factor 1
– fibroblast growth factor 2
– vascular endothelial growth factors
– vascular endothelial growth factor a
– vascular endothelial growth factor b
– vascular endothelial growth factor c
– vascular endothelial growth factor d
– vascular endothelial growth factor, endocrine-gland-derived
– ephrins
– ephrin-a1
– ephrin-a2
– ephrin-a3
– ephrin-a4
– ephrin-a5
– ephrin-b1
– ephrin-b2
– ephrin-b3
– fibroblast growth factors
– fibroblast growth factor 1
– fibroblast growth factor 2
– fibroblast growth factor 3
– fibroblast growth factor 4
– fibroblast growth factor 5
– fibroblast growth factor 6
– fibroblast growth factor 7
– fibroblast growth factor 8
– fibroblast growth factor 9
– fibroblast growth factor 10
– nerve growth factors
– brain-derived neurotrophic factor
– ciliary neurotrophic factor
– glia maturation factor
– glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factors
– glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor
– neurturin
– nerve growth factor
– neuregulins
– neuregulin-1
– neurotrophin 3
– pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide
– neuregulins
– neuregulin-1
– parathyroid hormone-related protein
– platelet-derived growth factor
– proto-oncogene proteins c-sis
– transforming growth factors
– transforming growth factor alpha
– transforming growth factor beta
– wnt proteins
– wnt1 protein
– wnt2 protein
– interleukins
– interleukin-1
– interleukin-2
– interleukin-3
– interleukin-4
– interleukin-5
– interleukin-6
– interleukin-7
– interleukin-8
– interleukin-9
– interleukin-10
– interleukin-11
– interleukin-12
– interleukin-13
– interleukin-14
– interleukin-15
– interleukin-16
– interleukin-17
– interleukin-18
– maturation-promoting factor
– cdc2 protein kinase
– nerve growth factors
– brain-derived neurotrophic factor
– ciliary neurotrophic factor
– glia maturation factor
– glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factors
– glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor
– neurturin
– nerve growth factor
– neuregulins
– neuregulin-1
– neurotrophin 3
– pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide
– neuregulins
– neuregulin-1
– platelet-derived growth factor
– proto-oncogene proteins c-sis
– somatomedins
– insulin-like growth factor i
– insulin-like growth factor ii
– nonsuppressible insulin-like activity
– transforming growth factors
– transforming growth factor alpha
– transforming growth factor beta
– inflammation mediators
– autacoids
– angiotensins
– angiotensin i
– angiotensin ii
– angiotensin amide
– saralasin
– 1-sarcosine-8-isoleucine angiotensin ii
– angiotensin iii
– eicosanoids
– leukotrienes
– leukotriene a4
– leukotriene b4
– srs-a
– leukotriene c4
– leukotriene d4
– leukotriene e4
– prostaglandins
– prostaglandin endoperoxides
– prostaglandins g
– prostaglandins h
– prostaglandin h2
– 15-hydroxy-11 alpha,9 alpha-(epoxymethano)prosta-5,13-dienoic acid
– prostaglandins a
– prostaglandins b
– prostaglandins d
– prostaglandin d2
– prostaglandins e
– alprostadil
– dinoprostone
– prostaglandins f
– dinoprost
– 6-ketoprostaglandin f1 alpha
– prostaglandins i
– epoprostenol
– thromboxanes
– thromboxane a2
– thromboxane b2
– histamine
– kinins
– bradykinin
– kallidin
– kininogens
– kininogen, high-molecular-weight
– kininogen, low-molecular-weight
– tachykinins
– eledoisin
– kassinin
– neurokinin a
– neurokinin b
– physalaemin
– substance p
– urotensins
– platelet activating factor
– serotonin
– chemokines
– beta-thromboglobulin
– chemokines, c
– chemokines, cc
– chemokines, cxc
– chemokines, cx3c
– interleukin-8
– macrophage inflammatory proteins
– macrophage inflammatory protein-1
– monocyte chemoattractant proteins
– monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
– platelet factor 4
– rantes
– prostaglandins, synthetic
– iloprost
– prostaglandin endoperoxides, synthetic
– 15-hydroxy-11 alpha,9 alpha-(epoxymethano)prosta-5,13-dienoic acid
– prostaglandins a, synthetic
– prostaglandins e, synthetic
– arbaprostil
– 16,16-dimethylprostaglandin e2
– enprostil
– misoprostol
– rioprostil
– prostaglandins f, synthetic
– carboprost
– cloprostenol
– natriuretic peptide, brain
– natriuretic peptide, c-type
– pheromones
– pheromones, human
– sex attractants
– pigments, biological
– adrenochrome
– anthocyanins
– bile pigments
– bilirubin
– biliverdine
– urobilin
– urobilinogen
– carotenoids
– beta carotene
– retinoids
– acitretin
– etretinate
– fenretinide
– isotretinoin
– retinaldehyde
– tretinoin
– vitamin a
– xanthophylls
– canthaxanthin
– lutein
– zeta carotene
– ceroid
– flavins
– riboflavin
– flavin-adenine dinucleotide
– flavin mononucleotide
– hemocyanin
– lipofuscin
– melanins
– phycocyanin
– phycoerythrin
– phytochrome
– phytochrome a
– phytochrome b
– porphyrins
– chlorophyll
– bacteriochlorophylls
– chlorophyllides
– pheophytins
– protochlorophyllide
– coproporphyrins
– deuteroporphyrins
– etioporphyrins
– hematoporphyrins
– hematoporphyrin derivative
– dihematoporphyrin ether
– mesoporphyrins
– metalloporphyrins
– chlorophyll
– bacteriochlorophylls
– chlorophyllides
– protochlorophyllide
– heme
– hemin
– porphyrinogens
– coproporphyrinogens
– uroporphyrinogens
– protoporphyrins
– uroporphyrins
– prodigiosin
– pterins
– xanthopterin
– pyocyanine
– retinal pigments
– opsin
– rhodopsin
– toxins, biological
– bacterial toxins
– botulinum toxins
– botulinum toxin type a
– cholera toxin
– cord factors
– diphtheria toxin
– exfoliatins
– leukocidins
– shiga toxins
– shiga-like toxin i
– shiga-like toxin ii
– shiga toxin
– streptolysins
– tetanus toxin
– virulence factors, bordetella
– adenylate cyclase toxin
– pertussis toxin
– endotoxins
– lipopolysaccharides
– lipid a
– o antigens
– enterotoxins
– cholera toxin
– shiga toxins
– shiga-like toxin i
– shiga-like toxin ii
– shiga toxin
– exotoxins
– exfoliatins
– streptolysins
– hypoglycins
– marine toxins
– ciguatoxins
– cnidarian venoms
– fish venoms
– holothurin
– lyngbya toxins
– mollusk venoms
– conotoxins
– omega-conotoxins
– omega-conotoxin gvia
– eledoisin
– saxitoxin
– tetrodotoxin
– mycotoxins
– aflatoxins
– aflatoxin b1
– aflatoxin m1
– amanitins
– citrinin
– cytochalasins
– cytochalasin b
– cytochalasin d
– fumonisins
– gliotoxin
– ibotenic acid
– muscimol
– ochratoxins
– patulin
– penicillic acid
– phalloidine
– sporidesmins
– sterigmatocystin
– tenuazonic acid
– trichothecenes
– t-2 toxin
– trichodermin
– zearalenone
– venoms
– amphibian venoms
– batrachotoxins
– bombesin
– bufotenin
– physalaemin
– arthropod venoms
– ant venoms
– bee venoms
– apamin
– melitten
– scorpion venoms
– charybdotoxin
– spider venoms
– omega-agatoxin iva
– wasp venoms
– cnidarian venoms
– fish venoms
– mollusk venoms
– conotoxins
– omega-conotoxins
– omega-conotoxin gvia
– eledoisin
– snake venoms
– elapid venoms
– bungarotoxins
– cobra venoms
– cobra neurotoxins
– direct lytic factors
– hydrophid venoms
– erabutoxins
– viper venoms
– crotalid venoms
– ancrod
– batroxobin
– crotoxin
– virulence factors
– virulence factors, bordetella
– adenylate cyclase toxin
– pertussis toxin
The list continues at List of MeSH codes (D25).
D23
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5115656
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Beardsley
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Chris Beardsley
|
Christopher Kellan Beardsley (born 28 February 1984) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker. He is currently a Caribbean based talent scout for FIFA.
Beardsley played youth football with Mickleover Sports and Derby County before starting his senior career with Mansfield Town. He broke into the first team in December 2002, and spent a brief period on loan at Worksop Town in the 2003–04 season. He left Mansfield in June 2004 and joined Doncaster Rovers a month later. He failed to make an impact, and signed for Kidderminster Harriers in December 2004. He rejoined Mansfield in July 2005, but did not play regularly in his one-and-a-half-year stay, and was loaned out to Conference National club Rushden & Diamonds in January 2007. He signed for the club permanently later that month, but struggled for appearances after a change in management. Beardsley joined York City in June 2007, but suffered a broken jaw in a match against Grays Athletic, and failed to establish himself in the team. He joined Kettering Town in December 2007, initially on loan, and helped the club win promotion to the Conference Premier during the 2007–08 season.
He rejoined Kidderminster on loan in November 2008, making a handful of appearances before being released by Kettering in May 2009. He signed for Stevenage Borough later that month, and helped them earn promotion to League Two in the 2009–10 season. Beardsley was part of the team that earned promotion to League One after winning the 2010–11 League Two play-offs. He left Stevenage when his contract expired in June 2012, and signed for Preston North End two months later. He struggled for appearances after a change in management, and spent most of the 2013–14 season on loan with Bristol Rovers. Beardsley returned to Stevenage in July 2014, and helped them to the 2014–15 League Two play-offs. After being released in May 2015, he started a third spell with Mansfield a month later, where he stayed for one season before his release in May 2016. He joined club Burton Albion as a fitness coach in July 2016, and took charge for one match as caretaker manager in January 2021.
Early life
He was born in Derby, Derbyshire and attended Allestree Woodlands School from 1995 to 2000 and The Manor Academy from 2000 to 2003.
Career
Early career
Beardsley played junior football for Mickleover Sports and aged 11 joined the youth system of hometown club Derby County, where he stayed for five years. He joined Mansfield Town's youth system on a three-year scholarship in June 2000 after leaving school. He missed the second year of his scholarship from a double stress fracture in his back, but within six months of returning to full training made his first-team debut aged 18 as a 57th-minute substitute in a 1–0 away defeat to Brentford on 28 December 2002. Beardsley made five appearances in the 2002–03 season, after which Mansfield were relegated to the Third Division with a 23rd-place finish in the Second Division. He signed a one-year professional contract with the club on 4 July 2003. His first career goal came with a header in Mansfield's 2–0 away win over York City on 11 October 2003.
In January 2004, Beardsley was sent on a one-month loan to Northern Premier League Premier Division club Worksop Town, who had tried to sign him at the start of the 2003–04 season. He made his debut in Worksop's 4–1 home win against Radcliffe Borough on 17 January 2004, in which he was substituted on 80 minutes. In the following match, Beardsley scored the only goal of a 1–0 home win against Blyth Spartans on 7 February 2004 with a volley. His fourth and final appearance for Worksop came in a 1–1 home draw with Whitby Town, playing 76 minutes before being substituted. Beardsley made 17 appearances and scored once for Mansfield during the 2003–04 season, in which they finished in fifth place in the Third Division. He was released by the club in June 2004.
Doncaster Rovers and Kidderminster Harriers
Beardsley joined newly promoted League One club Doncaster Rovers on 19 July 2004 after a successful trial. He debuted in their 4–3 away loss to Brentford on 10 August 2004, which he entered as a 79th-minute substitute. His only goal for Doncaster came after being assisted by Ben Jackson in the 77th minute of a 1–0 away win over Lincoln City in the Football League Trophy on 28 September 2014. Having struggled to establish himself at Doncaster, Beardsley moved to Kidderminster Harriers of League Two on 9 December 2004 on a contract until the end of the 2004–05 season. He made his debut two days later as a 78th-minute substitute in a 2–1 home win over Rochdale. Beardsley scored his first goal for Kidderminster with a close-range finish in their 3–1 home defeat to Southend United on 3 January 2005. He played 25 times for Kidderminster, scoring 5 goals, but they were relegated to the Conference National after ranking in 23rd place in League Two. He was offered a new one-year contract with the club in May 2005.
Return to Mansfield and Rushden & Diamonds
Beardsley's former club Mansfield spoke to him about re-signing for them in May 2005, although Kidderminster demanded a £5,000 fee for him, half of which would go his former club Doncaster. He eventually joined Mansfield, now playing in League Two, on 5 August 2005 for a nominal fee. He debuted as an 82nd-minute substitute in their 3–0 home win over Torquay United on 13 August 2005. His 2005–06 season came to an end during a 3–2 home defeat to local rivals Notts County on 29 August 2005, when he collided with goalkeeper Kevin Pilkington and broke his leg. Beardsley had made four appearances that season, which Mansfield finished in 16th place in League Two. He returned to the team almost a year later, on 12 August 2006, as an 88th-minute substitute in a 1–1 home draw with Stockport County. His first two goals of the 2006–07 season came in Mansfield's 3–0 Football League Trophy home victory against Grimsby Town on 31 October 2006.
As he was not playing regularly for Mansfield, Beardsley joined Conference National club Rushden & Diamonds on 19 January 2007 on a one-month loan. He made his debut a day later, when starting in Rushden's 2–1 home victory against Stafford Rangers, and scored his first goal in the following match, with a 75th-minute header in a 3–1 home win over Cambridge United. Having helped Rushden move up the table with two goals from three matches, he signed for the club permanently on 31 January 2007 on a one-and-a-half-year contract on a free transfer. He finished 2006–07 with 13 appearances and 2 goals for Rushden, as they finished the season in 12th place in the Conference National. He was released by the club in May 2007 following a change in management.
York City and Kettering Town
Beardsley was signed by Conference Premier club York City on 19 June 2007, to provide competition for Richard Brodie, Craig Farrell and Onome Sodje. He made his debut as a starter in their 2–1 home defeat to Cambridge on 11 August 2007, in which he was substituted on 62 minutes. Despite struggling for a place in the team, Beardsley turned down a loan move to Conference North club Tamworth in September 2007, in order to prove his worth at York. He suffered a broken jaw in two places during York's 2–0 away win over Grays Athletic on 22 September 2007, after being elbowed by Jamie Stuart in an off-the-ball incident, which was likely to rule Beardsley out for at least three months. Essex Police confirmed they were making enquiries following the incident. Beardsley returned to the team as a 73rd-minute substitute in York's 1–1 home draw with Crawley Town on 1 December 2007. He finished his York career with nine appearances.
To aid his return from injury, Beardsley joined Conference North club Kettering Town on 31 December 2007 on a one-month loan. He made an immediate impact, scoring two goals in a 6–1 home win over Solihull Moors a day later, after which he was praised in the Northamptonshire Evening Telegraph for a "magnificent debut performance". Beardsley continued his scoring form, and had scored five goals from five appearances by the time he joined Kettering permanently on 28 January 2008 on a one-and-a-half-year contract on a free transfer. He played in all of Kettering's remaining fixtures in the 2007–08 season, which he completed with 11 goals from 22 appearances, as the club was promoted to the Conference Premier as Conference North champions.
Beardsley featured regularly for Kettering at the start of the 2008–09 season, and scored his first goal of the season after turning in Jean-Paul Marna's cross in the 82nd minute of a 2–0 away win over Cambridge on 25 August 2008. Having scored four goals in the first two months of 2008–09, he rejoined former club Kidderminster on 27 November 2008 on a one-month loan, with a view to a permanent transfer. He debuted as an 80th-minute substitute in a 3–2 home victory against Salisbury City on 6 December 2008. Beardsley made three appearances while on loan at Kidderminster, and returned to Kettering after being recalled in January 2009. Only weeks after returning, he entered Kettering's 4–2 home loss to Premier League team Fulham in the FA Cup on 24 January 2009 as a 73rd-minute substitute. Beardsley featured mostly as a substitute over the remainder of 2008–09, which he finished with 44 appearances and 5 goals for Kettering. They finished in eighth place in the Conference Premier, and Beardsley was released by the club in May 2009.
Stevenage
He signed for Conference Premier club Stevenage Borough on 27 May 2009 on a one-year contract, reuniting him with manager Graham Westley, who had previously signed Beardsley for Rushden. He made a scoring debut in Stevenage's 3–0 home victory over Ebbsfleet United on 18 August 2009, with a shot from 12 yards in the eighth-minute. Beardsley featured regularly in the first half of the 2009–10 season, but scored only three goals before the Christmas period, in which he scored twice in two matches against Cambridge. In the first match on 26 December 2009, he scored with a shot from Ronnie Henry's cross in the 85th minute of a 3–1 away win, and in the second match on 1 January 2010, his goal was assisted by Yemi Odubade, as Stevenage won 4–1 at home. The latter result saw Stevenage move to the top of the Conference Premier table. Beardsley's goal tally reached double figures when he scored twice in a 5–1 away win over Kidderminster in the FA Trophy semi-final first leg on 13 March 2010. He started in the final at Wembley Stadium on 8 May 2010, being substituted on 66 minutes, as Stevenage were beaten 2–1 after extra time by Barrow. His 2009–10 season was successful, with Beardsley scoring 10 times from 45 appearances as Stevenage won promotion to League Two after winning the Conference Premier championship. This was the first time in the club's history that Stevenage had been promoted to the Football League.
He made his first appearance of the 2010–11 season in Stevenage's first ever Football League fixture, coming on as a 60th-minute substitute in a 2–2 home draw against Macclesfield Town on 7 August 2010. He scored his first goal of the season in the 50th minute of a 1–1 draw away to Aldershot Town on 28 August 2010, after finishing from Odubade's flick-on. Beardsley suffered a dislocated shoulder in Stevenage's 1–0 home loss to Brentford in the Football League Trophy on 31 August 2010, consequently ruling him out of the team for six weeks. He returned to the team on 16 November 2010, starting the FA Cup win against Milton Keynes Dons, before being substituted in the 81st minute. Stevenage qualified for the play-offs with a sixth-place finish in League Two, and Beardsley scored his second goal of 2010–11 in the second leg 1–0 win away to Accrington Stanley on 20 May 2011. Beardsley's goal was scored in the 90th minute with a shot into the bottom left corner, having come on as a 77th-minute substitute, and ensured Stevenage won the tie 3–0 on aggregate. He came on as an 85th-minute substitute in the final on 28 May 2011, as Stevenage beat Torquay 1–0 at Old Trafford to earn promotion to League One. Beardsley made 32 appearances during the club's first season in the Football League, scoring 2 goals.
Beardsley made his first appearance of the 2011–12 season as a 95th-minute substitute in a 4–3 extra-time defeat at home to Peterborough United in the League Cup, scoring Stevenage's third goal with a header on 117 minutes, although they lost 4–3. He scored twice in Stevenage's 3–0 away win over Stourbridge in the FA Cup on 3 December 2011, scoring the club's first two goals of the match midway through the second half, to ensure Stevenage progressed to the third round for the second consecutive season. Recurring hamstring injuries meant Beardsley struggled for appearances during the second half of the season, scoring one further goal on the last day of the regular season, with a 20-yard shot in a 3–0 home win over Bury on 5 May 2012. With a sixth-place finish in League One, Stevenage qualified for the play-offs, and faced Sheffield United in the semi-final. Beardsley featured in the second leg 1–0 away defeat as a 63rd-minute substitute, as Stevenage were eliminated 1–0 on aggregate. He scored 10 times in 40 appearances during 2011–12, and was Stevenage's top scorer for the season. In June 2012, Beardsley left Stevenage after he failed to agree a new contract with the club.
Preston North End
Beardsley signed for League One club Preston North End on 12 August 2012 on a free transfer, linking up again with manager Graham Westley. He had spent the pre-season ahead of the 2012–13 season training with the club, although the transfer had been held up while the club waited for confirmation from the Football League in accordance with new financial fair play rules. Beardsley made his Preston debut in a 2–0 home win over Huddersfield Town in the League Cup on 14 August 2012, assisting the club's second goal of the match, with his low cross being scored by Nicky Wroe. He scored his first goal for Preston on 4 September 2012 after converting David Amoo's cross in the third-minute of their 1–1 away draw with Carlisle United in the Football League Trophy, a tie that Preston won 3–1 on penalties. Beardsley scored one further goal that month, heading in Jeffrey Monakana's cross on 64 minutes as Preston came from behind to beat Yeovil Town 3–2 at home. It proved to be Beardsley's last goal for five months, ending his goal drought in a 3–1 away loss to Yeovil on 12 February 2013, in what was Westley's last match in charge of the club. Beardsley made just two appearances under new manager Simon Grayson over the remainder of the season, both as a second-half substitute. Shortly after the season ended, he was told he could leave Preston if a suitable offer was received. He made 22 appearances during the 2012–13 season, scoring 3 times, as Preston ranked in 14th place in League One.
Having failed to make an appearance for Preston at the start of the 2013–14 season, Beardsley joined League Two club Bristol Rovers on a one-month loan on 31 October 2013. He debuted two days later when starting Rovers' 1–0 away defeat to Oxford United, in which he was substituted in the 86th minute. His first goal for the club came in his next appearance, with a header in a 3–3 home draw with York in the FA Cup on 8 November 2015. Having scored two goals from four appearances, Beardsley's loan was extended on 22 November 2013, with the new agreement running until 5 January 2014. Just a day later, he was red carded for a late tackle in Rovers' 1–0 away defeat to Burton Albion, for which he received a one-match suspension. His loan was extended once more on 6 January 2014, until the end of the 2013–14 season, as manager John Ward felt that "Up front Chris gives a little bit more". Beardsley finished the loan with 28 appearances and 3 goals, while Rovers were relegated to the Conference Premier with a 23rd-place finish in League Two. He was released by Preston in May 2014.
Return to Stevenage and third spell with Mansfield
Beardsley was reunited with Westley when re-signing for Stevenage, now playing in League Two, on 12 July 2014. He missed the start of the 2014–15 season through injury, and only made his debut on 16 September 2014 as a starter in Stevenage's 2–1 away defeat to Bury, in which he was substituted on 62 minutes. Beardsley's first goal came in a 3–2 away defeat to Portsmouth on 21 October 2014, after latching on to a Joe Devera back-header and scoring in the 74th minute. After scoring twice in Stevenage's 5–1 home win over Cheltenham Town on 15 November 2014 he endured a five-month goal drought, his next goal coming with a close-range 89th-minute equaliser in a 2–2 draw away to Accrington on 18 April 2015. Stevenage qualified for the play-offs with a sixth-place finish in League Two, with Southend their opponents in the semi-final. Beardsley started both matches, but Stevenage were eliminated 4–2 on aggregate, ending his season on 32 appearances and 4 goals. He was released by the club in May 2015, but was praised by chairman Phil Wallace, who commented that Beardsley had "proved key to Stevenage establishing itself as a Football League club under Graham Westley".
He re-signed for Mansfield on 5 June 2015, starting a third spell with the League Two club. His debut came after starting a 4–1 away defeat to Sheffield Wednesday in the League Cup on 11 August 2015. He played regularly at the start of the 2015–16 season, but had a spell out of the team with a stress fracture in his shin. He suffered a broken nose on his return as an 89th-minute substitute in a 3–1 away win over Barnet on 28 November 2015, and continued to struggle with his shin injury. Beardsley's first Mansfield goal in over nine years came on 30 January 2016 with a header from Mal Benning's corner on 60 minutes in a 1–0 away victory over Crawley. He finished the 2015–16 season with 16 appearances and 1 goal as Mansfield ranked in 12th place in League Two. He was released by the club in May 2016.
Style of play
Beardsley played as a striker, and was described by his Stevenage teammate Mark Roberts as the "perfect man to lead the line", because of his work ethic.
Coaching career
Beardsley moved into coaching when being appointed the fitness coach at newly promoted Championship club Burton Albion on 7 July 2016. He registered as a player at the club in August 2018 and made one appearance in the 2018–19 season, as an 89th-minute substitute in a 2–2 draw away to Portsmouth on 23 October. He was in joint caretaker charge, alongside Nick Fenton, for Burton's 5–1 home defeat to Oxford on 2 January 2021.
On 30 August 2023, Beardsley's imminent departure from Burton Albion was announced with him set to take up a role as a talent coach with FIFA in the Caribbean, based in Aruba on a two-year contract from 9 September.
Personal life
Beardsley studied sports journalism at Staffordshire University from 2008 to 2010, graduating with a first-class honours degree. He also wrote frequently for a local newspaper in Stevenage. He supports his hometown club, Derby County.
Career statistics
Managerial statistics
Honours
Kettering Town
Conference North: 2007–08
Stevenage
Conference Premier: 2009–10
FA Trophy runner-up: 2009–10
Football League Two play-offs: 2011
References
External links
Profile at the Burton Albion F.C. website
1984 births
Living people
Footballers from Derby
English men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Mickleover F.C. players
Derby County F.C. players
Mansfield Town F.C. players
Worksop Town F.C. players
Doncaster Rovers F.C. players
Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players
Rushden & Diamonds F.C. players
York City F.C. players
Kettering Town F.C. players
Stevenage F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
Bristol Rovers F.C. players
Burton Albion F.C. players
English Football League players
Northern Premier League players
National League (English football) players
English football managers
Burton Albion F.C. managers
English Football League managers
Association football coaches
Burton Albion F.C. non-playing staff
Alumni of Staffordshire University
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAINWAY
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MAINWAY
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MAINWAY is a database maintained by the United States' National Security Agency (NSA) containing metadata for hundreds of billions of telephone calls made through the largest telephone carriers in the United States, including AT&T, Verizon, and T-Mobile.
The existence of this database and the NSA program that compiled it was unknown to the general public until USA Today broke the story on May 10, 2006.
It is estimated that the database contains over 1.9 trillion call-detail records. The records include detailed call information (caller, receiver, date/time of call, length of call, etc.) for use in traffic analysis and social network analysis, but do not include audio information or transcripts of the content of the phone calls.
According to former NSA director Michael Hayden, the NSA sought to deploy MAINWAY prior to 9/11 in response to the Millennium Plot but did not do so because it did not comply with US law. Hayden wrote: "The answer from [the Justice Department] was clear: ' ... you can't do this.'" As of June 2013, the database stores metadata for at least five years. According to Pulitzer Prize winning journalist James Risen, MAINWAY was the most important of the four components that comprised the ThinThread program.
The database's existence has prompted fierce objections. It is often viewed as an illegal warrantless search and violation of the pen register provisions of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act and (in some cases) the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution.
The George W. Bush administration neither confirmed nor denied the existence of the domestic call record database. This contrasts with a related NSA controversy concerning warrantless surveillance of selected telephone calls; in that case they did confirm the existence of the program of debated legality. That program's code name was Stellar Wind.
Similar programs exist or are planned in other countries, including Sweden (Titan traffic database) and Great Britain (Interception Modernisation Programme).
The MAINWAY equivalent for Internet traffic is MARINA.
Content
According to an anonymous source, the database is "the largest database ever assembled in the world," and contains call-detail records (CDRs) for all phone calls, domestic and international. A call-detail record consists of the phone numbers of the callers and recipients along with time, position and duration of the call. While the database does not contain specific names or addresses, that information is widely available from non-classified sources.
According to the research group TeleGeography, AT&T (including the former SBC), Verizon, and BellSouth connected nearly 500 billion telephone calls in 2005 and nearly two trillion calls since late 2001. It is reported that all four companies were paid to provide the information to the NSA.
Usage
Although such a database of phone records would not be useful as a tool in itself for national security, it could be used as an element of broader national security analytical efforts and data mining. These efforts could involve analysts using the data to connect phone numbers with names and links to persons of interest. Such efforts have been the focus of the NSA's recent attempts to acquire key technologies from high tech firms in Silicon Valley and elsewhere. Link analysis software, such as Link Explorer or the Analyst's Notebook, is used by law enforcement to organize and view links that are demonstrated through such information as telephone and financial records, which are imported into the program from other sources. Neural network software is used to detect patterns, classify and cluster data as well as forecast future events.
Using relational mathematics, it is possible to find out if someone changes their telephone number by analyzing and comparing calling patterns.
ThinThread, a system designed largely by William Binney, which pre-dated this database, but was discarded for the Trailblazer Project, introduced some of the technology which is used to analyze the data. Michael Hayden, former director of the NSA, admitted as much in an interview, saying: "But we judged fundamentally that as good as [ThinThread] was, and believe me, we pulled a whole bunch of elements out of it and used it for our final solution for these problems, as good as it was, it couldn't scale sufficiently to the volume of modern communications." Where ThinThread encrypted privacy data, however, no such measures have been reported with respect to the current system.
Response
In response, the Bush administration defended its activities, while neither specifically confirming or denying the existence of the potentially illegal program. According to the Deputy White House Press Secretary, "The intelligence activities undertaken by the United States government are lawful, necessary and required to protect Americans from terrorist attacks."
Senator Arlen Specter claimed he would hold hearings with the telecommunications CEOs involved. The Senate Intelligence Committee was expected to question Air Force General Michael Hayden about the data-gathering during his confirmation hearings as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Hayden was in charge of the NSA from 1999 through 2005.
Commenting on the apparent incompatibility of the NSA call database with previous assurances by President Bush, former Republican Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich told Fox News, "I'm not going to defend the indefensible. The Bush administration has an obligation to level with the American people ... I don't think the way they've handled this can be defended by reasonable people." Later on Meet the Press, Gingrich stated that "everything that has been done is totally legal," and he said the NSA program was defending the indefensible, "because they refuse to come out front and talk about it."
Republican Senator Lindsey Graham told Fox News, "The idea of collecting millions or thousands of phone numbers, how does that fit into following the enemy?"
House Republican Caucus chairwoman Deborah Pryce said, "While I support aggressively tracking al-Qaida, the administration needs to answer some tough questions about the protection of our civil liberties."
Former Republican House Majority Leader John Boehner said, "I am concerned about what I read with regard to NSA databases of phone calls."
Democratic senator Patrick Leahy, ranking member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, said "Are you telling me that tens of millions of Americans are involved with al-Qaida? These are tens of millions of Americans who are not suspected of anything. ... Where does it stop?"
On May 15, 2006, FCC Commissioner Michael Copps called for the FCC to open an inquiry into the lawfulness of the disclosure of America's phone records.
In May 2006, Pat Robertson called the NSA wire-tapping a "tool of oppression."
In May 2006, former majority leader Trent Lott stated "What are people worried about? What is the problem? Are you doing something you're not supposed to?"
On May 16, 2006, both Verizon and BellSouth stated not only did they not hand over records, but that they were never contacted by the NSA in the first place.
On June 30, 2006, Bloomberg reported the NSA "asked AT&T Inc. to help it set up a domestic call monitoring site seven months before the Sept. 11, 2001 attacks," citing court papers filed June 23, 2006 by lawyers in McMurray v. Verizon Communications Inc., 06cv3650, in the Southern District of New York.
Internet monitoring
Wired magazine
On May 22, 2006, it was revealed by investigative reporter Seymour Hersh and Wired magazine that the program involved the NSA setting up splitters to the routing cores of many telecoms companies and to major Internet traffic hubs. These provided a direct connection via an alleged "black room" known as Room 641A. This room allows most U.S. telecoms communications and Internet traffic to be redirected to the NSA.
According to a security consultant who worked on the program, "What the companies are doing is worse than turning over records ... they're providing total access to all the data," and a former senior intelligence official said, "This is not about getting a cardboard box of monthly phone bills in alphabetical order ... the NSA is getting real-time actionable intelligence."
Partial retraction
On June 30, 2006 USA Today printed a partial retraction about its controversial article the prior month saying: "... USA TODAY also spoke again with the sources who had originally provided information about the scope and contents of the domestic calls database. All said the published report accurately reflected their knowledge and understanding of the NSA program, but none could document a contractual relationship between BellSouth or Verizon and the NSA, or that the companies turned over bulk calling records to the NSA. Based on its reporting after the May 11 article, USA TODAY has now concluded that while the NSA has built a massive domestic calls record database involving the domestic call records of telecommunications companies, the newspaper cannot confirm that BellSouth or Verizon contracted with the NSA to provide bulk calling records to that database ..."
Denials
Five days after the story appeared, BellSouth officials said they could not find evidence of having handed over such records. "Based on our review to date, we have confirmed no such contract exists and we have not provided bulk customer calling records to the NSA," the officials said. USA Today replied that BellSouth officials had not denied the allegation when contacted the day before the story was published. Verizon has also asserted that it has not turned over such records.
Companies are permitted by US securities law (15 U.S.C. 78m(b)(3)(A)) to refrain from properly accounting for their use of assets in matters involving national security, when properly authorized by an agency or department head acting under authorization by the President of the United States. President Bush issued a presidential memorandum on May 5, 2006 delegating authority to make such a designation to Director of National Intelligence John Negroponte, just as the NSA call database scandal appeared in the media.
Lawsuits
The Electronic Frontier Foundation filed a related suit against AT&T on January 31, 2006, alleging that the firm had given NSA access to its database, a charge reiterated in the USA Today article. Verizon and BellSouth have both claimed they were never contacted by the NSA, nor did they provide any information to the agency, though US codes of law permit companies to lie about their activities when the President believes that telling the truth would compromise national security.
On June 6, 2013, in the wake of well-publicized leaks of top secret documents by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden, conservative public interest lawyer and Judicial Watch founder Larry Klayman filed a lawsuit (Klayman v. Obama) challenging the constitutionality and statutory authorization of the government's wholesale collection of phone record metadata. On June 10, the American Civil Liberties Union and Yale Law School's Media Freedom and Information Clinic filed a motion with the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) asking for the secret FISC opinions on the Patriot Act to be made public in the light of the Guardian'''s publication of a leaked FISC court order about the collection of Verizon call records metadata. On June 11, the ACLU filed a lawsuit (ACLU v. Clapper) against Director of National Intelligence James Clapper challenging the legality of the NSA's telephony metadata collection program. Once the judge in each case had issued rulings seemingly at odds with one another, Gary Schmitt (former staff director of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence) wrote in The Weekly Standard, "The two decisions have generated public confusion over the constitutionality of the NSA's data collection program—a kind of judicial 'he-said, she-said' standoff." The ACLU contested the decision in the Second Circuit Court of Appeals.
In 2015, the appeals court ruled that Section 215 of the Patriot Act did not authorize the bulk collection of metadata, which judge Gerard E. Lynch called a "staggering" amount of information.
In November 2014, an appeals court in Washington heard arguments in the case Klayman v. Obama. During the hearings, Justice Department attorney H. Thomas Byron defended the NSA's collection of phone records and stated that "the government doesn't and never has acquired all or nearly all of the telephone call data records."
Claims
New Jersey
Spurred by the public disclosure of the NSA call database, a lawsuit was filed against Verizon on May 12, 2006 at the Federal District Court in Manhattan by Princeton, N.J. based attorneys Carl Mayer and Bruce Afran. The lawsuit seeks $1,000 for each violation of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, and would total approximately $5 billion if the court certifies the suit as a class-action lawsuit.
Oregon
On May 12, 2006, an Oregon man filed a lawsuit against Verizon Northwest for $1 billion.
Maine
On May 13, 2006, a complaint in Maine was filed by a group of 21 Maine residents who asked the Public Utilities Commission (PUC) to demand answers from Verizon about whether it provided telephone records and information to the federal government without customers' knowledge or consent. Maine law requires the PUC to investigate complaints against a utility if a petition involves at least 10 of the utility's customers.
California (E.F.F.)
Shortly after the NSA call database story surfaced, a San Francisco lawsuit, Hepting v. AT&T, was filed by the Electronic Frontier Foundation.
Justice Department response
On May 14, 2006, the Los Angeles Times reported that the U.S. Justice Department called for an end to an eavesdropping lawsuit against AT&T Corp., citing possible damage from the litigation to national security.In 1970, when stolen COINTELPRO documents were released to members of Congress, journalists, and organizations who were named in the files, the administration's response to the disclosures was to warn that any further disclosures "could endanger the lives or cause other serious harm to persons engaged in investigation activities on behalf of the United States." Stone, Geoffrey R., Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism, p. 495
In an April 28 Statement of Interest of the AT&T case, the US government indicated that it intends to invoke the State Secrets Privilege in a bid to dismiss the action.
Legal status
The NSA call database was not approved by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) as required by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA). The FISC was established in 1978 to secretly authorize access to call-identifying information and interception of communications of suspected foreign agents on U.S. soil. Stanford Law School's Chip Pitts provided an overview of the relevant legal concerns in The Washington Spectator.
Separate from the question of whether the database is illegal under FISA, one may ask whether the call detail records are covered by the privacy protection of the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. This is unclear. As the U.S. has no explicit constitutional guarantee on the secrecy of correspondence, any protection on communications is an extension from litigation of the privacy provided to "houses and papers." This again is dependent on the flexuous requirement of a reasonable expectation of privacy.
The most relevant U.S. Supreme Court case is Smith v. Maryland. In that case, the Court addressed pen registers, which are mechanical devices that record the numbers dialed on a telephone; a pen register does not record call contents. The Court ruled that pen registers are not covered by the Fourth Amendment: "The installation and use of a pen register, ... was not a 'search,' and no warrant was required." More generally, "This Court consistently has held that a person has no legitimate expectation of privacy in information he ... voluntarily turns over to third parties."
The data collecting activity may however be illegal under other telecommunications privacy laws.
Stored Communications Act
The 1986 Stored Communications Act (18 U.S.C. § 2701) forbids turnover of information to the government without a warrant or court order, the law gives consumers the right to sue for violations of the act.
A governmental entity may require the disclosure by a provider of electronic communication service of the contents of a wire or electronic communication ... only pursuant to a warrant issued using the procedures described in the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
However, the Stored Communications Act also authorizes phone providers to conduct electronic surveillance if the Attorney General of the United States certifies that a court order or warrant is not required and that the surveillance is required:
[Telephone providers] are authorized to ... intercept ... communications or to conduct electronic surveillance ... if such provider ... has been provided with a certification in writing by ... the Attorney General of the United States that no warrant or court order is required by law, that all statutory requirements have been met, and that the specified assistance is required.
The Act provides for special penalties for violators when "the offense is committed ... in violation of the Constitution or laws of the United States or any State."
Finally, the act allows any customer whose telephone company provided this information to sue that company in civil court for (a) actual damages to the consumer, (b) any profits by the telephone company, (c) punitive damages, and (d) attorney fees. The minimum amount a successful customer will recover under (a) and (b) is $1,000:
Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act
President Clinton signed into law the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994, after it was passed in both the House and Senate by a voice vote. That law is an act "to make clear a telecommunications carrier's duty to cooperate in the interception of communications for law enforcement purposes, and for other purposes." The act states that a court order isn't the only lawful way of obtaining call information, saying, "A telecommunications carrier shall ensure that any interception of communications or access to call-identifying information effected within its switching premises can be activated only in accordance with a court order or other lawful authorization."
Historical background
The FISC was inspired by the recommendations of the Church Committee, which investigated a wide range of intelligence and counter-intelligence incidents and programs, including some U.S. Army programs and the FBI program COINTELPRO.
In 1971, the US media reported that COINTELPRO targeted thousands of Americans during the 1960s, after several stolen FBI dossiers were passed to news agencies. The Church Committee Senate final report, which investigated COINTELPRO declared that:
Legality
The legality of blanket wiretapping has never been sustained in court, but on July 10, 2008 the US Congress capitulated to the administration in granting blanket immunity to the administration and telecom industry for potentially illegal domestic surveillance. The bill was passed during the crucible of the 2008 presidential campaign, and was supported by then-Sen. Barack Obama, D-Ill., who was campaigning against Sen. John McCain, R-Ariz., for the presidency.
Obama provided qualified support for the bill. He promised to "carefully monitor" the program for abuse, but said that, "Given the legitimate threats we face, providing effective intelligence collection tools with appropriate safeguards is too important to delay. So I support the compromise." It is difficult to argue that appropriate safeguards are in place, when CDRs from all the major telecommunications companies are provided to the NSA.
The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court has released an opinion, dated August 29, 2013, written by U.S. District Judge Claire Eagan of the Northern District of Oklahoma, in which she said "metadata that includes phone numbers, time and duration of calls is not protected by the Fourth Amendment, since the content of the calls is not accessed." In the option, Judge Eagan said "data collection is authorized under Section 215 of the Patriot Act that allows the FBI to issue orders to produce tangible things if there are reasonable grounds to believe the records are relevant to a terrorism investigation." The option authorized the FBI to "collect the information for probes of 'unknown' as well as known terrorists." According to the New York Times, "other judges had routinely reauthorized the data collection program every 90 days."
Political action
The Senate Armed Services Committee was scheduled to hold hearings with NSA whistle-blower Russell Tice the week following the revelation of the NSA call database. Tice indicated that his testimony would reveal information on additional illegal activity related to the NSA call database that has not yet been made public, and that even a number of NSA employees believe what they are doing is illegal. Tice also told the National Journal that he "will not confirm or deny" if his testimony will include information on spy satellites being used to spy on American citizens from space. However, these hearings did not occur and the reason why is unknown.
Polls
In a Newsweek poll of 1007 people conducted between May 11 and 12, 2006, 53% of Americans said that "the NSA's surveillance program goes too far in invading privacy " and 57% said that in light of the NSA data-mining news and other executive actions the Bush-Cheney Administration has "gone too far in expanding presidential power" while 41% see it as a tool to "combat terrorism" and 35% think the Administration's actions were appropriate.
According to a Washington Post telephone poll of 502 people, conducted on May 11, 63% of the American public supports the program, 35% do not; 66% were not bothered by the idea of the NSA having a record of their calls, while 34% were; 56% however thought it was right for the knowledge of the program to be released while 42% thought it was not. These results were later contradicted by further polls on the subject, specifically a USA Today/Gallup poll showing 51% opposition and 43% support for the program.
Qwest Communications
The USA Today'' report indicated that Qwest's then CEO, Joseph Nacchio, doubted the NSA's assertion that warrants were unnecessary. In negotiations, the NSA pressured the company to turn over the records. Qwest attorneys asked the NSA to obtain approval from the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court. When the NSA indicated they would not seek this approval, Qwest's new CEO Richard Notebaert declined NSA's request for access. Later, T-Mobile explicitly stated they do not participate in warrantless surveillance.
See also
References
External links
(Original report of the NSA call database)
National Security Agency
Government databases in the United States
George W. Bush administration controversies
Privacy of telecommunications
Counterterrorism in the United States
Surveillance scandals
Mass surveillance
Surveillance
Law enforcement databases in the United States
de:National Security Agency Call Database
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Marine%20Fisheries%20Research%20Institute
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Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
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The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute was established in the government of India on 3 February 1947 under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare and later, in 1967, it joined the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) family and emerged as a leading tropical marine fisheries research institute in the world. The Headquarters of the ICAR-CMFRI is located in Kochi, Kerala. Initially the institute focused its research efforts on creating a strong database on marine fisheries sector by developing scientific methodologies for estimating the marine fish landings and effort inputs, taxonomy of marine organisms and the biological aspects of the exploited stocks of finfish and shellfish on which fisheries management were to be based. This focus contributed significantly to development of the marine fisheries sector from a predominantly artisanal, sustenance fishery till the early sixties to that of a complex, multi-gear, multi-species fisheries.
One of the major achievements of ICAR-CMFRI is the development and refinement of a stratified multistage random sampling method for estimation of marine fish landings in the country with a coast line of over coastline and landing centers. Institute personnel maintain the National Marine Fisheries Data Centre (NMFDC) with over 9 million catch and effort data records of more than 1000 fished species, from all maritime states of India.
The institute has four regional centres located at Mandapam, Visakhapatnam, Mangalore and Vizhinjam and seven regional stations at Mumbai, Chennai, Calicut, Karwar, Tuticorin, Veraval and Digha. There are also fifteen field centres and 2 KVKs (Ernakulam and Kavaratti, Lakshadweep) under the control of the institute. The nearly fivefold increase in marine fish production and the increasing contribution of marine fisheries to the GDP growth are supported by the robust research efforts and its impact on fisher folk, fish farmers, fisheries policy planners and managers.
Vision
Sustainable marine fisheries through management intervention and enhanced coastal fish production through mariculture for improved coastal livelihoods.
Mission
To develop an information based management system for changing over from open access to regulated regime in marine fisheries, augment coastal fish production through mariculture and sea ranching and restore critical marine habitats.
Mandate
Monitor and assess the marine fisheries resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) including the impact of climate and anthropogenic activity and develop sustainable fishery management plans.
Basic and strategic research in mariculture to enhance production.
Act as a repository of geo-spatial information on marine fishery resources and habitats.
Consultancy services; and human resource development through training, education and extension.
Objectives
• Marine Fishery Resource Assessment
• Productivity and Production Enhancement through Mariculture
• Conservation of Marine Biodiversity
• Transfer of Technology, Training and Consultancy
Major research focus and its impact on marine fisheries sector in India
Support to strengthen the marine fishery management regime in India
Right from its inception, CMFRI has focussed on gathering information of the marine fishery resources of India. Through its sustained efforts a database on fisheries landings and effort statistics has aided the developing effective fisheries management plans with stakeholders participation; proactive measures to ensure regulated and sustainable fisheries and aiding efforts in marine fisheries management realm by preparing policy guideline documents based on the research programmes of the institute. Notably, the National policy on Marine Fisheries (NPMF) 2017 notified by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare was developed with wide stakeholders’ consultations by the institute and is a major step towards a framework for a sustainable marine fisheries development model in the country.
Marine fisheries policies for the state of Kerala & Lakshadweep Islands, Karnataka, Goa and Andhra Pradesh are formulated with the reassert and policy inputs from CMFRI scientific expert teams. The institute has also prepared a document entitled Indian Marine Fisheries Code which guides the establishment of a sustainable marine fisheries resources management model for India in accordance with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO's) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF). Other contributions of CMFRI recognized as major inputs for the national level policy making are policy guidance on Fish Aggregating Device (FAD); based on which Government of Karnataka banned an FAD assisted cuttlefish fishery that was contributing to growth and recruitment overfishing of cuttlefishes and leading to loss of livelihoods and income to local fishers, Guidance on National Plan of Action (NPOA) for sharks in India for increasing awareness of the need to ensure their sustainable exploitation and conservation, guideline on temporal and spatial measures of effective Trawl Ban for Government of Kerala, recommendation on Minimum legal size (MLS) of commercially important marine fishes aimed at restricting juvenile fishing for various coastal States (Based on which Govt. of Kerala notified MLS for 58 commercially important species in the Gazette), recommendations on use of technology in agricultural insurance’ to NITI Aayog, Guidelines for the Mariculture Policy in India etc. ICAR-CMFRI also coordinated and provided scientific inputs for India's first Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fishery, for the short-neck clam in the Ashtamudi Lake, Kerala.
Estimation of marine fish landings
The institute collects Marine Fisheries Statistics for estimating species-wise landings from all along the coast which is released every year as a booklet. CMFRI has coordinated the Marine Fisheries Census of India by Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DADF) during the years 2005, 2010 and 2016. The latest marine fisheries census data (2016) collected by CMFRI contains information from 882263 fisher households in 4057 villages. Details of marine fisherfolk residing in the marine fishing villages of all the 9 maritime states and 2 union territories of India, information regarding the fishing craft and fishing gears from 50 fishing harbours and 1281 fish landing centers in the country and the socio-economics were collected. Software for enabling the data entry into a database was developed in-house. The innovative and time relevant way of data entry of marine fish landings data using electronic tablets at landings centres with web based computer application in the IBM server with Oracle RDBMS for online data entry support has been developed, tested and implemented enabling swift collation and dissemination of vital fish landings statistics on a national basis. The spatial mapping of fishing grounds on a continuous basis, which will help in identifying the seasons of high abundance of spawners/juveniles and in identification of critical fishing grounds where seasonal and spatial closure of trawl fishery can be implemented is facilitated under the various projects operated by the institute. Multi-species biomass dynamic models are being developed to address the multi-species and multi-gear fisheries assessments in India.
Integration of satellite technologies into fisheries management
To effectively utilize satellite technology for managing marine fisheries sector the institute has joined hands with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) with the aim to identify and forecast Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ). GIS based resource mapping of distribution and abundance of fin fishes and shellfishes off the Indian coast and using the GIS technology for mapping of marine fish landing centres. The CMFRI Special Publication on `Handbook on Application of GIS as a Decision Support Tool in Marine Fisheries’
in Marine Fisheries and the GIS based inventory of 1278 marine fish landing centres of Indian coast prepared by CMFRI, was sought by Indian Navy. The types of fishing activity, seasonality of fishing and the extent of fishing operations from each fishing centres are available in this database.
Identification of seasonal peak spawning grounds and seasonal juvenile abundance grounds, mapping of fishing area for newly targeted and emerging resources such as ‘bull’s eye’ to understand its spatial distribution patterns, trawling footprint analysis and GIS based site selection and mapping of natural seed resources for mariculture are now possible due to the application of this technology. In addition, in collaboration with INCOIS the institute carried out satellite telemetry studies to analyse migratory patterns of tunas in the Indian seas by using pop-up satellite tags.
Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management (EAFM)
CMFRI's initiative in promoting EAFM is based on the fact that the country needs to shift from traditional single species management approach to a more advanced one addressing ecological and human well-being with good governance. An Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) model has been successfully developed for the South-west, northwest, Gulf of Mannar coasts and can be used to facilitate well managed fisheries.
Addressing climate change concerns in the marine fisheries sector
Climate change is now recognized as one of the greatest long-term challenges to marine ecosystems and fisheries. Under the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), a network project of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), to deal with climate change in marine ecosystem CMFRI has focussed on preparing the marine fisheries sector to minimize the impact of climate change. It is also aimed at addressing the critical knowledge gaps about climate change impacts, improve monitoring and translating the knowledge into active management responses. Relationship between temperature and abundance of resources such as threadfin breams and the effect of projected rise in sea surface temperature due to climate change by modeling the biomass dynamics using a variant of SEAMICE models for the south Kerala region has been done. The carbon foot print, blue carbon potential of mangroves and sea grass and life cycle assessment of fishing operations indicated that fishing operations for Kerala coast had highest emissions during harvest phase followed by post-harvest and pre-harvest phases. Multivendor e-commerce portal and Mobile App, low cost feeds for Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) and Participatory mode of coastal vulnerable resource mapping are some other initiatives to improve the adaptive capacity and secure resilience for the stakeholders from adverse impacts of climate change. Through adoption of a number of coastal villages and converting it as "Climate Smart Villages" and organizing awareness programmes and field demonstrations on technologies and practice for climate change adaptation and mitigation, livelihood sustainability enhancement through provision of know- how and do –on alternative income generating activities are some of the other interventions carried out by CMFRI.
Mobile app for online fish sale
As an adaptation strategy to improve income of fishermen and to help them cope up with adverse climatic events, the ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute(CMFRI) developed a multivendor E-commerce website and associated android app (marinefishsales) through the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project. The website and mobile app is aimed at helping fish farmers and fishermen to sell their farmed fish and marine catch directly to the customers online and to fetch better income without depending middlemen. Various fishermen SHGs can register as vendors (fishers and farmers) based on their fish products and update their stock availability under pre-approved categories and products, which shall be displayed in the website and associated mobile app. Customers visiting the website or app could place the order and subsequently the registered fisher/farmer shall be notified through email and SMS, upon which the quality products within the pre-assigned time frame shall be delivered, enabling direct product sale between customers and SHGs.
Fishery socioeconomics, marketing, trade and fisheries governance
Studies on economics of fishery enterprises and socio-economic conditions of fisher folk come under the mandate of the ICAR-CMFRI. Valuation, estimation and analysis of marine fish landings and its economic performance, supply chain management, price behaviour of marine fish varieties, fish consumption patterns, impact of GST on fisheries sector and vulnerability of coastal villages are being estimated annually both at landing centre and retail market levels for different maritime states. An estimation of value of marine fish landings in India, during 2011–2017 indicated an increase of fish landings at landing centre level from ₹24,369 crores in 2011 to ₹52,431 crores in 2017, with an annual increase of 14.5%, while at retail centre level, increased from ₹38,147 crores to ₹78,404 crores with an annual increase of 15.08%. Economic performance of different fishing methods were assessed in different maritime states using the indicators like net operating income, capital productivity (operating ratio), labour productivity, input-output ratio and gross value added. Various communication tools are developed periodically for inculcating the concept of responsible fisheries management in the minds of the fishers.
Innovations in mariculture
Globally, mariculture is the fastest growing animal food producing sector and an increasing source of protein for human consumption. Envisaged to be the future of Indian marine fisheries mariculture has not yet developed into a major contributor of seafood production in India. However, ICAR – CMFRI remains on the forefront to promote various mariculture activities such as cage fish farming, seaweed farming, bivalve and pearl farming, ornamental fish culture, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, etc. The Research & Development programme on marine cage farming in India which was initiated by CMFRI with the grants received from the Ministry of Agriculture has been successfully demonstrated technically all along the Indian coast with the financial support of National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB). By year 2018, 1609 cages were installed in different marine locations in India under the technical support and guidance of CMFRI. The continuous refinement of the technology is taking place through various research projects of CMFRI and All India Network Project on Mariculture (AINP-M) funded by the ICAR, Government of India. Considerable research thrust has given in mariculture to develop hatchery technologies, seed production protocols and mass rearing techniques of promising species of marine fish. Culture protocols for eight species of copepods suitable for larval feeding of marine finfishes and raceway system for mass production of phytoplankton for bivalve seed production were developed by mariculture division of CMFRI. The successful seed production of a marine ornamental, camel shrimp, Rhyncocinetes durbanensis was achieved,. The Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) programme of the institute has extended technical support in cage farming to several tribal groups in the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala and helped them to attain better livelihood skills and income through fish farming.
Hatchery technologies
The technologies for the seed production and grow-out culture of cobia (Rachycentron canadum), groupers (Epinephelus coioides) silver pompano (Trachinotus blochii), Indian pompano (Trachinotus mookalee) and pink ear emperor (Lethrinus lentjan) have been developed and demonstrated by the CMFRI, while efforts are on to bring more promising species under farming. In addition, five species of snappers and carangids have been prioritized for developing seed production technology. Hatchery production technology for mussel, edible oyster and 14 varieties of marine ornamentals, including Marcia's anthias, clowns, damsels, hybrids, camel shrimp and cleaner shrimp has been achieved,. The indigenously developed Re-Circulatory Aquaculture System (RAS) is also functioning at the institute to boost seed production round the year. The establishment of national brood banks of Cobia and Pompano in Mandapam and Vizhinjam Centres of the institute with funding support of the NFDB is a testimony to the determination of the institute for providing necessary support for hatchery technologies of commercially important food fishes that will enhance their mariculture prospects.
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture, a novel method
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is the practice which combines appropriate proportions of finfish/shrimp with shell/ herbivorous fish and seaweeds in farming to create balanced systems for environmental and economic stability. The CMFRI has successfully conducted the demonstration of IMTA under participatory mode with fishermen groups by integrating seaweed with cage farming of cobia. It has been proved that in one crop of 45 days the seaweed rafts integrated with cobia cage will give an average yield of per raft against a control, which yielded per raft.
Marine biotechnology
Bioprospecting of marine and oceanic resources, through which the institute has produced several nutraceuticals useful for treating life style diseases and dietary supplements from seaweeds has been recognised. The institute has developed and commercialized the nutraceutical products CadalminTM Green Algal extract (CadalminTMGAe) and Antidiabetic extract (CadalminTMADe to combat rheumatic arthritic pains and type-2 diabetes, respectively. Nutraceuticals from seaweeds to combat dyslipidemia and obesity and treat hypo-thyroid have also been developed and products are being out-licensed to pharmaceutical companies. βNodadetect a single tube RT lamp diagnostic for β-Noda virus detection in marine fish of mariculture interest has been developed by the institute. This highly specific, sensitive and rapid method of screening marine broodstock fish ensures certified specific pathogen free eggs and larvae. To understand the population genetic structure of fishery resources in Indian waters specific studies were carried out. The complete mitogenome characterisation of Etroplus suratensis from Vembanad Lake, genetic stock structure investigations in Lutjanus argentimaculatus and Indian oil sardine Sardinella longiceps and bioprospecting for biotic and abiotic stress responsive genes from Crassostrea madrasensis and their characterisation have yielded valuable baseline data,,.
CMFRI's major contributions to the nation
Estimation of the multispecies multi-gear marine fish landings for more than 1200 species covering 1511 fish landing centres on a GIS platform from the EEZ of India for marine fish stock assessment following the self-developed stratified multi-stage random sampling design and maintaining a National Marine Fishery Resources Database which is generated based on continuous and perpetual field data collection on marine fishery resources over decades,
Annual estimation of marine fish landings at landing centre and retail market level carried out to work out the contribution of fisheries sector to the agricultural and National GDP,
ICT initiatives include 'Fish Watch', a web portal for real time landing and market information from the landing centres; 'Choose Wisely' – a sustainability labeling code developed by CMFRI which was adopted by the ITC chain of restaurants all over India serving seafood; m@krishi service supported by TCS in collaboration with CMFRI provided and tested a platform to inform fishermen in Maharashtra on potential fishing zones (PFZ) through mobile phones in local language; Litter atlas an interactive map on litter status of Indian beaches
National quinquennial census of marine fisher population and infrastructure facilities and estimated value of marine fisheries and fishing fleet economic efficiencies,
Optimized fishing fleet size of various craft-gear combinations for rational exploitation of marine resources in all maritime states of India
Monitored biology and health of commercial marine fish stocks (133 stocks) of India. Developed and applied several analytical models to assess the finfish and shellfish stocks in all maritime states for providing Fishery Management Plans and advisories on seasonal fishing bans and potential yields
Developed hatchery and grow-out technologies for shrimps, pearl oysters, oysters, mussels, clams, ornamental fishes, sea bass, cobia, pompano and groupers (totaling 37 species)
Established commercial farming of mussels and oysters in coastal areas with an annual production of over 10,000 tonnes benefitting nearly 6000 women self-help groups
Identified and mapped new and non-conventional deep sea marine resources by vessel based surveys, including abundance maps of oceanic squid resources. The institute has so far described 255 marine species new to science from various groups of fishes
Used modern biotechnological tools for development of marine nutraceuticals (GMe, GAe, Ade & Ate) for human well-being and functional feeds (Varna &‘Varsha) for mariculture species
Assessed major marine and island habitats and evaluated their biodiversity; and developed restoration protocols through artificial reef deployment
CMFRI conducts regular training programmes in fisheries and marine biology. So far, the institute has produced over 300 Masters and 160 Ph.D. degree holders
Provided science back-up for India’s first eco-labelled (MSC certified) fisheries (short-neck clam) meeting global standards of fisheries management
Delineated the scientific reasons behind the recent decline in oil sardine fishery along the south-west coast of India, to support formulation of management guidelines to improve the status of the fishery
Outreach activities
The Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) of CMFRI serves as a ‘single window delivery system’ for the technologies and services developed by the institute. There are two Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK) functioning under the institute presently. KVK-Ernakulam has developed and disseminates location specific technological modules and acts as Knowledge and Resource Centre for agriculture, fisheries and allied activities. During the last five years, it has set up many satellite seed production centres of pearl spot, a highly favoured local fish species for culture, with the financial support of the National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB) and also formed two farmer producer's companies – Periyar Valley Spices Farmer Producer Company (PVSFPO) and Pokkali Farmer Producer Company (PFPO) with funding from NABARD to empower farmers in direct marketing. KVK is maintaining strong linkages with the AMTA and line departments to provide technology backstopping for their field level activities. A number of natural and bio based crop production and protection inputs like Nurtislurry, Desi Gomuthra, Vermicompost, Cowdung and tapioca leaf extract based biopesticides have been developed.
The administrative control of Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) at Kavaratti, Lakshadweep Islands has been recently taken up by the institute from the CIARI, Port Blair. The main focus will now be for enhancing farmers’ income and employment opportunities especially for women, through value-added products development and facilitate increased market access for the farmers of Island.
Academic collaboration and training
Collaborations with a number of research and academic organizations inside and outside the country have included the Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK; Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Centre (NERC), Norway; Michigan State University, United States; Rhodes University, South Africa and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia besides fisheries related institutes and academic universities in the country. Department of Science and Technology and Department of Biotechnology of the Government of India and all the Fisheries Departments of various coastal states in the country are important partners in the institute's bid to promote marine fisheries sector in the country. To disseminate the technologies developed training programmes for various stakeholders such as fisheries officials, fishermen, fish farmers and entrepreneurs in areas such as fisheries governance, fish stock assessment, mariculture, have been provided including a few specialised programmes for member countries of SAARC, African-Asian Rural Development Programme – Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India (AARDO) and BOBP. CMFRI is also providing consultancy services in core areas like Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs), Fish Taxonomy, Fish stock assessment, Hatchery protocols, Mariculture technology, Fish Nutrition, Fish Health Management, Environmental Monitoring etc. in accordance with ICAR guidelines. The institute recently launched a programme to train 5000 fishermen in open sea cage farming technologies under NFDB funding. CMFRI has thus emerged as a platform effectively extend the results emanating from its various research programmes to the fishermen community and other stakeholders.
Way forward
Sustainability of the fishery resources is core to a healthy and vibrant marine fisheries sector in India. To grow further, the following focus areas have been identified
fishery modelling and forecasting
Green auditing – valuation of marine bio-diversity and ecosystem services
Nanotechnological approaches in mariculture and environment management.
References
External links
CMFRI in Media
CMFRI Repository
CMFRI Vision 2050
CMFRI Website
Indian Journal of Fisheries
CMFRI Annual Report 2010-11
CMFRI Annual Report 2011-12
CMFRI Annual Report 2012-13
CMFRI Annual Report 2013-14
CMFRI Annual Report 2014-15
CMFRI Annual Report 2015-16
CMFRI Annual Report 2016-17
CMFRI Annual Report 2017-18
Research institutes in Kochi
Fisheries and aquaculture research institutes in India
Fishing in India
1947 establishments in India
Research institutes established in 1947
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT-43
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AT-43
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AT-43 is a science fiction tabletop wargame using 1:56th scale miniature figures and terrain developed and published by the French company Rackham from 2006 to 2008 and then Rackham-Entertainment from 2009 to 2010.
The game is classified as a platoon/company level game similar to Warhammer 40,000.
Released in December 2006, the game features plastic miniatures of mechs, vehicles and infantry units with corresponding cards showing the stats and gameplay options for each unit type. The game features alternate activation of units (similar to Chess) using the sequenced card mechanic. It also features command resource management (Leadership Points or LPs) to enable special unit actions called 'Combat Drills'.
Unlike many other miniature figure wargames, all of the miniatures are supplied pre-assembled, and painted. The game also provides a few pieces of 3-dimensional scenery, and 2-dimensional game mats to allow player to decide between mission-based objectives, or skirmish-based combat.
AT-43 is now a dead game with no further releases expected.
Universe
In AT-43 [After Trauma: Year 43], humanity is at war with the technologically advanced Therians, a presumably robotic species bent on subjugating and transforming all planets for their ultimate purpose: the crafting of a "better", more organized universe under their rule, which they refer to as their "therian heaven". Humanity is seen by them as nothing more than pathetic, primitive animals.
The center of mankind is the planet Ava, which came under attack by the Therians. The United Nations of Ava managed to push back the invaders, but bitter fighting left the planet in ruins. This pivotal event is referred to as the Trauma.
43 years later, the human forces launched a counterattack under the codename "Operation Damocles" on one of the Therian's factory Planets, the starting point for the AT-43 miniatures game.
Although the UNA and RedBlok will often be identified as the "human" race, this is not the truth. By reading the Therian back-story in their Army book, you will find that it is actually the Therians who are the Human Race. The Therians hail from the Solar System SOL, which is located towards the tip of a spiral arm in the Milky Way Galaxy, and originate from the Third planet ('Terra') from the Sun. The Therians home planet was reconstructed by the Therians into a dyson sphere covering the sun long ago. Having become virtually immortal by re-engineering their own bodies, the Therians have been engineering the universe itself to prevent it from collapsing into a Big Crunch, a trillion years in the future, thereby insuring their eternal longevity. The Therians had predicted that without their intervention, the end of the Universe is inevitable, and that life will cease to exist in the future. Because of their all-encompassing view of existence, they see the only way to maintain existence is to destroy all known forms of planets and life and transform them into their type of travelling homeworld. To other races who do not share their same point of view, the Therians idea seems like the destruction of life itself, when ironically it is actually the permanent preservation of life. Most races will resist the Therians because they will fail to see their end-goal, and will put up resistance. Even though there are Races like the UNA who are powerful enough to temporarily disrupt the plans of the Therians, there are none who can hold them off for good. In the end, the Therians will either have their way or life will cease to exist when the Universe comes to an eventual halt.
Besides the external threat of the Therians, humanity is still fighting against each other: The Red Blok, a revolutionary faction with communist ideals, is at odds with the United Nations of Ava. The Red Blok started as an uprising on Ava's manufacturing planet Hades, and manifested itself into a political movement. At first the political opposition was crushed by the armed forces from Ava, but as the Avans started to think that the threat was subsided, the Red Blok managed to convince the planetary troops that their ideals were a better way of life. The Defense force later joined forces with the struggling workers that they were assigned to subdue, and after a violent rebellion they created their own formal government. After the formation of the Red Blok, Ava lost its main production facilities, and the political movement spread throughout the planets under Avan control. The Red Blok is now a major threat to the Avan ways of life. Even though the Red Blok and the U.N.A. are allied in their efforts against the Therian threat, they are by no means on friendly terms. The bitter taste left between the two sides has led to disastrous un-cooperation, and communication failures. There is still a deep underlying distrust between the two sides, and as time goes on these feelings only burn deeper and deeper.
An alien race with as yet unknown motives are the Karmans, highly evolved, sentient apes from the planet Karma. The Karmans originally allied with the Therians when they first attacked Ava. The Karmans, like most races in the galaxy, owe their technological achievements to the ancient knowledge passed down through Therian relics left behind on their planet. Now that they see the massing army of the Therians, and that no one can escape their threat, the Karmans return to Ava to fight with Humanity to take on the omnivorous threat of the Therians. The Karmans do not want the balance of the universe destroyed, and though they have no allegiance to the humans, they see it fit to keep them around for the benefit of the galaxy. Not much is known about them yet, but concept art and a preview miniature show that they are a highly evolved Ape-like species that uses their technology to amplify their strength.
Millennia ago, the COGs started their evolution into the society they are now. Master of genetic manipulation, their worlds are led by 4 "families" based on the sequencing of DNA: A-Volution, T-Regulators, C-Naps, G-Nocrats. After a period of isolation where the Cogs ignored the rest of the universe unless they were trading with them, they resume their ancestral war with the Therians.
ONI Corporation, acronym of Okamura Non-aligned Industries, is a Corporation of mercenaries without political agenda other than becoming richer and more powerful by feeding on the war between nations and planetary systems. Their ability to trade information and services with everyone allows them to equip their soldiers with the best alien technology and to raise them from their demise thanks to their Zombie-weapons. If you have the coin, they will bring the heat.
Inspirations
Main inspirations for AT-43 were typical science-fiction tropes from the 1950s and 1960s, but updated with a modern slant. The Cold War and the escalating conflicts from that period are also themes in the game. Stylistically, the game tries not to depict a dystopian future, but a future where propaganda from each side paints everything in bright colours.
Metaphorically speaking it is fairly easy to separate the U.N.A and the Red Blok. The Red Blok draws its visions directly from the formation of the Communist Party, and the background of their formation seems to draw historically from the struggles that brought about the Bolshevik Revolution. The overthrowing of the government by its people sends a strong message about authoritarian rule and exploitation, leaving a lesson to be learned, while the motivation behind the political changes paints a beautiful vision of an egalitarian society.
The inspiration for the U.N.A. is almost an exact doppelganger to the formation of the United Nations after World War II, and shares many similarities to it. Their goal is to provide a peaceful existence for humanity, but in their struggle for control they have managed to forget about the interests of the people that they rule and their goal of a Democratic Society. This type of power struggle appears to be a resemblance of the United States struggle to maintain a uniform system of government throughout the world, and the ups and downs of their efforts.
Forces
The U.N.A.
The U.N.A or United Nations of Ava, is an interplanetary federation born from the human home planet of Ava. Originally established as the colonial empire of a united Avan government, the UNA in its most recent form was spawned after the Revolution on Hades that formed its ideological enemy: the Red Blok. The various colonies that still supported Ava were immediately granted full federal status and representation, as well as having the debt cancelled. This did not, however, prevent fully half of the Avan nations (Frontline; the Local Collective of Ava) and colonies joining the Red Blok in protest. The UNA prides itself on its democracy, liberalism and UN values of prosperity and individualism ("Living in the UNA, where anyone can shine in the firmament of success. Be a star!"). It appears to support total free market capitalism, with a few nods towards workers rights to prevent the growth of Red Blok ideology. Its military forces echo its ideals: composed of volunteers the White Stars (the Avan military) prides itself on being the best ("Better is better!"). Using the best weaponry UN industry could provide, supported by combat striders and with the best trained soldiers in human space, the White Stars are a force to be reckoned with. The UNA is primarily based on the modern United Nations and 1950s America, deep in the Cold War but confident in its own ideals.
The Therians
Therians are a hostile invading race of post-singularity humanoids who use skeletal, cybernetic troops designed with spider-like design nuances. They are extremely long lived and view themselves as a form of what they call "hyperlife" and consequently other thinking beings are considered to be irrelevant, atavistic, ephemeral, and trapped at a stage of development that they long ago transcended. This arrogance leaves them with few scruples regarding the exploitation and destruction of other forms of intelligent life. They possess almost unlimited numbers and astounding levels of technology including highly developed nanotech and information systems that allow them to reshape their habitat spaces in any way they can imagine it. The Therians are obsessed with the immortality of their species and so have embarked on a remarkable and horrific plan to restructure the entire universe into a static and therefore eternal system of dyson sphere habitats that suit their extravagant "living needs". The Therian armies are composed of terrifying machines: automated combat walkers and golems that are directed by the nanomachine host for a Therian overseer. With powerful weaponry and tactics courtesy of a millennia of PvP and PvE wars on the EMI Grid (the entertainment and discussion network that connects all Therians) they are a terrifying prospect on the battlefield. Particularly when they start nano-constructing new units! In the Therian Army Book it is revealed that the Therians are in fact the descendants of humanity and that Sol is the sun at the heart of Thera, the first habitat they constructed. It is also revealed that they created both the Karman apelike species and the Avan humanoid species from modified stores of DNA from Earth. The Therians
Take influence from real life internet forums and online games, taken to the extreme in the EMI Grid.
The Red Blok
The Red Blok is the ideological nemesis of the UNA. Just like its counterpart, the Red Blok is an interplanetary human entity that lays claim to large number of habitable worlds. Unlike the UNA, however, the Red Blok is instead motivated by Collectivist Ideals and by a desire to make all people equal. In its efforts to ensure that everyone has the same life opportunities and standard of living, safe from exploitation, the collectivist movement born out of the revolution on the mining world of Hades has constructed a massive state administration. From the DistriPop (Distribution of Population) Sub-collective that determines where each and every person in the Red Blok is best employed, to the Local Collectivs of the various cities and planets to the vast machineries of AgitProp (Agitation and Propaganda Collective) and Supra (the Supreme Collective that manages all others). Every aspect of life is managed and controlled to ensure happiness and efficiency for all. It is unclear whether this is truly successful, or instead just repressive and totalitarian just as it is unclear if the UNA is really as free and prosperous as it claims. The Red Blok, however, still boasts a large and impressive armed force to support its ideals. The ARC (Army of Revolutionary Collectives) boast large numbers of committed, if not talented, soldiers. Equipped with the functional weapons of collectivist industry, the hordes of the Revolutionary Forces are a significant threat. Especially if backed up by their heavily armed combat striders and battlesuits, which boast far thicker armour than any UNA equivalent. The Red Blok is inspired by 1940s–50s Soviet Russia, and various elements of dystopian totalitarian regimes (George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four)
The Karmans
Karmans are an alien simian (specifically, gorilla) race, once subservient to the Therians, their "creators" but now emerging as an independent force on their own. Originally intended as a project of the Therian race to strip planets of resources rapidly through the "seeding" of rapidly industrialising societies, the Karman experiment failed after the race came to "Enlightenment". After seeing the destruction their own evolutionary path was taking them, the Karman race entered a period of soul-searching meditation that birthed a new philosophy of Karma, from which they are named. In this philosophy, all a person's actions cause a reaction in the universe, which contributes to the life vibe or energy of said person. This "karma", either good or bad, will result in subsequent reactions in the universal balance (a bad action will result in cosmic retribution for example) or at rebirth and reincarnation. The wisest of Karman sages have progressed to a new understanding of time, able to predict the future and influence it by their actions in the past and in the present. They are even aware that they may be living in several simultaneous incarnations in any one period of time as they perceive it, a difficult concept to grasp. With their enlightenment, the Karmans realised that the path that their Therian masters were taking was one of destruction. The final straw was the genocide waged by the Therians against the race called the Krygs, which the Karmans were unwilling participants in. In the end, the Karman race decided it was time to march to war, to bring enlightenment to the galaxy and enforce peace. Karman warbands are composed of elite warriors encased in battlesuits, supported by fast moving skimmers that bring heavy fire on the enemy at breakneck speeds. Their tactics are fluid and ever evolving, strike fast and hard before melting away and repeating the same elsewhere, leaving their opponents exasperated and exhausted. The Karmans inspiration comes from Buddhist philosophy and the warrior monks of the East, combined with obvious references to Planet of the Apes.
The Cogs
The Cogs are an industrial alien race. Their facial features resemble those of the Greys, and wear spindly armor similar to the Therians, though they appear twice the height of their Avan counterparts. They have been shown carrying quantum blades and a large, multi-shot missile launcher. Recently, they have been revealed to possess advanced genetic engineering technology and evolve through cloning, in addition to their lethal quantum weaponry and AFV technology. First contact (with Avan-humans) was with the Red Blok faction.
The O.N.I.
The ONI Corporation is a massive intergalactic consortium of multiple businesses and industries that unscrupulously sells its services to the highest bidder. At the forefront of technology in many fields, particularly weapons and "medical research", ONI prides itself on providing the best at the lowest cost. With interests spread all across human space, and even slightly beyond, the ONI Corporation will willingly sell the services of its zombie hordes and elite mercenaries to the highest bidder and in furthering its own profit garnering interests. Rumours speak of a darker secret behind the corporation, that not only laid the basis for its current success but also its scientific triumphs in the field of zombification. The ONI Corporation is loosely based on dystopian mega-corporations, with the classic hunger for profit with accompanying low moral standards. This is accentuated by their use of undead soldiers, and weaponry developed from all other AT-43 races currently available.
References
AT-43 Website "Therians". Accessed April 16, 2008.
AT-43 Website "U.N.A". Accessed April 18, 2008.
Grant Hill "AT-43 Operation Damocles Review", Tabletop Gaming News, January 7, 2007. Accessed April 16, 2008.
Overseer-Bilesuck "Therian Review", AT-43 Official English Forum, December 16, 2007. Accessed April 16, 2008.
Zen13 "Way of the White Stars – A Guide to UNA", AT-43 Official English Forum, December 11, 2007. Accessed April 17, 2008.
External links
Official AT-43 English Website (offline)
Official English forum (offline)
AT-43 The Comic (offline)
AT-43 Wiki (offline)
AT-43 Addict (offline)
NEAT-43 (offline)
German forum (offline)
www.at-43.biz German fansite (offline archived)
www.orderofgamers.com rules and resources fansite
Miniature wargames
Fiction set in the 7th millennium or beyond
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5116618
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine%20of%20York
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Catherine of York
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Catherine of York (14 August 1479 – 15 November 1527), was the sixth daughter of King Edward IV of England and his queen consort Elizabeth Woodville.
Soon after the death of her father and the usurpation of the throne by her uncle Richard III, Catherine was declared illegitimate along with the other children of Edward IV. The princess' mother, fearing for her children's lives, moved them to Westminster Abbey, where the late king's family received sanctuary and spent about a year; later she moved to the royal palace. When Richard III died, and Henry Tudor was on the throne under the name of Henry VII, the act recognizing the children of Edward IV as bastards was canceled. Henry VII married the eldest of Edward IV's daughters, Elizabeth, and Catherine became a valuable diplomatic asset: marriage plans with John, Prince of Asturias and later with James Stewart, Duke of Ross were made for her, but in both cases it did not come to a wedding. In 1495, Catherine was married to William Courtenay, son and heir of the Earl of Devon, an ardent supporter of Henry VII.
In 1502, Catherine's husband was suspected of being involved in the conspiracy of the House of York pretender to the throne, Edmund de la Pole, and was soon arrested, deprived of his property and rights to inherit and transfer his father's titles and possessions to his children. Catherine herself, thanks to the patronage of her sister, remained at large. After the death of Henry VII in April 1509, the new king forgave William Courtenay and returned his confiscated estates to him; Catherine's father-in-law also soon died. In May 1511, William Courtenay was restored in his title of Earl of Devon, but a month later he died of pleurisy.
Left a widow at the age of thirty-one, Catherine took a vow of celibacy. In 1512, she received from the king the right to use for life all the possessions of the late spouse in the county of Devon, in the same year the title of Earl of Devon was transferred to the ten-year-old son of the princess, Henry Courtenay. After the death of her husband, Catherine rarely visited the court: one of the few visits was the christening of the daughter of Henry VIII, Princess Mary in 1516, in which Catherine was the godmother. In Tiverton, Catherine was the head of the most powerful family in the area and the owner of a large estate, so that she could lead a lifestyle consistent with her origin. Catherine died at Tiverton Castle at the age of forty-eight and was buried with great ceremony in the adjacent parish church St. Peter. Of all the grandchildren of Edward IV, Catherine's children became the only ones who inherited claims to the English throne from the House of York.
Life
Birth and early years
The exact date of Catherine's birth is unknown. Documents have been preserved related to the manufacture of a baptismal font for her by Piers Draper; based on them, historians date the birth of the princess on 14 August 1479 or a little earlier. The alleged birthplace is Eltham Palace in Greenwich. Catherine was the sixth daughter and the ninth of ten children of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. The princess' wetnurse was Jane or Joanne, wife of Robert Coulson, who in November 1480, received from the king an annuity payment of £5 per year for her services.
Catherine had six sisters, of whom only four reached adulthood –three older (Elizabeth, Cecily and Anne) and one younger (Bridget)–; Mary, born in 1467, died at the age of 14 from some illness, and Margaret, born in 1472, died in infancy. Catherine also had five brothers: three elder full brothers who were sons of Edward IV, and two elder half-brothers from her mother's first marriage to John Grey of Groby: Thomas and Richard Grey. The youngest of Catherine's full brothers, George, died at the age of about two years, while the other two brothers, Edward V and Richard, disappeared from the Tower in 1483 during the reign of their uncle Richard III.
Her paternal grandparents were Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (who claimed the rights of the House of York to the English throne) and Cecily Neville, and her maternal grandparents were Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, Dowager Duchess of Bedford.
Childhood
Almost from birth, Catherine was a desirable bride and in the future could become a pawn in the politics of dynastic marriages. Soon after her birth, in August 1479, a proposal was received for Catherine to marry the heir to the Catholic Monarchs – John, Prince of Asturias, who was a year older than the princess. On 28 August 1479, a preliminary marriage agreement was concluded; on 2 March 1482, this agreement was ratified by the Spanish side. However, in April 1483, the princess's father suddenly died, and the negotiations were terminated.
Edward IV's death was followed by a political crisis that dramatically changed the position of the former queen and her children. Catherine's older brother, Edward V, who succeeded to the throne, was captured by his uncle Lord Protector Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey (Catherine's uncle and half-brother, respectively) who accompanied the young king, were arrested. The king was moved to the Tower of London, where he was later joined by his only full-brother, Richard; together with the rest of the children, among whom was Catherine, the dowager queen took refuge in Westminster Abbey. Two months later, on 22 June 1483, Edward IV's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was declared illegal; all the children of the late king were declared illegitimate by the act of parliament Titulus Regius and deprived of the right to the throne and all titles. A few days later, Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey were executed. On 6 July 1483, Richard of Gloucester was proclaimed king under the name of Richard III; shortly thereafter there was no news of Catherine's brothers locked up in the Tower.
On Christmas Day 1483, Henry Tudor, whose mother was plotting with Elizabeth Woodville against King Richard III, swore in Rennes Cathedral that he would marry Edward IV's eldest daughter, Elizabeth, or the next Cecily (if the marriage with Elizabeth for some reasons will be impossible) after he takes the English throne. However, the uprising of the Tudor party, led by the Duke of Buckingham, failed even before this oath. After the failure of Buckingham's rebellion, Richard III agreed to negotiate with his brother's widow, Elizabeth Woodville. On 1 March 1484, the king swore publicly that the daughters of his late brother would not be harmed or molested; in addition, Richard III promised that they would not be imprisoned in the Tower or any other prison, that they would be placed "in respectable places of good name and reputation", and later be married to "men of noble birth" and given dowry lands with an annual income of 200 marks each. The princesses moved under the care of their "gracious uncle", who gave them rooms in his palace. Tudor historian Edward Hall writes that Richard III "made all the daughters of his brother solemnly arrive at his palace; as if with him new –familiar and loving entertainment– they were supposed to forget ... the trauma inflicted on them and the tyranny that preceded this". According to the generally accepted version, Catherine moved to the royal palace with her sisters, but there is an assumption that Catherine and her younger sister Bridget stayed with their mother after leaving the sanctuary.
Two years later, in August 1485, Richard III died at the Battle of Bosworth and Henry Tudor became the new king by right of conquest under the name of Henry VII. He fulfilled his promise and married Elizabeth of York, and also canceled the Titulus Regius act, which deprived the children of Edward IV of titles and rights to the throne. The act of Titulus Regius was removed from the archives, as were all documents related to it. In 1492 Dowager Queen Elizabeth died; Catherine took part in her funeral ceremony, becoming one of the youngest mourners at the royal funeral. Left an orphan, Catherine finally settled at the court of her sister the queen.
Marriage
Henry VII, once on the throne, began to build grandiose matrimonial plans for his wife's relatives. First of all, he wanted to establish peace with his northern neighbour –the Kingdom of Scotland. In November 1487, a preliminary agreement was concluded on the marriage of Catherine with the second son of King James III, James, Duke of Ross, who was almost three years older than the princess. According to the same agreement, Catherine's sister Cecily was to become the wife of the heir to the Scottish throne, James, Duke of Rothesay, and James III, widowed by that time, was to marry the mother of the princess, Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville. But James III was killed in June 1488 before these marriages were made; negotiations were interrupted and never resumed.
In October 1495, shortly after her sixteenth birthday, Catherine married the 20 year-old William Courtenay, son and heir of the Earl of Devon, the leading nobleman and landowner in Devonshire who was an ardent supporter of King Henry VII and whose family had been ardent supporters of the Lancastrian cause during the Wars of the Roses. The House of Courtenay, a French noble family of the County of Gâtinais, also descended from King Edward I of England through his daughter Elizabeth of Rhuddlan. The marriage of Catherine and William was approved by Parliament during the same session as that of Catherine's older sister Anne with Thomas Howard, later 3rd Duke of Norfolk also gained approval. It is known that Queen Elizabeth paid for the wedding clothes for the groom and donated money for the upbringing of the future children of the newlyweds. Being in favour with the king, the Courtenays spent most of their time at court; Catherine as the principal lady, received a salary of £50 per year. Outside the court, Catherine and William preferred to use Tiverton Castle or the ancient Courtenay family home, Colcombe Castle, as a residence; both residences were located in Devon, but Catherine preferred Colcombe. The couple had three children: two sons, Henry and Edward, and a daughter, Margaret.
Downfall
In later years, Catherine was close to her sister the queen. She attended the lavish wedding of her eldest nephew, Arthur, Prince of Wales and Catherine of Aragon in November 1501, and the betrothal of her eldest niece, Margaret, to King James IV of Scotland in January 1502. However, a few months later, disgrace began: William Courtenay was arrested and sent to prison on suspicion of participating in the conspiracy of the Yorkist pretender to the throne, Edmund de la Pole. He spent several years in prison, although there was no evidence of his guilt; probably the sole reason for Courtenay's arrest was his marriage to a princess of the House of York. William was deprived of property and rights to inherit the titles and possessions of his father, as well as the right to transfer them to his children; thus, on the death of the Earl of Devon, his title and possessions were to fall to the crown.
Only thanks to the patronage of her sister the queen, Catherine remained at liberty and at court and received a livelihood. Elizabeth of York ordered that Lady Margaret Coton take care of the upbringing and education of Catherine's children, and allocated funds for this. Catherine's children were moved under the protection of Coton to Sir John Hussey's country house at Havering-atte-Bower, which at that time was located on lands that were in the use of the queen or her mother. The content of the children, as well as their other servants, which included two maids, grooms and nannies, was also paid by the queen. She also paid for the needs of Catherine's husband, who was imprisoned in the Tower. In June 1502, the youngest of Catherine's two sons, Edward, died, which was a heavy blow for the princess. Catherine's grief was aggravated by the fact that the child's illness was transient, and his mother, who was with the queen in Notley, did not have time to go to the bedside of her dying son. Since Catherine did not have the funds for the funeral of her son, her sister again paid all the expenses. The queen, on the other hand, allocated funds for a mourning wardrobe for the princess; orders regarding Catherine's wardrobe became one of the last manifestations of the queen's concern for her sister.
In February 1503, Queen Elizabeth of York died. The death of her sister was a great loss for Catherine, since the queen was not only a relative and close friend for her, but also a patroness. Starting from the second day of mourning, Catherine led the mourners at her sister's funeral; on the first day, this post was occupied by the main lady-in-waiting of the late queen, Lady Elizabeth Stafford, since Catherine's wardrobe was not ready. Catherine became the only person to attend all three masses for the late queen.
Left without friends and support from her sister, Catherine turned to her father-in-law for help. The Earl of Devon, a very benevolent person, allocated an annual allowance for his grandchildren −100 marks for Henry and 200 marks for Margaret; however, for Catherine herself, probably, no funds were allocated, since there are no documents confirming the opposite. Probably, the son of the late queen, Henry, Prince of Wales, who by that time had become the heir to the throne, also provided some assistance to the aunt, but there is no documentary evidence of this either.
Return to court
Henry VII died in April 1509, and the life of Catherine herself changed dramatically. She was aunt to the new king, Henry VIII, who immediately invited her to court, where she attended the funeral of the late monarch. Henry VIII paid for all of Catherine's expenses related to moving to the court. At the same time, Catherine received the post of maid of honour to the younger sister of the king, Mary (later Queen consort of France). One of the first state acts of Henry VIII was the forgiveness and return of possessions to Catherine's husband, William Courtenay. The Courtenays were present at all the celebrations at court, and both were in such favour with the young king that Catherine became the only godmother of the heir to the throne, Henry, Duke of Cornwall, who was born on 1 January 1511.
Catherine's father-in-law died in 1509, and formally her husband became the heir to the Earl's title and possessions, however, in order to receive the inheritance, William needed the approval of the king and the repeal of the act of deprivation. Until all the formalities were met, Catherine, "the king's dearest aunt", was assigned annuity payments in the amount of 200 marks. Despite the friendly attitude towards his aunt and her husband, Henry VIII put forward a number of conditions under which William Courtenay could transfer the title and possessions of his father. One of these conditions was the renunciation of Catherine's claims to the lands of the Earldom of March (to which she was also entitled as one of the descendants of Anne de Mortimer), and as her father's personal, non-crown property. Catherine, having neither the means nor the desire to fight for the possessions of the Marches, accepted the proposal of her nephew, and on 12 April 1511, the parties signed an agreement.
On 9 or 10 May 1511 the title of Earl of Devon was recreated for William Courtenay, and the act that prohibited the succession of titles to his children was repealed. The king guaranteed the transfer to the couple of some possessions, seized in favour of the crown from Thomas Courtenay during the reign of Catherine's father. In addition, several estates were personally transferred to Catherine with the right to transfer them by inheritance.
Widowhood
By the time all the formalities related to the transfer of the title to William Courtenay were completed, he was already seriously ill; on 9 June 1511 he died of pleurisy at the Palace of Placentia, where he was staying with his wife. The king gave special permission for a magnificent funeral at Blackfriars Abbey; the organization of the funeral was carried out by Catherine, whom her husband in his will called the main executor of his last will. After the funeral, she ordered daily masses to be read and candles to be kept burning around the clock on William's grave.
Left a widow at the age of thirty-one, on 6 July 1511, Catherine completed the transfer of her rights to the Earldom of March to the crown and, in order to ensure a further life free from matrimonial plans, she took a vow of celibacy on 13 July in the presence of the Bishop of London, Richard FitzJames. Being by nature very active, Catherine devoted the rest of her life to putting things in order in her possessions and those of her son. On 3 February 1512, she received from the king the right to use for life all the possessions of the late spouse in the Earldom of Devon.
In February 1512, Catherine sent a petition to Parliament on behalf of her son, in which she asked to consider the issue of inheriting the title and possessions of his late father by young Henry Courtenay. The petition was read three times in the House of Lords, but consideration of the issue was postponed due to the need to discuss it with the king. The reason for the delay was the fact that some of Henry's ancestral property had been transferred by the king to the Courtenays before William was reinstated. Another reason was the claims to the possessions of Thomas Courtenay by the husbands of his co-heiresses sisters: Sir Hugh Conway (husband of Elizabeth Courtenay), and Sir William Knyvet of Buckenham (husband of Joan Courtenay). In October 1512, Catherine, through the mediation of the Bishop of London, managed to negotiate with both applicants: some lands were transferred to Conway for life use, and a life annuity of £177 was also promised; Knyvet's claims were withdrawn in exchange for a lifetime annuity of £200.
In November 1512, Parliament approved the transfer of the title and lands of the late William Courtenay to his ten-year-old son Henry, and over time, Catherine's son joined the circle of those close to the king. She herself also enjoyed the favor of the king and she signed her letters and documents as "Princess Catherine, Countess of Devon, daughter, sister and aunt of kings". In addition, she adopted as her personal coat of arms the royal coat of arms of England, combined with the coat of arms of Courtenay and the addition of the arms of the Earls of Ulster and March.
Settling the affairs of her son, Catherine did not forget about her only daughter: in 1512 she began to look for a groom for Margaret. Catherine sent letters to the royal servants with a request to determine the most profitable candidates for the Margaret's husband. Further events are described by historians inconsistently. Mary Anne Everett Green retells a local legend that shortly after her marriage to Henry Somerset (son and heir of the Earl of Worcester), Margaret, during a visit to her mother at Colcombe Castle, choked on a fish bone and died; the same version is confirmed by the inscription on her grave. However, other sources report that Catherine's daughter visited her cousin Mary in 1520. There is no further information about Margaret, and her husband, who inherited his father's title in 1526, was by this time married again.
Last years and death
After the death of her husband, Catherine was rarely at court, preferring to live in Tiverton or Colcombe Castles in Devon, although she often received guests in Colcombe. One of the few appearances of the princess at court was the christening of Henry VIII's daughter Mary in 1516, at which Catherine was the godmother. A year earlier, Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle, was placed under her care and became the first wife of Catherine's son Henry, who was granted several mansions and other benefits. In Tiverton, Catherine was the head of the most powerful family in the area and the owner of a large estate. Her estates, managed by a network of employees, brought Catherine an annual income of about £2,750 –a large amount on which the household was supported. In 1519, Sir Hugh Conway died, claiming some of the possessions of Courtenay, and Catherine, through an act of Parliament, was returned the lands that were in the life interest of the deceased.
Detailed records from the early 1520s show that Catherine lived a life befitting her origins: she regularly bought luxury items such as spices, French and Rhenish wines, and expensive fabrics (such as velvet and satin). The princess' chapel had many beautiful vestments, sacred vessels, religious books and images of saints. Catherine was on good terms with the prelates of Devon, received gifts from the Bishop of Exeter and from the abbots of Ford, Buckland and Newenham. In the 1520s, the princess was fond of hunting, listened to minstrels, kept three jesters; on New Year's holidays in 1524, several troupes of actors visited Catherine's house, as well as epiphany singers from Exeter. She often traveled around her possessions, and by the age of 45 she was still active: she rode a lot, hunted and did business. However, the fact that the inventory list of Catherine's property, compiled after her death, included a cart with horses, may indicate a decrease in the activity of the princess in her later years.
Catherine maintained good relations with the royal couple: it is known that in 1524 the princess sent them £20 as a gift. She regularly gave gifts to her son, in particular, for the birth of her grandson Edward, she sent Henry £200 pounds and gave another £40 to the messenger who announced her the birth. Historical documents describe the princess as a very kind person: she never quarreled with her neighbors if they happened to shoot game in her possessions, and did not severely punish the poor if they decided to eat strawberries or a rabbit on her land; in addition, she regularly distributed generous alms. In the spring of 1524, Catherine fell ill. Two doctors were called to her bedside; she sent orders to her domain, probably in case of her death, which may indicate the seriousness of the disease. In nearby churches they prayed for Catherine's health. On 2 May 1527, Catherine made a will in which for the most part she took care of her soul: she ordered the payment of £21 a year for an unlimited period to three priests who were to say mass daily in St. Peter's Church in Tiverton in the presence of three poor men, who also received payouts once a week. Catherine died on 15 November 1527 at Tiverton Castle at the age of about forty-nine years and was buried on 2 December with a magnificent ceremony in the local church of St Peter's Church. By her order, all servants were to attend the funeral in black robes and receive an annual salary. Also present at the funeral were the abbots of Ford, Montecut and Torre; the sermon was read by a canon of Exeter Cathedral. 8,000 poor people were given money to pray for the soul of Catherine.
On the grave of the princess, by order of her son, a horizontal effigy was installed. During the English Reformation, the chapel in which Catherine was buried was destroyed by Protestants. Subsequently, a burial was discovered that contained the remains of several people, so it was not possible to determine which of them belonged to the last princess from the House of York.
Issue
Catherine and her husband William Courtenay had three children:
Henry Courtenay (c. 1496 – 9 January 1539), 2nd Earl of Devon and Marquess of Exeter. Married firstly with Elizabeth Grey, suo jure Viscountess Lisle, and secondly with Gertrude Blount. From his second marriage, Henry had two sons, of whom only one survived infancy.
Edward Courtenay (c. 1497 – June 1502), died in infancy.
Margaret Courtenay (c. 1499 – bef. 1526), married Henry Somerset, son and heir of the 1st Earl of Worcester and Elizabeth Somerset, suo jure Baroness Herbert. During Margaret's life, her husband bore only the title of Baron Herbert, inherited from his mother, since the title of his father passed to him later. The marriage was childless.
Since not a single brother of the princess survived to the reign of the kings from the Tudor dynasty, and her sisters (with the exception of Queen Elizabeth), did not leave surviving descendants recognized by the crown, Catherine's children became the only of all the grandchildren of Edward IV, who inherited dangerous claims to the English throne from the House of York, which played a fatal role in the life of the descendants of the princess. Although Catherine's son, Henry Courtenay, was still in favor with the king for some time after his mother's death, in 1538, thanks to the denunciation of his cousin Geoffrey Pole, Henry's correspondence with Geoffrey's brother, Catholic Cardinal Reginald Pole, who claimed the throne of England, was discovered. Henry, along with his wife Gertrude and son Edward, was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London; a year later, Henry was executed on charges of treason. After the execution of her husband, Gertrude was deprived of her property, but received her freedom. The only son of Gertrude was much less fortunate: he spent most of his life in prison and was released only during the reign of Queen Mary I; in 1554, Edward Courtenay took only a passive part in Wyatt's rebellion, due to which he was expelled from the country, but not executed. He died at Padua in 1556, as the last descendant of Catherine of York.
Ancestry
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Possible discovery of Catherine's tomb .
familysearch.org. Retrieved 26 January 2008
Plantagenet family. Retrieved 26 January 2008
1479 births
1527 deaths
People from Greenwich
House of York
English princesses
Devon
16th-century English women
15th-century English women
15th-century English nobility
Burials in Devon
Children of Edward IV of England
Daughters of kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi%20track
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Hayashi track
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The Hayashi track is a luminosity–temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than in the pre-main-sequence phase (PMS phase) of stellar evolution. It is named after Japanese astrophysicist Chushiro Hayashi. On the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, which plots luminosity against temperature, the track is a nearly vertical curve. After a protostar ends its phase of rapid contraction and becomes a T Tauri star, it is extremely luminous. The star continues to contract, but much more slowly. While slowly contracting, the star follows the Hayashi track downwards, becoming several times less luminous but staying at roughly the same surface temperature, until either a radiative zone develops, at which point the star starts following the Henyey track, or nuclear fusion begins, marking its entry onto the main sequence.
The shape and position of the Hayashi track on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram depends on the star's mass and chemical composition. For solar-mass stars, the track lies at a temperature of roughly 4000 K. Stars on the track are nearly fully convective and have their opacity dominated by hydrogen ions. Stars less than are fully convective even on the main sequence, but their opacity begins to be dominated by Kramers' opacity law after nuclear fusion begins, thus moving them off the Hayashi track. Stars between 0.5 and develop a radiative
zone prior to reaching the main sequence. Stars between 3 and are fully radiative at the beginning of the pre-main-sequence. Even heavier stars are born onto the main sequence, with no PMS evolution.
At an end of a low- or intermediate-mass star's life, the star follows an analogue of the Hayashi track, but in reverse—it increases in luminosity, expands, and stays at roughly the same temperature, eventually becoming a red giant.
History
In 1961, Professor Chushiro Hayashi published two papers that led to the concept of the pre-main-sequence and form the basis of the modern understanding of early stellar evolution. Hayashi realized that the existing model, in which stars are assumed to be in radiative equilibrium with no substantial convection zone, cannot explain the shape of the red-giant branch. He therefore replaced the model by including the effects of thick convection zones on a star's interior.
A few years prior, Osterbrock proposed deep convection zones with efficient convection, analyzing them using the opacity of H- ions (the dominant opacity source in cool atmospheres) in temperatures below 5000K. However, the earliest numerical models of Sun-like stars did not follow up on this work and continued to assume radiative equilibrium.
In his 1961 papers, Hayashi showed that the convective envelope of a star is determined by:
where E is unitless, and not the energy. Modelling stars as polytropes with index 3/2—in other words, assuming they follow a pressure-density relationship of —he found that E=45 is the maximum for a quasistatic star. If a star is not contracting rapidly, E=45 defines a curve on the HR diagram, to the right of which the star cannot exist. He then computed the evolutionary tracks and isochrones (luminosity-temperature distributions of stars at a given age) for a variety of stellar masses and noted that NGC2264, a very young star cluster, fits the isochrones well. In particular, he calculated much lower ages for solar-type stars in NGC2264 and predicted that these stars were rapidly contracting T Tauri stars.
In 1962, Hayashi published a 183-page review of stellar evolution. Here, he discussed the evolution of stars born in the forbidden region. These stars rapidly contract due to gravity before settling to a quasistatic, fully convective state on the Hayashi tracks.
In 1965, numerical models by Iben and Ezer & Cameron realistically simulated pre-main-sequence evolution, including the Henyey track that stars follow after leaving the Hayashi track. These standard PMS tracks can still be found in textbooks on stellar evolution.
Forbidden zone
The forbidden zone is the region on the HR diagram to the right of the Hayashi track where no star can be in hydrostatic equilibrium, even those that are partially or fully radiative. Newborn protostars start out in this zone, but are not in hydrostatic equilibrium and will rapidly move towards the Hayashi track.
Because stars emit light via black-body radiation, the power per unit surface area they emit is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law:
The star's luminosity is therefore given by:
For a given L, a lower temperature implies a larger radius, and vice versa. Thus, the Hayashi track separates the HR diagram into two regions: the allowed region to the left, with high temperatures and smaller radii for each luminosity, and the forbidden region to the right, with lower temperatures and correspondingly higher radii. The Hayashi limit can refer to either the lower bound in temperature or the upper bound on radius defined by the Hayashi track.
The region to the right is forbidden because it can be shown that a star in the region must have a temperature gradient of:
where for a monatomic ideal gas undergoing adiabatic expansion or contraction. A temperature gradient greater than 0.4 is therefore called superadiabatic.
Consider a star with a superadiabatic gradient. Imagine a parcel of gas that starts at radial position r, but moves upwards to r+dr in a sufficiently short time that it exchanges negligible heat with its surroundings—in other words, the process is adiabatic. The pressure of the surroundings, as well as that of the parcel, decreases by some amount dP. The parcel's temperature changes by . The temperature of the surroundings also decreases, but by some amount dT' that is greater than dT. The parcel therefore ends up being hotter than its surroundings. Since the ideal gas law can be written , a higher temperature implies a lower density at the same pressure. The parcel is therefore also less dense than its surroundings. This will cause it to rise even more, and the parcel will become even less dense than its new surroundings.
Clearly, this situation is not stable. In fact, a superadiabatic gradient causes convection. Convection tends to lower the temperature gradient because the rising parcel of gas will eventually be dispersed, dumping its excess thermal and kinetic energy into its surroundings and heating up said surroundings. In stars, the convection process is known to be highly efficient, with a typical that only exceeds the adiabatic gradient by 1 part in 10 million.
If a star is placed in the forbidden zone, with a temperature gradient much greater than 0.4, it will experience rapid convection that brings the gradient down. Since this convection will drastically change the star's pressure and temperature distribution, the star is not in hydrostatic equilibrium, and will contract until it is.
A star far to the left of the Hayashi track has a temperature gradient smaller than adiabatic. This means that if a parcel of gas rises a tiny bit, it will be more dense than its surroundings and sink back to where it came from. Convection therefore does not occur, and almost all energy output is carried radiatively.
Star formation
Stars form when small regions of a giant molecular cloud collapse under their own gravity, becoming protostars. The collapse releases gravitational energy, which heats up the protostar. This process occurs on the free fall timescale , which is roughly 100,000 years for solar-mass protostars, and ends when the protostar reaches approximately 4000 K. This is known as the Hayashi boundary, and at this point, the protostar is on the Hayashi track. At this point, they are known as T Tauri stars and continue to contract, but much more slowly. As they contract, they decrease in luminosity because less surface area becomes available for emitting light. The Hayashi track gives the resulting change in temperature, which will be minimal compared to the change in luminosity because the Hayashi track is nearly vertical. In other words, on the HR diagram, a T Tauri star starts out on the Hayashi track with a high luminosity and moves downward along the track as time passes.
The Hayashi track describes a fully convective star. This is a good approximation for very young pre-main-sequence stars they are still cool and highly opaque, so that radiative transport is insufficient to carry away the generated energy and convection must occur. Stars less massive than remain fully convective, and therefore remain on the Hayashi track, throughout their pre-main-sequence stage, joining the main sequence at the bottom of the Hayashi track. Stars heavier than have higher interior temperatures, which decreases their central opacity and allows radiation to carry away large amounts of energy. This allows a radiative zone to develop around the star's core. The star is then no longer on the Hayashi track, and experiences a period of rapidly increasing temperature at nearly constant luminosity. This is called the Henyey track, and ends when temperatures are high enough to ignite hydrogen fusion in the core. The star is then on the main sequence.
Lower-mass stars follow the Hayashi track until the track intersects with the main sequence, at which point hydrogen fusion begins and the star follows the main sequence. Even lower-mass 'stars' never achieve the conditions necessary to fuse hydrogen and become brown dwarfs.
Derivation
The exact shape and position of the Hayashi track can only be computed
numerically using computer models. Nevertheless, we can make an extremely
crude analytical argument that captures most of the track's properties. The
following derivation loosely follows that of Kippenhahn, Weigert, and Weiss in
Stellar Structure and Evolution.
In our
simple model, a star is assumed to consist of a fully convective interior
inside of a fully radiative atmosphere.
The convective interior is assumed to be an ideal monatomic gas with a perfectly adiabatic temperature gradient:
This quantity is sometimes labelled . The following
adiabatic equation therefore holds true for the entire interior:
where is the adiabatic gamma, which is 5/3 for an ideal
monatomic gas. The ideal gas law says:
where is the molecular weight per particle and H is (to a very good
approximation) the mass of a hydrogen atom. This equation represents a
polytrope of index 1.5, since a polytrope is defined by
, where n=1.5 is the polytropic index. Applying
the equation to the center of the star gives:
.
We can solve for C:
But for any polytrope, and
. are all constants independent of pressure and density,
and the average density is defined as
. Plugging this 2 equations
into the equation for C, we have:
where all multiplicative constants have been ignored. Recall that our original
definition of C was:
We therefore have, for any star of mass M and radius R:
We need another relationship between P, T, M, and R, in order to eliminate P.
This relationship will come from the atmosphere model.
The atmosphere is assumed to be thin, with average opacity k. Opacity is
defined to be optical depth divided by density. Thus, by definition, the
optical depth of the stellar surface, also called the photosphere, is:
where R is the stellar radius, also known as the position of the photosphere.
The pressure at the surface is:
The optical depth at the photosphere turns out to be . By
definition, the temperature of the photosphere is where effective
temperature is given by . Therefore,
the pressure is:
We can approximate the opacity to be:
where a=1, b=3. Plugging this into the pressure equation, we get:
Finally, we need to eliminate R and introduce L, the luminosity. This can be
done with the equation:
Equation and can now be combined by
setting and in Equation 1, then eliminating .
R can be eliminated using Equation . After some algebra,
and after setting , we get:
where
In cool stellar atmospheres (T < 5000 K) like those of newborn stars,
the dominant source of opacity is the H- ion, for which
and , we get
and .
Since A is much smaller than
1, the Hayashi track is extremely steep: if the luminosity changes by a factor
of 2, the temperature only changes by 4 percent. The fact that B is positive
indicates that the Hayashi track shifts left on the HR diagram, towards higher
temperatures, as mass increases. Although this model is extremely crude, these
qualitative observations are fully supported by numerical simulations.
At high temperatures, the atmosphere's opacity begins to be dominated by
Kramers' opacity law instead of the H- ion, with a=1 and b=-4.5 In that
case, A=0.2 in our crude model, far higher than 0.05, and the star is no longer
on the Hayashi track.
In Stellar Interiors, Hansen, Kawaler, and Trimble go through a similar
derivation without neglecting multiplicative constants,
and arrived at:
where is the molecular weight per particle. The authors note that the coefficient of 2600K is too low—it should be around 4000K—but this equation nevertheless shows that temperature is nearly independent of luminosity.
Numerical results
The diagram at the top of this article shows numerically computed stellar evolution tracks for various masses. The vertical portions of each track is the Hayashi track. The endpoints of each track lie on the main sequence. The horizontal segments for higher-mass stars show the Henyey track.
It is approximately true that:
.
The diagram to the right shows how Hayashi tracks change with changes in chemical composition. Z is the star's metallicity, the mass fraction not accounted for by hydrogen or helium. For any given hydrogen mass fraction,
increasing Z leads to increasing molecular weight. The dependence of temperature on molecular weight is extremely steep—it is approximately
.
Decreasing Z by a factor of 10 shifts the track right, changing by about 0.05.
Chemical composition affects the Hayashi track in a few ways. The track depends strongly on the atmosphere's opacity, and this opacity is dominated by the H- ion. The abundance of the H- ion is proportional to the density of free electrons, which, in turn, is higher if there are more metals because metals are easier to ionize than hydrogen or helium.
Observational status
Observational evidence of the Hayashi track comes from color-magnitude plots—the observational equivalent of HR diagrams—of young star clusters. For Hayashi, NGC 2264 provided the first evidence of a population of contracting stars. In 2012, data from NGC 2264 was re-analyzed to account for dust reddening and extinction. The resulting color-magnitude plot is shown at right.
In the upper diagram, the isochrones are curves along which stars of a certain age are expected to lie, assuming that all stars evolve along the Hayashi track. An isochrone is created by taking stars of every conceivable mass, evolving them forwards to the same age, and plotting all of them on the color-magnitude diagram. Most of the stars in NGC 2264 are already on the main sequence (black line), but a substantial population lies between the isochrones for 3.2 million and 5 million years, indicating that the cluster is 3.2-5 million years old and a large population of T Tauri stars is still on their respective Hayashi tracks. Similar results have been obtained for NGC 6530, IC 5146, and NGC 6611.
The lower diagram shows Hayashi tracks for various masses, along with T Tauri observations collected from a variety of sources. Note the bold curve to the right, representing a stellar birthline. Even though some Hayashi tracks
theoretically extend above the birthline, few stars are above it. In effect, stars are 'born' onto the birthline before evolving downwards along their respective Hayashi tracks.
The birthline exists because stars formed from overdense cores of giant molecular clouds in an inside-out manner. That is, a small central region first collapses in on itself while the outer shell is still nearly static. The outer envelope then accretes onto the central protostar. Before the accretion is over, the protostar is hidden from view, and therefore not plotted on the color-magnitude diagram. When the envelope finishes accreting, the star is
revealed and appears on the birthline.
See also
Historical brightest stars
List of brightest stars
List of most luminous stars
List of nearest bright stars
Stellar birthline
Stellar isochrone
References
Star formation
Hertzsprung–Russell classifications
Astrophysics
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5116930
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHS%20Scotland
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NHS Scotland
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NHS Scotland, sometimes styled NHSScotland, () is the publicly funded healthcare system in Scotland and one of the four systems that make up the National Health Service in the United Kingdom. It operates 14 territorial NHS boards across Scotland, supported by seven special non-geographic health boards, and Public Health Scotland.
At the founding of the National Health Service in the United Kingdom, three separate institutions were created in Scotland, England and Wales and Northern Ireland. The NHS in Scotland was accountable to the Secretary of State for Scotland rather than the Secretary of State for Health as in England and Wales. Prior to 1948, a publicly funded healthcare system, the Highlands and Islands Medical Service, had been established in Scotland in 1913, recognising the geographical and demographic challenges of delivering healthcare in that region.
Following Scottish devolution in 1999, health and social care policy and funding became devolved to the Scottish Parliament. It is currently administered through the Health and Social Care Directorates of the Scottish Government.
The current Cabinet Secretary for Health and Social Care is Michael Matheson, and the head of staff is the director-general health and social care and chief executive of NHS Scotland, Caroline Lamb.
Budget
NHS Scotland had an operating budget of £15.3billion in 2020/21.
Health and social care are devolved issues in the United Kingdom and the separate public healthcare bodies of Scotland, England and Wales are each commonly referred to as "National Health Service". The NHS in Scotland was created as an administratively separate organisation in 1948 under the ministerial oversight of the Scottish Office, before being politically devolved in 1999. This separation of powers and financing is not always apparent to the general public due to the co-ordination and co-operation where cross-border emergency care is involved.
Workforce
Approximately 160,000 staff work across 14 regional NHS Boards, seven Special NHS Boards and one public health body, More than 12,000 of these healthcare staff are engaged under independent contractor arrangements. Descriptions of staff numbers can be expressed as headcount and by Whole-Time Equivalent (WTE) which is an estimate that helps to take account of full and part-time work patterns.
Scotland's healthcare workforce includes:
around 67,000 nurses, midwives and health visitors (providing around 58,000 WTE)
over 4,900 consultants (providing around 4600 WTE)
more than 4,800 general practitioners (providing around 3,700 WTE)
more than 500 nurse practitioners and 1,600 registered nurses working in GP surgeries.
dentists
around 4,000 pharmacists, mostly working in community pharmacy positions, with around 1,200 retail pharmacies across Scotland.
opticians
allied health professionals
Healthcare scientists play an important role in the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of a wide range of medical conditions, as well as in rehabilitation. Healthcare science staff are essential members of the healthcare team.
administrators, clerical and domestic staff.
Origins and history
Before 1948
Prior to the creation of NHS in Scotland in 1948, the state was involved with the provision of healthcare, though it was not universal. Half of Scotland's landmass was already covered by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service, a state-funded health system run directly from Edinburgh, which had been set up 35 years earlier to address a deficiency in the panel system, which required workers who earned less than £160 per year to pay 4d per week. Fourpence per week was beyond the means of most crofters at the time, who were subsistence farmers but often provided many troops for British armed forces. Average crofting families' income in some areas could be as low as £26 per annum (10/- or 120d per week) or even lower. The additional challenges of delivering medical care in the sparsely populated highlands and islands with poor infrastructure were also funded by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service.
During the Second World War, the Emergency Hospital Service (Scotland) built many hospitals intended to treat wartime casualties and injuries. These hospitals initially lay idle and so the Scottish Secretary at the time decided to use the hospital capacity to reduce long waiting lists for treatment.
Scotland also had its own distinctive medical tradition, centred on its medical schools rather than private practice, and a detailed plan for the future of health provision based on the Cathcart report.
Development of a National Health Service
Following the publication of the Beveridge Report in 1942, the UK Government responded with a white paper, A National Health Service (Cmd. 6502) in 1944 led by the Conservative MP and Minister for Health Henry Willink. In its introduction, the white paper laid out the Government's intention to have the new health service operate in Scotland--
"The decision to establish the new service applies, of course, to Scotland as well as to England and Wales and the present Paper is concerned with both countries. The differing circumstances of Scotland are bound to involve certain differences of method and of organisation, although not of scope or of object ... Throughout the Paper references to the Minister should normally be construed as references to the Minister of Health in the case of England and Wales and the Secretary of State for Scotland in the case of Scotland."
Founding of the NHS in Scotland
The UK Parliament passed the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947, which came into effect on 5 July 1948. This foundational legislation has since been superseded.
This Act provided a uniform national structure for services which had previously been provided by a combination of the Highlands and Islands Medical Service, local government, charities and private organisations which in general was only free for emergency use. The new system was funded from central taxation and did not generally involve a charge at the time of use for services concerned with existing medical conditions or vaccinations carried out as a matter of general public health requirements; prescription charges were a later introduction in 1951.
Structure
Current provision of healthcare is the responsibility of 14 geographically based local NHS boards, seven national special health boards, supported by Public Health Scotland, plus many small contractors for primary care services. Hospitals, district nursing services and healthcare planning are managed by health boards. Government policy has been to use the National Waiting Times centre to address waiting lists and limit use of the private sector.
Primary Care
To have access to NHS services, patients should register with a General Practice. Most often this will be an independent contractor who has agreed to provide general medical services to patients, funded on a capitation basis, with weighting given for the age distribution, poverty, and rurality. Various services are provided free of charge by General Practitioners (GPs), who are responsible for maintaining a comprehensive medical record, usually affording some continuity of care. There is no option to self-refer to specialists in Scotland unlike many European countries. GP surgeries consist of partner GPs who are responsible for running the practice, and may include GPs employed by the practice and paid a salary, but who do not have any responsibility in running the surgery. In some instances, GPs are directly employed by the local health board, such as in parts of the Highlands and Islands.
The NHS in Scotland also covers dentistry for patients who have registered with a dentist who has agreed to provide services to NHS patients. Most dentists in Scotland have a mixture of NHS patients and private patients. Check-ups are free, however dentists charge patients a regulated fee. Patients in Scotland must pay up to 80% of the total cost of the treatment unless they qualify for free treatment or help with costs. Dentists are remunerated through a voucher towards treatment and patients can choose to have more expensive treatments if they are willing and able to do so. This is mostly commonly seen with dental amalgam restorations on molars, which are available on the NHS, whereas composite resin restorations are not. The patient 'opts-out' of the NHS treatment and pays for the composite restoration as temporary private patient, but remains an NHS patient for future checkups.
Community pharmacies in Scotland also provide prescribed medicines free of charge, where the patient is registered with a GP Surgery based in Scotland, and where the appropriate prescription-voucher is given. Like GPs, they are private providers who deliver NHS services under contract. Pharmacists are increasingly delivering services which were once the responsibilities of GPs, such as flu vaccinations as well as offering advice on skin problems, gastrointestinal problems and other minor illnesses. Pharmacies in Scotland are frequently located inside Chemists' shops and supermarkets. While there are no prescription charges in Scotland, prescription-vouchers are not ordinarily given in Scotland for certain medicines - such as acetominophen and ibuprofen - as these are available without a prescription at very low prices in most chemists and supermarkets.
Most optometrists in Scotland also provide NHS services, and provide eye examinations, which includes retinal health checks and other eye screening services in addition to sight tests. Entitlements are mainly for corrective lenses and a predetermined set of frames - which were once known as 'NHS glasses' which attracted some social stigma until the range of frames was extended.
Secondary Care
Hospital services are delivered directly by the National Health Service in Scotland. Since devolution, Scottish healthcare policy has been to move away from market-based solutions and towards direct delivery, rather than using the private or voluntary sectors. Proposals for the establishment of fifteen NHS boards were announced by the Scottish Executive Health Department in December 2000. Further details about the role and function of the unified NHS health boards were provided in May 2001. From 1 October 2001 each geographical health board area had a single NHS board that was responsible for improving health and health services across their local area, replacing the previous decision-making structures of 43 separate boards and trusts.
In April 2004, Scotland's health care system became an integrated service under the management of NHS boards. Local authority nominees were added to board membership to improve co-ordination of health and social care. The remaining 16 Trusts were dissolved from 1 April 2004. Hospitals are now managed by the acute division of the NHS board. Primary care services such as GPs and pharmacies would continue to be contracted through the NHS board, but from 2004 were considered part of the remit of Community Health Partnerships (CHPs), structures based largely on local authority boundaries and including local authority membership of their boards. By April 2014, there were new joint working arrangements in place between the NHS boards and local authorities came into effect that also included responsibility for social care. There new organisations, which took over from CHPs are called Health and Social Care Partnerships (HSCPs).
In 2021 a new national Centre for Sustainable Delivery was established to bring together national programmes for scheduled and unscheduled care, waiting times and best practice – and ensure health boards are implementing them.
Regional health boards
There are 14 regional health boards.
According to Public Health Scotland data, the 2021 population sizes of the regional health boards were estimated to be:
NHS Argyll and Clyde now no longer operates. Its responsibilities were shared between NHS Highland and NHS Greater Glasgow on 1 April 2006, and the latter was renamed NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde. The part of the NHS Argyll and Clyde area which transferred to NHS Highland corresponds to the Argyll and Bute council area.
Elections to health boards
In January 2008, the Scottish Government announced plans for legislation to bring in direct elections as a way to select people for non-executive positions on health boards. The Health Committee of the Scottish Parliament had supported plans for directly elected members as a way that might improve public representation. This plan was abandoned in 2013 after trials in Fife and Dumfries and Galloway resulted in low voter turnout.
Special health boards
Local health boards are supported by seven national special health boards providing national services, some of which have further publicised subdivisions, including:
Healthcare Improvement Scotland
Scottish Ambulance Service (The single public emergency ambulance service in Scotland)
The Golden Jubilee University National Hospital is a special NHS Board in Scotland with the purpose of reducing waiting times using a single modern hospital located at Clydebank. It was previously a private sector hospital built at a cost of £180 million, but was bought in 2002 by the Scottish Executive for £37.5 million after it failed to produce a profit despite being established with the help of a subsidy provided by a previous government.
The State Hospitals Board for Scotland is responsible for the secure psychiatric hospital at Carstairs, which provides high security services for mentally disordered offenders and others who pose a high risk to themselves or others.
NHS 24 runs a telephone advice and triage service that cover the out of hours period, more recently also providing a national telehealth service.
NHS Education for Scotland (training and e-library)
NHS National Services Scotland It is the common name for the Common Services Agency (CSA) providing services for NHS Scotland boards.
The seven boards are supported by Public Health Scotland, which is responsible for public health, including national health protection, and health education from April 2020)
NHS Health Scotland, Health Protection Scotland and Information Services Division were succeeded by Public Health Scotland in April 2020. This new agency is a collaborative approach by both the Scottish Government and COSLA as a result of the Public Health Reform Programme.
Links with the NHS in England
The NHS in Scotland does have some services provided by the NHS in England - such as NHS Business Services Authority, which processes the payment of dental, optical and pharmacy vouchers and negotiates with pharmaceutical suppliers to negotiate prices per-item down. The costs for the medicines consumed is borne by the health board that patient's GP surgery is based in. Some very complex, low volume, highly-specialist hospital services are also provided by NHS Trusts in England, such as the Hospital for Tropical Diseases in London. These Trusts also treat patients from healthcare systems outside the UK.
Representative Bodies
The Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland is an independent statutory body which protects people with a psychological disorder who are not able to look after their own interests. It is funded through the Scottish Government Health & Social Care Directorate, and follows the same financial framework as the NHS in Scotland.
The Scottish Health Council took over from local Health Councils on 31 March 2005.
Quality of Healthcare
Regulation of most medical practitioners is a reserved matter, with doctors regulated by the General Medical Council of the United Kingdom, Nurses by the Nursing and Midwifery Council, Dentists, Dental Therapists, Dental Hygienists, Dental Technicians and Dental Nurses by the General Dental Council, Optometrists by the General Optical Council, pharmacists by the General Pharmaceutical Council, and allied health professionals by the Health and Care Professions Council.
Inspection of premises is undertaken by Healthcare Environment Inspectorate and the Care Inspectorate.
There are separate institutions, independent of government such as Academy of Medical Royal Colleges and Faculties in Scotland, the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, and the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow which are distinct from their counterparts elsewhere in the United Kingdom which support professionals in Scotland.
Other divisions
Other subdivisions of the Scottish NHS include:-
Health Protection Scotland (Part of NHS National Services Scotland responsible for health protection until April 2020
Public Health Scotland, responsible for public health protection in Scotland since April 2020
Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service
Test and Protect
During the COVID-19 pandemic, NHS Scotland established Test & Protect as the national contact tracing service to minimise the spread of the virus within Scotland.
Central Register
The Central Register keeps records of patients resident in Scotland who have been registered with any of the health systems of the United Kingdom. It is maintained by the Registrar General. Its purposes include keeping GPs' patient lists up to date, the control of new NHS numbers issued in Scotland and assisting with medical research.
Patient identification
Scottish patients are identified using a ten-digit number known as the CHI Number. These are used to uniquely identify individuals, avoiding problems such as where health records of people with similar birth dates and names may be confused, or where ambiguously spelled or abbreviated names may lead to one patient having several different health records. In addition, CHI numbers are quoted in all clinical correspondence to ensure that there is no uncertainty over the patient in question. A similar system of NHS reference numbers has since been instituted by NHS England and Wales.
Recent developments
In 2000, the NHS boards were starting to help out researchers with their studies. The Scottish Dental Practice Board, for example, was helping out a study which looked at the significance of orthodontic treatment with fixed appliances. The SDPB shared 128 subjects with these researchers for analysis.
The SNP government, elected in May 2007, made it clear that it opposed the use of partnerships between the NHS and the private sector. Health Secretary Nicola Sturgeon voiced opposition to what she termed the "creeping privatisation" of the NHS, and called an end to the use of public money to help the private sector "compete" with the NHS.
In September 2008, the Scottish Government announced that parking charges at hospitals were to be abolished except 3 where the car parks were managed under a private finance initiative scheme:
Ninewells Hospital, Dundee
The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh
Glasgow Royal Infirmary
Prescription charges were abolished in Scotland in 2011. Alex Neil defended the abolition in 2017 saying that restoring the charge would be a false economy, "Given that it costs on average £4,500 per week to keep patients in an acute hospital in Scotland, it's actually cheaper to keep them at home and give them the drugs to prevent them going into hospital."
Initiatives
The National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990 introduced GP fundholding for certain elective procedures on a voluntary basis. Fundholding gave GPs significant influence over Trusts' decision making as a significant source of funding. GP Fundholding was subsequently abolished with the function transferring to Primary Care Trusts in 1998.
In 2001, NHS 24, was established to provide advice and triage services for patients outside of the 'core hours' of 08:0018:30 on any working day. They can also advise of pharmacy opening hours.
In 2002, the Scottish Parliament Acted to introduce free personal care for patients aged over 65 in Community Care and Health (Scotland) Act 2002
The Scottish Parliament abolished Primary Care Trusts in the National Health Service Reform (Scotland) Act 2004, which abolished the internal market in Scotland and replaced NHS Trusts with 15 territorial health boards. In 2004, GPs were no longer required to provide out of hours services unless they opted into doing so.
In 2005, a plan for improving oral health and modernising dental practices was put into place, known as 'Childsmile', which provides preventive care such as proper brushing technique, tooth varnish and dietary advice. This has resulted in 60% of children in Scotland having no obvious signs of tooth decay.
An incentive programme for GPs was established in 2004, known as the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) were introduced in order to reward and incentivize good practice and provided a way for GP surgeries to increase their income. This was abolished in Scotland in 2015 as QOF compliance was a significant administrative burden for GPs.
The Scottish Government and the British Medical Association agreed the 2018 Scottish General Medical Services Contract that came in to force 1 April 2018.
In 2008, the Scottish Government introduced the Scottish Patient Safety Programme, which aimed to reduced iatrogenic illness by changing the safety culture to be more in line with the aviation industry, by providing clinicians with skills in improvement methodology and root cause analysis.
In 2022 an extra £82.6million was announced to bolster pharmacy support for repeat prescriptions and medication reviews in GP practices. The same year, NHS Scotland recruited 191 nurses from overseas. The nurses were recruited from several countries, including India and Philippines. A plan was made to hire another 203 foreign nurses through recruitment agencies. A contract was awarded to Inhealthcare for remote monitoring services across Scotland. This will enable patients to record relevant information at home and relay the readings to NHS teams for analysis using a mobile app or landline telephone. It will be used to manage hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, heart disease, diabetes, depression, malnutrition, cancer and COVID.
There is a substantial effort to develop a drone delivery service. The University of Strathclyde, NHS Grampian, NATS Holdings, AGS Airports and other partners form a consortium, Care and Equity – Healthcare Logistics UAS Scotland known as 'CAELUS' which has designed drone landing stations for NHS sites across Scotland and developed a virtual model of the proposed delivery network. It is testing whether drones will improve logistics services, including the transport of laboratory samples, blood products, chemotherapy and medicines. It is hoped that this will provide equity of care between urban and remote rural communities. At present patients in remote areas may have to travel for hours to reach a hospital able to provide specialised treatment. Skyports, a drone operator, is running flight trials and live flights should start in 2023.
Performance
In 2014 the Nuffield Trust and the Health Foundation produced a report comparing the performance of the NHS in the four countries of the UK since devolution in 1999. They included data for the North East of England as an area more similar to the devolved areas than the rest of England. They found that there was little evidence that any one country was moving ahead of the others consistently across the available indicators of performance. There had been improvements in all four countries in life expectancy and in rates of mortality amenable to health care. Despite the hotly contested policy differences between the four countries there was little evidence, where there was comparable data, of any significant differences in outcomes. The authors also complained about the increasingly limited set of comparable data on the four health systems of the UK.
In 20142015 more than 7,500 NHS patients were treated in private hospitals in order to meet waiting times targets.
Dr Peter Bennie, of the British Medical Association, attacked the decision to release weekly reports on the Accident and Emergency 4 hour wait target in June 2015. In June 2015 92.2% of patients were admitted or discharged within 4 hours against a target of 95%. He said "The publication of these weekly statistics completely misses the point and diverts attention from the real issues in our health service."
The Academy of Medical Royal Colleges and Faculties in Scotland produced a report entitled "Learning from serious failings in care" in July 2015. The investigation was launched after concerns about high death rates and staffing problems at Monklands Hospital, a clostridium difficile outbreak at the Vale of Leven Hospital and concerns about patient safety and care at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary. The report found the problems had been predominantly caused by the failure of clinical staff and NHS management to work together. They found leadership and accountability were often lacking but bullying was endemic. Their 20 recommendations for improvements in the NHS included a set of minimum safe staffing levels for consultants, doctors, nurses and other staff in hospital settings. They criticised a target driven culture, saying: "Quality care must become the primary influence on patient experience... and the primary indicator of performance."
In January 2017 the British Medical Association said that the health service in Scotland was "stretched pretty much to breaking point" and needed an increase in funding of at least 4% "just to stand still". The service missed seven out of eight performance targets in 20162017. There was a 99% increase in the number of people waiting more than 12 weeks for an outpatient appointment. Drug-related deaths were the highest in the European Union.
NHS Scotland's local health boards also have high vacancy levels in their mental health departments. In 2020, it was revealed that over 1 in 8 senior mental health roles were unfilled, which has directly led to increased waiting times for mental health patients.
In November 2022 a survey by Ipsos and the Health Foundation found just 28% of the Scottish public were confident about their devolved government plans for the NHS.
Anglo-Scottish Border issues
The divergent administration of the NHS between England and Scotland has created problems for patients who live close to the border. The Coldstream medical practice has about 1400 patients who live in England. They benefit from the Scottish free prescriptions because they are "deemed to be in the Scottish healthcare system" so long as they are delivered through a Scottish pharmacy. However, there has been no agreement about the reimbursement of hospital charges for patients who cross the border for hospital treatment. In 2013, 633 Northumberland patients crossed into Scotland for treatment at the Borders General Hospital.
University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust complained in June 2015 that commissioners outside England use a "burdensome" prior approval process, where a funding agreement is needed before each stage of treatment. At the end of 2014–15 the trust was owed more than £2.3m for treating patients from outside England. A survey by the Health Service Journal suggested there was £21m of outstanding debt relating to patients from the devolved nations treated in the last three years, against total invoicing of £315m by English NHS trusts. Funding was approved for 625 referrals outside Scotland in 20162017, up from 427 in 20132014. The cost rose from £11.9million in 20132014 to £15.2million in 20162017.
Overseas patients
Patients who are not entitled to free NHS treatment because they are not ordinarily resident in the UK are supposed to pay for their treatment. Not all of this money is collected. £347,089 was owed to NHS Lothian by 28 patients in 20162017, compared with £47,755 owed by fewer than five patients the previous year. In Greater Glasgow and Clyde the number of overseas patients treated rose from 67 in 20142015 to 99. A total of £423,326 is owed to the health board and about £1.2million across Scotland.
See also
NHS Research Scotland
Social care in Scotland
List of hospitals in Scotland
Voluntary Health Scotland
References
External links
1948 establishments in Scotland
Government agencies established in 1948
Organisations based in Edinburgh
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5117020
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Dallas
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FC Dallas
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FC Dallas is an American professional soccer club based in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The club competes as a member of the Western Conference in Major League Soccer (MLS). The franchise began play in 1996 as a charter club of the league. The club was founded in 1995 as the Dallas Burn before adopting its current name in 2004.
Since 2005, Dallas have played in the DFW area's northern suburbs at the 20,500-capacity soccer-specific Toyota Stadium in Frisco, Texas; home games in the club's early years were played at the Cotton Bowl. The team is owned by the Hunt Sports Group led by brothers Clark Hunt and Dan Hunt, who is the team's president. The Hunt family also owns the NFL's Kansas City Chiefs and part of the Chicago Bulls.
FC Dallas in 2016 won their first Supporters' Shield. In 2010 they were runners-up in the MLS Cup, losing to the Colorado Rapids in extra time. The team has won the U.S. Open Cup on two occasions (in 1997 and again in 2016). Their fully owned USL affiliate, North Texas SC, won the 2019 USL League One regular season and overall championship titles, the third division title in American soccer. The International Federation of Football History & Statistics, in its Club World Ranking for the year ending December 31, 2016, placed FC Dallas as the 190th best club in the world and the ninth best club in CONCACAF.
The Toros' academy is reputed for its player development, having produced several players who have gone on to feature for European clubs and the United States men's national soccer team such as Weston McKennie, Reggie Cannon, Ricardo Pepi, and Chris Richards.
History
Dallas Burn era: 1996–2004
Dallas was awarded a Major League Soccer franchise on June 6, 1995, the same day as teams were awarded to Kansas City and Colorado. The team was given its name for the burning in the Texan oilfields and the state's hot weather. On October 17, former Mexico international Hugo Sánchez was designated to the team as their first player. Initially not attracting investors, the Burn was financed by the league itself.
On April 14, 1996, the Dallas Burn played their first game, defeating the San Jose Clash in a shootout win in front of a crowd of 27,779 fans at the Cotton Bowl. Five days later, Jason Kreis scored the team's first goal in a 3–0 home win over the Wiz. With a record of 17–15, the Burn finished in second in the Western Conference behind the Los Angeles Galaxy. They lost in the best of three playoff semifinals to the Wiz after three games, the last one being decided by a shootout. Their first campaign in the U.S. Open Cup ended with a 2–3 home defeat in the semifinals against D.C. United. In their second season, the Burn again reached the playoffs, where they lost in the conference finals to the Colorado Rapids. Later in 1997, they won their first U.S. Open Cup by defeating the MLS Cup champions, D.C. United. In 1999, striker Kreis was voted the league's MVP for a season in which he became the first player to reach 15 goals and 15 assists. That season ended in the playoffs with a defeat to the Galaxy in the conference finals. In October 2000, head coach Dave Dir was fired, despite again taking the team to the playoffs for the fifth consecutive time.
Dir's replacement in January 2001 was Mike Jeffries, who had won the 1998 MLS Cup and two U.S. Open Cups with the Chicago Fire. In his first season in charge, which was cut short as a result of the September 11 attacks, Dallas lost in the playoff quarterfinals to Jeffries' former team. They were also eliminated in the second round of the 2001 U.S. Open Cup by the Seattle Sounders Select, an amateur team from the third-tier Premier Development League. The 2002 season ended with a third-place finish in the West and overall for Dallas, along with an early playoffs exit to the Colorado Rapids. For the 2003 season, the Burn relocated their home games from the Cotton Bowl to the much lower capacity Dragon Stadium (a high school football stadium) in Southlake, which is a northern Fort Worth suburb. The team performed poorly in 2003 and Jeffries was fired in September. He was temporarily replaced by his assistant, former Northern Ireland international Colin Clarke. The team missed the playoffs for the first time, having been one of only two teams to have qualified on all seven prior occasions.
For the 2004 season, Clarke was named the permanent coach and the team returned to the Cotton Bowl, for a campaign in which they again missed the playoffs. In August, club owner Lamar Hunt announced that the club would be re-branded and known as "FC Dallas" to coincide with their new soccer-specific stadium in Frisco for the 2005 season.
FC Dallas era: 2005–present
In March 2005, FC Dallas signed Guatemalan forward Carlos Ruiz, who had scored 50 goals in 72 games for the Galaxy and earned the MVP award for helping them to the 2002 MLS Cup. On August 6, FC Dallas played their inaugural game at Pizza Hut Park and tied the New York/New Jersey MetroStars, 2–2. Ranked second in the West behind the San Jose Earthquakes, Dallas returned to the playoffs for the first time in two seasons, losing in the conference semifinals to Colorado in a penalty kick shootout, with Roberto Miña's attempt saved by Joe Cannon. In 2006, the team finished the regular season at the top of the Western Conference, but lost in the playoffs in the conference semifinals again, leading to Clarke's dismissal. He was replaced by Steve Morrow. In 2007, a third consecutive playoff appearance ended at the same stage with a 4–2 aggregate defeat to fellow Texas club, the Houston Dynamo, who would go on to win their second consecutive MLS Cup. In 2005 and 2007, Dallas reached their first two U.S. Open Cup finals since their 1997 victory, losing both by one-goal margins to the Galaxy and the New England Revolution respectively. For the following two seasons, Dallas missed the MLS playoffs. During the 2008 season, Morrow was replaced by Schellas Hyndman. In 2009, the club signed Bryan Leyva as the club's first Homegrown Player from its development academy.
In 2010, Dallas played in the MLS Cup for the first time, losing 2–1 after extra time to Colorado at BMO Field in Toronto, after an own goal by George John. They were the last of the surviving original MLS clubs to appear in the MLS Cup final. On-loan Colombian midfielder David Ferreira was voted the league's MVP, having missed only one minute of the season, and Hyndman won the MLS Coach of the Year Award.
By finishing as runners-up in the MLS Cup, Dallas competed in the 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League, their first time in the leading continental tournament. Following a victory in the preliminary round against Alianza F.C. of El Salvador, they reached the group stage. In the first group game, Marvin Chávez's goal defeated Mexican champions UNAM at the Estadio Olímpico Universitario, making Dallas the first MLS team to win an away match in the Champions League against a Mexican team. The team followed this achievement with a victory by the same score at Toronto FC, but did not win any of their four remaining games and were eliminated from the competition after finishing in third place in their group. In October 2013, Hyndman resigned as head coach after a second consecutive season without making the playoffs.
Three months after Hyndman's resignation, his replacement was confirmed to be Colombian and former Dallas player and assistant coach Óscar Pareja, who had resigned from the Colorado Rapids after two seasons as head coach there. Pareja led the club back to the playoffs in 2014. Dallas finished in first place in the Western Conference in 2015. They defeated the Seattle Sounders FC in the conference semifinals, only to fall to the Portland Timbers in the Western Conference finals.
First double
Their regular season performance earned them a return to the Champions League for 2016–17. In 2016 the club won their first Supporters' Shield and second U.S. Open Cup. For the third consecutive year, they met the Sounders in the conference semifinals, this time losing 4–2 on aggregate.
Dallas, in their return in the Champions league, had advanced from the group stage and into the knockout round. The club was eliminated by Pachuca, in their home and away semifinal series, after a late goal in overtime from Hirving Lozano.
Colors and badge
Originally, the Dallas Burn played in a predominantly red-and-black color scheme, and had a logo which featured a fire-breathing black mustang behind a stylized red "Burn" wordmark. The logo and the original colors of red and black were revealed at an event in New York City on October 17, 1995.
The team re-branded as FC Dallas in 2005 to coincide with their move to Pizza Hut Park in the middle of that season and has since played in a color scheme of red, white, silver, and blue, and a uniform design of horizontally hooped stripes. The colors are officially listed as Republic Red, Lonestar White, Bovine Blue, and Shawnee Silver. Red remained as a primary color in their home uniforms, with blue eventually becoming a primary color of their away uniforms. The club badge was also changed with a bull replacing the mustang. In July 2012, the team wore their first sponsored jerseys, bearing the logo of Texan sports nutrition manufacturers AdvoCare. For the 2014 and 2015 seasons, the hoops were a different shade of red rather than a contrasting white. The jersey also incorporated the motto "Dallas 'Til I Die" on the inside of the collar and the initials "LH" on the back for Lamar Hunt.
Stadium
FC Dallas has had three different home stadiums, each of which has been located in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex.
From its foundation, the team played in the 92,100-capacity Cotton Bowl in Dallas. In an effort to save money due to the club's unfavorable lease with the Cotton Bowl, the club played its 2003 home games at Dragon Stadium, a high school stadium in Southlake, a Fort Worth suburb. After listening to its fans, the team moved back to the Cotton Bowl for the 2004 season.
In August 2005, the club moved into Pizza Hut Park, a 19,096-capacity soccer-specific stadium in the northern suburb of Frisco. After Pizza Hut left as a primary sponsor, the stadium was renamed as Toyota Stadium in September 2013. The stadium is part of a complex with 17 soccer fields, booked more than 350 days per year with annual visits of 1.8 million people. The stadium's south end was extensively remodeled in 2018, including a new home for the National Soccer Hall of Fame.
Uniform evolution
Primary
Secondary
Third/Special
Club culture
Mascot
The mascot of FC Dallas is a bull named Tex Hooper. His fictional biography, by the team, states that he was born on September 6, 1996, in Frisco, Texas.
Supporters
FC Dallas has two recognized supporters groups: Dallas Beer Guardians and El Matador.
Rivalries
FC Dallas' main rival is the Houston Dynamo in the Texas Derby. The two teams reside in the same state and compete for El Capitan, a working replica Civil War cannon that goes to the regular season victor.
Animosity grew between fans and players of FC Dallas and the Colorado Rapids, mainly sparking from Colorado players' comments towards the fans and Colorado's victories over FC Dallas in the 2005 and 2006 MLS Cup Playoffs.
In addition to the Texas Derby, the team also competes in two other MLS rivalry cups. The Brimstone Cup against the Chicago Fire, so named for the allusions to fire in both teams' names when FC Dallas was the Dallas Burn, was inaugurated by the fans in 2001. The Lamar Hunt Pioneer Cup has been contested against Columbus Crew SC since 2007. It is named after Lamar Hunt, who was an investor in both teams. Due to league expansion and realignment, FC Dallas only plays Chicago and Columbus once a year now in the regular season, which has led to decreased importance of these two rivalry cups, especially when compared to the Texas Derby.
Song
During a period where MLS created songs for each club, the team anthem was "H-O-O-P-S Yes!" and was performed by Dallas natives The Polyphonic Spree, a choral symphonic rock group.
Academy
The FC Dallas Academy has produced talent including Weston McKennie, Chris Richards, Nico Carrera, Reggie Cannon, Christian Cappis, Jesus Ferreira, Brandon Servania, Ricardo Pepi and Bryan Reynolds. In 2020, they were ranked the number one academy in MLS by David Kerr on chasingacup.com MLS Academy rankings.
Affiliated teams
FC Dallas was formally associated with Oklahoma City Energy FC of the USL Championship, the second tier of the American soccer pyramid. They were affiliated with Arizona United SC of the USL in 2015. Abroad, the team was previously affiliated to Tigres de la UANL of Mexico and Clube Atlético Paranaense of Brazil.
On November 2, 2018, it was announced by United Soccer League that Dallas would be granted a side to play in USL League One, its newly created third division for 2019. The club then officially announced their name, North Texas SC, and crest on December 6, 2018. The club is owned and operated by FC Dallas.
Sponsorship
In 2005, Pizza Hut was the title sponsor of the club's stadium and complex when it opened. On June 27, 2012, FC Dallas reached a three-year sponsorship deal with AdvoCare, a Plano-based health and wellness company, worth US$7.5M making AdvoCare the official jersey sponsor. After the 2012 season, Pizza Hut ended their relationship with the club, and the stadium was temporarily renamed as FC Dallas Stadium. In September 2013 FC Dallas reached a long-term deal with Toyota to be official stadium naming rights partners, and the stadium was once again renamed, this time as Toyota Stadium. In October 2014 FC Dallas and AdvoCare announced an extension of the jersey sponsorship through 2020. In February 2021, FC Dallas announced MTX Group, a B2B information technology company based in Frisco, to be its new shirt sponsor, with Advocare remaining as the team's sleeve sponsor. In January 2023, FC Dallas announced a sponsorship deal with Children's Health and UT Southwestern to be its new jersey sponsors.
Broadcasting
Television
From 2023, every FC Dallas match is available via MLS Season Pass on the Apple TV app.
Prior to the all-streaming deal, the club's non-nationally televised games were primarily broadcast in Dallas on local channel KTXA. This arrangement began with the 2015 season. The club struggled for years to find consistent broadcast partners in the crowded Dallas–Fort Worth sports market. In August 2018, FC Dallas launched the FCDTV Network, comprising local stations KJBO-LP (Amarillo), KMYL-LD (Lubbock), KTPN-LD (Tyler-Longview) and KJBO-LP (Wichita Falls/Lawton). Due to scheduling conflicts with KTXA during the return of 2020 Major League Soccer season from the COVID-19 pandemic, select matches of FC Dallas were moved to Fox Sports Southwest.
On February 25, 2013, FC Dallas signed a deal with Time Warner Cable to air most of its games on the Time Warner Cable Sports Channel in Dallas, replacing Fox Sports Southwest as the primary broadcaster of games. This arrangement lasted for two seasons. It was not popular with fans as the channel was not available on many cable and satellite packages besides those offered by Time Warner. The channel still broadcasts some games that are not broadcast by KTXA. Also, in some areas outside of the Dallas–Fort Worth market, the channel continues to broadcast the club's games.
Until the 2012 season, FC Dallas matches appeared on various local television stations such as KTXA and WFAA (digital channel 8.3), and regional sports network Fox Sports Southwest (often on alternate Fox Sports Southwest Plus channels when conflicting with Texas Rangers, Dallas Mavericks, and Dallas Stars games).
In 2012, Dallas Mavericks play-by-play announcer Mark Followill also became the primary play-by-play announcer for FC Dallas, replacing the late Bobby Rhine. Former Houston Dynamo announcer Jonathan Yardley shared play-by-play responsibilities with Followill in 2012. In 2013, Bob Sturm (weekday early afternoon co-host on sports radio KTCK) replaced Yardley, who has continued to fill in for Followill and Sturm in 2013, 2016, and 2018. The color commentator spot was filled until 2016 by a rotation of former MLS players including: Brian Dunseth, Ian Joy, Kevin Hartman, Steve Jolley, and Dante Washington. FC Dallas employee Daniel Robertson or Sturm (beginning in 2016) filled in when one of the others are not available. Longtime national soccer writer Steve Davis has been the analyst on all matches since 2018. Beginning with the new KTXA deal in 2015, longtime local sports broadcaster Gina Miller hosted a team produced 30-minute pregame show on select broadcasts.
In 2021, FC Dallas announced that Estrella TV would become the first team's Spanish TV broadcast partner for the 2021 and 2022 seasons, with matches appearing on Estrella's Dallas affiliate KMPX. This marked the first ever Spanish language broadcast for FC Dallas on TV.
Radio
Beginning with the 2018 season, English radio coverage of the club's MLS matches has been on the club's website. Beginning with the 2019 season for locally televised games, the radio coverage has been a simulcast of the audio from the television broadcast. When the club's match is televised nationally with no local coverage, a radio-only broadcast is available online.
Carlos Alvarado and Rafa Calderon provide Spanish language commentary on radio stations such as KFLC and KFZO. Alvarado has been the play-by-play announcer since the inaugural 1996 season, and Calderon has been the color analyst since the 2001 season.
Just like on television, the club struggled to find radio broadcast partners. For several seasons, there were no English radio broadcasts of FC Dallas games. Beginning with the 2014 season, English radio broadcasts (including a postgame show) returned for the club with KWRD-FM becoming the primary radio home for the club's matches. This arrangement continued through the 2017 season. Steve Davis was the initial and most used announcer, calling the games solo.
Players and staff
For details on former players, see All-time FC Dallas roster.
Roster
Out on loan
Team management
Head coaches
Honors
Domestic
MLS Cup
Runners-up: 2010
Supporters' Shield
Winners: 2016
Runners-up: 2006, 2015
U.S. Open Cup
Winners: 1997, 2016
Runners-up: 2005, 2007
Minor
Copa Tejas (Division 1)
Winners: 2021
Continental
CONCACAF Champions League
Semi-finalists: 2016-17
Record
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by FC Dallas. For the full season-by-season history, see List of FC Dallas seasons.
1. Avg. attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, U.S. Open Cup, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions League, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
MLS Scoring Champion/Golden Boot
The following players have won the MLS Scoring Champion or Golden Boot.
Top goalscorers
Active player name(s) in bold
International competition
1998 CONCACAF Cup Winners' Cup
Group stage v. Necaxa – 1–4
Group stage v. Cruz Azul – 1–2
2004 La Manga Cup
Group stage v. Odd Grenland – 1–2
Group stage v. Dynamo Kyiv – 2–2
Semi-finals v. Stabæk – 2–1
Fifth place match v. Bodø/Glimt – 1–3
2007 North American SuperLiga
Group stage v. Guadalajara – 1–1
Group stage v. Pachuca – 1–1
Group stage v. Los Angeles Galaxy – 5–6
2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League
Preliminary round v. Alianza – 1–0
Preliminary round v. Alianza – 1–0
Group stage v. UNAM – 1–0
Group stage v. Toronto FC – 1–0
Group stage v. Tauro F.C. – 1–1
Group stage v. UNAM – 0–2
Group stage v. Tauro F.C. – 3–5
Group stage v. Toronto FC – 0–3
2016–17 CONCACAF Champions League
Group stage v. Real Estelí – 2–1
Group stage v. Real Estelí – 1–1
Group stage v. Suchitepéquez – 0–0
Group stage v. Suchitepéquez – 5–2
Quarter-finals v. Árabe Unido – 4–0
Quarter-finals v. Árabe Unido – 1–2
Semi-finals v. Pachuca – 2–1
Semi-finals v. Pachuca – 1–3
2018 CONCACAF Champions League
Round of 16 v. Tauro F.C. – 0–1
Round of 16 v. Tauro F.C. – 3–2
References
External links
Association football clubs established in 1995
Soccer clubs in Dallas
Sports in Frisco, Texas
1995 establishments in Texas
Major League Soccer teams
U.S. clubs in CONCACAF Cup Winners' Cup
U.S. Open Cup winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Choice%20and%20Individual%20Values
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Social Choice and Individual Values
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Kenneth Arrow's monograph Social Choice and Individual Values (1951, 2nd ed., 1963, 3rd ed., 2012) and a theorem within it created modern social choice theory, a rigorous melding of social ethics and voting theory with an economic flavor. Somewhat formally, the "social choice" in the title refers to Arrow's representation of how social values from the set of individual orderings would be implemented under the constitution. Less formally, each social choice corresponds to the feasible set of laws passed by a "vote" (the set of orderings) under the constitution even if not every individual voted in favor of all the laws.
The work culminated in what Arrow called the "General Possibility Theorem," better known thereafter as Arrow's (impossibility) theorem. The theorem states that, absent restrictions on either individual preferences or neutrality of the constitution to feasible alternatives, there exists no social choice rule that satisfies a set of plausible requirements. The result generalizes the voting paradox, which shows that majority voting may fail to yield a stable outcome.
Introduction
The Introduction contrasts voting and markets with dictatorship and social convention (such as those in a religious code). Both exemplify social decisions. Voting and markets facilitate social choice in a sense, whereas dictatorship and convention limit it. The former amalgamate possibly differing tastes to make a social choice. The concern is with formal aspects of generalizing such choices. In this respect it is comparable to analysis of the voting paradox from use of majority rule as a value.
Arrow asks whether other methods of taste aggregation (whether by voting or markets), using other values, remedy the problem or are satisfactory in other ways. Here logical consistency is one check on acceptability of all the values. To answer the questions, Arrow proposes removing the distinction between voting and markets in favor of a more general category of collective social choice.
The analysis uses ordinal rankings of individual choice to represent behavioral patterns. Cardinal measures of individual utility and, a fortiori, interpersonal comparisons of utility are avoided on grounds that such measures are unnecessary to represent behavior and depend on mutually incompatible value judgments (p. 9).
Following Abram Bergson, whose formulation of a social welfare function launched ordinalist welfare economics, Arrow avoids locating a social good as independent of individual values. Rather, social values inhere in actions from social-decision rules (hypostatized as constitutional conditions) using individual values as input. Then 'social values' means "nothing more than social choices" (p. 106).
Topics implicated along the way include game theory, the compensation principle in welfare economics, extended sympathy, Leibniz's principle of the identity of indiscernibles, logrolling, and similarity of social judgments through single-peaked preferences, Kant's categorical imperative, or the decision process.
Terminology
The book defines a few terms and logical symbols used thereafter and their applied empirical interpretation (pp. 11–19, 23). Key among these is the "vote" ('set of orderings') of the society (more generally "collectivity") composed of individuals (“voters” here) in the following form:
Voters, a finite set with at least two members, indexed as i = 1, 2, ... n.
Commodities, the objects of choice (things that voters might want, goods and services), both private and public (municipal services, statecraft, etc.).
A social state is a specification (formally, an element of a vector) of a distribution among voters of commodities, labor, and resources used in their productions.
The set of social states, the set of all 'social states', indexed as x, y, z, . ., with at least three members.
A (weak) ordering, a ranking by a voter of all 'social states' from more to less preferred, including possible ties.
The set of 'orderings', the set of all n orderings, one ordering per voter.
The ordering of each voter ranks social states, including the distribution of commodities (possibly based on equity, by whatever metric, or any other consideration), not merely direct consumption by that voter. So, the ordering is an "individual value," not merely, as in earlier analysis, a purely private "taste." Arrow notes that the distinction is not sharp. Resource allocation is specified in the production of each social state in the ordering.
The comprehensive nature of commodities, the set of social states, and the set of orderings was noted by early reviewers.
The two properties that define any ordering of the set of objects in question (all social states here) are:
connectedness (completeness): All the objects in the set are included in the ranking (no "undecideds" nor "abstentions") and
transitivity: If, for any objects x, y, and z in the set, x is ranked at least as high as y and y is ranked at least as high as z, then x is ranked at least as high as z.
The earlier definition of an ordering implies that any given ordering entails one of three responses on the "ballot" as between any pair of social states (x, y): better than, as good as, or worse than (in preference ranking). (Here "as good as" is an "equally-ranked," not a "don't know," relation.)
An ordering of a voter is denoted by R. That ordering of voter i is denoted with a subscript as .
If voter i changes orderings, primes distinguish the first and second, say compared to ' . The same notation can apply for two different hypothetical orderings of the same voter.
The interest of the book is in amalgamating sets of orderings. This is accomplished through a 'constitution'.
A constitution (or social welfare function) is a voting rule mapping each (of at least one) set of orderings onto a social ordering, a corresponding ordering of the set of social states that applies to each voter.
A social ordering of a constitution is denoted R. (Context or a subscript distinguishes a voter ordering R from the same symbol for a social ordering.)
For any two social states x and y of a given social ordering R:
x P y is "social preference" of x over y (x is selected over y by the rule).
x I y is "social indifference" between x and y (both are ranked the same by the rule).
x R y is either "social preference" of x over y or "social indifference" between x and y (x is ranked least as good as y by the rule).
A social ordering applies to each ordering in the set of orderings (hence the "social" part and the associated amalgamation). This is so regardless of (dis)similarity between the social ordering and any or all the orderings in the set. But Arrow places the constitution in the context of ordinalist welfare economics, which attempts to aggregate different tastes in a coherent, plausible way.
Arrow (pp. 15, 26–28) shows how to go from the social ordering R for a given set of orderings to a particular 'social choice' by specifying:
the environment, S: the subset of social states that is (hypothetically) available (feasible as to resource quantity and productivity), not merely conceivable.
The social ordering R then selects the top-ranked social state(s) from the subset as the social choice set.
Less informally, the social choice function is the function mapping each environment S of available social states (at least two) for any given set of orderings (and corresponding social ordering R) to the social choice set, the set of social states each element of which is top-ranked (by R) for that environment and that set of orderings.
The social choice function is denoted C(S). Consider an environment that has just two social states, x and y: C(S) = C([x, y]). Suppose x is the only top-ranked social state. Then C([x, y]) = {x}, the social choice set. If x and y are instead tied, C([x, y]) = {x, y}. Formally (p. 15), C(S) is the set of all x in S such that, for all y in S, x R y ("x is at least as good as y").
The next section invokes the following. Let R and R' stand for social orderings of the constitution corresponding to any 2 sets of orderings. If R and R' for the same environment S map to the same social choice(s), the relation of the identical social choices for R and R' is represented as: C(S) = C'(S).
Conditions and theorem
A constitution might seem to be a promising alternative to dictatorship and vote-immune social convention or external control. Arrow describes the connectedness of a social ordering as requiring only that some social choice be made from any environment of available social states. Since some social state will prevail, this is hard to deny (especially with no place on the ballot for abstention). The transitivity of a social ordering has an advantage over requiring unanimity (or much less) to change between social states if there is a maladapted status quo (that is, one subject to "democratic paralysis"). Absent deadlock, transitivity crowds out any reference to the status quo as a privileged default blocking the path to a social choice (p. 120).
Arrow proposes the following "apparently reasonable" conditions to constrain the social ordering(s) of the constitution (pp. 25, 96-97).
1. Universal (Unrestricted) Domain U (subsequently so called): Every logically possible set of orderings maps to its own social ordering.
Each voter is permitted by the constitution to rank the set of social states in any order, though with only one ordering per voter for a given set of orderings.
2. Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives I: Let , ..., and ' , ..., ' be 2 sets of orderings in the constitution. Let S be a subset of hypothetically available (not merely conceivable) social states, say x and y, from the set of social states. For each voter i, let the ranking of x and y be the same for and for ' . (Different voters could still have different rankings of the 2 social states.) Then the social orderings for the 2 respective sets of orderings select the same state(s) from the subset as the social choice.
Arrow describes this condition as an extension of ordinalism with its emphasis on prospectively observable behavior (for the subset in question). He ascribes practical advantage to the condition from "every known electoral system" satisfying it (p. 110).
3. The (weak) Pareto Principle P: For any x and y in the set of social states, if all prefer x over y, then x is socially selected over y.#
The conditions, particularly the second and third, may seem minimal, but jointly they are harsh, as may be represented in either of two ways.
Arrow's Theorem [1]: The 3 conditions of the constitution imply a dictator who prevails as to the social choice whatever that individual's preference and those of all else.
An alternate statement of the theorem adds the following condition to the above:
4. Nondictatorship D: No voter in the society is a dictator. That is, there is no voter i in the society such that for every set of orderings in the domain of the constitution and every pair of distinct social states x and y, if voter i strictly prefers x over y, x is socially selected over y.
Arrow's Theorem [2]: The constitution is impossible, that is, the 4 conditions of a constitution imply a contradiction.
# Pareto is stronger than necessary in the proof of the theorem that follows above. But it is invoked in Arrow (1963, ch. VIII) for a simpler proof than in Arrow (1951). In the latter, Arrow uses 2 other conditions, that with (2) above imply Pareto (1963, p. 97; 1987, p. 127):
3a. Monotonicity M (Positive Association of Individual and Social Values), as in Arrow (1987, p. 125): For a given set of orderings with social ordering R, such that state x is socially preferred to state y, if the preference for x rises in some individual ordering(s) and falls in none, x is also socially preferred to y in the social ordering for the new set of orderings.
Arrow (1951, p. 26) describes social welfare here as at least not negatively related to individual preferences.
3b. As defined by Arrow (1951, pp. 28–29), an Imposed Constitution is a constitution such that for some alternative social states x and y and for any set of orderings , ..., in the domain and corresponding social ordering R, the social ranking is x R y.
Non-imposition N (Citizens' Sovereignty): A constitution is not to be imposed.
Under imposition, for every set of orderings in the domain, the social ranking for at least one x and y is only x R y. The vote makes no difference to the outcome.
Proof
The proof is in two parts (Arrow, 1963, pp. 97–100). The first part considers the hypothetical case of some one voter's ordering that prevails ('is decisive') as to the social choice for some pair of social states no matter what that voter's preference for the pair, despite all other voters opposing. It is shown that, for a constitution satisfying Unrestricted Domain, Pareto and Independence, that voter's ordering would prevail for every pair of social states, no matter what the orderings of others. So, the voter would be a Dictator. Thus, Nondictatorship requires postulating that no one would so prevail for even one pair of social states.
The second part considers more generally a set of voters that would prevail for some pair of social states, despite all other voters (if any) preferring otherwise. Pareto and Unrestricted Domain for a constitution imply that such a set would at least include the entire set of voters. By Nondictatorship, the set must have at least 2 voters. Among all such sets, postulate a set such that no other set is smaller. Such a set can be constructed with Unrestricted Domain and an adaptation of the voting paradox to imply a still smaller set. This contradicts the postulate and so proves the theorem.
Summary, interpretation, and aftereffects
The book proposes some apparently reasonable conditions for a "voting" rule, in particular, a 'constitution', to make consistent, feasible social choices in a welfarist context. But then any constitution that allows dictatorship requires it, and any constitution that requires nondictatorship contradicts one of the other conditions. Hence, the paradox of social choice.
The set of conditions across different possible votes refined welfare economics and differentiated Arrow's constitution from the pre-Arrow social welfare function. In so doing, it also ruled out any one consistent social ordering to which an agent or official might appeal in trying to implement social welfare through the votes of others under the constitution. The result generalizes and deepens the voting paradox to any voting rule satisfying the conditions, however complex or comprehensive.
The 1963 edition includes an additional chapter with a simpler proof of Arrow's Theorem and corrects an earlier point noted by Blau. It also elaborates on advantages of the conditions and cites studies of Riker and Dahl that as an empirical matter intransitivity of the voting mechanism may produce unsatisfactory inaction or majority opposition. These support Arrow's characterization of a constitution across possible votes (that is, collective rationality) as "an important attribute of a genuinely democratic system capable of full adaptation to varying environments" (p. 120).
The theorem might seem to have unravelled a skein of behavior-based social-ethical theory from Adam Smith and Bentham on. But Arrow himself expresses hope at the end of his Nobel prize lecture that, though the philosophical and distributive implications of the paradox of social choice were "still not clear," others would "take this paradox as a challenge rather than as a discouraging barrier."
The large subsequent literature has included reformulation to extend, weaken, or replace the conditions and derive implications. In this respect Arrow's framework has been an instrument for generalizing voting theory and critically evaluating and broadening economic policy and social choice theory.
See also
Arrow's impossibility theorem
Kenneth Arrow, Section 1 (the theorem and a distributional difficulty of intransitivity + majority rule)
Abram Bergson
Buchanan and Tullock, The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy
Independence of irrelevant alternatives
Pareto efficiency, strong and weak
Path dependence, contrasted in Arrow with path independence, which a social ordering assures
Political argument
Public choice theory
Social choice theory
Social welfare function
Rule according to higher law
Utilitarianism
Voting paradox
Voting system
Welfare economics
Welfarism
JEL D71 by scrolling down for Social Choice
Notes
References
Kenneth J. Arrow, 1951, 2nd ed., 1963, 3rd ed., 2012. Social Choice and Individual Values, Yale University Press.
_, 1983. Collected Papers of Kenneth J. Arrow, v. 1, Social Choice and Justice. Description and chapter-preview links. Harvard University Press.
_, 1987. “Arrow’s Theorem," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 124–26.
_, 2008. "Arrow's theorem." The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Abstract.
Amartya K. Sen, 1970 [1984]. Collective Choice and Social Welfare (description), ch. 1–7.1. . .
Michael Morreau, 2014. "Arrow's Theorem", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
External links
Table of Contents with links to chapters.
Link to text of Nobel prize lecture with Section 8 on the theory and background.
Comments of Frank Hahn, Donald Saari, and Nobelists James M. Buchanan and Douglass North.
Economic-justice high theory with Arrow's framework, context, and references in Sections 1 & 4.
James M. Buchanan (1954). "Social Choice, Democracy, and Free Markets," Journal of Political Economy, 62(2), pp. 114-123.
H.S. Houthakker (1952). [Review], Economic Journal, 62(246), pp. 355-58.
I. M. D. Little (1952). "Social Choice and Individual Values," Journal of Political Economy, 60(5), pp. 422-432.
1951 non-fiction books
Mathematical economics
Social choice theory
Social ethics
Social philosophy
Works about utilitarianism
Value (ethics)
Voting theory
Rational choice theory
Books about philosophy of economics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marbury%2C%20Cheshire
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Marbury, Cheshire
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Marbury is a small village located at in the civil parish of Marbury and District, formerly Marbury cum Quoisley, within the unitary authority of Cheshire East and the ceremonial county of Cheshire, England. It is administered jointly with the adjacent civil parishes of Norbury and Wirswall. The village lies around north east of Whitchurch in Shropshire and south west of Nantwich in Cheshire. Nearby villages include Malpas, No Man's Heath, Norbury, Wirswall and Wrenbury. The civil parish bordered Shropshire and covers ; it also contains the small settlements of Hollins Lane, Marley Green and Quoisley, as well as parts of Hollyhurst and Willeymoor. The total population was just under 250 in 2001, and – combined with Wirswall – 352 in 2011.
The area is agricultural with undulating terrain, 75–120 metres in elevation. Dairy farming is the main industry. A small area in the east of the civil parish was part of the Combermere estate. The Llangollen Canal runs along the northern boundary. There are five meres which are important wildlife habitats. Marbury Big Mere is a fishing lake and the Quoisley Meres are a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Wetland of International Importance; they originate in glacial kettle holes. The civil parish is believed to have been inhabited since the Anglo-Saxon period. In the Civil War, the parish was plundered by both sides during 1642–44, after Thomas Marbury declared for Parliament. It contains many historic buildings, the earliest being the 15th-century St Michael's Church. "Marbury Merry Days", a traditional country fair, is held in May.
History
Early history
Little is known of the history of Marbury cum Quoisley before the Norman Conquest. A middle Bronze Age palstave, a type of axe, was found at Bank Farm, near Marbury village; it dates from around 1000–1200 BC. The axe is moulded in two parts, and both faces have a trident design. Roman coins have been found in the area, but there is no evidence of Roman settlement. Parts of two skulls, that of an adult and a child, were recovered from Marbury Big Mere; they have been dated to around 750 AD. A fragment of an unglazed cooking pot considered to be of late Saxon date has also been found in the civil parish.
Marbury was recorded in the Domesday survey of 1086 as Merberie, jointly with the adjacent townships of Norbury and Wirswall. Before the Conquest, it was held as an outlying estate of Earl Harold, and afterwards by William Malbank, Baron of Nantwich. The Domesday entry records 1½ hides at Marbury; jointly with Norbury and Wirswall, there was land for five ploughs and woodland measuring two leagues by a league and 40 perches. The total population of the joint demesne was recorded as seven. Unlike the adjacent townships of Wirswall and Wrenbury, Marbury is not described as "waste" in the survey. The name Marbury means "a fortified place near a lake"; besides the name, however, no evidence survives of a fortified settlement here. It was within the Hundred of Warmundestrou, later the Nantwich Hundred.
The manor of Marbury was later owned by the de Praers family of Baddiley, passing to John le Strange, Lord of Whitchurch, before 1349. A timber church was in existence in 1299, on the site of the present parish church; Marbury church was considered a parochial chapel of Whitchurch until 1870. The remains of a medieval road were uncovered near Marbury Big Mere during sewerage works. They consist of a brushwood base covered by several layers of logs, with cobbles lying on top of the wood.
Quoisley is first recorded in 1350 as Cuselegh; the name is Anglo-Saxon in origin and means "Cusa's clearing". It might represent a small medieval settlement which was later deserted.
Tudor era and the Civil War
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the manor was held by the Earl of Shrewsbury of Marley Hall, later passing to the Earl of Bridgewater. In June 1551, sixteen people in Marbury died in an epidemic of "sweating sickness", perhaps influenza, which also claimed the life of the mayor of Chester, Edmund Gee.
By the 17th century, the Marbury family was a major local landowner. In the Civil War, Thomas Marbury declared for Parliament and raised troops which fought at the Parliamentarian stronghold of Nantwich in 1643–44. In common with much of the countryside surrounding Nantwich, Marbury was plundered by both sides between 1642 and 1644, with the Royalist commander Lord Capell quartering troops in the parish in 1643. Relative peace was restored after the decisive defeat of the Royalists in the Battle of Nantwich of 1644. Thomas Marbury was among several Cheshire Parliamentarians to be pardoned by Charles II in 1651.
A charity school was founded in Marbury churchyard in 1688, and remained on that site until 1824.
18th century to the present day
In 1758, the manor of Marbury was purchased by the Knight family, who still held it in 1810. The Poole family gained in influence during the 18th century, and were regarded as the local squires throughout the 19th century until the end of the Second World War. The Pooles inhabited the Jacobean Marbury Old Hall at Tapley's Craft by the church, building the present Marbury Hall in around 1805–10. The Old Hall was unoccupied and partly ruined by 1888, and has now been demolished. Cudworth Halstead Poole served as the High Sheriff of the county in 1880.
In the 1760s, there were two public houses, The Leathern Bottle and The Swan, as well as two licensed sellers of ale. The Leathern Bottle had closed by the end of the 19th century, while The Swan was rebuilt in around 1884 by Cudworth Halstead Poole, and remains open as of 2018. Cudworth Halstead Poole also rebuilt Bank Farm, Marley Lodge and several other buildings in the village. The school had moved to Wrenbury Road in 1825, and a new school opened on School Lane in 1871 on land donated by the Poole family.
Historian George Ormerod described the village in around 1816 as "a cluster of farm-houses, occupying rising ground between two small meres or lakes, from which the township derives its name." Throughout the 19th century, cheesemaking was an important source of income, as in much of South Cheshire. The completion of the Ellesmere Canal early in the 19th century and the Crewe and Shrewsbury Railway in 1858 improved transport for local produce, particularly cheese and milk, to cities including London and Liverpool. In 1850, nearly all local tradespeople were involved with agriculture, whether directly or indirectly. At that date, Marbury had two blacksmiths, butchers and shoemakers, and a wheelwright; later there was also a smithy, coal merchant, tailor, bakehouse and one or more grocer's shops. In the early 20th century, the great majority of the population was still employed in agriculture; one contemporary observer mentioned common occupations as "farm workers, milkmaids and washer women". Cheesemaking had ceased by 1951.
Several descriptions of Marbury village and the surrounding countryside survive from the first half of the 20th century. Ornithologist T. A. Coward wrote around 1900: "What a country this is, wooded hills, none of them high, lanes bordered with luxuriant vegetation that tempts one to potter and smell the honeysuckle or pick the wild roses; meres or pools in almost every hollow." Almost 50 years later, little had changed; local author Beatrice Tunstall described the village in 1948 as "far from the madding crowd", and praised the "ancient lanes, deep trodden by the feet of endless generation, flower fringed amid the woodlands, with great hedges where honeysuckle and wild roses riot."
A total of 86 men from Marbury served in the First World War; Belgian refugees supplied some of the resulting deficit in agricultural labour. The interwar years saw many services being provided in the area for the first time. A telephone exchange was built in 1927, electricity was connected some time after 1930, and the first bus service started in 1934. In 1929, a village hall was built by the Poole family. The earliest piped water supply was installed at Marbury in around 1930; previously, village pumps on the green were used. During the Second World War, evacuees were housed at Marbury Hall. Marbury was one of the observation posts of the Home Guard, but no bombs are recorded as having fallen within the civil parish.
The Poole estate was sold in 1946. Marbury Hall was acquired by the Grant family, later the Paton-Smiths; Carolin Paton-Smith served as Cheshire's High Sheriff in 2005. Part of the remainder of the estate, including Marbury Little Mere and several farms, passed to the Duchy of Lancaster. Fourteen council houses and a few private houses were built in Marbury village after the Second World War, and in the early 21st century, residential conversion of farm buildings at Marbury Hall Farm created twelve dwellings. Marbury School was extended in 1965, but closed in 1988 due to low enrolment. The second half of the 20th century also saw the loss of many local businesses, with the smithy being demolished in 1979, and the last remaining village shop closing before 1999. The canal ceased being used for commercial traffic after the Second World War, but in the late 20th century became popular for recreation.
Governance
Marbury cum Quoisley wass administered by the Marbury & District Parish Council, jointly with the adjacent civil parishes of Norbury and Wirswall. Marbury cum Quoisley was represented by 8 councillors out of a total of 19. The joint parish council was formed in 1959, before which the civil parish was administered by Marbury Parish Council, formed in 1894. From 1974 the civil parish was served by Crewe and Nantwich Borough Council, which was succeeded on 1 April 2009 by the unitary authority of Cheshire East. Marbury cum Quoisley falls in the parliamentary constituency of Eddisbury, which has been represented by Edward Timpson since 2019, after being represented by Stephen O'Brien (1999–2015) and Antoinette Sandbach (2015–19).
Geography and economy
The civil parish of Marbury and District had a total area of . The terrain is undulating in character, rising from around 75 metres by the Llangollen Canal in the north and west of the parish to around 120 metres near Hollyhurst in the south east. Five sizable meres lay wholly or partly within the civil parish: Marbury Big Mere () and Little Mere (), Quoisley Big Mere () and Little Mere (), and part of Brankelow Moss (). The largest, Marbury Big Mere, is around 500 metres in length. The Marbury and Quoisley Meres originate in glacial kettle holes, formed at the end of the last ice age some ten or fifteen thousand years ago. Additionally, numerous smaller ponds are scattered across the farmland. There were many small areas of woodland including Big Wood, Buttermilk Bank, Glebe Covert, Hadley Covert, Holly Rough, Limepits, Marley Hall Covert, Marley Moss, Poole Gorse, Poole Hook and Square Covert, and parts of Brankelow Moss, Hollyhurst Wood and Poole's Riding Wood.
The Llangollen branch of the Shropshire Union Canal runs along the northern boundary of the parish, with Marbury Brook and Steer Brook running alongside parts of the canal; the canal turns southwards at to form the parish's western boundary. An unnamed brook running from Wirswall Road via Quoisley Meres to the canal forms part of the southern boundary. Church Bridge carries School Lane across Marbury Brook at , by Church Bridge Lock in the adjacent civil parish of Norbury. The grade-II-listed red sandstone bridge dates from the late 18th or early 19th century; half of the bridge lies in Marbury cum Quoisley and the other half in Norbury. The modern road bridges of Steer Bridge (Marbury Road) and Quoisley Canal Bridge (A49) cross the canal at and , respectively. Quoisley Lock is at .
The area was predominantly rural, with the major land use being agricultural, mainly dairy. Tourism is also significant, including walking, cycling, fishing and the canal trade. The village of Marbury is centred around the T-junction of Hollins Lane, Wirswall Road and Wrenbury Road at , with housing also extending along School Lane.
A large area in the centre and south of the civil parish, including Marbury village and the five meres, forms part of the Wirswall/Marbury/Combermere Area of Special County Value. A small area in the south east falls within the parkland of Combermere Abbey, which is listed in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens at grade II. The village of Marbury was designated a conservation area in 1973.
Ecology
The Marbury and Quoisley Meres with their surrounding reed beds form a significant wildlife habitat. Quoisley Meres are a Site of Special Scientific Interest and have also been designated Wetlands of International Importance, as part of the Midland Meres and Mosses Ramsar site. The meres are important for wildfowl; gadwall, garganey and ruddy ducks are among the species observed at Quoisley, with great crested, red-necked and Slavonian grebes, great and little bittern, Canada and pink-footed geese, coots, moorhens and mute swans recorded at Marbury. The woodland across the civil parish also supports birdlife, with nightingale and marsh tit being among the many species recorded here.
Quoisley Meres are important for aquatic invertebrates, and these meres with their surrounding reed beds and damp grassland support over a hundred plant species, including several that are rare in Cheshire. Quoisley Big Mere has a fringe of predominantly alder woodland, while Marbury Little Mere is surrounded by willow. Marbury Big Mere is a private fishing lake run by the Prince Albert Angling Society, with roach, perch, pike, tench, bream, and common and mirror carp being the main species.
Demography
The population of the civil parish has decreased since 1801; the historical population figures are 372 (1801), 355 (1851), 317 (1901) and 291 (1951). The 2001 census recorded a population of 244 in 103 households. In 2006, the total population of the civil parish was estimated as 220.
Places of worship
The Anglican parish church of St Michael and All Angels stands on a low rise overlooking Marbury Big Mere. The present red sandstone building dates from the 15th century and is in the perpendicular style; it is listed at grade II*. The church is subject to subsidence, with the tower being off the vertical in 1999. The interior contains an octagonal wooden pulpit, which is contemporary with the present church; it is the oldest surviving wooden pulpit in Cheshire.
The sandstone churchyard wall dates from the 16th or 17th century and is listed at grade II. Also listed at grade II is the lychgate on Church Lane, which dates from around 1919 and commemorates those who died in the First World War. The rear is inscribed:
Other landmarks
Marbury village
In the centre is a village green with a mature oak tree, planted in around 1814, but traditionally associated with the Battle of Waterloo of 1815. Marbury Little Mere is adjacent to the green and Big Mere lies to the west of Hollins Lane. Overlooking the green on Wrenbury Road is The Swan, a popular country pub dating originally from 1765, but completely rebuilt in around 1884. The centre of Marbury village is a conservation area. Marbury was the runner up in its category of the Cheshire Community Pride Competition in 2009, and has performed well in past Best Kept Village competitions.
Three timber-framed, black-and-white buildings in the village centre are listed at grade II. Marbury Cottage on Church Lane dates originally from the late 16th or early 17th century and is believed to have formerly been a dower house. The two-storey, T-shaped building has both close studding and small framing with brick infill. Some 17th- and 18th-century doors survive on the interior. On the corner of Church Lane and Wirswall Road stands 1–4 Black and White Cottages, which was once a single house with a service wing, but is now divided into four cottages. The original house dates from the late 16th or early 17th century and features close studding; it has a projecting wing with a jettied gable. The former service wing dates in part from the late 17th or early 18th century, and has some small framing. Finally, a two-storey outhouse on Wirswall Road adjacent to The Swan dates from the 17th century, and features small framing with brick infill.
Marbury Hall
Marbury Hall is a small Regency hall in white stuccoed brick with stone dressings, located off Hollins Lane at , on rising ground overlooking Marbury Big Mere. The entrance front has two bow windows, each three bays wide, flanking a central recessed porch. Built for the Poole family in around 1805–10, the hall is listed at grade II. A timber-framed farmhouse adjacent to the hall dates from the 17th century, and is also listed at grade II.
The grade-II-listed gatelodge, on Hollins Lane at , dates from 1876 and is thought to be by Thomas Lockwood. Timber framed in red sandstone and brick, the lodge features decorative framing and has a jettied bay. Architecture writers Peter de Figueiredo and Julian Treuherz describe it as "pretty", with "playful" ornamentation.
Elsewhere
Hadley Hall, on Wirswall Road at , is a grade-II-listed, timber-framed farmhouse with red brick infill, originally dating from the 16th century. It has two gabled end bays, one of which features close studding. Also on Wirswall Road is a group of estate cottages which, as of 2010, are under consideration as locally important buildings.
A sandstone obelisk stands on a rise at the edge of the Combermere estate at , near the high point of the civil parish. It was erected in 1890 to commemorate Field Marshal Stapleton Cotton, the first Viscount Combermere (1773–1865), under the terms of his widow's will. Lord Combermere, of nearby Combermere Abbey, had a long and distinguished military career, the pinnacle of which was his taking the fort of Bharatpur in 1825; other successes include his service during the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Salamanca.
The obelisk is around high, with window mouldings approximately halfway up each side. The base has inset panels of red sandstone on each face; one has a doorway, while the opposite one bears the Cotton coat of arms and a memorial inscription. The design is similar to Sir Robert Smirke's monument to the Duke of Wellington, Lord Combermere's former commanding officer, in Phoenix Park, Dublin. The obelisk is listed at grade II.
Transport
The civil parish is served by a network of unclassified minor roads, predominantly single-track country lanes. From Marbury village, Wirswall Road runs north to near the canal then turns south and runs through Quoisley to Wirswall; Hollins Lane runs south to Whitchurch; Wrenbury Road runs east through Marley Green to Wrenbury; and School Lane runs northwards from Wirswall Road across the canal to Norbury. Hollyhurst Road branches from Hollins Lane and joins Wrenbury Road near Pinsley Green; Marbury Road branches from Wirswall Road, crosses the canal and leads to Norbury. The A49 trunk road runs north–south by the western boundary of the civil parish, but does not connect with this network of lanes.
The Welsh Marches railway line runs through the civil parish from the north east to the south west; the nearest stations are Wrenbury and Whitchurch. National Cycle Network Regional Route 45 follows Hollyhurst Road, while Regional Route 70 follows School Lane and Marbury Road. The South Cheshire Way long-distance footpath runs from the north east to the south west of the parish.
Education
Since the closure of Marbury-Cum-Quoisley Church of England School in 1988, there have been no educational facilities within the civil parish. Marbury cum Quoisley falls within the catchment areas of Wrenbury Primary School in Wrenbury, and Brine Leas High School in Nantwich.
Marbury Merry Days
A traditional country fair, "Marbury Merry Days", is held annually, usually on the second weekend of May, beside Marbury Big Mere. It lasts for two days and all proceeds are donated to maintaining the church. Inaugurated in 1978 by the Reverend John Wright to raise money for church restoration, by 1996 the fair was raising an annual sum of around £7000; in 2009 it raised £12,800. At past fairs, entertainments have included displays of farm machinery, vintage cars and motor cycles, and model railways and aircraft, as well as historical reenactments, puppet shows, clay pigeon shooting, raft and cross country races, sheepdog trials and other dog displays.
See also
Listed buildings in Marbury cum Quoisley
References and notes
Richards states second oldest, after that in Mellor, which has been in Greater Manchester since 1974.
Sources
Dore RN. The Civil Wars in Cheshire. A History of Cheshire, Vol. 8 (JJ Bagley, ed.) (Cheshire Community Council; 1966)
Local History Group, Latham FA (ed.). Wrenbury and Marbury (The Local History Group; 1999) ()
External links
Marbury & District Parish Council
Marbury Merry Days
The Swan public house
Discovercheshire website (Walk from Marbury)
Villages in Cheshire
Borough of Cheshire East
Lakes and reservoirs of Cheshire
Lakes of Cheshire
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5118457
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jusuf%20Prazina
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Jusuf Prazina
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Jusuf "Juka" Prazina (; 7 September 1962 – 4 December 1993) was a Bosnian organized crime figure and warlord during the Bosnian War.
A troubled teen, Prazina's youth allegedly contained numerous stays in various jails and correctional facilities of the former Yugoslavia. By the 1980s, he had become involved in organized crime, eventually heading his own racketeering gang based around his home in the city's Centar municipality.
With the onset of the Siege of Sarajevo in 1992, Prazina expanded his gang into an effective paramilitary fighting force called Juka's Wolves. This force was central in the effort against the besieging Army of Republika Srpska (VRS), and he was rewarded for his contribution to the city's defense by appointment to the head of the government's special forces. Prazina proved problematic for the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Following a warrant for his arrest in October, Prazina stationed himself on Mount Igman and coordinated attacks against the ARBiH until his eventual defeat and expulsion in January of the following year. Prazina moved to Herzegovina where he joined forces with the Croatian Defence Council and committed numerous crimes against civilians in the region. He left Bosnia and Herzegovina a few months later for Croatia, and lived on the Dalmatian coast before traveling through a number of European countries and finally relocating to Belgium.
He was found dead in a canal near the German border by two hitch-hikers on 31 December 1993. In 2001, documents detailing wartime conversations between then president of Croatia Franjo Tuđman and president of the Croatian parliament Stjepan Mesić were declassified. In one part of these documents, Mesić revealed his suspicions that Bosnian Croat extremists were to blame for Prazina’s death. The most concrete links came from an unsuccessful six-year investigation by the Bavarian Criminal Police.
Early life in Sarajevo
Prazina had two siblings: sister Vasvija and brother Mustafa. Growing up, he was known to his educators as a troublemaker and problematic student, spending time in a number of correctional facilities. It was also around this time that he became involved with a local gang on his home street of Sutjeska. As a teenager, he enrolled in a streamlined secondary school focusing on commerce, which perhaps contributed to his eventual involvement in racketeering. His early transgressions were limited to bullying and street brawls.
Shortly before the war, Prazina established and registered a debt collection business. His preferred methods, however, were mostly illegal. Prazina was known to first demand some form of authorization, then threaten a debtor and, if still receiving a negative response, use various forms of violence to force payment. In all this, Prazina developed a sophisticated network of around 300 armed "collectors" under his control.
He wielded great power through this enterprise: in early 1992, after being shot during a pit bull fight, doctors at Koševo hospital were hesitant to perform the necessary operation due to the great risk involved. In response, Prazina's small army besieged the hospital and forced the surgeons to attempt the job. Although a bullet remained (causing him to have a limp and reduced range of motion on his left hand for the rest of his life), Prazina ultimately survived and continued his activities. By the time the Yugoslav Wars were underway, Prazina had been arrested and jailed five times, and was a well-known figure in Sarajevo's underworld.
Siege of Sarajevo
Rise to power
Following the start of the siege of Sarajevo, Prazina set out with his gang to defend the city from the attacks of the VRS (or "Chetniks," as he called them). Rapidly swelling his numbers, by May he was able to gather some 3,000 men outside the city's Druga Gimnazija high school (in the neighbourhood where he grew up on Sutjeska Street) and declare their intention to "defend Sarajevo." Juka's Wolves, as the group was called, were thoroughly armed with sawed-off shotguns and AK-47s (provided in part through a connection with the Croatian Defence Forces), and uniformed with crew-cuts, black jump-suits, sunglasses, basketball shoes, and sometimes balaclavas.
They were split into a number of locality-based factions, each under the direct control of one of Juka's close confidants but ultimately responsible to the central base ran by Prazina himself. In contrast to all this (and due to a variety of factors, including a pre-war policy that strove for a peaceful resolution and an international arms embargo), the central government under Alija Izetbegović and its formal army was relatively unorganized and unprepared. Because of this, the assistance of well-armed groups such as Prazina's private army in the city's defense was welcomed, and their pre-war criminality overlooked in light of their apparent willingness to fight for a united and sovereign Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Prazina played an integral role in defending Sarajevo during the early days of the siege. His forces cleared the streets of Serb paramilitaries and the areas under his control (most notably Alipašino polje) were considered impenetrable to the enemy. On a number of occasions he participated in actions orchestrated by the leaders of other military units more closely affiliated with the central government (such as Dragan Vikić), many of whom he had good relations with. He was proclaimed a hero by the Bosnian press while the Western media frequently portrayed him as a sort of Robin Hood figure. He was widely admired among the besieged Sarajevo populace, even appearing in contemporary patriotic songs. Prazina's own actions helped enhance the myth that was being built around him. At a time when many Sarajevans had to risk their lives for humanitarian food provisions, Prazina handed out candy to children on the street (albeit usually accompanied by the cameras of foreign news services). When Prazina captured a Serb sniper on the rooftop of a six-story building and accidentally caused the startled man to fall off the edge, the relatively uneventful story was transformed into a popular anecdote where Prazina personally threw one of the hated enemy sharpshooters to death.
Split with government
His popularity among Sarajevo citizens was in sharp contrast to the view held by central authorities. Despite his many positive contributions to the city's defense, Prazina's involvement had numerous negative aspects as well. He was ambitious and wanted to be named the overall head of the city's defense. He resented what he perceived to be the increasing involvement and influence of Bosniaks from Sandžak in the Bosnian army and government (the so-called Sandžak line), and in particular the power held by Sefer Halilović, the man who held his desired position (head of the general staff of ARBiH).
Prazina's frustrations were such that in late June he even laid siege to the Presidency Building, finally convincing the government that the issue had to be addressed immediately. He was soon after appointed to the General Staff of the ARBiH and made head of the army's special forces as well as commander of the Special Brigade of the ARBiH (i.e. the official term for his private army). Prazina was becoming more and more of a nuisance and the official titles essentially served as concessions to keep him at bay. Despite his appointment to the post, he was not considered to be an equal member of the General Staff, and tensions between him and Halilović worsened (on one occasion he broke into a press conference held by the General Staff and shouted "You, bastards! Why haven't I been invited?"). Prazina never abandoned his criminal past; he and his group were notoriously corrupt, involved in numerous grand thefts, in control of the city's black market, and increasingly connected to various atrocities against civilians and POWs.
His relations with central authorities steadily deteriorated over the course of the year. In September he had an allegedly threatening altercation with Alija Izetbegović in the president's office, following which he was asked to resign from his position as member of the General Staff. Increasingly troubled and unable to cope with Izetbegović's subtle plots to remove him from the center of power, his mental health reportedly further worsened when his pregnant wife Žaklina was wounded. After a short government-approved leave from the city to accompany his wife for medical treatment, he returned to Sarajevo and continued to conduct his forces more and more independently of the government. In October the Bosnian government finally issued a warrant for Juka's arrest, accusing him of treason, extortion, and an addiction to cocaine. He was briefly arrested during a stop in Konjic, but freed as soon as a group of his followers gathered outside the police station and demanded he be released.
Escape to Igman
No longer safe in Sarajevo, Prazina decided to establish himself on Mt. Igman above the city. His announced intentions were to come down from the mountains, break the siege of the city, and overthrow his enemies in the central government. In a December interview with the CBC, he stated that the required action was imminent because he wanted the victory to be a present to Sarajevans for Christmas. However, his former officers who remained entrenched in the city below refused to answer his calls for them to join him. Not willing to leave their defensive positions and open up various fronts for the VRS, the greater part of Prazina's former army remained in the city and was formally incorporated into the ARBiH. This left Prazina with only around 200 of his most loyal followers on Igman. That fall and winter saw numerous battles between Prazina and ARBiH forces on the mountain.
The decisive altercation occurred one day when Prazina expected to initiate a counter-offensive against certain government units with another local warlord, Zulfikar "Zuka" Ališpago. Unbeknownst to Prazina, Ališpago was working for the ARBiH, which had even supplied him with six tanks for a final confrontation with Prazina. Ališpago tricked Prazina into sending over his troops under the pretense of helping with preparations for the offensive. When Prazina's men arrived at Ališpago's base, they were either captured or executed. By the time Prazina realized he was facing a trap, it was too late. Ališpago's forces initiated an offensive and Prazina was forced to retreat and flee Mt. Igman.
Activities in Herzegovina
During his time on Mt. Igman, Prazina had established formal ties with the HVO through Bosnian Croat warlord Mladen "Tuta" Naletilić and, following the Bosnian government's decision to relieve him of his ARBiH commands, aligned himself with Naletilić's "Convicts Battalion" paramilitary unit. Not content with this state of affairs and wishing to fight under a recognized army, Prazina asked to be formally incorporated into the HVO on 14 December. Initially the HVO denied his request by stating that they had nothing to gain from having a presence on Igman, but by the latter half of his stay on the mountain his eventual transfer to the HVO was considered imminent. In trying to convince his closest officers to join him on Igman he had revealed his intentions of joining the HVO and their willingness to accept him; revelations which played a role in their refusal to follow him. Despite this lack of support from his former comrades, the consequences of his defeat at the hands of Zuka and the ARBiH made HVO held territory in Herzegovina a logical destination for Prazina.
The HVO authorities appointed Prazina head of their Special Forces and assigned him to guard over the Sarajevo-Mostar corridor near the hydroelectric power plant Salakovac in northern Herzegovina. There he routinely stopped and maltreated passing Bosniaks; particularly those that hailed from Sarajevo or Sandžak. Following the start of the Bosniak-Croat conflict that spring, the HVO launched a major offensive in Mostar on 9 May 1993. Prior to the conflict, the population of Mostar (the major urban center of Herzegovina) was nearly evenly split among the two peoples. With the battle front running down the city's main boulevard, the HVO set out to ethnically cleanse the western side of town under their control. Prazina and his unit, sent down from their previous post, were responsible for carrying out the bulk of this operation.
Prazina justified his actions by branding the expelled Bosniak civilians as extremists, and by claiming that their homes in the tower blocks had to be vacated so as to not leave good vantage points for enemy snipers. For the remainder of his stay in Herzegovina, Prazina fought against ARBiH forces on a portion of the front line along the boulevard. He also reportedly ran the Heliodrom Camp for Bosniaks, making frequent visits and even directly participating in the maltreatment of detainees.
Later days and death
Following his actions in Herzegovina Prazina left for Croatia, spending several months in a villa on the Dalmatian coast provided for by the Croatian government. General Stjepan Šiber would later recount to Sarajevo media a brief encounter he had with him in a Zagreb hotel lobby in early May 1993. He stated that Prazina approached him, expressed regret for his actions and asked to be forgiven and reinstated to the ARBiH. Šiber assured Prazina he would do what he could, after which the two never saw each other again. Not allowed to carry weapons by the Zagreb authorities, Prazina allegedly grew bitter and restless.
Through bribes and threats, he eventually managed to get a permission to go to Slovenia for himself and twenty close companions. From there the group moved through Austria and Germany before finally relocating to Liège, Belgium. Although Prazina settled himself and his followers in a neighborhood populated mostly by immigrants from Turkey and the Maghreb, he eventually established himself among the city's small Yugoslav emigrant community. There, Prazina was last seen the night of 3 December 1993. He went out with his bodyguards after a game of cards and never came back. The next morning, German police found his Audi abandoned at the railroad station in Aachen. The car body had two bullet holes from a 9 mm handgun; presumed to be a Beretta. Prazina's body was discovered in a canal alongside a highway near the German border by two Romanian hitch-hikers on New Year's Eve. The bullets found in Prazina's head corresponded to the holes in his car, and the ownership of a Beretta by one of his bodyguards sealed the case in the eyes of Belgian police. The four bodyguards were arrested, and three of them went on to be tried and sentenced to serve time in prison.
As the specific motive was never established, the case allowed for numerous conspiracy theories. Croatian media at the time blamed the Bosnian government of Alija Izetbegović and claimed there were links to the Syrian secret service. In 2001, documents detailing war-time conversations between then president of Croatia Franjo Tuđman and president of the Croatian parliament Stjepan Mesić were declassified. In one part of these documents, Mesić revealed his suspicions that Bosnian Croat extremists were to blame for Prazina's death. The most concrete links came from an unsuccessful six-year investigation by the Bavarian Criminal Police. The investigation implicated Bosniak gangster Senad "Šaja" Šahinpašić, and was based on tapped phone conversations which showed that Šahinpašić was aware of Prazina's death by 5 December 1993 – well before his body had been discovered. Šahinpašić had previously been involved in threatening altercations with Prazina, who had considered Šahinpašić to be a threat due to his financial resources and Sandžak origins. Witness testimonies and the nature of the questions asked by investigators showed that the German police had serious indications that Prazina had been killed by Zijo Oručević from Mostar. Specifically, one witness testified that he believed Šahinpašić had convinced Oručević to issue an order for the assassination of Prazina. Deciding that there was not enough evidence for a prosecution, the police closed the investigation on 15 December 1998.
Legacy
Collaboration with VRS
Throughout his time in Sarajevo, Prazina collaborated with Republika Srpska officials in a variety of criminal activities. He often exchanged money, people, and prisoners of war with VRS authorities in the occupied territories around Sarajevo. With their support, Prazina was able to effectively run the black market during the siege. In his dealings with the VRS, Prazina even had written permission from the president of the Republika Srpska, Radovan Karadžić. During the siege, Prazina was also in contact with Radovan's son, Saša. Post-war revelations of these activities have served to sour Prazina's legacy among the Bosniak citizens of Sarajevo, who once considered him among the most positive figures of the Bosnian war.
War crimes in Sarajevo
Prazina was accused of committing various war crimes over the course of the war. An order from president Izetbegović placed Prazina beyond the control of the military police, and his men were known to take prisoners of war from government prisons for their own purposes. Many regular residents of Sarajevo were also treated harshly; members of his unit were involved in extortion, looting and rape, as well as various instances of violence against civilians. In one case, while on Mt. Igman, Prazina personally beat one fleeing civilian's head against the hood of a car. Within the city, Prazina's Wolves were known for appropriating apartments and abducting and abusing their owners. Furthermore, as part of black market activities, Prazina's unit frequently raided the city's shops and warehouses.
See also
Ismet Bajramović
Ramiz Delalić
Mušan Topalović
References
1962 births
1993 deaths
Military personnel from Sarajevo
Bosniaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia and Herzegovina Muslims
Bosnia and Herzegovina gangsters
Military personnel of the Bosnian War
Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina soldiers
Deaths by firearm in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Murdered gangsters
Bosnia and Herzegovina people murdered abroad
Place of death unknown
Croatian Defence Council soldiers
War criminals
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5118476
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax%20Propeller
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Parallax Propeller
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The Parallax P8X32A Propeller is a multi-core processor parallel computer architecture microcontroller chip with eight 32-bit reduced instruction set computer (RISC) central processing unit (CPU) cores. Introduced in 2006, it is designed and sold by Parallax, Inc.
The Propeller microcontroller, Propeller assembly language, and Spin interpreter were designed by Parallax's cofounder and president, Chip Gracey. The Spin programming language and Propeller Tool integrated development environment (IDE) were designed by Chip Gracey and Parallax's software engineer Jeff Martin.
On August 6, 2014, Parallax Inc. released all of the Propeller 1 P8X32A hardware and tools as open-source hardware and software under the GNU General Public License (GPL) 3.0. This included the Verilog code, top-level hardware description language (HDL) files, Spin interpreter, PropellerIDE and SimpleIDE programming tools and compilers.
Multi-core architecture
Each of the eight 32-bit cores (termed a cog) has a central processing unit (CPU) which has access to 512 32-bit long words (2 KB) of instructions and data. Self-modifying code is possible and is used internally, for example, as the boot loader overwrites itself with the Spin Interpreter. Subroutines in Spin (object-based high-level code) use a call-return mechanism requiring use of a call stack. Assembly (PASM, low-level) code needs no call stack. Access to shared memory (32 KB random-access memory (RAM); 32 KB read-only memory (ROM)) is controlled via round-robin scheduling by an internal computer bus controller termed the hub. Each cog also has access to two dedicated hardware counters and a special video generator for use in generating timing signals for PAL, NTSC, VGA, servomechanism-control, and others.
Speed and power management
The Propeller can be clocked using either an internal, on-chip oscillator (providing a lower total part count, but sacrificing some accuracy and thermal stability) or an external crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator (providing higher maximum speed with greater accuracy at higher total cost). Only the external oscillator may be run through an on-chip phase-locked loop (PLL) clock multiplier, which may be set at 1x, 2x, 4x, 8x, or 16x.
Both the on-board oscillator frequency (if used) and the PLL multiplier value may be changed at run-time. If used correctly, this can improve power efficiency; for example, the PLL multiplier can be decreased before a long no operation wait needed for timing purposes, then increased afterward, causing the processor to use less power. However, the utility of this technique is limited to situations where no other cog is executing timing-dependent code (or is carefully designed to cope with the change), since the effective clock rate is common to all cogs.
The effective clock rate ranges from 32 kHz up to 80 MHz (with the exact values available for dynamic control dependent on the configuration used, as described above). When running at 80 MHz, the proprietary interpreted Spin programming language executes approximately 80,000 instruction-tokens per second on each core, giving 8 times 80,000 for 640,000 high-level instructions per second. Most machine-language instructions take 4 clock-cycles to execute, resulting in 20 million instructions per second (MIPS) per cog, or 160 MIPS total for an 8-cog Propeller.
Power use can be reduced by lowering the clock rate to what is needed, by turning off unneeded cogs (which then use little power), and by reconfiguring I/O pins which are unneeded, or can be safely placed in a high-impedance state (tristated), as inputs. Pins can be reconfigured dynamically, but again, the change applies to all cogs, so synchronizing is important for certain designs. Some protection is available for situations where one core attempts to use a pin as an output while another attempts to use it as an input; this is explained in Parallax's technical reference manual.
On-board peripherals
Each cog has access to some dedicated counter-timer hardware, and a special timing signal generator intended to simplify the design of video output stages, such as composite PAL or NTSC displays (including modulation for broadcast) and Video Graphics Array (VGA) monitors. Parallax thus makes sample code available which can generate video signals (text and somewhat low-resolution graphics) using a minimum parts count consisting of the Propeller, a crystal oscillator, and a few resistors to form a crude digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The frequency of the oscillator is important, as the correction ability of the video timing hardware is limited to the clock rate. It is possible to use multiple cogs in parallel to generate a single video signal. More generally, the timing hardware can be used to implement various pulse-width modulation (PWM) timing signals.
ROM extensions
In addition to the Spin interpreter and a boot loader, the built-in ROM provides some data which may be useful for certain sound, video, or mathematics applications:
a bitmap font is provided, suitable for typical character generation applications (but not customizable);
a logarithm table (base 2, 2048 entries);
an antilog table (base 2, 2048 entries); and
a sine table (16-bit, 2049 entries representing first quadrant, angles from 0 to π/2; other three quadrants are created from the same table).
The math extensions are intended to help compensate for the lack of a floating-point unit, and more primitive missing operations, such as multiplication and division (this is masked in Spin but is a limit for assembly language routines). The Propeller is a 32-bit processor, however, and these tables may have insufficient accuracy for higher-precision uses.
Built in Spin bytecode interpreter
Spin is a multitasking high-level computer programming language created by Parallax's Chip Gracey, who also designed the Propeller microcontroller on which it runs, for their line of Propeller microcontrollers.
Spin code is written on the Propeller Tool, a GUI-oriented software development platform written for Windows XP. This compiler converts the Spin code into bytecodes that can be loaded (with the same tool) into the main 32 KB RAM, and optionally into the I²C boot electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), of the Propeller chip. After booting the propeller, a bytecode interpreter is copied from the built in ROM into the 2 KB RAM of the primary COG. This COG will then start interpreting the bytecodes in the main 32 KB RAM. More than one copy of the bytecode interpreter can run in other COGs, so several Spin code threads can run simultaneously. Within a Spin code program, assembly code program(s) can be inline inserted. These assembler program(s) will then run on their own COGs.
Like Python, Spin uses indentation whitespace, rather than curly braces or keywords, to delimit blocks.
The Propeller's interpreter for its proprietary multi-threaded Spin computer language is a bytecode interpreter. This interpreter decodes strings of instructions, one instruction per byte, from user code which has been edited, compiled, and loaded onto the Propeller from within a purpose-specific integrated development environment (IDE). This IDE, which Parallax names The Propeller tool, is intended for use under a Microsoft Windows operating system.
The Spin language is a high-level programming language. Because it is interpreted in software, it runs slower than pure Propeller assembly, but can be more space-efficient: Propeller assembly opcodes are 32 bits long; Spin directives are 8 bits long, which may be followed by a number of 8-bit bytes to specify how that directive operates. Spin also allows avoiding significant memory segmentation issues that must be considered for assembly code.
At startup, a copy of the bytecode interpreter (less than 2 KB in size), will be copied into the dedicated RAM of a cog and will then start interpreting bytecode in the main 32 KB RAM. Additional cogs can be started from that point, loading a separate copy of the interpreter into the new cog's dedicated RAM (a total of eight interpreter threads can, thus, run simultaneously). Notably, this means that at least a minimal amount of startup code must be Spin code, for all Propeller applications.
Syntax
Spin's syntax can be divided into blocks, which hold:
VAR – global variables
CON – program constants
PUB – code for a public subroutine
PRI – code for a private subroutine
OBJ – code for objects
DAT – predefined data, memory reservations and assembly code
Example keywords
reboot: causes the microcontroller to reboot
waitcnt: wait for the system counter to equal or exceed a specified value
waitvid: waits for a (video) timing event before outputting (video) data to I/O pins
coginit: starts a processor on a new task
Example program
An example program, (as it would appear in the Propeller Tool editor) which emits the current system counter every 3,000,000 cycles, then is shut down by another cog after 40,000,000 cycles:
The Parallax Propeller is gradually accumulating software libraries which give it similar abilities to Parallax's older BASIC Stamp product; however there is no uniform list of which PBASIC facilities now have Spin equivalents.
It has been jokingly opined that "If two languages were to meet in a bar – Fortran and BASIC – nine months later one would find Spin." This refers to the whitespace formatting of FORTRAN and the keyword-based operation of BASIC.
Package and I/O
The initial version of the chip (called the P8X32A) provides one 32-bit port in a 40-pin 0.6 in dual in-line package (DIP), 44-pin LQFP, or Quad Flat No-leads package (QFN) surface-mount technology package. Of the 40 available pins, 32 are used for I/O, four for power and ground pins, two for an external crystal (if used), one to enable power outage and brownout detection, and one for reset.
All eight cores can access the 32-bit port (designated "A"; there is currently no "B") simultaneously. A special control mechanism is used to avoid I/O conflicts if one core attempts to use an I/O pin as an output while another tries to use it as input. Any of these pins can be used for the timing or pulse-width modulation output techniques described above.
Parallax has stated that it expects later versions of the Propeller to offer more I/O pins and/or more memory.
Virtual I/O devices
The Propeller's designers designed it around the concept of "virtual I/O devices". For example, the HYDRA Game Development Kit, (a computer system designed for hobbyists, to learn to develop retro-style video games) uses the built-in character generator and video support logic to generate a virtual graphics processing unit-generator that outputs VGA color pictures, PAL/NTSC compatible color pictures or broadcast RF video+audio in software.
The screen capture displayed here was made using a software virtual display driver that sends the pixel data over a serial link to a PC.
Software libraries are available to implement several I/O devices ranging from simple UARTs and Serial I/O interfaces such as SPI, I²C and PS/2 compatible serial mouse and keyboard interfaces, motor drivers for robotic systems, MIDI interfaces and LCD controllers.
Dedicated cores instead of interrupts
The design philosophy of the Propeller is that a hard real-time multi-core architecture negates the need for dedicated interrupt hardware and support in assembly. In traditional CPU architecture, external interrupt lines are fed to an on-chip interrupt controller and are serviced by one or more interrupt service routines. When an interrupt occurs, the interrupt controller suspends normal CPU processing and saves internal state (typically on the stack), then vectors to the designated interrupt service routine. After handling the interrupt, the service routine executes a return from interrupt instruction which restores the internal state and resumes CPU processing.
To handle an external signal promptly on the Propeller, any one of the 32 I/O lines is configured as an input. A cog is then configured to wait for a transition (either positive or negative edge) on that input using one of the two counter circuits available to each cog. While waiting for the signal, the cog operates in low-power mode, essentially sleeping. Extending this technique, a Propeller can be set up to respond to eight independent interrupt lines with essentially zero handling delay. Alternately, one line can be used to signal the interrupt, and then additional input lines can be read to determine the nature of the event. The code running in the other cores is not affected by the interrupt handling cog. Unlike a traditional multitasking single-processor interrupt architecture, the signal response timing remains predictable, and indeed using the term interrupt in this context can cause confusion, since this function can be more properly thought of as polling with a zero loop time.
Boot mechanism
On power up, Brownout detection, software reset, or external hardware reset, the Propeller will load a machine-code booting routine from the internal ROM into the RAM of its first (primary) cog and execute it. This code emulates an I²C interface in software, temporarily using two I/O pins for the needed serial clock and data signals to load user code from an external I2C EEPROM.
Simultaneously, it emulates a serial port, using two other I/O pins that can be used to upload software directly to RAM (and optionally to the external EEPROM). If the Propeller sees no commands from the serial port, it loads the user program (the entry code of which must be written in Spin, as described above) from the serial EEPROM into the main 32 KB RAM. After that, it loads the Spin interpreter from its built-in ROM into the dedicated RAM of its first cog, overwriting most of the bootloader.
Regardless of how the user program is loaded, execution starts by interpreting initial user bytecode with the Spin interpreter running in the primary cog. After this initial Spin code runs, the application can turn on any unused cog to start a new thread, and/or start assembly language routines.
External persistent memory
The Propeller boots from an external serial EEPROM; once the boot sequence completes, this device may be accessed as an external peripheral.
Other language implementations
Apart from Spin and the Propeller's low-level assembler, a number of other languages have been ported to it.
C compiler
Parallax supports Propeller-GCC which is a port of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) compiler for the programming languages C and C++, for Propeller (branch release_1_0). The C compiler and the C Library are ANSI C compliant. The C++ compiler is ANSI-C99 compliant. Full C++ is supported with external memory. The SimpleIDE program provides users a simple way to write programs without requiring makefiles. In 2013, Parallax incorporated Propeller-GCC and Simple Libraries into the Propeller-C Learn series of tutorials. Propeller-GCC is actively maintained. Propeller-GCC and SimpleIDE are officially supported Parallax software products.
The ImageCraft ICCV7 for Propeller C compiler has been marked to end-of-life state.
A free ANSI C compiler named Catalina is available. It is based on LCC. Catalina is actively maintained.
BASIC compiler
PropBASIC is a BASIC programming language for the Parallax Propeller Microcontroller. PropBASIC requires Brad's Spin Tool (BST), a cross-platform set of tools for developing with the Parallax Propeller. As of August 2015, BST runs on i386-linux-gtk2, PowerPC-darwin (Mac OS X 10.4 through 10.6), i386-darwin (Mac OS X 10.4 through 10.6) and i386-Win32 (Windows 95 through Windows 7).
Forth on the Propeller
There are at least six different versions of Forth, both commercial and open-source software, available for the Propeller.
PropForth
A free version that enjoys extensive development and community support is PropForth. It is tailored to the prop architecture, and necessarily deviates from any general standard regarding architectural uniqueness, consistent with the concept of Forth.
Beyond the Forth interpreter, PropForth provides many features that exploit the chip's abilities. Linked I/O refers to the method of associating a stream with process, allowing one process to link to the next on the fly, transparent to the application. This can reduce or eliminate the need of a hardware debugging or JTAG interface in many cases. Multi-Channel Synchronous Serial (MCS) refers to the synchronous serial communication between prop chips. 96-bit packets are sent continuously between two cogs, the result is that applications see additional resources (+6 cogs for each prop chip added) with little or no impact on throughput for a well constructed application.
LogicAnalyzer refers to an extension package that implements software logic analyzer. EEPROMfilesystem and SDfilesystem are extensions that implement rudimentary storage using EEPROM and SD flash.
PagedAssembler refers to the package of optimizations that allow assembler routines to be swapped in (and out by overwrite) on the fly, allowing virtually unlimited application size. Script execution allows extensions to be loaded on the fly, allowing program source up to the size of storage media.
Propeller and Java
There are efforts underway to run the Java virtual machine (JVM) on Propeller. A compiler, debugger, and emulator are being developed.
Pascal compiler and runtime
A large subset of Pascal is implemented by a compiler and interpreter based on the p-code machine P4 system.
Graphical programming
PICo programmable logic controller (PLC, PICoPLC) supports output to Propeller processor. The program is created in a GUI ladder logic editor and resulting code is emitted as Spin source. PICoPLC also supports P8X32 with create-simulate-run feature. No restrictions on target hardware as the oscillator frequency and IO pins are freely configurable in the ladder editor. PICoPLC developer website ().
Future versions
, Parallax is building a new Propeller with cogs that each will run at about 200 MIPS, whereas the current Propeller's cogs each run at around 20 MIPS. The improved performance would result from a maximum clock speed increase to 200 MHz (from 80 MHz) and an architecture that pipelines instructions, executing an average of nearly one instruction per clock cycle (approximately a ten-fold increase).
References
External links
, Parallax Inc:
Wiki with detailed information about the propeller
Propeller forum at Parallax Inc:
Propeller GCC Beta Site
Article at EiED online
a second article at EiED online
An article at ferret.com.au
List of programming languages running on the Propeller
Download PICoPLC from APStech
FirstSpin, a weekly educational audio program about the Spin programming language and the Propeller, sponsored by Parallax
Microcontrollers
Parallax, Inc. products
Open-source hardware
Open microprocessors
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5118595
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campeonato%20Brasileiro%20tournament%20scheduling
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Campeonato Brasileiro tournament scheduling
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Between 1959 and 1970, two national championships existed to provide Brazilian representatives to Copa Libertadores. These were the Taça Brasil (1959–1968) and the Torneio Roberto Gomes Pedrosa (1967–1970).
The current Campeonato Brasileiro Série A (i.e., Brazilian football league) was created in 1971 using the structure of Torneio Roberto Gomes Pedrosa. Since then, the competition has never featured the same scheduling twice, either changing the number of participants or the structure. This lack of consistency has made the competition difficult for non-Brazilians to follow and contributed to the ignorance of the tournament amongst European and American press and public, on top of the standard disregard and prejudices.
Even today, despite the tournament maintaining a consistent structure for 8 years, it is harder to find score updates on major European newspapers such as the International Herald Tribune or L'Équipe than it is for the Argentinian championships. And of course this has contributed to lack of major reference about the clubs themselves, as on top of these variations the Brazilian championship is among the most balanced in the world with its Clube dos 13, the greatest football clubs of Brazil, and other competitive clubs and as rivalries are often based in details. To better understand Brazilian football, a brief history of the Brazilian soccer national-league tournament-scheduling history is explained below on a yearly basis, with emphasis on technical aspects. Tables with final placings and a straightforward ranking based on simple rules are also provided as CBF rules for official placings have so far reflected the troubled tournament's history and as no official ranking from CBF is publicly available, let alone in detail.
Brief history
1971–1980
1971 Campeonato Nacional de Clubes – Single division w/ 20 participants
1st Phase: 2 groups of 10 teams.
Obs.: this phase illustrate a common Brazilian tournament scheduling, still popular nowadays as proved by 2006 Rio state league (Campeonato Carioca), dubbed here "split round-robin". In this scheduling, a pool of teams are split in two (or more) groups but play against all others as in a full single round-robin system. In general they will play in two stages against their own group opponents in a row (called here "internal stage") then with the other group's opponents ("external" stage). Many variants are then possible as to how the final phase is organized upon. Often each stage will have its champion and runner-up, and play-offs are organized accordingly. This system has been often used to accommodate calendar constraints as double round-robin systems would require too many rounds. The home and away matches are distributed randomly.
In 1971, the split round-robin only served to qualify the top 6 teams of each group. This odd system allowed for a team to be eliminated by having a better full season record by falling in a stronger group. In this edition though, it did not occur, and the best overall 12 teams advanced.
2nd phase: 3 groups of 4 teams. Double round-robin system. Top teams of each group qualify
Final phase: "Triangular", i.e. 1 group of 3 teams . Single round-robin. Random home and away matches.
1972 Campeonato Nacional de Clubes – Single division w/ 26 participants
1st phase: 4 groups, 2 of 6 teams and 2 of 7 teams, split round-robin similar to 1971 but with 4 groups instead of 2. The 4 top teams of each group qualified. As expectable already in 1971, it did occur this time that Santa Cruz qualified with 23 points in group C while Remo in group C did not make through with 25 points, despite playing exactly the same opponents.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 4 teams (top 2 against bottom 2 of previous phase), single round-robin with home and away matches based on first phase placing (though still top teams would play bottom teams away in second round). Top team only qualified.
Final phase: Single play-off semifinals and final. Home advantage according to combined first and second phase placings.
1973 Campeonato Nacional de Clubes – Single division w/ 40 participants
1st phase: two stages, 1st) 2 groups of 20 teams in single round-robin, teams distributed in each group randomly; and 2nd) 4 groups of 10 teams in single round-robin distributed according to region/state. Combined first and second stage top 20 teams qualified. Arguably this system favored teams from weaker regions (mainly north-east) as they would be able to play between themselves. As such, Fluminense was eliminated while Tiradentes proceeded despite placing behind Fluminense in the same group of first stage.
2nd phase: 2 groups of 10, single round-robin with random home and away matches. Top 2 teams qualified.
Final phase: "Quadrangular", i.e. 1 group of 4 in single round robin. Home and away matches order based on combined first and second phases.
1974 Campeonato Nacional de Clubes – Single division w/ 40 participants.
1st phase: 2 groups of 20. Single round-robin with random home and away matches. Top 10 of each group qualified, plus remaining top 2 overall (to compensate possible group strength imbalance), plus... remaining top 2 public attendance. Thus Fluminense and Nacional advanced despite 32nd and 34th placings. This odd feature would never be reapplied.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 6 teams. Single round-robin with random away and home matches. Top team only of each group would qualify.
Final phase: "Quadrangular". Single round-robin. Home and away matches criteria unclear.
1975 Copa Brasil – Single division w/ 46 participants
The 1975 tournament introduced the feature of repechage, which eventually would be largely practiced in the following decades in "creative" ways, and eventually allowing ground for disputes that disrupted the championship as in the late 80's.
1st phase: 4 groups, with 2 paired groups of 10 teams and 2 paired of 11 teams. The system was what could be called "complementary round-robin" as teams of one group only played against the teams of the other group paired to it, with no internal round-robin. Top 5 teams of each group qualified for main groups while remaining teams qualified for repechage groups. Group distributions were random. An odd scheduling sometimes reproduced later on for unknown reasons, except urge for randomness.
2nd phase: 2 main groups of 10 teams and 4 repechage groups (2 of 5 and 2 of 6 teams). Main groups would reuse "complementary round-robin" system. Repechage groups single round-robin. Both random home and away matches. Top 6 teams of main groups and top team of repechage groups would qualify.
3rd phase: 2 groups of 8 teams. This time, standard single round-robin system (probably because of play-off needs). Top 2 would qualify.
Final phase: single play-off semi-finals and final. Home advantage on 3rd phase group placing (crossed winner vs runner-up).
Ranking issues: Final placings for top 16 teams based only on third phase placings, irrespective of first and second phase, given the inconsistency of those phases and differences between main and repechage groups. Also the third phase was large enough to provide a significant placing. Thus Flamengo and América-RJ are given both 5th place, for instance, instead of 7th and 8th according to CBF. Teams re-qualified from repechage are thus placed ahead of eliminated main group teams. Placing of eliminated main and repechage group teams consider 1st phase results as there was no elimination in the latter.
1976 Copa Brasil – Single division w/ 54 participants (similar to 1975)
First phase: 6 groups of 9 teams. Single round robin. Random home and away matches. Top 4 of each group would qualify to main groups of second phase, remaining would go to repechage groups.
Second phase: 4 main groups of 6 teams and 6 repechage groups of 5 teams. Single round robin. Random home and away matches. Top 3 of main groups and top team of repechage groups qualified.
Third phase: 2 groups of 9 teams. Single round-robin. Random home and away matches. Top two of each group qualified.
Final phase: single play-off semi-finals and final. Home advantage to 3rd phase group winners.
Ranking issues: same as for 1975.
1977 Copa Brasil – Single division w/ 60 participants
1st phase: 6 groups of 10. Single round robin. Top 5 qualify. Remaining to repechage.
2nd phase: 6 main groups for 5 teams and 6 repechage groups of 5 teams. Single round-robin. Top 3 of main groups and top team of repechage groups qualified.
3rd phase: 4 group of 6 teams. Single round robin. Top team qualify
Final phase: single play-off semi-finals and final. Home advantage on combined phase results.
1978 Copa Brasil – Single division w/ 74 participants.
1st phase: 2 groups of 13 teams and 6 of 12 teams. Single round-robin. Top 6 qualify. Remaining to repechage
2nd phase: 4 main groups of 9 teams. Round-robin. Top 6 qualify plus 1 on combined 1st and 2nd phase results. 6 repechage groups, 2 of 7 teams and 4 of 6 teams. Round-robin. Top teams qualified plus 1 on combined 1st and 2nd phase results.
3rd phase: 4 groups of 8 teams. Round-robin. Top 2 qualify
Final phase: home and away quarterfinals, semifinals and final play-offs. Home and qualifying (two draws) advantage on better season record.
1979 Copa Brasil – Single division w/ 96 participants
The 1979 tournament was by no means a banal one: changing from the previous repechage system, the organizers scheduled phases with teams from Rio and São Paulo state league state as byes, directly entering the competition in the second phase. On top, the champion and runner-up of 1978 tournament only entered the last (third) phase, thus totalling only the odd figure of 3 matches for their whole participation if they did not reach the final phase(what did occur with Guarani play-offs. And Palmeiras ranked 3rd after playing only 5 matches.
Because of this and as Guarani and Palmeiras were both from São Paulo state, major rival teams from this state (Corinthians, São Paulo, Santos and Portuguesa), byes to second phase, required jealously also to enter directly third phase, thus abandoning the tournament as their request was refused.
The tournament displayed a record number of participants (perhaps worldwide for a single high-level football tournament). The competition schedulers managed though to break this record in the 2000 tournament with more than 100 entrants.
1st phase: 80 teams (16 teams as byes initially). 8 groups of 10 teams, distributed by region, out of which 2 groups (G and H) from stronger Minas and Rio Grande leagues. Round robin. Top 4 qualified from the 6 weaker league groups and top 8 qualified from the stronger league groups, totalling 40 qualified. As 4 teams withdrew from the tournament on second phase, they were replaced by remaining top 4 teams on overall results among the 8 groups.
2nd phase: 56 teams (12 teams entering directly second phase, 6 from Rio and São Paulo state each, 2 teams as byes). 7 groups of 8 teams. Round robin. Top 2 qualified.
3rd phase: 16 teams (2 last byes entering this phase). 4 groups of 4 teams. Round robin. Top team qualified.
Final phase: Double semi-final and final play-offs with home advantage on better season record (though difficult to establish n the case of third-phase byes).
Ranking issues: this barely atypical tournament raises the issues of the placings of the bye teams, especially the two entering third phase. Placings for top 16 teams only take into account the third phase and placing of the remaining 40 teams only consider second phase, thus making the first phase irrelevant to final placings. Also noteworthy though ultimately irrelevant for the ranking, the eliminated teams from group G and H from the first phase were considered better placed than those from the remaining 6 groups, as groups G and H manifestly were considered a higher tier (8 qualified out of 10 instead of 4 out of 10 for the lower tier groups).
1980 Copa Brasil – Two divisions w/ 40 and 64 participants
The 1980 tournament, after the 1979 confusion, introduced the concept of separate divisions (i.e. not totally independent). The two-tier championship would allow second division teams to enter first-division second phase in its middle, in the form of an "internal promotion". As such the overall number of participants was theoretically even superior to 1979, as any of the 104 teams of both divisions could clinch the title.
First division: 40 teams
First phase: 4 groups of 10. Round-robin. Top 7 qualify.
Second phase: 32 teams ( with 4 teams promoted from second division's second phase). 8 groups of 4 teams. Double round-robin. Top 2 qualified
Third phase: 4 groups of 4 teams. Single round-robin. Top team qualified.
Final phase: Double semi-finals and final play-offs.
Second division: 64 teams
First division: 8 groups of 8. Top team qualified for second phase, remaining 2 qualified directly to third phase.
Second phase: 8 teams in double play-offs to determine the 4 teams promoted to first division's second phase. Defeated teams would rejoin third phase.
Third phase: 4 groups of 5. Round robin. Top team qualified
Final phase: double semi-finals and final play-offs.
Ranking issues: given the limit of 48 points for the yearly ranking, are considered here the 40 teams of first division, the 4 promoted teams and second division's final 4 top teams. Promoted teams are ranked higher than first division teams eliminated from first phase. Given this, the top 32 placings do not take into account first phase results from both divisions, contrarily to CBF.
1981–1990
1981 Taça de Ouro
The 1981 tournament reapplied the concepts of 1980 with two internal divisions, with for the first time promotion from second division (Londrina and CSA). Despite these teams being the second division finalists, they arguably were not the top second division teams as none had participated the second phase play-offs. The 4 teams promoted during the 1980 second phase nominally with better placing than these two finalists were not re-promoted (as they could not play the second division finals while the 4 other teams they had beaten had rejoined the third phase but still none did make into the finals also). Two of these 4 teams didn't participate at all as they did not qualify from their state league performance (América-SP and Americano-RJ).
First division: 40 teams
1st phase: 4 groups of 10, round-robin, top 7 qualify.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 8 (4 teams promoted from second division's second phase), round robin, top 2 qualify
Final phase: 16-team double play-offs with home and draw advantage on better season record.
Second division: 48 teams
1st phase: 6 groups of 8 teams, round robin, top 2 qualified.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 3 teams, single round-robin, top team qualified to first-division second phase, runners-up qualified to final phase.
Final phase: 4-team double play-offs, home advantage based on season record.
1982 Taça de Ouro
The 1982 edition, while maintaining the previous system of two-tier divisions, exceeded in creativity by introducing for the first time the feature of internal relegation. As for the internal promotion, teams from first-division first phase would be relegated entering second-division's third phase, only to be able to still fight for a place in the second-division finals and thus guarantee promotion to following-year's first division. It was probably the first and unique example of "cross internal promotion and relegation" where teams starting on first division could end up second-division champions and teams of second division could end up first-division champions within the same season.
As in 1981, promotion from previous-year second division was odd, as finalists were promoted though failing to qualify among the top 4 teams on the second phase. On the contrary, none of the latter were re-promoted despite their better record. The case hit particularly Palmeiras and Uberaba, which failed to qualify through state league performance. Ironically enough, Palmeiras had directly eliminated champions Guarani on 1981's second phase, thus reaching internal promotion but being unable to dispute the second division title which Guarani eventually clinched.
The Palmeiras case was particularly ironic (or rather dramatic) as, because of this, Palmeiras had to play for second year in a row in second division and moreover failed to clinch this time internal promotion, being eliminated straight in first phase. This was the only case in the tournament's history where a top-12 traditional team failed to place among the top 48 teams (actually 65th placing), thus collecting 0 points in ranking. The closest case would be Fluminense in 1999 and 2000 which was relegated to third division and then champion of it, thus placing 43rd and 45th back to back.
First division: 40 teams
1st phase: 8 groups of 5 teams, double round-robin. Top 3 qualified to second phase, 4th qualified for 8-team relegation play-offs and bottom (5th) team was directly relegated to second-division third phase. Relegation play-offs would send 4 teams to relegation and remaining would proceed normally to second phase.
2nd phase: 8 groups of 4, including 4 promoted from second-division first phase. Double round-robin. Top 2 qualified
Final phase: 16-team playoffs with home and draw advantage to better season record.
Second division: 48 teams
1st phase: 6 groups of 8 teams. Round robin. Top 2 qualified
2nd phase: 4 groups of 3 teams. Single round robin. Top team promoted to first-division second phase. Runners-up proceeded to final phase
Final phase: 16-team (including 12 teams relegated from first-division first phase) play-offs with home and draw advantage according to season record.
1983 Taça de Ouro
The 1983 edition repeated the previous-year cross internal promotion and relegation. The format was almost identical except that a round-robin third phase was added in the first division, instead of 1/8 finals play-offs. Also another innovation was the introduction of reserved spots for teams failing to qualify from state league performance, based on historical ranking. This was the direct result of Palmeiras humiliation from previous year. Santos was the first benefited from it. Apparently there were no criteria for how many teams applied for it, but the known effect was to secure traditional teams qualifying (basically the top 12 league). Santos though managed to make it through the finals, only finish runner-up to Flamengo.
First division: 40 teams
1st phase: 8 groups of 5 (see 1982).
2nd phse: 4 groups of 8 (see 1982)
3rd phase: 4 groups of 4, round robin, top 2 qualified
Final phase: 8-team play-offs
Second division: 48 teams (see 1982)
1984 Copa Brasil
In 1984, the internal relegation system was abandoned. Also the issues regarding promotion (internal and year-to-year) led to a quicker, 32-team second-division play-off system that would allow the champion to join first-division third phase, thus allowing theoretically it to clinch also the first-division title back-to-back in the same year. Oddly enough, second-division runners-up were not awarded internal promotion to the last third-phase berth.
Again the principle of qualifying through historical ranking qualifying for traditional teams with poor state league performance applied, with the added issue that this time two prestigious clubs (Vasco and Grêmio) failed to qualify. Confirming the unwritten rule of securing presence of top-12 teams in first-division, both teams were awarded a berth in first division. As in 1983, the decision proved to be somehow justified, as Vasco eventually reached the final only to lose it to Fluminense, just as Santos did in 1983 against Flamengo.
Probably sacrificed in this big-dog game was Juventus, a small team from São Paulo state, which was the 1983 second-division champion and was unexplainably not promoted this time, probably because of Grêmio qualification issue. It is also ironic that Juventus was the only example of a team starting a tournament in first division, relegated to second division during the competition, clinching eventually the second-division title, yet not being promoted to the first division of next year and
finally not qualifying to it as it failed also to secure qualification through state league. it was thus not surprising that the internal relegation system was quickly abandoned.
First division: 40 teams
1st phase: 8 groups of 5, round-robin, similar to 82–83. Top 3 qualify. 4th place qualify to 8-team play-off. Play-off winner also joined 2nd phase and no team was relegated.
2nd phase: 8 groups of 4 (see 1982–1983). One extra team was qualified to complete remaining 3rd phase berth from the best 3rd-placed teams among all groups (a rather fortuitous criterion, instead of for instance qualifying second-division runners-up)
3rd phase: 4 groups of 4 (see 1982–1983). Champions of second-division play-offs entered this phase.
Final phase: 8-team double play-offs.
1985 Copa Brasil
This time the tournament changed its structure compared to the previous 4 years. As a result of previous difficulties from traditional teams to qualify from their state league, probably due to increased competitivity of smaller provincial clubs, the tournament secured 20 berths according to historical ranking. The remaining qualified from state leagues. 1984 second division finalists also qualified, thus further stressing the injustice on Juventus (and CSA) in 1983.
This principle of a hard core, though already existing in practice, probably influenced for ever the power balance as the traditional teams eventually started challenging CBF's organization.
First division: 44 teams.
1st phase: 4 groups. 2 paired groups of 10 teams featuring the traditional clubs qualified by historical ranking, and 2 paired groups of 12 teams with the remaining teams. The 2 groups pairs were treated equally as for qualifying criteria despite the weight of the first pair. Each team would only play the clubs of its paired group in home and away stages, thus not featuring real round-robin system. The champions of each stage would qualify as well the top 2 teams on overall performance over both stages. As such no teams played in this phase the teams of their own group.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 4 teams, double round-robin. As noted, the result of 8 teams qualifying from less traditional pool produced the opposite effect from the initial idea of securing traditional clubs. This probably contributed to criticism of CBF organization. Top team qualified.
Final phase: 4-team play-offs. The final play-offs featured for the first time two teams not belonging to the top 12 traditional pool.
Second division: 24 teams.
1st phase: 24-team play-offs. Top 3 teams qualified.
Final phase: "Triangular" 3-team double round-robin. Internal promotion whatsoever was definitely abandoned.
1986 Copa Brasil
The 1986 tournament ranks as one of the most controversial ever, alongside 1987. For its detractors, it apparently revived old devils from late 70's by featuring back a single division with 80 teams, allegedly for political reason as CBF sought support from smaller teams against growing criticism of the top traditional clubs.
These in turn saw this as weaker revenue possibilities, exemplified by 1985 final play-offs, combined with real increased competitiveness from these smaller provincial clubs, now also at national league level. Promotion and relegation were still taboo, and unthinkable for top tier teams. But CBF introduced for the first time this feature (which actually justified the single division formula once for all in order to level the playing field for next-year tournament with more conventional divisions of 24 teams). Apparently this was just to much egalitarianism for the traditional teams as they would make secession in 1987.
Single division: 80 participants.
1st phase: 8 groups (4 groups of 11 teams and 4 groups of 9 team). In practice the first 4 groups constituted a top-tier division featuring the 44 1985 first division teams and the other the low-tier, similar to first and second divisions. This was largely stressed by qualifying top 7 teams (out of 11) from the first groups and 1 top team (out of 9) in the low tier groups.
2nd phase: Originally, 32 teams. Instead, a judicial dispute over drug-probed match that impacted directly on qualifying threatened to deadlock the competition. As a result, CBF decided to extend qualification to extra 4 teams with better record from the upper-tier groups. Thus the phase counted 36 teams in 4 groups of 9 teams. Top 4 qualified and bottom 2 would be relegated to next-year second division, alongside those already eliminated from 1st phase.
Final phase: 16-team double play-offs.
Ranking issues: as already noted in previous tournament, the evident association of the upper-tier groups with first division makes the eliminated teams from these groups be systematically ranked higher than the eliminated teams from the lower tier.
1987 Copa União
The 1987 tournament was a direct consequence of the turmoil of the 1986 competition and rates arguably as the most controversial ever, even today. While for ranking considerations we will not enter the matter, we will consider that as in many previous edition that the two Green and Yellow modules constituted indeed a single division with two tiers, as in many tournaments before.
Ranking issues: according to this approach, all play-off finalists (including semi-finals) from both modules are awarded top placings. Other teams from Green module were given higher placing than Yellow module as the latter constituted in practice a lower tier group. As for the top placings, CBF's official placings are reconducted. For ranking purposes the impact is much lower than the real issue as the Copa União finalists only conceded 2 ranking points.
First division: 32 teams
Green module (Copa União) : 16 teams, 13 from the "Clube dos 13" association plus 3 invited teams. This top-tier did not include thus Guarani, previous-year runner-up (on penalty kicks), and América-RJ, 1986 3rd place. It included however traditional Botafogo, placed 35th in 1986 and meant to be relegated to second division according to CBF initial scheduling. Even worse, it also included Coritiba, 1985 champions but only placed 65th in 1986, thus theoretically meant to join originally third division.
Yellow module: 16 teams. 12 from the remaining 28 teams meant to originally constitute first division. 4 added teams from the originally-relegated 1986 second-phase 8 teams (bottom 2 of each group). Here also criterion for qualification was manifestly team traditionality. In order probably to save the face for Botafogo non-relegation as it placed also among these bottom 8, only the last bottom team (instead of 2) was relegated. This saved the face not only of Botafogo as it had indeed placed 8th (out 9) in its group, but also of Sport and Vitória. Inconsistently enough, Nacional also should have qualified as 8th place in its group, but one team had to be sacrificed against Coritiba secured berth in Green module. Nacional was the one, though it had a better season record than Sport, for obvious political reasons. Ironically indeed, Sport eventually clinched not only the yellow module title but also the overall title despite this in extremis qualification. Also noteworthy the relegation of Ponte Preta, bottom of its group in 1986 but with an overall better season record (12 points) than Sport itself (10 points).
Both modules followed exactly the same scheduling:
1st phase: 2 groups of 8 teams. Single split round-robin system (see early 1970 tournaments) i.e. teams for one group played first only the other group's teams in a first stage then played in single round-robin with their own group teams in a second stage, thus featuring a full single round-robin with all 16 teams. For each group, champions of each stage qualified and played an extra double play-off. Oddly, if one team happened to win both stages, it would still be obliged to play an extra double play-off (with home and draw advantage) against its own group second-stage runner-up (most oddly, it was not against the remaining overall stage runner-up), instead of directly proceeding to 2nd phase. As it happened, Atlético Mineiro and Sport, while winning both stages, had to play against Flamengo and Bangu, despite Grêmio and Vitória respectively featured better season record. While Sport managed to confirm their advantage, Atlético Mineiro was eliminated, despite an 8-point season record lead over Flamengo.
2nd phase: Double play-off to determine module winners, though irrelevant for final phase. Flamengo clinching this title claimed the national title and alongside International refused to play final phase. Sport and Guarani shared their module title after its irrelevance and an 11–11 penalty kick draw situation.
Final phase: 4-team ( finalists of both modules) single round-robin. With Flamengo and Internacional W.O., reduced to single play-off between Sport and Guarani.
Second division: 48 teams, 2 independent modules of 24 teams according to regional criteria. Top team of each module promoted.
1st phase: 4 groups of 6, top 2 qualified
2nd phase: 12 team playoffs, top 3 qualified
Final phase: 3 team single round-robin.
1988 Copa União
As the 1987 Copa União organized by "Clube do 13" proved to be even more disastrously organized than the criticized CBF, the 1988 featured the merging of both modules to feature the first ever tournament with real two divisions with promotion and relegation. Legacy from 1987 existed though as América-RJ was reinserted in first division despite refusing to participate the 1987 tournament (América-RJ, unlike Guarani, had refused to be excluded from the Green module as it had been 3rd place in 1986). Because of this, yellow-module 8th placed Internacional-SP, meant thus originally to be promoted to 1988 first division, was sacrificed despite protests. Ironically, América-RJ eventually would be relegated and Internacional-SP clinch the second division title.
First division: 24 teams
1st phase: 2 groups of 12. Split round-robin. Top 2 of each stage group qualified. In case one club would be qualified more than once, the open berth would be filled by the top remaining overall stage record. Bottom 4 overall stage teams relegated to second division.
Final phase: 8-team double play-offs. (1st overall from one group would play 4th-placed from other group, 2nd play 3rd, etc...). Home advantage according to season record Slim draw advantage (on extra time of second play-off) according to season record (as such, Vasco was eliminated by Fluminense on extra-time as both play-offs ended in a draw, and despite an 18-point season-record lead to Vasco).
Second division: 24 teams
1st phase: 4 groups of 6. Double round-robin. Top 4 qualified. Bottom 1 relegated to second division.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 4. Double round-robin. Top 2 qualified.
3rd phase: 2 groups of 4. Double round-robin. Top 2 qualified.
Final phase: 1 group of 4. Double round-robin. Top 2 promoted to first division.
1989 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A - This year featured the introduction of Copa do Brasil as the national cup competition.
First division: 22 teams ( 2 promoted from 1988 second-division)
1st phase: 2 groups of 11. Modified single split round-robin system, as bottom 3 teams from the first stage would not qualify for second stage. Instead they would dispute a 6-team round-robin group to determine relegation to second division (5-team relegation group actually as Coritiba was outright relegated in a dispute with CBF during the first stage). Bottom 4 teams relegated (3 actually on top of Coritiba).
Top 1 teams from each man group qualified.
Final phase: Double play-offs with home and draw advantage to better season record (more precisely, better record team chad a one-point advantage and could choose the venue (home or away) order. Vasco choose to play first game away against São Paulo and eventually clinched the title without the need of a home match by winning 0–1.
Second division: 96 teams (combining with first division, record participation together with 2000 edition).
1st phase: 16 groups of 6, double round-robin. Top 2 qualified
Final phase: 32-team play-offs. Top 2 promoted to 1990 first division. Remaining top 20 qualified to 1990 second division.
1990 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
First division: 20 teams
1st phase: 2 groups of 10 teams. Classical split round-robin. Winners of each stage group qualified together with top 4 remaining overall stage record. Bottom 2 overall stage record relegated to second division.
Final phase: 8-team play-offs.
Second division: 24 teams
1st phase: 4 groups of 6, double round-robin. Top 4 qualified. Bottom 4 relegated to third division.
2nd phase: 4 groups of 4. Double round-robin. Top 2 qualified.
3rd phase: 2 groups of 4. Double round robin.
Final phase: Double play-offs with home advantage to better season record. Finalists promoted to 1991 first division.
Third division: 30 teams
1st phase: 6 groups of 5, single round robin. Top 1 qualified, plus top 2 runners-up across groups.
Final phase: 8-team play-offs. Top 4 (semi-finalists) promoted to second division.
1991–2000
1991 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
This championship adopted a simplified formula with a single 20-team single round-robin season, with random home and way fixtures.
Top 4 teams qualified for play-offs (1st vs 4 th, 2nd vs 3rd) with tie-break given to better season record.
Bottom 2 overall stage record relegated to second division (Grêmio happened to be the first Clube dos 13 team to be relegated ever, with consequences for the next tournament again).
Second division featured 64 teams with 16-team play-offs. Top 2 promoted to 1992 first division
1992 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
Similar to 1991 with a single 20-team single round-robin season, with random home and way fixtures.
Top 8 teams qualified for 2 double round-robin groups (of 4 each). Top of each group met in final play-offs.
Bottom 2 overall stage record relegated to second division.
Second division featured 64 teams with 16-team play-offs. Top 2 promoted to 1992 first division
1993 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
1993, after two relatively calm schedulings, saw the return of Clube dos 13 politics. As Grêmio had been relegated in 1991, which was relatively Ok, but morevorer failed to be promoted as widely expected, in a similar manner to catastrophic 1987, this was not Ok so two divisions of 2 groups each created. In some manner this was still more arbitrary than 1987, as in practice the two divisions indeed constituted a new first and second division. Teams from division A (16, including all Clube dos 13) could not be relegated (hence Grêmio, 11th of 1992 second division). Teams from division B (including some of 1992 first division) could be relegated (such as Paraná, champion of 1992 second division).
Top 3 of groups A and B (double internal round-robin) and top 2 of groups C and D qualified (idem). The latter played a play-off to qualify 2 tems to compose 2 4-team groups, played i double round robin. The winners of each group met in final playoffs.
8 teams (bottom 4 of groups C and D) relegated for 1993 "second" division.
Ranking issues: because of this evident separation, team of group A and B have been ranked higher than C and D (except play-offs qualifiers)
1994 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
Back to complicated schemes: 4 groups of 6 in double round-robin, top 4 of each qualified.
Remaining 16 distributed in 2 groups of 8, back again to favourite split round robin qualifying 6 teams ( 2 winners of each round robin stage plus 2 better season record on overall round robin) plus 2 teams on repechage (!) from the 8 left over of first phase.
Then 8-team playoffs until finals.
Ranking issues: Repechage winners ranked ahead of 1st phase qualified
From 1995 until 2002, with an exception in 2000, the scheduling was relatively standardized with a normal season in single round robin with random home and away fixtures, followed by a top-8 play-off system (top qualified would meet 8th, 2nd meet 7th, etc..). And theoretically 2 teams relegated.
1995 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 24 teams in a single round-robin system with final playoffs.
Second division with 24 teams, two promoted.
1996 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 24 teams and 8 team-playoffs. Fluminense relegated, which did not occur.
1997 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: as Fluminense's relegation was even more taboo than Grêmio's in 1992, season team count was extended to 26 with 4 teams to be relegated, so as to get things "back to normal". Ironically, Fluminense again failed to avoid relegation and this time it proved too to be too much for any rescue operation. Thus after two years at the bottom of the table, Fluminense was the first team from Rio-São Paulo axis to experience relegation.
1998 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 24 teams and 8-team playoffs, with 4 teams relegated, in order to bring down count progressively to 20. Fluminense managed this time to be relegated to third division, the worst feat ever by a Clube dos 13 team.
1999 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: 22 teams and 8-team playoffs. 4 meant to be relegated. Fluminense, winner of 1999 third division, promoted to second division.
In 1999, an averaging relegation system was adopted, similar to the Argentinian Primera División. The two clubs with the worst point results in the first stage of the two previous seasons were to be relegated. However, this system only lasted for a single season. During the first stage it was discovered that one player was registered with false documents. Due to this scandal CBF decided to punish the player's team cancelling the games in which this player took part. Due to this, the average points of some clubs were changed so one club lost positions and was relegated. This club immediately sued CBF, so this institution was prevented to host 2000 Brasileirão. In light of this, Clube dos 13 organized the competition, named Copa João Havelange in that year.
2000 Copa João Havelange: 116 teams and 16-team playoffs. This time, similar to 1987 and 1993, 4 near-divisions were created. The main division (Blue module) was similar to recent years top division, with 25 teams ane the top 12 qualified for the play-offs. Top 2 teams from Yellow module, with 36 teams in two groups of 18, qualified also for play-offs. The two remaining playoff spots came from winners of modules Green and White, in practice a full 3rd division, with 55 teams.
Despite this, the tournament did not raise the same issues as 1987, as Vasco da Gama, unlike Flamengo then, agreed to play the finals against Yellow module (2nd division) runner-up, São Caetano. The latter had paved their way in the play-offs by beating other high-profile Clube dos 13 teams such as Grêmio, Palmeiras and even Fluminense. Fluminense which, in the same way as Grêmio in 1993, was awarded a berth in the Blue module elite group despite just returning from third division. As then, this was also sufficient enough to justify maintenance of Fluminense in 2001 first division.
2001–present
Back to the single round robin system.
2001 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
This season featured 28 teams and reverted to the previous structure with all team played against each other once and the best 8 teams qualified to the playoffs. The quarter-finals and the semi-finals were played over one leg while the finals were played over two legs. The 4 worst teams in the first stage were relegated to Série B of the following year and replaced by 2 promoted teams to reduce the number of teams to 26.
From 2001 onwards, due to the busy schedule in the first semester in Brazil, teams playing in the Copa Libertadores have not been allowed to participate in the Copa do Brasil in the same year.
2002 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
Same formula down to 26 teams with 8-team playoffs. Again the 4 worst teams were relegated and replaced by 2 promoted teams to reduce the number of teams to 24.
Palmeiras and Botagogo relegated for once without major rescue operation. Both would be promoted back in 2003 on normal field results. In this sense this was a major event as the change of system in 2003 could have provided in the past more-than-enough arguments for a "virada de mesa" (i.e. table turnaround, meaning under-the-table combinazioni).
The final incarnation with the introduction of the full round robin system.
2003 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
The league featured 24 teams playing for the 1st time in the full round-robin system (called in Brazil "pontos corridos", i.e. running points), which is used in other major leagues. The formula was judged anti-Brazilian as it abandoned the cup-style system but was deemed necessary as this system was considered as the playoffs were not rewarding the more organised clubs with consistent season performance. Since then, the league has continued to follow the full round-robin system till today.
2004 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
This season featured 24 teams playing in full round-robin system, similar to the previous year, yet 4 worst teams were relegated and replaced by 2 promoted teams to reduce the number of teams to 22.
2005 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
This season featured 22 teams, yet again 4 worst teams were relegated and replaced by 2 promoted teams to reduce the number of teams to 20.
However, 11 matches of the 2005 competition were annulled due to a match-fixing scandal and had to be replayed.
2006 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A
Since 2006 till today, the league has featured 20 teams with 4 teams to be relegated at the end of the season and to be replaced by 4 promoted teams from the 2nd division, thus probably increasing competitiveness and chances of Clube dos 13 teams being relegated (up to this point only Grêmio, Fluminense, Palmeiras, Vasco, Corinthians, Botafogo and Atlético Mineiro experienced it). The relegation formula has been effective in increasing the profile of the second division tournament.
In 2013, three teams in the lower divisions had once won the national title (Palmeiras, Sport and Guarani, the latter in the third division). Flamengo narrowly escaped relegation in 2004 and 2005, Corinthians were relegated in 2007, Vasco were relegated in 2008, 2013 and 2015, Palmeiras in 2012, Botafogo in 2014, and Internacional were relegated in 2016.
Final Placings
The following tables are based after statistics from RSSSF Brasil.
Placings after play-off (or short 4-team round-robin) phase do not consider previous-phase results.
1971–2000
Color code:
# : + 1 pt difference towards presumed CBF ranking
# : + 2–3 pts difference
# : + 4–7 pts difference
# : + 8+ pts difference
# : + 20+ pts difference
# : - 1 pt difference
# : - 2–3 pts difference
# : - 4–7 pts difference
# : - 8+ pts difference
2001–2005
Rankings
The ranking is directly based on the previous placing table: points = 49 - placing (0 if placing > 48th)
In 1971 and 1972, with 20 and 26 participants and no second division, non-participants have been awarded by default 29th placings, IE. 20 ranking points.
1971–2000
2001–2007 and Overall
N.B.: CBF ranking points obtained from CBF official ranking which features points from the Brazilian League and the Brazilian Cup. Points from Brazilian Cup have been discounted according to CBF point-awarding rules. Data from Copa do Brasil (Brazilian Cup) based on RSSSF Brazil.
N.B 2: CBF does not include in its official ranking points from the 2000 tournament, though it officially recognizes it. This stems from the fact the CBF ranking's only purpose is to establish the Brazilian Cup participants list based on tournaments organized by it, and is not linked to the official placing list. So the points of the 2000 tournament have been added here, always according to CBF rules.
Other rankings
Placar (or top 10)
Placar, Brazil's main soccer magazine proposes a similar but simpler formula, only taking into account the top 10 placings. I.e, points = 11 - placing (0 if placing > 10th).
1971–2000
2001–2005 and Overall
Remarks: Coincidentally or not (Placar is a São Paulo-based magazine with a reputation for mild partiality), this top 10 criterion is not neutral as it favours teams from São Paulo by minimizing past relegations on non-participations (especially in the 80's). Also Placar apparently does not compute the 1987 season (as can be deduced from Guarani, Flamengo and Sport appearing strongly penalized) and the 2000 season (Vasco and Grêmio appear penalized).
Vasco is penalized in 23 points overall (coincidentally or not again, Vasco is often the main target of São Paulo sports press) and appears as 9th despite comfortably holding 1st place on CBF's ranking. Cruzeiro is actually awarded more points despite having placed well in 2000 (which supposedly have not been computed), so the figures seem unreliable. Unfortunately Placar does not display on their ranking page their choices and criteria and furthermore the detail by year.
Top 20
A probable trade-off between CBF and Placar could be a ranking based on the top 20 results. This on one hand would minimize relegation (as per Placar) issue but also reward consistency (as per CBF, which indeed already penalizes its way teams placed lower than 20th).
1971–2000
2001–2013 and Overall
It can be noted that, according to this ranking, places 4 through 7 remain closely fought and could be totally shuffled by any result on a single year (especially with Vasco da Gama, currently relegated to second division and meant to drop automatically three or more places). Also, the places 8 to 10, with Flamengo, Cruzeiro and Santos, and 13–15, with Guarani, Goiás and Coritiba, appear tightly disputed.
Tournament scheduling
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG%20XR
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JPEG XR
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JPEG XR (JPEG extended range) is an image compression standard for continuous tone photographic images, based on the HD Photo (formerly Windows Media Photo) specifications that Microsoft originally developed and patented. It supports both lossy and lossless compression, and is the preferred image format for Ecma-388 Open XML Paper Specification documents.
Support for the format was made available in Adobe Flash Player 11.0, Adobe AIR 3.0, Sumatra PDF 2.1, Windows Imaging Component, .NET Framework 3.0, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Internet Explorer 9, Internet Explorer 10, Internet Explorer 11, Pale Moon 27.2. As of January 2021, there were still no cameras that shoot photos in the JPEG XR (.JXR) format.
History
Microsoft first announced Windows Media Photo at WinHEC 2006, and then renamed it to HD Photo in November of that year. In July 2007, the Joint Photographic Experts Group and Microsoft announced HD Photo to be under consideration to become a JPEG standard known as JPEG XR. On 16 March 2009, JPEG XR was given final approval as ITU-T Recommendation T.832 and starting in April 2009, it became available from the ITU-T in "pre-published" form. On 19 June 2009, it passed an ISO/IEC Final Draft International Standard (FDIS) ballot, resulting in final approval as International Standard ISO/IEC 29199-2. The ITU-T updated its publication with a corrigendum approved in December 2009, and ISO/IEC issued a new edition with similar corrections on 30 September 2010.
In 2010, after completion of the image coding specification, the ITU-T and ISO/IEC also published a motion format specification (ITU-T T.833 | ISO/IEC 29199-3), a conformance test set (ITU-T T.834 | ISO/IEC 29199-4), and reference software (ITU-T T.835 | ISO/IEC 29199-5) for JPEG XR. In 2011, they published a technical report describing the workflow architecture for the use of JPEG XR images in applications (ITU-T T.Sup2 | ISO/IEC TR 29199-1).
Description
Capabilities
JPEG XR is an image file format that offers several key improvements over JPEG, including:
Better compression JPEG XR file format supports higher compression ratios in comparison to JPEG for encoding an image with equivalent quality.
Lossless compression JPEG XR also supports lossless compression. The signal processing steps in JPEG XR are the same for both lossless and lossy coding. This makes the lossless mode simple to support and enables the "trimming" of some bits from a lossless compressed image to produce a lossy compressed image.
Tile structure support A JPEG XR coded image can be segmented into tile regions. The data for each region can be decoded separately. This enables rapid access to parts of an image without needing to decode the entire image. When a type of tiling referred to as "soft tiling" is used, the tile region structuring can be changed without fully decoding the image and without introducing additional distortion.
Support for more color accuracy JPEG XR supports a wide variety of image color representations in addition to the conventional 8-bit-per-sample YUV (formally YCbCr) 4:2:0 encoding that is typically used for the original JPEG standard.
For support of images using an RGB color space, JPEG XR includes an internal conversion to the YCoCg color space, and supports a variety of bit depth and color representation packing schemes. These can be used with and without an accompanying alpha channel for shape masking and semi-transparency support, and some of them have much higher precision than what has typically been used for image coding. They include:
Low bit-depth packings of RGB into 16 bits per pixel using 5 bits for each channel or 5 bits for red and blue and 6 bits for green
8 bits per component (sometimes called true color) packed into 24 or 32 bits per pixel
10 bits per component in a 32 bit packed representation (one of several higher-precision varieties of color representation known as deep color)
16 bits per component as integers, fixed-point numbers, or half-precision floating-point numbers packed into 48 or 64 bits
32 bits per component as fixed-point numbers or full-precision floating point numbers packed into 96 or 128 bits (for which lossless coding is not supported due to the excessively high precision)
JPEG XR also supports 16 bits per component (64-bit per pixel) integer CMYK color model.
16-bit and 32-bit fixed point color component codings are also supported in JPEG XR. In such encodings, the most-significant 4 bits of each color channel are treated as providing additional "headroom" and "toe room" beyond the range of values that represents the nominal black-to-white signal range.
Moreover, 16-bit and 32-bit floating point color component codings are supported in JPEG XR. In these cases the image is interpreted as floating point data, although the JPEG XR encoding and decoding steps are all performed using only integer operations (to simplify the compression processing).
The shared-exponent floating point color format known as RGBE (Radiance) is also supported, enabling more faithful storage of high-dynamic-range (HDR) images.
In addition to RGB and CMYK formats, JPEG XR also supports grayscale and multi-channel color encodings with an arbitrary number of channels.
The color representations, in most cases, are transformed to an internal color representation. The transformation is entirely reversible, so that this color transformation step does not introduce distortion and thus lossless coding modes can be supported.
Transparency map support An alpha channel may be present to represent transparency, so that alpha blending overlay capability is enabled.
Compressed-domain image modification In JPEG XR, full decoding of the image is unnecessary for converting an image from a lossless to lossy encoding, reducing the fidelity of a lossy encoding, or reducing the encoded image resolution.
Full decoding is also unnecessary for certain editing operations such as cropping, horizontal or vertical flips, or cardinal rotations.
The tile structure for access to image regions can also be changed without full decoding and without introducing distortion.
Metadata support A JPEG XR image file may optionally contain an embedded ICC color profile, to achieve consistent color representation across multiple devices.
Exif and XMP metadata formats are also supported.
Container format
One file container format that can be used to store JPEG XR image data is specified in Annex A of the JPEG XR standard. It is a TIFF-like format using a table of Image File Directory (IFD) tags. A JPEG XR file contains image data, optional alpha channel data, metadata, optional XMP metadata stored as RDF/XML, and optional Exif metadata, in IFD tags. The image data is a contiguous self-contained chunk of data. The optional alpha channel, if present, can be compressed as a separate image record, enabling decoding of the image data independently of transparency data in applications which do not support transparency. (Alternatively, JPEG XR also supports an "interleaved" alpha channel format in which the alpha channel data is encoded together with the other image data in a single compressed codestream.)
Being TIFF-based, this format inherits all of the limitations of the TIFF format including the 4 GB file-size limit, which according to the HD Photo specification "will be addressed in a future update".
New work has been started in the JPEG committee to enable the use of JPEG XR image coding within the JPX file storage format – enabling use of the JPIP protocol, which allows interactive browsing of networked images. Additionally, a Motion JPEG XR specification was approved as an ISO standard for motion (video) compression in March 2010.
Compression algorithm
JPEG XR's design is conceptually very similar to JPEG: the source image is optionally converted to a luma-chroma colorspace, the chroma planes are optionally subsampled, each plane is divided into fixed-size blocks, the blocks are transformed into the frequency domain, and the frequency coefficients are quantized and entropy coded. Major differences include the following:
JPEG supports bit depths of 8 and 12 bits; JPEG XR supports bit depths of up to 32 bits. JPEG XR also supports lossless and lossy compression of floating-point image data (by representing the floating-point values in an IEEE 754-like format, and encoding them as though they were integers) and RGBE imagery.
JFIF and other typical image encoding practices specify a linear transformation from RGB to YCbCr, which is slightly lossy in practice because of roundoff error. JPEG XR specifies a lossless colorspace transformation, namely YCoCg-R, given (for RGB) by:
While JPEG uses 8 × 8 blocks for its frequency transformation, JPEG XR primarily uses 4 × 4 block transforms. (2 × 4 and 2 × 2 transformations are also defined for special cases involving chroma subsampling; encoder options include YUV_444, YUV_422, YUV_420, and a monochrome Y_only.)
While JPEG uses a single transformation stage, JPEG XR applies its 4 × 4 core transform in a two-level hierarchical fashion within 16 × 16 macroblock regions. This gives the transform a wavelet-like multi-resolution hierarchy and improves its compression capability.
The DCT, the frequency transformation used by JPEG, is slightly lossy because of roundoff error. JPEG XR uses a type of integer transform employing a lifting scheme. The required transform, called the Photo Core Transform (PCT), resembles a 4 × 4 DCT but is lossless (exactly invertible). In fact, it is a particular realization of a larger family of binary-friendly multiplier-less transforms called the binDCT.
JPEG XR allows an optional overlap prefiltering step, called the Photo Overlap Transform (POT), before each of its 4 × 4 core transform PCT stages. The filter operates on 4 × 4 blocks which are offset by 2 samples in each direction from the 4 × 4 core transform blocks. Its purpose is to improve compression capability and reduce block-boundary artifacts at low bitrates. At high bitrates, where such artifacts are typically not a problem, the prefiltering can be omitted to reduce encoding and decoding time. The overlap filtering is constructed using integer operations following a lifting scheme, so that it is also lossless. When appropriately combined, the POT and the PCT in JPEG-XR form a lapped transform.
In JPEG, the image DC coefficients of the DCT blocks are predicted by applying DC prediction from the left neighbor transform block, and no other coeffients are predicted. In JPEG XR, 4 × 4 blocks are grouped into macroblocks of 16 × 16 samples, and the 16 DC coefficients from the 4 × 4 blocks of each macroblock are passed through another level of frequency transformation, leaving three types of coefficients to be entropy coded: the macroblock DC coefficients (called DC), macroblock-level AC coefficients (called "lowpass"), and lower-level AC coefficients (called AC). Prediction of coefficient values across transform blocks is applied to the DC coefficients and to an additional row or column of AC coefficients as well.
JPEG XR supports the encoding of an image by decomposing it into smaller individual rectangular tile area regions. Each tile area can be decoded independently from the other areas of the picture. This allows fast access to spatial areas of pictures without decoding the entire picture.
JPEG XR's entropy coding phase is more adaptive and complex than JPEG's, involving a DC and AC coefficient prediction scheme, adaptive coefficient reordering (in contrast to JPEG's fixed zigzag ordering), and a form of adaptive Huffman coding for the coefficients themselves.
JPEG uses a single quantization step size per DC/AC component per color plane per image. JPEG XR allows a selection of DC quantization step sizes on a tile region basis, and allows lowpass and AC quantization step sizes to vary from macroblock to macroblock.
Because all encoding phases except quantization are lossless, JPEG XR is lossless when all quantization coefficients are equal to 1. This is not true of JPEG. JPEG defines a separate lossless mode which does not use the DCT, but it is not implemented by libjpeg and therefore not widely supported.
The HD Photo bitstream specification claims that "HD Photo offers image quality comparable to JPEG-2000 with computational and memory performance more closely comparable to JPEG", that it "delivers a lossy compressed image of better perceptive quality than JPEG at less than half the file size", and that "lossless compressed images … are typically 2.5 times smaller than the original uncompressed data".
Software support
A reference software implementation of JPEG XR has been published as ITU-T Recommendation T.835 and ISO/IEC International Standard 29199-5.
The following notable software products natively support JPEG XR:
The following notable software support JPEG XR through a Plug-in:
The following APIs and software frameworks support JPEG XR and may be used in other software to provide JPEG XR support to end users:
The 2011 video game Rage employs JPEG XR compression to compress its textures.
Licensing
Microsoft has patents on the technology in JPEG XR. A Microsoft representative stated in a January 2007 interview that in order to encourage the adoption and use of HD Photo, the specification is made available under the Microsoft Open Specification Promise, which asserts that Microsoft allows implementation of the specification for free, and will not file suits on the patented technology for its implementation, as reportedly stated by Josh Weisberg, director of Microsoft's Rich Media Group. As of 15 August 2010, Microsoft made the resulting JPEG XR standard available under its Community Promise.
In July 2010, reference software to implement the JPEG XR standard was published as ITU-T Recommendation T.835 and International Standard ISO/IEC 29199-5. Microsoft included these publications in the list of specifications covered by its Community Promise.
In April 2013, Microsoft released jxrlib, an open source JPEG XR library under the BSD licence. This resolved any licensing issues with the library being implemented in software packages distributed under popular open source licences such as the GNU General Public License, with which the previously released "HD Photo Device Porting Kit" was incompatible.
See also
AVIF, a compression format by Google, Mozilla and others in a group called the Alliance for Open Media
JPEG, an image format used for lossy compression (JPEG XR lossy is comparable with it.)
JPEG 2000, an improvement intended to replace JPEG by the JPEG committee as of 2000
JPEG XS, format for image and video with very low latency, more efficient for streaming high quality video
JPEG XL, is a royalty-free raster-graphics file format that supports both lossy and lossless compression. It is designed to outperform existing raster formats and thus to become their universal replacement.
PNG, a format for lossless compression, which JPEG XR lossless is comparable with
WebP, a format with lossy or lossless compression, proposed by Google in 2010
Better Portable Graphics, a proposal by Fabrice Bellard in 2014 based on HEVC
HEIF, a 2015 format based on MPEG-H Part 12 (ISO/IEC 23008-12) and HEVC. Implemented by Apple as the basis for their single-image format .HEIC on iPhone 7.
References
External links
Links to standardization publication pages
ITU-T publications
ITU-T T.Sup2 (03/2011) JPEG XR System architecture
ITU-T Rec. T.832 (03/2009, updated 12/2009) JPEG XR Image Coding Specification
ITU-T Rec. T.833 (09/2010) JPEG XR Motion Format
ITU-T Rec. T.834 (01/2010) JPEG XR Conformance Testing
ITU-T Rec. T.835 (01/2010) JPEG XR Reference Software
ISO/IEC publications
ISO/IEC TR 29199-1: 2011 JPEG XR System architecture
ISO/IEC 29199-2: 2010 JPEG XR Image Coding Specification
ISO/IEC 29199-3: 2010 JPEG XR Motion Format
ISO/IEC 29199-4: 2010 JPEG XR Conformance Testing
ISO/IEC 29199-5: 2010 JPEG XR Reference Software
Links to information from Microsoft
Bill Crow's Digital Imaging & Photography Blog. MSDN blogs.
Links to information from others
This Week in Media podcast about HD Photo, featuring Microsoft's HD Photo Program Manager Bill Crow.
Comparison WMP – JPEG 2000, Moscow State University Graphics and Media Lab, August 2006.
XR
High dynamic range file formats
Graphics file formats
Microsoft Windows multimedia technology
Open formats
Computer file formats
T.832
Lossy compression algorithms
ISO/IEC 29199
Image compression
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc%20Ford
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Marc Ford
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Marc Ford (born April 13, 1966) is an American blues-rock guitarist. He is a former lead guitarist of the rock and roll band The Black Crowes, the former lead guitarist of The Magpie Salute and the leader of his own bands: Burning Tree, Marc Ford & The Neptune Blues Club, Jefferson Steelflex, Fuzz Machine and Marc Ford & The Sinners.
History
Early life
Ford was born in Long Beach, California, United States.
Burning Tree
Ford started out playing the Southern California/Los Angeles underground rock scene in the early/mid-eighties in bands such as Citadel, which later went by the names Citadel Ltd & Head. He also played guitar on the self-titled 1984 EP by Jack Grisham's post-T.S.O.L. band Cathedral of Tears, on which he is credited as "Mark Ford". He played in the L.A. side-project band Stronzo which featured Mickey Finn of Jetboy, Sami Yaffa of Hanoi Rocks/Jetboy, and various other musicians playing shows outside of their main bands, and in 1988 Ford played guitar for Michael Monroe at the Scream club, also with Sami Yaffa on bass, which was the first ever L.A. show for the former Hanoi Rocks singer. Ford also played with early Dogs D’Amour/L.A. Guns man Robert Stoddard, and around this time was in Orange County band The Scarecrows.
In the late eighties, Citadel Ltd/Head evolved into the blues-rock outfit Burning Tree, a power trio featuring Ford on guitars and vocals, Mark Dutton on bass and vocals, and Doni Gray on drums and vocals. Burning Tree released their self-titled debut album on Epic Records in 1990. A commercial failure but a critical success, Burning Tree allowed the group to tour extensively throughout most of 1990 and 1991. The band's career was cut short when Ford left to join the Black Crowes, for whom Burning Tree had opened on their first (and only) tour.
The Black Crowes
In mid-1991, Marc Ford sat in a couple of times with the Black Crowes in concert, performing The Allman Brothers Band's classic hit, "Dreams".
When the Black Crowes severed their relationship with their original guitarist Jeff Cease, Ford was asked to fill the vacancy. He accepted the offer, and a few days later was asked by Slash to join Guns N' Roses. Ford refused. At the time, Guns N' Roses were in the middle of a huge stadium world tour. Ford said in 2017 that he would probably be dead now, had he joined them.
Ford stepped into the Crowes' lineup to record their 1992 sophomore album, The Southern Harmony and Musical Companion. The album reached Number 1 on the Billboard charts and earned a double platinum certificate for sales. Ford performed on the next two Black Crowes releases, Amorica (1994) and Three Snakes and One Charm (1996), and is also credited for tracks from the band's two unreleased albums (1993's Tall and 1997's Band, later released together as The Lost Crowes). His addition to the Black Crowes sound, which consisted primarily of slide guitar and southern twang, helped define the band at the time. Ford's ability to adapt to core songwriter Rich Robinson's music and crunchy rhythm guitar sound solidified him and Robinson as the preeminent guitar duo of the 1990s.
During his time in the Black Crowes Ford also played slide guitar on British band Thee Hypnotics' 1994 album The Very Crystal Speed Machine, produced by Chris Robinson.
Ford was dismissed from the Black Crowes in late 1997, following the band's stint on the summer-long Furthur Festival tour. Black Crowes leaders Chris and Rich Robinson cited Ford's excessive drug use as the reason for his firing, a reason that was confirmed by the guitarist entering a rehab facility soon after his dismissal.
Solo and collaborations
After his departure from the Black Crowes, Ford formed Marc Ford and the Uninvited. In 1998, he sat in numerous times with Gov't Mule before joining the Chris Stills Band for a summer tour. Upon the conclusion of that tour, Ford quit the Chris Stills Band to form Federale, a joint venture between himself and Luther Russell (who were eventually joined by drummer Jimi Bott and bassist Freddy Trujillo). The band gained attention from major label Interscope Records. Federale toured briefly, opening for acts like Gov't Mule, but disbanded after Interscope Records was bought out by Universal Music Group.
During 2000, Ford joined the Pink Floyd/blues jam/tribute band Blue Floyd, which originally featured Allen Woody (guitar, bass), Matt Abts (drums), Johnny Neel (keyboards) and Berry Oakley Jr. (bass). Ford left Blue Floyd at the close of 2001, opting to again to go solo. In January 2002, Malibu, California, Ford performed a set with Chris Robinson, the first time Ford and Robinson had performed with one another since Ford's dismissal from the Black Crowes nearly five years prior. Robinson again joined Ford at the Malibu Inn two weeks later, confirming that they had made amends. Ford co-wrote "Sunday Sound," a track featured on Robinson's solo debut, New Earth Mud.
Following his acoustic-based stint at the Malibu Inn, Ford decided to form a full-fledged electric band. Featuring fellow Blue Floyd member Berry Oakley Jr. (bass) and newcomers Gootch (drums) and Chris Joyner (keys), Marc Ford and The Sinners hit the road in early 2002. During the tour, Ford often took time out (with and without The Sinners) to record tracks for his debut effort entitled It's About Time, which was released on Anko Records in the fall of 2002.
In 2003, Marc Ford and The Sinners had an opening slot on Lucinda Williams' ongoing tour. Later that year, Ford accepted an invitation to join Ben Harper and the Innocent Criminals, relegating The Sinners to an indefinite hiatus. Ford toured with Ben Harper and the Innocent Criminals for the majority of 2003, from which their live EP Live at the Hollywood Bowl was drawn. Ford continued his association with Ben Harper and his band through the close of 2004, featuring on Harper's collaboration with The Blind Boys of Alabama, There Will Be a Light, when he was called to rejoin The Black Crowes for their "All Join Hands" reunion run.
Black Crowes reunion
After a three-year hiatus, the Robinson brothers reformed the Black Crowes in early 2005 for a series of gigs and (later) a new album. In March 2005, it was announced that Marc Ford would be returning to the lead guitar spot. Ford never severed his ties with Harper, however, appearing on his 2006 album Both Sides of the Gun and performing a handful of shows in support while an active member of The Black Crowes.
Ford toured with the Black Crowes through the summer of 2006. Despite some new songs being debuted during live performances, no new studio material was released. On September 5, 2006, two days before he was due to hit the road for the fall leg of the ongoing Black Crowes reunion tour, Ford's lawyer notified the Black Crowes management via fax that, effective immediately, the guitarist would no longer be a member of the band. The following day, Ford put out a press release announcing that he had left the Crowes to protect his hard-fought sobriety, and that he had recently produced albums for emerging artists the Pawnshop Kings and Ryan Bingham.
Ford confirmed in a November 2006 interview with Hittin' the Note magazine that he is contractually prohibited from discussing his time in the Black Crowes during the period of 2005–2006. In a later interview with the magazine, Ford revealed that this contractual limitation was "in perpetuity."
Solo again
Shortly after his sudden departure from the Black Crowes, Ford reunited with his Burning Tree bandmates for three gigs at the King King in Hollywood, California. Following the impromptu dates, Ford enlisted Doni Gray as his bandmate, along with Muddy and his son Elijah Ford, for a new studio album he had begun preproduction on. Touted by the guitarist as a more guitar-based recording, Weary and Wired was released on March 13, 2007, on Shrapnel Records' subdivision Blues Bureau. Coinciding with the release of Weary and Wired was Ford's feature interview on the cover of jam-band oriented music magazine Hittin' the Note (Issue #52).
Throughout 2007 Ford hit the road in support of his new album, with bandmates Mark "Muddy" Dutton, Elijah Ford and new drummer Dennis Morehouse. The tour found the band performing across the United States, as well as select dates in Spain, Germany, Russia and at a handful of European festivals. During later dates on the tour, Ford unveiled as many as six new songs, hinting at another album on the way. The tour continued through the end of 2007, when Ford took a short break.
Early in 2008, Ford played sporadic shows on the West Coast, some with his Fuzz Machine band and some with a new venture, Jefferson Steelflex. Ford and his son Elijah joined Ryan Bingham for several dates on his tour, performing songs from the Ford-produced album Mescalito. Ford played slide guitar on Bingham's appearances on The Tonight Show and Late Night with Conan O'Brien in the summer of 2008.
Ford produced Steepwater Band's next studio effort, an LP tentatively titled Grace & Melody released in November 2008, at Compound Studios in Signal Hill, California (recording began in the first week of May 2008). Ford first met the Chicago-based power trio when their bands shared a festival bill in Bilbao, Spain (in the summer of 2007). Ford joined the band on stage to jam on a pair of songs including a cover of Neil Young's "Cortez the Killer", following a sit-in by his bandmate/son Elijah. Steepwater Band subsequently provided support for Ford's headlining gig at the Double Door in Chicago on July 26, 2007; this time Jeff Massey and Tod Bowers (of Steepwater Band) joined Ford's band for their encore. Soon after, Ford approached the trio about producing their next effort.
In early August 2008, it was announced (via his record label) that Ford's new record would be available online and in stores on September 23, 2008. Entitled Marc Ford and the Neptune Blues Club, the record features entirely new material performed by the newest incarnation of Ford's band the Neptune Blues Club (himself on guitars and vocals, Mike Malone on keyboards and vocals, Anthony Arvizu on drums, Bill Barrett on harmonica and John Bazz on upright bass). This latest version of his band is a slight reconfiguration of the Jefferson Steelflex band, which had performed earlier in the year prior to Ford's short stint with Ryan Bingham.
During the latter part of 2008, Ford took up playing lead guitar at the Vineyard Community Church in Laguna Niguel, California. Via that gig, He produced and contributed guitar work to Vineyard Music artist Chris Lizotte's album, Signal Hill Revival, released in early 2009. Ford's association with both the church and Lizotte continues to the present day.
In early 2009, it was rumored that the Neptune Blues Club was working on its second record at Compound Studios. However, Ford's deal with Shrapnel Records' subsidiary Blues Bureau had expired after 2008's Neptune Blues Club, and by mid-2009 it seemed that the Neptune Blues Club had expired with it. One sole track from the sessions, "Shalomar Dreams," was released via online distributor BandCamp.com; it remains the only material released from the second album sessions to date.
In May 2009, it was revealed that Ford would be joining the touring band for blues artist Booker T. Jones (of Booker T. & the MG's fame). Ford was confirmed as the guitarist for June through September 2009.
In the fall of 2009, Ford launched a download site to showcase and facilitate the sale of his archive of soundboard recordings from his solo work. The shows released thus far focus entirely on the Neptune Blues Club. It is unclear if the site will cover other eras of Ford's solo career.
In February 2010, Ford released his fourth studio album, Fuzz Machine, featuring material recorded while on a touring break in the fall of 2007 with the band of the same name. The album's release coincided with Ford's mini-tour of Spain, on which he used the Steepwater Band as his backing band. The tour prompted the launch of a new website for Ford, the central theme of which is based around the Fuzz Machine recording. The album was exclusively available at all of Ford's performances on the mini-tour, followed by online distribution in November.
After producing Phantom Limb's The Pines album, Ford asked the band to return the favor by backing his own solo project. He signed with the Naim record label in the UK to release his next album, Holy Ghost on April 14, 2014. He announced the new album in Country Music magazine.
In 2015, Ford played on his friend, singer songwriter Craig Helmreich's, record (It's Just Craig's Blood On the Table) which was recorded with John Vanderslice at Tiny Telephone in San Francisco. Ford and Vanderslice hit it off, and in early 2016, Ford returned to Tiny Telephone to record his latest, The Vulture, released in 2016.
The Magpie Salute
In late 2016, it was announced that Marc Ford had joined the newly formed the Magpie Salute, led by his former Black Crowes bandmate Rich Robinson.
August 10, 2018: The Magpie Salute's debut studio album, High Water I, was released on Eagle Rock (North America), Mascot Label Group (Europe, Australia, New Zealand) and Sony (Japan).
September 6, 2019: The Magpie Salute – High Water II was released (Eagle Rock Entertainment 2019)
On November 11, 2019, it was announced that Rich and Chris Robinson reformed the Black Crowes with all new band members and TMS went on "hiatus".
Next Chapter
January 2020 – a west coast tour opening for Allman Betts Band and a west coast headline tour was announced.
On March 8, 2020, The Allman Betts Band performed at the Palace Theatre in Los Angeles which was highlighted by a series of exciting sit-ins. Marc joined The Doors’ Robby Krieger and the ABB to play "Trouble No More" and "Roadhouse Blues"
March 12, 2020, The ABB tour was canceled on March 12 after only 2 shows due to the Covid-19 pandemic. A few weeks later Marc’s 2020 headline tour was also canceled for the same reason.
September 29, 2021, the ABB tour resumed with Marc Ford as the opening band (Phil Jones on drums and Berry Duane Oakley played bass)
January 15th 2021. "Live In Germany" was self-released on January 15th 2021 from a recording of the May 16th, 2017 show at the Music Star in Norderstedt, Germany.
Spring 2022 - Marc was a special guest on the west coast shows of the Allman Family Revival tour.
Spring 2023 - after a few warm-up gigs in CA, Marc Ford kicked-off his 6 show east coast tour in Lowell MA on June 10th.
JUN 10 2023 Lowell, MA Taffeta - JUN 12 2023 Lima, NY Fanatics Pub - JUN 13 2023 Syracuse, NY The 443 Social Club & Lounge - JUN 14 2023 Baltimore, MD The 8x10 - JUN 15 2023 Wayne, PA 118 NORTH - JUN 17 2023 New York, NY Iridium
Benefit shows for Patch Outreach and the AMA
May 18th, 2018, Marc Ford played his first full solo acoustic show at the Thunder Road Club in Somerville, MA.
This was the first benefit show to raise money for Patch Outreach (Pepperell MA food pantry) and the Ayer Masonic Association. An unreleased "The Magpie Salute" song, "Lost Boy", was played for the first time (as the encore). "Lost Boy" was released in Oct 2019, on The Magpie Salute's High Water II LP/CD.
November 2nd, 2019: The Marc Ford Band (Marc Ford/Elijah Ford/Phil Jones) performed at the second annual benefit concert for patch outreach and the Ayer Masonic Association in at a private venue in Georgetown, MA
February 19th, 2022: After a hiatus due to covid, the 3rd benefit concert for Patch Outreach (Massachusetts based food pantry) and the Ayer Masonic Association occurred at The Stone Church Music Club in New Market NH. Playing bass for Marc's band was Berry Duane Oakley of the Allman Betts Band with Phil Jones playing drums. For the first time ever, Alan Forbes created an event poster for a Marc Ford concert.
June 10th, 2022: 4th Benefit concert featuring Marc Ford (Playing bass was Berry Duane Oakley with Phil Jones playing drums).
Discography
Solo
It's About Time (Anko Records, 2003)
Weary and Wired (Blues Bureau, 2007)
Marc Ford and the Neptune Blues Club (Blues Bureau, 2008)
Fuzz Machine (BandCamp, an online-exclusive release, 2020)
Holy Ghost (Naim Label, 2014)
The Vulture (2016)
St. James Infirmary b/w Backwater Blues (single, Need To Know, 2019)
Fuzz Machine (Self-released on vinyl and CD 2020)
Live In Germany Self-released on January 15th 2021
Neil Songs Released via BandCamp, on Robust records, on February 16, 2023
With the Scarecrows
The Scarecrows – The Scarecrows featuring Marc Ford (Manic Records, rec. 1988; released 2005)
With Burning Tree
Burning Tree (Epic Records, 1990)
With the Black Crowes
The Black Crowes – The Southern Harmony and Musical Companion (American Recordings, 1992)
The Black Crowes – Amorica (American Recordings, 1994)
The Black Crowes – Three Snakes and One Charm (American Recordings, 1996)
The Lost Crowes (Rhino, 2006), containing the previously unreleased studio albums
Tall (1993)
Band (1997)
Freak 'n' Roll...Into the Fog (CD/DVD) with the Black Crowes (Eagle Vision, 2006)
With Ben Harper
Ben Harper and the Innocent Criminals – Live at the Hollywood Bowl EP (Virgin Records, 2003)
Ben Harper and the Innocent Criminals – Live at the Hollywood Bowl (DVD; Virgin Records, 2003)
Ben Harper and the Blind Boys of Alabama – There Will Be a Light (Virgin Records, 2004)
Ben Harper and the Blind Boys of Alabama – Live at the Apollo (Ben Harper and The Blind Boys of Alabama) (Virgin Records, 2004)
Ben Harper and the Blind Boys Of Alabama – Live at the Apollo (DVD) (Virgin Records 2004)
Both Sides of the Gun (Virgin Records, 2006)
With The Magpie Salute
The Magpie Salute – Live (Eagle Rock Entertainment 2017)
The Magpie Salute – High Water I (Eagle Rock Entertainment 2018)
The Magpie Salute – The Killing Moon (Eagle Rock Entertainment 2019)
The Magpie Salute – In Here EP (Eagle Rock Entertainment 2019)
The Magpie Salute – High Water II (Eagle Rock Entertainment 2019)
Collaborations and tributes
Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds – Izzy Stradlin and the Ju Ju Hounds (Geffen Records, 1992)
Thee Hypnotics – The Very Crystal Speed Machine (American Recordings, 1994)
The Original Harmony Ridge Creekdippers – Pacific Coast Rambler (Creek Dippers, 1998)
Gov't Mule – Live... With a Little Help from Our Friends (Capricorn Records, 1999)
Scott Thomas – Lovers and Thieves (Halfpipe Records, 2003)
Songs From the Material World: A Tribute to George Harrison (Koch Records, 2003)
Ariel Belont – Let's Rock (Dreamland Music, 2007)
Ryan Delmore – The Spirit, the Water, and the Blood (Varietal Records, 2008)
Mark Riley – Capture My Heart and Simply Come (Music Missions International Kaua`i, 2014)
It's Just Craig (Craig Helmreich) – Blood On the Table (MRL Indiana, LLC., 2015)
It's Just Craig (Craig Helmreich) – Dark Corners (MRL Indiana, LLC., 2017)
Jim Wilson and Phil Jones – "Now Playing" (SWINGIN' PIPE RECORDS 2018)
Mark Morton – Anesthetic (ANESTHETIC ) ( A Spinefarm Records/WPP Records release; 2019 WPP Records, under exclusive license to Universal Music Operations Limited 2019 WPP Records)
JB Strauss – Piss Ant Hill JB Strauss, 'Piss Ant Hill' [Exclusive Premiere]
As a producer
PawnShop Kings – Locksley (Owen Brothers Publishing, 2007)
Ryan Bingham – Mescalito (Lost Highway, 2007)
Steepwater Band – Grace and Melody (Diamond Day Records, 2008)
Chris Lizotte – Signal Hill Revival (Varietal Records, 2008)
Ryan Bingham – Road House Sun (Lost Highway, 2009)
Jonny Burke – Distance and Fortune (Bandcamp, 2011)
Phantom Limb – The Pines (2012)
Republique du Salem – Republique du Salem (2015)
Grainne Duffy – dirt-woman-blues (Nola Blue Records -2023)
References
External links
Ford's official website
Ford official download website
Ford's MySpace
Archived set lists of Ford's live performances
20th-century American guitarists
The Black Crowes members
1966 births
Living people
American rock musicians
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
Guitarists from Los Angeles
Provogue Records artists
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5119040
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejan%20Milojevi%C4%87
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Dejan Milojević
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Dejan Milojević (; born 15 April 1977) is a Serbian professional basketball coach and former player. Currently, since summer 2021, he is an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA).
Standing at , the power forward played basketball professionally from 1994 until 2009, appearing for the FR Yugoslavia / Serbia and Montenegro league teams Beovuk, FMP, Budućnost, and Partizan, as well as for Pamesa Valencia in Spain, and Galatasaray in Turkey. He was named the Adriatic League Most Valuable Player three times in a row. Milojević played on the Serbia and Montenegro national team, winning EuroBasket gold in 2001.
Three years after his 2009 retirement from playing professional basketball, Milojević became a head coach for Mega Basket of the Adriatic Basketball Association (ABA). There, he coached future NBA All-Star and NBA MVP Nikola Jokić. In the 2015–16 season, he coached Mega to their first-ever trophy, the Serbian Cup, as well as their first ABA League finals appearance. In 2021, he won Montenegrin League and Montenegrin Cup titles with Budućnost.
In addition to club coaching, Milojević had a coaching stint with the Serbian national team from December 2019 until September 2021, assisting head coach Igor Kokoškov.
Early years
Born in Belgrade, Milojević was raised in the suburb of Padinska Skela.
He began pursuing organized basketball at age 13, signing up for the KK Tašmajdan youth categories in 1990 through a friend who had already been playing there. Starting out in KK Tašmajdan's youth system, teenage Milojević quickly began dominating over his age group, scoring 141 points in a 202–52 cadet (under-16) win versus OKK Beograd under-16 team in 1991, a still-standing record.
Professional career
His professional career began with Beovuk.
FMP Železnik (1998–2000)
After winning gold with the FR Yugoslavia under-22 national team at the 1998 '22 and Under' European Championship, 21-year-old Milojević joined the YUBA League club FMP from the Belgrade suburb of Železnik. The club had won the Yugoslav Cup in recent past (1997), however, instead of adding to the cup-winning squad in search of more trophies, FMP—led by owner Nebojša Čović and sporting director Ratko Radovanović decided to immediately start selling it off and turn to producing and nurturing young talent in an academy-like setup. The team still managed to make YUBA League playoff finals in the 1997–98 season, however, the wholesale of the squad players (most of them over the age of 23) continued, with Nikola Jestratijević, Goran Bošković, and Dejan Radonjić leaving. The squad that Milojević arrived to in summer 1998 thus, almost exclusively, featured fellow young players (either brought up through the FMP youth system or acquired from smaller teams throughout the FR Yugoslav republics of Serbia and Montenegro), such as 22-year-old power forward-center Goran Nikolić, 23-year-old center Dragan Basarić, defensively minded twenty-one-year-old swingman Veselin Petrović, twenty-two-year-old shooting guard Aleksandar Smiljanić, twenty-two-year-old power forward Aleksandar Matić, and supremely talented 17-year-old small forward Mladen Šekularac. Also joining FMP from Beovuk, alongside Milojević, was nineteen-year-old fellow power forward-center Ognjen Aškrabić.
1998–99 season: reaching Yugoslav Cup final
Beginning the 1998–99 season under head coach Boško Đokić, the young FMP team would be taken over by coach Aco Petrović over the course of the season. Playing the small forward position (due to being adjudged to be too small for a power forward), Milojević started the season as the team's fourth or fifth option on offense, playing up to 10-15 minutes per game, with his poor outside shooting preventing him from having a bigger role on the team. FMP managed to pull an upset in the very first game of the league season, beating the reigning champions Crvena zvezda 73–72 behind Vesa Petrović's 21 points as well as his suffocating defence. FMP managed another notable upset in week 6, destroying the favored Partizan 102–84 with Petrović again leading the pack with 25 points. Small forward role player Milojević would soon be given a chance at power forward by coach Petrović at a few warm-up games due the team's entire front line of Nikolić, Aškrabić, and Basarić getting injured. Seeing that the power forward spot suited the player much better, coach Petrović continued playing Milojević at the four position despite being considered undersized for it. Playing high energy basketball, the young team managed some notable scalps that season—including beating both Partizan and Crvena zvezda—en route to an 11–11 mid-table league finish, well out of the spots for playoff that did not even end up being played due to the NATO bombing of FR Yugoslavia starting on 24 March 1999.
FMP qualified for the 1999 Yugoslav Cup final tournament, played in extraordinary circumstances under air-raid sirens and threat of aerial bombardment on 20–21 April 1999 at Belgrade's Pionir Hall. After defeating KK Radnički Belgrade in the semis, FMP lost heavily, 80-62, to the Vladislav Lučić-coached Partizan team featuring Dejan Tomašević, Haris Brkić, Miroslav Radošević, Dragan Lukovski, etc. with Milojević scoring the game-high 22 points in front of a packed arena with 7,000 spectators who at one point held up 'Target' signs protesting the NATO assault on Yugoslavia.
While playing a couple of seasons for the club Milojević became famous for his blue-collar and never-quit style of playing. He averaged a double-double in both of his seasons with FMP and won the league MVP award in 1999.
In 2000, Milojević moved to the Podgorica-based Budućnost, where he won his first National Championship in 2001. He spent three more seasons there, improving his skills and his game every year. Already a dominating inside presence, he improved his three-point and free-throw shooting, an area in which he struggled a lot in the early years. While in Budućnost he won a couple more league MVP Awards, in 2003 and 2004.
Budućnost (2000–2004)
Milojević joined the FR Yugoslav champions Budućnost during summer 2000 in a big-money acquisition for which the Podgorica club reportedly paid a transfer fee in excess of DM1 million (~€600,000) to FMP. Furthermore, during the same transfer window, the club also acquired shooting guard Igor Rakočević and combo guard Saša Obradović from KK Crvena zvezda, both of whom had just finished competing for FR Yugoslavia at the 2000 Olympics, thus indicating the highest level of expectations for the upcoming 2000-01 season.
2000–01 season: Yugoslav league-cup double and Euroleague debut
Playing on a squad coached by Miroslav Nikolić that in addition to high-profile newcomers Rakočević and Obradović also featured established holdovers Dejan Tomašević, Milenko Topić, Vladimir Kuzmanović, Dejan Radonjić, and Haris Brkić, new piece Milojević—mostly deployed as Topić's backup at the power forward spot—contributed to Budućnost's domination over the YUBA League competition with a 21–1 regular season record.
The season also saw Milojević make his Euroleague debut in the ULEB version of the competition (without the FIBA-loyal clubs) due to a split between FIBA Europe and ULEB that season. Drawn in a round robin group with FC Barcelona, P.A.O.K., and Scaligera Verona along with minnows London Towers and Frankfurt Skyliners, Budućnost started the competition with a 6-2 record through their first 8 games, losing only to the FC Barcelona team (featuring Pau Gasol, Šarūnas Jasikevičius, and Juan Carlos Navarro) twice.
By late December 2000, head coach Nikolić was released and in early 2001 replaced by the high-profile decorated coach Bogdan Tanjević who thus returned to Yugoslav club basketball after more than twenty years since leaving the head coaching post at Bosna in 1980. The club also added some size under the basket by acquiring center Jerome James with NBA experience from the Sacramento Kings.
By the end of the Euroelague group stage, Budućnost managed a 7–3 record that was good for the third spot in the group and a Round-of-16 matchup versus powerhouse Real Madrid. They had a chance to possibly avoid Real and have a home court advantage in the round-of-16 series had they beaten PAOK away in Thessaloniki, however, that group game ended with an 89-72 PAOK win. Led by Saša Đorđević, Alberto Herreros, Erik Meek, Éric Struelens, and Marko Milič, Real easily swept Budućnost 2-games-to-0 in their best-of-three series. With Topić out injured for both games, Milojević had 3 points and 8 rebounds in 17 minutes of action in the first game 91-63 blowout in Madrid while adding 4 points in 14 minutes in the second game in Podgorica. Over 11 Euroleague games he appeared in throughout the season, Milojević averaged 4.6 points per game and 3.2 rebonds per game in 13.5 minutes per game.
Budućnost won the Yugoslav Cup at the final tournament in Vršac, with Milojević contributing 9 points in the final versus Partizan.
Partizan (2004–2006)
After averaging 20.5 points and 10.8 rebounds per game in the 2003–04 season, his third MVP season, Milojević signed with the three-time defending champion Partizan. Despite having significantly better financial offers from Dynamo Moscow and Crvena zvezda, the sought-after power forward ending up signing for Partizan out of desire to play for coach Duško Vujošević. Although Partizan underachieved in the competition, Milojević was his usual dominant self, averaging 20.8 points, 11.5 rebounds, and just over 3 steals and assists per game. He was also the key player for Partizan's other title rout in the domestic league, as they lost only one game during the playoffs. In the 2005–06 season, Milojević had another double-double EuroLeague season, scoring 16.4 points and grabbing 10 rebounds per game, also winning a couple of Player of the Week honors.
Later career
From Partizan, Milojević moved to the Spanish side Pamesa Valencia, where he played two seasons, finishing his international career with the Turkish club Galatasaray Café Crown in the 2008–09 season. He moved back to Partizan in July 2009. He announced his retirement on 1 September 2009 due to a recurring knee injury.
National team career
Youth
Milojević was a member of the Yugoslavia junior national team (representing FR Yugoslavia), together with Igor Rakočević and Marko Jarić, that won the gold medal at the 1998 European Championship for Men '22 and Under' in Trapani, Italy. Over six tournament games, he averaged 3.3 points and 3.5 rebounds per game.
Full squad
First time Milojević received a training camp invite for the Yugoslavia national team was by head coach Željko Obradović ahead of EuroBasket 1999. The twenty-two-year-old FMP power forward ended up getting cut by Obradović, thus not making the final 12-man squad taken to the championship.
The following summer, right as he was transferring to KK Budućnost, Milojević was called up again by Obradović for the 2000 Olympics training camp. Once again, the player would eventually be cut by Obradović.
With a good season at Budućnost under his belt, Milojević made the Yugoslavia senior national team, selected and coached by Svetislav Pešić, that triumphed dominantly at the EuroBasket 2001 in Turkey. Over the three games where he saw action—group stage contests versus Germany and Estonia as well as quarterfinal versus Latvia—he averaged 4.7 points and 3.3 rebounds per game.
Pešić called Milojević up again in summer 2002 for the training camp ahead of the 2002 FIBA World Championship, however, an injury eliminated him this time.
Later, he was a member of the Serbia and Montenegro national team that finished 9th at EuroBasket 2005 in his home country. Over three tournament games, he averaged 5.3 points and 2.7 rebounds per game.
In March 2007, six months ahead of EuroBasket 2007, soon to be thirty-year-old Milojević ruled himself out of national team consideration, citing chronic knee inflammation.
Coaching career
Mega (2012–2020)
In October 2012, three years after retiring from playing professional basketball, Milojević became the head coach of Serbian team Mega Vizura. In his first season with the team he had great success, leading his team to the Basketball League of Serbia playoff semifinals, thus clinching a spot in the regional Adriatic League for the next season.
In the team's ABA League debut season, he led the team to 8th place with a 12–14 record.
On 1 June 2020, he ended his tenure with Mega Basket. Over 345 games during eight seasons, he had a 173–172 record. During his time with Mega witnessed eleven of his Mega players receive NBA draft selection (Nikola Jokić, Vasilije Micić, Nemanja Dangubić, Timothé Luwawu-Cabarrot, Ivica Zubac, Rade Zagorac, Vlatko Čančar, Ognjen Jaramaz, Alpha Kaba, Goga Bitadze, and Marko Simonović).
Milojević got his first taste of the NBA through Summer League coaching stint in the 2018 season with the Houston Rockets.
Budućnost (2021)
On 28 January 2021, Montenegrin club Budućnost hired Milojević as their new head coach, signing him to a two and a half year contract. The appointment came one day after the previous head coach Petar Mijović's resignation midway through the 2020-21 season.
On 3 June 2021, Milojević won the Montenegrin Cup tournament following a 102–93 win over Mornar.
Later that month, he won the Montenegrin League Championship after his team had a 3–0 win over Mornar in the 2021 Finals. He left Budućnost in June 2021 to join the Golden State Warriors, thus exercising the NBA opt-out clause in his contract with the Montenegrin club.
Golden State Warriors assistant (2021–present)
On 13 August 2021, the Golden State Warriors hired Milojević as an assistant coach, reportedly signing him to a "multiyear deal".
Joining the head coach Steve Kerr's staff, alongside two more incoming assistant coaches Jama Mahlalela and Kenny Atkinson, Milojević was tasked with working with squad members playing closer to the basket that the team deploys in stretch four, power forward, forward-center, and center positions. For Milojević, that meant primarily focusing on Golden State's recently-drafted young center James Wiseman as well as their established squad players Draymond Green and Kevon Looney. Due to Wiseman's multiple injuries throughout the 2021–22 season, Milojević ended up spending more time working with Looney and was credited for helping the seventh-year player improve his rebounding in the regular season and 2022 playoffs. The Warriors went on to defeat the Boston Celtics in the 2022 NBA Finals in 6 games, giving Milojević his first NBA championship and making him the second Serbian assistant coach (after Igor Kokoškov) to win an NBA ring.
National team coaching
Assistant with Serbia
On 5 December 2019, Milojević was named an assistant coach for the Serbia national team under Igor Kokoškov. In September 2021, he left the national team as the assistant coach.
Career statistics
EuroLeague
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2000–01
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan=3| Budućnost
| 11 || 2 || 13.5 || .622 || .000 || .333 || 3.2 || .2 || .6 || .0 || 4.6 || 3.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2001–02
| 8 || 6 || 23.4 || .545 || .412 || .375 || 6.4 || .4 || 1.6 || .3 || 9.5 || 9.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2002–03
| 14 || 13 || 31.7 || .592 || .000 || .695 || 6.5 || 2.4 || 1.8 || .2 || 11.6 || 15.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004–05
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2| Partizan
| 6 || 6 || 35.5 || .634 || .000 || .700 || 11.5 || 3.3 || 3.5 || .3 || 20.8 || 30.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2005–06
| 12 || 12 || 34.6 || .419 || .294 || .730 || 10.1 || 2.3 || 1.9 || .1 || 16.4 || 23.6
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 | Career
| 51 || 39 || 27.6 || .539 || .214 || .662 || 7.2 || 1.7 || 1.7 || .2 || 12.0 || 15.4
See also
List of Radivoj Korać Cup-winning head coaches
List of Serbian NBA coaches
List of foreign NBA coaches
References
External links
Dejan Milojević at acb.com
Dejan Milojević at euroleague.net
1977 births
Living people
ABA League players
FIBA EuroBasket-winning players
Galatasaray S.K. (men's basketball) players
Golden State Warriors assistant coaches
KK Beovuk 72 players
KK Budućnost coaches
KK Budućnost players
KK FMP (1991–2011) players
KK Mega Basket coaches
KK Partizan players
Liga ACB players
Power forwards (basketball)
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Montenegro
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Spain
Serbian expatriate basketball people in Turkey
Serbian expatriate basketball people in the United States
Serbian men's basketball coaches
Serbian men's basketball players
Basketball players from Belgrade
Valencia Basket players
Serbia and Montenegro men's basketball players
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5119285
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction%20of%20Amenemope
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Instruction of Amenemope
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Instruction of Amenemope (also called Instructions of Amenemopet, Wisdom of Amenemopet) is a literary work composed in Ancient Egypt, most likely during the Ramesside Period (ca. 1300–1075 BCE); it contains thirty chapters of advice for successful living, ostensibly written by the scribe Amenemope son of Kanakht as a legacy for his son. A characteristic product of the New Kingdom "Age of Personal Piety", the work reflects on the inner qualities, attitudes, and behaviors required for a happy life in the face of increasingly difficult social and economic circumstances. It is widely regarded as one of the masterpieces of ancient near-eastern wisdom literature and has been of particular interest to modern scholars because of its similarity to the later biblical Book of Proverbs.
Overview
Amenemope belongs to the literary genre of "instruction" (Egyptian sebayt). It is the culmination of centuries of development going back to the Instruction of Ptahhotep in the Old Kingdom but reflects a shift in values characteristic of the New Kingdom's "Age of Personal Piety": away from material success attained through practical action, and towards inner peace achieved through patient endurance and passive acceptance of an inscrutable divine will. The author takes for granted the principles of natural law and concentrates on the deeper matters of conscience. He urges the reader to defend the weaker classes of society and to respect the elderly, widows and the poor, while he condemns abuses of power or authority.
The author draws an emphatic contrast between the "silent man", who goes about his business without drawing attention or demanding his rights, and the "heated man", who makes a nuisance of himself and presses petty grievances. Contrary to worldly expectation, the author assures that the former will ultimately receive divine blessing, while the latter will inevitably go to destruction. Amenemope counsels modesty, self-control, generosity, and scrupulous honesty, while discouraging pride, impetuosity, self-advancement, fraud, and perjury—not only out of respect for Maat, the cosmic principle of right order, but also because "attempts to gain advantage to the detriment of others incur condemnation, confuse the plans of god, and lead inexorably to disgrace and punishment."
Witnesses and publication
The most complete text of the Instruction of Amenemope is British Museum Papyrus 10474, acquired in Thebes by E. A. Wallis Budge in early 1888. The scroll is approximately long by wide; the obverse side contains the hieratic text of the Instruction, while the reverse side is filled with a miscellany of lesser texts, including a "Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days", hymns to the sun and moon, and part of an onomasticon by another author of the same name. In November 1888, Peter le Page Renouf, Keeper of the Department of Oriental Antiquities at the British Museum (and Budge's supervisor), made mention of a "remarkable passage" from the papyrus and quoted a few words from it in an otherwise unrelated article about the story of Joseph in the Book of Genesis; but Renouf was forced into retirement in 1891, and publication of the papyrus was delayed for more than three decades while Budge concentrated on other projects such as the Book of the Dead.
In 1922 Budge finally published a short account of the text along with brief hieroglyphic extracts and translations in a French academic work, followed in 1923 by the official British Museum publication of the full text in photofacsimile with hieroglyphic transcription and translation. In 1924 he went over the same ground again in a somewhat more popular vein, including a more extensive commentary. Subsequent publications of BM 10474 in hieroglyphic transcription include those of H.O. Lange (1925), J. Ruffle (1964), and V. Laisney (2007). Photographic copies of the papyrus are available from the British Museum.
Since the initial publication of BM 10474, additional fragments of Amenemope have been identified on a scrap of papyrus, four writing tablets, an ostracon, and a graffito, bringing the total number of witnesses to eight. Unfortunately, none of the other texts is very extensive, and the British Museum papyrus remains the primary witness to the text. As can be seen from the following table, the dates assigned by scholars to the various witnesses range from a maximum of ca. 1069 BCE (for the papyrus fragment and one of the writing tablets) down to a minimum of ca. 500 BCE (for BM 10474):
Biblical parallels
Egyptian influence on Israel and Judah was particularly strong in the reign of Hezekiah during Egypt's Third Intermediate Period; as a result, "Hebrew literature is permeated with concepts and figures derived from the didactic treatises of Egypt", with Amenemope often cited as the foremost example. Even in his first brief publication of excerpts from Amenemope in 1922, Budge noted its obvious resemblance to the biblical wisdom books. He amplified these comments in his 1923 and 1924 publications, observing that the religiously based morality of Amenemope "closely resembles" the precepts of the Hebrew Bible, and adducing specific parallels between Amenemope and texts in Proverbs, Psalms, and Deuteronomy. Others soon followed his lead.
Erman's position
The most notable of these was Adolf Erman, "the Dean of all Egyptologists", who in 1924 published an extensive list of correspondences between the texts of Amenemope and the biblical Book of Proverbs, with the bulk of them concentrated in Proverbs 22:17–23:11. It was Erman who used Amenemope to emend a difficult reading in the text of Proverbs 22:20, where the Hebrew word shilshom ("three days ago") appeared to be a copyist's error that could be meaningfully translated only with difficulty. Erman pointed out that substituting the similar word sheloshim ("thirty") not only made good sense in context, but yielded the following close parallel between the two texts, with the now-restored "thirty sayings" in Proverbs 22:20 corresponding exactly to the thirty numbered chapters in Amenemope:
(Proverbs 22:20): "Have I not written for you thirty sayings of counsel and knowledge?" (ESV)
(Amenemope, ch. 30, line 539): "Look to these thirty chapters; they inform, they educate."
Erman also argued that this correspondence demonstrated that the Hebrew text had been influenced by the Egyptian instead of the other way around, since the Egyptian text of Amenemope explicitly enumerates thirty chapters whereas the Hebrew text of Proverbs does not have such clear-cut divisions, and would therefore be more likely to lose the original meaning during copying. Since Erman's time there has been a near consensus among scholars that there exists a literary connection between the two works, although the direction of influence remains contentious even today. The majority has concluded that Proverbs 22:17–23:10 was dependent on Amenemope; a minority is split between viewing the Hebrew text as the original inspiration for Amenemope and viewing both works as dependent on a now lost Semitic source.
The majority position
A major factor in determining the direction of influence is the date at which Amenemope was composed. At one time the mid-1st millennium BC was put forward as a likely date for the composition of Amenemope, which gave some support to the argument for the priority of Proverbs. However, Jaroslav Černý, whose authority on New Kingdom paleography was so great that his conclusions were considered "unquestionable", dated the fragmentary Amenemope text on the Cairo 1840 ostracon to the late 21st dynasty. Since a 21st-dynasty date inevitably makes Amenemope chronologically prior to the earliest possible date for Proverbs, this would definitively establish the priority of Amenemope over Proverbs and make influence in the other direction impossible.
Other evidence for Egyptian priority includes:
the close literary relationship between Amenemope and earlier Ancient Egyptian works such as the Instruction of Kagemni and the Instruction of Ptahhotep (both dated to at least the 12th dynasty) and the Instruction of Ani (dated to the late 18th or early 19th dynasty);
the demonstrably native Egyptian character of the genre, themes, and vocabulary of Amenemope;
the discovery of the editorial and structural mechanisms by which the Egyptian original was adapted by the biblical author.
By the 1960s there was a virtual consensus among scholars in support of the priority of Amenemope and its influence on Proverbs. For example, John A. Wilson declared in the mid-20th century: "[W]e believe that there is a direct connection between these two pieces of wisdom literature, and that Amen-em-Opet was the ancestor text. The secondary nature of the Hebrew seems established." Many study Bibles and commentaries followed suit, including the Jerusalem Bible, introductions to the Old Testament by Pfeiffer and Eissfeldt, and others. The translators of the Catholic New American Bible, reflecting and extending this agreement, even went so far as to emend the obscure Hebrew text of Proverbs 22:19 (traditionally translated as "I have made known to you this day, even to you") to read "I make known to you the words of Amen-em-Ope."
The minority response
R. N. Whybray, who at one point supported the majority position, changed sides during the 1990s and cast doubt on the relationship between Amenemope and Proverbs, while still acknowledging certain affinities. He argued, in part, that only some of the topics in the Egyptian text can be found in Proverbs 22:17–24:22 and that their sequence differs. J. A. Emerton and Nili Shupak have subsequently argued strongly against Whybray's conclusions. John Ruffle takes a more conservative approach: "The connection so casually assumed is often very superficial, rarely more than similarity of subject matter, often quite differently treated and does not survive detailed examination. I believe it can merit no more definite verdict than 'not proven' and that it certainly does not exist to the extent that is often assumed", and "The parallels that I have drawn between [the huehuetlatolli of the Aztecs], (recorded by Bernardino de Sahagún in the 1500s) and ancient Near Eastern wisdom are in no way exhaustive, but the fact that they can be produced so easily underlines what should be obvious anyway, that such precepts and images are universally acceptable and hence that similar passages may occur in Proverbs and Amenemope simply by coincidence."
Comparison of texts
A number of passages in the Instruction of Amenemope have been compared with the Book of Proverbs, including:
(Proverbs 22:17–18): "Incline thine ear, and hear the words of the wise, And apply thine heart to my doctrine; For it is pleasant if thou keep them in thy belly, that they may be established together upon thy lips"
(Amenemope, ch. 1): "Give thine ear, and hear what I say, And apply thine heart to apprehend; It is good for thee to place them in thine heart, let them rest in the casket of thy belly; That they may act as a peg upon thy tongue"
(Proverbs 22:22): "Rob not the poor, for he is poor, neither oppress (or crush) the lowly in the gate."
(Amenemope, ch. 2): "Beware of robbing the poor, and oppressing the afflicted."
(Proverbs 22:24–5): "Do not befriend the man of anger, Nor go with a wrathful man, Lest thou learn his ways and take a snare for thy soul."
(Amenemope, ch. 10): "Associate not with a passionate man, Nor approach him for conversation; Leap not to cleave to such an one; That terror carry thee not away."
(Proverbs 22:29): "[if you] You see a man quick in his work, before kings will he stand, before cravens, he will not stand."
(Amenemope, ch. 30): "A scribe who is skillful in his business findeth worthy to be a courtier"
(Proverbs 23:1): "When thou sittest to eat with a ruler, Consider diligently what is before thee; And put a knife to thy throat, If thou be a man given to appetite. Be not desirous of his dainties, for they are breads of falsehood."
(Amenemope, ch. 23): "Eat not bread in the presence of a ruler, And lunge not forward(?) with thy mouth before a governor(?). When thou art replenished with that to which thou has no right, It is only a delight to thy spittle. Look upon the dish that is before thee, And let that (alone) supply thy need." (see above)
(Proverbs 23:4–5): "Toil not to become rich, And cease from dishonest gain; For wealth maketh to itself wings, Like an eagle that flieth heavenwards"
(Amenemope, ch. 7): "Toil not after riches; If stolen goods are brought to thee, they remain not over night with thee. They have made themselves wings like geese. And have flown into the heavens."
(Proverbs 23:9): "Speak not in the hearing of a fool, for he will despise the wisdom of thy words"
(Amenemope, ch. 21): "Empty not thine inmost soul to everyone, nor spoil (thereby) thine influence"
(Proverbs 23:10): "Remove not the widows landmark; And enter not into the field of the fatherless."
(Amenemope, ch. 6): "Remove not the landmark from the bounds of the field ... and violate not the widows boundary"
(Proverbs 23:12): "Apply thine heart unto instruction and thine ears to the words of knowledge"
(Amenemope, ch. 1): "Give thine ears, hear the words that are said, give thine heart to interpret them."
See also
Sebayt
Maat
Ancient Egyptian literature
Wisdom literature
Notes
References
Black, James Roger. "The Instruction of Amenemope: A Critical Edition and Commentary—Prolegomenon and Prologue" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 2002).
Boadt, Lawrence E. "Proverbs," in Dianne Bergant and Robert J. Karris, eds. The Collegeville Bible Commentary: Based on the New American Bible with Revised New Testament (Liturgical Press, 1989), 644-674.
Bryce, Glendon E. A Legacy of Wisdom: the Egyptian Contribution to the Wisdom of Israel (Bucknell University Press, 1979)
Budge, E. A. Wallis. By Nile and Tigris, a Narrative of Journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British Museum between the Years 1886 and 1913, 2 vols. (London: J. Murray, 1920).
Budge, E. A. Wallis. "The Precepts of Life by Amen-em-Apt, the Son of Ka-Nekht," Recueil d'études égyptologiques dédiées à la mémoire de Jean-François Champollion à l'occasion du centenaire de la lettre à M. Dacier relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques (Paris: E. Champion, 1922), 431-446.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. Facsimiles of Egyptian Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, with Descriptions, Summaries of Contents, etc., 2nd series (London: British Museum. Dept. of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, 1923), 5-6, 9-19, 41-51, plates I-XIV.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. Teaching of Amen-Em-Apt, Son of Kanekht (London, 1924; reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2003), .
Eissfeldt, Otto. The Old Testament: An Introduction (tr. by P. R. Ackroyd; Harper & Row, 1965).
Emerton, J. A. "The Teaching of Amenemope and Proverbs XXII 17-XXIV 22: Further Reflections on a Long-standing Problem," Vetus Testamentum 51 (2001), 431-465.
Erman, Adolf. "Eine ägyptische Quelle der 'Sprüche Salomos'," Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 15 (1924), 86-93, pl. VI-VII.
Fox, Michael V. "The formation of Proverbs 22:17-23:11," Die Welt des Orients 38 (2008), 22-37.
Gardiner, Alan H. "Writing and Literature," in S. R. K. Glanville, The Legacy of Egypt (Oxford, 1942).
Jones, Alexander, ed. The Jerusalem Bible (Doubleday, 1966).
Lange, H. O. Das Weisheitsbuch des Amenemope, aus dem Papyrus 10,474 des British museum, Danske videnskabornes selskab, Historisk-filologiske meddelelser 11, 2 (København: A.F. Høst & søn, 1925).
Laisney, Vincent Pierre-Michel. L’Enseignement d'Amenemope, Studia Pohl 16 (Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2007).
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms (University of California Press, 1973), 61-80.
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature, Volume II: The New Kingdom (University of California Press, 1976), 146-163, .
Mercer, Samuel A. B. "A New-Found Book of Proverbs," Anglican Theological Review 8 (1926), 237-244.
Mertz, Barbara. Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphs (Dodd, Mead, & Co., 1978).
Overland, Paul. "Structure in The Wisdom of Amenemope and Proverbs," in J. E. Coleson and V. H. Matthews, eds., Go to the Land I Will Show You: Studies in Honor of Dwight W. Young (Eisenbrauns, 1996), 275-291.
Pfeiffer, Robert H. Introduction to the Old Testament (Harper & Brothers, 1948).
Posener, Georges. "One More Duplicate of the Hood Papyrus," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 31 (1945), 112.
Quack, Joachim Friedrich. Die Lehren des Ani: Ein neuägyptischer Weisheitstext in seinem kulturellen Umfeld, OBO 141 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994).
Ray, J. D. "Egyptian Wisdom Literature," in John Day, et al., Wisdom in Ancient Israel" (Cambridge University Press, 1997), 17-29, .
Renouf, Peter le Page. "The Thematic Vowel in Egyptian," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology 11 (1888).
Ruffle, John. "The Teaching of Amenemope and its Connexion with the Book of Proverbs" (M.A. Thesis, University of Liverpool, 1964).
Ruffle, John. "The Teaching of Amenemope and its Connection with the Book of Proverbs," in Roy B. Zuck, ed., Learning from the Sages; Studies on the Book of Proverbs (Baker Books, 1995), 293-331.
Shupak, Nili. The Instruction of Amenemope and Proverbs 22:17-24:22 from the Perspective of Contemporary Research," in R. L. Troxel, K. G. Friebel, and D. R. Magary, eds., Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients: Essays Offered to Honor Michael V. Fox on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday (Eisenbrauns, 2005), 203-217.
Textual Notes on the New American Bible (St. Anthony's Guild, 1970).
Usick, Patricia. "Review of The Letters of Peter le Page Renouf (1822-1897)", British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan 5 (2006), 13-16.
Washington, Harold C. Wealth and Poverty in the Instruction of Amenemope and the Hebrew Proverbs, SBL Dissertation Series 142 (Scholars Press, 1994).
Weeks, Stuart. Early Israelite Wisdom (Clarendon Press, 1994), 168-169.
Whybray, Roger Norman. The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study (Brill, 1995).
Whybray, Roger Norman. The Composition of the Book of Proverbs (JSOT Press, 1994).
Whybray, Roger Norman. "The Structure and Composition of Proverbs 22:17-24:22," in S. E. Porter, P. Joyce, and D. E. Orton, eds., Crossing the Boundaries: Essays in Biblical Interpretation in Honour of Michael D. Golder (Brill, 1994), 83-96.
Williams, Ronald J. "The Alleged Semitic Original of the Wisdom of Amenemope," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 47 (1961), 100-106.
Williams, Ronald J. "Egypt and Israel"," in J. R. Harris, The Legacy of Egypt, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1971), 257-290.
Williams, Ronald J. "Piety and Ethics in the Ramessid Age," Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 8 (1978), 131-137.
Wilson, John A. The Culture of Ancient Egypt (originally The Burden of Egypt; University of Chicago Press, 1951).
External links
Partial English Translation in Maat-Sofiatopia website.
Papyrus BM 10474 British Museum
E.A. Wallis Budge, "The Teaching of Amen-Em-Apt, Son of Kanekht" (1924)
Book of Proverbs
Ancient Egyptian instruction literature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20F.%20Kennedy
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John F. Kennedy
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John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to by his initials JFK and by the nickname Jack, was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest person to assume the presidency by election and the youngest president at the end of his tenure. Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A Democrat from Massachusetts, Kennedy served in both houses of the U.S. Congress prior to his presidency.
Born into the prominent Kennedy family in Brookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940 before joining the U.S. Naval Reserve the following year. During World War II, he commanded a series of PT boats in the Pacific theater. Kennedy's survival following the sinking of PT-109 and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy represented a working-class Boston district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to the U.S. Senate and served as the junior senator for Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book, Profiles in Courage, which won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the 1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum after the first televised presidential debates in American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeating Republican opponent Richard Nixon, who was the incumbent vice president.
Kennedy's administration included high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. As a result, he increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam. The Strategic Hamlet Program began in Vietnam during his presidency. In April 1961, he authorized an attempt to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. In November 1961, he authorized Operation Mongoose, also aimed at removing the communists from power in Cuba. He rejected Operation Northwoods in March 1962, but his administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962. The following October, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases had been deployed in Cuba. The resulting period of tensions, termed the Cuban Missile Crisis, nearly resulted in the breakout of a global thermonuclear conflict. He also signed the first nuclear weapons treaty in October 1963. Kennedy presided over the establishment of the Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress with Latin America, and the continuation of the Apollo program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon before 1970. He also supported the civil rights movement but was only somewhat successful in passing his New Frontier domestic policies.
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. His vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, assumed the presidency upon Kennedy's death. Lee Harvey Oswald, a former U.S. Marine, was arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby two days later. The FBI and the Warren Commission both concluded Oswald had acted alone, but conspiracy theories about the assassination still persist. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Revenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly in polls of U.S. presidents with historians and the general public. His personal life has also been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments and extramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recent U.S. president to have died in office.
Early life and education
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born outside Boston in Brookline, Massachusetts on May 29, 1917, at 83 Beals Street, to Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., a businessman and politician, and Rose Kennedy (née Fitzgerald), a philanthropist and socialite. His paternal grandfather, P. J. Kennedy, served as a Massachusetts state legislator. Kennedy's maternal grandfather and namesake, John F. Fitzgerald, served as a U.S. Congressman and was elected to two terms as Mayor of Boston. All four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. Kennedy had an older brother, Joseph Jr., and seven younger siblings: Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Edward.
Kennedy lived in Brookline for the first ten years of his life. He attended the local St. Aidan's Church, where he was baptized on June 19, 1917. He was educated through the 4th grade at the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School; all located in the Boston area. Kennedy's first exposure to politics was touring the Boston wards with his grandfather Fitzgerald during his failed gubernatorial campaign in 1922. His father amassed a private fortune through a variety of activities and established trust funds for his nine children that guaranteed lifelong financial independence. His business kept him away from home for long stretches, but Joe Sr. was a formidable presence in his children's lives, nevertheless. He encouraged them to be ambitious, emphasizing political discussions at the dinner table, and demanding a high level of academic achievement from each of them. With an outbreak of polio in Massachusetts and Joe Sr.'s ventures concentrated on Wall Street and Hollywood, the family decided to move from Boston by "private railway car" to the Riverdale neighborhood of New York City in September 1927. Several years later, his brother Robert told Look magazine that his father had left Boston because of job signs that read: "No Irish Need Apply." The family spent summers and early autumns at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, a village on Cape Cod, where they enjoyed swimming, sailing, and touch football. Christmas and Easter holidays were spent at their winter retreat in Palm Beach, Florida. Young John attended the Riverdale Country School – a private school for boys – from 5th to 7th grade, and was a member of Boy Scout Troop 2 in Bronxville, New York. In September 1930, Kennedy, then 13 years old, was shipped off to the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut, for 8th grade. In April 1931, he had an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home.
In September 1931, Kennedy started attending Choate School, a prestigious preparatory boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut. Rose had wanted John and Joe Jr. to attend a Catholic school, but Joe Sr. thought that if they were to compete in the political world, they needed to be with boys from prominent Protestant families. John spent his first years at Choate in his older brother's shadow and compensated with rebellious behavior that attracted a clique. Their most notorious stunt was exploding a toilet seat with a powerful firecracker. In the next chapel assembly, the headmaster, George St. John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of certain "muckers" who would "spit in our sea", leading Kennedy to name his group "The Muckers Club", which included roommate and lifelong friend Lem Billings. Because of their stunts, the Club members were nearly expelled. However, they were later called back into the study and were told they would not be expelled.
During his years at Choate, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated with his emergency hospitalization in 1934 at Yale New Haven Hospital, where doctors suspected leukemia. While sick, Kennedy became a passionate reader, reading authors and characters like Sir Walter Scott and King Arthur. In June 1934, he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota; the ultimate diagnosis there was colitis. Kennedy graduated from Choate in June of the following year, finishing 64th in a class of 112 students. He had been the business manager of the school yearbook and was voted the "most likely to succeed." One teacher later said that Kennedy was "not as steady as his brother Joe, but still showed flashes of brilliance."
In September 1935, Kennedy made his first trip abroad when he traveled to London with his parents and his sister Kathleen. He intended to study under Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE), as his older brother had done. Ill-health forced his return to the United States in October of that year, when he enrolled late and attended Princeton University but had to leave after two months due to a gastrointestinal illness. He was then hospitalized for observation at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. He convalesced further at the family winter home in Palm Beach, then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand outside Benson, Arizona under Jack Speiden.
In September 1936, Kennedy enrolled at Harvard College, and his application essay stated: "The reasons that I have for wishing to go to Harvard are several. I feel that Harvard can give me a better background and a better liberal education than any other university. I have always wanted to go there, as I have felt that it is not just another college, but is a university with something definite to offer. Then too, I would like to go to the same college as my father. To be a 'Harvard man' is an enviable distinction, and one that I sincerely hope I shall attain." He wrote occasionally for The Harvard Crimson, the campus newspaper, but had little involvement with campus politics, preferring to concentrate on athletics and his social life. Kennedy played football and was on the JV squad during his sophomore year, but an injury forced him off the team, and left him with back problems that would plague him for the rest of his life. He won membership in the Hasty Pudding Club and the Spee Club, one of Harvard's elite "final clubs".
In July 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his older brother to work at the American embassy in London, where his father was serving as President Franklin D. Roosevelt's U.S. ambassador to the Court of St. James's. The following year, Kennedy traveled throughout Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans, and the Middle East in preparation for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He then went to Berlin, where a U.S. diplomatic representative gave him a secret message about war breaking out soon to pass on to his father, and to Czechoslovakia before returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day that Germany invaded Poland to mark the beginning of World War II. Two days later, the family was in the House of Commons for speeches endorsing the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of before flying back to the U.S. from Foynes, Ireland, on his first transatlantic flight.
While Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest in political philosophy. He made the dean's list in his junior year. In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, "Appeasement in Munich", about British negotiations during the Munich Agreement. The thesis was released on July 24, under the title Why England Slept. The book was one of the first to offer information about the war and its origins, and quickly became a bestseller as a result. In addition to addressing Britain's unwillingness to strengthen its military in the lead-up to World War II, the book also called for an Anglo-American alliance against the rising totalitarian powers. Kennedy became increasingly supportive of U.S. intervention in World War II, and his father's isolationist beliefs resulted in the latter's dismissal as ambassador to the United Kingdom. This created a split between the Kennedy and Roosevelt families.
In 1940, Kennedy graduated cum laude from Harvard with a Bachelor of Arts in government, concentrating on international affairs. That fall, he enrolled at the Stanford Graduate School of Business and audited classes there, but he left after a semester to help his father complete the writing of his memoirs as an American ambassador. In early 1941, Kennedy toured South America with his mother and sister Eunice; his itinerary included Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.
U.S. Naval Reserve (1941–1945)
Kennedy planned to attend Yale Law School, but canceled when American entry into World War II seemed imminent. In 1940, Kennedy attempted to enter the army's Officer Candidate School. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic lower back problems. On September 24, 1941, Kennedy, with the help of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) and the former naval attaché to Joe Sr., Alan Kirk, joined the United States Naval Reserve. He was commissioned an ensign on October 26, 1941, and joined the staff of the Office of Naval Intelligence in Washington, D.C.
In January 1942, Kennedy was assigned to the ONI field office at Headquarters, Sixth Naval District, in Charleston, South Carolina. His hope was to be the commander of a PT (patrol torpedo) boat, but his health problems seemed almost certain to prevent him from active duty. Kennedy's father intervened by providing misleading medical records and convincing PT officers that his presence would bring publicity to the fleet. Kennedy completed six months of training at the Naval Reserve Officer Training School in Chicago and at the Motor Torpedo Boat Squadrons Training Center in Melville, Rhode Island. His first command was PT-101 from December 7, 1942, until February 23, 1943. Unhappy to be assigned to the Panama Canal, far from the fighting, Kennedy appealed to U.S. Senator David Walsh of Massachusetts, who arranged for him to be assigned to the South Pacific.
Commanding PT-109 and PT-59
In April 1943, Kennedy was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron TWO, and on April 24 he took command of PT-109, which was based at the time on Tulagi Island in the Solomons. On the night of August 1–2, in support of the New Georgia campaign, PT-109 was on its 31st mission with fourteen other PTs ordered to block or repel four Japanese destroyers and floatplanes carrying food, supplies, and 900 Japanese soldiers to the Vila Plantation garrison on the southern tip of the Solomon's Kolombangara Island. Intelligence had been sent to Kennedy's Commander Thomas G. Warfield expecting the arrival of the large Japanese naval force that would pass on the evening of August 1. Of the 24 torpedoes fired that night by eight of the American PTs, not one hit the Japanese convoy. On that dark and moonless night, Kennedy spotted a Japanese destroyer heading north on its return from the base of Kolombangara around 2:00 a.m., and attempted to turn to attack, when PT-109 was rammed suddenly at an angle and cut in half by the destroyer Amagiri, killing two PT-109 crew members while the others tried to stay afloat amid the wreckage. Avoiding surrender, the remaining crew swam towards Plum Pudding Island, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) southwest of the remains of PT-109, on August 2. Despite re-injuring his back in the collision, Kennedy towed a badly burned crewman through the water to the island with a life jacket strap clenched between his teeth. From there, Kennedy and his subordinate, Ensign George Ross, made various forays through the coral islands, searching for help. When they encountered an English-speaking native with a canoe, Kennedy carved his location on a coconut shell and requested a boat to rescue them. Seven days after the collision, with the coconut message delivered, the PT-109 crew were rescued.
Almost immediately, the PT-109 rescue became a highly publicized event. The story was chronicled by writer John Hersey in The New Yorker in 1944 (decades later it was the basis of a successful film). It followed Kennedy into politics and provided a strong foundation for his appeal as a leader. Hersey portrayed Kennedy as a modest, self-deprecating hero. For his courage and leadership, Kennedy was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, and the injuries he suffered during the incident also qualified him for a Purple Heart.
After a month's recovery Kennedy returned to duty, commanding the PT-59. On November 2, Kennedy's PT-59 took part with two other PTs in the successful rescue of 40–50 marines. The 59 acted as a shield from shore fire and protected them as they escaped on two rescue landing craft at the base of the Warrior River at Choiseul Island, taking ten marines aboard and delivering them to safety. Under doctor's orders, Kennedy was relieved of his command of PT-59 on November 18, and sent to the hospital on Tulagi. But by December 1943, with his health deteriorating again, Kennedy left the Pacific front and arrived in San Francisco in early January 1944. After receiving treatment for his back injury at the Chelsea Naval Hospital in Massachusetts from May to December 1944, he was released from active duty. Beginning in January 1945, Kennedy spent three more months recovering from his back injury at Castle Hot Springs, a resort and temporary military hospital in Arizona. On March 1, 1945, Kennedy retired from the Navy Reserve on physical disability and was honorably discharged with the full rank of lieutenant. When later asked how he became a war hero, Kennedy joked: "It was easy. They cut my PT boat in half."
On August 12, 1944, Kennedy's older brother, Joe Jr., a navy pilot, was killed while on a special and hazardous air mission for which he had volunteered; his explosive-laden plane blew up when its bombs detonated prematurely over the English Channel. His body was never recovered. The devastating news reached the family's home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts a day later. Kennedy felt that Joe Jr.'s reckless flight was partly an effort to outdo him. To console himself, Kennedy set out to assemble a privately published book of remembrances of his brother, As We Remember Joe.
Military awards
Navy and Marine Corps Medal citation
Journalism
In April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend of William Randolph Hearst, arranged a position for his son as a special correspondent for Hearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and "expose[d] him to journalism as a possible career". He worked as a correspondent that May and went to Berlin for a second time, covering the Potsdam Conference and other events.
U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1953)
JFK's elder brother Joe Jr. had been the family's political standard-bearer and had been tapped by their father to seek the presidency. Joe's death during the war in 1944 changed that course and the assignment fell to JFK as the second eldest of the Kennedy siblings. In the summer of 1945, Joe Kennedy Sr. made a special effort to renew the family's presence in Massachusetts (i.e., a ship-launching ceremony for the USS Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. to remind voters that two of his sons were war heroes). Boston mayor Maurice J. Tobin discussed the possibility of John becoming his running mate in 1946 as a candidate for lieutenant governor, but Joe Sr. preferred a congressional campaign that could send his son to Washington, where he could have national visibility.
At the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in the strongly Democratic 11th congressional district of Massachusetts to become mayor of Boston in 1946. Kennedy established his legal residency at a three-room apartment on 122 Bowdoin Street across from the Massachusetts State House. With his father financing and running his campaign under the slogan "The New Generation Offers a Leader", Kennedy won the Democratic primary with 42 percent of the vote, defeating nine other candidates. His father joked after the election, "With the money I spent, I could have elected my chauffeur." Campaigning around Boston, Kennedy called for better housing for veterans, better health care for all, and support for organized labor's campaign for reasonable work hours, a healthy workplace, and the right to organize, bargain, and strike. In addition, he campaigned for peace through the United Nations and strong opposition to the Soviet Union. Though Republicans took control of the House in the 1946 elections, Kennedy defeated his Republican opponent in the general election, taking 73 percent of the vote. Along with Richard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, Kennedy was one of several World War II veterans elected to Congress that year.
Kennedy served in the House for six years, joining the influential Education and Labor Committee and the Veterans' Affairs Committee. He concentrated his attention on international affairs, supporting the Truman Doctrine as the appropriate response to the emerging Cold War. He also supported public housing and opposed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, which restricted the power of labor unions. Though not as vocal an anti-communist as McCarthy, Kennedy supported the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which required communists to register with the government, and he deplored the "loss of China". In a speech in Salem, Massachusetts on January 30, 1949, Kennedy denounced Truman and the State Department for contributing to the "tragic story of China whose freedom we once fought to preserve. What our young men had saved [in World War II], our diplomats and our President have frittered away."
In November 1947, Kennedy delivered a speech in Congress supporting a $227 million aid package to Italy. He maintained that Italy was in danger from an "onslaught of the communist minority" and that the country was the "initial battleground in the communist drive to capture Western Europe." This speech was also calculated to appeal to the large Italian voting bloc in Massachusetts as Kennedy was beginning to position himself for statewide office. To combat Soviet efforts to take control in Middle Eastern and Asian countries like Indochina, Kennedy (speaking to a Massachusetts Taxpayers Foundation meeting in Boston) wanted the United States to develop nonmilitary techniques of resistance that would not create suspicions of neoimperialism or add to the country's financial burden. The problem, as he saw it, was not simply to be anti-communist but to stand for something that these emerging nations would find appealing.
Having served as a boy scout during his childhood, Kennedy was active in the Boston Council from 1946 to 1955 as district vice chairman, member of the executive board, vice-president, and National Council Representative. Almost every weekend that Congress was in session, Kennedy would fly back to Massachusetts to give speeches to veteran, fraternal, and civic groups, while maintaining an index card file on individuals who might be helpful for a future campaign for state-wide office. Contemplating whether to run for a seat in the U.S. Senate or the Massachusetts governorship, Kennedy abandoned interest in the latter, believing that the governor "sat in an office, handing out sewer contracts."
U.S. Senate (1953–1960)
As early as 1949, Kennedy began preparing to run for the Senate in 1952 against Republican three-term incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. with the campaign slogan "KENNEDY WILL DO MORE FOR MASSACHUSETTS". Joe Sr. again financed his son's candidacy, while John's younger brother Robert emerged as an important member of the campaign as manager. Kennedy's mother and sisters contributed as highly effective canvassers by hosting a series of "teas" at hotels and parlors across Massachusetts to reach out to women voters. In the presidential election, Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower carried Massachusetts by a margin of 208,000 votes, but Kennedy narrowly defeated Lodge by 70,000 votes for the Senate seat. The following year, he married Jacqueline Bouvier.
Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholic last rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957. Rumors that this work was ghost written by his close adviser and speechwriter, Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography.
At the start of his first term, Kennedy focused on fulfilling the promise of his campaign to do "more for Massachusetts" than his predecessor. Although Kennedy's and Lodge's legislative records were similarly liberal, Lodge voted for the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 and Kennedy voted against it. On NBC's Meet the Press, Kennedy excoriated Lodge for not doing enough to prevent the increasing migration of manufacturing jobs from Massachusetts to the South. In addition, JFK blamed the right-to-work provision for giving the South an unfair advantage over Massachusetts in labor costs. In the spring of 1953, Kennedy introduced "The Economic Problems of New England", a 36-point program designed to help various Massachusetts industries such as fishing, textile manufacturing, watchmaking, and shipbuilding, as well as for the Boston seaport. Kennedy's policy agenda included protective tariffs, preventing excessive speculation in raw wool, stronger efforts to research and market American fish products, an increase in the Fish and Wildlife Service budget, modernizing reserve-fleet vessels, tax incentives to prevent further business relocations, and the development of hydroelectric and nuclear power in Massachusetts. JFK's suggestions for stimulating the region's economy appealed to both parties alike by offering benefits to business and labor, and promising to serve the national defense. Congress would eventually enact most of the program. When it came to conservation, Kennedy, a Massachusetts Audubon Society supporter, wanted to make sure that the shorelines of Cape Cod remained unsullied by future industrialization. On September 3, 1959, Kennedy co-sponsored the Cape Cod National Seashore bill with his Republican colleague Senator Leverett Saltonstall.
As a senator, Kennedy quickly won a reputation for responsiveness to requests from constituents (i.e., co-sponsoring legislation to provide federal loans to help rebuild communities in central Massachusetts damaged by an F4 tornado in 1953, the deadliest in New England history), except on certain occasions when the national interest was at stake. In 1954, Senator Kennedy voted in favor of the Saint Lawrence Seaway which would connect the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, despite opposition from Massachusetts politicians and newspapers who argued that the project would cripple New England's shipping industry, including the Port of Boston. "His stand on the St. Lawrence project had the effect of making him a national figure," Ted Sorensen later remarked.
At the 1956 Democratic National Convention, Kennedy gave the nominating speech for the party's presidential nominee, Adlai Stevenson II. Stevenson let the convention select the vice presidential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee but receiving national exposure as a result.
In 1957, Kennedy joined the Senate's Select Committee on Labor Rackets (also known as the McClellan Committee) with his brother Robert, who was chief counsel, to investigate racketeering in labor-management relations. The hearings attracted extensive radio and television coverage where the Kennedy brothers engaged in dramatic arguments with controversial labor leaders, including Jimmy Hoffa, of the Teamsters Union. The following year, Kennedy introduced a bill (S. 3974) to prevent the expenditure of union dues for improper purposes or private gain; to forbid loans from union funds for illicit transactions; and to compel audits of unions, which would ensure against false financial reports. It was the first major labor relations bill to pass either house since the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 and dealt largely with the control of union abuses exposed by the McClellan Committee but did not incorporate tough Taft–Hartley amendments requested by President Eisenhower. It survived Senate floor attempts to include Taft-Hartley amendments and gained passage but was rejected by the House. "Honest union members and the general public can only regard it as a tragedy that politics has prevented the recommendations of the McClellan committee from being carried out this year," Kennedy announced.
That same year, Kennedy joined the Senate's Foreign Relations Committee. There he supported Algeria's effort to gain independence from France and sponsored an amendment to the Mutual Defense Assistance Act that would provide aid to Soviet satellite nations. Kennedy also introduced an amendment to the National Defense Education Act in 1959 to eliminate the requirement that aid recipients sign a loyalty oath and provide supporting affidavits.
A matter demanding Kennedy's attention in the Senate was President Eisenhower's bill for the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Kennedy cast a procedural vote against it and this was considered by some to be an appeasement of Southern Democratic opponents of the bill. Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson agreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure. Kennedy also voted for Title IV, termed the "Jury Trial Amendment". Many civil rights advocates at the time criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act. A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957.
Kennedy's father was a strong supporter and friend of Senator Joseph McCarthy. Additionally, Robert Kennedy worked for McCarthy's subcommittee as an assistant counsel, and McCarthy dated Kennedy's sister Patricia. Kennedy told historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., "Hell, half my voters [particularly Catholics] in Massachusetts look on McCarthy as a hero." In 1954, the Senate voted to censure McCarthy, and Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the censure. However, it was not delivered because Kennedy was hospitalized at the time. The speech put Kennedy in the apparent position of participating by "pairing" his vote against that of another senator and opposing the censure. Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged his support among members of the liberal community, including Eleanor Roosevelt, in the 1956 and 1960 elections.
In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, with 73.6 percent of the vote, the largest winning margin in the history of Massachusetts politics. It was during his re-election campaign that Kennedy's press secretary at the time, Robert E. Thompson, put together a film entitled The U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy Story, which exhibited a day in the life of the Senator and showcased his family life as well as the inner workings of his office. It was the most comprehensive film produced about Kennedy up to that time. In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president by traveling throughout the U.S. with the aim of building his candidacy for 1960.
Most historians and political scientists who have written about Kennedy refer to his U.S. Senate years as an interlude. "His Senate career," concludes historian Robert Dallek, "produced no major legislation that contributed substantially to the national well-being." According to biographer Robert Caro, Lyndon Johnson viewed Kennedy as a "playboy"; describing his performance in the Senate as "pathetic." Author John T. Shaw acknowledges that while his Senate career is not associated with acts of "historic statesmanship" or "novel political thought," Kennedy made modest contributions as a legislator; drafting more than 300 bills to assist Massachusetts and the New England region (some of which became law).
1960 presidential election
On January 2, 1960, Kennedy announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination. Though some questioned Kennedy's age and experience, his charisma and eloquence earned him numerous supporters. Many Americans held anti-Catholic attitudes, but Kennedy's vocal support of the separation of church and state helped defuse the situation. His religion also helped him win a devoted following among many Catholic voters. Kennedy faced several potential challengers for the Democratic nomination, including Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, Adlai Stevenson II, and Senator Hubert Humphrey.
Kennedy's presidential campaign was a family affair, funded by his father and with his younger brother Robert, acting as his campaign manager. John preferred Ivy League policy advisors, but unlike his father, he enjoyed the give and take of Massachusetts politics and built a largely Irish team of campaigners, headed by Larry O'Brien and Kenneth O'Donnell. Kennedy traveled extensively to build his support among Democratic elites and voters. At the time, party officials controlled most of the delegates, but several states also held primaries, and Kennedy sought to win several primaries to boost his chances of winning the nomination. In his first major test, Kennedy won the Wisconsin primary, effectively ending Humphrey's hopes of winning the presidency. Nonetheless, Kennedy and Humphrey faced each other in a competitive West Virginia primary in which Kennedy could not benefit from a Catholic bloc, as he had in Wisconsin. Kennedy won the West Virginia primary, impressing many in the party, but at the start of the 1960 Democratic National Convention, it was unclear as to whether he would win the nomination.
When Kennedy entered the convention, he had the most delegates, but not enough to ensure that he would win the nomination. Stevenson—the 1952 and 1956 presidential nominee—remained very popular in the party, while Johnson also hoped to win the nomination with the support from party leaders. Kennedy's candidacy also faced opposition from former President Harry S. Truman, who was concerned about Kennedy's lack of experience. Kennedy knew that a second ballot could give the nomination to Johnson or someone else, and his well-organized campaign was able to earn the support of just enough delegates to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot.
Kennedy ignored the opposition of his brother, who wanted him to choose labor leader Walter Reuther, and other liberal supporters when he chose Johnson as his vice-presidential nominee. He believed that the Texas Senator could help him win support from the South. The choice infuriated many in labor. AFL-CIO President George Meany called Johnson "the arch foe of labor", while Illinois AFL-CIO President Reuben Soderstrom asserted Kennedy had "made chumps out of leaders of the American labor movement." In accepting the presidential nomination, Kennedy gave his well-known "New Frontier" speech, saying, "For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier. ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them."
At the start of the fall general election campaign, the Republican nominee and incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon held a six-point lead in the polls. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Roman Catholicism, the Cuban Revolution, and whether the space and missile programs of the Soviet Union had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960: "I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters—and the Church does not speak for me." Kennedy questioned rhetorically whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic, and once stated that "[n]o one asked me my religion [serving the Navy] in the South Pacific". Despite Kennedy's efforts to quell anti-Catholic concerns and similar statements by high-profile Protestant figures, religious bigotry would dog the Democratic candidate through the end of the campaign. His score among white Protestants would ultimately be lower than Adlai Stevenson's in 1956, though Stevenson lost his election. Some Catholic leaders also expressed reservations about Kennedy, but the vast majority of laypeople rallied to him.
The Kennedy and Nixon campaigns agreed to a series of televised debates. An estimated 70 million Americans, about two-thirds of the electorate, watched the first debate on September 26. Kennedy had met the day before with the producer to discuss the design of the set and the placement of the cameras. Nixon, just out of the hospital after a painful knee injury, did not take advantage of this opportunity and during the debate looked at the reporters' asking questions and not at the camera. Kennedy wore a blue suit and shirt to cut down on glare and appeared sharply focused against the gray studio background. Nixon wore a light-colored suit that blended into the gray background; in combination with the harsh studio lighting that left Nixon perspiring, he offered a less-than commanding presence. By contrast, Kennedy appeared relaxed, tanned, and telegenic while looking into the camera whilst answering questions. It is often claimed that people who watched the debate on television overwhelmingly believed Kennedy appearing to be the more attractive man of the two had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience) thought Nixon had ended up defeating him. However, that has been disputed. Only one poll split TV and radio voters like this and the methodology of the pollsters was poor, failing to account for pre-debate political or religious biases and only interviewing 178 radio listeners who believed the debate had been won by either candidate. Pollster Elmo Roper concluded that the debates raised interest, boosted turnout, and gave Kennedy an extra two million votes, mostly as a result of the first debate. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in politics.
Kennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Election Day, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote, by most accounts, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the Electoral College, he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). Fourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the civil rights movement; they voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma. Forty-three years old, Kennedy was the youngest person ever elected to the presidency (though Theodore Roosevelt was a year younger when, as vice-president, he succeeded to the presidency after the assassination of William McKinley in 1901).
Presidency (1961–1963)
John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address, he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens: "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country." He asked the nations of the world to join to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself". He added:
"All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."
The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities at home and abroad would be one of the main tensions running through the early years of his administration.
Kennedy brought to the White House a contrast in organization compared to the decision-making structure of former General Eisenhower, and he wasted no time in scrapping Eisenhower's methods. Kennedy preferred the organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment. He selected a mixture of experienced and inexperienced people to serve in his cabinet. "We can learn our jobs together", he stated.
Much to the chagrin of his economic advisors, who wanted him to reduce taxes, Kennedy quickly agreed to a balanced budget pledge. This was needed in exchange for votes to expand the membership of the House Rules Committee in order to give the Democrats a majority in setting the legislative agenda. Kennedy focused on immediate and specific issues facing the administration and quickly voiced his impatience with pondering deeper meanings. Deputy National Security Advisor Walt Whitman Rostow once began a diatribe about the growth of communism, and Kennedy abruptly cut him off, asking, "What do you want me to do about that today?"
Kennedy approved Defense Secretary Robert McNamara's controversial decision to award the contract for the F-111 TFX (Tactical Fighter Experimental) fighter-bomber to General Dynamics (the choice of the civilian Defense department) over Boeing (the choice of the military). At the request of Senator Henry Jackson, Senator John McClellan held 46 days of mostly closed-door hearings before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations investigating the TFX contract from February to November 1963.
During the summer of 1962, Kennedy had a secret taping system set up in the White House, most likely to aid his future memoir. It recorded many conversations with Kennedy and his Cabinet members, including those in relation to the "Cuban Missile Crisis".
Foreign policy
Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the early stage of the Cold War. In 1961 he anxiously anticipated a summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. He started off on the wrong foot by reacting aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961. The speech was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into the Vienna summit of June 1961.
On the way to the summit, Kennedy stopped in Paris to meet French President Charles de Gaulle, who advised him to ignore Khrushchev's abrasive style. The French president feared the United States' presumed influence in Europe. Nevertheless, de Gaulle was quite impressed with the young president and his family. Kennedy picked up on this in his speech in Paris, saying that he would be remembered as "the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris".
On June 4, 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meetings angry and disappointed that he had allowed the premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the president's intelligence but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow and East Berlin. He made it clear that any treaty interfering with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war. Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the U.S.S.R. announced its plan to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Depressed and angry, Kennedy assumed that his only option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he personally thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring.
In the weeks immediately following the Vienna summit, more than 20,000 people fled from East Berlin to the western sector, reacting to statements from the U.S.S.R. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies. In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ) to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating.
A month later, both the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Germans into West Berlin and erected barbed wire fences, which were quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall, around the city. Kennedy's initial reaction was to ignore this, as long as free access from the West to West Berlin continued. This course was altered when West Berliners had lost confidence in the defense of their position by the United States. Kennedy sent Vice President Johnson and Lucius D. Clay, along with a host of military personnel, in convoy through East Germany, including Soviet-armed checkpoints, to demonstrate the continued commitment of the U.S. to West Berlin.
Kennedy gave a speech at Saint Anselm College on May 5, 1960, regarding America's conduct in the emerging Cold War. His address detailed how he felt American foreign policy should be conducted towards African nations, noting a hint of support for modern African nationalism by saying, "For we, too, founded a new nation on revolt from colonial rule."
Cuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion
The Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime in Cuba. Led by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), with help from the U.S. military, the plan was for an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-Castro Cuban exiles led by CIA paramilitary officers. The intention was to invade Cuba and instigate an uprising among the Cuban people, hoping to remove Castro from power. Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961.
The Bay of Pigs Invasion began on April 17, 1961. Fifteen hundred U.S.-trained Cubans, dubbed Brigade 2506, landed on the island. No U.S. air support was provided. CIA director Allen Dulles later stated that they thought Kennedy would authorize any action that was needed for success once the troops were on the ground.
By April 19, 1961, the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. Twenty months later, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident made Castro feel wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would take place.
Biographer Richard Reeves said that Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it proved unsuccessful, he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad. He took responsibility for the failure, saying, "We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it." He appointed Robert Kennedy to help lead a committee to examine the causes of the failure.
In late-1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale, Secretary Robert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued. In November 1961, he authorized Operation Mongoose. In March 1962, Kennedy rejected Operation Northwoods, proposals for false flag attacks against American military and civilian targets, and blaming them on the Cuban government in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962.
Cuban Missile Crisis
On October 14, 1962, CIA U-2 spy planes took photographs of the Soviets' construction of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature and thus posed an immediate nuclear threat.
Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons. The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit.
More than a third of U.S. National Security Council (NSC) members favored an unannounced air assault on the missile sites, but for some of them this conjured up an image of "Pearl Harbor in reverse". There was also some concern from the international community (asked in confidence), that the assault plan was an overreaction in light of the fact that Eisenhower had placed PGM-19 Jupiter missiles in Italy and Turkey in 1958. It also could not be assured that the assault would be 100% effective. In concurrence with a majority-vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided on a naval quarantine. On October 22, he dispatched a message to Khrushchev and announced the decision on TV.
The U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginning October 24. The Organization of American States gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. Kennedy exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev, to no avail. United Nations (UN) Secretary General U Thant requested both parties to reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrushchev agreed, but Kennedy did not.
One Soviet-flagged ship was stopped and boarded. On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections. The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped with UGM-27 Polaris missiles.
This crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or after. It is considered that "the humanity" of both Khrushchev and Kennedy prevailed. The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter.
Latin America and communism
Believing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable," Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of communism in Latin America by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent aid to some countries and sought greater human rights standards in the region. He worked closely with Puerto Rican Governor Luis Muñoz Marín for the development of the Alliance of Progress and began working to further Puerto Rico's autonomy.
The Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans to assassinate Castro in Cuba and Rafael Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. When Kennedy took office, he privately instructed the CIA that any plan must include plausible deniability by the U.S. His public position was in opposition. In June 1961, the Dominican Republic's leader was assassinated; in the days following, Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles led a cautious reaction by the nation. Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called Bowles "a gutless bastard" to his face.
Southeast Asia
As a U.S. Congressman in 1951, Kennedy became fascinated with Vietnam after visiting the area as part of a big fact-finding mission to Asia and the Middle East, even stressing in a subsequent radio address that he strongly favored "check[ing] the southern drive of communism." As a U.S. senator in 1956, Kennedy publicly advocated for greater U.S. involvement in Vietnam. When briefing Kennedy, Eisenhower emphasized that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority; Eisenhower considered Laos to be "the cork in the bottle" regarding the regional threat. In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a "free" Laos to a "neutral" Laos, indicating privately that Vietnam, and not Laos, should be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area. In May, he dispatched Lyndon Johnson to meet with South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem. Johnson assured Diem more aid to mold a fighting force that could resist the communists. Kennedy announced a change of policy from support to partnership with Diem to defeat of communism in South Vietnam.
During his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to the governments of South Korea and South Vietnam:
We have one-million Americans today serving outside the United-States. There's no other country in history that's carried this kind of a burden. Other countries have had forces serving outside their own country, but for conquest. We have two divisions in South-Korea, not to control South-Korea, but to defend it. We have a lot of Americans in South Vietnam. Well, no other country in the world has ever done that since the beginning of the world; Greece, Rome, Napoleon, and all the rest, always had conquest. We have a million men outside, and they try to defend these countries.
The Viet Cong began assuming a predominant presence in late 1961, initially seizing the provincial capital of Phuoc Vinh. After a mission to Vietnam in October, presidential adviser General Maxwell D. Taylor and Deputy National Security Adviser Walt Rostow recommended the deployment of 6,000 to 8,000 U.S. combat troops to Vietnam. Kennedy increased the number of military advisers and special forces in the area, from 11,000 in 1962 to 16,000 by late 1963, but he was reluctant to order a full-scale deployment of troops. However, Kennedy, who was wary about the region's successful war of independence against France, was also eager to not give the impression to the Vietnamese people that the United States was acting as the region's new colonizer, even stating in his journal at one point that the United States was "more and more becoming colonists in the minds of the people."
In late 1961, Kennedy sent Roger Hilsman, then director of the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research, to assess the situation in Vietnam. There, Hilsman met Sir Robert Grainger Ker Thompson, head of the British Advisory Mission to South Vietnam, and the Strategic Hamlet Program was formed. It was approved by Kennedy and South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem. It was implemented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from communist insurgents. It was hoped that these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. By November 1963, the program waned and officially ended in 1964.
On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum – "Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)". "Operation Ranch Hand", a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam initiating the use of the herbicide Agent Orange on foliage and to combat guerrilla defendants. Initially under consideration as to whether or not the use of the chemical would violate the Geneva Convention, the application would be justified by the administration by Secretary of State Dean Rusk who argued to Kennedy that "[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying". Depending on which assessment Kennedy accepted (Department of Defense or State), there had been zero or modest progress in countering the increase in communist aggression in return for an expanded U.S. involvement.
In April 1963, Kennedy assessed the situation in Vietnam, saying, "We don't have a prayer of staying in Vietnam. Those people hate us. They are going to throw our asses out of there at any point. But I can't give up that territory to the communists and get the American people to re-elect me."
On August 21, just as the new U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. arrived, Diem and his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu ordered South Vietnam forces, funded and trained by the CIA, to quell Buddhist demonstrations. The crackdowns heightened expectations of a coup d'état to remove Diem with (or perhaps by) his brother, Nhu. Lodge was instructed to try getting Diem and Nhu to step down and leave the country. Diem would not listen to Lodge. Cable 243 (DEPTEL 243) followed, dated August 24, declaring that Washington would no longer tolerate Nhu's actions, and Lodge was ordered to pressure Diem to remove Nhu. Lodge concluded that the only option was to get the South Vietnamese generals to overthrow Diem and Nhu. At week's end, orders were sent to Saigon and throughout Washington to "destroy all coup cables". At the same time, the first formal anti-Vietnam war sentiment was expressed by U.S. clergy from the Ministers' Vietnam Committee.
A White House meeting in September was indicative of the different ongoing appraisals; Kennedy received updated assessments after personal inspections on the ground by the Departments of Defense (General Victor Krulak) and State (Joseph Mendenhall). Krulak said that the military fight against the communists was progressing and being won, while Mendenhall stated that the country was civilly being lost to any U.S. influence. Kennedy reacted, asking, "Did you two gentlemen visit the same country?" Kennedy was unaware that both men were so much at odds that they did not speak to each other on the return flight.
In October 1963, Kennedy appointed Defense Secretary McNamara and General Maxwell D. Taylor to a Vietnamese mission in another effort to synchronize the information and formulation of policy. The objective of the McNamara Taylor mission "emphasized the importance of getting to the bottom of the differences in reporting from U.S. representatives in Vietnam". In meetings with McNamara, Taylor, and Lodge, Diem again refused to agree to governing measures, helping to dispel McNamara's previous optimism about Diem. Taylor and McNamara were enlightened by Vietnam's vice president, Nguyen Ngoc Tho (choice of many to succeed Diem), who in detailed terms obliterated Taylor's information that the military was succeeding in the countryside. At Kennedy's insistence, the mission report contained a recommended schedule for troop withdrawals: 1,000 by year's end and complete withdrawal in 1965, something the NSC considered to be a "strategic fantasy".
In late October, intelligence wires again reported that a coup against the Diem government was afoot. The source, Vietnamese General Duong Van Minh (also known as "Big Minh"), wanted to know the U.S. position. Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer covert assistance to the coup, excluding assassination. On November 1, 1963, South Vietnamese generals, led by "Big Minh", overthrew the Diem government, arresting and then killing Diem and Nhu. Kennedy was shocked by the deaths.
News of the coup led to renewed confidence initially—both in America and in South Vietnam—that the war might be won. McGeorge Bundy drafted a National Security Action Memo to present to Kennedy upon his return from Dallas. It reiterated the resolve to fight communism in Vietnam, with increasing military and economic aid and expansion of operations into Laos and Cambodia. Before leaving for Dallas, Kennedy told Michael Forrestal that "after the first of the year ... [he wanted] an in depth study of every possible option, including how to get out of there ... to review this whole thing from the bottom to the top". Asked what he thought Kennedy meant, Forrestal said, "It was devil's advocate stuff."
Historians disagree on whether the Vietnam War would have escalated if Kennedy had not been assassinated and had won re-election in 1964. Fueling the debate were statements made by Secretary of Defense McNamara in the 2003 documentary film The Fog of War that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling the United States out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. The film also contains a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson stating that Kennedy was planning to withdraw, a position with which Johnson disagreed. Conversely, in 2008, Kennedy administration White House Counsel and speechwriter Ted Sorensen wrote, "I would like to believe that Kennedy would have found a way to withdraw all American instructors and advisors [from Vietnam]. But even someone who knew JFK as well as I did can't be certain, because I do not believe he knew in his last weeks what he was going to do." Sorensen added that, in his opinion, Vietnam "was the only foreign policy problem handed off by JFK to his successor in no better, and possibly worse, shape than it was when he inherited it."
At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision was made with respect to Vietnam. By November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors. In the aftermath of the aborted coup in September 1963, the Kennedy administration reevaluated its policies in South Vietnam. Kennedy rejected both the full-scale deployment of ground soldiers, but also rejected the total withdrawal of U.S. forces from the country. Kennedy had signed National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 263, dated October 11, which ordered the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by year's end, and the bulk of them out by 1965. Such an action would have been a policy reversal, but Kennedy was publicly moving in a less hawkish direction since his speech on world peace at American University on June 10, 1963. After Kennedy's assassination, President Johnson signed NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963. It reversed Kennedy's decision to withdraw 1,000 troops and reaffirmed the policy of assistance to the South Vietnamese. U.S. involvement in the region escalated until his successor Lyndon Johnson directly deployed regular U.S. military forces for fighting the Vietnam War.
American University speech
On June 10, 1963, Kennedy, at the high point of his rhetorical powers, delivered the commencement address at American University in Washington, D.C. Also known as "A Strategy of Peace", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also "laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race." Kennedy wished:
to discuss a topic on which too often ignorance abounds and the truth is too rarely perceived—yet it is the most important topic on earth: world peace ... I speak of peace because of the new face of war ... in an age when a singular nuclear weapon contains ten times the explosive force delivered by all the allied forces in the Second World War ... an age when the deadly poisons produced by a nuclear exchange would be carried by wind and air and soil and seed to the far corners of the globe and to generations yet unborn ... I speak of peace, therefore, as the necessary rational end of rational men ... world peace, like community peace, does not require that each man love his neighbor—it requires only that they live together in mutual tolerance ... our problems are man-made—therefore they can be solved by man. And man can be as big as he wants.
Kennedy also made two announcements: 1.) that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and 2.) that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests.
West Berlin speech
In 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east as well as the impending retirement of West German Chancellor Adenauer. At the same time, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence. To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed against NATO's influence in Europe.
To reinforce the U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany and West Berlin in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in a public speech at West Berlin's city hall in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners. He reiterated the American commitment to Germany and criticized communism and was met with an ecstatic response from the massive audience. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: "Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us." The speech is known for its famous phrase "Ich bin ein Berliner" ("I am a Berliner"), which Kennedy himself had begun to try out in preparation for the trip. Kennedy remarked to Ted Sorensen afterwards: "We'll never have another day like this one, as long as we live."
Israel
In 1960, Kennedy stated, "Israel will endure and flourish. It is the child of hope and the home of the brave. It can neither be broken by adversity nor demoralized by success. It carries the shield of democracy and it honors the sword of freedom."
As president, Kennedy initiated the creation of security ties with Israel, and he is credited as the founder of the US-Israeli military alliance, which would be continued under subsequent presidents. Kennedy ended the arms embargo that the Eisenhower and Truman administrations had enforced on Israel. Describing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the first to introduce the concept of a "special relationship" (as he described it to Golda Meir) between the U.S. and Israel.
Kennedy extended the first informal security guarantees to Israel in 1962 and, beginning in 1963, was the first U.S. president to allow the sale to Israel of advanced U.S. weaponry (the MIM-23 Hawk) as well as to provide diplomatic support for Israeli policies, which were opposed by Arab neighbors; those policies included Israel's water project on the Jordan River.
As a result of this newly created security alliance, Kennedy also encountered tensions with the Israeli government over the production of nuclear materials in Dimona, which he believed could instigate a nuclear arms-race in the Middle East. After the existence of a nuclear plant was initially denied by the Israeli government, David Ben-Gurion stated in a speech to the Israeli Knesset on December 21, 1960, that the purpose of the nuclear plant at Beersheba was for "research in problems of arid zones and desert flora and fauna". When Ben-Gurion met with Kennedy in New York, he claimed that Dimona was being developed to provide nuclear power for desalinization and other peaceful purposes "for the time being".
In 1963, the Kennedy administration was engaged in a now-declassified diplomatic standoff with the leaders of Israel. In a May 1963 letter to Ben-Gurion, Kennedy wrote that he was skeptical and stated that American support to Israel could be in jeopardy if reliable information on the Israeli nuclear program was not forthcoming, Ben-Gurion repeated previous reassurances that Dimona was being developed for peaceful purposes. The Israeli government resisted American pressure to open its nuclear facilities to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspections. In 1962 the U.S. and Israeli governments had agreed to an annual inspection regime. A science attaché at the embassy in Tel Aviv concluded that parts of the Dimona facility had been shut down temporarily to mislead American scientists when they visited.
According to Seymour Hersh, the Israelis set up false control rooms to show the Americans. Israeli lobbyist Abe Feinberg stated: "It was part of my job to tip them off that Kennedy was insisting on [an inspection]." Hersh contends that the inspections were conducted in such a way that it "guaranteed that the whole procedure would be little more than a whitewash, as the president and his senior advisors had to understand: the American inspection team would have to schedule its visits well in advance, and with the full acquiescence of Israel." Marc Trachtenberg argued that "[a]lthough [he was] well aware of what the Israelis were doing, Kennedy chose to take this as satisfactory evidence of Israeli compliance with America's non-proliferation policy." The documents reveal the deep concern the Kennedy Administration had over Dimona, and while Kennedy understood the United States and the international community may not be capable of preventing Israel or any nation, he certainly was not satisfied to learn Israel was using Dimona for the production of plutonium. The American who led the inspection team stated that the essential goal of the inspections was to find "ways to not reach the point of taking action against Israel's nuclear weapons program".
Rodger Davies, the director of the State Department's Office of Near Eastern Affairs, concluded in March 1965 that Israel was developing nuclear weapons. He reported that Israel's target date for achieving nuclear capability was 1968–1969. On May 1, 1968, Undersecretary of State Nicholas Katzenbach told President Johnson that Dimona was producing enough plutonium to produce two bombs a year. The State Department argued that if Israel wanted arms, it should accept international supervision of its nuclear program. Dimona was never placed under IAEA safeguards. Attempts to write Israeli adherence to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) into contracts for the supply of U.S. weapons continued throughout 1968.
Israeli national interests to an extent were also at odds with Kennedy's endorsement of the United Nation's Johnson Plan, which devised a plan to return a small percentage of displaced Palestinians from the war of 1948 into what was by then, Israel. This continuation of the late UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjold's plan for Palestinian repatriation particularity disturbed persons who had a hard-line view of even Arab resettlement in Israel, or the more heavily feared, full repatriation. The Johnson plan was spearheaded by the Palestine Conciliation Commission's Joseph Ersey Johnson, while the United Nations attempted to oversee progression from writing - into action.
Iraq
Relations between the United States and Iraq became strained following the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy on July 14, 1958, which resulted in the declaration of a republican government led by Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim. On June 25, 1961, Qasim mobilized troops along the border between Iraq and Kuwait, declaring the latter nation "an indivisible part of Iraq" and causing a short-lived "Kuwait Crisis". The United Kingdom—which had just granted Kuwait independence on June 19, and whose economy was dependent on Kuwaiti oil—responded on July 1 by dispatching 5,000 troops to the country to deter an Iraqi invasion. At the same time, Kennedy dispatched a U.S. Navy task force to Bahrain, and the UK, at the urging of the Kennedy administration, brought the dispute to United Nations Security Council, where the proposed resolution was vetoed by the Soviet Union. The situation was resolved in October, when the British troops were withdrawn and replaced by a 4,000-strong Arab League force, which acted as a barrier against the Iraqi threat.
In December 1961, Qasim's government passed Public Law 80, which restricted the partially American-controlled Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC)'s concessionary holding to those areas in which oil was actually being produced, effectively expropriating 99.5% of the IPC concession. U.S. officials were alarmed by the expropriation as well as the recent Soviet veto of an Egyptian-sponsored UN resolution requesting the admittance of Kuwait as UN member state, which they believed were connected. Senior National Security Council adviser Robert Komer worried that if the IPC ceased production in response, Qasim might "grab Kuwait" (thus achieving a "stranglehold" on Middle Eastern oil production) or "throw himself into Russian arms". Komer also made note of widespread rumors that a nationalist coup against Qasim could be imminent, and had the potential to "get Iraq back on [a] more neutral keel".
In April 1962, the State Department issued new guidelines on Iraq that were intended to increase American influence there. Meanwhile, Kennedy instructed the CIA—under the direction of Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt Jr.—to begin making preparations for a military coup against Qasim.
The anti-imperialist and anti-communist Iraqi Ba'ath Party overthrew and executed Qasim in a violent coup on February 8, 1963. While there have been persistent rumors that the CIA orchestrated the coup, declassified documents and the testimony of former CIA officers indicate that there was no direct American involvement, although the CIA was actively seeking a suitable replacement for Qasim within the Iraqi military and had been informed of an earlier Ba'athist coup plot. The Kennedy administration was pleased with the outcome and ultimately approved a $55-million arms deal for Iraq.
Ireland
During his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland beginning on June 26, 1963, Kennedy accepted a grant of armorial bearings from the Chief Herald of Ireland, received honorary degrees from the National University of Ireland and Trinity College Dublin, attended a State Dinner in Dublin, and was conferred with the freedom of the towns and cities of Wexford, Cork, Dublin, Galway, and Limerick. He visited the cottage at Dunganstown, near New Ross, County Wexford, where his ancestors had lived before emigrating to America.
Kennedy also was the first foreign leader to address the Houses of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament. Kennedy later told aides that the trip was the best four days of his life.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy both reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. In response, the United States conducted tests five days later. Shortly afterwards, new U.S. satellites began delivering images that made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the arms race. Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the U.S.S.R. perceived itself to be at parity.
In July 1963, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets. The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation to Andrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections that would verify compliance.
Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate ratified this, and Kennedy signed it into law in October 1963. France was quick to declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defenses.
Peace Corps
In one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy asked Congress to create the Peace Corps. His brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, was its first director. Through this program, Americans volunteered to help developing nations in fields like education, farming, health care, and construction. The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the year after. Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps, representing 139 countries.
Domestic policy
Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, economic aid to rural regions, and government intervention to halt the recession. He also promised an end to racial discrimination, although his agenda, which included the endorsement of the Voter Education Project (VEP) in 1962, produced little progress in areas such as Mississippi, where the "VEP concluded that discrimination was so entrenched".
In his 1963 State of the Union address, he proposed substantial tax reform and a reduction in income tax rates from the current range of 20–90% to a range of 14–65% as well as a reduction in the corporate tax rates from 52 to 47%. Kennedy added that the top rate should be set at 70% if certain deductions were not eliminated for high-income earners. Congress did not act until 1964, a year after his death, when the top individual rate was lowered to 70%, and the top corporate rate was set at 48%.
To the Economic Club of New York, he spoke in 1963 of "... the paradoxical truth that tax rates are too high and revenues too low; and the soundest way to raise revenue in the long term is to lower rates now." Congress passed few of Kennedy's major programs during his lifetime but did vote them through in 1964 and 1965 under his successor Johnson.
Economy
Kennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keep interest rates down and to encourage growth of the economy. He presided over the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his first budget in 1961 resulted in the nation's first non-war, non-recession deficit. The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in one when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably throughout his administration. Despite low inflation and interest rates, the GDP had grown by an average of only 2.2% per annum during the Eisenhower administration (scarcely more than population growth at the time), and it had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in office.
The economy turned around and prospered during Kennedy's years as president. The GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early-1961 to late-1963, while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased. Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales increased by 40%. This rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until 1969 and has yet to be repeated for such a sustained period of time.
Attorney General Robert Kennedy took the position that steel executives had illegally colluded to fix prices. He stated, "We're going for broke. [...] their expense accounts, where they've been and what they've been doing. [...] the FBI is to interview them all. [...] we can't lose this." The administration's actions influenced U.S. Steel to rescind the price increase. The Wall Street Journal wrote that the administration had acted "by naked power, by threats, [and] by agents of the state security police". Yale law professor Charles Reich opined in The New Republic that the administration had violated civil liberties by calling a grand jury to indict U.S. Steel for collusion so quickly. An editorial in The New York Times praised Kennedy's actions and said that the steel industry's price increase "imperil[ed] the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation". Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of Budget reported the price increase would have caused a net gain for the GDP as well as a net budget surplus. The stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election in 1960, dropped 10% shortly after the administration's action on the steel industry took place.
Federal and military death penalty
During his administration, Kennedy oversaw the last federal execution prior to Furman v. Georgia, a 1972 case that led to a moratorium on federal executions. Victor Feguer was sentenced to death by an Iowa federal court and was executed on March 15, 1963. Kennedy commuted a death sentence imposed by a military court on seaman Jimmie Henderson on February 12, 1962, changing the penalty to life in prison.
On March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law HR5143 (PL87-423), which abolished the mandatory death penalty for first degree murder suspects in the District of Columbia, the only remaining jurisdiction in the United States with such a penalty. The death penalty has not been applied in the District of Columbia since 1957 and has now been abolished.
Civil rights movement
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of the 1960s. "Jim Crow" segregation was the established law in the Deep South. The U.S. Supreme Court had ruled in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Many schools, especially those in southern states, did not obey the Supreme Court's decision. The Court also prohibited segregation at other public facilities (such as buses, restaurants, theaters, courtrooms, bathrooms, and beaches) but it continued nonetheless.
Kennedy verbally supported racial integration and civil rights; during his 1960 presidential campaign, he telephoned Coretta Scott King, wife of the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr., who had been jailed while trying to integrate a department store lunch counter. Robert Kennedy called Georgia governor Ernest Vandiver and obtained King's release from prison, which drew additional black support to his brother's candidacy. Upon taking office in 1961, Kennedy postponed promised civil rights legislation he made while campaigning in 1960, recognizing that conservative Southern Democrats controlled congressional legislation. During his first year in office, Kennedy appointed many Black people to office including his May appointment of civil rights attorney Thurgood Marshall to the federal bench.
In his first State of the Union Address in January 1961, President Kennedy said, "The denial of constitutional rights to some of our fellow Americans on account of race—at the ballot box and elsewhere—disturbs the national conscience, and subjects us to the charge of world opinion that our democracy is not equal to the high promise of our heritage." Kennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, including anti-poverty legislation, and he distanced himself from it.
Kennedy was concerned with other issues in the early part of his administration, such as the Cold War, Bay of Pigs fiasco, and the situation in Southeast Asia. As articulated by his brother Robert, the administration's early priority was to "keep the president out of this civil rights mess". Civil rights movement participants, mainly those on the front line in the South, viewed Kennedy as lukewarm, especially concerning the Freedom Riders, who organized an integrated public transportation effort in the south, and who were repeatedly met with white mob violence, including by law enforcement officers, both federal and state. Kennedy assigned federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders rather than using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents. Robert Kennedy, speaking for the president, urged the Freedom Riders to "get off the buses and leave the matter to peaceful settlement in the courts". Kennedy feared sending federal troops would stir up "hated memories of Reconstruction" after the Civil War among conservative Southern whites.
On March 6, 1961, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925, which required government contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin". It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. Displeased with Kennedy's pace addressing the issue of segregation, Martin Luther King Jr. and his associates produced a document in 1962 calling on Kennedy to follow in the footsteps of Abraham Lincoln and use an Executive Order to deliver a blow for civil rights as a kind of Second Emancipation Proclamation. Kennedy did not execute the order.
In September 1962, James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi but was prevented from entering. In response to that, Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent 127 U.S. Marshals and 316 U.S. Border Patrol and 97 Federal correctional officers who were deputized as marshals. The Ole Miss riot of 1962 left two civilians dead and 300 people injured, prompting President Kennedy to send in 3,000 troops to quell the riot. Meredith did finally enroll for a class, and Kennedy regretted not sending in troops earlier. Kennedy began doubting as to whether the "evils of Reconstruction" of the 1860s and 1870s he had been taught or believed in were true. The instigating subculture during the Ole Miss riot, and many other racially ignited events, was the Ku Klux Klan. On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signed Executive Order 11063, which prohibited racial discrimination in federally supported housing or "related facilities". Despite this, in Boston, the Boston Housing Authority (BHA) Board would continue to actively segregate the public housing developments in the city during the John F. Collins administration (1960–1968), with BHA departments engaging in bureaucratic resistance against integration through at least 1966 and the Board retaining control over tenant assignment until 1968.
Both Kennedy and Robert Kennedy were concerned about King's ties to suspected communists Jack O'Dell and Stanley Levison. After Kennedy and his civil rights expert Harris Wofford pressed King to ask both men to resign from the SCLC, King agreed to ask only O'Dell to resign from the organization and allowed Levison, whom he regarded as a trusted advisor, to remain.
In early 1963, Kennedy related to Martin Luther King Jr. his thoughts on the prospects for civil rights legislation: "If we get into a long fight over this in Congress, it will bottleneck everything else, and we will still get no bill." Civil rights clashes were on the rise that year. His brother Robert and Ted Sorensen pressed Kennedy to take more initiative on the legislative front.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor George Wallace blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from attending. Wallace moved aside only after being confronted by Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and the Alabama U.S. National Guard, which had just been federalized by order of the president. That evening Kennedy gave his famous Report to the American People on Civil Rights on national television and radio, launching his initiative for civil rights legislation—to provide equal access to public schools and other facilities, and greater protection of voting rights.
His proposals became part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The day ended with the murder of an NAACP leader, Medgar Evers, in front of his home in Mississippi. As Kennedy had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leader Carl Albert called to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia (Area Redevelopment Administration) had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrats and Republicans. When Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. complimented Kennedy on his remarks, Kennedy bitterly replied, "Yes, and look at what happened to area development the very next day in the House." He then added, "But of course, I had to give that speech, and I'm glad that I did." On June 16, The New York Times published an editorial which argued that while Kennedy had initially "moved too slowly and with little evidence of deep moral commitment" in regards to civil rights he "now demonstrate[d] a genuine sense of urgency about eradicating racial discrimination from our national life".
Earlier, Kennedy had signed the executive order creating the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women on December 14, 1961. Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. The Commission statistics revealed that women were also experiencing discrimination; its final report, documenting legal and cultural barriers, was issued in October 1963. Further, on June 10, 1963, Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which amended the Fair Labor Standards Act and abolished wage disparity based on sex.
Over a hundred thousand people, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. Kennedy feared the March would have a negative effect on the prospects for the civil rights bills in Congress and declined an invitation to speak. He turned over some of the details of the government's involvement to the Dept. of Justice, which channeled hundreds of thousands of dollars to the six sponsors of the March, including the NAACP and Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
To ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and Kennedy personally edited speeches that were inflammatory and agreed the March would be held on a Wednesday and would be over at 4:00 pm. Thousands of troops were placed on standby. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was considered a "triumph of managed protest", and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt that the March was a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill.
Nevertheless, the struggle was far from over. Three weeks later on Sunday, September 15, a bomb exploded at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four African American children had died in the explosion, and two other children were shot to death in the aftermath. Due to this resurgent violence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critically endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of the president. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the following day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get it out of the House committee. Gaining Republican support, Senator Everett Dirksen promised the legislation would be brought to a vote preventing a Senate filibuster. The legislation was enacted by Kennedy's successor President Lyndon B. Johnson, prompted by Kennedy's memory, after his assassination in November, enforcing voting rights, public accommodations, employment, education, and the administration of justice.
Civil liberties
In February 1962, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who was suspicious of civil-rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and viewed him as an upstart troublemaker, presented the Kennedy administration with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advisers were communists. Concerned by these allegations, the FBI deployed agents to monitor King in the following months. Robert Kennedy and President Kennedy also both warned King to discontinue the suspect associations. After the associations continued, Robert Kennedy issued a written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King's civil rights organization, in October 1963.
Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so", Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy. The wiretapping continued through June 1966 and was revealed in 1968.
Immigration
During the 1960 campaign, Kennedy proposed an overhaul of American immigration and naturalization laws to ban discrimination based on national origin. He saw this proposal as an extension of his planned civil rights agenda as president. These reforms later became law through the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration from Latin America and Asia. The policy change also shifted the emphasis on the selection of immigrants in favor of family reunification. The late president's brother, Senator Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts helped steer the legislation through the Senate.
Native American relations
Construction of the Kinzua Dam flooded of Seneca nation land that they had occupied under the Treaty of 1794, and forced 600 Seneca to relocate to Salamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by the American Civil Liberties Union to intervene and to halt the project, but he declined, citing a critical need for flood control. He expressed concern about the plight of the Seneca and directed government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assistance to help mitigate their displacement.
Space policy
The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the Eisenhower administration, as a follow-up to Project Mercury, to be used as a shuttle to an Earth-orbital space station, flights around the Moon, or landing on it. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for the program was far from certain, given Eisenhower's ambivalent attitude to crewed spaceflight. As senator, Kennedy had been opposed to the space program and wanted to terminate it.
In constructing his presidential administration, Kennedy elected to retain Eisenhower's last science advisor Jerome Wiesner as head of the President's Science Advisory Committee. Wiesner was strongly opposed to crewed space exploration, having issued a report highly critical of Project Mercury. Kennedy was turned down by seventeen candidates for NASA administrator before the post was accepted by James E. Webb, an experienced Washington insider who served President Truman as budget director and undersecretary of state. Webb proved to be adept at obtaining the support of Congress, the President, and the American people. Kennedy also persuaded Congress to amend the National Aeronautics and Space Act to allow him to delegate his chairmanship of the National Aeronautics and Space Council to the Vice President,
both because of the knowledge of the space program Johnson gained in the Senate working for the creation of NASA, and to help keep the politically savvy Johnson occupied.
In Kennedy's January 1961 State of the Union address, he suggested international cooperation in space. Khrushchev declined, as the Soviets did not wish to reveal the status of their rocketry and space capabilities. Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the crewed space program but postponed any decision out of deference to Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of the space program in the Senate.
This quickly changed on April 12, 1961, when Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. Kennedy now became eager for the U.S. to take the lead in the Space Race, for reasons of national security and prestige. On April 20, he sent a memo to Johnson, asking him to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. After consulting with Wernher von Braun, Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that "we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership". His memo concluded that a crewed Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first. Kennedy's advisor Ted Sorensen advised him to support the Moon landing, and on May 25, Kennedy announced the goal in a speech titled "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs":
... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.
After Congress authorized the funding, Webb began reorganizing NASA, increasing its staffing level, and building two new centers: a Launch Operations Center for the large Moon rocket northwest of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, and a Manned Spacecraft Center on land donated through Rice University in Houston. Kennedy took the latter occasion as an opportunity to deliver another speech at Rice to promote the space effort on September 12, 1962, in which he said:
No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.
On November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with NASA administrator Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for reasons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified. Johnson assured him that lessons learned from the space program had military value as well. Costs for the Apollo program were expected to reach $40 billion (equivalent to $ billion in ).
In a September 1963 speech before the United Nations, Kennedy urged cooperation between the Soviets and Americans in space, specifically recommending that Apollo be switched to "a joint expedition to the Moon". Khrushchev again declined, and the Soviets did not commit to a crewed Moon mission until 1964. On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death, Apollo 11 landed the first crewed spacecraft on the Moon.
Judicial appointments
In 1962, Kennedy appointed justices Byron White and Arthur Goldberg to the Supreme Court of the United States. Additionally, Kennedy appointed 21 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to the United States district courts.
Assassination
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time (CST) on Friday, November 22, 1963. He was in Texas on a political trip to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation) and conservative John Connally. Traveling in a presidential motorcade through downtown Dallas, he was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head.
Kennedy was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, where he was pronounced dead 30 minutes later, at 1:00 p.m. (CST). He was 46 years old and had been in office for 1,036 days. Lee Harvey Oswald, an order filler at the Texas School Book Depository from which the shots were fired, was arrested for the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit and was subsequently charged with Kennedy's assassination. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a patsy, and was shot dead by Jack Ruby on November 24, before he could be prosecuted. Ruby was arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction and death sentence but became ill and died of cancer on January 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was being set.
President Johnson quickly issued an executive order to create the Warren Commission—chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren—to investigate the assassination. The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy and that Oswald was not part of any conspiracy. The results of this investigation are disputed by many. The assassination proved to be a pivotal moment in U.S. history because of its impact on the nation, and the ensuing political repercussions. A 2004 Fox News poll found that 66% of Americans thought there had been a conspiracy to kill President Kennedy, while 74% thought that there had been a cover-up. A Gallup Poll in November 2013 showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought that Oswald did it alone. In 1979, the U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded, with one third of the committee dissenting, that it believed "that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of the conspiracy." This conclusion was based largely on audio recordings of the shooting. Subsequently, investigative reports from the FBI's Technical Services Division and a specially appointed National Academy of Sciences Committee determined that "reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a second gunman." The Justice Department concluded "that no persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a conspiracy" in the Kennedy assassination.
Funeral
Kennedy's body was brought back to Washington after his assassination. Early on November 23, six military pallbearers carried the flag-draped coffin into the East Room of the White House, where he lay in repose for 24 hours. Then, the coffin was carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket, with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state.
Kennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, at St. Matthew's Cathedral in Washington, D.C. The Requiem Mass was led by Cardinal Richard Cushing, then the Archbishop of Boston. It was attended by approximately 1,200 guests, including representatives from over 90 countries. After the service, Kennedy was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia.
Personal life, family, and reputation
The Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, three ambassadors, and multiple other representatives and politicians, both at the federal and state level. While a Congressman, Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel in 1951, at which point he became close with his then 25-year-old brother Robert, as well as his 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen little of each other. This trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends. Robert would eventually play a major role in his brother's career, serving as his brother's attorney general and presidential advisor. Robert would later run for president in 1968 before his assassination, while another Kennedy brother, Ted, ran for president in 1980. Kennedy's nephew and Robert's son, Robert Jr., is running for president in 2024.
Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King Jr. and Mother Teresa) in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. Kennedy was a life member of the National Rifle Association.
Wife and children
Kennedy met his future wife, Jacqueline Lee "Jackie" Bouvier (1929–1994), when he was a congressman. Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a dinner party. They were married a year after he was elected senator, on September 12, 1953. After suffering a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956 (their daughter Arabella), their daughter Caroline was born in 1957 and is the only surviving member of JFK's immediate family. John Jr., nicknamed "John-John" by the press as a child, was born in late November 1960, 17 days after his father was elected. A graduate of Brown University, John Jr. died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed off the coast of Martha's Vineyard. In 1963, months before JFK's assassination, Jackie gave birth to a son, Patrick. However, he died after 2 days due to complications from birth.
Popular image
Kennedy and his wife were younger than the presidents and first ladies who preceded them, and both were popular in the media culture in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcast live and made good use of the medium. In 1961 the Radio-Television News Directors Association presented Kennedy with its highest honor, the Paul White Award, in recognition of his open relationship with the media.
Mrs. Kennedy brought new art and furniture to the White House and directed its restoration. They invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to rounds of White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the White House lawn, the Kennedys established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool along with 10 other children inside the home.
Kennedy was closely tied to popular culture, emphasized by songs such as "Twisting at the White House". Vaughn Meader's First Family comedy album, which parodied the president, the first lady, their family, and the administration, sold about four million copies.
In an interview a week after JFK's death, Jacqueline Kennedy mentioned his affection for the Broadway musical Camelot and quoted its closing lines: "Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot." The term "Camelot" has come to be used as shorthand for the Kennedy administration and the charisma of the Kennedy family.
Health
Despite a privileged youth, Kennedy was plagued by a series of childhood diseases, including whooping cough, chicken pox, measles, and ear infections. These ailments compelled him to spend a considerable amount of time in bed (or at least indoors) convalescing. Three months prior to his third birthday, in 1920, Kennedy came down with scarlet fever, a highly contagious and life-threatening disease, and was admitted to Boston City Hospital.
Years after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, while Kennedy was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The London Clinic with Addison's disease, a rare endocrine disorder. Davis estimated that Kennedy would not live for another year, while Kennedy himself hoped he could live for an additional ten. In 1966, White House physician Janet Travell revealed that Kennedy also had hypothyroidism. The presence of two endocrine diseases raises the possibility that Kennedy had autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2 (APS 2).
Kennedy also suffered from chronic and severe back pain, for which he had surgery. Kennedy's condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat severe back pain during the 1961 Vienna Summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. The combination included hormones, animal organ cells, steroids, vitamins, enzymes, and amphetamines, and possible potential side effects included hyperactivity, hypertension, impaired judgment, nervousness, and mood swings. Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by three doctors, one of whom, Max Jacobson, was unknown to the other two, as his mode of treatment was controversial and used for the most severe bouts of back pain.
Into late 1961, disagreements existed among Kennedy's doctors concerning his proper balance of medication and exercise. Kennedy preferred the former because he was short on time and desired immediate relief. During that time, the president's physician, George Burkley, did set up some gym equipment in the White House basement, where Kennedy did stretching exercises for his back three times a week. Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime. The President's primary White House physician, George Burkley, realized that treatments by Jacobson and Travell, including the excessive use of steroids and amphetamines, were medically inappropriate, and took action to remove Kennedy from their care.
In 2002, Robert Dallek wrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health. Dallek was able to consult a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from the years 1955–1963, including X-rays and prescription records from the files of Travell. According to Travell's records, during his presidential years Kennedy suffered from high fevers; stomach, colon, and prostate issues; abscesses; high cholesterol; and adrenal problems. Travell kept a "Medicine Administration Record", cataloging Kennedy's medications: "injected and ingested corticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treatments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections and an abscess; and Tuinal to help him sleep."
Family incidents
Kennedy's older brother Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. was killed in action in 1944 at age 29 when his plane exploded over the English Channel during a first attack execution of Operation Aphrodite during World War II. His sister Rose Marie "Rosemary" Kennedy was born in 1918 with intellectual disabilities and underwent a prefrontal lobotomy at age 23, leaving her incapacitated until her death in 2005. Another sister Kathleen Agnes "Kick" Kennedy died in a plane crash en route to France in 1948. His wife Jacqueline Kennedy suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956: a daughter informally named Arabella. A son, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, died two days after birth in August 1963.
Affairs and friendships
Kennedy was single in the 1940s while having relationships with Danish journalist Inga Arvad and actress Gene Tierney. During his time as a senator, he had an affair with Gunilla von Post, who later wrote that the future president tried to end his marriage to be with her before having any children with his wife. Kennedy was also reported to have had affairs with Marilyn Monroe, Judith Campbell, Mary Pinchot Meyer, Marlene Dietrich, White House intern Mimi Alford, and his wife's press secretary, Pamela Turnure.
The full extent of Kennedy's relationship with Monroe (who in 1962 famously sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" at Kennedy's birthday celebration) is not known, though it has been reported that they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while he was staying at Bing Crosby's house. Furthermore, people at the White House switchboard noted that Monroe had called Kennedy during 1962. J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received reports about Kennedy's indiscretions. These included an alleged East German spy Ellen Rometsch. According to historian Michael Beschloss, in July 1963, Hoover reportedly informed Robert Kennedy about the affair. Hoover told the attorney general that he had information that the president, as well as others in Washington, had been involved with a woman "suspected as a Soviet intelligence agent, someone linked to East German intelligence". Robert Kennedy reportedly took the matter sufficiently seriously to raise it with leading Democratic and Republican figures in Congress. Former Secret Service agent Larry Newman recalled "morale problems" that the president's indiscretions engendered within the Secret Service.
Kennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supporters. According to Reeves, this included "the logistics of Kennedy's liaisons ... [which] required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians." Kennedy believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from public revelations about his sex life.
Lem Billings was Kennedy's "oldest and best friend" from the time they attended Choate together until Kennedy's death.
Historical evaluations and legacy
Presidency
The U.S. Special Forces had a special bond with Kennedy. "It was President Kennedy who was responsible for the rebuilding of the Special Forces and giving us back our Green Beret," said Forrest Lindley, a writer for the U.S. military newspaper Stars and Stripes who served with Special Forces in Vietnam. This bond was shown at Kennedy's funeral. At the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of Kennedy's death, General Michael D. Healy, the last commander of Special Forces in Vietnam, spoke at Arlington National Cemetery. Later, a wreath in the form of the Green Beret would be placed on the grave, continuing a tradition that began the day of his funeral when a sergeant in charge of a detail of Special Forces men guarding the grave placed his beret on the coffin. Kennedy was the first of six presidents to have served in the U.S. Navy, and one of the enduring legacies of his administration was the creation in 1961 of another special forces command, the Navy SEALs, which Kennedy enthusiastically supported.
Kennedy's civil rights proposals led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. President Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy's successor, took up the mantle and pushed the landmark Civil Rights Act through a bitterly divided Congress by invoking the slain president's memory. President Johnson then signed the Act into law on July 2, 1964. This civil rights law ended what was known as the "Solid South" and certain provisions were modeled after the Civil Rights Act of 1875, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant.
Kennedy's continuation of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower's policies of giving economic and military aid to South Vietnam left the door open for President Johnson's escalation of the conflict. At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam, leading historians, cabinet members, and writers to continue to disagree on whether the Vietnam conflict would have escalated to the point it did had he survived. His agreement to the NSAM 263 action of withdrawing 1,000 troops by the end of 1963, and his earlier 1963 speech at American University, suggest that he was ready to end the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War contributed greatly to a decade of national difficulties, amid violent disappointment on the political landscape.
Many of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered iconic; and despite his relatively short term in office, and the lack of major legislative changes coming to fruition during his term, he is considered by many presidential historians to be in the upper echelon of presidents. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington. In 2018 The Times published an audio recreation of the "watchmen on the walls of world freedom" speech he was scheduled to deliver at the Dallas Trade Mart on November 22, 1963.
In 1961, he was awarded the Laetare Medal by the University of Notre Dame, considered the most prestigious award for American Catholics. He was posthumously awarded the Pacem in Terris Award (Latin: Peace on Earth). It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of goodwill to secure peace among all nations. Kennedy also posthumously received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963.
Camelot
The term "Camelot" is often used to describe his presidency, reflecting both the mythic grandeur accorded Kennedy in death, and the powerful nostalgia that millions feel for that era of American history. According to Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, the most popular theme surrounding Kennedy's legacy is its replay of the legend of King Arthur and Camelot from medieval England. In the days after JFK's death, his widow Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy, who herself would play a central role in the myth, approached journalist Theodore H. White. Mrs. Kennedy emphasized an image that would shape the adoring memory of JFK and his administration, highlighting the president's love for the popular Broadway musical Camelot. She emphasized how her husband loved the music of Alan Jay Lerner, a former classmate of his. Mrs. Kennedy claimed that JFK admired heroes like King Arthur, presenting him as an idealist, although White knew this to be untrue. In her attempt to convey a positive message during a tragic event, she quoted her husband as repeating the end of the "Camelot" show: said, "There will be great presidents again, but there will never be another Camelot." White's influential essay, which included the Camelot story, was published in a special commemorative issue of Life magazine on December 3, 1963, reaching over 30 million people. To the grieving public, this uplifting message seemed logical. After all, JFK, the youngest person to enter the White House, displayed intelligence, articulation, and humor. Furthermore, his young, beautiful wife, who was revered internationally, along with his famous family, made it easy to associate Kennedy with the legend of King Arthur. Later, White expressed regret for his role in popularizing the Camelot myth. Over the years, critics, especially historians, have mocked the Camelot myth as a distortion of JFK's actions, beliefs, and policies. However, in the public memory, the years of Kennedy's presidency are still seen as a brief, brilliant, and shining moment.
Memorials and eponyms
A small sample of the extensive list at the main article (link above) includes:
Idlewild Airport in Queens, New York City, nation's busiest international gateway, renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24, 1963
NASA Launch Operations Center in Merritt Island, Florida named the John F. Kennedy Space Center on November 29, 1963.
, U.S. Navy aircraft carrier ordered in April 1964, launched May 1967, decommissioned August 2007; nicknamed "Big John"
Kennedy half dollar, first minted in 1964
John F. Kennedy School of Government, part of Harvard University, renamed in 1966
John F. Kennedy Federal Building in the Government Center section of Boston, opened in 1966
John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial, opened in 1970 in Dallas
National cultural center was named John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in 1964, opened in 1971 in Washington, D.C.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum on Columbia Point in Boston; opened in 1979
Statue of John F. Kennedy by Isabel McIlvain on the grounds of the Massachusetts State House in Boston; dedicated on May 29, 1990.
, U.S. Navy aircraft carrier that began construction in 2011, and was scheduled to be placed in commission in 2020
Works
Books
Select speeches
See also
Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy
Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy
Electoral history of John F. Kennedy
1960 United States presidential debates
Kennedy Doctrine
Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences urban legend
List of memorials to John F. Kennedy
"Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy" retort by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, 1988 VP debate
Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
Zapruder film
General
History of the United States (1945–1964)
List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots
Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
Casey, Shaun. The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960 (2009, )
Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. The Kennedys (1984, )
Cottrell, John. Assassination! The World Stood Still (1964, )
Doyle, William, PT 109: An American Epic of War, Survival, and the Destiny of John F. Kennedy, (2015), New York, HarperCollins,
Fay, Paul B., Jr. The Pleasure of His Company (1966, )
Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam (2000, )
Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (1997, )
Giglio, James. The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1991, )
Hamilton, Nigel. JFK: Reckless Youth (1992, )
Harper, Paul, and Krieg, Joann P. eds. John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited (1988, )
Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962, )
Haas, Lawrence J. The Kennedys in the World: How Jack, Bobby, and Ted Remade America's Empire (2021)
Heath, Jim F. Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy–Johnson Years (1976, )
Hersh, Seymour. The Dark Side of Camelot (1997, )
Kunz, Diane B. The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s (1994, )
Logevall, Fredrik. JFK: Coming of Age in the American Century, 1917-1956 (Random House, 2020, )
Lynch, Grayston L. Decision for Disaster: Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs (2000, )
Manchester, William. Portrait of a President: John F. Kennedy in Profile (1967, ) online, popular biography
Massa, Mark S. "A Catholic for President: John F. Kennedy and the Secular Theology of the Houston Speech, 1960." Journal of Church and State 39 (1997): 297–317.
Newman, John M. JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (1992, )
Parmet, Herbert. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (1980, )
Parmet, Herbert. JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1983, )
Parmet, Herbert. "The Kennedy Myth". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) (1997, )
Rabe, Stephen G. John F. Kennedy: World Leader (Potomac Books, 2010) 189 pages
Reeves, Thomas. A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (1991, ); hostile biography
Sabato, Larry J. The Kennedy Half-Century: The Lasting Legacy of John F. Kennedy (2013, )
Schlesinger, Arthur Jr. Robert Kennedy and His Times (2018, ) [1978]
Whalen, Thomas J. JFK and His Enemies: A Portrait of Power (2014, )
Primary sources
Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy (1995, )
Kennedy, Jacqueline. Jacqueline Kennedy: Historic Conversations on Life with John F. Kennedy (2011, ). Hyperion Books.
Historiography and memory
Abramson, Jill. "Kennedy, the Elusive President", The New York Times Book Review October 22, 2013, notes that 40,000 books have been published about JFK
Craig, Campbell. "Kennedy's international legacy, fifty years on." International affairs 89.6 (2013): 1367–1378. online
Hellmann, John. The Kennedy Obsession: The American Myth of JFK (1997, )
Knott, Stephen F. Coming to Terms with John F. Kennedy (2022) excerpt
Santa Cruz, Paul H. Making JFK Matter: Popular Memory and the 35th President (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2015) xxiv, 363 pp.
Selverstone, Marc J., ed. A Companion to John F. Kennedy (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014, ), Topical essays by scholars focusing on the historiography
External links
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site
John F. Kennedy: A Resource Guide – the Library of Congress
Extensive Essays on JFK with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady – Miller Center of Public Affairs
Kennedy Administration from Office of the Historian, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Kennedy Convocation Collection at the Amherst College Archives & Special Collections, documenting one of his last visits before his assassination
John F. Kennedy
1917 births
1963 deaths
1956 United States vice-presidential candidates
1960s assassinated politicians
1963 murders in the United States
20th-century American journalists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century assassinated national presidents
20th-century presidents of the United States
20th-century Roman Catholics
Activists for African-American civil rights
Alumni of the London School of Economics
American anti-communists
American male journalists
American people of Irish descent
American people of the Vietnam War
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Assassinated presidents of the United States
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Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20Armada%20in%20Ireland
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Spanish Armada in Ireland
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The Spanish Armada in Ireland refers to the landfall made upon the coast of Ireland in September 1588 of a large portion of the 130-strong fleet sent by Philip II to invade England.
Following its defeat at the naval battle of Gravelines, the Armada had attempted to return home through the North Atlantic, when it was driven from its course by violent storms, toward the west coast of Ireland. The prospect of a Spanish landing alarmed the Dublin government of Queen Elizabeth I, which prescribed harsh measures for the Spanish invaders and any Irish who might assist them.
Up to 24 ships of the Armada were wrecked on a rocky coastline spanning 500 km, from Antrim in the north to Kerry in the south, and the threat to Crown authority was readily defeated. Many of the survivors of the multiple wrecks were put to death, and the remainder fled across the sea to Scotland. It is estimated that some 6,000 members of the fleet perished in Ireland or off its coasts.
Background
The Spanish Armada was a fleet of 130 ships that sailed from A Coruña in August 1588 under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England. It met with armed resistance in the English Channel, when a fireship attack off Calais broke its formation, and was driven into the North Sea after the Battle of Gravelines.
When the fleet entered the North Sea, 110 ships remained under Medina Sidonia's command. Many were damaged by gunfire or were running low on supplies, making them unfit for service in the Atlantic Ocean. Some had cut their anchors in the flight from the fireships, which severely diminished their ability to navigate close to shore. Also, the Armada commanders made a large navigational error that brought the fleet too close to the dangerous Atlantic coasts of Scotland and Ireland.
The course home
The plotted course
After Gravelines the commanders of the Armada held a conference on Sidonia's flagship. Some proposed a course for Norway, others for Ireland. The admiral made his choice, and orders were issued to the fleet:
The fleet was to approach the coast of Norway, before steering to the meridian of the Shetland Islands and on to Rockall. This allowed passage outside the northern tip of Shetland, clearing the coast of Scotland at a distance of 160 km. Once out in the broad Atlantic, the ships were to steer to a point 645 km beyond the Shannon estuary on the west coast of Ireland, giving themselves a clear run to northern Spain.
The course taken
The Armada's sailing orders were almost impossible to follow. The weather was difficult. Many of the ships and their crew members were in great distress. The navigators' charts were primitive, and their best training and experience in the techniques of dead reckoning and latitude sailing fell far short of what was needed to bring the fleet safely home.
The Armada failed to keep its course around the north of Shetland at 61'N. Instead, on 20 August, it passed safely to the south, between Orkney and Fair Isle, and was carried into the Atlantic at about 59'N. From there it was due to sail from North Uist in the Hebrides Islands until it caught sight of the distant islet of Rockall, but failed again. Southerly winds blew from 21 August to 3 September, stirred up by an anticyclone over Scandinavia, which prevented the fleet from running west-south-west as ordered. One report reflects the frustration of the navigators: "We sailed without knowing whither through constant fogs, storms and squalls".
The sailing orders were rendered useless by the weather, but the miscalculation of the Armada's position contributed greatly to its destruction. The navigators were unaware of the effect of the eastward flowing Gulf Stream, which must have hindered the fleet's progress – perhaps by as much as 30 km a day. The paymaster of the San Juan Bautista, Marcos de Aramburu, recorded a log of his progress from late August onwards, when the rest of the fleet was within sight. The inference from his observations is that his ship's estimated position as it turned for home was entirely wrong, some 480 km to the west: its real position lay in the east, perilously close to the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. This single deficiency "made the difference between safety and disaster".
After seven weeks at sea the opportunity to make landfall and take on supplies and effect repairs must have been welcome, but navigation in these waters demanded intimate knowledge. The experience of Spanish mariners in the intricacies of north Atlantic conditions was largely confined to trading voyages to the south and south-west of Ireland, and it is likely that the fleet's pilots preferred to maintain Sidonia's course, despite the hardships on board their ships.
Most of the fleet – 84 ships – avoided land, and most of those made it home, although in varying degrees of distress. The remainder were forced toward the coast of Ireland – perhaps 28 – and included several galleons and many merchantmen. The latter had been converted for battle and were leaking heavily, making sail with severely damaged masts and rigging, and with most of their anchors missing. The ships seem to have maintained contact until the beginning of September, when they were scattered by a south-west gale (described in the contemporary account of an Irish government official as one "the like whereof hath not been seen or heard for a long time"). Within days, this lost fleet had made landfall in Ireland.
Government preparations
The head of the English Crown administration at Dublin was Lord Deputy William Fitzwilliam. In August 1588 he was presented with credible intelligence that the battle in the English Channel had been won by the Spanish and that the invasion of England was set to be completed. Then it was understood that the Spanish were in the Atlantic and the entire fleet was about to fall on the coast of Ireland. The degree of alarm among the English at Dublin was extreme, and Fitzwilliam put out false reports that reinforcements from England were due to arrive with 10,000 troops.
The English feared the Spanish would land in disciplined formations, with the Irish rising out to join them from territories that were almost beyond the control of the government. But reliable intelligence was soon received at Waterford and Dublin that the ships were fetching up in a chaotic manner at disparate locations in the provinces of Ulster, Connacht and Munster, along a coastline spanning . Fitzwilliam ordered that all Spaniards be captured and hanged summarily; and that anyone aiding them be tortured and charged as a traitor to the Crown.
Landfall
Munster
The Armada first made landfall in the southern province of Munster, which had been colonised by the English in 1583 following the suppression of the last of the Desmond Rebellions. Fitzwilliam received orders from London to lead an expedition there, and intelligence from the governor of Connacht, Richard Bingham, soon confirmed that further landfalls were being made throughout the west and north of the country.
Thomond: Many ships were sighted off the coast of County Clare: four at Loop Head, two of which were wrecked, including San Esteban (700 tons, 264 men) at Doonbeg, and probably the heavily damaged San Marcos (790 tons, squadron of Portugal, 409 men, 33 guns) at Lurga Point (modern day Seafield, Quilty, County Clare) inside Mutton Island. All survivors were put to death by the sheriff of Clare, Boetius MacClancy (some, according to tradition, at Gallows Hill, but more likely at Cnoc na Crocaire, Spanish Point).
Seven ships anchored at Scattery Roads, probably with a pilot who knew the coast. Their landing party was fought off, but they did secure some supplies and managed to repair their ships. One galleon, Anunciada (703 tons, 24 guns, 275 men), was fired and scuttled off Kilrush on 12 September, and the crew transferred to Barco de Danzig, which made it safely to Spain after the squadron departed the Shannon estuary on 11 September.
Blasket Islands: One Armada commander, Juan Martínez de Recalde, did have experience of the Irish coast: in 1580 he had landed a Papal invasion force in the Dingle peninsula, in the run up to the Siege of Smerwick, and had managed to evade an English squadron of warships. In the Armada he had command of the galleon San Juan de Portugal (1,150 tons, 500 men, 50 guns) of the Biscayan squadron, which engaged with the English fleet in the Channel and held off Francis Drake in Revenge, John Hawkins in Victory, and Martin Frobisher in Triumph.
After the defeat at Gravelines Recalde's galleon led San Juan de Bautista (750 tons, 243 men) and another small vessel (almost certainly a Scottish fishing smack seized to assist with navigation and inshore work). As these ships approached the coast of Kerry, Recalde's lookouts sighted Mount Brandon on the Dingle peninsula and, to the west, the lofty Blasket Islands, a complex archipelago studded with reefs.
Recalde steered to the islands in search of shelter, riding on a swell through a tight gap at the eastern tip of the Great Blasket Island. His galleon made it through to calm water and dropped anchor over a sandy bottom beneath sheer cliffs. San Juan de Bautista and the smack soon followed. The anchorage ensured that the only wind that might drive the ships off would bring them clear to the open sea. It was a difficult manoeuvre, demanding prior knowledge of the coastline.
Recalde's ships remained within their shelter for several days, and a crown force led by Thomas Norris (brother of the soldier, John Norris) and Edward Denny (husband of Lady Denny) arrived in Dingle to guard against a landing. Recalde sent a reconnaissance party ashore, but all eight members were captured. At one stage a westerly gale caused Portugal to collide with San Juan de Bautista, and when the wind died down another ship, Santa Maria de la Rosa (900 tons, 297 men: Guipuzcoa squadron), entered the sound from the north and fired off a gun by way of distress signal.
As the tide ebbed, Recalde's ships held their anchorage in the more sheltered part of the sound, while Santa Maria de la Rosa drifted and then simply sank — perhaps on striking Stromboli Rock — leaving one survivor for the English to interrogate. The survivor's information was that the captain of Santa Maria de la Rosa had called the pilot a traitor and run him through with a sword just as the ship began to sink; he also asserted that the Prince of Ascoli, son of the king of Spain, had gone down with the ship — this information was false, but proved useful propaganda for the English.
Two more ships entered the sound — San Juan de Ragusa (650 tons, 285 men), the other unidentified. San Juan de Ragusa was in distress and sank — perhaps on striking Dunbinna reef. San Juan de Bautista attempted to take advantage of an ebb tide and sail south out of the sound, but ended up tacking about on the flood tide to avoid the numerous reefs, before sailing through the north-west passage. After a difficult night, the crew were dismayed to find themselves at the mouth of the sound once more. But the wind blew from the south-east, and San Juan de Bautista finally escaped on 25 September and made it home to Spain through a terrible storm.
Three days later Recalde led the remaining ships out of the sound and brought them to Spain, where he instantly died. Those survivors who had fallen into Denny's custody were put to death at Dingle.
Fenit: The sloop Nuestra Senora del Socorro (75 tons) anchored at Fenit, in Tralee Bay on the coast of Kerry, where she was surrendered to crown officers. The 24 men on board were taken into custody and marched to Tralee Castle. On the orders of Lady Margaret Denny, they were all hanged from a gibbet.
Valentia Island: Trinidad (800 tons, 302 men) was wrecked on the coast of Desmond — probably at Valentia Island, off the coast of south Kerry — although there are no details of this event.
At Liscannor the oar-powered galleass Zuñiga (290, Naples) anchored off-shore with a broken rudder, having found a gap in the Cliffs of Moher, which rise sheer from the sea over 220 metres. The ship came under surveillance by the sheriff of Clare and, when a cock-boat was sent ashore in search of supplies, the Spanish were attacked by crown forces and had to withdraw to their ship. One captive was taken and sent for interrogation. Zuñiga escaped the coast with favourable winds, put in at Le Havre, and finally made it back to Naples the following year.
Ulster
Donegal: La Trinidad Valencera (1,000 tons, Levant squadron, 360 men, 42 guns) had taken on more water than could be pumped out. Yet as she approached the coast she managed to rescue 264 men from the Barca de Amburgo, another ship swamped in the heavy seas. Trinidad anchored in Glenagivney Bay, where she listed to such a degree that the order was given to abandon ship. Some locals were paid for the use of a small boat, and over the course of two days all 560 men were ferried to shore.
During a seven-day march inland, the column of survivors met a force of cavalry under the command of Richard Hovenden and Henry Hovenden foster-brothers of Hugh O'Neill, 3rd Earl of Tyrone. Upon pledges of safe conduct for their delivery into the custody of Fitzwilliam — given in the presence of the Earl of Tyrconnell — the Spanish laid down their arms. The noblemen and officers were separated out, and 300 of the ordinary men were massacred. The surviving 150 fled through the bog, ending up either with Sorley Boy MacDonnell at Dunluce or at the house of Redmond O'Gallagher, the bishop of Derry, and were sent to Scotland. The 45 noblemen and officers were marched to Dublin, but only 30 survived to reach the capital, where they were dispatched to London for ransom.
Three further ships — unidentified — were wrecked on the Donegal coast, one at Mullaghderg, one at Rinn a' Chaislean. The third was found in 2010 at Burtonport.
Antrim: The greatest loss of life was on the sinking of the galleass La Girona. She had docked for repairs to her rudder at Killybegs, where 800 survivors from two other Armada shipwrecks were taken aboard - from La Rata Santa Maria Encoronada and Duquesa Santa Ana, which went aground at Loughros Mor Bay, Donegal. La Girona set sail for Scotland, but on 26 October her rudder broke and she was wrecked off Lacada Point, County Antrim. Of the estimated 1300 people on board, only nine survived.
Connacht
The Governor of Connacht, Richard Bingham, sought reinforcements from Dublin but his request was denied by Fitzwilliam, who had few resources at his disposal. A proclamation made it treason on pain of death for any man to help Spaniards. Many survivors were delivered to Galway from all over the province. In the first wave of seizures, 40 noblemen were reserved for ransom, and 300 men were put to death. Later, on the orders of Fitzwilliam, all the unarmed noblemen except two were also executed, along with six Dutch boys who had fallen into custody afterward. In all, 12 ships were wrecked on the coast of Connacht, and 1,100 survivors were put to death.
Galway: Falcon Blanco (300 tons, 103 men, 16 guns) and Concepción de Juanes del Cano of Biscay (225 men, 18 guns) and another unknown ship entered Galway Bay. Falcon Blanco grounded at Barna, five km west of Galway City, and most of those on board made it to shore. Concepción de Juanes del Cano grounded at Carna 30 km further west, having been lured to shore by the bonfires of a party of wreckers from the Clan O'Flaherty
Sligo: Three ships grounded near Streedagh Strand, ten miles North of Sligo town, with 1,800 men drowned and perhaps 100 coming ashore. The wreck-site was discovered in 1985. Among the survivors was Captain Francisco de Cuellar, who gave a remarkable account of his experiences in the fleet and on the run in Ireland.
La Lavia (25 guns), was a Venetian merchantman and the Vice-flagship;
La Juliana (32 guns) was a Catalan merchantman; and
Santa Maria de Vison (de Biscione) (18 guns) was a Ragusan merchantman.
Mayo: In September a galleon was wrecked at Tyrawley (modern County Mayo). Tradition has it that another ship was wrecked in the vicinity, near Kid Island, but no record remains of this event. Also, Gran Grin was wrecked at the mouth of Clew Bay.
Among those ships wrecked in Connacht was the merchant carrack La Rata Santa Maria Encoronada (419 men, 35 guns), which had run for the Irish coast in desperate need of repair, along with four other ships of the Levant squadron and four galleons. La Rata Santa Maria Encoronada carried an unusually large number of noblemen from the most ancient families of Spain — chief among them Don Alonso Martinez de Leyva — as well as the son of the Irish rebel, James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald.
La Rata Santa Maria Encoronada was skillfully handled along the northern coast of Mayo, but could not clear the Mullet Peninsula, and so anchored in Blacksod Bay on 7 September. The wind got up and the anchors dragged, until the ship was driven on to Ballycroy strand. All the crew got to shore under the leadership of de Leyva, and two castles were seized and fortified with munitions and stores from the beached ship, which was then torched. The rebel's son, Maurice Fitzmaurice, had died on board, and was cast into the sea in a cypress chest.
The Spanish soon moved on to another castle, where they were met by a host of fellow survivors, approaching from the wreck in Broadhaven of another ship, which had entered that bay without masts. De Leyva's host now numbered 600, and the governor of Connacht, Richard Bingham, chose not to confront them. After some days two ships of the Armada entered Blacksod Bay — the merchantman Nuestra Señora de Begoña (750 tons, 297 men) and the transport Duquesa Santa Ana (900 tons, 23 guns, 357 men). De Leyva and his 600 men boarded Duquesa Santa Ana. Nuestra Señora de Begoña sailed straight for Santander, Spain, arriving some time later. Duquesa Santa Ana, however, was somewhat damaged and it was decided to sail north for Scotland. Stormy weather soon hit Duquesa Santa Ana and she was grounded in Loughros Bay in Donegal, with all aboard reaching shore in what was friendly territory.
De Leyva, who had been seriously injured by a capstan, pitched camp on the shore of the bay for nine days, until news came of another ship of the fleet, the galleass Girona, which had anchored in Killybegs harbour while two other ships had been lost on attempting to enter the harbour. With the assistance of an Irish chieftain, MacSweeney Bannagh, Girona was repaired and set sail in mid-October with 1,300 men on board, including de Leyva. Lough Foyle was cleared, but then a gale struck and Girona was driven ashore at Dunluce in modern County Antrim. There were nine survivors, who were sent on to Scotland by Sorley Boy MacDonnell; 260 bodies were washed ashore.
Aran Islands: Two ships were sighted off the Aran Islands: one failed to land a party in hard weather, and it is not known what became of them.
Antrim: The single greatest loss of life occurred upon the wreck of the galleass Girona on the coast of Antrim after she had taken on board many survivors from other ships wrecked on the coast of Connacht (see Ulster, above).
Aftermath
Between 17 and 24 ships of the Grand Armada were lost on the Irish coast, accounting for about one-third of the fleet's total loss of 63, with the loss of about 6,000 men.
By the end of September 1588 Fitzwilliam was able to report to the Queen's secretary, Lord Burghley, that the Armada alarm was over. Soon after, he reckoned that only about 100 survivors remained in the country. In 1596, an envoy of Philip II arrived in Ireland to make inquiries of survivors and was successful in only eight cases.
Following the defeat of the Armada the English sent their own fleet against the Iberian peninsula, but failed to press home their advantage and returned with tremendous losses. At the height of the Anglo-Spanish War the Spanish landed 3,500 troops in the south of Ireland to assist the Ulster rebel leader Hugh O'Neill, during the Nine Years' War (1594–1603). This expedition also failed, and Spain and England concluded a peace in 1604.
By the time of the peace the Spanish had restored their dominance at sea, and treasure from the New World was flowing in to their Royal Treasury at an increased rate. Elizabeth's successor James I neglected his fleet and chose to secure crown influence in Ireland: in 1607 the lords of Gaelic Ulster fled to the continent, and the English conquest of Ireland was largely completed on the seizure and colonisation of their territories in the Plantation of Ulster in 1610.
There is a myth that the Spanish Armada left descendants in Ireland, however research has discredited such claims.
Salvage
The first salvage attempts were made within months, on the coast of County Clare by George Carew, who complained at the expense "of sustaining the divers with copious draughts of usequebaugh" [Uisce Beatha - Irish for whiskey].
Sorley Boy MacDonnell recovered three brass cannon and two chests of treasure from the wreck of Girona.
In 1797 a quantity of lead and some brass guns were raised from the wreck of an unknown Armada ship at Mullaghderg in County Donegal. Two miles further south, in 1853, an anchor was recovered from another unknown Armada wreck.
The Spanish Armada in art
The Grainuaile Suite (1985), an orchestral treatment of the life of the Irish sea-queen Gráinne O'Malley by Irish composer Shaun Davey, contains a lament on the Spanish landings in Ireland, sung by Rita Connolly.
The wrecking of La Girona was commemorated in illustrations of the Armada and the Antrim coast which appear on the reverse side of sterling banknotes issued by the First Trust Bank in Northern Ireland.
The final published novel of Anthony Burgess, Byrne: A Novel, features a protagonist who is specifically stated to be descended from Spanish survivors who remained in Ireland.
The Luck of the Irish and Darby O'Gill and the Little People are American films that make reference to the wrecking of the Spanish armada as an explanation for leprechauns having pots of gold.
The Spanish-Portuguese co-produced short animated film The Monkey (2021), influenced by the story of The Hartlepool Monkey, focuses on the treatment of the Spanish shipwrecked on Irish shores. The film, which stars Colm Meaney won the Goya, for best Best Animated Short Film in 2021.
See also
List of shipwrecks in the 16th century
Girona (ship)
Hugo of Moncada i Gralla
References
Sources
T.P. Kilfeather Ireland: Graveyard of the Spanish Armada (Anvil Books Ltd, 1967)
Ken Douglas Navigation: the key to the Armada disaster (Journal for Maritime Research, Issue: August 2003).
Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996). .
External links
Narrative of the Spanish Armada and his adventures in Ireland by Captain Francisco de Cuellar
Large selection of illustrations and lists at British Battles
Girona Tribute
Hardiman's History of Galway, Chapter 4 describing the 1588 Galway encounter
The Straight Dope: Do some Irish names come from Spanish Armada survivors? trivia-master Cecils Adam debunks the myth. Interesting illustration.
Naval battles of the Eighty Years' War
Ireland
16th-century maritime incidents
1588 in Ireland
Nine Years' War (Ireland)
Eighty Years' War (1566–1609)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character%20education
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Character education
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Character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of children and adults in a manner that will help them develop variously as moral, civic, good, mannered, behaved, non-bullying, healthy, critical, successful, traditional, compliant or socially acceptable beings. Concepts that now and in the past have fallen under this term include social and emotional learning, moral reasoning and cognitive development, life skills education, health education, violence prevention, critical thinking, ethical reasoning, and conflict resolution and mediation. Many of these are now considered failed programs, i.e. "religious education", "moral development", "values clarification".
Today, there are dozens of character education programs in, and vying for adoption by, schools and businesses. Some are commercial, some non-profit and many are uniquely devised by states, districts and schools, themselves. A common approach of these programs is to provide a list of principles, pillars, values or virtues, which are memorized or around which themed activities are planned. It is commonly claimed that the values included in any particular list are universally recognized. However, there is no agreement among the competing programs on core values (e.g., honesty, stewardship, kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, justice, equality, and respect) or even how many to list. There is also no common or standard means for assessing, implementing or evaluating programs.
Terminology
"Character" is one of those overarching concepts that is the subject of disciplines from philosophy to theology, from psychology to sociology—with many competing and conflicting theories. Thomas Lickona defines character education as "the deliberate effort to develop virtues that are good for the individual and good for society." More recently, psychologist Robert McGrath has proposed that character education is less focused on social skill acquisition and more on constructing a moral identity within a life narrative.
Character as it relates to character education most often refers to how 'good' a person is. In other words, a person who exhibits personal qualities like those a society considers desirable might be considered to have good character—and developing such personal qualities is often seen as a purpose of education. However, the various proponents of character education are far from agreement as to what "good" is, or what qualities are desirable. Compounding this problem is that there is no scientific definition of character. Because such a concept blends personality and behavioral components, scientists have long since abandoned use of the term "character" and, instead, use the term psychological motivators to measure the behavioral predispositions of individuals. With no clinically defined meaning, there is virtually no way to measure if an individual has a deficit of character, or if a school program can improve it.
The various terms in the lists of values that character education programs propose—even those few found in common among some programs—suffer from vague definitions. This makes the need and effectiveness of character education problematic to measure.
In-school programs
There is no common practice in schools in relation to the formation of pupils' character or values education. This is partly due to the many competing programs and the lack of standards in character education, but also because of how and by whom the programs are executed.
Programs are generally of four varieties: cheerleading, praise and reward, define and drill, and forced formality. They may be used alone or in combination.
1) Cheerleading involves multicolored posters, banners, and bulletin boards featuring a value or virtue of the month; lively morning public-address announcements; occasional motivational assemblies; and possibly a high-profile event such as a fund-raiser for a good cause.
2) Praise-and-reward approach seeks to make virtue into habit using "positive reinforcement". Elements include "catching students being good" and praising them or giving them chits that can be exchanged for privileges or prizes. In this approach, all too often, the real significance of the students' actions is lost, as the reward or award becomes the primary focus.
3) Define-and-drill calls on students to memorize a list of values and the definition of each. Students' simple memorization of definitions seems to be equated with their development of the far more complex capacity for making moral decisions.
4) Forced-formality focuses on strict, uniform compliance with specific rules of conduct, (i.e., walking in lines, arms at one's sides), or formal forms of address ("yes sir," "no ma'am"), or other procedures deemed to promote order or respect of adults.
"These four approaches aim for quick behavioral results, rather than helping students better understand and commit to the values that are core to our society, or helping them develop the skills for putting those values into action in life's complex situations."
Generally, the most common practitioners of character education in the United States are school counselors, although there is a growing tendency to include other professionals in schools and the wider community. Depending on the program, the means of implementation may be by teachers and/or any other adults (faculty, bus drivers, cafeteria workers, maintenance staff, etc.); by storytelling, which can be through books and media; or by embedding into the classroom curriculum. There are many theories about means, but no comparative data and no consensus in the industry as to what, if any, approach may be effective.
History
It has been said that, "character education is as old as education itself". Indeed, the attempt to understand and develop character extends into prehistory.
Understanding character
Psychic arts
Since very early times, people have tried to access or "read" the pre-disposition (character) of self and others. Being able to predict and even manipulate human behavior, motivations, and reactions would bestow obvious advantages. Pre-scientific character assessment techniques have included, among others: anthropometry, astrology, palmistry, and metoposcopy. These approaches have been scientifically discredited although they continue to be widely practiced.
Race character
The concept of inherited "race character" has long been used to characterize desirable versus undesirable qualities in members of groups as a whole along national, tribal, ethnic, religious and even class lines. Race character is predominantly used as a justification for the denigration and subsequent persecution of minority groups, most infamously, justifying European persecution of Native Americans, the concept of slavery, and the Nazis' persecution of Jews. Though race character continues to be used as a justification for persecution of minorities worldwide, it has been scientifically discredited and is not overtly a component of modern character education in western societies.
Generational character
Particularly in modern liberal republics, social and economic change is rapid and can result in cognitive stress to older generations when each succeeding generation expands on and exhibits their own modes of expressing the freedoms such societies enjoy.
America is a prime example. With few traditions, each generation exhibits attitudes and behaviors that conservative segments of preceding generations uneasily assimilate. Individual incidents can also produce a moral panic. Cries about loss of morals in the succeeding generation, overwhelmingly unsubstantiated, and calls for remediation have been constant in America since before its founding. (It should be expected that—in a free country that supports children's rights—this trend will continue apace.)
Developing character
Eastern philosophy
Eastern philosophy views the nature of man as initially quiet and calm, but when affected by the external world, it develops desires. When the desires are not properly controlled and the conscious mind is distracted by the material world, we lose our true selves and the principle of reason in Nature is destroyed. From this arise rebellion, disobedience, cunning and deceit, and general immorality. This is the way of chaos. Confucianism stands with Taoism as two of the great religious/philosophical systems of China.
A hallmark of the philosophy of Confucius is his emphasis on tradition and study. He disparages those who have faith in natural understanding or intuition and argues for long and careful study. Study, for Confucius, means finding a good teacher, who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of the ancients, imitating his words and deeds. The result is a heavy scheme of obligations and intricate duties throughout all of one's many social roles. Confucius is said to have sung his sayings and accompanied himself on a 'qin' (a kind of zither). According to Confucius, musical training is the most effective method for molding the moral character of man and keeping society in order. He said: "Let a man be stimulated by poetry, established by the rules of propriety, perfected by music."
The theme of Taoism is one of harmony with nature. Zhuangzi was a central figure in Taoist philosophy. He wrote that people develop different moral attitudes from different natural upbringings, each feeling that his own views are obvious and natural, yet all are blinded by this socialization to their true nature. To Zhuangzi, pre-social desires are relatively few and easy to satisfy, but socialization creates a plethora of desires for "social goods" such as status, reputation, and pride. These conventional values, because of their comparative nature create attitudes of resentment and anger inciting competition and then violence. The way to social order is for people to eliminate these socialized ambitions through open-minded receptivity to all kinds of voices—particularly those who have run afoul of human authority or seem least authoritative. Each has insights. Indeed, in Taoist moral philosophy, perfection may well look like its opposite to us. One theme of Zhuangzi's that links Taoism to the Zen branch of Buddhism is the concept of flow, of losing oneself in activity, particularly the absorption in skilled execution of a highly cultivated way. His most famous example concerns a butcher who carves beef with the focus and absorption of a virtuoso dancer in an elegantly choreographed performance. The height of human satisfaction comes in achieving and exercising such skills with the focus and commitment that gets us "outside ourselves" and into such an intimate connection with our inborn nature.
Western philosophy
The early Greek philosophers felt that happiness requires virtue and hence that a happy person must have virtuous traits of character.
Socrates identifies happiness with pleasure and explains the various virtues as instrumental means to pleasure. He teaches, however, that pleasure is to be understood in an overarching sense wherein fleeing battle is a momentary pleasure that detracts from the greater pleasure of acting bravely.
Plato wrote that to be virtuous, we must both understand what contributes to our overall good and have our spirited and appetitive desires educated properly and guided by the rational part of the soul. The path he prescribes is that a potentially virtuous person should learn when young to love and take pleasure in virtuous actions, but he must wait until late in life to develop the understanding of why what he loves is good. An obvious problem is that this reasoning is circular.
Aristotle is perhaps, even today, the most influential of all the early Western philosophers. His view is often summarized as 'moderation in all things'. For example, courage is worthy, for too little of it makes one defenseless. But too much courage can result in foolhardiness in the face of danger. To be clear, Aristotle emphasizes that the moderate state is not an arithmetic mean, but one relative to the situation: sometimes the mean course is to be angry at, say, injustice or mistreatment, at other times anger is wholly inappropriate. Additionally, because people are different, the mean for one person may be bravery, but for another it is recklessness.
For Aristotle, the key to finding this balance is to enjoy and recognize the value of developing one's rational powers, and then using this recognition to determine which actions are appropriate in which circumstances.
The views of nineteenth-century philosophers were heavily indebted to these early Greeks. Two of them, Karl Marx and John Stuart Mill, had a major influence on approaches to developing character.
Karl Marx applies Aristotle's conclusions in his understanding of work as a place where workers should be able to express their rational powers. But workers subject to capitalist values are characterized primarily by material self-interest. This makes them distrustful of others, viewing them primarily as competitors. Given these attitudes, workers become prone to a number of vices, including selfishness, cowardice, and intemperance.
To correct these conditions, he proposes that workers perform tasks that are interesting and mentally challenging—and that each worker help decide how, and to what ends, their work should be directed. Marx believes that this, coupled with democratic conditions in the workplace, reduces competitive feelings among workers so they want to exhibit traditional virtues like generosity and trustfulness, and avoid the more traditional vices such as cowardice, stinginess, and self-indulgence.
John Stuart Mill, like Marx, also highly regarded development of the rational mind. He argued that seriously unequal societies, by preventing individuals from developing their deliberative powers, affect individuals' character in unhealthy ways and impede their ability to live virtuous lives. In particular, Mill argued that societies that have systematically subordinated women have harmed men and women, and advised that the place of women in families and in societies be reconsidered.
Contemporary views
Because women and men today may not be well-positioned to fully develop the capacities Aristotle and others considered central to virtuous character, it continues to be a central issue not only in ethics, but also in feminist philosophy, political philosophy, philosophy of education, and philosophy of literature. Because moral character requires communities where citizens can fully realize their human powers and ties of friendship, there are hard questions of how educational, economic, political, and social institutions should be structured to make that development possible.
Situationism
Impressed by scientific experiments in social psychology, "situationist" philosophers argue that character traits are not stable or consistent and cannot be used to explain why people act as they do. Experimental data shows that much of human behavior is attributable to seemingly trivial features of the situations in which people find themselves. In a typical experiment, seminary students agreed to give a talk on the importance of helping those in need. On the way to the building where their talks were to be given, they encountered a confederate slumped over and groaning. Ironically, those who were told they were already late were much less likely to help than those who were told they had time to spare.
Perhaps most damning to the traditional view of character are the results of the experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s and Philip G. Zimbardo in 1971. In the first of these experiments, the great majority of subjects, when politely though firmly requested by an experimenter, were willing to administer what they thought were increasingly severe electric shocks to a screaming "victim." In the second, the infamous Stanford prison experiment, the planned two-week investigation into the psychology of prison life had to be ended after only six days because the college students who were assigned to act as guards became sadistic and those who were the "prisoners" became depressed and showed signs of extreme stress. These and other experiments are taken to show that if humans do have noble tendencies, they are narrow, "local" traits that are not unified with other traits into a wider behavioral pattern of being.
History of character education in U.S. schools
The colonial period
As common schools spread throughout the colonies, the moral education of children was taken for granted. Formal education had a distinctly moral and religion emphasis. In the Christian tradition, it is believed that humans are flawed at birth (original sin), requiring salvation through religious means: teaching, guidance and supernatural rituals. This belief in America, originally heavily populated by Protestant immigrants, creates a situation of a-priori assumption that humans are morally deficient by nature and that preemptive measures are needed to develop children into acceptable members of society: home, church and school.
Character education in school in the United States began with the circulation of the New England Primer. Besides rudimentary instruction in reading, it was filled with Biblical quotes, prayers, catechisms and religiously charged moral exhortations. Typical is this short verse from the 1777 edition:
Good children must,
Fear God all day, Love Christ alway,
Parents obey, In secret pray,
No false thing say, Mind little play,
By no sin stray, Make no delay,
In doing good.
Nineteenth century
As the young republic took shape, schooling was promoted for both secular and moral reasons. By the time of the nineteenth century, however, religion became a problem in the schools. In the United States, the overwhelming dominant religion was Protestantism. While not as prominent as during the Puritan era, the King James Bible was, nevertheless, a staple of U.S. public schools. Yet, as waves of immigrants from Ireland, Germany, and Italy came to the country from the mid-nineteenth century forward, they reacted to the Protestant tone and orthodoxy of the schools. Concerned that their children would be weaned from their faith, Catholics developed their own school system. Later in the twentieth century, other religious groups, such as Jews, Muslims, and even various Protestant denominations, formed their own schools. Each group desired, and continues to desire, that its moral education be rooted in its respective faith or code.
Horace Mann, the nineteenth-century champion of the common schools, strongly advocated for moral education. He and his followers were worried by the widespread drunkenness, crime, and poverty during the Jacksonian period they lived in. No less troubling were the waves of immigrants flooding into cities, unprepared for urban life and particularly unprepared to participate in democratic civic life.
The most successful textbooks during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were the famed McGuffey Readers, fostering virtues such as thrift honesty, piety, punctuality and industry. McGuffey was a theological and conservative teacher and attempted to give schools a curriculum that would instill Presbyterian Calvinist beliefs and manners in their students.
Mid-twentieth century
During the late-nineteenth-century and twentieth-century period, intellectual leaders and writers were deeply influenced by the ideas of the English naturalist Charles Darwin, the German political philosopher Karl Marx, the Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, and by a growing strict interpretation of the separation of church and state doctrine. This trend increased after World War II and was further intensified by what appeared to be changes in the nation's moral consensus in the late 1960s. Educators and others became wary of using the schools for moral education. More and more this was seen to be the province of the family and the church.
Still, due to a perceived view of academic and moral decline, educators continued to receive mandates to address the moral concerns of students, which they did using primarily two approaches: values clarification and cognitive developmental moral education.
Values clarification. Values change over time in response to changing life experiences. Recognizing these changes and understanding how they affect one's actions and behaviors is the goal of the values clarification process. Values clarification does not tell you what you should have, it simply provides the means to discover what your values are. This approach, although widely practiced, came under strong criticism for, among other things, promoting moral relativism among students.
Cognitive-developmental theory of moral education and development sprang from the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and was further developed by Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg rejected the focus on values and virtues, not only due to the lack of consensus on what virtues are to be taught, but also because of the complex nature of practicing such virtues. For example, people often make different decisions yet hold the same basic moral values. Kohlberg believed a better approach to affecting moral behavior should focus on stages of moral development. These stages are critical, as they consider the way a person organizes their understanding of virtues, rules, and norms, and integrates these into a moral choice.
Character education movement of the 1980s
The impetus and energy behind the return of a more didactic character education to American schools did not come from within the educational community. It continues to be fueled by desire from conservative and religious segments of the population for traditionally orderly schools where conformity to "standards" of behavior and good habits are stressed. State and national politicians, as well as local school districts, lobbied by character education organizations, have responded by supporting this sentiment. During his presidency, Bill Clinton hosted five conferences on character education. President George W. Bush expanded on the programs of the previous administration and made character education a major focus of his educational reform agenda.
21st century developments
Grit is defined as perseverance and commitment to long-term goals. It is a character attribute associated with University of Pennsylvania professor Angela Duckworth who wrote about her research in a best-selling book and promoted it on a widely watched Ted Talks video. Initially, lauded as a breakthrough discovery of the "key character ingredient" to success and performance, it soon came under wide criticism and has been exposed, like other character interventions, as suspect as a character construct, and where attempts have been made to implement it in school programs, shows no more than a weak effect, if any. Moreover, the original data was misinterpreted by Duckworth. Additionally, the construct of grit ability ignores the positive socio-economic pre-requisites necessary to deploy it.
Modern scientific approaches
Today, the sciences of social psychology, neuropsychology and evolutionary psychology have taken new approaches to the understanding of human social behavior.
Personality and social psychology is a scientific method used by health professionals for researching personal and social motivators in and between the individual and society, as well as applying them to the problems people have in the context of society. Personality and social psychologists study how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. By exploring forces within the person (such as traits, attitudes, and goals) as well as forces within the situation (such as social norms and incentives), they seek to provide insight into issues as wide-ranging as prejudice, romantic attraction, persuasion, friendship, helping, aggression, conformity, and group interaction.
Neuropsychology addresses how brain regions associated with emotional processing are involved in moral cognition by studying the biological mechanisms that underlie human choices and behavior. Like social psychology, it seeks to determine, not how we should, but how we do behave—though neurologically. For instance, what happens in the brain when we favor one response over another, or when it is difficult to make any decision? Studies of clinical populations, including patients with VMPC (ventromedial prefrontal cortex) damage, reveal an association between impairments in emotional processing and impairments in moral judgement and behavior. These and other studies conclude that not only are emotions engaged during moral cognition, but that emotions, particularly those mediated by VMPC, are in fact critical for morality.
Other neurological research is documenting how much the unconscious mind is involved in decision making. According to cognitive neuroscientists, we are conscious of only about 5 percent of our cognitive activity, so most of our decisions, actions, emotions, and behavior depends on the 95 percent of brain activity that goes beyond our conscious awareness. These studies show that actions come from preconscious brain activity patterns and not from people consciously thinking about what they are going to do. A 2011 study conducted by Itzhak Fried found that individual neurons fire 2 seconds before a reported "will" to act (long before EEG activity predicted such a response). This was accomplished with the help of volunteer epilepsy patients, who needed electrodes implanted deep in their brain for evaluation and treatment anyway. Similarly to these tests, a 2013 study found that the choice to sum or subtract can be predicted before the subject reports it.
Evolutionary psychology, a new science, emerged in the 1990s to focus on explaining human behavior against the backdrop of Darwinian processes. This science considers how the biological forces of genetics and neurotransmissions in the brain influence unconscious strategies and conscious and proposes that these features of biology have developed through evolution processes. In this view, the cognitive programs of the human brain are adaptations. They exist because this behavior in our ancestors enabled them to survive and reproduce these same traits in their descendants, thereby equipping us with solutions to problems that our ancestors faced during our species' evolutionary history. Ethical topics addressed include altruistic behaviors, deceptive or harmful behaviors, an innate sense of fairness or unfairness, feelings of kindness or love, self-sacrifice, feelings related to competitiveness and moral punishment or retribution, and moral "cheating" or hypocrisy.
Issues and controversies
Scientific studies
The largest federal study, to-date, a 2010 report released under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Education found that the vast majority of character education programs have failed to prove their effectiveness, producing no improvements in student behavior or academic performance. Previous and current research on the subject fails to find one peer-reviewed study demonstrating any scientifically validated need for or result from character education programs. Typically, support is attested to by referring to "correlations" (e.g., grades, number of disciplinary referrals, subjective opinion, etc.).
Functional and ideological problems
1) An assumption that "character" is deficient in some or all children
2) Lack of agreement on what constitutes effectiveness
3) Lack of evidence that it does what it claims
4) A conflict between what good character is and the way that character education proposes to teach it
5) Differing standards in methods and objectives. Differing standards for assessing need and evaluating results. Some attempts have been made.
6) Supportive "studies" that overwhelmingly rely on subjective feedback (usually surveys) from vested participants
7) Programs instituted towards ideological and/or religious ends
8) The pervasive problem of confusing morality with social conformity
9) There are few if any common goals among character education programs. The dissensions in the list of values among character education programs, itself, constitutes a major criticism that there is anything to character education that is either fundamental or universally relevant to students or society.
10) It might be said that there is agreement in as much as what values do not find inclusion on lists of core values. Not found, even though they are fundamental to the success of modern democratic societies, are such noted values as independence, inventiveness, curiosity, critical thinking, skepticism, and even moderation. "Take chances, make mistakes, get messy!" the famous saying by Ms. Frizzle on the much celebrated TV show, The Magic School Bus, embodies values that would be antithetical to those found on today's character education lists.
See also
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Journal of Moral Education
Moral character
Moral development
Moral emotions
Moral enhancement
Moral psychology
Moral reasoning
Social cognitive theory of morality
Values education
References
Notes
Further reading
Arthur, J. (2003). Education with Character, New York: Routledge Falmer
United States educational programs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20tea%20utensils
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Japanese tea utensils
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are the tools and utensils used in , the art of Japanese tea.
Tea utensils can be divided into five major categories:
A wide range of utensils, known collectively as , is necessary for even the most basic tea ceremony. Generally, items which guests prepare themselves with for attending a gathering are not considered ; rather, the term fundamentally applies to items involved to "host" a gathering. This article, however, includes all forms of implements and paraphernalia involved in the practice of .
High-end utensils are cherished, well preserved and documented and serve as historical artifacts. The honorary title is given to the ten artisans that provide the utensils for the events held by the three primary Schools of Japanese tea known as the .
Utensils used for are different, using a usually five-piece set of small cups, a small pot and a small cup to pour hot water. These utensils are typically ceramic.
Boxes
In Japan, cherished items are customarily stored in purpose-made wooden boxes. Valuable items for tea ceremony are usually stored in such a box, and in some cases, if the item has a long and distinguished history, several layers of boxes: an inner storage box (), middle storage box (), and outer storage box ().
The storage boxes for tea implements are not tea equipment in themselves, but still hold importance in the practice of , as the boxes used for particularly old and distinguished objects often feature inscriptions which serve to validate their history and provenance.
are special lidded boxes containing the tea bowl, tea caddy, tea scoop and other equipment. They constitute portable tea-making sets for travel and making tea outdoors, and are available in many styles.
The " model", made of plain paulownia wood, comes in a large size and a small size. The interior dimensions of the large version are slightly smaller than in length, in width, and in height. -model also feature an internal shelf.
Originally, there were no rules for the tea-making procedure (). However, the 11th-generation head of the Urasenke school of tea created certain types of procedures. For the procedures, the box is carried into the place where the tea is to be made, sometimes on a tray, and the ceremony proceeds with each item being removed from, and finally returned to, the box.
Tea boxes are made of wood, and may be lacquered and decorated, or left untreated. There are similar portable tea-making sets called , in which case the box is formed through basket weaving.
Charcoal-related items
Ash
Ash, known as , appears most commonly in in the portable brazier (), the sunken hearth () which may be used in a tea room in the cold season, and the container for the lighter fire in the smoking set ().
In tea ceremony, ash serves as a protective bed for the charcoal fire. Great care is given to the quality and appearance of the ash, and there are different kinds of ash for different purposes. They include the following:
– used as to decorate the sculpted ash in a brazier. It is a beautiful, smooth white ash produced by burning wisteria bean pods.
– a dry ash specially prepared to have a smooth texture free from visible impurities. This is the main kind of ash used in portable braziers.
– produced by burning the shells of water caltrops. It is a smooth reddish-brown ash mainly used in the container for the lighter fire in the smoking set.
– the slightly damp ash used in the sunken hearth.
– sticks of roasted straw. The black is neatly arranged on top of the ash in the brazier. This is reserved for the final days of the brazier season and the use, at that time, of a worn-looking metal brazier (). is also used in hand warmers () and .
Ash container
is a shallow bowl used by the host to carry the ash into the tea room for the charcoal-laying procedure (). It carries the "sprinkling ash" () for the procedure in the case of a portable brazier (), and the "moist ash" () for the procedure in the case of a sunken hearth (). The styles for these are different.
Ash spoon
The is a spatula-like implement mainly used to shape the ash in the portable brazier (), or to sprinkle ash during the charcoal-laying procedure.
Charcoal
refers to the charcoal used in . for the most part is made of chestnut-leaved oak (), carbonized by long hours of smoldering in a kiln. The long pieces of finished charcoal are cut into specific lengths for use; the lengths differing depending upon whether the charcoal will be used in a brazier or sunken hearth.
In addition, a unique kind of charcoal called is used in for its artistic effect. It is produced by charring twigs of azalea, camellia, or some variety of oak, and then coating them with a lime substance made of powdered seashells.
Charcoal container
The is the container in which the host places the charcoal and charcoal-laying implements for transporting them to and from the tea room for the charcoal-laying procedure. Many are made of basketry.
Charcoal carrier
is a charcoal container used in the preparation room, and not considered a formal piece of equipment. It is brought into the tea room if the charcoal in the portable brazier or sunken hearth requires replenishing. It is box-shaped, has a handle, and is made of wood—usually mulberry wood.
Charcoal starter
Feather brooms
is a feather broom with a number of styles. The kind composed of three layered feathers and referred to therefore as is used to dust off the portable brazier or sunken hearth during the charcoal-laying procedure. It is part of the set of equipment carried into the tea room with the charcoal container (). Other kinds of feather brooms are used for sweeping the tea room.
are metal chopsticks used to handle charcoal.
Incense container
is a small lidded container for the incense that is added to the charcoal fire during the charcoal-laying procedure. For the kneaded incense () that is used in a sunken hearth (), the container is generally made of ceramic. For the chips of incense wood () used in a portable brazier (), it is generally made of lacquer ware or plain wood. There are also incense containers made of clam shells.
Cloth items
A is a small rectangular white linen or hemp cloth mainly used to wipe the tea bowl. There are two main sizes: large and small. Usually the plain term is used in reference to the small size, which is approximately long and wide. The raw edges on the lengthwise sides have a narrow rolled hem finished with overlock stitching. These two hems face opposite sides of the cloth.
A is, like a , a double layer patterned silk cloth approximately square, with a fold on one edge and the other three edges sewn together so the stitching is invisible. It is used by Omotesenke practitioners in the same way as the : the host and the guests each carry one, which is kept in the breast of the kimono. It is sometimes used by guests to protect the tea implements whilst examining them, and the host will put one out with the tea bowl when serving thick tea.
A is a double layer silk cloth approximately square, with a fold on one edge and the other three edges sewn together so the stitching is invisible. It is used for the symbolic cleansing of the tea scoop and tea caddy, and (usually by women) to handle hot kettle or pot lids. The host and assistants at a tea gathering wear the tucked into the .
By tradition, the host of a formal tea ceremony uses a new, previously unused . are most often monochromatic and unpatterned, but variations exist. There are different colours for men (usually purple) and women (orange or red), for people of different ages or skill levels, for different ceremonies and for different schools. The size and way of making was purportedly established by Sen Sōon, Sen no Rikyū's second wife.
are rectangular wallets in many cases shaped like a traditional envelope, with a flap that closes the wallet. They are used to carry personal items needed to participate in tea ceremony or tea practice, such as paper, a pick for cutting and eating sweets, a , a , and a fan. There are two sizes of corresponding to the two sizes of paper: a smaller one for women, and a larger one for men. Men's are generally less ornate and brightly coloured than women's, but this is not always the case.
A is a cloth approximately square, which, unlike a , is generally made of a rich, thick, brocade fabric with a woven pattern. Its construction is similar to that of a . In the Urasenke school, both the host and guests each carry one. If wearing kimono, it is kept in the breast of the kimono. Guests not wearing kimono might carry it in their . The is sometimes used by guests to protect the tea implements whilst examining them. Depending on the circumstances, the host may put one out with the tea.
refers to a variety of bags used for storing and other tea implements. They are traditionally made from silk, and are often patterned or brocaded. Extremely precious implements were often held in bags made out of rare old Chinese brocades. are secured with a silk cord, which is tied in prescribed ways.
Furniture
The is the original portable shelf unit used in the Japanese tea ceremony. The most orthodox style is the formal , finished in highly polished black lacquer. The lower board rests on the tatami, and there are four posts at the corners of this, supporting a shelf. The width of this unit, from side to side, is equal to the width of a (Kyoto-size) tatami.
A is a wooden board, usually lacquered, on which the main tea implements may be displayed in the tea room. The size derives from the size of the lower board of a .
is the term for the various kinds of boards on which the portable brazier () may be arranged in the tea room. They are classified by shape as large, half-size, small, or round. They are wooden, and may be finished with lacquer and/or decorated in various other manners. There are rules for what kind of board to use with what kind of brazier.
, literally "shelf/shelves," is a generic term for various types of shelving used in the tea ceremonies and placed on the host's mat. Each type of has its own name. The three basic categories are built-in (), suspended (), and portable shelves (). The latter, , are basically categorized as either large shelf units () or small shelf units ().
are made of various types of wood, the most formal style finished in highly polished black lacquer. Some include drawers or shelves enclosed by sliding doors. Tea utensils may be placed onto/into the before the start of a ceremony and/or at the end. are used only tea rooms of 4.5 tatami mats or larger.
Hearths
are relatively small portable braziers used to heat the kind of iron hot-water kettle called , which has a spout and handle across the top.
are portable braziers used in the tea room to heat the hot water kettle () to make the tea. They are commonly made of ceramic or metal, although there are rare examples of wooden as well.
are fire pits built into the floor of tea rooms and used in the cold season, for heating the hot water kettle () to make the tea. The frame that fits around it at the top is called , and usually is of lacquered wood. In the season when the is not in use, the frame is removed and the is covered with one of the tatami mats that form the surface of the floor, and is not visible.
An is a portable that is set on the floor and is used in circumstances when the room does not have a that can be used.
-related items
or
A or is a kettle resembling a teapot used for warming and serving . They are made of iron, tin or pottery.
literally meaning "hanging", refers to a painting or calligraphic work mounted on paper or textile, for hanging in the alcove. The is the centerpiece of the tea room. Zen calligraphic works are referred to as . In are particularly highly esteemed for .
is a term used for refined quality tea implements, mainly ceramics, produced in China particularly in the Song Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, and Ming Dynasty, which when imported to Japan were selected for their excellence and have been highly valued in Japan ever since. See also , .
is a term for tea utensils produced in the Korean Peninsula mainly during the Yi dynasty of Korea, occasionally compared with the above-mentioned . See
are ceramics made in Japan. More specifically, the term means "provincial ceramics," and does not include Kyoto-ware or Seto-ware ceramics.
Miscellaneous items
A is a relatively small bowl, usually made of copper, used for rinsing and washing . It is kept on the bamboo sink-covering in the .
A is a shaper for bamboo whisks. are made from wood or ceramic; a wet whisk is placed on the shaper and allowed to dry, restoring its shape. This item is used in the back room, and is not seen in the tea room.
Folding fan
(also known as ) are carried by all participants in a ceremony as a sign of respect. It is not opened and used for fanning. The fan, in its closed state, is placed in front of oneself when making formal statements or expressions of thanks, respect, apology, and such. During the main portions of a tea ceremony in which they are seated on the floor, guests place their fans on the floor directly behind themselves for instant use when required. For men, the standard length of meant for tea ceremony is approximately (6 ); for women, it is approximately (5 ).
If the circumstance involves being seated on the floor, the closed fan is placed on the floor in front of the knees, leaving enough space in between to place the hands for the attendant bow. If the circumstance involves being in a standing position, the closed fan is held in the right hand, against the front of the right thigh, paired with the left hand which is held against the front of the left thigh, for the standing bow. The fan is normally tucked in the , to be available for instant use when required.
are for resting the lid of the kettle on, and also for resting the water ladle () on. They are made of bamboo, ceramic, or metal. There are many styles.
There is a group of seven kinds of lid rests that are attributed to Sen no Rikyu (). They are:
(censer)
(five virtues tripod)
(iddle person at well)
(turban shell)
(crab)
(tree leaves)
is a metal tripod on which the kettle is set.
Flowers, together with their containers, are an important element of the decorations for the tea ceremony. The flowers arranged in the simple "thrown-in" () manner suitable for tea ceremony are called , and the containers for them are generically referred to as . may be of bronze or other metal, celadon and other types of ceramic, bamboo, or basketry. Bamboo came into being with the development of , as did of domestic Japanese ceramic ware such as Bizen ware and Shigaraki ware. Basketry usually are reserved for use in the warm season, when the will consist of an assortment of seasonal grassy flowers. The may be hung on the back wall of the , or on its main front pillar , in which cases the will have a ring attached to the back, or a small hole in the back, for the hook. Also, there are metal and bamboo designed to be hung by a chain from a hook in the ceiling of the . These are generally referred to as , and if they are boat-like, they are referred to as (suspended boat).
Incense
is white paper used for miscellaneous purposes. It is usually in the form of a pad of paper folded in half. The name indicates that it is paper kept handy in the bosom overlap of the kimono.
means "kettle mat". When the kettle is removed from the brazier or sunken hearth to conduct the charcoal-laying procedure (), the kettle is placed on a . Ones of woven material are called . Ones consisting of a special thick pad of paper are called . There are also ones of bamboo, called , which are for use in the preparation room.
is the term for the rinse-water receptacle used by the host in the tea room. Usually made of metal or ceramic, though there are some made of lacquered bentwood. Water that has been used to rinse the tea bowl is emptied into it. It is kept out of sight of the guests as much as possible, being the last item brought into the tea room, and the first item removed. While the is a necessary item for the tea ceremony, and is among the implements the host specially selects for the occasion, it is not among the "showpiece" items the guests are expected to specially notice.
is a tube or vessel used to store a cloth.
Screens
(sometimes shortened to ). A relatively low folding screen of two panels, which is set in the corner at the head end of the tea-making tatami in cases when the tea-making is done in a room larger than 4.5 tatami in floor space.
. A low fence-like device set at the head end of the tea-making tatami in cases when the tea-making is done in a room larger than 4.5 tatami in floor space or in an open area such as outdoors.
Pots
are pots, usually made of iron, in which the water used to make tea is heated.
are iron pots having a pouring spout and handle that crosses over the top. They are used for heating and pouring the hot water during certain tea ceremonies.
is a generic term for tea utensils produced outside Japan, Korea and China.
: items from the Philippines (Luzon)
: items from Vietnam
: items from Southeast Asia
: a type of simple unglazed ware from Southeast Asia
: a style of lacquer ware that entered Japan from Thailand
: an alloy of copper, lead, and tin. Some items entered Japan from Southeast Asia.
Smoking equipment
, the tray or box for the smoking set that the host provides the guests in the waiting room, at the waiting arbor, and in the tea room at the time of the "thin tea" service ().
, a container for the lit charcoal that serves as the lighter. Usually made of ceramic. The holds this .
, a bamboo tube that serves as the ash receptacle. The holds this .
, a long-stemmed smoking pipe. The host provides this with the .
Sweet-related items
, the "main sweet", is served before . They might be served in , stacked boxes of up to five with one lid, a sort of medium level of formality. How many are used would depend on the number of guests at the tea ceremony.
A or is a utensil used for cutting and eating sweets. There are two common types: a shorter metal style, and a longer wooden style called after the type of tree they are traditionally made from.
Tea bowls
are bowls used for making and drinking tea. They can be classified by country of origin, by potter or kiln, by shape, or by the type of tea they are designed to hold.
Tea containers
Tea containers refers to the small lidded caddies that are used to hold the powdered green tea () for the tea-making procedure () in .
The term literally translates as "tea implement," but in the vocabulary of it usually implies the small lidded caddies that are used to hold the for the tea-making procedure for (thin tea).
All tea containers for may be called . usually are of lacquered or plain wood, although not necessarily so. Commonly they are of a variety of shape called , and so all tend to be loosely referred to as . and other forms of are classified by size or shape.
The ceramic caddies usually used to hold the powdered green tea for the procedure to make (thick tea) are basically referred to as . They may also be referred to as . are classified according to country of origin: import (), Japan (), or "island-make" (). The ones are classified by potter, region, or kiln. All are also classified according to shape.
Tea scoops
; also called tea spoon(s), are used to transfer the powdered tea from the tea container () to the tea bowl ().
Typically, tea scoops are made of a narrow, thin piece of bamboo, although there are also those made of wood or ivory. They are generally about in length. The original ones imported to Japan from China were ivory. Tea masters in Japan have traditionally carved their own bamboo , providing them with a bamboo storage tube () as well as a poetic name () that will often be inscribed on the storage tube. The selection of the for use at a gathering will largely depend on its poetic name.
Trays
Various styles of trays are used in tea ceremony, including:
, a round black-lacquered tray with mother-of-pearl inlay of the eight Chinese divination symbols.
, a round tray having undulating rim like a mountain path ().
.
means "Japanese item"; an article produced in Japan. In , the term traditionally is used in contrast to or .
Water containers
A is a lidded container for fresh cold water used by the host in the tea room during ceremonies. The water is mainly used to replenish the water in the at the end of certain ceremonies. are generally made of ceramic, but wooden, glass and metal are also used.
If the is ceramic and has a matching lid of the same ceramic, the lid is referred to as a , or "matching lid". Often, a ceramic will have a custom-made lid made of lacquered wood, especially if it is a container originally lacking a matching lid.
The is one of the main objects in the aesthetic scheme of the objects the host selects for the particular occasion. are classified by their shape, place of make, and other characteristics.
A is a lidded water pitcher used to replenish the vessel for fresh water () at the end of certain ceremonies.
There are ones of metal, ones of ceramic, and ones of bentwood. There are two main kinds: and . The variety known as is cylindrical, has a spout and handle, and matching lid. It may be made of bentwood, lacquered wood, or ceramic; the variety known as is made of metal.
Water ladles
is a long bamboo ladle with a nodule in the approximate center of the handle. It is used to pour hot water into the tea bowl from the iron pot () and to transfer cold water from the fresh water container to the iron pot when required.
A does not require the use of a . Different styles are used for different ceremonies and in different seasons. A larger version that is made of cypress wood is used for the ritual rinsing of hands and mouth by guests before entering the tea room, or for use by the host in the back preparation area of the tea room (), in which case it distinguished as .
Whisks
are bamboo whisks used to prepare matcha. They are hand-carved from a single piece of bamboo. There are differences in their style according to the type of bamboo they are made from, the shape of the tines, the number of tines, the thickness of the bamboo, the length of the bamboo, the color of the thread that is woven around the bottom of the tines, and so on.
Different schools of prefer different styles and employ different styles depending on the particular kind of tea or tea-preparation style for which it is to be used. For instance, there are specific styles for preparing thin tea (), thick tea (), tea offerings in tea bowls, tea in tall cylindrical tea bowls, for including in a portable boxed tea set (), for outdoor tea-making, for New Year's, and for other special auspicious occasions.
There are also styles such as the ; the style attributed to Sen no Rikyū's son Dōan and referred to as the style, and other such "favored" () styles of famous tea masters, so that the styles have continued to increase.
Generally, the kind used for whisking thin tea () has 80, 100, or 120 fine tines, typically carved out of a flexible but robust bamboo such as Phyllostachys bambusoides (known as or ).
See also
History of tea in Japan
Japanese kitchen
References
Michiko, Suganuma. "Lacquer teaware".
Further reading
External links
Chadō
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense%20of%20Van%20%281915%29
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Defense of Van (1915)
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The defense of Van ( Vani herosamart) was the armed resistance of the Armenian population of Van against the Ottoman Empire's attempts to massacre the Ottoman Armenian population of the Van Vilayet in the 1915 Armenian genocide. Several contemporaneous observers and later historians have concluded that the Ottoman government deliberately instigated an armed Armenian resistance in the city and then used this insurgency as the main pretext to justify beginning the deportation and slaughter of Armenians throughout the empire. Witness reports agree that the Armenian posture at Van was defensive and an act of resistance to massacre. The self-defense action is frequently cited in Armenian genocide denial literature; it has become "the alpha and omega of the plea of 'military necessity'" to excuse the genocide and portray the persecution of Armenians as justified.
Background
During the late Ottoman period, Van was an important center of Armenian cultural, social, and economic life. Khrimian Hayrik established a printing press in Van, and thereafter launched Vaspurakan Ardzvi (Eagle of Vaspourakan), which was the first periodical publication in Armenia. In 1885, the Armenakan party was established in the city of Van. Soon after, the Hnchak and Dashnak parties, whose missions were the overthrow of the Ottoman rule in Eastern Anatolia (Six vilayets), established branches in the city.
Throughout 1895–96 Armenians in the Ottoman Empire suffered a wave of violence commonly known as the Hamidian massacres. While Van largely avoided the massacres in 1895, the Ottomans sent a military expedition in June 1896. The Armenians of Van were initially able to defend themselves, but upon agreeing to disarm in exchange for safety, massacres continued, ending in the deaths of over 20,000 Armenians.
The pre-war (World War I) demographic statistics of the Van Province, Ottoman Empire had different values based on different sources. In 1914, Armenians lived on the shores of Lake Van. The major Armenian inhabited localities were the city of Van (consisting of three sub-sections which were Havasor (Gürpınar), Timar (Gedikbulak) and Archak (Erçek)). Armenians also lived in the district of Erciş (Artchesh, Akants) which was in the northern part of the province, as well as the districts of Çatak (Shatakh), Başkale (Bashkaleh) and Bahçesaray (Moks) in the southern part of the province. In an 1890 census, there were 79,998 Armenians living in the province. That same census showed the percentage Armenian population located in the city of Van to be 35%, and the district Armenian populations to be 64% in Ercis, 37% in Catak, 18% in Bashkale, and 48% in Bahcesaray. The 1912 local Patriarch statistic stated that the Armenian population was 110,000. The original 1914 Ottoman census stated that Armenian population was 67,797 and Muslim population was 179,422. However, the 1914 official census was challenged both on Armenian and Muslim population sizes. It was found that the original 1914 Ottoman statistics claimed to be under-representative for the children, and the corrected values for the Van province were stated as 313,000 Muslim, 130,000 Armenian (25%), and approximately 65,000 Syrian, Chaldean, Nestorian and others. Population estimates for the city of Van proved more difficult to analyze. Extensive population movements in and around the city happened due to the deterioration of the economic and political situation before World War I. Ottoman population count at the time recorded 79,000 Muslims and 34,000 Armenians in the city of Van, including the immediate surrounding areas. The city of Van's Armenian population was estimated to be about 30,000 people in the fall of 1914.
Prelude: Caucasian campaign
On 30 October 1914, after an exchange of fire during the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I. The province of Van was positioned between Persia and the Caucasus, and the most accessible routes that linked Persia, Russia, Mesopotamia and Anatolia lay through this province. giving Van high strategic value as a consequence of its location.
The first engagement of the Caucasus Campaign took place on 2 November 1914 with the Bergmann Offensive. The Russians collected victories along the Kara Kilise (renamed Karaköse in November 1919, present day Ağrı) – Beyazit (Doğubayazıt) line. Beyazit was located in the north of the Province of Van, and Armenian volunteers provided aid as auxiliary forces to Russian regiments while capturing these regions.
During December 1914, Nicholas II of Russia visited the Caucasian front. In the presence of the head of the Armenian Church and alongside Alexander Khatisyan president of the Armenian National Bureau in Tiflis, Nicholas II stated: "Armenians from all countries are hurrying to enter the ranks of the glorious Russian Army, and with their blood, to serve the victory of the Russian Army... Let the Russian flag wave freely over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, let all the peoples (Christians) remaining under the Turkish yoke receive freedom through your will. Let the Armenian people of Turkey, who have suffered for the faith of Christ, receive resurrection for a new and free life...". Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha wanted to encircle the Russian forces between Sarikamish and Ardahan. The Battle of Sarikamish (29 December 1914 – 4 January 1915) was a disastrous defeat for Enver Pasha. For their role in this success, the Armenian volunteers received credit as natives of the region, well adjusted to the climate, familiar with every road and mountain path, and motivated to wage fierce and resolute combat. The Armenian volunteers were small, mobile units, well adapted to semi-guerrilla warfare. They worked efficiently as scouts, though they also took active roles in many conventional engagements. Armenian volunteers challenged the Ottoman operations during critical times: "the delay they caused, enabled the Russian Caucasus Army to concentrate sufficient force around Sarikamish". After he returned to Constantinople, Enver blamed his defeat on Armenians living in the region, for actively siding with Russia.
On 11 December 1914 Ottoman preparations for their Persian Campaign began with Enver Pasha's order to form a provisional force that would be channeled into the planned theatre using the roads in Van Province. Whilst Turkish preparations were underway, the Russians transferred Armenian General Tovmas Nazarbekian to the Russian-occupied Persian Azerbaijan. Theodore G. Chernozubov's Persian Cossack Brigade had been operationally deployed in Persia since 1906. During this period, the Ottoman authorities distributed 24,000 rifles to Kurds in Persia and the Van province.
The Ottoman 1st Expeditionary Force was assigned to Chief of Intelligence of the Ottoman General Headquarters, Staff Lieutenant Colonel Kâzim Karabekir Bey. The 5th Expeditionary Force was assigned to Staff Lieutenant Colonel Halil Bey, who was the uncle of Enver Pasha and would defeat the British at Kut al Amara on 29 April 1916.
The 1st Expeditionary Force was structurally self-sufficient, capable of independent operations, supplemented with the 7th and 9th Infantry Regiments, a cavalry detachment, a field hospital, a transportation unit, an intelligence section, a mountain howitzer battalion with two batteries, a telegraph section, a field battery, an equipment repair battalion, a replacement depot and transportation assets. On 10 January 1915, while the 1st Expeditionary Force was on its way to Persian Azerbaijan, the original plan was scrapped. Due to Turkish losses suffered at the disastrous battle of Sarikamish, the 1st Expeditionary Force found itself assigned to the 3rd Army. On 11 January 1915 the 5th Expeditionary Force was ordered north to Erzurum and eleven days later the 1st Expeditionary Force was ordered there as well. The Van Gendarmerie Regiment (police force) under the command of Staff Major Köprülü Kâzım Bey (Özalp), who would become the Minister of National Defence and Speaker of Grand National Assembly of Turkey, was the only force available to the Persian frontier. Earlier, on 14 December 1914, Van Mobile Gendarmerie Division had assumed the role of securing the road to Persia through the Qotur valley (Qotur Pass). This paramilitary formation was lightly equipped with artillery and machine guns, being primarily suited for internal security functions rather than for the invasion of a neighboring country.
In addition to these military activities, during the period of 1914–1915 American and German missionaries present in the area reported occurrences of massacres of the Armenian population. Such massacres intensified immediately prior to the uprising. According to one source, all of the 52 Armenian villages near Beyazit and Eleşkirt were raided, pillaged and destroyed by the Hamidiye cavalry regiments.
Forces
After the disastrous depletion of the 3rd Army in the Battle of Sarikamish, the gendarmerie, originally charged with police duties among civilian populations, was transferred to the 3rd Army in an attempt to restore combat effectiveness of the Ottoman Army's operational military forces. On 24 February 1915, the Ottomans were forced to send the Harput, Diyarbakir, and Bitlis gendarmerie units to the city of Van. There were 52,000 Ottoman troops in the Caucasus war zone during this period, with 75% located at the northern war zone, beyond the province of Van. The Ottoman units in the Van province consisted of Van Gendarmerie subdivisions that remained under the control of the Governor. The Van Gendarmerie Division also contained the artillery unit under Rafael de Nogale. The 36th Infantry Division was assembled from Mesopotamia under orders to control the southern part, near Lake Van. The 1st Expeditory Force held the front to the south of Lake Van.
One battalion, dubbed "the butcher battalion ()" numbered some 5,000 men.
The Armenian population in the city had taken measures as well. The city management had established a unified authority ("The Military Defense Authority") consisting of Armenak Ekarian, Aram Manukian, Kaytsak Arakel, Bulgaratsi Gregory, Gabriel Semerjian, Hrant Galikian and Panos Terlemezian. Support services were set up and distribution of food, medical aid, and arms shop (an established manufacture of gunpowder and arms that was capable of casting two guns), were organized. The Women's Union was founded at this time, mainly engaged in manufacturing clothing for combatants. In the face of imminent danger, representatives of various Armenian political parties (Ramkavar, Dashnaks) rallied together. The Van defenders numbered no more than 1500 combatants, who had only 505 rifles and 750 Mauser pistols and a small supply of ammunition. The Military Defense Authority issued orders to use ammunition with extra caution. The Aykesdan neighborhood was divided into 7 sectors of defense, with 79 distinct positions. Researcher Thomas De Waal states that "it has been called both a rebellion and a heroic act of resistance by Armenians against a government that intended to kill them" and "it had elements of both".
Timeline
The most important change during the defense of Van was the transfer of Governor Hasan Tahsin Pasha to Erzurum and his replacement with Djevdet Bey. Djevdet Bey was the brother-in-law of Enver Pasha, and was accompanied by Rafael de Nogales Méndez. De Nogales was assigned with the permission of the 3rd Army's commanding German officer to oversee the Ottoman Gendarmerie units under the new governor. The Armenian leaders were Aram Manukian, the regional party leader of Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), Armenak Yekarian from the ranks of Armenakans, Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan), a member of the ARF, and Arshak Vramian, he deputy of the Ottoman Parliament from Van. Vramian was also an old classmate of Djevdet's.
Tahsin wrote to Talat Pasha on 13 May 1915:
Djevdet's reign
During July 1914, Arshak Vramian, the deputy of the Van province, attended the negotiations with the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a liaison for the Armenian congress at Erzurum. The public conclusion of this congress was "Ostensibly conducted to peacefully advance Armenian demands by legitimate means". Armenian sources say that local Armenian leaders Aram Manukian, Arshak Vramian, Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan), and Armenak Yekaryan told the Armenians of Van to remain loyal to the Ottoman government and not to antagonize it. The Turkish CUP regarded the Armenian congress as a seedbed for establishing the decision for the Turkish feared Armenian insurrection. Edward J. Erickson concluded that after this meeting, the CUP was convinced of strong Armenian-Russian links, with Erickson surmising that these links included detailed plans for the detachment of the region from the Ottoman Empire. Later, in September 1914, Turkish military operations, which included the search for arms, ammunition and operational documents, began. On 20 October 1914, the Turkish 4th Reserve Cavalry Regiment, patrolling Hasankale, reportedly discovered rifles hidden in Armenian homes. During this period, large numbers of Armenians with weapons were moving into Mush, Bitlis, and Van. Erickson concluded that "before the war began, indicators of potentially violent intent accumulated, as the authorities found bombs and weapons hidden in Armenian homes". On the other hand, Nogales witnessed Ottoman army units photographing their own weapons and merely claiming that they had been found in Armenian houses and churches.
As early as 5 November 1914, a major attack by the Russians on the 3rd Army's defensive lines in the Van Province was under way. This offensive complicated Turkish perceptions of Armenian intentions. The Russians began larger operations toward Saray and Van by 19 November. In November, the Turkish Gendarmerie units of the provincial security apparatus of the Governors changed hands, reverting to Turkish military command. This change included the units commanded by the governor of Van. The Van Gendarmerie and Van reserve cavalry divisions were assigned to the Third Army. The Van Gendarmerie Division was placed under the command of Major Ferid, while Governor Djevdet kept only a small contingent.
During December 1914, Djevdet Bey issued orders to secure the west of the province of Van, as Ottoman forces moved to start the Persian Campaign. CUP negotiators were sent to Erzurum and Van before Djevdet Bey left the city. These negotiators and Djevdet Bey wanted to test the loyalty of the Van Armenians. After their first attempt with the Armenian Congress, they wanted to see once again if they would agree to stage an uprising in Russian Armenia. Djevdet demanded that Armenians furnish 4,000 volunteers, according to conscription in the Ottoman Empire. The Armenians refused to do this. Clarence Ussher states that "it was clear that Djevdet's goals were to massacre the able bodied men of Van so as there would be no defenders, as he had done in the villages under the pretexts of arms searches, searches that had turned into massacres. The Armenians, parlaying to gain time, offered to furnish five hundred soldiers and to pay exemption money for the rest." The Armenian conscription became an issue again when Djevdet returned to the city in April, during the Armenian Easter of 1915. Djevdet asked one more time for the Armenians to furnish conscripts to be used for the establishment of Ottoman fortifications. Ussher would say "the Armenians who had practically decided to give the Vali [Jevdet] the four thousand men he had demanded, now dared not do so for they felt certain he intended to put the four thousand to death." Djevdet did not receive any Armenian soldiers from the city of Van after either requests.
Persian Azerbaijan had a large Christian population, mostly Armenian and Assyrian. Many of them fled with the retreating Russian army in a winter trek to the Russian border town of Julfa. Those that remained endured a period of looting and massacre; many villages were plundered and destroyed. After an unsuccessful campaign led by Djevdet Bey to capture Khoi, north-west of Tabriz, Djevdet ordered the killing of about 800 people—mostly old men, women and children—in the Salmas district (to the north-east of Lake Urmia) in early March.
On 25 February 1915, the 3rd Army and the all Gendarmerie commands, including the Van Gendarmerie, received Directive 8682, titled "Increased Security Precautions". This directive noted increased dissident Armenian activity in Bitlis, Aleppo, Dortyol and Kayseri, and identified Russian and French influence and activities in these areas. The Operations Division directed that the Third and the Fourth Armies increase their surveillance and security measures. To contrast the directive, Felix Guse, commander in chief of the 3rd Army, wrote that there was no proof that the Armenians had planned or had any intentions of mounting a general uprising.
On 23 March 1915, the 1st Expeditionary Force arrived in the vicinity of the city of Van and later stayed to the south of Van during the conflicts.
Early stages
Prior to these events, killings of Armenian males in the Van region were reported by neutral observers.
Djevdet's extremism towards Armenians was more open: "a man of dangerously unpredictable moods, friendly one moment, ferociously hostile the next, capable of treacherous brutality", he had been nicknamed "Nalband Bey" (Lord Blacksmith) after atrocities committed at Başkale in which he had nailed horseshoes onto his victims' feet.
Upon returning to Van, Djevdet "instigated a reign of terror in the outlying villages of the province on the pretext of searching for arms." In the process, the Ottoman gendarmeries killed many Armenians. The Armenian leaders of Van in the meanwhile implored the people to endure in silence. "Better," they said, "that some villages be burned and destroyed unavenged than give the slightest pretext to the Moslems for a general massacre.". However, there were also reports at the same time of Turks lynching Kurdish soldiers responsible for particularly harsh atrocities.
During this time, the massacres, under the pretext of an arms search, continued. Later, Armenians attacked an Ottoman patrol, to Djevdet's anger. Alarmed, Armenians in Van requested Dr. Clarence Ussher, a missionary and representative of the United States, to mediate between them and Djevdet. Djevdet attempted to violate the diplomatic immunity of Ussher's compound by trying to garrison 50 Ottoman soldiers inside. It became clear to Ussher that mediation attempts would be futile. However, reports at the time were also showing that the Armenians had begun to gather volunteers for an organized defense.
On 15 April, Armenians had mustered a force at Erciş (Ardjish) by Gendarmerie. Earlier, the tax collectors, accompanied by gendarmeries, went to north Van province to count the sheep which dictated the villagers' tax rates. Erciş was an administrative unit with 80 Armenian villages at north of Van. The tax collector gave the Sultan's recital of order regarding the calculation of tax values. Disagreement ensued between the villagers and the tax collector. The disagreement turned to conflict and extended to the gendarmerie unit in Banat, reaching other centers from there. Violence in the countryside reached a peak on 19 April, where 2,500 males in Erciş killed in a single day.
On 17 April, Djevdet ordered his battalions to annihilate Shatakh. The ill-disciplined force instead attacked Armenian villages located nearer to Van. On the same day, Arshak Vramian was arrested. A schoolmaster was also arrested in Shadakh in mid-April. There had been a local demonstration in his favor. Several prominent Armenians, led by Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian (Ishkhan), went to this town at the request of Djevdet. Nikoghayos Poghos Mikaelian and other prominent Armenians were stopped midway at Hirj and murdered on 17 April. Among the three leaders of the ARF only Aram Manukian escaped. Djevdet also took action against the leaders of the ARF in Van. For the resistance, this was a sign that the city was not safe. Djevdet was believed to have thought that, by killing leaders of the Armenian parties, he would destroy the cohesion of the resistance. The minister of interior Mehmed Talat Bey with his order on 24 April (known by the Armenians as the Red Sunday) requested the arrest of the leaders of Armenian community in the Ottoman capital and other centers. They were held in two holding centers near Ankara. Arshak Vramian was sent to the capital with a guard, and was reported to have been killed along the way.
City under siege, 20 April
On 20 April, the Ottoman soldiers seized an Armenian woman who wanted to enter the city. Two Armenian men that came to help were shot dead. Armenians attacked an Ottoman patrol to Djevdet's anger. This act led the Ottoman military forces to open fire upon the Armenian quarters of the city with artillery, effectively laying it under siege. This section of the city was called "Western Garden City".
Armenian civilian forces fought in two disconnected sets of battles inside the city of Van. These battles were in the "Old City" (Kale District) and in the "Garden City" (Aygestan). The conflict in Garden City consisted of skirmishes along the Armenian and Muslim quarters. Both sides had fortified buildings and trenches along the opposite side. The Armenian church at Arak was burned by Djevdet's forces. The initial line was held by Armenian civilian forces throughout the conflict. As part of their strategy, they also attacked the nearby Ottoman barracks, but besides this, they did not take much offensive action. Though enemy artillery was largely ineffectual, they had superiority in men and arms.
On 25 April, the first small group of refugees from the country side arrived to the city through the road to Shushantz which was kept open by the Armenian civilian forces.
The Armenian defenders of Van, under the leadership of Aram Manukian, established a local provisional government dealing with defense, provisions, administration, and foreign relations, to ensure that the neutrality of foreign property was respected. Judges, police, and health officials were appointed. It soon became urgent to get a messenger out to inform the Russians of events. Several messengers, with messages sewn into their garments, were sent out, and twelve of them got through.
Russian relief, May
On 28 April, Nikolai Yudenich ordered 2nd Transbaikal Cossack Brigade of General Trukhin and the Araratian volunteer brigade commanded by Sargis Mehrabyan (Vartan) to be dispatched from Yerevan towards Van. One of the twelve dispatched Armenian messengers reached Persia. An Armenian volunteer unit commanded by Andranik Ozanian, and a division commanded by Chernoroyal dispatched from Persia, were also sent on 8 May.
On 30 April, the number of refugees in the city totaled 15,000, the greater part of the refugees those fleeing from the countryside as they began to pour into city. The Armenians in the city at this time reached 30,000 residents, and 15,000 refugees in an area of roughly one square kilometer of the Armenian Quarter and suburb of Aigestan. Djevdet allowed Armenian survivors from the villages to enter the city through his lines. It is stated that this strategy was aimed to subdue the defenders with more ease. After easily fighting off the initial assaults, Armenian forces had great problems with their supply of ammunition. Armenians employed all sorts of devices to draw the fire of the enemy and waste their ammunition in turn. Their bullet and cartridge manufacturing reached 2,000 a day. The defenders also improvised mortars and barricades, and reportedly made use of anything they could find.
On 6 May, a major Russian offensive toward Anatolia developed. The Ottoman defensive lines consisted of the X and XI Corps and the 5th Expeditionary Force at the north flank located beyond the province of Van. The north flank of the Russian advance, from Tortum valley toward Erzurum, was not part of the operations in Van. However, as part of this Russian offensive, the Ottoman 1st Expeditionary Force and the Van Cavalry Brigade were pushed back from their initial positions by Russian soldiers and Armenian voluenteers advancing toward the city of Van. On 12 May, the town of Ardjish at the north of province of Van was relieved. Djevdet sent one cannon and two hundred men from the city of Van to face this group at the Bargiri (Muradiye). However, it was a late move and far too weak to stop this advance. On 6 May, the conflicts around the citadel of Van (in the Kale District) were over.
On the evening of 14 May, a group of ships filled with Turkish women and children evacuating the region sailed from Van. More ships followed the next day. On 16 May, an Ottoman bombardment of 46 shells covered the retreat of the Turkish units. At the same time, there were reports of up to 6,000 Armenians being killed. Contemporary New York Times reports during April–June 1915 attributed the massacres and fighting to Kurdish auxiliary forces rather than Turkish units.
Djevdet abandoned the city on the night between 16 and 17 May and retreated toward Bashkale, joining the 1st Expeditionary Force under the command of Kaymakam Halil Bey (Kut).
On 17 May, Armenian civilian forces officially had control of the town. At the same time, the advance guard of the Russian forces, which pushed the 1st and 3rd Ottoman Cavalry Brigades from the city of Manzikert since 11 May, reached the northern area of the province and extended up to the shores of Lake Van, and the advance guard of Russian forces already in the town pushed the Ottoman forces with a continued press to the south of city. These retreating Ottoman forces experienced logistical shortages caused by the interdiction of lines of communication. Soon after, the Russian regulars followed them.
According to Ussher, on 18 May, the group dispatched from Persia reached the city of Van. By 20 May, the main centers of the Van province were occupied by Russians. On 23 May 1915, a detachment of Russian soldiers occupied the town of Van, thus bringing eagerly awaited relief to the Armenians, who were besieged by the Ottomans. However, the Russians were busy fighting against the Ottomans and they did not have control of the countryside. The only power left in the countryside consisted of Armenian civilian forces.
General Trukhin's 2nd Transbaikal Cossack Brigade did not reach Beghrikale until 24 May. General Nazarbekov's 2nd Caucasian Rifle Brigade had been ordered to support Truhin was at Bashkale on 7 May. On 31 May, Trukhin entered city. On the same day, Truhin's patrol and Nazarbekov's advance-guard came into contact between Van and Hoshap.
General Yudenich received the keys to the city and citadel after his arrival. He confirmed the Armenian provisional government. Aram Manukian was appointed the governor of Van province. Armenakis Yekarian became the police chief. Fighting shifted farther west for the rest of the summer with the city of Van secure. Upon the arrival of the Russians the Ottomans retreated west of Lake Van in the direction of Bitlis.
The aftermath
Throughout June and July, as Turkish and Russian forces battled to the north of the Van region, thousands of Armenians from Mush and other neighbouring provinces started flooding into the city of Van. There were as many as 250,000 Armenians crowded into the city. This included people who broke away from the deportation columns as they passed the vicinity of the province on their way to Mosul. Before the crisis, the city of Van had housed and fed no more than 50,000 people.
On 5 June 1915, the northern shores of lake Van were devoid of Ottoman forces. The Russians, advancing on lines to the north of Lake Van, pushed further west toward the Turkish city of Mush. As part of this new drive, the Russian army redeployed forces from the province of Van around the north side of Lake Van to the town of Manzikert, intending a new offensive into Anatolia, toward Mush. The losses taken by the Ottoman 3rd Army during the preceding Enver winter offensive had created a salient in the Turkish southern flank of their Caucasus front, a salient that created an initial opportunity for Russian forces. However, this opportunity was short lived and six weeks later the Russian forces suffered reverses that would have severe consequences for the Armenian population in the city of Van.
On 11 July, during a reorganisation of Turkish forces, Van province was assigned the responsibility of the Right wing group (Sağ Cenah Grubu) of the 3rd Army, along with the other southern provinces. Mirliva Abdulkerim Pasha was assigned as commander and Enver Pasha ordered this formation to be an independent operational entity of the 3rd Army. Mirliva Abdulkerim Pasha managed to stop the Russian advance by 16 July.
The first evacuation, July 1915
On 16 July, the Ottoman Army, having concentrated more forces than the Russians, thwarted a planned Russian offensive and pushed the Russian Army back at the Battle of Manzikert (10–26 July 1915), capturing the city. There then followed the Battle of Kara Killisse which saw the Russian recapture of Manzikert. As a result of these operations to the north of Lake Van, the Russians evacuated their remaining combat forces from the city of Van. Armen Garo, and his assistant, Khetcho asked General Abatzieff to permit the Armenian inhabitants in the Van area to move with the Russian army toward Iğdır. This request was rejected on the grounds that the movement of vital Russian army transports could not done promptly if hampered by refugees. For eight consecutive days during July, General Nikolaeff kept the Armenian leaders idle. The Russian General told them every day that he would not retreat under any circumstances, and that therefore it was entirely needless to remove the people.
On 18 July, General Nikolaeff sent a dispatch to Aram Manukian, and Sargis Mehrabyan (Vartan) for evacuation. General Trokin was in the city at this time. He offered to evacuate the Armenian population to Russian territory through the northern passages. General Trokin received a dispatch just after five hours to leave the city and exit through Persia. This left the Armenian volunteers as the only defenders of the Armenian refugees. "The panic was indescribable. After a long resistance to Djevdet Bey, after the city's liberation, after an establishment of an Armenian governorship, all was blighted." Armenian civilian forces drew the attention of four Ottoman divisions and tens of thousands of Kurds during their retreat. The battalions of Armenian volunteers took no active part in the battles of July. They were undertaking the heavy duty of rear guard work for the Russian army and the Armenian refugees in the district of Van.
On 4 August, Russian forces from Van made an exit toward Persia and took defensive positions at the Bargiri, Saray and Hoshap districts of Van province. The refugee group following the Russian forces were stopped by Kurdish forces while they crossed the mountain passes to the north of Pass of Beghrikale. At the Pass of Berkri Kale, the Armenian refugees suffered major casualties. Refugees that reached the other side were assisted by Armenian relief agencies.
On 5 August, Russian forces making an exit toward the Russian Caucasus from Van retreated into Russian territory, the Russian retreat followed up by the Ottoman Right Wing. Abdülkerim Pasha had earlier sought permission before leaving the Van Province to advance into Russian territory. Enver Pasha personally gave the order to advance up to Eleşkirt and Kara Kilise and clear the border region of all Russian elements.
In early August 1915, nearly 200,000 refugees fleeing behind the retreating Russian forces swarmed into Transcaucasia. There were two major groups of refugees that left the city; one group which left under the protection of Armenian volunteers; and another group which tried to leave by their own means. Nearly 150,000 Armenian inhabitants were compelled to leave all their property at the mercy of enemy fire and flee toward Yerevan under the protection of volunteers. The refugees under volunteer protection suffered a loss between 8,000 and 10,000 men, women, and children. More than 5,000 refugees died fighting tribal attacks in the mountain crossings. As many as 40,000 Armenians perished during this flight, the majority being those in columns lacking volunteer protection. The commander of Armenian volunteer units later claimed: "If the Russian general had given an opportunity of seven or eight days to organize the retreat, it would have been possible to direct the people to Erivan without the loss of a single life.
On 29 September 1915, the Ottoman Army left the city of Van after staying for roughly one month. The Ottoman retreat was forced following defeats suffered by their armies in other regions of the Caucasus front, and in part because of the relative isolation during the World War I era of Van from Anatolian Turkey. Some of the Armenian residents who escaped to Transcaucasia returned.
On 19 January 1916, the Turkish defeat at the Battle of Koprukoy saw Russian forces advance once again towards Erzurum, a city laying halfway between Lake Van and the Black Sea. The Province of Van was under the Administration of Western Armenia until 1918. The conflicts between 1916 and 1918 were shifted to the west, to the north-west at the battle of Mush, and to the south-west at the battle of Bitlis of the Van Province.
The final evacuation, April 1918
The Russian Revolution of 1917 changed the situation in the region again. The Russian armies began to disintegrate. Van was completely cut off from the Allies. The British Army did not move very far beyond Baghdad in the Mesopotamian campaign. Armenians of Van attempted to hold their ground and were joined in the defense by Assyrians.
On 3 March 1918, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk stipulated that the border be pulled back to prewar levels and the cities of Batum, Kars, and Ardahan to be transferred to Ottoman Empire. Early in 1918 the Ottoman 3rd Army moved to an offensive against Armenians. Vehib Pasha executed the offensive in three wings. On the right wing, Van province was assigned to IV Corps. IV Corps assignment was to extend to Beyazit.
In April 1918, Armenians of Van resisted in Van one more time. On 4 April, the city of Van started changing hands several times. The Ottoman Army again controlled of city of Van by 6 April, followed by Beyazit on 14 April. Armenians of Van were eventually forced to evacuate and withdraw from the province of Van. Armenians of Van retreated eastward toward Persian Azerbaijan. They made a stand near Dilman. They repulsed the Ottomans once there, at the Battle of Dilman (1918), but, on being attacked again, were compelled to retreat southward around Lake Urmiah. In pursuit of the Van Armenians and Assyrian mountaineers, the Ottoman 3rd Army clashed with Urmieh Assyrians, which made them refugees as well, in this retreat southward toward Mesopotamia.
During July 1918 the British Army occupied the greater portion of Mesopotamia during the Mesopotamian Campaign, as well as a large part of Persian Azerbaijan during the Persian Campaign. Preparations were made for the establishment of a large camp for Armenian and Assyrian refugees near Bakubah, Iraq.
During the first week of September 1918, retreating Armenians from Van came to the Bakubah refugee camp in parties of 1,000 or 2,000, by road and by train. Many of them were suffering from dysentery, typhus and relapsing fever, and there was a small epidemic of smallpox among the children. There were many who died along the road because of weakness and starvation. This went on through September and the first half of October, until about 40,000 had been received in all. Towards the end of September it was decided to raise four battalions from among the Armenians on the lines of an Indian infantry battalion. The 2nd Battalion was established by Van Armenians. The 3rd Battalion was established by Armenians from other regions. The G.O.C. North Persian Force decided to locate the 2nd Battalion around Senna, while the 3rd Battalion moved to Bijar.
On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros and military operations ended.
Results
Reports on self-defense
The consulates of the United States, Germany, and Austria-Hungary, as well as a number of Ottoman officials, recorded and documented reasons for the Van uprising:
On 15 April 1915, the German ambassador in Constantinople, reported:
The Divisional General and Vice Marshal and Austrian Military Attaché and Military Plenipotentiary to the Ottoman Empire said:
The governor-general of the Ottoman Empire in Erzurum, Tahsin Bey wrote that:
Elizabeth Barrows Ussher, Christian missionary and wife of Clarence Ussher wrote:
Grace Knapp, Christian missionary:
An official of the Turkish Government stated:
Ibrahim Avras, a Van deputy in the Ottoman parliament, was in the city at the time, and reported that the CUP was secretly provoking people to attack Armenians.
Casualties
On 15 May 1915, the Russian consul at the city of Van reported that 6,000 Armenians had been massacred at Van, which has been the scene of so many similar outrages during the last twenty years.
Henry Morgenthau referring to Doctor Ussher, "after driving off the Turks, Russians cremated the bodies of Armenians who had been murdered in the province, with the result that 55,000 bodies were burned". The systematic massacre of 25,000 Armenians in the Bashkala district, of whom less than 10 per cent, were said to have escaped, appeared to have been ordered.
Though Armenian refugees were the focus of attention of the Western powers and all the relief efforts, most of the Armenian deaths still occurred in the refugee camps, where the casualty rate was as high as 300–400 a day in the Russian Caucasus from starvation and diseases, as reported by the British Consul in the area.
Atrocities
Most of killings were attributed to Circassians and Kurds, although some reports state that Turkish troops also took part. Rafael De Nogales, a Venezuelan officer fighting for the Turks, mentions in his memoirs that Ottoman officials had received orders to exterminate all Armenian males of twelve years of age and older. According to Ussher, on 19 April, Djevdet issued an order throughout the Van province, which read: "The Armenians must be exterminated. If any Muslim protects a Christian, first, his house shall be burnt; then the Christian killed before his eyes, then his [the Muslim's] family and then himself." Djevdet was later accused of war crimes at the Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 against the Armenians during operations around the city of Van during the spring of 1915.
Cultural references
The resistance occupies a significant place in Armenian national identity because it symbolizes the Armenians' will to resist. The 2002 film Ararat, directed, written, and co-produced by Atom Egoyan re-stages (with limited means) some fictionalized events of the defense of Van. Ararat won several awards. To commemorate the defenders of the battle a memorial was created during the 1970s in Soviet Armenia in Agarak, Talin village.
See also
Ottoman Armenian population
Six vilayets
Occupation of Turkish Armenia
Notes
References
Bibliography
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"Fresno Armenians", by Wilson Wallace, Ph.D. 1965 M (Michael) Minassian
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1915 in Armenia
1915 in the Ottoman Empire
Armenian resistance during the Armenian genocide
Battles of the Caucasus Campaign
Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire
Van vilayet
History of Van, Turkey
April 1915 events
May 1915 events
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Jones v. Flowers
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Jones v. Flowers, 547 U.S. 220 (2006), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States involving the due process requirement that a state give notice to an owner before selling his property to satisfy his unpaid taxes. The Court ruled, 5-3, that after a mailed notice was returned unclaimed, a state was required by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to take additional reasonable steps to notify the owner before the sale could proceed. The Court's opinion was delivered by Chief Justice John G. Roberts, his fourth majority opinion after his confirmation to the Court in 2005 and his first to provoke any dissenting opinions.
The Court had last addressed the issue of notice in Dusenbery v. United States, which held that the government need only take steps reasonably calculated to provide notice even if actual notice is not achieved. The four justices who dissented in Dusenbery formed the majority with Roberts in Jones v. Flowers, distinguishing the prior case on the basis that the government in Dusenbery did not know that its method of notice had failed before the taking occurred. Justice Clarence Thomas, in dissent, believed the Court was instead undermining Dusenbery, which he argued implicitly dictated a result contrary to the majority's decision.
Background
Tax delinquency and sale
In 1967, Gary Jones purchased a house in Little Rock, Arkansas, in which he lived with his wife until they separated in 1993. Jones then moved into an apartment in Little Rock, and his wife continued to live in the house. Jones paid his mortgage each month for 30 years, and the mortgage company paid Jones' property taxes. However, after Jones paid off his mortgage in 1997, his wife failed to pay the property taxes, and the property was certified as delinquent.
In April 2000, Mark Wilcox, the Arkansas Commissioner of State Lands, attempted to notify Jones of his tax delinquency, and his right to redeem the property, by mailing a certified letter to Jones at the house. The packet of information stated that unless Jones redeemed the property, it would be subject to public sale two years later on April 17, 2002. Nobody was home to sign for the letter, and nobody appeared at the post office to retrieve the letter within the next 15 days. The post office returned the unopened packet to the Commissioner marked "unclaimed."
Two years later, and just a few weeks before the public sale, the Commissioner published a notice of public sale in the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. No bids were submitted, which permitted the State to negotiate a private sale of the property. Several months later, Linda Flowers submitted a purchase offer. The Commissioner mailed another certified letter to Jones at the house, attempting to notify him that his house would be sold to Flowers if he did not pay his taxes. Like the first letter, the second was also returned to the Commissioner marked "unclaimed." Flowers subsequently purchased the house at approximately a quarter of its fair market value. Immediately after the 30-day period for postsale redemption passed, Flowers had an unlawful detainer notice delivered to the property. The notice was served on Jones' daughter, who contacted Jones and notified him of the unpaid taxes and the tax sale.
State court proceedings
Jones filed a lawsuit in Pulaski County Circuit Court against the Commissioner and Flowers, alleging that the Commissioner's failure to provide notice of the tax sale and of Jones' right to redeem resulted in the taking of his property without due process. The Commissioner and Flowers moved for summary judgment on the ground that the two unclaimed letters sent by the Commissioner were a constitutionally adequate attempt at notice, and Jones filed a cross-motion for summary judgment. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the Commissioner and Flowers, concluding that the Arkansas tax sale statute, which set forth the notice procedure followed by the Commissioner, complied with constitutional due process requirements.
Jones appealed, and the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed the trial court's judgment. The court noted Supreme Court precedent stating that due process does not require actual notice, and that attempting to provide notice by certified mail satisfied due process in the circumstances presented.
Opinion of the Court
The Supreme Court granted certiorari to resolve a conflict among the Circuits and state supreme courts concerning whether the Due Process Clause requires the government to take additional reasonable steps to notify a property owner when notice of a tax sale is returned undelivered. The United States Solicitor General was granted leave to participate as amicus curiae, and argued in support of the Commissioner's position.
In a five-justice opinion delivered by Chief Justice John G. Roberts, the Court reversed the Arkansas Supreme Court and ruled that, under the circumstances, the State's sale of Jones' property violated due process. It held that "when mailed notice of a tax sale is returned unclaimed, the State must take additional reasonable steps to attempt to provide notice to the property owner before selling his property, if it is practicable to do so." Justice Clarence Thomas filed a dissent, arguing that the State's attempts went beyond any requirements the Court's prior precedents had established.
Roberts' majority opinion
Chief Justice Roberts wrote that considering the "extraordinary power" the State is exerting against a property owner, "[i]t is not too much to insist that the State do a bit more to attempt to let him know about it when the notice letter addressed to him is returned unclaimed." Though the method of using certified mail was in itself reasonably calculated to give notice, the knowledge that the State gained when the mail was returned unclaimed obligated it to take additional reasonable steps. However, "[i]n response to the returned form suggesting that Jones had not received notice that he was about to lose his property, the State did—nothing." The Court believed that "someone who actually wanted to alert Jones that he was in danger of losing his house would do more when the attempted notice letter was returned unclaimed, and there was more that reasonably could be done."
Reasonably calculated to give notice
The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution requires a State to provide an owner with notice and an opportunity to be heard before it may take his property and sell it for unpaid taxes. The Court had recently ruled in Dusenbery v. United States, that the government did not violate due process by sending notice to the jail where the property owner was imprisoned and allowing a prison official to sign for it, even though the prisoner never actually received the notice. Dusenbery established that due process did not require actual notice prior to a governmental taking of property, but instead only that the government attempt to give notice by a method "reasonably calculated, under all the circumstances," to inform all interested parties.
Based on Dusenbery as well as earlier cases, the State argued that once it provided notice reasonably calculated to apprise Jones of the impending tax sale by mailing him a certified letter, due process was satisfied. However, the Court pointed out that in each of those prior cases, the government had subsequently heard nothing back indicating that its attempts had failed. In Dusenbery, for example, the government knew that someone at the prison had signed for the letter. The knowledge that notice had failed was instead "a new wrinkle," and the question before the Court was therefore whether that knowledge constituted a circumstance that alters what notice is required. The Court believed that most federal courts of appeals and state supreme courts to have addressed this issue have decided that the government must do something more when it learns its attempt at notice has failed before it can sell real property in a tax sale. Many states also require by statute more than a simple notice by mail to the delinquent owner.
The means by which service of notice is attempted "must be such as one desirous of actually informing the absentee might reasonably adopt to accomplish it," Whether a particular method is adequate is determined by balancing the "interest of the State" against "the individual interest sought to be protected by the Fourteenth Amendment." In this case, the Court, emphasized, "we evaluate the adequacy of notice prior to the State extinguishing a property owner's interest in a home," which the Court considered "an important and irreversible prospect."
The Court did not believe that someone who actually desired to inform the owner would do nothing further when a certified letter is returned unclaimed, and satirized the State's position by analogy. "If the Commissioner prepared a stack of letters to mail to delinquent taxpayers, handed them to the postman, and then watched as the departing postman accidentally dropped the letters down a storm drain, one would certainly expect the Commissioner's office to prepare a new stack of letters and send them again. No one ‘desirous of actually informing’ the owners would simply shrug his shoulders as the letters disappeared and say ‘I tried.’ Failure to follow up would be unreasonable, despite the fact that the letters were reasonably calculated to reach their intended recipients when delivered to the postman."
The Court noted prior cases in which the government had been required to take notice of "unique information about an intended recipient" that it had known prior to its attempt at notice. In Robinson v. Hanrahan, , the Court had ruled that notice of forfeiture proceedings sent to a vehicle owner's home address was inadequate when the State knew that the property owner was in prison. Similarly, in Covey v. Town of Somers, , the Court held that notice of foreclosure by mailing, posting, and publication was inadequate when town officials knew that the property owner was incompetent and without a guardian's protection. The Court did not see a distinction between having such knowledge prior to attempting notice and having such knowledge after notice was sent but prior to the actual taking. Just as the government's knowledge in Robinson and Covey that notice pursuant to the normal procedure was ineffective triggered an obligation on the government's part to take additional steps to effect notice, the government's knowledge should similarly be taken into account in assessing the adequacy of notice in this case. Though Justice Thomas’ dissent characterized the State's knowledge that its notice was ineffective as "learned long after the fact," the Court pointed out that it had actually received the returned notice within three weeks; under Arkansas law, it had two years before it could proceed with the sale.
Additional reasonable steps
The Court proceeded to analyze whether there were additional reasonable steps that the State could have practicably taken to notify Jones of the tax sale. If there were such options for the State, the newspaper advertisement announcing the sale could not render notice adequate, because notice by publication was only permissible when it was not possible or practicable to give more adequate notice. If there were no such options for the State, "it cannot be faulted for doing nothing."
The Court believed that resending the notice by regular mail would have been a reasonable step, given that the return of the certified letter meant either that Jones was not home when the postman called, or that he no longer lived at that home. Regular mail would allow the letter to be left without a signature, and it would have made it possible for the letter to be forwarded to him. The State also could have simply posted a notice on the front door of the home or addressed the mail to "occupant," which are steps that most states require in their tax sale statutes. The Court believed that in either case, the current occupant of the home would be likely to read the notice and attempt to alert the owner, because a change in ownership would directly affect them. The Court observed that Jones had actually first learned of the tax sale after he was alerted by one of the occupants.
Though the Commissioner argued that even those additional steps were burdensome, the Court countered that it had instead undertaken "the burden and expense of purchasing a newspaper advertisement, conducting an auction, and then negotiating a private sale of the property." The Court considered the assertion of burden further undermined by the requirement in Arkansas that notice to homestead owners be accomplished by personal service if certified mail is returned, and the fact that Arkansas transfers the cost of notice to the taxpayer or the tax sale purchaser, The Commissioner offered no estimate of how many notice letters are returned, and the Court believed that nothing supported the dissent's assertion that the Commissioner must physically locate "tens of thousands of properties every year."
The Court also disagreed with the U.S. Solicitor General's argument that requiring further effort when the government learns that notice was unsuccessful would cause the government to favor methods "that do not generate additional information," such as relying entirely on regular mail instead of certified mail. The Court considered this unlikely because the government is always being asked to prove that notice is sent and received, and the documentation that certified mail provides gives the State protection against false claims that notice was never received. The Court noted that this protection "comes at a price—the State also learns when notice has not been received," information that under the circumstances of this case, the State cannot simply ignore.
The Commissioner also argued that further measures were not required because Jones had a legal obligation to keep his address updated, that he was on inquiry notice after failing to receive a tax bill and pay his property taxes, and that he was obliged to ensure that the occupants of his property would alert him if it were in jeopardy. Though acknowledging that Jones should have been more diligent regarding his property, the Court rejected that any of those conditions could amount to a forfeiture of his due process right to receive adequate notice. The method of certified mail furthermore made it impossible for the occupant to notify Jones, because only Jones could have signed for the letter.
The Court clarified that it was not its responsibility to dictate what form of service that the government should adopt, or to attempt to redraft a State's notice statute. Instead, "[t]he State can determine how to proceed in response to our conclusion that notice was inadequate here." The Court considered it sufficient for it to determine "that additional reasonable steps were available for Arkansas to employ before taking Jones' property."
Thomas' dissent
Justice Thomas dissented, arguing that under Court precedent, the State's notice attempts clearly satisfied due process requirements. He wrote that the title to property should not turn on "wrinkles" (as the Court had characterized the issue in this case) that Thomas believed were caused by Jones' own failure to protect his property. He further added that "[t]he meaning of the Constitution should not turn on the antics of tax evaders and scofflaws."
According to Thomas, the Court's inquiry should have ended with the conclusion that the State's chosen method of notice by certified mail was reasonably calculated to inform Jones of proceedings affecting his property interest. He argued that this finding was "reinforced by the well-established presumption that individuals, especially those owning property, act in their own interest." The State was accordingly free to assume that the address it had on record was correct and up-to-date, or that he had left a caretaker at the house who would inform him of the notice. Whether a method is reasonably calculated to give notice is furthermore determined at the time the notice is sent, a principle Thomas believed followed from Court precedent. He argued that the Court had abandoned this by basing its decision on information that was unavailable when notice was sent, and that all of its suggested reasonable methods were "entirely the product of post hoc considerations."
Thomas believed the Court's holding in Dusenbery that actual notice is not required implied that the government is not required to take additional steps when it becomes aware that its attempt at notice has failed. He accordingly characterized the Court's ruling as "little more than a thinly veiled attack on Dusenbery." Thomas stated that the majority's logic would require a State to consider additional means every time a doubt is raised as to whether notice has been achieved, imposing a requirement with "no natural end point" that Thomas thought effectively required "something close to actual notice."
Regarding the Court's "storm drain" hypothetical, Thomas thought it actually raised a more difficult question of "when notice is sent—at the precise moment the Commissioner places the mail in the postal carrier's hand or the split second later when he observes the departing carrier drop the mail down the storm drain. That more difficult question is not before us in this case because Arkansas learned long after the fact that its attempts had been unsuccessful."
Thomas wrote of the Court's proposed alternatives that, "aside from being constitutionally unnecessary, [they] are also burdensome, impractical, and no more likely to effect notice than the methods actually employed by the State." Regular mail lacks the paper trail of certified mail, and Thomas thought it was just as likely that mail addressed to "occupant" would be thrown out as junk mail as opened and read as the Court had speculated. He also stated that the Court had previously concluded that posting notices was "an inherently unreliable method."
Thomas observed that 18,000 parcels of delinquent real estate are certified each year in Arkansas, and that the Court's ruling would accordingly impose a burden on the State of locating thousands of delinquent property owners because of the "inefficiencies caused by delinquent taxpayers." Thomas instead believed that the Arkansas system requiring the property owner to maintain a current address with the state taxing authority was reasonable and sufficient.
Subsequent developments
Jones v. Flowers was characterized as "an almost paradigmatic case pitting an individual against the state." It was also said to be the second decision that year in which Roberts had "expressed frustration with a bureaucratic response to a serious concern."
The case was perceived as an interesting look into the new Roberts Court, as the new Chief Justice chose a decision for his fourth opinion that was contrary to the position of Bush administration lawyers, Justices Scalia and Thomas, "the court's two best-known conservatives," and Justice Anthony Kennedy, who was expected to be the Court's swing vote following the retirement of Justice Sandra Day O'Connor. This was the first majority opinion by Roberts to provoke any dissents.
See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 547
Footnotes
External links
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
United States civil forfeiture case law
2006 in United States case law
History of Little Rock, Arkansas
Foreclosure
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Canadian%20plants%20by%20genus
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List of Canadian plants by genus
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Below is a list of Canadian plants by genus. Due to the vastness of Canada's biodiversity, this page is divided.
Many of the plants seen in Canada are introduced by either intentionally or accidentally. N indicated native and X indicated exotic. Those plants whose status is unknown are marked with a ?.
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I J K | L | M | N | O | P Q | R | S | T | U V W | X Y Z
Ab
Abies
N Abies amabilis – Pacific silver fir, amabilis fir
N Abies balsamea – balsam fir
N Abies grandis – grand fir
N Abies lasiocarpa – subalpine fir
Abutilon
X Abutilon theophrasti – velvetleaf, butterprint, Indian mallow
Ac
Acalypha
N Acalypha virginica – Virginia copperleaf, Virginia threeseed mercury
Acanthospermum
X Acanthospermum hispidum – hispid greenstripe
Acer
X Acer campestre – hedge maple, field maple
X Acer ginnala – Amur maple, ginnala maple
N Acer negundo – Manitoba maple, box-elder, ashleaf maple
N Acer nigrum – black maple, black sugar maple, rock maple
N Acer pensylvanicum – striped maple, moose maple, goosefoot maple
X Acer platanoides – Norway maple, Schwedler maple, crimson king maple
X Acer pseudoplatanus – sycamore maple, Scottish maple, great maple
N Acer rubrum – red maple, swamp maple, scarlet maple
N Acer saccharinum – silver maple, soft maple, white maple, silverleaf maple, river maple
N Acer saccharum – sugar maple, hard maple
N Acer spicatum – mountain maple
N Acer × freemanii (A. rubrum × A. saccharinum) – Freeman's maple
Achillea
X Achillea filipendulina – fernleaf yarrow
N Achillea millefolium subsp. borealis – northern yarrow
N Achillea millefolium subsp. lanulosa – woolly yarrow
X Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium – common yarrow, milfoil
X Achillea ptarmica – false sneezewort, white tansy, sneezewort yarrow, pearl yarrow
N Achillea sibirica – Siberian yarrow, many-flowered yarrow
Acinos
X Acinos arvensis – mother-of-thyme, spring savoury, basil thyme
Aconitum
X Aconitum napellus – garden monk's-hood, helmet flower, Venus' chariot, aconite
X Aconitum variegatum – Manchurian monk's-hood
X Aconitum × bicolor (A. napellus × A. variegatum) – hybrid monk's-hood, two-coloured wolf's-bane
Acorus
N Acorus americanus – sweetflag
X Acorus calamus – European sweetflag
Acroptilon
X Acroptilon repens – Russian knapweed
Actaea
N Actaea pachypoda – white baneberry, doll's-eyes
N Actaea rubra – red baneberry
N Actaea × ludovici (A. pachypoda × A. rubra) – hybrid baneberry
Ad
Adenocaulon
N Adenocaulon bicolor – trail-plant
Adiantum
N Adiantum aleuticum – western maidenhair fern
N Adiantum capillus-veneris – southern maidenhair fern
N Adiantum pedatum – northern maidenhair fern, five-finger fern
N Adiantum viridimontanum – Green Mountain maidenhair fern
Adlumia
N Adlumia fungosa – Allegheny vine, climbing fumitory
Adonis
X Adonis annua – pheasant's-eye
Adoxa
N Adoxa moschatellina – moschatel, muskroot, townhall clock
Ae
Aegopodium
X Aegopodium podagraria – goutweed, snow-on-the-mountain, goat's-foot, ground elder, bishop's weed
Aesculus
N Aesculus glabra – Ohio buckeye, fœtid buckeye
X Aesculus hippocastanum – common horsechestnut
Aethusa
X Aethusa cynapium – fool's-parsley
Ag
Agalinis
N Agalinis gattingeri – Gattinger's agalinis Endangered
N Agalinis paupercula – small-flowered purple false-foxglove, small-flowered agalinis
N Agalinis purpurea – purple false foxglove, large purple agalinis
N Agalinis skinneriana – Skinner's agalinis Endangered
N Agalinis tenuifolia – slenderleaf purple false foxglove, slenderleaf agalinis
Agastache
N Agastache foeniculum – anise hyssop, blue giant hyssop
N Agastache nepetoides – yellow giant hyssop
N Agastache scrophulariifolia – purple giant hyssop
Agoseris
N Agoseris glauca – pale false-dandelion, prairie agoseris, pale agoseris, pale goat-chicory, large-flowered false-dandelion
Agrimonia
X Agrimonia eupatoria – medicinal agrimony, church steeples, European groovebur
N Agrimonia gryposepala – tall hairy agrimony, tall hairy groovebur
N Agrimonia parviflora – smallflower groovebur, harvestlice agrimony
N Agrimonia pubescens – soft groovebur, soft agrimony
N Agrimonia striata – woodland agrimony, grooved agrimony
Agropyron
X Agropyron cristatum – crested wheatgrass
Agrostemma
X Agrostemma githago – common corncockle
Agrostis
? Agrostis canina – brown bentgrass
X Agrostis capillaris – colonial bentgrass, browntop, Prince Edward Island bentgrass, Rhode Island bentgrass
X Agrostis gigantea – black bentgrass, redtop
N Agrostis hyemalis – winter bentgrass, ticklegrass
N Agrostis mertensii – northern bentgrass
N Agrostis perennans – upland bentgrass, perennial bentgrass
N Agrostis scabra – rough bentgrass, tickle grass, rough hairgrass, twin bentgrass
N Agrostis stolonifera – creeping bentgrass, spreading bentgrass
Ai
Ailanthus
X Ailanthus altissima – tree-of-Heaven, Chinese sumac, stinktree, varnish tree
Aj
Ajuga
X Ajuga genevensis – Geneva bugleweed
X Ajuga reptans – carpet bugleweed, common bugle, creeping bugleweed
Al
Alcea
X Alcea pallida – pale hollyhock
X Alcea rosea – hollyhock
Alchemilla
X Alchemilla filicaulis – thin-stemmed lady's-mantle
X Alchemilla monticola – hairy lady's-mantle
Aletris
N Aletris farinosa – colicroot Threatened
Alisma
N Alisma gramineum – grass-leaved water-plantain
N Alisma subcordatum – southern water-plantain
N Alisma triviale – northern water-plantain
Alliaria
X Alliaria petiolata – garlic mustard, hedge garlic
Allium
N Allium burdickii – narrow-leaved wild leek
N Allium canadense – Canada wild onion, meadow garlic, meadow onion
N Allium cernuum – nodding onion
X Allium oleraceum – wild garlic
X Allium sativum – garlic
X Allium schoenoprasum var. schoenoprasum – chives
N Allium schoenoprasum var. sibiricum – Siberian chives
N Allium stellatum – prairie onion, wild onion
N Allium tricoccum – wild leek, small wild leek, ramps
X Allium vineale – field garlic
Alnus
X Alnus glutinosa – black alder, European alder
N Alnus incana – grey alder, white alder, hoary alder, speckled alder
N Alnus viridis – green alder, mountain alder, American green alder, Siberian alder, Sitka alder
Alopecurus
N Alopecurus aequalis – shortawn foxtail
N Alopecurus alpinus – alpine foxtail
X Alopecurus geniculatus – water foxtail
X Alopecurus pratensis – meadow foxtail
Althaea
X Althaea hirsuta – hairy marsh-mallow
X Althaea officinalis – common marsh-mallow
Alyssum
X Alyssum alyssoides – pale alyssum, small alyssum, yellow alyssum, pale madwort
X Alyssum murale – yellow-tuft
Am
Amaranthus
X Amaranthus albus – white tumbleweed, tumble pigweed, tumbleweed amaranth
X Amaranthus blitoides – prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed, matweed
X Amaranthus blitum – purple amaranth
X Amaranthus cruentus – blood amaranth, purple amaranth, red amaranth, caterpillar amaranth, African spinach
X Amaranthus hybridus – smooth amaranth, hybrid amaranth, green pigweed, smooth pigweed, green amaranth
X Amaranthus palmeri – Palmer's amaranth
X Amaranthus powellii – green amaranth, Powell's smooth amaranth
X Amaranthus retroflexus – redroot amaranth, redroot pigweed, wild-beet amaranth, rough pigweed
X Amaranthus spinosus – spiny amaranth
N Amaranthus tuberculatus – roughfruit amaranth, roughfruit waterhemp, tall waterhemp, tall pigweed
Ambrosia
N Ambrosia artemisiifolia – common ragweed, annual ragweed, annual bur-sage
N Ambrosia psilostachya – perennial ragweed, western ragweed, naked-spike ambrosia, Cuman ragweed
N Ambrosia trifida – giant ragweed, great ragweed, buffalo-weed, skeleton-leaf bur-sage
Amelanchier
N Amelanchier alnifolia – Saskatoonberry, northwestern serviceberry
N Amelanchier arborea – downy serviceberry, downy juneberry, common serviceberry
N Amelanchier bartramiana – mountain juneberry, Bartram's shadbush, Bartram's chuckleypear
N Amelanchier canadensis – Canada serviceberry, swamp shadbush, thicket serviceberry
N Amelanchier humilis – low serviceberry, running serviceberry
N Amelanchier laevis – smooth juneberry, Allegheny serviceberry, smooth chuckleypear
N Amelanchier sanguinea var. gaspensis – Gaspé roundleaf juneberry
N Amelanchier sanguinea var. sanguinea – roundleaf juneberry, roundleaf serviceberry, Fernald's chuckleypear
N Amelanchier stolonifera – running serviceberry, running juneberry, running chuckleypear
N Amelanchier × intermedia (A. arborea × A. canadensis) – swamp sugarpear
N Amelanchier × neglecta (A. bartramiana × A. laevis) – hybrid juneberry
N Amelanchier × quinti-martii (A. arborea × A. bartramiana) – Quint-mart's serviceberry
N Amelanchier × wiegandii (A. arborea × A. sanguinea) – Wiegand's serviceberry
Amerorchis
N Amerorchis rotundifolia – small roundleaf orchis, oneleaf orchid
Ammannia
N Ammannia robusta – scarlet ammannia Endangered
Ammophila
N Ammophila breviligulata – American beachgrass
Amorpha
N Amorpha canescens – leadplant, downy indigobush
N Amorpha fruticosa – false indigo
Amphicarpaea
N Amphicarpaea bracteata – American hog-peanut
An
Anagallis
X Anagallis arvensis – scarlet pimpernel
Anaphalis
N Anaphalis margaritacea – pearly everlasting
Anchusa
X Anchusa arvensis – small bugloss, annual bugloss, alkanet
X Anchusa officinalis – common bugloss
Andromeda
N Andromeda glaucophylla – bog rosemary, rosemary-leaf marsh andromeda
N Andromeda polifolia var. jamesiana – James Bay bog rosemary
N Andromeda polifolia var. polifolia – northern bog rosemary, marsh holyrose
Andropogon
N Andropogon gerardii – big bluestem, turkeyfoot
N Andropogon virginicus – broom-sedge
Androsace
? Androsace occidentalis – western rock-jasmine
N Androsace septentrionalis – pygmy-flower rock-jasmine, northern androsace
Anemone
N Anemone acutiloba – sharp-lobed hepatica, sharp-lobed liverleaf
N Anemone americana – round-lobed hepatica, American liverleaf
X Anemone blanda
N Anemone canadensis – Canada anemone, roundleaf thimbleweed
N Anemone cylindrica – long-fruited anemone, thimbleweed, candle anemone, long-headed anemone
N Anemone multifida – cutleaf anemone, cliff anemone, early anemone
N Anemone parviflora – northern anemone, small-flowered anemone
N Anemone patens – pasqueflower, prairie smoke, prairie crocus, cutleaf anemone
N Anemone quinquefolia – wood anemone, snow-drops
N Anemone richardsonii – Richardson's anemone, yellow anemone
N Anemone virginiana – tall thimbleweed, riverbank anemone
Anethum
X Anethum graveolens – dill, Indian dill
Angelica
N Angelica atropurpurea – purplestem angelica, dark-purple alexanders, wild masterwort, great angelica
? Angelica lucida – seabeach angelica, shiny angelica
X Angelica sylvestris
? Angelica venenosa – hairy angelica
Anoda
X Anoda cristata – crested anoda
Antennaria
N Antennaria howellii subsp. canadensis – Canada pussytoes
N Antennaria howellii subsp. howellii – Howell's pussytoes
N Antennaria howellii subsp. neodioica – northern pussytoes, common pussytoes
N Antennaria howellii subsp. petaloidea – small pussytoes
N Antennaria microphylla – littleleaf pussytoes
N Antennaria neglecta – field pussytoes
N Antennaria oxyphylla
N Antennaria parlinii subsp. fallax – largeleaf pussytoes, deceitful pussytoes
N Antennaria parlinii subsp. parlinii – Parlin's pussytoes, smooth pussytoes, plainleaf pussytoes
N Antennaria parvifolia – small-leaf pussytoes, Rocky Mountain cudweed, Nuttall's pussytoes
N Antennaria pulcherrima – showy pussytoes, handsome pussytoes
N Antennaria rosea – rosy pussytoes, pink everlasting
N Antennaria subviscosa
Anthemis
X Anthemis arvensis – corn chamomile, field chamomile
X Anthemis cotula – mayweed, stinking chamomile, fœtid chamomile, dog fennel, stinking mayweed
X Anthemis tinctoria – golden chamomile
Anthoxanthum
X Anthoxanthum odoratum – sweet vernalgrass, sweetgrass
Anthriscus
X Anthriscus cerefolium – common chervil
X Anthriscus sylvestris – wild chervil, woodland chervil, cow parsley, beak-chervil
Anthyllis
X Anthyllis vulneraria – kidney vetch, lady's fingers
Antirrhinum
X Antirrhinum majus – common snapdragon
X Antirrhinum orontium – lesser snapdragon
Ap
Apera
X Apera interrupta – dense silky bentgrass, interrupted bentgrass, interrupted windgrass
X Apera spica-venti – silky bentgrass
Apios
N Apios americana – American groundnut, Indian potato, wild bean, potato-bean
Aplectrum
N Aplectrum hyemale – puttyroot
Apocynum
N Apocynum androsaemifolium – spreading dogbane
N Apocynum cannabinum – Indian hemp, clasping-leaf dogbane, prairie dogbane, velvet dogbane, amyroot
N Apocynum sibiricum – clasping-leaved dogbane
N Apocynum × floribundum (A. androsaemifolium × A. cannabinum) – intermediate dogbane, bitter dogbane
Aq
Aquilegia
N Aquilegia brevistyla – small-flowered columbine
N Aquilegia canadensis – Canadian columbine, red columbine
X Aquilegia vulgaris – European columbine, garden columbine, culverwort, capon's feather
Ar
Arabidopsis
X Arabidopsis thaliana – mouse-ear cress, wall-cress
Arabis
N Arabis alpina subsp. alpina – alpine rockcress
X Arabis alpina subsp. caucasica – wall rockcress, grey rockcress
N Arabis arenicola var. arenicola – arctic rockcress
N Arabis arenicola var. pubescens – sand rockcress
N Arabis canadensis – sicklepod
N Arabis divaricarpa – limestone rockcress
N Arabis drummondii – Drummond rockcress
N Arabis glabra – tower-mustard
N Arabis hirsuta var. adpressipilis – hairy rockcress, creamflower rockcress
N Arabis hirsuta var. pycnocarpa – creamflower rockcress
N Arabis holboelli var. retrofracta – Holboell's rockcress
N Arabis holboelli var. secunda – bristly-leaved rockcress
? Arabis kamchatica – lyreleaf rockcress (species status disputed)
N Arabis laevigata – smooth rockcress
N Arabis lyrata – lyreleaf rockcress
N Arabis shortii – Short's rockcress
Aralia
X Aralia elata – Japanese Angelica-tree, Chinese Angelica-tree
N Aralia hispida – bristly spikenard, bristly sarsaparilla, dwarf elder
N Aralia nudicaulis – wild sarsaparilla, small spikenard
N Aralia racemosa – American spikenard, Indian-root, life-of-man, petty morel
X Aralia spinosa – Hercules' club, Devil's walkingstick, prickly ash, Angelica tree, toothache tree
Arceuthobium
N Arceuthobium americanum – pine mistletoe, American mistletoe, lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe
N Arceuthobium pusillum – dwarf mistletoe, eastern dwarf mistletoe
Arctagrostis
N Arctagrostis latifolia – polargrass
Arctium
X Arctium lappa – great burdock
X Arctium minus subsp. minus – common burdock
X Arctium minus subsp. nemorosum – lesser burdock
X Arctium pubens – wood burdock
X Arctium tomentosum – woolly burdock, tomentose burdock
X Arctium × nothum (A. lappa × A. minus) – hybrid burdock
Arctophila
N Arctophila fulva – pendant grass
Arctostaphylos
N Arctostaphylos alpina – alpine bearberry
N Arctostaphylos rubra – red manzanita
N Arctostaphylos uva-ursi – bearberry, kinnikinnick, mealberry
Arenaria
N Arenaria humifusa – creeping sandwort, low sandwort, spreading sandwort
X Arenaria serpyllifolia – thymeleaf sandwort
Arethusa
N Arethusa bulbosa – dragon's mouth, swamp pink
Argemone
X Argemone mexicana – Mexican prickly-poppy
Arisaema
N Arisaema dracontium – green dragon Special Concern
N Arisaema triphyllum – Jack-in-the-pulpit
Aristida
N Aristida basiramea – forktip threeawn Endangered
N Aristida dichotoma – Shinner's threeawn
N Aristida longespica var. geniculata – red threeawn
N Aristida longespica var. longespica – slimspike threeawn
X Aristida oligantha – prairie three-awn grass
N Aristida purpurascens – arrow feather threeawn
Aristolochia
X Aristolochia clematitis – birthwort
X Aristolochia macrophylla – pipevine
Armeria
N Armeria maritima – sea thrift, Labrador sea thrift, foxflower
Armoracia
X Armoracia rusticana – horseradish, red cole
Arnica
N Arnica angustifolia – narrowleaf arnica, arctic arnica, arctic leopardbane
N Arnica chamissonis – meadow arnica, Chamisso's arnica, leafy arnica, leafy leopardbane
N Arnica cordifolia – heartleaf arnica, heartleaf leopardbane
N Arnica lonchophylla – northern arnica, longleaf arnica, white-plumed arnica, spearleaf arnica
Arnoglossum
N Arnoglossum platagineum – tuberous Indian-plantain Special Concern
Aronia
N Aronia melanocarpa – black chokeberry
Arrhenatherum
X Arrhenatherum elatius – tall oatgrass, French rye, tuber oatgrass, bulbous oatgrass, false oat grass
Artemisia
X Artemisia abrotanum – southern wormwood, southernwood, lad's love, oldman
X Artemisia absinthium – common wormwood, absinthe, absinthe wormwood, European wormwood
X Artemisia annua – sweet sagewort, annual wormwood, sweet Annie, sweet wormwood, annual mugwort
X Artemisia biennis – biennial wormwood
N Artemisia campestris subsp. borealis – boreal wormwood, Canada wormwood
N Artemisia campestris subsp. caudata – tall wormwood, beach wormwood, wild wormwood, threadleaf sagewort, sagewort wormwood
N Artemisia dracunculus – wild tarragon, dragon wormwood, dragon sagewort, false tarragon, French tarragon, Russian tarragon
N Artemisia frigida – fringed sagebrush, prairie sagebrush, fringed sagewort, prairie sagewort, wormwood sage, pasture sage, arctic sagebrush
N Artemisia ludoviciana – white sage, silver wormwood, prairie sage, western mugwort, darkleaf mugwort, cudweed sagewort, pasture sage, Louisiana wormwood, Louisiana sage, silver king artemisia, white wormwood, white sagebrush
X Artemisia pontica – Roman wormwood, petite wormwood, green ginger
X Artemisia stelleriana – hoary sagebrush, dusty miller, beach wormwood, old woman
N Artemisia tilesii – Tilesius' wormwood, mountain sagewort, oldwoman
X Artemisia vulgaris – common mugwort, common wormwood
Aruncus
X Aruncus dioicus – common goat's-beard
As
Asarum
N Asarum canadense – Canada wild ginger
Asclepias
N Asclepias exaltata – poke milkweed, tall milkweed, four-leaved milkweed
N Asclepias hirtella – tall green milkweed
N Asclepias incarnata – swamp milkweed
N Asclepias ovalifolia – oval-leaf milkweed, dwarf milkweed
N Asclepias purpurascens – purple milkweed
N Asclepias quadrifolia – four-leaved milkweed
N Asclepias sullivantii – Sullivant's milkweed
N Asclepias syriaca – common milkweed, silkweed, silky swallow-wort
N Asclepias tuberosa – butterfly weed, orange milkweed, pleurisy root, chigger flower
? Asclepias variegata – white milkweed
N Asclepias verticillata – whorled milkweed
N Asclepias viridiflora – green milkweed, green comet milkweed, short green milkweed
Asimina
N Asimina triloba – common pawpaw
Asparagus
X Asparagus officinalis – garden asparagus, asparagus-fern
Asperugo
X Asperugo procumbens – German madwort, catchweed
Asperula
X Asperula arvensis – blue woodruff
Asplenium
N Asplenium platyneuron – ebony spleenwort
N Asplenium rhizophyllum – walking fern
N Asplenium ruta-muraria – wall-rue
N Asplenium scolopendrium var. americanum – American Hart's-tongue fern Special Concern
N Asplenium trichomanes – maidenhair spleenwort
N Asplenium viride – green spleenwort
Aster
N Aster alpinus – alpine aster
Astragalus
N Astragalus adsurgens – ascending milkvetch, rattle milkvetch, standing milkvetch
N Astragalus agrestis – field milkvetch, mile-vetch, cock's-head
N Astragalus alpinus – alpine milkvetch
N Astragalus americanus – American milkvetch
N Astragalus australis – Indian milkvetch
N Astragalus canadensis – Canada milkvetch, Carolina milkvetch
X Astragalus cicer – chickpea milkvetch
N Astragalus eucosmus – elegant milkvetch, pretty milkvetch
X Astragalus glycophyllos – wild liquorice
N Astragalus neglectus – Cooper's milkvetch
N Astragalus tenellus – pulse milkvetch, loose-flower milkvetch
At
Athyrium
N Athyrium filix-femina var. angustum – northern lady fern
N Athyrium filix-femina var. cyclosorum – northwestern lady fern
Atriplex
N Atriplex dioica – thickleaf orache, saline saltbush
N Atriplex glabriuscula – smooth orache, Scotland orache, glabrous orache, northeastern saltbush
X Atriplex heterosperma – two-scale orache
X Atriplex hortensis – garden orache
X Atriplex oblongifolia – oblong-leaf orache
N Atriplex patula – spear orache, spreading orache, spearscale, halberdleaf orache, common orache
N Atriplex prostrata – thinleaf orache, triangle orache, fat-hen
X Atriplex rosea – tumbling orache
Au
Aureolaria
N Aureolaria flava – yellow false-foxglove
N Aureolaria pedicularia – fernleaf yellow false-foxglove
N Aureolaria virginica – downy false-foxglove
Aurinia
X Aurinia saxatilis – basket-of-gold, gold dust, gold alyssum
Av
Avena
X Avena fatua – wild oats
X Avena sativa – oats, cultivated oats
X Avena sterilis – animated oats
Ax
Axyris
X Axyris amaranthoides – Russian pigweed, upright axyris
Az
Azolla
N Azolla caroliniana – mosquito fern
References
See: Flora of Canada#References
Plants by genus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20Reservations%20%28Apache%20Indian%20album%29
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No Reservations (Apache Indian album)
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No Reservations is the debut studio album by British-Asian musician Apache Indian, released in January 1993 by Island Records and their subsidiary Mango. The musician and singer recorded the album primarily in Jamaica's Tuff Gong studios with producers including Simon and Diamond, Bobby Digital, Phil Chill and Sly Dunbar. It follows, and includes, Apache Indian's 1990–91 singles – "Move Over India", "Chok There" and "Don Raja" – which saw him pioneer a fusion of Jamaican ragga and Indian bhangra later known as bhangramuffin.
The album showcases Apache Indian's fusion of ragga and dancehall beats and basslines with bhangra and other forms of Indian music, such as filmi, with songs delivered in a fusion of English, Punjabi and Jamaican patois that the musician called "Indian patois". He sought to write about topics that were traditionally undiscussed in Asian communities, such as alcoholism, AIDS, the caste system and arranged marriages, and the controversial nature of the lyrics drew criticism and protest from castes. The singer named the record with reference to Indian reservations and is depicted on the artwork before a mixture of Jamaican and Indian iconography, reflecting his mix of musical styles.
On release, No Reservations drew acclaim from music critics, who saw its fusion of ragga and bhangra modes as innovative, and it reached number 36 on the UK Albums Chart. "Arranged Marriage", issued as the album's official lead single, was the musician's breakthrough success in his home country, reaching number 16 on the UK Singles Chart. Apache Indian was particularly successful in India, where the album sold over 500,000 copies and is certified triple platinum. No Reservations has been credited for helping popularise ragga music and British-Asian pop, and was shortlisted for the 1993 Mercury Prize, while Apache Indian received four nominations at the 1994 Brit Awards.
Background
Born Steven Kapur to an Indian migrant family, Apache Indian was raised in Handsworth, a multiracial neighbourhood in Birmingham home to reggae bands Steel Pulse and UB40. He grew up enjoying roots reggae artists like Bob Marley and Burning Spear, and interest in reggae grew larger when introduced to sound system culture by a British-Caribbean man, Sheldon, who ran the local Siffa sound system. Kapur began chatting with numerous systems, and grew out dreadlocks in his teens. He later said he was the only Indian he knew who enjoyed reggae, saying "There was just something about the music. Regardless of what anybody said, it was for me." However, as Kapur would later explain, it was common for Asians in Birmingham to "[pick up] things from the black kids 'cus they're living together. So you hear reggae in schools and in the streets, but you also hear traditional Indian music as well." Kapur took part of his stage name from Super Cat or the "Wild Apache", a Jamaican reggae musician who is also of Indian descent, and who was Kapur's musical idol.
Kapur developed his own musical style in 1990, when he visited a cousin's recording studio in Birmingham to record "Move Over India", featuring his own lyrics, dance beats and tabla. The musician modelled the song on the popular "Shank I Sheck" riddim and wrote lyrics around the theme of translation, with the song providing "rudimentary lessons in Punjabi and patois". Although he did not intend to release the song, he changed his mind when his friends enjoyed it and pressed a few private copies for himself, local pirate station PRCL and nearby reggae shops.
An official release followed on Sure Delight Records, and it reached number one in Britain's reggae and bhangra charts, where it stayed for six weeks. The song was also popular in Jamaica, sold over 500,000 copies on the Indian subcontinent and was heavily bootlegged in Canada. Kapur credits the single for helping solidify young Asian aesthetic, combining Asian, white and black fashions.
"Move Over India" and Apache Indian's subsequent singles saw him fuse Indian bhangra and Jamaican reggae, earning him the media title The Originator of Bhangra-Muffin, a combination of the words bhangra and raggamuffin, although the singer did not care for the term. Bhangra had become popular in the UK in the mid-1980s and was, according to Timothy D. Taylor, the first music to "develop a strong Anglo-Asian identity", particularly, argued Brooke Wentz of Vibe, when young practitioners began introducing influences of hip hop to make bhangra more danceable than the original, folk-based form, with Apache Indian proving innovative for introducing reggae to the genre. Apache Indian explained he initially received criticism from the Indian community, who saw him, as he described it, as a "traitor to the community" for working in reggae, a genre that was seen as "violent and drug-related", but that attitudes changed when he expressed his Indian pride. Similarly, he said "the black community felt I was using reggae to make a lot of money" but changed their minds upon discovering his genuine love of the genre.
The translation themes of "Move Over India" carried over into its proposed follow-up, "Come Follow Me", which featured Birmingham MC Mickey G, but the single was cancelled after the song had been heavily bootlegged. Instead, Apache Indian's next two singles, both for Sure Delight, were "Chok There" and "Don Raja". Aided mostly by pirate radio airplay, both singles continued Kapur's success in topping the UK's bhangra and reggae charts. In 1991, The British Reggae Industry Awards awarded Kapur with the award for Best Male Newcomer. Although none of his singles had reached the national pop charts, they attracted the attention of Island Records, who signed him in early 1992. Marc Marot of Island said they judged Apache Indian "just from those singles [...] We felt that he had commercial possibilities regardless of where he came from and what background he had." After signing to Island, he made a national television appearance in the UK on Blue Peter.
Recording
According to Apache Indian's manager, Mambo Sharma, "so much thought" went into recording No Reservations because, as the singer's debut album, it had to introduce listeners to his work effectively. Apache Indian travelled to Bob Marley's Tuff Gong Studios in Kingston, Jamaica, to record part of No Reservations. He collaborated with numerous reggae stalwarts, including Sly Dunbar, Robert Livingstone and Bobby Digital, who all provided riddims for the album, as well as vocalists Frankie Paul and Maxi Priest. Most of the album, however, was produced by Simon & Diamond, with production credits for Phill Chill on "Fix Up", Bobby Digital on "Guru" and Dunbar on "Magic Carpet", with Livingstone providing mixing and additional production on "Fix Up". Apache Indian and Trevor Wyatt acted as executive producers, while Phill Chill mixed "Arranged Marriage".
According to writer Les Back, Apache Indian's decision to record in Jamaica with local reggae luminaries was partly an attempt to legitimise his fusion of reggae with bhangra, while journalist Dave Cavanagh said the "slew of the island's big names" helped endorse the album's ragga elements. Although Kapur enjoyed working with reggae musicians, he made a conscious decision to "separate from the Jamaican music scene," according to Wentz, with Kapur explaining that he made an effort "to lean more towards my people." Part of the album was also recorded in New York City. No Reservations incorporates electronic production and digital sampling, which combined with Kapur's toasting and affinity for sound systems, situates the music in what writer Carla J Maier calls "the clubs and the recording studios in which he works, while at the same time being part of a globalized and digitalized music culture." Kapur's earlier singles, including "Move Over India" and "Chok There", reappear on the album.
Composition
Music
On No Reservations, Apache Indian uses beats and basslines familiar to reggae and dancehall, incorporates styles and samples of bhangra, Hindi filmi music and Indian classical music to represent his Indian identity, and sings in a ragga style, resulting in what writer John Connell describes as "a contemporary Anglo-Indian fusion". Although described as primarily a bhangra album, critic Ken Hunt argues that the album is not bhangra itself but rather a "bhangra-related dance music." J. Poet of Trouser Press similarly felt the record to primarily showcase Kapur as a raggamuffin deejay, while Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian observed that Kapur uses Indian instruments and subject matter to flavour a "macho" ragga style derived from Super Cat. Apache Indian considered his style to be "first, and foremost, street music", explaining: "My stuff is all about the fusion of cultures and styles. I grew up with black and white people, my music is part of the people around me". The sounds of sitar and "hard-edged" tabla permeate the record. David Vlado Moskowitz considers No Reservations to be more mainstream than Kapur's earlier releases, while Eamon Carr of the Evening Herald, who considers the album to fuse "club styles, cultures and funky beats", emphasises the "ear for a commercial hook".
The album opens with the sound of a "hail of bullets", a "gangster stance" familiar to reggae and rap which is deflated by Kapur's boast that he is "hotter than vindaloo curry". The re-appearing "Chok There" fuses bhangra and ragga rhythms, notably using a pronounced dhol drum riddim, and features sitar and percussion breaks. Despite its challenging subject matter, "Aids Warning" is among the album's poppiest songs. Considered the record's most Indian-styled track, with its sampled usage of Indian filmi music and tabla, "Arranged Marriage" opens with a dancehall-style introduction with Indian instrumentation, namely a dhol drum, a flute hook line and tabla. Taylor writes that although reggae dominates the song, the "distant sounds of India", like the aforementioned instruments and "vocalise of Indian film music", as well as its "folklike ululations", flitter among "the edges". Also features is synthesised harmonium, an instrument popular in South Asian religious music. "Don't Touch", a duet with Frankie Paul, features what Cavanagh describes as an "unadulterated JA sound", while he described "Come Follow Me" as a "barely-reggae, acoustic guitar-based Indian tour guide"
Lyrics
The album's lyrics, written by Apache Indian, feature social commentary and themes of social realism. Colin Larkin wrote that the record moved Kapur "away from the frothier elements of his distinctive ragga-reggae and towards the role of social commentator and Anglo-Asian representative." The songs are "relevant to Indian youth identity in Britain," according to Connell, while writer Steve Tilley says they deal with concerns typical to Asian youth, and they discuss racism, AIDS, arranged marriages, divorce, alcoholism, drugs, the caste system and bridging black-Asian hostilities, often taking a cautionary stance. References to the Taj Mahal, Amritsar, Gandhi and Ravi Shankar also feature.
Many of the issues Kapur raises on the album were traditionally undiscussed within Asian communities, with the singer intending to discuss things "that haven't been talked about before". He commented that religious upbringing in Asian communities left numerous subjects "that need to be discussed among the Asian community – like arranged marriages, and AIDS... I'm not saying that we're going to solve the problem, I just want to bring them out in the open for discussion". The controversial themes proved threatening to Indian, who was told by several people that he should avoid discussing such issues, and he hired security wherever he travelled. His bodyguard, Kid Milo, explained to Sullivan in March 1993: "The Indian community don't take kindly to his singing about street things. They feel he should keep certain subjects within the community. The castes get offended and they stick together. We had a bomb threat at a record-signing the other day, and they petrol-bombed a club he was appearing at in Toronto."
Kapur sings on the album in a mix of English, Jamaican and Punjabi patois, with songs generally being "dancehall Jamaican English in style," cramming words and slangs from other communities. He uses words from the three patios interchangeably, often in reference to the "sonic geography of his influences", as on "Chok There", in which he references Karachi, New York, Kingston and London. According to Raoul Granqvist, Apache Indian's style takes everyday words from Punjabi and dancehall cultures and uses them "interchangeably and in elaborate combinations," resulting in what Kapur calls "Indian patios", described by Granqvist as an "urban lingua franca which provides a suture between communities while acknowledging specificities of their African and south Asian roots."
"Chok There", whose titles translates to "raise the floorboards" in Punjabi, is chanted using English and Jamaican patois, and sees the singer assume the persona of Don Raja, a dreadlocked Indian raggamuffin who "bring a new stylee" and "a different fashion". "Fe Real", a cover of a Super Cat song, is a duet with reggae singer Maxi Priest, who recorded his Punjabi lyrics to the song at Tuff Gong. On the song, Kapur refers to himself as an Arawak Indian. The singer wrote "Aids Warning" after people with AIDS came to him admitting they "didn't know what to do or how to deal with it". Kapur explained: "Whoever addresses these issues – problems of caste – must take on board the hassle." "Move Over India" was written in tribute to India, at a time when he had never visited but felt he knew the country well from Indian films, and he toasts on the song over off-beats. On "Badd Indian", Kapur's fuses the bombastic boasts of dancehall with another vernacular tradition from the Caribbean, Trinidadian "robber talk", and sees the singer adopt the mask of a Native American, a popular masquerade at the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival. "Don Raja" has been interpreted as an ironic urge to "subvert colonialist stereotyping," particularly with its lyrics "Don Raja a come! Straight from Delhi on magic carpet! With a million watts of hockey stick!".
"Arranged Marriage", among the most contentious songs, is sung in Jamaican patois and Punjabi deals with arranged marriages, a tradition known to cause tribulation among British-Asian youth. Granqvist says the song best exemplifies the album's exploration of masculinity and young Asian men's issues; they write that although the narrator takes the song through an arranged marriage, and features a seemingly bravado refrain in "Me want gal to look after me", the song is inverted by the line "But when is the right time to tell my girlfriends?", which echoes how other young Asian men in the UK develop relationships with women "and then have to reckon with the family marriage arrangements." Kapur felt that white listeners would miss the song's irony, adding "That is the truth for a lot of Asian people. I am not against arranged marriages but people have to realise that growing up in places like Birmingham, London or Toronto young people are going to have relationships". The last line, "Me want arrange marriage from me mum and daddy", drew particular complaints from older Asian listeners. Although the narrator's wife does not speak on the song, a woman is occasionally heard singing wordlessly in the style of Indian film music. Roger Chamberland said this singing provides the song with its strongest "South Asian ambience".
Title and artwork
Described by author Rainer Emig as a punning statement on "segregation and integration", the title No Reservation references Indian reservations. This allusion to Native American culture is consistent with Kapur's stage name and the lyrics of songs "Fe Real" and "Badd Indian", as well as later album titles Make Way for the Indian (1995) and Wild East (1997). Natalie Sarrazin interprets the names Apache Indian and No Reservation as "signifying not only political resistance, but making light of the idea that all people of colour are lumped together in one category". George Lipsitz observed that due to Kapur's stage name and the album title, several listeners speculated that the singer was a Native American himself. Apache Indian recalled that his confluence of British, American and Native American cultures became "a problem" when No Reservations was released, as Native Americans "were fighting for no reservations at the time. But it was good in a kind of way because it helped the album. They idefntified with it in a way."
Immi Dread Cally designed the album artwork using photography of Kapur by Kate Garner. The album cover reflects Apache Indian's mix of musical styles, depicting him depressed in clothes that combine elements from Rastafarian and American hip-hop fashions with British-Asian street style. The singer's haircut, credited to Jon the Man of Curtis, represents, as Maier describes it, "a trend in the early 1990s among South Asians to wear artfully shaved hairstyles." Behind the singer is a paper-cut backdrop showing the Indian and Rastafarian flags, although the latter is distorted and only truly represented by its usage of red, gold and green. The back cover features a collage depicting Indian rupees and Jamaican dollars, and maps of Jamaica and Punjab, India.
Release and promotion
After Apache Indian's signing to Island, the label planned a promotional push for the singer. In 1992, "Fe Real" was released by Maxi Priest's label Virgin Records as a double A-side with his song "Just Wanna Know". It became Apache Indian's first hit single, reaching number 33 on the UK Singles Chart in November 1992. To promote the song together, Kapur and Priest undertook a short tour singing live vocals over backing tracks; the first performance was in Peterborough, known for its small Afro-Caribbean and South Asian communities.
His first single for Island, "Arranged Marriage" was released in January 1993. Thousands of bootleg cassette copies of the single were seized by Island in their struggle to persuade the British Asian community, who favoured cassettes, to change formats; the label nonetheless released an official cassette edition containing extended remixes. The song was playlisted by BBC Radio 1 and numerous regional radio stations, and the radio support proved crucial to Apache Indian's breakthrough in the UK. It entered the UK charts at number 27, between Little Angels and Paul McCartney, and Steven Wells of NME noted that "In such company, Apache's ecstatic mix of bhangra, ragga and North African music burns itself into the average pop fan's brain like acid." The song ultimately peaked at number 16, where it stayed for two weeks, and the singer performed it on Top of the Pops with tabla player Pandit Dinesh. According to Sullivan, Kapur became "the first Asian on Top of the Pops in years". The song's impact on the Indian community in the UK was compared to the impact of Khaled's rai song "Didi" (1992) on France's North African community.
Although it was speculated that Island would re-establish Bob Marley's Tuff Gong label, with Kapur as its first signing, No Reservations instead saw release on Mango Records, an Island subsidiary that was known for its worldbeat releases. However, the album proved to be one of several releases, alongside Chaka Demus & Pliers' Tease Me (1993) and singles by Angelique Kidjo, that saw the label build a reputation "as an essential source for left-of-centre dance music," according to Larry Flick. The album was released in January 1993, and reached number 36 on the UK Albums Chart, staying on the chart for two weeks and becoming Kapur's only charting album. "Chok There" was re-released as the record's second official single, having already become a UK club hit. It reached number 30 in the UK in March, and was Kapur's biggest hit in Jamaica, where his music was popular on sound systems. Apache Indian's success coincided with the rise of ragga in the British mainstream, and he is credited alongside artists like Shinehead, Shaggy, Snow, Shabba Ranks, Bitty McLean, Inner Circle and Chaka Demus & Pliers for launching this development.
Apache Indian was particularly successful in India, and he capitalised on the release of No Reservations there, where it was issued by PolyGram India, with a major tour that ensured heavy media exposure and airplay, in the process became the label's first British-Asian success. He first played in the country in June 1993, at the Andheri Sports Complex in Bombay to a crowd of 17,000. Kapur reflected that upon his first visit to the country, he was "treated like a superstar", adding: "I was asked to meet the Prime Minister, which I did. I met Sonia Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi's widow... nobody meets her. By the time I left India, they were calling me the 'Gandhi of Pop'." Within three months, the album had been certified double platinum in India, and by November, it had sold over 200,000 there. Apache Indian's celebrity was huge by this point; MTV Asia played his videos in rotation, his face adorned at least 23 billboards in Bombay, while his cultural reach spread to advertisements for butter with a slogan riffing on Kapur's stage name. As of November 1998, the album had sold over 500,000 copies in India, and it is certified triple platinum.
Critical reception
No Reservations received acclaim from music critics. A reviewer for Music & Media called the album a "veritable feast of talent", praising its ragga beats and considering the heavy usage of sitar to make Apache Indian's roots "ever-present, making for a delightful deviation from the usual reggae formula". Penny Kiley of Liverpool Echo said that by "rooting ragga in Asian lifestyle and sounds", No Reservations pioneered an effective new style of music. David Belcher of The Herald similarly said the album's melding of "Afro-Caribbean ragga groovery" with "lilting Anglo-Asian electro bhangra and rap pungency", as well as Kapur's hybrid patois and use of irony, resulted in a "brilliant new dancefloor mode".
Anita Naik of Smash Hits complimented the catchiness, loudness and outspoken nature of the album, noting that even those who dislike club music "will subconsciously grind away to it". David Cavanagh of Select considered the "Asian ragga" album to be more "consistently good" than many general ragga albums, applauding its wide array of styles and topics and singling out "Arranged Marriage" for being the "most original" song. In their review, New Internationalist wrote that the record was a breakthrough and counted Kapur among "the most interesting manifestations of musical cross-cultures to date." While considering him to continue the lineage of Midlands-based multicultural pop from UB40 and the ska of 2 Tone Records, they felt this did not explain the whole of his appeal, admiring his self-confident, "sardonic gleam" and "effortless slide between dialects [that] comes across as an eminently sensible response to his particular street culture."
Andrew Balkin wrote a negative review for Kingston Informer, writing that although several songs feature "some great messages", "you have to understand the lyrics before you can even figure out what they are". Nonetheless, they considered the 15 track total to ensure "value for money". In a retrospective review, Ken Hunt of AllMusic felt the album was a "remarkable debut", although qualified his praise by observing how several songs had already appeared on the "Don Raja" maxi-single. In his book Back to the Miracle Factory (2003), Paul Williams wrote that the album's "charming" hybrid language exemplified how both dancehall and rap "are in some ways the rediscovery of the power of the word, that is, of the sound of the word, direct mumbo-jumbo transcending side issues like content". Although praising "the rhythm of the language, the flow of word-sounds and the very personal consciousness this rhythm/flow/story communicates", he felt the musical content was less interesting.
Legacy
With the success of No Reservation and its singles, Apache Indian was described as the first pop star to hail from the UK's Asian-Indian community, with Carr crediting him for "pushing the boundaries further back" following the crossover success of UK-based Indian pop band Monsoon a decade earlier. Wells argued that, as Monsoon "were one hit-wonders" and Betty Boo and Bomb the Bass "escape the average Brit's definition of 'Asian'," Apache Indian was truly "Britain's first Asian pop star", whereas Tilley described Apache Indian as "quite possibly the first true international Asian pop star". Jonathan Kramer observed that Apache Indian's appeal varied worldwide, saying that his strong sales in Toronto were due to young Indian Canadians viewing the use of bhangra as "a respect for Indian traditions," whereas the singer had a rebel image in India, whilst in England, his music "became an important icon of unity between Afro-Caribbean and Afro-Asians".
No Reservations was nominated for the 1993 Mercury Prize for best UK album of the year. According to Sharma, the nomination "came totally out of the blue". The album drew 2-1 with Stereo MCs' Connected as second favourite to win, behind eventual winners Suede. Apache Indian received four nominations at the 1994 Brit Awards: Best British Male Solo Artist, Best British Newcomer, Best British Dance Act and Best British Single for "Boom Shack-A-Lak", the latter found on his Nuff Vibes EP, the follow-up to No Reservations which reached number five on the UK Singles Chart. According to author Rehan Hyder, the album's commercial success and Mercury Prize nomination largely increased media interest in Asian musicians.
Thom Duffy of Billboard credits No Reservations for helping bring ragga music into "the international pop mainstream". Maier said the album was innovative for making "some unprecedented musical connections", although felt its fusion of ragga and bhangra could not be expanded on. Moskowitz wrote that the record secured Apache Indian's standing and "artfully illustrated his ability to make a mark in reggae music", while Williams felt that other British-Asian youth discovered "some pride of their own" through Kapur's promotion of cultural pride on the album. As No Reservations was PolyGram India's first British-Asian success, it ensured "great potential" in India for future such crossovers; Nyay Bhushan of Billboard wrote that Kapur's success "reinforced the importance of an artist's personal effort to promote a product", a challenge the label would later face with Talvin Singh's OK (1998). The book Fusion of Cultures? (1996) highlights the album for showing how "music lends itself most easily to cross-over experimentation."
Track listing
All tracks composed and arranged by Apache Indian
"Don Raja (Prelude)" – 0:24
"Chok There" – 4:25
"Fe Real" (featuring Maxi Priest) – 5:04
"Fix Up" – 4:26
"Aids Warning" – 4:33
"Guru" – 3:50
"Wan' No Me" – 4:09
"Come Follow Me" – 4:43
"Don't Touch" (featuring Frankie Paul) – 4:06
"Arranged Marriage" – 4:33
"Drink Problems" – 4:29
"Movie Over India" – 4:04
"Magic Carpet" – 4:01
"Badd Indian" – 4:33
"Don Raja" – 4:22
Personnel
Adapted from the liner notes of No Reservations
Apache Indian – executive production
Trevor Wyatt – executive production
Simon and Diamond Duggal – production (tracks 1–3, 5, 7–12, 14, 15)
Phil Chill – production ("Fix Up"), mixing ("Arranged Marriage")
Bobby Digital – production ("Guru")
Sly Dunbar – production ("Magic Carpet")
Robert Livingstone – additional production ("Fix Up"), mixing ("Fix Up")
Maxi Priest – vocals ("Fe Real")
Frankie Paul – vocals ("Don't Touch")
Immi Dread Cally – design, art direction
Kate Garner – photography
References
1993 debut albums
Apache Indian albums
Island Records albums
Ragga albums
Dancehall albums
Bhangra (music) albums
Dance music albums by English artists
Electronic albums by English artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiations%20to%20end%20apartheid%20in%20South%20Africa
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Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa
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The apartheid system in South Africa was ended through a series of bilateral and multi-party negotiations between 1990 and 1993. The negotiations culminated in the passage of a new interim Constitution in 1993, a precursor to the Constitution of 1996; and in South Africa's first non-racial elections in 1994, won by the African National Congress (ANC) liberation movement.
Although there had been gestures towards negotiations in the 1970s and 1980s, the process accelerated in 1990, when the government of F. W. de Klerk took a number of unilateral steps towards reform, including releasing Nelson Mandela from prison and unbanning the ANC and other political organisations. In 1990–91, bilateral "talks about talks" between the ANC and the government established the pre-conditions for substantive negotiations, codified in the Groote Schuur Minute and Pretoria Minute. The first multi-party agreement on the desirability of a negotiated settlement was the 1991 National Peace Accord, consolidated later that year by the establishment of the multi-party Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA). However, the second plenary session of CODESA, in May 1992, encountered stubborn deadlock over questions of regional autonomy, political and cultural self-determination, and the constitution-making process itself.
The ANC returned to a programme of mass action, hoping to leverage its popular support, only to withdraw from negotiations entirely in June 1992 after the Boipatong massacre. The massacre revived pre-existing, and enduring, concerns about state complicity in political violence, possibly through the use of a state-sponsored third force bent on destabilisation. Indeed, political violence was nearly continuous throughout the negotiations – white extremists and separatists launched periodic attacks, and there were regular clashes between supporters of the ANC and supporters of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP). However, intensive bilateral talks led to a new bilateral Record of Understanding, signed between the ANC and the government in September 1992, which prepared the way for the ultimately successful Multi-Party Negotiating Forum of April–November 1993.
Although the ANC and the governing National Party were the main figures in the negotiations, they encountered serious difficulties building consensus not only among their own constituencies but among other participating groups, notably left-wing black groups, right-wing white groups, and the conservative leaders of the independent homelands and KwaZulu homeland. Several groups, including the IFP, boycotted the tail-end of the negotiations, but the most important among them ultimately agreed to participate in the 1994 elections.
Background
Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination and segregation by the South African government. It was formalised in 1948, forming a framework for political and economic dominance by the white population and severely restricting the political rights of the black majority.
Between 1960 and 1990, the African National Congress and other mainly black opposition political organisations were banned. As the National Party cracked down on black opposition to apartheid, most leaders of ANC and other opposition organisations were either killed, imprisoned, or went into exile.
However, increasing local and international pressure on the government, as well as the realisation that apartheid could neither be maintained by force forever nor overthrown by the opposition without considerable suffering, eventually led both sides to the negotiating table. The Tripartite Accord, which brought an end to the South African Border War in neighbouring Angola and Namibia, created a window of opportunity to create the enabling conditions for a negotiated settlement, recognized by Niel Barnard of the National Intelligence Service.
Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith: January 1974
On 4 January 1974, Harry Schwarz, leader of the liberal-reformist wing of the United Party, met with Gatsha (later Mangosuthu) Buthelezi, Chief Executive Councillor of the black homeland of KwaZulu and signed a five-point plan for racial peace in South Africa, which came to be known as the Mahlabatini Declaration of Faith. The declaration stated that "the situation of South Africa in the world scene as well as internal community relations requires, in our view, an acceptance of certain fundamental concepts for the economic, social, and constitutional development of our country." It called for negotiations involving all peoples, in order to draw up constitutional proposals stressing opportunity for all with a Bill of Rights to safeguard these rights. It suggested that the federal concept was the appropriate framework for such changes to take place. It also affirmed that political change must take place through non-violent means.
The declaration was the first of such agreements by acknowledged black and white political leaders in South Africa that affirmed to these principles. The commitment to the peaceful pursuit of political change was declared at a time when neither the National Party nor the African National Congress was looking to peaceful solutions or dialogue. The declaration was heralded by the English speaking press as a breakthrough in race relations in South Africa. Shortly after it was issued, the declaration was endorsed by several chief ministers of the black homelands, including Cedric Phatudi (Lebowa), Lucas Mangope (Bophuthatswana) and Hudson Nisanwisi (Gazankulu). Despite considerable support from black leaders, the English speaking press and liberal figures such as Alan Paton, the declaration saw staunch opposition from the National Party, the Afrikaans press and the conservative wing of Harry Schwarz's United Party.
Early contact: 1980s
The very first meetings between the South African Government and Nelson Mandela were driven by the National Intelligence Service (NIS) under the leadership of Niel Barnard and his Deputy Director General, Mike Louw. These meetings were secret in nature and were designed to develop an understanding about whether there were sufficient common grounds for future peace talks. As these meetings evolved, a level of trust developed between the key actors (Barnard, Louw, and Mandela). To facilitate future talks while preserving secrecy needed to protect the process, Barnard arranged for Mandela to be moved off Robben Island to Pollsmoor Prison in 1982. This provided Mandela with more comfortable lodgings, but also gave easier access in a way that could not be compromised. Barnard therefore brokered an initial agreement in principle about what became known as "talks about talks." It was at this stage that the process was elevated from a secret engagement to a more public engagement.
The first less-tentative meeting between Mandela and the National Party government came while P. W. Botha was State President. In November 1985, Minister Kobie Coetsee met Mandela in the hospital while Mandela was being treated for prostate surgery. Over the next four years, a series of tentative meetings took place, laying the groundwork for further contact and future negotiations, but little real progress was made and the meetings remained secret until several years later.
As the secret talks bore fruit and the political engagement started to take place, the National Intelligence Service withdrew from centre stage in the process and moved to a new phase of operational support work. This new phase was designed to test public opinion about a negotiated solution. Central to this planning was an initiative that became known in Security Force circles as the Dakar Safari, which saw a number of prominent Afrikaner opinion-makers engage with the African National Congress (ANC) in Dakar, Senegal, and Leverkusen, Germany at events organized by the Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa. The operational objective of this meeting was not to understand the opinions of the actors themselves—that was very well known at this stage within strategic management circles—but rather to gauge public opinion about a movement away from the previous security posture of confrontation and repression to a new posture based on engagement and accommodation.
Reforms announced: February 1990
When F. W. de Klerk became president in 1989, he was able to build on the previous secret negotiations with Mandela. The first significant steps towards formal negotiations took place in February 1990 when, in his speech at the opening of Parliament, de Klerk announced the repeal of the ban on the ANC and other banned political organisations, as well as Mandela's release after 27 years in prison. Mandela was released on 11 February 1990 and direct talks between the ANC and the government were scheduled to begin on 11 April. However, on 26 March, 11 protestors were killed by police in the Sebokeng massacre, and the ANC announced on 31 March that it intended to pull out of the negotiations indefinitely. The talks were only rescheduled after an emergency meeting between Mandela and de Klerk, held in early April.
Early "talks about talks"
Groote Schuur Minute: May 1990
On 2–4 May 1990, the ANC met with the South African government at the Groote Schuur presidential residence in Cape Town, in what were touted as the first of several "talks about talks", intended to negotiate the terms for more substantive negotiations. After the first day of meetings, a joint statement was released which identified the factors held by the parties to constitute obstacles to further negotiations: the government was concerned primarily about the ANC's ongoing commitment to armed struggle, while the ANC listed six preliminary demands, including the release of political prisoners, the return of ANC activists from exile, and the lifting of the state of emergency. The outcome of the talks was a joint communiqué known as the Groote Schuur Minute, which was released on 4 May and which canvassed, though rarely in decisive terms, many of the seven obstacles that had been identified. The minute consisted primarily in a commitment by both parties to "the resolution of the existing climate of violence and intimidation from whatever quarter as well as a commitment to stability and to a peaceful process of negotiations". The parties agreed to establish a working group, which should aim to complete its work before 21 May and which would consider the terms under which retroactive immunity would be granted for political offences. The government also committed to review its security legislation to "ensure normal and free political activities".
Pretoria Minute: August 1990
Tensions between the parties were piqued in late July, when several senior members of the ANC were arrested because of their involvement in Operation Vula, an ongoing clandestine ANC operation inside the country. Police raids also turned up Operation Vula material which de Klerk believed substantiated his concerns about the sincerity of the ANC's commitment to negotiations and about its intimacy with the South African Communist Party (SACP). Following another meeting between Mandela and de Klerk on 26 July, intensive bilateral talks were held on 6 August in Pretoria, resulting in another joint communiqué, the Pretoria Minute. The minute reiterated and extended earlier pledges by the government to consider amending its security legislation and lifting the state of emergency (then ongoing only in Natal province); and it also committed the government to releasing certain categories of political prisoners from September and indemnifying certain categories of political offences from October. Most significantly, however, the minute included a commitment to the immediate and unilateral suspension of all armed activities by the ANC and its armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe.
D. F. Malan Accord: February 1991
The Pretoria Minute was followed on 12 February 1991 by the D. F. Malan Accord, which contained commitments arising from the activities of the working group on political offences, and which also clarified the terms of the ANC's suspension of armed struggle. It specified that the ANC would not launch attacks, create underground structures, threaten or incite violence, infiltrate men and materials into the country, or train men for armed action inside the country. This concession was already unpopular with important segments of the ANC's support base, and the situation was further unsettled by the continuation of political violence in parts of the country, particularly in Natal and certain Transvaal townships, where ANC and IFP supporters periodically clashed. In early April 1991, the ANC imposed an ultimatum, threatening to suspend all negotiations unless the government took steps to reduce the violence. Its case was strengthened by a major scandal in July 1991, known as Inkathagate, which unravelled after journalist David Beresford published evidence, obtained from a Security Branch informant, that the government had been subsidising the IFP.
National Peace Accord: September 1991
On 14 September 1991, twenty-six organisations signed the National Peace Accord. The first multi-party agreement towards negotiations, it did not resolve substantive questions about the nature of the post-apartheid settlement, but did include guidelines for the conduct of political organisations and security forces. To address the ongoing political violence, it established multi-party conflict resolution structures (or "sub-committees") at the community level, as well as related structures at the national level, notably the Goldstone Commission. The accord prepared the way for multi-party negotiations, under the organisation that came to be called the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA).
Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA)
Composition
19 groups were represented at CODESA: the South African government and the governments of the so-called TBVC states (the nominally independent homelands of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei); the three main political players – the ANC, the IFP, and the NP (represented separately to the government, although holding identical positions to it); and a further variety of political groups. These were the SACP, the Democratic Party, the Dikwankwetla Party, the Inyandza National Movement (of KaNgwane), the Intando Yesizwe Party (of KwaNdebele), the Labour Party, the Transvaal and Natal Indian Congress, the National People's Party, Solidarity, the United People's Front, and the Ximoko Progressive Party. However, the negotiations were boycotted by organisations both on the far left (notably the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) and Azanian People's Organisation) and on far right (notably the Conservative Party and the Herstigte Nasionale Party). Buthelezi personally, though not the IFP, boycotted the sessions, in protest of the steering committee's decision not to allow a separate delegation representing the Zulu monarch, Goodwill Zwelithini. And South Africa's largest labour grouping, the Congress of South African Trade Unions, applied for but was denied permission to participate at CODESA; instead, its interests were to be represented indirectly by its Tripartite Alliance partners, the ANC and SACP.
In addition to a secretariat – led by Mac Maharaj of the ANC and Fanie van der Merwe of the government – and a management committee, CODESA I comprised five working groups, which became the main negotiating forums during CODESA's lifespan and each of which was dedicated to a specific issue. Each working group included two delegates and two advisors from each of the 19 parties, as well as a chairperson appointed on a rotational basis. Each had a steering committee and some had further sub-committees. Agreements reached at the working group level were subject to ratification by the CODESA plenary.
CODESA I: December 1991
CODESA held two plenary sessions, both at the World Trade Centre in Kempton Park outside Johannesburg. The first plenary was held on 20–21 December 1991; was chaired by judges Michael Corbett, Petrus Shabort, and Ismail Mahomed; and was broadcast live on television. On the first day, all 19 participants signed a Declaration of Intent, assenting to be bound by certain initial principles and by further agreements reached at CODESA. Notwithstanding various enduring sticking points, the extent of agreement reached at CODESA I was remarkable. Participants agreed that South Africa was to be a united, democratic, and non-racial state, with adherence to a separation of powers, with a supreme constitution and judicially enforceable bill of rights, with regular multi-party elections under a system of proportional representation, and with a common South African citizenship. Disagreements about how these provisos were to be implemented, however – and, for example, what exactly was entailed by a unified state or by proportional representation – continued to occupy, and to obstruct, the working groups well into 1992.
CODESA II: May 1992
The second plenary session, CODESA II, convened on 15 May 1992 at the World Trade Centre to canvas the progress made by the working groups. In the interim, electoral losses by the NP to the Conservative Party had led de Klerk to call a whites-only referendum on 17 March 1992, which demonstrated overwhelming support among the white minority for reforms and a negotiated settlement and which had therefore solidified his mandate to proceed. However, de Klerk's triumph in the referendum did not curtail – and may have inflamed – political violence, including among the white right-wing; nor did it resolve the deadlock that the working groups had arrived at on certain key questions. The most important elements of the deadlock arose from the work of the second working group, whose mandate was to devise constitutional principles and guidelines for the constitution-making process. In terms of the content of the constitutional principles, the ANC favoured a highly centralised government with strict limitations on regional autonomy, while the IFP and NP advocated for federal systems of slightly different kinds, but with strong, built-in guarantees for the representation of minority interests. For example, the NP's preferred proposal was for a bicameral legislature whose upper house would incorporate a veto for minority groups, to exist alongside a bill of rights with specific protections for so-called group rights. The ANC viewed such proposals as attempts to dilute majority rule and possibly to allow the maintenance of de facto apartheid in the country's minority-majority regions.Perhaps even more obstructive were disagreements about how the constitution itself was to be devised and passed into law. The ANC's enduring proposal had been that the task should be entrusted to a constituent assembly, democratically elected under the principle of one man, one vote. Although it recognised that the white minority would not abide a constitution-making process without any guarantees of its outcomes, the ANC believed that the pre-agreement of constitutional principles at CODESA should suffice for such guarantees. On the other hand, the NP held that the constitution should be negotiated among parties, in a forum resembling CODESA, and then adopted by the existing (and NP-dominated) legislature – both to protect minority interests, and to ensure legal continuity. Alternatively, if a constituent assembly was unavoidable, it insisted that approval of the new constitution should require the support of a three-quarters majority in the assembly, rather than the two-thirds majority proposed by the ANC. Thereafter, it sought a transitional system of government under a compulsory coalition, with the cabinet drawn equally from each of the three major parties and a presidency that would rotate among them. The IFP also opposed the notion of a democratically elected constituent assembly, although for different reasons.
As a result of this deadlock, with consensus evidently out of reach, discussions stalled and the plenary was dissolved on the second day of meetings, 16 May – although the parties reaffirmed their commitment to the Declaration of Intent, and expected to re-convene once the major disagreements had been resolved outside the plenary.
Breakdown of negotiations
Return to mass action: June–August 1992
With CODESA stalled, the ANC announced its return to a programme of "rolling mass action", aimed at consolidating – and decisively demonstrating – the level of popular support for its agenda in the constitutional negotiations. The programme began with a nationwide stay-away on 16 June, the anniversary of the 1976 Soweto uprising. It was overshadowed when later that week, on 17–18 June 1992, 45 residents of Boipatong, Gauteng were killed, primarily by Zulu hostel dwellers, in the Boipatong massacre. Amid broader suspicions of state-sponsored so-called third force involvement in the ongoing political violence, the ANC accused the government of complicity in the attack and announced, on 24 June, that it was withdrawing from negotiations until such time as the government took steps to restore its trust. Lamenting that the massacre had thrown South Africa "back to the Sharpeville days", Mandela suggested that trust might be restored by specific measures to curtail political violence, including regulating workers' hostels, banning cultural weapons like the spears favoured by the IFP, and prosecuting state security personnel implicated in violence.
In the aftermath of the massacre, the ANC capitalised on public sentiment to further promote its mass action campaign, and also harnessed the increased international attention – on 15 July, Mandela addressed a meeting of the United Nations (UN) Security Council in New York about state complicity in political violence, leading to a UN observer mission and ultimately to additional UN support for various transitional structures, including the Goldstone Commission. The political impetus for a negotiated solution was given further urgency after the Bisho massacre on 7 September, in which the Ciskei Defence Force killed 28 ANC supporters.
Record of Understanding: September 1992
For the month following 21 August 1992, representatives of the ANC and the government met to discuss the resumption of negotiations. Specifically, the government was represented by the Minister of Constitutional Development, Roelf Meyer, and the ANC by its Secretary General, Cyril Ramaphosa. Through intensive informal discussions, Meyer and Ramaphosa struck up a famous friendship. Their informal meetings were followed by a full bilateral summit in Johannesburg on 26 September 1992, which resulted in a Record of Understanding. The agreement improved relations between the parties to the extent that both delegations sent key members to two bosberaads (Afrikaans for "bush summits" or retreats) that summer.
The document asserted a shared desire to reopen negotiations and reflected at least partial resolutions to many of the major disagreements which had led to CODESA's collapse. On political violence, the parties agreed to further engagements, to a ban on carrying dangerous weapons in public, and to security measures at a specific list of hostels which had been identified as "problematic". The government also agreed to further extend the indemnity granted to political prisoners and to accelerate their release. The ANC, meanwhile, committed to easing tensions and to consulting its constituency "with a view to examine" its mass action programme. Most importantly, the Record of Understanding resolved the most obstructive disagreements between the parties about the form of the constitution-making process and the nature of the post-apartheid state. In a major concession, the NP agreed that the constitution would be drafted by a democratically elected body, though one bound by pre-determined constitutional principles. The ANC agreed in broad terms to a transitional arrangement, a Government of National Unity (GNU), and, by thus conceding to a two-stage transition, agreed to postpone the full transition to pure majority rule.
This concession on the ANC's part was in keeping with an evolving internal debate, much of which revolved around a paper published during the same period in the African Communist by Joe Slovo, an influential SACP leader and negotiator. Slovo, urging the ANC-SACP alliance to take a long-term view on the transition, proposed making strategic concessions to the NP's demands, including the incorporation of a "sunset clause" which would allow a transitional period of temporary power-sharing to appease white politicians, bureaucrats, and military men. In February 1993, the National Executive Committee of the ANC formally endorsed the sunset clause proposal and the idea of a five-year coalition GNU, a decision which was to lubricate multi-party negotiations when they resumed later that year.
Multi-Party Negotiating Forum (MPNF)
In early March 1993, an official Multi-Party Planning Conference was held at the World Trade Centre to arrange the resumption of multi-party negotiations. The conference established the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum (MPNF), which met for the first time on 1 April 1993. Over the remainder of the year, the parties to the MPNF devised and agreed to an interim Constitution, which included a list of 34 "constitutional principles" by which the envisaged constituent assembly would be bound in drafting the final constitution.
Composition
The MPNF comprised 26 political groups, among them – in contrast to CODESA – the PAC, the Afrikaner Volksunie, and delegations representing various traditional leaders. It was managed by a planning committee comprising representatives from twelve of the parties, who were appointed in their personal capacity and worked full-time. Among them were Slovo of the SACP, Ramaphosa of the ANC, Meyer of the NP, Colin Eglin of the Democratic Party, Benny Alexander of the PAC, Pravin Gordhan of the Transvaal Indian Congress, Frank Mdlalose of the IFP, and Rowan Cronjé of Bophuthatswana.
Each party sent ten delegates to the plenary, which, as in CODESA, was required to ratify all formal agreements. Before they reached the plenary, proposals were discussed in the intermediate Negotiating Forum, which contained two delegates and two advisers from each party. However, the bulk of the MPNF's work was done in its Negotiating Council, which contained two delegates and two advisers from each party, and which was almost continuously in session between April and November. It was in the council that proposals were developed and compromises thrashed out before being sent for formal approval in the higher tiers of the body. The issues before the Negotiating Council were almost identical to those discussed at CODESA and the MPNF built on the latter's work. However, in a new innovation, the Negotiating Council at the end of April resolved to appoint seven technical committees, staffed mostly by lawyers and other experts, to assist in formulating detailed proposals on specific matters. As a result of agreements reached earlier by the Gender Advisory Committee of CODESA, at least one party delegate at each level of the MPNF had to be a woman.
In principle, the parties to the forum participated on an equal basis, irrespective of the size of their support base, with decisions taken by consensus. In practice, however, the ANC and NP developed a doctrine known as "sufficient consensus", which usually deemed bilateral ANC–NP agreement (sometimes reached in external or informal forums) "sufficient", regardless of any protests from minority parties. As a result, the MPNF was still more dominated by the interests of the ANC and NP than CODESA had been.
Assassination of Chris Hani: April 1993
On 10 April 1993, a white extremist assassinated senior SACP and ANC leader Chris Hani outside Hani's home in Boksburg, Gauteng. Hani was extremely popular with the militant urban youth, a constituency whose commitment to a peaceful settlement was already tenuous, and his murder was potentially incendiary. However, Mandela's plea for calm, broadcast on national television, is viewed as having increased the status and credibility of the ANC, both internationally and among domestic moderates. Thus, somewhat paradoxically, the incident helped accelerate consensus between the ANC and the government, and on 3 June the parties announced a date for democratic elections, to be held in April the next year.
Storming of the World Trade Centre: June 1993
On 25 June 1993, MPNF negotiations were dramatically interrupted when their venue was stormed by the right-wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB), whose supporters crashed through the glass front of the building in an armoured car and briefly took over the negotiations chamber. Both Mandela and de Klerk condemned the attack, and all but two of the 26 negotiating parties publicly rejected the secessionist overtones of the AWB's protest.
Concerned South Africans Group
In early October 1992, the IFP initiated the formation of the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an "unlikely alliance" between the IFP and other black traditionalists – Lucas Mangope of Bophuthatswana and Oupa Gqozo of Ciskei – and the white Conservative Party. Buthelezi himself later called it "a motley gathering". Buthelezi had been infuriated by the IFP's exclusion from the Record of Understanding, and in October 1992 had announced to a rally that the IFP would withdraw from further negotiations. Although he walked back this threat and the IFP ultimately joined the MPNF, COSAG was formed to ensure that its members were not sidelined or played off against each other, as they believed they had been in the past. Moreover, its members were in broad agreement in favour of federalism and political self-determination, principles that even the NP increasingly appeared to have abandoned, and they sought to present a united front in advocating for those principles.
Notwithstanding COSAG's efforts, Buthelezi felt that the negotiations had become two-sided and that the IFP – and he personally – were being marginalised by the principle of sufficient consensus. In June 1993, the IFP walked out of the MPNF, announcing its withdrawal from negotiations. What immediately precipitated the walk-out was an objection to the ANC–NP consensus on the date of the 1994 election. The Ciskei and Bophuthatswana governments continued to participate in the forum until October 1993, when they also withdrew. At that time, COSAG was reconstituted as the Freedom Alliance, also incorporating far-right white groups of the Afrikaner Volksfront. None of the Alliance's members participated in the remaining negotiations or ratified the proposals that emerged from them, but informal negotiations with the ANC and government continued on the sidelines of the MPNF.
Interim Constitution: November 1993
The final plenary of the MPNF was convened on 17–18 November 1993. It ratified the interim Constitution in the early hours of the morning of 18 November 1993, after a flurry of bilateral agreements on sensitive issues were concluded in quick succession on 17 November. The MPNF's proposals and proposed electoral laws were adopted by the Tricameral Parliament, a concession to the NP's demand for legal continuity. Thereafter, South Africa's transition to democracy was overseen by the multi-party Transitional Executive Council. On the day of the council's inauguration in late 1993, Mandela and de Klerk were travelling to Oslo, where they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to end apartheid.
Political transition
Democratic elections: April 1994
In the run-up to the 1994 elections, a final stumbling block was the continued boycott of the elections by the members of the Freedom Alliance. Shortly before the election, an international delegation, led by former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and former British Foreign Secretary Peter Carington, visited South Africa to broker a resolution to the IFP's election boycott, or, failing that, to persuade the ANC and NP to delay the elections to avert possible violence. Rejecting the call to delay, the ANC and NP offered Buthelezi additional guarantees of the status of the Zulu monarchy, and Buthelezi's IFP agreed to participate in the elections. Its name was added to the ballot papers, which had already been printed, by means of a sticker added manually to the bottom of each slip. Opposition from other wings of the former COSAG was also neutralised: in March, days after Mangope announced that his "country" would not participate in the elections, his administration was effectively paralysed by the Bophutatswana crisis. In the aftermath of the crisis, which was considered humiliating by some far-right leaders, the Freedom Front split from the Afrikaner Volksfront and confirmed its intention to contest the elections, ensuring that far-right Afrikaners would be represented in the new government.
On 27 April 1994, a date later celebrated as Freedom Day, South Africa held its first elections under universal suffrage. The ANC won a resounding majority in the election and Mandela was elected president. Six other parties were represented in the national legislature and among them, under the provisions of the interim Constitution, the NP and IFP won enough seats to participate alongside the ANC in a single-term coalition Government of National Unity. Also in terms of a constitutional provision, de Klerk was appointed Mandela's second deputy president.
Aftermath
In 1995, the government passed legislation mandating the creation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, a restorative justice tribunal which over the next three years investigated human rights violations under apartheid. The final Constitution was negotiated by the Constitutional Assembly, working from principles contained in the interim Constitution, and was provisionally adopted in 8 May 1996. The next day, de Klerk announced that the NP would withdraw from the Government of National Unity, calling the moment a "natural watershed". Following changes made to the text at the instruction of the new Constitutional Court, the final Constitution came into effect in February 1997 and successful elections were held under its provisions in June 1999, consolidating the ANC's long-lived majority in the national legislature.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Negotiation documents
Text of the bilateral accords
Text of the National Peace Accord
Text of the CODESA Declaration of Intent
Terms of reference of CODESA working groups
Report on CODESA agreements
Text of the Record of Understanding
Documents of MPNF plenary
Text of the interim Constitution
Other media
Constitution Hill Trust series on the negotiations
Short documentary on the Groote Schuur meeting
Memorandum from Mandela to de Klerk on the breakdown of CODESA
De Klerk's reply
Mandela's reply
Special issue of the African Communist on the sunset clause proposal
Democratization
Events associated with apartheid
Negotiation
Nelson Mandela
Peace processes
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5121209
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-sufficiency
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Eco-sufficiency
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Ecological sufficiency, or simply sufficiency, refers to the concept or strategy to reduce the environmental footprint of societies through moderating the need for energy, carbon and material-based services and products. The term was popularised by authors such as Thomas Princen, a professor at MIT, in his 2005 book ‘The Logic of Sufficiency’. As a goal, sufficiency is about ensuring that all humans can live a good life within planetary boundaries, meaning without overshooting the ecological limits of the Earth and thus limiting resource use and pollution. Princen argues that ‘seeking enough when more is possible is both intuitive and rational - personally, organizationally and ecologically. And under global ecological constraint, it is ethical.'
In order to operationalise sufficiency, principles and ideas of concrete actions and policies have been proposed by various authors. Sufficiency may be approached at the individual level as a personal attitude or life philosophy (such as in the ‘Sobriété heureuse’ concept of French environmentalist Pierre Rabhi, or Uwe Schneidewind‘s concept of the ‘Good Life’), as well as a core collective value that could amend the notion of liberal societies. In terms of lifestyles, it is strongly related to the concepts of voluntary simplicity and downshifting.
There are significant barriers to the widespread adoption of sufficiency, as it goes against current dominant social paradigms (economic growth focus, materialism, individualism, etc.). However, there are signs of change in some trends, be they motivated by environmental concerns or other co-benefits. Sufficiency usually triggers debates around the notions of needs, wants, and 'enoughness'. Its impact on the economy and the role of rebound effects are also challenges to be addressed.
The war in Ukraine and subsequent energy crisis in 2022 have put a significant pressure on energy supply, notably in Europe, and popularised the concept of sufficiency and sufficiency policies. For instance, France has published a National energy sufficiency plan in October 2022 ('Plan national de sobriété énergétique').
Background
Definitions
Sufficiency is a concept that relates both to an ideal and a strategy to achieve it.
As a goal, sufficiency is about ensuring that all humans can live a good life without overshooting the ecological limits of the Earth (for now and generations to come), and defining what that good life may be made of.
As an increasing number of experts consider that technical progress and greener technologies alone will not be enough to achieve this goal, sufficiency also designates the societal transformations (in terms of lifestyles, social practices, infrastructures, etc.) that will be necessary to bring production and consumption patterns to a level compatible with the goal. It raises the question of individual and social limitations on these current patterns, building in particular on a sense of ‘enoughness’. The IPCC defines sufficiency as '''a set of policy measures and daily practices that avoid the demand for energy, materials, land, water, and other natural resources while providing wellbeing for all within the planetary boundaries'.
The term sufficiency has been popularised by Thomas Princen’s book ‘The Logic of Sufficiency’ published in 2005, in which he argues that ‘seeking enough when more is possible is both intuitive and rational - personally, organizationally and ecologically. And under global ecological constraint, it is ethical.’
Sufficiency may be approached at individual level as a personal attitude or life philosophy (such as in the ‘Sobriété heureuse’ concept of French environmentalist Pierre Rabhi, or Schneidewind‘s concept of the ‘Good Life’), as well as a core collective value that could amend the notion of liberal societies.
Sufficiency can be interpreted and discussed in virtually all social settings and economic sectors. In terms of lifestyles, it is strongly related to the concepts of voluntary simplicity and downshifting.
Energy sufficiency
The concept of sufficiency has been primarily developed in the area of energy consumption, where levels of greenhouse gas emissions far exceed what the planet may absorb and “rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society” are necessary according to IPCC.
Drawing on the limits of technical efficiency and rebound effects, sufficiency proponents argue that energy demand and its associated emissions cannot be sufficiently reduced if the root causes of this demand are not addressed, that is the nature and level of the energy services our societies rely on.
In that prospect, energy sufficiency is about questioning and reducing energy demand through ‘changes in quantity or quality’ of the energy-based services consumed, notably by ‘favouring behaviours and activities that are intrinsically low on energy use’.
The boundary between efficiency and sufficiency actions are not always precisely set; some authors have a broad conception of efficiency that may include aspects of lifestyle change.
Academic work released in 2022 systematically classified and databased specific public policy measures that can, individually and collectively, contribute to the uptake energy sufficiency.
Material sufficiency
Sufficiency is also applicable to material consumption. Similar to energy sufficiency, it consists in reducing demand for services and activities requiring high level of material resources, and favouring intrinsically lean ones. It is for instance associated with the ideas of avoiding wasteful consumption, owning fewer products, and prolonging their lifetimes.
Here also, depending on authors’ definitions, the boundary between efficiency and sufficiency may not always be perfectly drawn. As an illustration, a report for UNEP classifies items such as reducing living spaces, driving smaller cars and car sharing as ‘material efficiency’, while they would be more traditionally viewed as sufficiency.
Potential impact
Sufficiency largely remains a blindspot in most established ecological/energy transition scenarios, where efficiency and greener technologies are the main and only strategies usually modelled.
There are exceptions though. The French négaWatt Association has assessed the potential of energy sufficiency at the level of France, through its national négaWatt 2050 scenario. The scenario is based on three principles (sufficiency-efficiency-renewables) with the goal of reaching a factor 2 reduction on energy demand and factor 4 on greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, involving changes in lifestyles and societal organisation considered as reasonable by the modellers. Sufficiency appears to be able to provide more final energy savings than efficiency.
A German study found that sufficiency measures could lead to a theoretical reduction of 70 % of energy consumption at the level of households. The calculation assumes sufficiency measures encompassing the size of appliances (smaller, fewer appliances) as well as in their usage patterns.
A number of other scenarios and models lead to similar conclusions on the magnitude of saving potentials.
In order to encourage and improve the robustness and visibility of sufficiency modelling in energy scenarios, guidelines and recommendations have been published e.g. by the Ministry of Environment in Germany, or the SHIFT Project in France).
Implementation
Principles
While several established environmental strategies and policies do not question upstream the need for perpetual growth in energy and material services, sufficiency does. It needs to be translated into implementation principles to challenge current lifestyles and social paradigms. The "Four D's" suggested by Wolfgang Sachs are one example:
Decelerate (going slower and less far);
De-clutter (accumulate fewer things);
Decentralize (choosing local and regional) ;
Decommercialization (leaving less room for the market).
The discussion about sufficiency principles is not restricted to a particular area or sector, and may relate to broad lifestyle aspects such as quality of life and work-life balance.
Sufficiency, as a strategy, may also be operationalised through distinguishing between different approaches to limiting the need for energy/resource-intensive services:
Reducing (i.e. consuming less);
Substituting (replacing highly-consuming services by less intensive ones);
Better sizing (avoiding oversized services and waste);
Sharing (optimising the use of each energy/resource-based service).
The sufficiency theory also overlaps with the concept of 'consumption corridors'. This concept emerged notably from a transdisciplinary research program funded by the German Ministry for Education and Research, entitled “From Knowledge to Action – New Paths towards Sustainable Consumption.” Consumption corridors define a space between what is socially enough (the floor) and environmentally not too much (the ceiling).
Concrete sufficiency actions
There are many examples of individual and collective actions and changes that fall under the sufficiency approach. The following (non-exhaustive) list provides some:
Living and working in smaller (or shared) spaces;
Moderating internal temperatures in buildings;
Using natural rather than artificial light;
Choosing smaller appliances (or at least commensurate to actual needs);
Owning and using less (often) appliances and electronic products;
Sharing equipment between businesses;
Flying less;
Favouring low-energy transport modes (walking, cycling…);
Sharing vehicles;
Promoting remote work and flextime;
Prolonging the lifetime of products through repairing, re-using, and fighting obsolescence;
Refraining from fast fashion;
Favouring local low-techs over high-techs;
Switching to vegan and vegetarian diets;
Buying locally-produced food;
Avoiding food waste and packaging waste.
Sufficiency drivers and policies
One of the main barriers to sufficiency, often put forward by sceptics, is the dominant social paradigm in liberal societies which values material possession, greed, power, individualism, social differentiation through consumption, and other mindsets that conflict with the mentalities that sufficiency requires (temperance, moderation, downsizing, etc.). However, as environmental concerns grow, there are also signs showing the potential beginning of sufficiency trends. Three examples are:
The growth of cycling for daily trips in an increasing number of cities worldwide;
The "flight shame" movement;
The reduction of average beef consumption in some countries (e.g. France).
The role of intentionality in sufficiency is debated. While for many authors sufficiency requires (as a starting point) a profound and voluntary reassessment of personal and collective priorities in light of the Earth’s limits, for others, audiences could be ‘nudged’ or persuaded into taking some sufficiency actions without either being engaged with the issue or being primarily motivated by environmental concerns. There appear to be many co-benefits to sufficiency actions that could encourage their uptake, e.g. health and animal welfare for vegetarian diets, air pollution reduction for driving less, children’s health for limiting screen use, biodiversity protection for limiting artificial lights, etc.
There is increasing research into the role of policies in fostering sufficiency, although sufficiency is still in conflict with the ideological orientation of many decision-makers who are reluctant to engage with this idea.
Policies that are viewed as supportive of sufficiency include:
Energy/resource taxation, especially progressive taxation (at a sufficient level to genuinely trigger behaviour change);
Personal carbon allowances;
Phase-out or restrictions on certain highly intensive energy/resource-based services;
Investments in alternative mobility infrastructures (cycling lanes, etc.);
Alternative urban planning reducing the need for individual transport means;
Facilitating building sharing;
Environmental labelling based on absolute product impacts or progressive indicators (i.e. that become more challenging as product size, capacity or features increases);
Incentives to encourage sufficiency behaviours and projects, such as financial bonus/malus schemes based on the absolute energy consumption of services;
Evolutions in public prescriptions (on comfort, lighting, hygiene…) to alter social norms;
Information, communication, and educational campaigns and tools.
Limits and challenges
The discussion around needs, wants and enoughness
As it builds on a sense of self and collective moderation in relation to the consumption of energy and material-based services, sufficiency requires drawing a line between wants seen as superfluous and actual justified needs. It triggers potentially complex and contentious theoretical and practical questions. Answers may differ culturally, change with time and context, as well as depend on income and other socio-economic factors.
The issue is not only relevant at the level of individual values, ethics, and lifestyles, but also for public decisions. As an illustration, whereas building or extending an airport was rarely challenged successfully in the past, two recent decisions show this has changed: the decision of the French government to drop the Notre-Dame-des-Landes airport in 2018, and the UK court decision to rule Heathrow’s extension illegal over climate change in 2020.
Economic impact
Sufficiency supposes a moderation in the consumption and development of high energy-based and material-based services, which are often delivered by or associated with goods and equipment. Thus, sufficiency means limitations on current consumption levels of some products and renouncing some types of infrastructures.
A common criticism, shared with the degrowth concept, is that this would hurt economic growth, increase unemployment and lead to social problems. While it is clear that current energy and resource intensive services would be hit by sufficiency, leaner, more local, and employment-intensive activities would also be fostered in the meantime.
There is currently limited research on the macroeconomic impacts of a sufficiency-based society. Notably, there is a lack of understanding of how systematic sufficiency-based business models could be developed and promoted, and how it would change the economic system.
Rebound effects
A third objection to sufficiency is that, as for efficiency, the energy and material savings could lead to indirect rebound effects.
This suggests that sufficiency should be implemented as comprehensively as possible, to avoid savings in one sector being annihilated by the growing environmental footprint of another. Capping incomes and resource use are strategies that could mitigate rebound effects.
Research
Ongoing projects
ENOUGH: the International Network for Sufficiency Research & Policy
This scientific network has been established in 2018 to bring together scientists and experts from around the world and from various fields working on sufficiency. It aims to increase the visibility of the topic, facilitate networking activities and information sharing, and act as a resource centre. It maintains a bibliographical database on sufficiency including hundreds of references and publications.
FULFILL (Fundamental Decarbonisation Through Sufficiency By Lifestyle Changes) – EU funded Project (2022-2024)
The FULFILL project explores the contribution of lifestyle changes in decarbonising Europe. By examining sufficiency-based habits at the micro, meso and macro levels through social sciences, it discusses enablers and barriers and contributes to a better design of sufficiency policies and sufficiency modelling. The project is supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 programme.
1.5 Degree Lifestyles - EU funded project (2021-2025)
The aim of this EU project is to foster the mainstreaming of lifestyles in accordance with the 1.5° aspirational climate target. The project develops guidance for policy makers, intermediary actors and individuals based on scientific evidence on how lifestyle choices affect carbon footprint, and how political, economic and social contexts enable or constrain sustainable lifestyles options. The project involves researchers from Finland, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, the Netherlands, Spain and Sweden, and is funded through the financial support of the European Union’s Horizon 2020 programme.
CLEVER - Collaborative Low Energy Vision for the European Region (2020-2023)
This carbon-neutrality scenario for the EU is developed through a bottom-up approach of national trajectories constructed by 20+ national partners from the academic world, research, or civil society. It includes a strong consideration for energy sufficiency and lifestyle changes to reduce energy demand.
EDITS Network – IIASA (2020-)
The EDITS network (Energy Demand changes Induced by Technological and Social innovations) brings together experts of various disciplines to regularly discuss about and engage in the multi-faceted energy demand research, notably ways to reduce it such as sufficiency. The EDITS community works together based on common interest in interlinked topics, on transferring methodological knowledge, and on exploring modelling innovations across demand-side models.
ENSU - The Role of Energy Sufficiency in Energy Transition and Society (2021-2026)
This German research project led by a team of young researchers wants to investigate which sufficiency policies are needed in order to enable people to consume less resources and aim and integrating sufficiency options in energy and climate scenarios. and modelling. The project has organised workshops, published papers, and established the European Sufficiency Policy Database, a collection of hundreds of potential policy measures to foster sufficiency at various levels.
Living Well Within Limits (LiLi) – University of Leeds (2017-)
This project involves multidisciplinary qualitative and modelling approaches to answer three research questions: What are the biophysical resources required to achieve human well-being? What influence do social and technical systems have on the levels of resource use associated with well-being? If remaining within planetary boundaries requires rapid decreases in resource use, how could these scarce resources best be employed to preserve well-being?
EHSS – Potentials of and Limitations to Sufficiency Oriented Urban Development – BMBF / FONA (2017-2023)
The transdisciplinary research project explores the conditions for success and obstacles to sufficiency-oriented urban development at the municipal level. The central question is how municipal administrations are (not) able to influence city development so that people can live well while consuming as few resources as possible (focus on housing, mobility and land use). As part of the project, scientists from the University of Flensburg and employees of the City of Flensburg are conducting a real world laboratory on a sufficiency-oriented development of a 54-hectare redevelopment area.
Consumer sufficiency as a pathway to climate change mitigation - BOKU & Duisburg-Essen University (202-2023)
This project is rooted in Austria and Germany (BOKU and University of Duisburg-Essen), and is about sufficiency and especially consumption reduction communication (with a consumer perspective, involving the disciplines economic psychology/marketing).
Fair limits – University of Utrecht (2017-2022)
This 5-year project in political philosophy focuses on ‘Limitarianism’ and ‘Sufficientarianism’, i.e. the view that there should be upper limits to how much a person could have of valuable goods. The philosophical argumentation is discussed, as well as what ‘limitarian’ institutions could look like. The team involves five researchers and produced publications, events and blogs during the project.
Organiser la Sobriété – Ecole Polytechnique and University of Nantes (2020-)
This French research-action programme aims at studying how sufficiency governance may be considered at various levels, and how it can be experienced as a lifestyle change, a new economic model, or a local planning vision. Issues such as limit setting, value creation, and upscaling will be addressed.
Exploratoire de la sobriété énergétique – university of Caen-Normandie (2023-2026)
This French project involving 5 research partners is a multidisciplinary observatory of sufficiency and energy saving practices. Surveys and interviews, as well as living lab experiments, will help better understand how consumers react to energy crises and implement sufficiency actions.
Digital Sufficiency – ZHAW Switzerland
The increasing use of digital media can cause harm to the environment. The interdisciplinary project team aims to reduce the ecological burden by encouraging young people to use media in a way that is lighter on resources.
Sufficiency Policy in Rural Municipalities - Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL)
The research project analyzes how rural municipalities in Switzerland can adopt sufficiency policies and contribute to sustainable development. It examines the potential for sufficiency policies in rural municipalities, the factors that hinder and promote such policies, and how the superordinate political levels can support municipalities in developing and implementing sufficiency policies. (project duration: 2021-2025)
A Middle Way? Probing Sufficiency through Meat and Milk in China (MidWay) (2022-2027)
The primary objective of the MidWay-project is to probe the concept of sufficiency as a useful organising principle to achieve reduced consumption based on the empirical inputs from meat and milk practices in China. Host Institution for the project is the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, and PI is Associate professor Marius Korsnes.
Energy communities as multipliers for energy sufficiency - IÖW
The projekt from Institute for Ecological Economy Research (IÖW), adelphi and Heidelberger Energiegenossenschaften focuses on how energy cooperatives can encourage their members and customers to lead a sufficiency-oriented lifestyle. As a central part of the project, they fostered consumption reduction, time wealth and civic engagement in a field study.
SlowHeat: heat bodies not building - Belgium (2020-2023)
Exploratory participative research into an innovative, frugal and human-centered heating system that allows us to live well in our homes. Living with 16, 15, or even 14°C is possible and comfortable under certain conditions, which the SlowHeat research project aims to describe. Funded by Innoviris (Research administration of the Brussels Region, 2020-2023)
Sufficiency in the building sector (2022-2023)
The project identifies sufficiency approaches in the building sector and political-legal measures for their strategic anchoring and support, with which potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions can be exploited in addition to efficiency and consistency strategies. To this end, existing sufficiency approaches and concepts in the building sector will be researched and analyzed, e.g. the optimization of existing use or the adaptability of buildings to changing conditions of use and requirements over the life cycle, for which significant potential for greenhouse gas mitigation and the reduction of further environmental impacts and resource consumption can be demonstrated. For this purpose, current methods of modeling and quantifying sufficiency in climate, energy and resource scenarios will be taken up.
WEFEL - Wellbeing, energy futures and everyday life (2020-2023) - University of Geneva
The WEFEL project addresses the energy transition through a social practices and wellbeing approach. Energy scenarios are not always relatable to people, and often focused on technological solutions for the future. The aim of the project was to translate energy scenarios into personas from the future that represent what everyday life could look like in Geneva in 2035. The personas were then discussed in participatory workshops (N=142) with consumer-citizen, with three aims: 1) relating the personas to understandings of the good life, through a needs-based approach, 2) discussing trade-offs between energy reduction potentials and the good life, and 3) reflecting on necessary changes, collective and individual, towards the normative goal of the good life in an energy transition. The results demonstrate that people can reflect on social change in the present, moving beyond personal practices towards more collective forms of change that would be necessary for the future.
Past projects
Integrating energy sufficiency into modelling of sustainable energy scenarios (2020-2022)
The IntSuf project aimed at integrating knowledge about the social dynamics of energy consumption into energy modelling tools in order to develop sustainable energy scenarios that will be more useful in policy making. The project integrated experiences from European research of sustainable energy practices initiatives into two energy modelling tools and developed modified Danish, Latvian and Lithuanian national sustainable energy scenarios building upon the combination of sufficiency, efficiency and renewable energy.
EU policy guidance on energy sufficiency – eceee (2017-2020)
This project aimed at promoting the sufficiency concept and sufficiency policies at EU level. Several concept papers have been published (on definitions, rebound effects, sufficiency in buildings, sufficiency in products), and have been discussed at workshops in European cities.
ENERGISE – EU project (2016-2019)
This project involving 10 European research partners aimed at going beyond existing sustainable consumption research by developing innovative theoretical frameworks fusing social practice and energy cultures approaches. It assessed energy consumption reduction initiatives, investigated the use of Living Lab approaches for transforming energy cultures, and produced new research on the role of routines and ruptures in shifting consumption.
EUFORIE (European Futures for Energy Efficiency) – EU project (2017-2019)
This project involved four partners (University of Turku, University of Naples, University of Barcelona, and SERI). It aimed at studying energy consumption from different angles and suggested strategies to save energy in various fields. It notably included a report on “Stocktaking of social innovation for energy sufficiency” and a workshop organised in June 2017 on developing the potentials of energy sufficiency.
Sufficiency in daily life – Swiss project at the Basel University (2016-2019)
This project examined different aspects of sufficiency as a strategy for a ‘2000 watt’ society. Consumer habits, everyday routines, and sufficient lifestyles were investigated. Barriers and sufficiency governance have also been discussed.
ESADICAS - Socio-anthropologic study on collective acculturation to sufficiency - French project (2018-2020)
This project supported by ADEME aimed at analysing how far innovative collective schemes promoting acculturation to sufficiency may contribute to a widespread participation of consumers to the transition towards sustainability. It involved three French universities (Université de Rouen Normandie, Université de Rennes 1, Université Paris-Est Marne-la-Vallée).
Digitalization and social-ecological transformation: rebound risks and potential for sufficiency of digital services – IÖW / TU Berlin (2016-2022)
This project examined the social and environmental impacts of the provision and consumption of digital services, through several angles: how digitalization changes energy use (Environmental Engineering), changes in consumption patterns (Psychology), digital sufficiency marketing (Sustainability Marketing), imaginaries and future visions (Social Philosophy). These findings were integrated into post-doc and a professorship research projects.
Sufficiency in everyday life – Project from Öko-Institut (2012-2013)
This project supported by Stiftung Zukunftserbe investigated sufficiency potentials and strategies in German households. Policy options for sufficiency were then analysed, discussed, and developed in several areas.
Scenarios for sufficiency and societal changes – Project in the French Hauts-de-France Region (2012-2016)
This project led by the NGO Virage Energie and supported by ADEME and regional authorities aimed at discussing sufficiency potentials at the level of a French region in collaboration with academic partners. Two reports were published: one focusing on sufficiency modelling in food, material goods, buildings, and mobility (2013), the other added considerations about barriers, social innovation approaches, and socio-economic impacts of sufficiency-based strategies (2016).
Sobriétés – French local project (2010-2013)
This interdisciplinary research project supported by the French Hauts-de-France Region and ADEME was led by Lille University and aimed at institutionalising energy sufficiency strategies at the regional and local level. It contributed to structuring a network of regional actors who reconsidered regional energy policies under a new light.
SuPraStadt I – Ifeu, ISOE, FH Dortmund (2019-2022)
SuPraStadt stands for quality of life, participation and resource conservation through social diffusion of sufficiency practices in urban neighborhoods.The project focused on transdisciplinary cooperation with three real laboratories with three different lead actors: a civil society initiative in Heidelberg, the municipality in Dortmund and a housing industry company in Kelsterbach. The initiative for the conception, implementation and diffusion of sufficiency practices originated significantly from these lead actors and the implementation of their initiatives has already begun.
References
Ecology
Economics of sustainability
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5121837
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20the%20Middle%20East
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Economy of the Middle East
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The economy of the Middle East is very diverse, with national economies ranging from hydrocarbon-exporting rentiers to centralized socialist economies and free-market economies. The region is best known for oil production and export, which significantly impacts the entire region through the wealth it generates and through labor utilization. In recent years, many of the countries in the region have undertaken efforts to diversify their economies.
Overview
An International Monetary Fund (IMF) analysis of growth determinants indicates that greater integration with international markets could provide a substantial boost to income and gross domestic product (GDP) growth.
According to Bayt.com's Middle East Consumer Confidence Index, March 2015:
While close to a quarter (24%) of respondents indicated that their country's economy had improved over the previous 6 months, over one third (35%) thought that it had gotten worse. Those in Syria were the most negative about their country's economy: 83% of them thought it has receded as compared to 6 months prior. 38% of respondents expected the economy in their country to improve in the following 6 months, while a quarter expected it to get worse.
Overall, only 7% believed that business conditions of that time were 'very good'; 24% thought business conditions were 'good'. Half of respondents expected business conditions in their country to have improved in the following year. Respondents from Syria tended to be more pessimistic about future business conditions: about half of them (49%) thought they would become worse.
By country and territory
Bahrain
In 2018 Bahrain has a per capita GDP of 50,700. Bahrain has the Persian Gulf's first "post-oil" economy. Since the late 20th century, Bahrain has heavily invested in the banking and tourism sectors. The country's capital, Manama, is home to many large financial institutions. Bahrain has a high Human Development Index (ranked 48th in the world) and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy. Bahrain has expanded its industrial capacity to include aluminum production and signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States in an effort to expand its export base. Bahrain has also positioned itself as a strong player in Islamic banking in an effort to expand beyond resource exports and into a greater role in the international service industry.
Egypt
Egypt derives a great deal of its foreign exchange from tourism. Consequently, most of its labor force is devoted to the service sector. Agriculture is also a large part of the Egyptian economy. The Nile River provides Egypt with some of the most fertile land in the Middle East. It produces food for consumption and export as well as cotton for domestic and foreign textile production. Egypt's other great resource is the Suez Canal. Roughly 7.5% of global sea trade transits the canal providing Egypt revenues in excess of $3 billion annually. Egypt's industrial base dates to the 1960s, when the nation undertook import substitution industrialization policies. The inefficiencies of the state-run program have led the government to begin a privatization program and as a result Egypt enjoyed substantial GDP growth in the first decade of the 21st century. It has also taken advantage of Qualifying Industrial Zone to expand trade relations with the United States. Despite these developments Egypt remains an underdeveloped country with a per capita GDP of $5,500. The Egyptian Commodities Exchange is the first electronic exchange in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region, abolishing a monopoly and allowing small farmers to trade at reasonable market prices.
Iran
Iran has one of the largest economies in the Middle East. It is the world's 18th largest by PPP. Iran's major industries are largely state-owned. The nature of the Iranian state-owned enterprises has led to a degree of inefficiency. Iran ranks 69th out of 139 in Global Competitiveness Report. Iran has been able to subsidize inefficient industry with its large oil revenues, and maintain respectable growth rates. The nature of the state-driven economy has led to significant brain drain in recent years as educated Iranians seek opportunities abroad. Consequently, Iran has begun a privatization effort in order to stimulate trade in accordance with its ongoing five-year plan, and has also undertaken an ambitious economic reform plan.
The chief advantage that Iran's capital market has in comparison with other regional markets is that there are 40 industries directly involved in it. Industries, including the automotive, telecommunications, agriculture, petrochemical, mining, steel, iron, copper, banking and insurance, financial mediation and others trade shares at the Tehran Stock Exchange, which makes Iran unique in the Middle East. Iran has a high potential to become one of the world's largest economies in the 21st century.
In 2018 Gottfried Leibbrandt, chief executive of SWIFT, said in Belgium that some banks in Iran would be disconnected from this financial messaging service. On 13 November 2018 International Monetary Fund released a report and predicted that Iran’s inflation rate would go as high as 40% by the end the year.
According to the Statistical Center of Iran, Iran's annual inflation rate stood at 42.4% during the month December 21, 2021 to January 20, 2022. Prices continued to rise for housing & utilities (28.5% vs 27.9 in January); transport (36.1% vs 35.3%); communication (3.8% vs 2.3%); and tobacco (35.0% vs 33.3%).
Iraq
Nearly 30 years of fighting, against Iran in the 1980s and the United States since 1991, has had a detrimental impact on Iraqi economic growth. Oil production remains Iraq's chief economic activity. The lack of development in other sectors has resulted in 18–30% unemployment and a depressed per capita GDP of $4,632. Reconstruction aid has helped to bolster the nation's infrastructure.
Israel
Israel's national leadership created a socialist economy when Israel was established in 1948. The purpose of this approach was to establish economic self-sufficiency, particularly agriculturally, in the face of hostile neighbors and to provide jobs for a population rapidly expanding through immigration. The socialist nature of the economy created a great deal of inefficiency which the government was able to offset through foreign aid, first in the form of West German Holocaust reparations then through direct aid, primarily from Western nations.
Following the Yom Kippur War Israeli defense spending rose dramatically, exposing the weaknesses of the state-run economy. The result was rampant inflation that led Israel to recall the pound in 1980 and issue the sheqel. This move did not sufficiently curb inflation and consequently the sheqel was recalled in 1985 in favor for the Israeli new sheqel, a move implemented together with a comprehensive economic stabilization program which stemmed inflation and set the stage for high growth in the 1990s. Israel had also undertaken a privatization effort beginning in the late 1970s.
The economy received a boost in the early 1990s with the arrival of several hundred thousand immigrants from the former Soviet Union. As a significant number of the immigrants were highly educated, Israel accelerated its privatization to encourage the high-skilled workers to stay. The new labor also attracted foreign direct investment. Israel's growth over the past decade has been commensurate with Western developed nations as is its per capita GDP (PPP), which is about $35,000/year – the third highest (behind Bahrain and the UAE) of the Middle Eastern countries not dependent on natural resources. It also has the highest economic complexity index of all the countries in the Middle East. Israel is described as "very highly developed" on the UN's Human Development Index, ranking 16th among 187 world nations and highest in the Middle East in 2012.
In September 2010, Israel joined the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), which praised Israel's scientific and technological progress and described it as having "produced outstanding outcomes on a world scale." Much of the growth in the country's economy over the past couple of decades is attributable to the software, biomedical, electronics, telecommunications and other high-technology sectors as the percentage of Israelis engaged in scientific and technological inquiry, and the amount spent on research and development (R&D) in relation to gross domestic product (GDP), is among the highest in the world. The high-tech industry contributes to about 43 percent of Israeli exports, but only employs 8.3 percent of the industry's workers.
Jordan
Jordan operates a rentier economy based largely on foreign aid, investment, and remittances. Jordan heavily depends on its highly skilled workforce in the oil-rich Persian Gulf to send back money to help support thousands of Jordanian families. Consequently, its economic fortunes are tied to events in the international community. Although the standard of living in Jordan is significantly higher than other countries with similar incomes, having among the best education and healthcare systems in the Middle East, many Jordanians opt to work abroad because of soaring costs of living and high unemployment in their native country. Jordan is dependent on those remittances which have accounted for nearly 20% of GDP since 1975. Jordan's dependence has had detrimental consequences. Following Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were expelled from other Arab nations. For Jordan this resulted in the significant loss of remittance revenue.
Although the 2003 Iraq War first brought detrimental consequences to Jordan's economy, it gave Jordan a huge boost in trade and investment with wealthy Iraqis re-settling in Jordan; Amman become a transit point for business and trade bound to Iraq. Jordan consequently became known as the "Gateway to Iraq" and later the "Gateway to the Middle East". Jordan's pro-business and pro-Western government has created incentives and free trade zones to spur further economic growth.
Jordan's private sector growth has been given higher priority in recent years. Manufactured exports have increased by taking advantage of Qualifying Industrial Zones, led largely through the growth of a textile industry. Jordan's shift to a free-market economy has brought unprecedented amounts of investments. Jordan has one of the freest economies in the Middle East due to several key economic reforms in the past few years. Tourism, ICT, trade, and future oil shale and uranium exports will form the backbone of Jordan's economy.
Kuwait
The Kuwaiti currency is the highest-valued currency unit in the world. In 2010 Kuwait had the second-most-free economy in the Middle East according to the Index of Economic Freedom. 57% of Kuwait's GDP comes from non-oil industry (mostly business services, manufacturing, retail trade, financial institutions, construction, transport and real estate). Petroleum accounts for 43% of GDP, 87% of export revenues, and 75% of government income. Kuwait also exports chemical fertilizers. The per capita GDP is $51,912. As part of a diversification plan the Kuwaiti government has invested its revenues and maintains a sizable sovereign wealth fund. In 2008 these investments accounted for more than half of Kuwait's GDP. 60% of Kuwait's work force are non-Kuwaitis.
Lebanon
The GDP per capita of Lebanon was $16,000 in 2012 US dollars. At that time Lebanon had the highest in GDP per capita after 6 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) state members and Israel, as per the CIA World Fact Book. However, the economy of Lebanon had been severely inhibited by internal sectarian conflict and conflict with Israel. The government incurred significant debt attempting to rebuild the national infrastructure following the Lebanese Civil War. Through foreign assistance the nation had made strides to rebuild, but remained largely underdeveloped. Its trade deficit was nearly $8 billion and its external debt $31.6 billion. Lebanon's economy is being rebuilt, especially by the remarkable growth of its industry (including cement) and services sector which presents more than 70% of the country's economy. Beirut is regaining its place as a financial center of the Middle East with foreign investment returning in all sectors, encouraged by steady growth.
Oman
Oman has several different industries including crude oil production and refining, natural and liquefied natural gas (LNG) production, construction, cement, copper, steel, chemicals and optic fiber. Oman also has substantial trade and budget surpluses. 55% of Oman's government revenues come from non-oil industries. Petroleum accounts for 64% of total export earnings, 45% of government revenues and 50% of GDP. By 2020 Oman hopes to reduce oil revenue to just 9% of its income. Along with that plan the country hopes to move away from rentier economics, employ its citizens in the labor market and reduce reliance on expatriate labor. To take its first steps in economic independence it has signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States and is seeking to do the same with the European Union, China, and Japan. It is currently maneuvering itself into the re-export and heavy-manufacturing markets.
Palestine
The economy of Palestine has been severely depressed by the ongoing occupation of Israel. Production has dropped since the beginning of the Second Intifada in 2000. The Gaza Strip has been blockaded by Israel and Egypt since June 2007 after Hamas took control of Gaza in the course of a conflict with rival Palestinian group Fatah. In May 2010, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated that the formal economy in Gaza has collapsed since the imposition of the blockade. The West Bank has fared significantly better since the split in the Palestinian power structure, and Fatah took power in the West Bank. The official GDP per capita of the West Bank was more than double that of the Gaza Strip in 2015. Palestine remains almost entirely dependent on foreign aid. Collectively, Palestine had a per capita GDP of $4,300 in 2014.
Qatar
Qatar currently enjoys the region's highest per capita GDP at $128,000. It has derived its wealth from exploiting its natural gas reserves. With the revenues from its hydrocarbon industries Qatar has established a rentier economy. Qatar has also established the largest per capita sovereign wealth fund in the world. With a population under one million, the government has not found it necessary to diversify its economy.
Saudi Arabia
The economy of Saudi Arabia is one of the top twenty economies in the world, and the largest economy in the Arab world and the Middle East. Saudi Arabia is part of the G20 group of countries.
With a total worth of $34.4 trillion, Saudi Arabia has the second most valuable natural resources in the world.
The country has the second-largest proven petroleum reserves, and is the largest exporter of petroleum in the world.
It also has the fifth-largest proven natural gas reserves and is considered an "Energy Superpower".
The economy of Saudi Arabia is heavily dependent on oil, and is a member of OPEC. In 2016 the Saudi Government launched its Saudi Vision 2030 to reduce the country's dependency on oil and diversify its economic resources. In the first quarter of 2019, Saudi Arabia's budget has accomplished its first surplus since 2014. This surplus that is accounted for $10.40 billion has been achieved due to the increase of the oil and non-oil revenues.
Syria
Stemming from a 1960s nationalization effort most of the Syrian economy is run by the government. However, an inefficient public sector, significant domestic subsidies, and considerable intervention investment in Lebanon have led to significant problems of inflation and external debt. Consequently, the Syrian government has undertaken modest privatization reform in preparation for the opening of the Damascus Stock Exchange in 2009. Modest oil production and an agriculture sector lead Syria's production while most of its employment is in the service sector. Its per capita GDP stands at $4,900.
Turkey
Turkey is the largest economy in the Middle East followed by Saudi Arabia, Iran and the UAE. Turkey has the world's 15th largest GDP-PPP and 15th largest Nominal GDP. The country is a founding member of the OECD (1961) and the G-20 major economies (1999). Turkey has been part of the EU Customs Union since 31 December 1995.
Turkey is often classified as a newly industrialized country by economists and political scientists; while Merrill Lynch, the World Bank and The Economist magazine describe Turkey as an emerging market economy.
Turkey is restructuring its economy in an attempt to gain full European Union membership. It began this policy in the early 1970s, abandoning its previous import substitution industrialization policy. As privatization has taken hold in Turkey it has brought with it significant foreign direct investment. Additionally, the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline has brought revenue to Turkey and enabled it to share in some of the regional hydrocarbon wealth. Turkey's economy is currently led by its automobile, agricultural, construction and textile sectors. It has a per capita GDP of $11,200, supplemented by some 1.2 million Turks working abroad.
Turkey's economy has been considered a regional success story in the past. As per the Turkish Statistical Institute, a government agency committed to producing official statistical data on the country, the country's inflation rate increased by 14.03% in November 2020. The statistics showed a 1.5 points increase as per the expected level; a 15-month high. As of December 2020 stats, the figures show a 2.3% increase in monthly consumer prices and a significant price rise in basic necessities such as food, beverages, and transportation. Meanwhile, the fall of the Turkish lira has been reported for years. Since the start of 2020, it has lost more than 30% of its value as compared to the US dollar and 30% against the euro.
United Arab Emirates
The economy of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) is the second largest in the Arab world (after Saudi Arabia), with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $377 billion (AED1.38 trillion) in 2012. The United Arab Emirates has been successfully diversifying the economy. 71% of UAE's total GDP comes from non-oil sectors. Oil accounts for only 2% of Dubai's GDP. The UAE is also making an effort to attract foreign direct investment by offering 100% foreign ownership and no taxes. Tourism is one of the main sources of revenue in the UAE.
A rating agency, Moody's Investors Service revised its rating of eight UAE banks from stable to negative amidst the coronavirus outbreak. The eight banks included Emirates NBD, Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, Dubai Islamic Bank, Mashreq Bank, HSBC Bank Middle East, Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank, National Bank of Ras al-Khaimah and National Bank of Fujairah.
The UAE cabinet introduced a UBO law in early 2021 after global pressure for financial transparency in the corporate sector increased. The pressure was sourced from the investigations carried out by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists like the 2016 Panama Papers pushing to pass the Ultimate Beneficial Ownership or UBO registries. Following Dubai’s increasing role in being a safe haven for the investment of illicit funds and provision of financial secrecy to people behind it – as disclosed under other ICIJ probes such as FinCEN Files and Luanda Leaks – has led to the introduction of the beneficial ownership law in the UAE. According to ICIJ, companies not abiding by the law and failing to report beneficial ownership information will have to bear administrative penalties and fines worth approximately 100,000 UAE dirhams, starting July 1, 2021. However, considering the lack of a centralized register to track all financial activities, loopholes, and exemptions in the UBO law itself, advocates believe that it isn’t enough as a standalone to control money laundering in UAE.
Yemen
Yemen has suffered from chronic economic mismanagement. With 85% unemployment, the nation relies heavily on expatriate remittances. The reliance on foreign labor markets proved disastrous following the 1991 Persian Gulf War when Saudi Arabia and Kuwait expelled Yemeni workers and curtailed aid to the country in response to its support of Iraq. Most of Yemen's GDP comes from its limited oil production. The bulk of its labor is involved in agriculture where its primary cash crop is khat.
On 3 November 2018 a British MP from Labor Party blamed Iran backed rebels in Yemen for the disastrous humanitarian crisis in that country. Graham Jones, chairman of the Commons Committees on Arms Exports Controls (CAEC) has questioned the British Government ‘s arm sales.
Job index
The Middle East Job Index Survey conducted by Bayt.com in February 2015 stated that:
Overall, the Job Index had decreased by one point since the last wave of August 2014. In the
UAE, the Job Index had decreased by four points since August 2014.
Three-fifths of working respondents in the MENA stated that they would be hiring in the following 3 months. Plans to hire in those 3 months were higher in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar), with 37% 'definitely' hiring, compared to 30% in the Levant and 29% in North Africa.
7 in 10 working respondents stated that they would be hiring in a year's time. The plans for hiring in a year's time showed more positive results amongst the GCC countries, with 37% 'definitely' hiring after 12 months, compared to 30% in Levant and North Africa. 65% of those who planned to hire in the following 3 months indicated that they would be hiring for up to 10 positions. Over three-fifths (64%) of working respondents stated that their companies have hired new employees in the previous 6 months.
The trend continued from past waves with most employers planning to hire people for junior or mid-level executive positions. Accountants (17%) and sales managers (16%) were the top job roles companies expected to be hiring in the 3 months following the survey. Post-graduate degrees in business management were the most sought-after qualification in the MENA. This was followed by degrees in engineering and commerce. Good communication skills in Arabic and English were the top attribute companies sought in a respondent, followed by 'being a team player'. In terms of experience, managerial skills were the most sought, followed by experience in sales and marketing, and computer skills.
Overall, two-fifths believed that their country of residence was more attractive as a job market in comparison to other MENA countries. When compared to the Levant region (16%) and North Africa (19%), significantly more respondents in the GCC (40%) thought that their country of residence is a more attractive job market. Almost half of working respondents rated their own industry as being more attractive as a potential employer in comparison to other industries. Overall, banking and finance were first in terms of the industry which respondents considered to be attracting/retaining talent in their country of residence.
Economic reform
Following the oil boom of the 1970s, Middle Eastern economies have implemented several reform policies aimed at sustaining economic growth and increasing participation at the macroeconomic level. The implementation of these economic reforms became more urgent in the region as oil price volatility threatened the economic stability of major oil-exporting countries. While each country follows its own economic agenda, many face similar challenges and target issues which affect the region as a whole. The policies are especially concerned with attracting foreign investment in an integrated global economy.
Countries within the Middle East have also begun implementing policies to promote integration between Middle Eastern countries. These are hoped to help the region reach its full economic potential and to sustain the stability of countries that have accomplished higher rates of growth and development.
Background
Following the OPEC embargo of October 1973, the market price of oil per barrel rose from $3 to $12 per barrel in reaction to the 5% production cut and reduction of supply by OPEC countries. The OPEC embargo was directed at the United States and other countries (the Netherlands, Portugal and South Africa), in retaliation for their financial aid and support of Israel during the Yom-Kippur War. The embargo was also prompted by the decision of President Richard Nixon to take the United States off the gold standard, hurting oil-producing countries which collected revenue in US dollars. While the OPEC embargo exacerbated the deep recession and inflation in the United States, the economies of the Middle East witnessed rapid expansion and growth in GDP as well as an increase in the Middle East's share of global world trade from 3.6% in 1972 to 8% in 1979. In addition to experiencing economic growth, the Middle East also made improvements in development indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy, and a decrease in unemployment across most sectors.
Following the oil boom and the OPEC embargo of the 1970s, the Middle East became a heavily integrated region in terms of economic growth and employment. The increase in the export of oil by the major oil-exporting countries in the Middle East led to a mass influx of foreign workers from Arab and Asian countries. Towards the end of the 1980s the growth began to stop as the price of oil fell in an increasingly competitive global market. As a result, countries such as Morocco, Tunisia and Jordan began to implement economic reforms during the mid-1980s. Soon after, most countries within the region had implemented some form of economic stabilisation policy. During the 1990s the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar) were becoming increasingly vulnerable to oil-price volatility.
Religious issues
For many Middle Eastern countries religion is heavily integrated into economic policy and has proved to be a major obstacle to effective economic reform. Religious instability in the region deters foreign investment and global economic integration. Political transparency has also proven to be a deterrence to economic development. Since the quality of institutions and governance are important factors in stimulating growth, economic reform in the Middle East may not be complete if religious reform is not suggested or implemented simultaneously. The political instability and continuous regional conflict (such as the Palestine–Israel conflict) prevents the region from achieving its highest potential as it consistently faces humanitarian crises that affect development indicators such as life expectancy and infant mortality rate.
Integration into the global economy
Another common issue that the region has addressed in economic and policy reforms is the integration of the Middle East into the global economy. Reports of economic reform in the Middle East in the early 2000s called for massive reforms to improve the Middle East's global financial integration as it stood below most developed regions. Such reports also called for a reform of the trade sector and agreements that had prevented most trade (other than oil exports). Noting trade openness as "a significant contributor to higher productivity per capita income growth", several countries in the Middle East have accomplished the common goal of trade reform and openness.
Reforms in new age of the Middle East
Subsidy Reform
History of price subsidies in the Middle East
A common issue within Middle Eastern economies is the use of subsidies, of which energy subsidies account for the most. These price subsidies were first introduced over a thirty-year period beginning in 1940, and many of them began simply as price stabilisers. However over time they transformed into price subsidies. While meant to be implemented as a "social protection" or welfare tool, the subsidies were not adequately targeted nor were they cost-effective, defeating their primary purpose. They were not reaching the people who needed more government assistance, but instead benefitted a large portion of richer citizens. Subsidies had been embraced, often being the only social protection program in place, and several Middle Eastern nations came to see them as natural rights of citizens. This made their removal difficult, and pressure for their removal during the 1990s was lower because they accounted for a relatively small portion of GDP.
Pressure for reform
Following the 1990s, the pressure to reform price subsidies began to build as the price of oil steadily rose in the 2000s. It became apparent that price subsidies were preventing governing bodies from implementing needed social programs. Price subsidy reform became more tangible following the 2008–2009 global financial crisis, under which the prices of commodities rose, invariably raising the subsidies on these commodities.
Reform
Beginning in 2010, six countries in the Middle East (Iran, Yemen, Jordan, Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt) made significant reforms to their price subsidies system. Iran was the first country in the region to do so, and began by implementing major price increases on all fuel products, electricity, water and transport. This was offset by the implementation of monthly cash transfers of 445,000 rials per person. In terms of non-subsidised commodities, the prices of such goods also rose, with increases in price averaging around 30% and peaking at 100%. The cash transfers provided to citizens were found to be excessive and were disproportionately benefiting the richer citizens of the country. Due to the adverse effects of the subsidy reform, some portions of the reform were repealed in March 2012 under the newly amended Targeted Subsidies Reform Act.
Another country in the region that implemented subsidy reforms was the Republic of Yemen, which did so with the help of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank in 2005–2010. During this period, prices periodically increased several times. In 2011 and 2012, increases in the price of gasoline, diesel and kerosene continued, drawing little public attention. However, the decision to remove all subsidies in 2014 increased prices by almost 90% for some products, drew public outcry and led to the reverse of some of these reforms within the year.
Other countries have taken different approaches, varying from extreme to gradual reforms. The effectiveness is dependent on many different factors such as the political climate during the time of the reform or whether or not the public receives precautionary warnings and advice in regards to coping with the removal of subsidies from goods and services.
The reduction of subsidies in the Middle East is an ongoing challenge, but has developed significantly though there are often setbacks as they remain susceptible to changes in regime, political conditions, and socioeconomic factors.
Economic diversification
Middle Eastern countries have increasingly attempted to diversify their economies, particularly the oil-exporting countries. The countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council have addressed this issue and have taken a strong stance in the implementation of reforms. In order to decrease resource dependency within the Gulf states, reforms and policy proposals for the future have been implemented and follow a plan of economic development, signalling the move from natural resources to a globally-integrated diversified economy hoped to attract foreign investment. Examples of such plans to diversify include Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 and the United Arab Emirates' Economic Vision 2030, each of which outline the country's goals to reach the desired level of economic growth and development by 2030.
Saudi Arabia Vision 2030
Saudi Arabia's economic vision for the year 2030 outlines various goals that the kingdom hopes to achieve. One is the expansion of small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) to account for 35% of GDP, nearly double its current 20%. The plan outlines an allocation of 20% of funding to SMEs. The plan also mentions continued privatisation of "state-owned assets".
Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030
Abu Dhabi (capital of the United Arab Emirates) has set goals for achieving an increasingly global and diversified economy by 2030, funded with the city's acquired oil wealth. Focusing on GDP by sector, the plan emphasises the link between economic diversification and economic sustainability. The Emirate is also concerned in developing the private sector within the city and states that at publication in 2008, that the ratio of small privately owned businesses to large businesses was on-par with developed countries.
Value added tax in the GCC
As of January 2016, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates announced the plan to implement value-added tax (VAT) in the GCC as a response to the decrease in oil prices beginning in 2014. VAT is expected to be effective in the GCC in January 2018, however some countries may implement this tax later into the year. The UAE, KSA and Bahrain have now implemented VAT leaving three GCC countries (Oman, Kuwait, and Qatar) to still implement VAT.
Implications
Though each member of the GCC will establish a separate national implementation of VAT, the implications of VAT on the economy are similar. First, the requirements for businesses operating under VAT appear universal across the region: all businesses that exceed the VAT threshold must register, filing periodic VAT returns with tax officials, and record keeping of all business transactions.
Similar considerations are to be taken by businesses and governmental bodies. VAT may not apply to all financial services (such as services involving Islamic banking or insurance). Considerations of VAT on the oil and gas industry must also be made. The retail sector may also be adversely affected; retailers must be aware of the correct way to classify sales and implement retail loyalty schemes.
History
Around 1800
Textile production was the most-important industry, complemented by food-processing, furniture and some specialized industries.
Industrial production was mostly concentrated in the cities. With exception of Istanbul, the cities themselves were all situated next to a substantial area of cultivatable land with soil quality.
Most industries, with fixed price and guild systems, were not conducive to innovation, even if a certain quality of craftsmanship was preserved.
Another important urban function was to organize caravan trade.
Early nineteenth century
During the early nineteenth century, the situation in the Middle East changed dramatically because of three development paths: mild reforms and problematic openness in the Ottoman imperial core, forced development in Egypt and direct colonization in central Asia and Algeria.
When comparing living standards, the Middle East did better than the Western industrialized countries in the mid-19th century. With the income levels and the onset of huge structural changes around 1900, an economic setback determines consumption behaviour and led to permanent changes in the nutritional status of the Middle Eastern populations. Therefore, the Western industrialized countries overtook the Middle Eastern living standards around 1900.
20th century
Following a period of deindustrialization, political movements in the Middle East demanded a political renaissance and leaders saw the need for reindustrialization.
See also
Middle East economic integration
Start-up Nation
Economy of Asia
Economy of Africa
Middle East and globalization
List of Asian stock exchanges
Middle East Economic Association
References
Further reading
External links
2010 Economic Prospects for the Middle East and North Africa Region - World Bank
2010 Regional Economic Outlook: Middle East and Central Asia - International Monetary Fund
2011 Regional Economic Outlook: Middle East and Central Asia - International Monetary Fund
Changing Economy of the Middle East in 2000 from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Middle East
Middle East
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1953 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 21st Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 13 and 14 June 1953, at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans (France). It was also the third round of the F.I.A. World Sports Car Championship.
British drivers Tony Rolt and Duncan Hamilton won the race with one of three factory-entered Jaguar C-Types, the first cars ever to race at Le Mans with disc brakes.
Regulations
With the ongoing success of the World Championship of Drivers, this year saw the introduction by the FIA of a World Championship for Sports Cars, creating great interest from the major sports car manufacturers. It also drew together the great endurance races in Europe and North America. The Le Mans race was the third round in the championship after the 12 Hours of Sebring and the Mille Miglia.
After the efforts by drivers in the recent races to drive almost single-handedly (Chinetti in 1949, Rosier and Hall in 1950, Levegh and Cunningham in 1952) and the consequent safety danger through exhaustion, the ACO set limits of maximum driving spells of 80 consecutive laps and 18 hours in total for each driver.
This year also marked the first use of a radar-‘gun’ to measure speeds across a flying kilometre on the Hunaudières Straight. The Cunningham would touch almost 156mph. Some 6 mph faster than last years winning Mercedes gull wing coupe. These results, not surprisingly, aligned with engine size but, significantly, also the impact of aerodynamics on top speed:
Entries
The prestige of the race, as well as the advent of the new championship generated intense interest in Le Mans. Of the 69 entrants and reserves, nineteen different marques (and their subsidiaries) were present. There were an unprecedented 56 works-entered cars officially represented, with over half in the main S-8000, S-5000 and S-3000 classes. Mercedes-Benz did not return to defend their title – they were busy preparing new cars for both the F1 and Sports Car championships. So the overall victory was shaping up as a contest between Italy (Scuderia Ferrari, S.P.A. Alfa Romeo and Scuderia Lancia), England (Jaguar supported by Aston Martin, Allard and Nash-Healey/Austin-Healey and the United States (Cunningham), with the French (Talbot and Gordini) being the ‘dark horses’.
Drivers included all three F1 World Champions to date (Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Giuseppe Farina) and over 30 other current and up-and-coming Grand Prix racers.
The Italian teams had built new cars for the season and all had strong driver line-ups. Ferrari entered two lightweight Ferrari 340 MM Berlinettas powered by the company's big 280 bhp 4.1 litre V12 engine built for a challenge at Mille Miglia, All had Pinin Farina-designed bodies. Ascari and Luigi Villoresi were to share another lightweight coupé 375 MM converted to 4.5-litres, while brothers Paolo and Gianni Marzotto (winner of the 2nd round of the championship: the Mille Miglia) and Giuseppe Farina and debutante Mike Hawthorn were down to drive the 340 MMs. A third 340 MM Spyder was entered by American Ferrari agent Luigi Chinetti for himself, with Anglo-American Tom Cole (who had finished 3rd with Allard in 1950) as his co-driver. Such was the quality of the entry list that six other Ferraris could not make the starting list.
Alfa Romeo was back at Le Mans for the first time since the war and fielded the beautiful new 6C/3000CM (‘’Cortemaggiore’’) powered by a 3.5L S6 engine (developing 270 bhp and 245 km/h) for Fangio and Onofre Marimón and Consalvo Sanesi and Piero Carini. The third car was driven by Mercedes-Benz works-drivers Karl Kling and Fritz Riess who also had their team manager, Alfred Neubauer, in the pits with them.
Lancia this year stepped up to the big class with three new D.20 Coupés. Having just won the non-Championship Targa Florio with a 3.0L V6 engine, team manager Vittorio Jano instead decided to install supercharged 2.7L engines. This proved to be a mistake as the small increase in power (to 240 bhp) increased unreliability and gave away over 20 km/h top speed to the rival Jaguars and Ferraris. GP-racers Louis Chiron and Robert Manzon, Piero Taruffi and Umberto Maglioli were in the team, with José Froilán González and endurance-race specialist Clemente Biondetti in the reserve car.
Jaguar returned with their C-Types and after the debacle of the previous year, were determined not to repeat those mistakes, having undertaken a lot of development work. Team manager ‘Lofty’ England employed the same driver pairings as 1952, with Peter Walker and Stirling Moss, Peter Whitehead and Ian Stewart, and Tony Rolt and Duncan Hamilton. The cars reverted to the aerodynamic design prior to that of the 1952 Le Mans cars, whose revised nose and tail had adversely affected stability at speeds over 120 mph. For 1953 the cars were lighter and more powerful (now developing 218 bhp), and they were the first-ever Le Mans cars equipped with disc brakes, from Dunlop, whose greater efficiency gave the C-Types a distinct advantage over their drum-braked competitors. The disc brakes had been available in 1952, but given the problems with the radiators they had been swapped out so the team could concentrate on just one potential issue in the race. The works cars were supported by a standard production-body car entered by the new Belgian Ecurie Francorchamps team.
Aston Martin entered their new DB3S cars for Reg Parnell and Peter Collins, George Abecassis and Roy Salvadori, and Eric Thompson and Dennis Poore. Using the same 3-litre engine as the DB3, it was put into a newly designed, shortened, chassis. However it was suffering from considerable lack of testing, being well down on speed.
Donald Healey this year had two collaborations: his last year with Nash Motors with a pair of long-tailed models, and a new partnership with the Austin Motor Company using its 2.7L engine, producing only 100 bhp but capable of 190 km/h. Bristol also arrived with two cars for Lance Macklin / Graham Whitehead and Jack Fairman / Tommy Wisdom, and managed by former Bentley Boy and Le Mans winner Sammy Davis. The rear-engined 450 coupés were ugly and noisy but the 2 litre engine could get them to nearly 230 km/h.
Briggs Cunningham also brought three cars, all with 310 bhp 5.5L Chrysler V8 engines: a new C-5R (nicknamed “Le Requin” (the shark) by the French) for Phil Walters and John Fitch who had won the inaugural championship race at Sebring; a C-4R for Cunningham himself and William "Bill" Spear and, a C-4RK coupé for veteran Charley Moran (the first American to race at Le Mans, back in 1929) and Anglo-American John Gordon Bennett.
This year Talbot entered a full works-team, rather than just providing support to privateer entries. The trio of blue T26 GS cars were driven by Talbot regulars Guy Mairesse (with Georges Grignard), Louis Rosier and Elie Bayol, and Pierre Levegh and Charles Pozzi. Although still very fast, they were starting to show their age to the nimbler cars from Italy and Great Britain. André Chambas also returned with his supercharged modified SS spyder for a 5th and final time.
Gordini had intended to debut the new 3.0L T24S, but scratched it because of atrocious handling. Instead an uprated T16 design, the T26S with a 2.5L engine was prepared for Maurice Trintignant and Harry Schell. An older T15S was entered for Behra and Mieres. Though it only had a 2.3L engine it was lighter, and just as quick as its bigger brother.
Without Mercedes-Benz, German representation fell to works teams from Borgward (here for the first and only time) and Porsche, both in the medium S-1500 class. Porsche stepped up from the S-1100 class with a new, purpose-designed race car, the 550 Coupé and its flat-four 1488cc engine, making only 78 bhp but a top speed of nearly 200 km/h. There were also a pair of the smaller 356 SL in the S-1100 class.
As expected the French dominated the smaller-engined classes. The most eye-catching were the four from Panhard, bringing cars with their own badge this time under a new competition department, albeit under close collaboration with Monopole: with very aerodynamic designs from French aviation engineer Marcel Riffard using both of the Panhard engines. Other works entries came from Renault, DB and Monopole themselves.
Practice
In Thursday practice the Jaguars showed their class with all three works cars going under the lap record, but drama also happened when the 3rd car, of Rolt and Hamilton, was disqualified. It had been on track at the same time as another Jaguar which had the same racing number (the spare car being used as a precaution to qualify Norman Dewis, the Jaguar test driver, as a reserve), and a protest raised by the Ferrari team. Jaguar chairman, Sir William Lyon, agreed to pay the ACO fine, and ‘Lofty’ England successfully pleaded his case to the official that no intention to cheat had been meant and it was an honest mistake and so they were reinstated. But Hamilton's account of the affair has become one of the great motor racing legends: Devastated by their disqualification, he & Rolt had gone into the city for the night to drown their sorrows, and when England found them at 10am the next day (race-day) at Gruber's restaurant, they were nursing hangovers and drinking copious amounts of coffee! Unfortunately, such a colourful story is an urban myth: England later said: "Of course I would never have let them race under the influence. I had enough trouble when they were sober!" Tony Rolt also said the story was fiction.
The Spanish Pegaso team withdrew both their entries after Juan Jover crashed his Z-102 Spyder during practice. Misjudging the speed of his approach to the corner after the Dunlop bridge, he hit the barriers at over 200 km/h and was thrown from the car, seriously injuring his left leg. With no apparent explanation for the crash, the team decided on safety first and scratched the other car. It was the first and last time they got to Le Mans.
Race
Start
At 4:00pm on the Saturday, the flag fell and the race was on. As usual, Moss was lightning-quick out of the blocks and led the cars away, but the Allard blasted past him on the Mulsanne straight and was leading the closely bunched field at the end of the first lap. But Sydney Allard’s early lead barely lasted, and by lap four he had to retire with a collapsed rear suspension that severed a brake pipe. The first few laps at Le Mans means very little and it was not until after 30 minutes that the true nature of the race became apparent. Rolt had already put in a lap record at 96.48 mph, while Moss led the way, closely followed by Villoresi, Cole, Rolt, Fitch, with Karl Kling rounding out the top six. But Moss was also soon in trouble. Although he had smoothly pulled away from the chasing pack, a misfire had set in after only 20 laps, in the second hour. The unscheduled pitstop to change spark plugs, plus another later for the eventual fix – removal of a clogged fuel filter – dropped the car well down to 21st. At least Jaguar had remembered the pit regulations: A Ferrari mechanic topped up the brake system on Mike Hawthorn’s 340 MM before the specified 28 laps had been completed, thereby Hawthorn/Farina were disqualified. Whilst all this was going on, Villoresi had taken the lead.
By 5pm, at the end of the first hour, the order had settled down and it became clear that the Jaguars, Ferraris and Alfa Romeos were the teams to be reckoned with. The Lancias and Talbots were quite outclassed, as were the medium-engined Aston Martins. The race continued at a fantastic pace and now it was Jaguar setting it: passing Villoresi, Rolt lifted his lap times by 5 seconds to push his lead. Then Consalvo Sanesi, in his Alfa Romeo 6C, continued to lower the lap record. Just before 6:00pm, Fangio retired with engine troubles in his Alfa Romeo. At the three-hour mark, Rolt/Hamilton led from Ascari/Villoresi, followed by Cole and his co-driver Luigi Chinetti, Sanesi/Carini, and the Germans Kling and Riess. Already these five cars had pull out a two lap advantage over the rest of the field.
Night
As darkness fell, the Ferrari-Jaguar battle continued unabated, between Ascari/Villoresi and Rolt/Hamilton, with the Alfa Romeos close behind and the overall order swapping around according to pit-strategy. During the early hours of the morning, Rolt and Hamilton continued to lead with no sign of tiring, while the Ferrari was now losing ground – the big engine starting to stretch the rest of the powertrain.
The Gordinis were once again punching above their weight, mixing it in the top-10 with the third works Jaguar, the other Ferraris and the Cunninghams. The smaller-engined car was a high as 7th ahead of its stable-mate until its rear-axle seized, necessitating long repairs that proved terminal soon after midnight. In the other classes the Porsche 550s had the measure of all the smaller cars and, aside from those superfast Gordinis, were even running ahead of the S2.0 and S3.0 cars.
Just after midnight, Tommy Wisdom's Bristol had an engine fire (almost an identical problem had hit its sister-car earlier in the evening). Crashing, Wisdom was trapped for a short while before being rescued and taken to hospital with minor burns and a dislocated shoulder.
Then just before 3am, the rear suspension on the Sanesi/Carini Alfa Romeo had collapsed, and they were out, along with George Abecassis and Roy Salvadori with oil getting into their Aston Martin's clutch.
Although the Ascari and Villoresi car was still taking the fight to the Jaguars, the car was hindered by a sticking clutch and drinking a lot of water. However, the Italians, in a win-or-bust attempt, were driving flat out at all times, but it had no effect on Rolt and Hamilton. Their Jaguar now had a lap lead over the Ferrari.
Morning
Despite the night being very clear and fine, dawn approached with a certain amount of mist in the air, making driving conditions very tiring. Just after 6.30am Tom Cole, running 7th, had just overtaken a back-marker when he lost control at the Maison Blanche corners. The Ferrari ploughed into the roadside ditch then rolled and struck a wooden hut nearby. Cole was hurled out of the car in the initial impact and died at the scene.
The windscreen on the leading Jaguar had been smashed early in the race by bird-strike, and as result Rolt and Hamilton were suffering from wind buffering, but the pair kept up the pace nevertheless, with an average speed of well over 105 mph. By the time the mist had cleared, Rolt and Hamilton still led by a lap from the struggling Ferrari. Third place, over three laps adrift, was the Cunningham of Fitch/Walters and a lap further back were the fast Jaguars of Moss/Walker (back in the race after a terrific hard drive back through the field) and Whitehead/Stewart.
Shortly after 8:30am, the leading Jaguar and Ferrari both made routine refuelling stops at the same time. Hamilton had what would now be termed an “unsafe release” when, in the rush to beat the Ferrari, he pulled out right in front of one of the DB-Panhards coming in for its own pitstop. Walters had a big moment when his Cunningham blew a tyre at high speed but he was able to catch it. But with the subsequent pitstop to fix the damage, Moss was able to move up to third. By 9:00am, the clutch issues with the lead Ferrari gave it a long stop, and it was now back in fifth place. This left Rolt and Hamilton clear up front, but they could not rest as Fitch and Walters started to fight back and hound the Moss/Walker Jaguar for second place.
The lame Ferrari retired just before 11am having dropped down the order to sixth place. This left only the Marzotto car to challenge the Jaguars and the lead Cunningham. It could not do it and raced to finish in fifth, keeping the Gordini of Maurice Trintignant and Harry Schell behind them.
The Lancias had never made an impression, none having made it into the top-10 and just after midday the engine of the last one running (of González and Biondetti) gave up.
Finish and post-race
With three hours to ago, the Jaguars were still lapping at over 105 mph, however the pace had slackened a little. In the closing stages the order did not change, as Hamilton took over from Rolt to complete the last stage of the race. Driving their British license-plated Jaguar C-Type they took the victory, covering a distance of 2,555.04 miles (4,088.064 km), doing 304 laps and averaging a speed of 106.46 mph (170.336 km/h). Moss and Walker were four laps adrift at the finish, in second place with their C-Type after their epic drive. The podium was completed by Walters and Fitch, in their Cunningham C-5R a lap back. The third works Jaguar finished fourth, two laps further behind the Americans, after a very conservative and reliable race.
The Marzotto brothers brought home the sole remaining Ferrari in fifth, finishing with virtually no clutch but having stayed in the top 10 throughout the race. A lap back was the Gordini, having had a trouble-free run. Owner-driver Briggs Cunningham came in 7th followed by the works Talbot of Levegh, finishing this year, and the private Jaguar, entered by Ecurie Francorchamps for Roger Laurent and Charles de Tornaco, in their standard C-Type.
In a race of attrition where only 1 car, if any, of the many other works teams finished, it was an effort of remarkable reliability that all cars of the Jaguar, Cunningham and Panhard works teams finished. The Panhard team staged a formation finish, winning the Index of Performance by the narrowest of margins.
As expected, the Porsches finished 1–2 in the S-1500 class with the win going to the car driven by racing journalists Paul Frère and Richard von Frankenberg
The little DB-Panhards had an extraordinary run, that of owner-driver René Bonnet winning the S-750 class ahead of its sister car, and finishing 5 laps clear of the OSCA winning the bigger S-1100 class. They were on course for the coveted Index of Performance win, but a bad engine misfire meant it used too much fuel on its very last lap. The streamlined Panhard won the Index by the tiniest fraction on a countback.
Records were broken across the board – the first time a car completed the race with an average speed over 100 mph (in fact the first six finishers did) and covered over 2500 miles (4000 km). All the categories broke their class records, and a new lap record was set.
With such a varied and competitive field there could be no better advertisement for the new Sports Car Championship going forward. However, it would be without several teams: after dominating the early Formula 1 championship, and a semi-successful year in sports cars, Alfa Romeo withdrew from motor racing. Jowett was already in receivership and it would also be the last Le Mans for Allard, Lancia and Nash-Healey.
Official results
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Note: Not Classified because of Insufficient distance, as car failed to cover 70% of its class-winner's distance.
Did Not Finish
Index of Performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
19th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1952/1953)
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – Hamilton / Whitehead, #18 Jaguar C-Type – 4m 37.0s; 175.27 kp/h (108.91 mph)
Fastest Lap – Alberto Ascari, #12 Ferrari 375 MM – 4m 27.4s; 181.64 kp/h (112.87 mph)
Fastest Car in Speedtrap – #2 Cunningham C-4R – 249.14 kp/h (154.81 mph)
Distance – 4088.06 km (2540.32 miles)
Winner's Average Speed – 170.34 km/h (108.85 mph)
Attendance – est. 200 000 (start)
World Championship Standings after the race
Championship points were awarded for the first six places in each race in the order of 8-6-4-3-2-1. Manufacturers were only awarded points for their highest finishing car, with no points awarded for positions filled by additional cars.
Citations
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Pomeroy, L. & Walkerley, R. - editors (1954) The Motor Year Book 1954 Bath: The Pitman Press
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1953 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 20 October 2016..
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1953 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1953 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth%20Ascher
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Kenneth Ascher
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Kenneth Lee Ascher (born October 26, 1944, in Washington, D.C.) is an American jazz pianist, composer, and arranger who is active in jazz, rock, classical, and musical theater genres — in live venues, recording studios, and cinema production. With Paul Williams, he wrote the song "Rainbow Connection" for The Muppet Movie. Both Williams and Ascher received Oscar nominations for the 1979 Academy Awards for Best Original Song ("Rainbow Connection") and Best Original Score (The Muppet Movie Soundtrack). The song was also nominated for the Golden Globes for "Best Original Song" that same year.
His work
Ascher's work through the years has included keyboard parts and string arrangements on John Lennon's albums Mind Games, Walls and Bridges and Rock 'n' Roll and Yoko Ono's A Story, music for several songs from Barbra Streisand's remake of A Star Is Born (where he also served as music coordinator), and arrangements for portions of Jim Steinman and Meat Loaf's Bat Out of Hell (produced by Todd Rundgren). Ascher's own rendition of "Rainbow Connection" was featured in the closing credits of The Break-Up (starring Vince Vaughn and Jennifer Aniston). Ascher is the pianist with the Birdland Big Band, which performs Fridays from 5:15 to 7 at Birdland in New York City. The Birdland Big Band performs "Rainbow Connection", arranged by Lew Anderson.
In the latter 1960s, Ascher played piano and arranged for the Woody Herman Orchestra. Herman hired Ascher — on the advice of Frank Foster — to replace Nat Pierce, who had departed. Ascher has been a member of ASCAP since 1968.
Selected compositions
Three for the Show, m & arr. Ascher (1960)
The White Rabbit, music & arr. Ascher (1960)
Scotch Mist, music & arr. by Ascher (1960)
Theme for Ken's Men, m & arr. Ascher (1960)
Retrospect, words & arr. Ascher (1960)
Typically April: A Revolutionary Musical, lyrics and music by Ascher (1966)
Stars and Sand (1967)
Nightling (1967)
April's in my Lady's Face (1967)
Colors (1967)
Dressed Up For a Dream (1967)
These blues were made for cookin' (1967)
Who can hear the nightingale? (1967)
It seems different to me now (1967)
Lullaby (1967)
Last night's rain (1967)
Laughin' Place (1967)
Miss Fitz (1967)
Maybe another spring (1967)
Funny little girl (1967)
Concerto for Trombone and Orchestra (1968)
1968 Baltimore Colts Highlights (ASCAP 1968)
Music for Orchestra (Master's essay, Columbia University) (1968)
Bittersweet wild child, words by Donna Lee, music by Ascher (1968)
Cavettina (1968)
Silent Partners, words Donna Lee, music Ascher (1968)
So I told it to the rain, words Donna Lee Levitt (Donna Lee), music by Ascher (1968)
You can't make this child cry, words Donna Lee Levitt, music by Ascher (1968)
Here I Go Again, words Donna Lee (Donna Lee Levitt), music by Ascher (1968)
My memory bank's been robbed, words Donna Lee (Donna Lee Levitt), music by Ascher (1968)
Leaf in the Wind, words and music by Lon Ritchie & Ascher (1969)
Omnibus, words & music by Ascher, Donna Lee & Joe Renzetti (1969)
One for Jim (1970)
Another Kind of Blues (1970)
Mosaics : a piece for guitar, string quartet and woodwind quartet with accompanying aesthetic commentary and description (thesis for Columbia University) (1972)
Inspiration, by Paul Williams, Ascher (1973)
Bugaloo and Such (1973)
Play, piper, play, words Donna Lee Levitt, music Ascher (1973)
Little Bit of Love, words & music by Paul Williams & Ascher (1974)
Lone Star, words & music by Paul Williams & Ascher (1974)
Loneliness, words & music Paul Williams & Ascher (1974)
Nilsson sings Newman, by Paul Williams, Ascher (1974)
Sad Song, words & music Paul Williams & Ascher (1974)
Sunday, words & music Paul Williams & Ascher (1974)
You Know Me, by Paul Williams, Ascher (1974)
She Sings for Free, words & music by Paul Williams & Ascher (1974, 2002)
You and Me Against the World, Paul Williams, Ascher (1974)
Makin' the same mistakes (1974)
Isn't It Odd? (1974)
Candlelight Dreamer (1974)
Bein' a Movie Star (1974)
Coming Undone (1974)
With You, words Carole Bayer Sager, music Ascher (1975)
Don't you worry child, words Carole Bayer Sager, music Ascher (1975)
From the 1976 film, A Star is Born
"Watch Closely Now", Paul Williams, Ascher
"Hellacious Acres", Paul Williams, Ascher
"The Woman in the Moon", Paul Williams, Ascher
"Finale: With One More Look at You/Watch Closely Now", Paul Williams, Ascher
Run for life, vocal music by Ascher, lyrics by Albert Lerman (1978)
From the 1979 film, The Muppet Movie
"Rainbow Connection", words & music by Ascher and Paul Williams (1979)
"Movin' Right Along", Paul Williams & Ascher (1979)
"Never Before, Never Again!", – Miss Piggy, Paul Williams & Ascher (1979)
"Never Before, Never Again!", – Instrumental, Paul Williams & Ascher (1979)
"I Hope That Somethin' Better Comes Along!", – Kermit and Rowlf, Paul Williams & Ascher (1979)
"Can You Picture That?", Paul Williams & Ascher (1979)
"I Hope That Somethin' Better Comes Along!", – Instrumental
"For Goodness Sake", Paul Williams, Ascher (1979)
"Finale, the magic store", Paul Williams, Ascher (1979)
For the Life of Me, Paul Williams, Ascher (1979)
Making Friends, Waring & LaRosa; arr. Ascher (1979)
Gift, Paul Williams, Ascher (1979)
Little more like you, Paul Williams, Ascher (1979)
Save me a dream, Paul Williams, Ascher (1979)
Go Away
Song for children of all ages, words and music by Ascher
Kenny's ballad, music by Ascher (1980)
Perfect Crime, music & lyrics by Ascher & John Barranco (1989)
Selected discography
As leader
Kenny Ascher, the Moog Machine, Switched-On Rock (played on Moog by Kenny) Columbia Records (1969)
Kenny Ascher, Christmas Becomes Electric / The Moog (played on Moog by Kenny) Columbia Records (1970)
As arranger
Woody Herman and the Thundering Herd, Concerto for Herd (Monterey Jazz Festival), Verve Records (September 17, 1967)
Woody's Boogaloo, arranged by Ascher
Paul Williams, Here Comes Inspiration, (LP) (Ascher is producer, conductor, arranger, writer and pianist) A&M Records (1974)
Airto Moreira, Virgin Land (Salvation, 1974)
Helen Reddy, No Way To Treat A Lady, Capitol Records (1975)
B3 – You Know Me, by Ascher and Williams
Lori Lieberman, Letting Go, RCA Victor, arrangements by Ascher (June 19, 1978)
As sideman or band member, on keyboards
Howard Tate, Keep Cool (Don't Be a Fool), The Hit Factory (Oct 12, 1971)
Tom Scott, Smoothin' On Down, Epic/Ode, New York City (July 1971)
The J.B.s, "Food For Thought" People Records New York, 1971, (Ascher electric piano)
Patti LaBelle, Moon Shadow (Ascher performs on tracks A3, A4, B2, B4), Warner Bros. Records (1972)
Yvonne Elliman, Yvonne Elliman, Decca Records (1972)
Bill Quateman, Bill Quatemen, (Ascher plays keyboards, produced the album, and wrote the string arrangements) CBS Records (1972)
John Lennon, Mind Games (1973)
Johnny Hartman, I've Been There (1973)
Cecil Holmes, Cecil Homes Soulful Sounds, The – Black Motion Picture Experience, Buddah Records (1973)
Bette Midler, Bette Midler, Atlantic Records (1973)
Morgana King, New Beginnings, Paramount Records (1973)
A4 – The Sands of Time and Changes (Ascher, piano)
B2 – A Song for You (Ascher, piano)
Mark Murphy, Mark II, Muse Records (1973)
John Prine, Sweet Revenge, Atlantic Records (1973)
Carly Simon, Hotcakes, Elektra Records (1974)
Martha Reeves, Martha Reeves, MCA Records (1974)
B2 – Sweet Misery (Ascher plays clavinet and organ)
Johnny Winter, John Dawson Winter III Columbia Records (1974)
John Lennon, "Whatever Gets You thru the Night" (single) (Ascher plays clavinet) Apple Records (1974)
John Lennon, Walls and Bridges (Ascher plays keyboards), Apple Records (1974)
Paul Williams, A Little Bit of Love, by Ascher & Nice to Be Around, by Williams (Ascher is producer, conductor, arranger, writer and pianist) 45 RMP, Promo (1974)
Paul Williams, A Little Bit of Love (Ascher is producer, conductor, arranger, writer and pianist), A&M Records (1974)
A1 – A Little Bit of Love, by Ascher
A4 – Sunday, by Ascher
B2 – She Sings for Free, by Ascher
B5 – Loneliness, by Ascher
B6 – Sad Song, by Ascher
James Taylor, Walking Man, Warner Bros. Records (1974)
Harry Nilsson, Pussy Cats (Ascher: piano, conductor, orchestration), RCA Victor (1974)
Yoko Ono, Feeling the Space (recorded 1974, released 1997)
Airto, Virgin Land, Salvation (Feb. 1974)
B4 – I Don't Have to Do What I Don't Want to Do (Ascher plays melletron on this track)
Judy Collins, Judith, Elektra Records (1975)
Merry Clayton, Keep Your Eye on the Sparrow, Ode Records (1975)
John Lennon, Rock 'n' Roll (Ascher plays keyboards), Capitol Records (1975)
Paul Simon, Still Crazy After All These Years (Ascher plays organ), Warner Bros. Records (1975)
Gladys Knight & The Pips, 2nd Anniversary (Ascher plays keyboards) (1975)
B1 – You and Me Against the World, arr Don Hannah, written by Ascher and Williams
John Tropea, The Jingle, West Orange, New Jersey, Marlin (1975)
Frankie Valli, Closeup, Private Stock Records (1975)
Dr. John, Hollywood Be Thy Name, United Artists Records (1975)
Nanette Natal, The Beginning, New York, Evolution (date unknown, prob late 1970s)
Leslie West, The Leslie West Band Phantom Records, distributed by RCA Records, and later, ESP Management Inc. (1975)
Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson, A Star Is Born (soundtrack), Columbia Records (1976)
A1 – Watch Closely Now, by Ascher
A5 – Hellacious Acres, by Ascher
B1 – The Woman in the Moon, by Ascher and Williams
B4 – Finale: With One More Look At You / Watch Closely Now, by Ascher and Williams
Paul Williams, Classics, A&M Records (1977)
A2 – You and Me Against the World, by Ascher and Williams
A4 – Loneliness, by Ascher and Williams
B2 – With One More Look at You, by Ascher and Williams
(Ascher produced tracks: A2, A4, B4, B5)
Phoebe Snow, Never Letting Go, Columbia Records (Ascher performs on keyboards and orchestrates on selections) (1977)
Frankie Valli, Lady Put the Light Out, Private Stock Records (1977)
Meat Loaf, Bat Out of Hell, Epic Records (1977) (RIAA 14xPlatinum Certified)
A3 – Heaven Can Wait (string arrangement by Ascher)
B1 – Two Out of Three Ain't Bad (string arrangement by Ascher)
Tom Scott, Blow It Out, Ode Records (1977)
A2 – Smoothin' On Down (Ascher plays clavinet on this track)
Maynard Ferguson, Conquistador, Columbia Records (1977)
The Muppets, Movin' Right Along, (45 RPM) CBS Records Australia (1979)
The Muppets, The Muppet Movie Original Soundtrack Recording (Ascher co-writes, co-arranges, and performs on keyboards), Columbia Records (1979)
Perry Como, Perry Como, RCA Victor (1980)
Earl Klugh, Late Night Guitar
Yoko Ono, Walking On Thin Ice (45 RPM), Geffen Records (1981)
B – It Happened (Ascher, keyboards on the flipside only)
Marvin Stamm, Stammpede, New York, Palo Alto (1983)
Peter Dean, Radio, Inner City Records, New York (1984)
Pat Williams' New York Band, 10th Avenue, New York, Soundwings (Dec. 1986)
Warren Bernhardt, Hands On (Kenny performs on the 2nd and 4th works) (CD) (1987)
Dr. John, Mos' Scocious: The Dr. John Anthology, Rhino Records (1993)
2-15 – Back by the River (Ascher plays keyboard)
David Matthews Orchestra, Furuhata Jazz in N.Y., New York, WEA (Japan) (1997)
The Wiz (Original Soundtrack), MCA Records (1997)
Gary LeMel, Moonlighting (Ascher is assistant conductor), Skylark Atlantic 83178-2 (1998)
Alex Donner, White Tie, New York & Astoria, Black Tie Records (Mar 10, 1998-Sep 8, 2000)
Patti LaBelle, Labelle, Wounded Bird Records (2000)
1 – Morning Much Better, Ascher – piano
6 – Running Out of Fools – If You Gotta Make a Fool of Somebody, Ascher – piano
10 – Time, Ascher – piano
11 – When the Sun Comes Shining Through (The Ladder), Ascher – piano
Wally Dunbar, Everything in Time, Nardis Consolidated Artists CAP953 (2000)
Nelson Foltz, The Longing Hours, New York & Northvale, N.J., Syberdelix (2001)
Jane Monheit, In the Sun, New York, N Coded Music (March–June 2002)
Jane Monheit, Live at the Rainbow Room, N Coded Music (September 23, 2002)
Scott Whitfield Jazz Orchestra East, Live at "Birdland", Summit Records (March 10, 2003)
Clay Aiken, Merry Christmas with Love, RCA Records (2004)
Susan Robkin, Surfacing to Breathe (May 2004)
Don Payne (bass), Rhapsodic Echoes, (Ascher plays piano on tracks 5 & 8) Recycled Notes Music Company (May 5, 2004)
5 – Unscheduled Departures
8 – M.A.P.S. (Bob Mann, Kenny Ascher, Don Payne, Allen Schwartzberg)
Scott Whitfield, Diamonds for Nat, New York, Summit Records (April 12 & 13, 2005)
Rod Stewart, Thanks for the Memory: The Great American Songbook, Volume IV, J-Records (Oct. 18, 2005)
Steve Tyrell, The Disney Standards, Walt Disney Records (2006)
10 – When She Loved Me (Ascher, keyboards)
14 – Baby Mine, (Ascher, keyboards & string arrangements)
Steve Tyrell, Back to Bacharach, Koch Records (2008)
4 – One Less Bell to Answer (piano, Ascher; arr Bacharach; strings arr, Ascher)
11 – Close to You (Ascher, piano)
12 – A House is Not a Home (Ascher, piano)
The Birdland Big Band, The Lew Anderson Tribute Concert (live), I.E.G. Inc. (June 1, 2007)
Tommy Igoe and the Birdland Big Band, Live from New York (DVD) I.E.G. Inc. (Jan 1, 2009)
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Andy Farber and His Orchestra, This Could be the Start of Something Big (2009)
Tommy Igoe and the Birdland Big Band, Eleven (11-11-11)
Ron Sunshine "Bring It Home" Rondette Jazz (November 20, 2015) Ascher piano.
Awards & award nominations
Awards
1976 — Golden Globe for Best Original Score, A Star is Born, 34th Golden Globe Awards, Kenny Ascher & Paul Williams
Nominations
1978 — Anthony Asquith Award nomination for Film Music, A Star is Born, British Academy of Film and Television Arts, Kenny Ascher
1979 — Golden Globe nomination for Best Original Song, Rainbow Connection, 37th Golden Globe Awards, Kenny Ascher & Paul Williams
1979 — Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song Score and Its Adaptation or Adaptation Score, The Muppet Movie, 52nd Academy Awards, Kenny Ascher & Paul Williams
1979 — Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song, The Muppet Movie, 52nd Academy Awards, Kenny Ascher & Paul Williams
Critically acclaimed live performances
Feb 1973 — Ascher played piano with Marvin Stamm at Sam's Jazz Upstairs (1220 2nd Avenue at 64th St., New York City): Bob Dougherty (bass) and Ronnie Zito on drums. Stamm said, "In 21 years of playing music, this is the best group of musicians I've ever been with." Reflecting on that statement, John Stuart Wilson (1913–2002), longtime jazz critic for The New York Times, said, "That might have sounded like a fatuous statement leaders often make in introducing their musicians to a jazz club audience. In this case, however, it was completely believable because Mr. Stamm's quartet is the most exciting group that has turned-up in New York for a long time."
May 1973 — Kenny Ascher Trio, Sundays, Jimmy Weston's, 131 E 54th St., New York City
Jan 13, 2009 — Mike Berkowitz and The New Gene Krupa Orchestra, Iridium
Dec 2000 — Michael Feinstein with a small swing band led by Kenny Ascher, the Regency, New York City
July 2001 — Jay Leonhart with Kenny Ascher and Michael Leonhart, July 13–21, Oak Room of the Algonquin Hotel
Jingle writing
Ascher has composed (or co-composed) jingles for:
The 1968 Baltimore Colts
Federal Express
Applause
Gotcha
Larry
Mr. Calm
Heineken
The Beer
Combined
General Electric
Brilliant Idea/ GE Brings Good Things to Life
Cooking
Pizza Hut (Class Act)
NFL
Campbell's Soup – Never Underestimate the Power of Soup campaign
Never Underestimate
Canned Chef
Hockey
Makes Itself
Red Dress
Snowman
Stay Young
Storm Radio – Winter
Superhero
Superman
Tennis Anyone?
Wild Ride
Frigidaire (Nightfeeding)
Diet Pepsi (Uh-Huh Blues – You've Got The Right One, Baby, with Ray Charles) American Dairy (Warm All Over) Coors Brewing Company
Herman Joseph – Polo, revised arr by Kenny Ascher (1981)
Herman Joseph – Tennis, comp. & arr. by Kenny Ascher (1981)
Sailboat music and arr. by Kenneth Ascher (1980)
Billiards, music and arr. by Kenneth Ascher (1980)
National Airlines (Generic/scope), music by Ken Ascher (1978)
Ford Motors (National Test Drive)
Many of Ascher's jingle compositions were (i) produced by Sunday Productions (Hilary Jay Lipsitz, born 1933, president), (ii) published by Ahoskie Music, Inc. (Hilary Jay Lipsitz, president), and (iii) licensed by ASCAP.
Academic education
Ascher holds three diplomas from Columbia University:
1966 — Bachelor of Arts (music composition), Columbia College, Columbia University
1968 — Master of Arts (music composition), Graduate School of Arts & Sciences, Columbia University
1971 — Doctor of Musical Arts (music composition), School of the Arts, Columbia University
While at Columbia, Ascher studied composition with Otto Luening, Jack Beeson, and Vladimir Ussachevsky and piano with William Albert Beller (1900–1986). Ascher graduated from William F. Dykes High School in Atlanta, as valedictorian, and entered Columbia College, Columbia University on a math scholarship. In 1966, while in college, the Kenny Ascher Quintet performed live in WKCR's Stone Soup at midnight.
References
American jazz pianists
Post-bop pianists
Big band pianists
American film score composers
American male film score composers
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American rock pianists
American male pianists
American organists
American session musicians
Golden Globe Award-winning musicians
20th-century American keyboardists
Musicians from New York (state)
Musicians from Washington, D.C.
Songwriters from New York (state)
Songwriters from Washington, D.C.
Living people
1944 births
Columbia University School of the Arts alumni
Plastic Ono Band members
ASCAP composers and authors
20th-century American pianists
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
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5122275
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Purdie
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Bernard Purdie
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Bernard Lee "Pretty" Purdie (born June 11, 1939) is an American drummer, and an influential R&B, soul and funk musician. He is known for his precise musical time keeping and his signature use of triplets against a half-time backbeat: the "Purdie Shuffle." He was inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 2013.
Purdie recorded Soul Drums (1968) as a band leader and although he went on to record Alexander's Ragtime Band, the album remained unreleased until Soul Drums was reissued on CD in 2009 with the Alexander's Ragtime Band sessions. Other solo albums include Purdie Good! (1971), Soul Is... Pretty Purdie (1972) and the soundtrack for the blaxploitation film Lialeh (1973).
In the mid-1990s he was a member of The 3B's, with Bross Townsend and Bob Cunningham.
Biography
Purdie was born on June 11, 1939, in Elkton, Maryland, US, the eleventh of fifteen children. At an early age he began hitting cans with sticks and learned the elements of drumming techniques from overhearing lessons being given by Leonard Heywood. He later took lessons from Heywood and played in Heywood's big band. Purdie's other influences at that time were Papa Jo Jones, Buddy Rich, Gene Krupa, Joe Marshall, Art Blakey, as well as Cozy Cole, Sticks Evans, Panama Francis, Louis Bellson, and Herbie Lovelle.
In 1961, he moved from his home town of Elkton, Maryland, to New York City. There he played sessions with Mickey and Sylvia and regularly visited the Turf Club on 50th and Broadway, where musicians, agents, and promoters met and touted for business. It was during this period that he played for the saxophonist Buddy Lucas, who nicknamed him 'Mississippi Bigfoot'. Eventually Barney Richmond contracted him to play session work.
Purdie was contracted by arranger Sammy Lowe to play a session with James Brown in 1965 and recording session records also show that Purdie played on "Ain't That A Groove" at the same session. Purdie is credited on James Brown's albums Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud (1969) and Get on the Good Foot (1972).
Purdie started working with Aretha Franklin as musical director in 1970 and held that position for five years, as well as drumming for Franklin's opening act, saxophonist King Curtis and The King Pins. From March 5 to March 7, 1971, he performed with both bands at the Fillmore West; the resulting live recordings were released as Aretha Live at Fillmore West (1971) and King Curtis's Live at Fillmore West (1971). His best known track with Franklin was "Rock Steady", on which he played what he described as "a funky and low down beat". Of his time with Franklin he once commented that "backing her was like floating in seventh heaven".
Purdie was credited on the soundtrack album for the film Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978) and later he was the drummer for the 2009 Broadway revival of Hair and appeared on the associated Broadway cast recording. In 2016, he was awarded an honorary doctorate in music by Five Towns College.
Purdie has been a resident of New Jersey, living in Edison, Teaneck and Springfield Township. In 2023, he moved to New Bern, North Carolina.
Encounter Records
Purdie founded Encounter Records in 1973 and released five albums:
EN 3000: Seldon Powell – Messin' With Seldon Powell (with Jimmy Owens, Garnett Brown)
EN 3001: Sands of Time – Profile (with Jimmy Owens, Garnett Brown, Seldon Powell)
EN 3002: East Coast – East Coast (with Larry Blackmon, Gwen Guthrie, Haras Fyre)
EN 3003: Frank Owens – Brown 'N' Serve (with Hugh McCracken)
EN 3004: Harold Vick as "Sir Edward" – The Power of Feeling (with Victor Gaskin)
Drumming style
Purdie is known as a groove drummer with immaculate timing who makes use of precision half note, backbeats, and grooves. Purdie's signature sixteenth note hi-hat lick pish-ship, pish-ship, pish-ship is distinct. He often employs a straight eight groove sometimes fusing several influences such as swing, blues and funk. He created the now well-known drum pattern Purdie Half-Time Shuffle that is a blues shuffle variation with the addition of syncopated ghost notes on the snare drum. Variations on this shuffle can be heard on songs such as Led Zeppelin's "Fool in the Rain", the Police's "Walking on the Moon", and Toto's "Rosanna" (Rosanna shuffle). Purdie plays the shuffle on Steely Dan's "Babylon Sisters" and "Home At Last".
Discography
As leader/co-leader
Soul Drums (Columbia, 1967)
Purdie Good! (Prestige, 1971) [note: reissued as Legends of Acid Jazz: Bernard Purdie in 1996]
Stand by Me (Whatcha See Is Whatcha Get) (Mega Records [in the 'Flying Dutchman Series'], 1972) with The Playboys
Soul Is... Pretty Purdie (Flying Dutchman, 1972; reissued on BGP/Ace in 2014)
Shaft (Prestige, 1973) recorded 1971 [note: reissued as Legends of Acid Jazz: Bernard Purdie in 1996]
Lialeh (Original Movie Soundtrack) (Bryan, 1974)
Delights of the Garden (Celluloid, 1975) with The Last Poets
Purdie as a Picture (Kilmarnock, 1993) with Galt MacDermot's New Pulse Jazz Band
Bernard Purdie's Jazz Groove Sessions in Tokyo (Lexington/West 47th, 1993)
Coolin' 'N Groovin' (A Night At 'On-Air') (Lexington/West 47th, 1993)
After Hours with The 3B's (3B's Music, 1993)
Soothin' 'N Groovin' With The 3B's (3B's Music, 1994) with Houston Person
The Hudson River Rats (3B's Music, 1995)
Fatback! The Jazz Funk Masters Featuring Bernard Purdie (Seven Seas, 1995)
Kick 'N Jazz (Drum Beat Blocks, 1996)
Soul to Jazz I (Act, 1996) with The WDR Big Band
Soul to Jazz II (Act, 1997) with The WDR Big Band
In the Pocket (P-Vine, 1997)
Get It While You Can (3B's Music, 1999) with The Hudson River Rats
The Masters of Groove Meet Dr. No (Jazzateria, 2001) with Reuben Wilson, Grant Green Jr., Tarus Mateen
King Of The Beat (3B's Music, 2001)
Purdie Good Cookin' (3B's Music, 2003) with Purdie's Powerhouse
The Godfathers of Groove (18th & Vine, 2007) with Reuben Wilson, Grant Green Jr., Jerry Jemmott [note: originally released as The Masters of Groove]
The Godfathers of Groove 3 (18th & Vine, 2009) with Reuben Wilson, Grant Green Jr., Bill Easley
Jersey Blue (Running Rogue, 2009) with Gene McCormick, Jack Hoban
Selling It Like It Is (Cadence Jazz, 2009 [rel. 2013]) with David Haney
Cool Down (Sugar Road, 2018)
As sideman
Herbie Mann – Our Mann Flute (Atlantic, 1966)
Jack McDuff – A Change Is Gonna Come (Atlantic, 1966)
Freddie McCoy – Funk Drops (Prestige, 1966)
Gábor Szabó – Jazz Raga (Impulse!, 1966)
Benny Golson – Tune In, Turn On (Verve, 1967)
King Curtis & The Kingpins – Instant Groove (Atco, 1967)
Tim Rose – Tim Rose (Columbia, 1967)
Nina Simone – Nina Simone Sings the Blues (RCA Victor, 1967)
Phil Upchurch – Feeling Blue (Milestone, 1967)
Nina Simone – Silk & Soul (RCA Victor, 1967)
Tom Rush – The Circle Game (Elektra, 1968)
The Soul Finders – Sweet Soul Music (RCA Camden CAS-2170, 1968)
Wilson Pickett – The Midnight Mover (Atlantic, 1968)
David "Fathead" Newman – Bigger & Better (Atlantic, 1968)
David "Fathead" Newman – The Many Facets of David Newman (Atlantic, 1969)
Freddie McCoy – Listen Here (Prestige, 1968)
Albert Ayler – New Grass (Impulse!, 1968)
Shirley Scott – Soul Song (Atlantic, 1968)
Solomon Burke – King Solomon (Atlantic, 1968)
Gary McFarland – America the Beautiful: An Account of Its Disappearance (Skye, 1969)
Jimmy McGriff – Electric Funk (Blue Note, 1969)
Sonny Phillips – Sure 'Nuff (Prestige, 1969)
John Lee Hooker – Simply the Truth (BluesWay, 1969)
Randy Brecker – Score (Solid State, 1969)
Carla Thomas – Memphis Queen (Stax, 1969)
Al Kooper – You Never Know Who Your Friends Are (Columbia, 1969)
Hank Crawford – Mr. Blues Plays Lady Soul (Atlantic, 1969)
Gary Burton – Good Vibes (Atlantic, 1969)
Shirley Scott – Shirley Scott & the Soul Saxes (Atlantic, 1969)
Yusef Lateef – Yusef Lateef's Detroit (Atlantic, 1969)
Boogaloo Joe Jones – Boogaloo Joe (Prestige, 1969)
Johnny "Hammond" Smith – Soul Talk (Prestige, 1969)
Gene Ammons – The Boss Is Back! (Prestige, 1969)
Gene Ammons – Brother Jug! (Prestige, 1969)
Rusty Bryant – Night Train Now! (Prestige, 1969)
Herbie Hancock – Fat Albert Rotunda (Warner Bros., 1969)
Dizzy Gillespie – Cornucopia (Solid State, 1969)
Johnny "Hammond" Smith – Black Feeling! (Prestige, 1969)
Larry Coryell – Coryell (Vanguard, 1969)
Sonny Phillips – Black on Black! (Prestige, 1970)
Jimmy McGriff & Junior Parker – The Dudes Doin' Business (Capitol, 1970)
Johnny "Hammond" Smith – Here It 'Tis (Prestige, 1970)
Louis Armstrong − Louis Armstrong and His Friends (Flying Dutchman, 1970)
Boogaloo Joe Jones – Right On Brother (Prestige, 1970)
Boogaloo Joe Jones – No Way! (Prestige, 1970)
Robert Palmer's Insect Trust – Hoboken Saturday Night (Atco, 1970)
Charles Kynard – Afro-Disiac (Prestige, 1970)
Five Stairsteps – O-o-h Child (Buddah, 1970) - Disputed
Charles Kynard – Wa-Tu-Wa-Zui (Beautiful People) (Prestige, 1970)
Houston Person – Houston Express (Prestige, 1970)
Eddie Palmieri – Harlem River Drive (Roulette, 1971)
Hank Crawford – It's a Funky Thing to Do (Cotillion, 1971)
Boogaloo Joe Jones – What It Is (Prestige, 1971)
Eddie Harris & Les McCann – Second Movement (Atlantic, 1971)
David "Fathead" Newman – Captain Buckles (Cotillion, 1971)
Oliver Nelson – Swiss Suite (Flying Dutchman, 1971)
King Curtis – Live at Fillmore West (Atlantic, 1971)
Johnny "Hammond" Smith – Wild Horses Rock Steady (Kudu, 1971)
Larry Coryell – Fairyland (Flying Dutchman, 1971)
Eddie "Cleanhead" Vinson – You Can't Make Love Alone (Flying Dutchman, 1971)
Herbie Mann – Push Push (Atlantic, 1971)
Dizzy Gillespie – The Real Thing (Perception, 1971)
Gato Barbieri – El Pampero (Flying Dutchman, 1971)
Gil Scott-Heron – Pieces of a Man (Flying Dutchman, 1971)
Aretha Franklin - Amazing Grace (Atlantic, 1972)
Les McCann – Invitation to Openness (Atlantic, 1972)
Hank Crawford – Help Me Make It Through the Night (Kudu, 1972)
Aretha Franklin – Young, Gifted and Black (Atlantic, 1972)
Hubert Laws – Wild Flower (Atlantic, 1972)
Leon Thomas – Blues and the Soulful Truth (Flying Dutchman, 1972)
Esther Phillips – Alone Again, Naturally (Kudu, 1972)
Miles Davis – Get Up with It (Columbia, 1972)
Dakota Staton – Madame Foo-Foo (Groove Merchant, 1972)
Ronnie Foster – Sweet Revival (Blue Note, 1972)
Hank Crawford – We Got a Good Thing Going (Kudu, 1972)
Roberta Flack & Donny Hathaway – Roberta Flack & Donny Hathaway (Atlantic, 1972)
Esther Phillips – From a Whisper to a Scream (Kudu, 1972)
Jackie Lomax – Three (Warner Bros., 1972)
B.B. King – Guess Who (ABC, 1972)
Buddy Terry – Lean on Him (Mainstream, 1973)
David "Fathead" Newman – The Weapon (Atlantic, 1973)
Gato Barbieri – Bolivia (Flying Dutchman, 1973)
Leon Thomas – Full Circle (Flying Dutchman, 1973)
Richard "Groove" Holmes – Night Glider (Groove Merchant, 1973)
Garland Jeffreys – Garland Jeffreys (Atlantic, 1973)
Lightnin' Rod – Hustlers Convention (Celluloid, 1973)
Cat Stevens – Foreigner (A&M, 1973)
Hall & Oates – Abandoned Luncheonette (Atlantic, 1973)
Bette Midler – Bette Midler (Atlantic, 1973)
Margie Joseph – Margie Joseph (Atlantic, 1973)
Jimmy McGriff & Richard "Groove" Holmes – Giants of the Organ Come Together (Groove Merchant, 1973)
Richard "Groove" Holmes − New Groove (Groove Merchant, 1974)
Robert Palmer – Sneakin' Sally Through the Alley (Island, 1974)
Gato Barbieri – Yesterdays (Flying Dutchman, 1974)
Aretha Franklin – With Everything I Feel in Me (Atlantic, 1974)
Richie Havens – Mixed Bag II (Verve, 1974)
Joe Cocker – I Can Stand a Little Rain (A&M, 1974)
Rusty Bryant – Until It's Time for You to Go (Prestige, 1974)
Margie Joseph – Sweet Surrender (Atlantic, 1974)
Aretha Franklin – Let Me in Your Life (Atlantic, 1974)
Tim Moore – Tim Moore (Mooncrest, 1974)
Esther Phillips – Performance (Kudu, 1974)
Arif Mardin – Journey (Atlantic, 1974)
Roy Ayers Ubiquity – Change Up the Groove (Polydor, 1974)
Cornell Dupree – Teasin''' (Atlantic, 1975)
Geoff Muldaur – Is Having a Wonderful Time (Reprise, 1975)
Todd Rundgren – Initiation (Bearsville, 1975)
Margie Joseph – Margie (Atlantic, 1975)
Joe Cocker – Jamaica Say You Will (A&M, 1975)
Roy Ayers Ubiquity - A Tear to a Smile (Polydor, 1975)
Jorge Dalto – Chevere (United Artists, 1976)
Hummingbird – We Can't Go On Meeting Like This (A&M, 1976)
Michael Bolton – Michael Bolotin (RCA, 1975)
Steely Dan – The Royal Scam (ABC, 1976)
Steely Dan – Aja (ABC, 1977)
Hummingbird – Diamond Nights (A&M, 1977)
Alfred "Pee Wee" Ellis – Home In The Country (Savoy, 1977)
Joe Cocker – Luxury You Can Afford (Elektra, 1978)
Kate & Anna McGarrigle – Pronto Monto (Warner Bros., 1978)
Cheryl Lynn – Cheryl Lynn (Columbia, 1978)
Felix Pappalardi – Don't Worry, Ma (A&M, 1979)
Cheryl Lynn – In Love (Columbia, 1979)
Dizzy Gillespie – Digital at Montreux, 1980 (Pablo, 1980)
Steely Dan – Gaucho (MCA, 1980)
Al Johnson – Back for More (Columbia, 1980)
Aretha Franklin – Aretha (Arista, 1980)
B.B. King – There Must Be a Better World Somewhere (MCA, 1981)
Houston Person – Heavy Juice (Muse, 1982)
Houston Person – Always on My Mind (Muse, 1985)
Bob Cunningham – Walking Bass (Nilva [Fr], 1985)
Hank Crawford & Jimmy McGriff – Soul Survivors (Milestone, 1986)
Hank Crawford – Mr. Chips (Milestone, 1986)
Jimmy McGriff – The Starting Five (Milestone, 1987)
Flip Phillips & Scott Hamilton – A Sound Investment (Concord, 1987)
Jimmy McGriff – Blue to the 'Bone (Milestone, 1988)
Hank Crawford – Night Beat (Milestone, 1989)
Jimmy McGriff – You Ought to Think About Me (Headfirst, 1990)
Hank Crawford – Groove Master (Milestone, 1990)
Garland Jeffreys – Don't Call Me Buckwheat (BMG, 1991)
Cissy Houston & Chuck Jackson – I'll Take Care of You (Shanachie, 1992)
Al Green – Don't Look Back (BMG, 1993)
Carrie Smith – June Night (Black & Blue, 1993)
Laura Nyro – Walk the Dog and Light the Light (Columbia, 1993)
Pucho & His Latin Soul Brothers – Jungle Strut (Lexington/West 47th, 1993; reissued as Pucho's Descarga on ¡Andale! in 2014)
Carrie Smith – Every Now and Then (Silver Shadow, 1994)
Jimmy Smith – Damn! (Verve, 1995)
Al Green – Your Heart's in Good Hands (MCA, 1995)
Houston Person – The Opening Round (Savant, 1997)
Hank Crawford & Jimmy McGriff – Road Tested (Milestone, 1997)
Jimmy McGriff – The Dream Team (Milestone, 1997)
Hank Crawford – After Dark (Milestone, 1998)
Jimmy McGriff – Straight Up (Milestone, 1998)
Hank Crawford & Jimmy McGriff – Crunch Time (Milestone, 1999)
Leslie West – As Phat as it Gets (Mystic, 1999)
Jimmy McGriff – McGriff's House Party (Milestone, 2000)
Reuben Wilson – Organ Blues (Jazzateria, 2001)
Oliver Darley – Introducing Oliver Darley (East West, 2001)
Jimmy McGriff – McGriff Avenue (Milestone, 2002)
Elliott Randall – Still Reelin [EP] (Private Collection Records, 2007)
Larry Coryell – Earthquake at the Avalon, (Inakustik, 2009)
Hair – Broadway Cast Recording (Ghostlight/Razor & Tie, 2009)
Chihiro Yamanaka – Reminiscence (Verve, 2011)
Mick Taylor – 'East Coast Tour Appearances' (2012)
Vulfpeck – 'Various Tour Appearances' (2016)
Eddie Palmieri – Sabiduria (Wisdom) (Ropeadope, 2017)
George Freeman–Mike Allemana Organ Quartet with special guest: Bernard Purdie – Live at the Green Mill (Ears & Eyes, 2017)
Gonzalo Aloras – Nuestra Canción (2020)
Vulfpeck – The Joy of Music, The Job of Real Estate (Vulf, 2020)
References
Bibliography
Everett, Walter. The Beatles as musicians: the Quarry Men through Rubber Soul. Oxford University Press US (2001).
Gottfridsson, Hans Olof; Sheridan, Tony and Beatles. The Beatles from Cavern to Star-Club: The Illustrated Chronicle, Discography & Price Guide 1957–1962. Premium Publishing (1997).
Kernfeld, Barry Dean. The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz second edition. Grove's Dictionaries Inc. (2002). Digitized 21 Dec (2006).
Miles, Barry, and Badman, Keith. The Beatles Diary: The Beatles years. Omnibus Press (2001)
Payne, Jim and Weinger, Harry. The Great Drummers of R&B Funk & Soul. Mel Bay Publications (2007).
Rabb, Johnny; Brych, Ray and Lohman, Gregg. Jungle/Drum 'n' Bass for the Acoustic Drum Set: A Guide to Applying Today's Electronic Music to the Drum Set. Alfred Publishing (2001).
Weinberg, Max. The Big Beat: Conversations with Rock's Greatest Drummers. Hal Leonard Corporation (2004).
York, William. Who's Who in Rock Music''+. Atomic Press (1978). Digitized 30 Aug 2007.
External links
1941 births
American funk drummers
American jazz drummers
American rock drummers
American session musicians
American soul musicians
Flying Dutchman Records artists
James Brown Orchestra members
Jazz-blues musicians
Living people
Musicians from Edison, New Jersey
People from Elkton, Maryland
People from Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey
Musicians from Teaneck, New Jersey
Rhythm and blues drummers
Soul drummers
Soul-jazz drummers
Hummingbird (band) members
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
Jazz musicians from Maryland
American male jazz musicians
The 3B's members
ACT Music artists
A&M Records artists
Capitol Records artists
Atco Records artists
African-American drummers
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5122310
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March%20Days
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March Days
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The March Days or March Events () was a period of inter-ethnic strife and clashes which took place between 30 March – 2 April 1918 in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic.
Facilitated by a political power struggle between Bolsheviks with the support of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutiun) on one side and the Azerbaijani Musavat Party on another, the events led to rumours of a possible Muslim revolt on the part of Bolshevik and Dashnak forces and the establishment of the short-lived Baku Commune in April 1918.
Most historic sources and accounts interpret the March events in the context of civil war unrest, while contemporary Azerbaijani sources officially refers to the March Days as a genocide. These were followed by the September days where 10,000 ethnic Armenians were massacred by Army of Islam and their local Azerbaijani allies upon capturing Baku.
Background
Political situation
Following the February Revolution, a Special Transcaucasian Committee, including Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian representatives, was established to administer parts of the South Caucasus under the control of the Russian Provisional Government. After the October Revolution, on 11 November 1917, this committee was replaced by the Transcaucasian Commissariat, also known as the Sejm, with headquarters in Tbilisi. The Sejm opposed Bolshevism and sought separation of the South Caucasus from Bolshevik Russia. To prevent that, on 13 November 1917, a group of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries (SR) proclaimed the Baku Soviet, a governing body which assumed power over the territory of Baku Governorate under the leadership of Bolshevik Stepan Shahumyan. Although the Baku Soviet included Azerbaijanis and Armenians who were neither Bolsheviks nor necessarily sympathetic towards Bolshevik ideas, the two nationalist parties and members of the Sejm ― the Musavat and Armenian Revolutionary Federation ― refused to recognize its authority. The Baku-based Musavat dominated the Muslim National Councils (MNCs), a representative body which eventually formed the first Parliament of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR). Mammad Hasan Hajinski chaired the Temporary Executive Committee for the MNCs, while Mammed Amin Rasulzade, Alimardan Topchubashev, Fatali Khan Khoyski and other prominent political figures were among the 44 Azerbaijani delegates to the Sejm. Meanwhile, the ARF, which was established in Tbilisi, formed a 27-member Armenian delegation to the Sejm. The leader of the Baku Soviet, Shahumyan, kept contacts with ARF and viewed it as a source of support for eliminating Musavat influence in Baku. It is noteworthy that during the March Days of 1918, one of the ARF founders, Stepan Zorian, was present in Baku.
After the October Revolution, the Russian army fell apart and its units fled the front lines en masse, often harassing local residents. Concerned with the situation, the Sejm established a Military Council of Nationalities, with Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian representatives, which had troops at its disposal. When a large group of Russian soldiers withdrew from the Ottoman front line in January 1918, the head of the council, Georgian Menshevik Noe Ramishvili, ordered their disarmament. The Russian soldiers were stopped near Shamkhor station and, upon a refusal to surrender, were attacked by Azerbaijani bands in what became known as the Shamkhor massacre. The Baku Soviet played out this incident into its favor against the Sejm.
On 10–24 February 1918, the Sejm adopted a declaration of independence, proclaiming the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. In the meantime, to support Armenian resistance against the Ottoman Empire, the British government attempted to re-organize and train a group of Armenians from the Caucasus under the leadership of General Lionel Dunsterville in Baghdad. The Allies had also provided Armenians with 6,500,000 rubles ($3,250,000 of 1918 value) in financial assistance. In addition, the Armenian National Organization of the Caucasus formed an Armenian Military Committee in Petrograd under General Bagradouni and called upon all Armenian military personnel scattered throughout Russia to mobilize on the Caucasus front. In response to this call, by early March 1918, a large number of Armenians had gathered in Baku, joining a group of 200 trained officers accompanied by General Bagradouni and the ARF co-founder Stepan Zorian (Mr. Rostom).
The Azerbaijanis grew increasingly suspicious that Shahumyan, who was an ethnic Armenian, was conspiring with the Dashnaks against them. The units of the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division, composed of Caucasian Muslims who had served in the Imperial Russian Army, thus nicknamed the "Savage" Division, disarmed a pro-Bolshevik garrison in Lankaran, and Dagestani insurgents under Imam Najm ul-din Gotsinski drove the Bolsheviks out of Petrovsk, severing Baku's land communications with Bolshevik Russia. The Armistice of Erzincan, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed on 3 March 1918, formalized Russia's exit from World War I. According to Richard G. Hovannisian, a secret annex to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk obligated the Bolsheviks to demobilize and dissolve ethnic Armenian bands on territories previously under Russian control. At the subsequent Trabzon Peace Conference, the Ottoman delegation called for a unified position of the Sejm before the negotiations could be completed. The Bolsheviks grew increasingly concerned about the emerging Transcaucasian Federation, and in the given situation, had to choose between Musavat and ARF in the struggle to dominate Transcaucasia's largest city. Thus the Baku Soviet was drawn into the nationalistic struggle between the Azerbaijanis and the Armenians, trying to utilize one people against the other.
As Baku produced 7 million tons of oil per year (about 15% of global oil production), during World War I the city remained in the sights of the major warring powers. Even though most of the oil fields were owned by Azerbaijanis and less than 5 per cent by Armenians, most of the production/distribution rights in Baku were owned by foreign investors, primarily the British. At the beginning of 1918, Germany transferred General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein from the Sinai and Palestine Campaign to establish the German Caucasus Expedition with the aim of capturing Baku. In response, in February 1918, the British dispatched General Lionel Dunsterville with troops to Baku through Enzeli, in order to block the German move and to protect the British investments. Meanwhile, the Bolsheviks lost control of the Grozny oilfields at the end of 1917, and Baku became their sole source of oil. Vladimir Lenin even asserted in one of his speeches that "Soviet Russia can't survive without Baku oil."
Demographics and armed groups
Before World War I, the population of Baku, including the Bailoff promontory, the White Town, the oil fields and the neighboring villages, amounted to over 200,000, distributed as follows: 74,000 temporary migrants from various parts of Russia, 56,000 Azerbaijani natives of the town and district, 25,000 Armenians, 18,000 Persians, 6,000 Jews, 4,000 Volga Tatars, 3,800 Lezgins, 2,600 Georgians, 5,000 Germans, 1,500 Poles and many other nationalities numbering less than 1,000 each. Azerbaijanis formed the majority among natives and owned the greater part of land including the oil fields. They also constituted most of the labor force and small trading class as well as some commercial and financial posts. The petroleum industry was largely owned by a small number of foreign capitalists.
Prior to the 1918 March events, the major armed groups in Baku consisted of 6,000 men from the remnants of the Russian Caucasus Army which had withdrawn from the Ottoman front line, about 4,000 men of the Armenian militia organized under the ARF Dashnaktsutiun, and an undefined number of soldiers of the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division disbanded in January 1918.
Events of 30 March – 2 April 1918
When the staff of the disbanded Caucasian Native Cavalry Division arrived in Baku on 9 March 1918, the Soviet immediately arrested its commander, General Talyshinski. The move sparked protests from the Azerbaijani population, with occasional calls to offer armed resistance to the Soviet. According to the historian Firuz Kazemzadeh, Shahumyan could have prevented bloodshed, had he been less impulsive and stubborn. Only a few days earlier, Shahumyan had received a telegram from Lenin, in which he was advised "to learn diplomacy", but this advice was ignored.
The March 1918 confrontation was triggered by an incident with the steamship Evelina. On 27 March 1918, fifty former Caucasian Native Cavalry Division servicemen arrived in Baku on this ship to attend the funeral of their colleague Mamed Tagiyev, son of a famous Azerbaijani oil magnate and philanthropist, Haji Zeynalabdin Taghiyev. M. Tagiyev had been killed in a skirmish by Russian-Armenian forces in Lankaran. Some sources state that when the soldiers got back on board the Evelina to sail out of Baku on 30 March 1918, the Soviet received information that the Muslim crew of the ship was armed and waiting for a signal to revolt against the Soviet. While the report lacked foundation, the Soviet acted on it, disarming the crew which tried to resist. Other sources claim that Azerbaijanis were alarmed by the growing military strength of the Armenians in Baku, and called for the help of the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division units in Lenkoran. Their arrival caused great concern among both Bolsheviks and Armenians, and when officials were sent down to the dockside to try to discover what their intentions were, they were driven back by gunfire, a number of them being killed. Eventually these newcomers were disarmed by a stronger Bolshevik force, but when more units of the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division arrived on 1 April, in MacDonell's words, "the Baku cauldron boiled over". No one really knows who fired the first shot, but very soon Baku became a battlefield, with trenches and barricades being hastily prepared throughout the city.
By 6 p.m. on 30 March 1918, Baku was filled with fighting. The Soviet side, led by Shahumyan, realized that full civil war was starting and its own forces were insufficient against Azerbaijani masses led by Musavat. Allies were found among the Mensheviks, SRs, and the Kadets (right-wing liberals), which promised to support the Bolsheviks as the champions of the "Russian Cause." In response to these, Musavat's Achiq Söz newspaper noted that while Bolsheviks and Mensheviks were fighting all year, both were uniting against Musavat even with the Kadets and the Dashnaks. The paper attributed such alliance to national factors, and concluded that the Soviet's attempt to provoke "one nationality against another, instead of fighting a class war, was a tragic capitulation of democracy".
On the morning of 31 March, Azerbaijanis opposed to the Bolshevik disarming of the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division held protests in Baku, demanding to arm the Muslims. The Azerbaijani Bolshevik organization Hümmet attempted to mediate the dispute, proposing that the arms taken from the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division be transferred to the custody of the Hümmet. Shahumyan agreed to this proposal, but on the afternoon of 31 March, when Muslim representatives appeared before the Baku Soviet leadership to take the arms, shots were already being heard in the city and the Soviet commissar Prokofy Dzhaparidze refused to provide the arms. He informed the Hümmet leadership that "Musavat had launched a political war". The talks broke off abruptly when the Soviet's soldiers were fired upon. The Bolsheviks accused the Muslims of responsibility for the incident, stopped negotiations, and opened hostilities. Later Shahumyan admitted that the Bolsheviks deliberately used a pretext to attack their political opponents:
Armenians initially remained neutral as the Muslim rebellion against the Soviet began. The Musavat Party proposed an alliance with the Dashnaks, but was given a rebuff. The Armenian leadership withdrew its forces to the Armenian areas of Baku and limited its action to self-defense. On the evening of 31 March, machine-gun and rifle fire in Baku intensified into a full-fledged battle. On the morning of 1 April 1918, the Committee of Revolutionary Defense of Baku's Soviet issued a leaflet which said:
Forced to seek support from either Muslim Musavat or Armenian Dashnaktsutyun, Shahumyan, himself an Armenian, chose the latter. Following initial skirmishes in the streets, the Dashnaks proceeded to initiate a massacre, wildly killing Musavat military elements and Muslim civilians alike without mercy or discrimination in both Baku and the surrounding countryside.
There were descriptions of Dashnak forces taking to looting, burning and killing in the Muslim sections of the city. According to Peter Hopkirk, "Armenians, seeing that at last they had their ancient foes on the run, were now out for vengeance". In Balakhany and Ramany districts of Baku, the majority of Muslim workers stayed at their places and avoided the battles, while the peasants were not moved to join the anti-Soviet rebels. The Persian workers remained passive during all of the fighting, refusing to take sides. Left-wing Muslim leaders, including those of SRs and Hümmet Party, such as Narimanov, Azizbekov, Bunyat Sardarov and Kazi-Magomed Aghasiyev, supported the Soviet forces During the battles, Bolsheviks decided to use artillery against the Azerbaijani residential quarters in the city.
On the afternoon on 1 April, a Muslim delegation arrived at the Hotel Astoria. The Committee of Revolutionary Defense presented them with an ultimatum and demanded that representatives of all Muslim parties sign the document before the shelling stopped. Early in the evening, the agreements were signed and the bombardment stopped. The fighting did not subside, however, until the night of 2 April 1918, when thousands of Muslims started leaving the city in a mass exodus. By the fifth day, although much of the city was still ablaze, all resistance had ceased, leaving the streets strewn with dead and wounded, nearly all of them Muslims. So the armed conflict between the Musavat and the joint Soviet-ARF forces ended on 3 April 1918 with the victory of the latter.
Casualties
The May 1918 dispatch of The New York Times stated that "2,000 were killed and 3,000 were wounded in struggle between Russians and Mussulmans". Later 1919 publication by The New York Times reported – presumably citing Azerbaijani officials – that 12,000 people were killed during the March Days of 1918. The same publication wrote that according to Azerbaijani representatives, Bolsheviks crushed Muslims with assistance from Armenians who wanted to "wipe out old enemies and seize their lands". The 1920 New York Times Current History edition used the same figure of 12,000 victims, as did several historians .
Azerbaijani delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference provided the following interpretation of the March Days:
The leader of Baku Soviet, Stepan Shahumyan, claimed that more than 3,000 killed in two days from both sides. However, in his October 1918 article for the Armenian Herald, publication of the Boston-based Armenian National Union of America, one of the prominent ARF leaders, Karekin Pastermadjian, asserted that over 10,000 Azerbaijanis and nearly 2,500 Armenians were killed during the March Days of 1918.
According to Firuz Kazemzadeh,
Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath of the March Days, many of the Muslim survivors fled to Elisabethpol (Ganja) in central Azerbaijan. While the Temporary Executive Committee of the Muslim National Councils and the Musavat ceased their activities in the territory of the Baku Governorate, the left-wing Azerbaijani political groups, such as the SRs and the Hümmet, benefited from the developments and became effective leaders of the Azerbaijani community in Baku. The Muslim Socialist Bureau appealed to the Committee of Revolutionary Defense to redress some of the grievances of some of the Muslims.
On 13 April 1918, within few days of the massacres, the Bolsheviks under the leadership of Stepan Shahumyan proclaimed the Baku Commune. This new body endeavored to nationalize Baku's oil fields, drawing the ire of the British, and formed the "Red Army of Baku", an undisciplined and poorly managed force composed largely of ethnic Armenian recruits. The 26 Baku Commissars were not all commissars and were not all Bolsheviks; There were many ethnicities among them: Greek, Latvian, Jewish, Russian, Georgian, Armenian and two of them were ethnic Azerbaijani revolutionaries, Meshadi Azizbekov and Mir Hasan Vazirov. Nevertheless, in the Azerbaijani psyche, the Baku Commune symbolized the Bolshevik – Armenian collusion born out of the March Days bloodbath.
The March Days of 1918 had a profound effect on the formulation of Azerbaijani political objectives as well. While previously Azerbaijani leaders had sought only autonomy within the Russian domain, after the Bolshevik-perpetrated massacres in Baku, they no longer believed in the Russian Revolution and turned to the Ottomans for support in achieving total independence. Therefore, when the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 28 May 1918, its government immediately dispatched a delegation to Istanbul to discuss the possibility of Ottoman military support for the young republic. The Ottoman triumvir, Enver Pasha, agreed to the Azerbaijani requests and charged his brother, Nuru Pasha, with forming an Ottoman military unit, known as the Caucasus Army of Islam, to retake Baku. When in July 1918, the Ottoman-Azerbaijani force defeated the "Red Army of Baku" in several key battles in Central Azerbaijan, Bolshevik power in Baku started crumbling under pressure from the Russian Socialist Revolutionaries, Dashnaks, and British agents in the city. On 1 August 1918, the Baku Commune was replaced by the Centrocaspian Dictatorship, which desperately invited a 1000-strong British expeditionary force led by General Lionel Dunsterville to the city. This proved a futile effort and, in the face of an overwhelming Ottoman-Azerbaijani offensive, the Dunsterforce fled and the Caucasus Army of Islam entered the Azerbaijani capital on 15 September 1918.
The March Days brought underlying tensions between Armenians and Azerbaijanis to the fore. Less than six months after the March massacres, when the Ottoman-Azerbaijani force entered Baku, the city fell into chaos and nearly 10,000 Armenians were massacred. A special commission formed by the Armenian National Council (ANC) reported a total of 8,988 ethnic Armenians massacred, among whom were 5,248 Armenian inhabitants of Baku, 1,500 Armenian refugees from other parts of the Caucasus who were in Baku, and 2,240 Armenians whose corpses were found in the streets but whose identities were never established. Although these figures were gathered by the Armenian National Council, and have been questioned by some, given the general run of events, they were unlikely to be greatly exaggerated.
While trying to escape Baku amidst the Ottoman-Azerbaijani offensive, the Bolshevik Baku Commissars were taken by ship across the Caspian to Krasnovodsk, where they were imprisoned by the Social Revolutionary Transcaspian Government, with the alleged support of the British. A few days later, on 20 September 1918, between the stations of Pereval and Akhcha-Kuyma on the Trans-Caspian railway, 26 of the Commissars were executed by firing squad.
Analysis and interpretations
According to Michael Smith, Muslims faced a crushing defeat at the hands of Baku Soviet followed by an "unrestrained brutality of Dashnak forces". While in the aftermath of the tragic events, Musavat used them to foster a national memory of pain, its leader M. E. Rasulzade provided an analysis which seems to reflect the essence of witness accounts. In Rasulzade's view, Bolsheviks and their supporters sought to diminish Musavat's influence among Azerbaijani masses for a long time, and Muslim elites felt frustrated and powerless in face of this pressure. March Days were a violent culmination in this assault of Russian Bolshevism against the unprepared Azerbaijani people.
Azerbaijani position
The leader of Musavat Mammed Amin Rasulzade stated with regard to the March Days:
In Soviet Azerbaijan, historical accounts of March Days were made to support the actions of Baku Soviet and to condemn Musavat as the culprit of the tragedy. Soviet historiography also tried to suppress the memory of 1918 massacres and omitted the fact that Bolsheviks used the Armenian-Azerbaijani ethnic confrontation to gain power. However, in 1978, then-leader of Soviet Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev recalled the forgotten March Days in his speech dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Stepan Shahumyan as follows:
Exactly twenty years later, as the President of independent Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev issued a decree condemning March Days as the beginning of Azerbaijani genocide. Text of the 1998 Presidential decree describes the March events as follows:
Soviet position
The Baku Soviet's Committee of Revolutionary Defense issued a proclamation early in April explaining the events and their causes. The statement claimed an anti-Soviet character of the rebellion and blamed Musavat and its leadership for the events. Soviet's statement asserted that there was a carefully laid out conspiracy by Musavat to overthrow the Baku Soviet and to establish its own regime:
Shahumian considered the March events to be a triumph of the Soviet power in the Caucasus:
In the opinion of the American historian Tadeusz Swietochowski, "in his enthusiasm, Shahumyan might not have remembered that in 1905 he himself had accused the tsardom of reaping in benefits of the Muslim-Armenian massacres. It is doubtful that to him, as opposed to the Azerbaijanis, any similarity suggested itself."
Joseph Stalin, who was Bolshevik People's Commissar at the time, stated in the "Pravda" newspaper that the March Days happened in protest of Transcaucasian Commissariat in Tbilisi:
All of Armenia is protesting against the usurpation of the self-proclaimed Tiflis "government", demanding the resignation of the Sejm deputies. And the center of Muslims, Baku, the citadel of Soviet power in Transcaucasus, unified around itself the entire Eastern Transcaucasus, from Lenkoran and Kuba till Elizavetpol, with arms in hands is asserting the rights of people of Transcaucasus, who try by all forces to maintain a link with Soviet Russia.
Victor Serge in Year One (First Year) Of the Russian Revolution: "The Soviet at Baku, led by Shahumyan, was meanwhile making itself the ruler of the area, discreetly but unmistakably. Following the Moslem rising of 18 (30) March, it had to introduce a dictatorship. This rising, instigated by the Musavat, set the Tartar and Turkic population, led by their reactionary bourgeoisie, against the Soviet, which consisted of Russians with support from the Armenians. The races began to slaughter each other in the street. Most of the Turkic port-workers (the ambal) either remained neutral or supported the Reds. The contest was won by the Soviets."
Armenian position
The Armenian view of the March 1918 events was documented in a letter written by Archbishop Bagrat to the American mission in Baku. The letter began with the accusation that the Azerbaijanis, being the disciples of the Turks and the Germans, could not be trusted. Having thus disposed of the Azerbaijani version of the events, Bagrat stated that the battle was waged by the Musavat and the Soviet, while the Armenians remained neutral. The Archbishop claimed that some Armenian soldiers took part in the fighting, but that those were only isolated individuals for whom the Armenian National Council could not be held responsible. He also claimed that the Armenians gave shelter to some 20,000 Muslims during the struggle.
Armenians had been inflamed by the sight and pitiful stories of several hundred thousand refugees who had succeeded in reaching Transcaucasia, fleeing before the Ottoman Army. Consequently, when the Russian Army broke up, the Armenians preserved their discipline against all attempts of the Bolsheviks, and were the only force upon which the Allies could count in southwestern Asia during the last year of the war. The two million Armenians of Transcaucasia, increased by several hundred thousand refugees from the Ottoman Empire, persisted in their loyalty to Russia until the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk delivered them to the Ottoman Empire. Then they moved to form their own state, which succeeded in maintaining itself during the period of anarchy and famine that Bolshevism brought upon the Russian Empire. At the Peace Conference, speaking before the Council of Ten, M. Aharonian, delegate of the Armenian Republic of the Caucasus, stated that the two and a half million Armenians in Transcaucasia wanted to cast in their fortunes with the Armenians of Ottoman Empire to form a Greater Armenia. According to Michael P. Croissant, the ARF set out to take revenge for the persecution and genocide suffered by Armenians at the hands of the Ottomans, while Tadeusz Swietochowski states that "Armenian historians do not offer an explanation for the political calculations behind this move, which was bound to entail terrible retribution, and they hint rather at an uncontrollable emotional outburst".
Other positions
According to Firuz Kazemzadeh, the Soviet provoked March events to eliminate its most formidable rival – the Musavat. However, when Soviet leaders reached out to ARF for assistance against the Azerbaijani nationalists, the conflict degenerated into a massacre with the Armenians killing the Muslims irrespective of their political affiliations or social and economic position.
Following an investigation, the Scientific Service of the German Bundestag came to the conclusion that, in specialist literature and journalism, there are different accounts of the events, incidents and casualty figures, which makes a reliable account difficult.
International recognition
On 27 March 2012, the New York State Senate adopted the first-ever legislative resolution J3784-2011 proclaiming 31 March 2012 as the Azerbaijani Remembrance Day. The resolution was introduced by the State Senator James Alesi at the initiative of the members of Azerbaijan Society of America and Azerbaijani-American Council.
On 31 December 2010, Governor Jim Gibbons of the U.S. State of Nevada proclaimed 31 March as Remembrance Day of 1918 massacres of Azerbaijani civilians in what became the first such recognition by the U.S. government institution.
See also
List of massacres in Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic
September Days
Notes
References
Bibliography
April 1918 events
History of Baku
1918 in Azerbaijan
March 1918 events
Mass murder in 1918
Massacres in Azerbaijan
Russian Civil War
Bolshevik uprisings
Massacres of Muslims
Persecution of Muslims
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Navy%20Submarine%20Service
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Royal Navy Submarine Service
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The Royal Navy Submarine Service is one of the five fighting arms of the Royal Navy. It is sometimes known as the Silent Service, as submarines are generally required to operate undetected.
The service operates six fleet submarines (SSNs), of the and es (with two further Astute-class boats currently under construction), and four ballistic missile submarines (SSBN), of the . All of these submarines are nuclear powered.
Since 1993 the post of Flag Officer Submarines has been dual-hatted with the post of Commander Operations.
The Royal Navy's senior submariner was for many years located at in Hampshire. It moved from Dolphin to the Northwood Headquarters in 1978. The Submarine School is now at at Torpoint in Cornwall.
History
In 1900 the Royal Navy ordered five submarines from Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering of Barrow-in-Furness, designed by Electric Boat Company. The following year the first submarine, , was launched, and the navy recruited six officers for the Submarine Service, under Reginald Bacon as Inspecting Captain of Submarines. At the beginning of World War I it consisted of 168 officers, 1250 ratings, and 62 submarines. During the war it was awarded five of the Royal Navy's 14 Victoria Crosses of the war, the first was to Lieutenant Norman Holbrook, commanding officer of ,for passing through minefields to sink the Ottoman warship Mesudiye.
Late in the war, the Royal Navy introduced the large K-class submarines. In order to be fast enough to operate alongside the battlefleet, they used steam propulsion while surfaced. En route to a training exercise with the fleet in a disaster, afterwards nicknamed "the battle of May Island", two K-class submarines were sunk, with death of most of their crew, and three more and a light cruiser damaged.
Second World War
At the start of the war, the Royal Navy had 60 submarines with another nine under construction. By August 1945 a further 178 had been commissioned and 76 had been lost to all causes, the majority of the losses in the Mediterranean.
In the Mediterranean (during the Siege of Malta), British U-class submarines began operations against Italy as early as January 1941. Larger submarines began operations in 1940, but after 50% losses per mission, they were withdrawn. U-class submarines operated from the Manoel Island Base known as HMS Talbot. Unfortunately no bomb-proof pens were available as the building project had been scrapped before the war, owing to cost-cutting policies. The new force was named the Tenth Submarine Flotilla and was placed under Flag Officer Submarines, Admiral Max Horton, who appointed Commander George Simpson to command the unit. Administratively, the Tenth Flotilla operated under the First Submarine Flotilla at Alexandria, itself under the admiral commanding in the Mediterranean, Andrew Cunningham. In reality, Cunningham gave Simpson and his unit a free hand. Until U-class vessels could be made available in numbers, British T-class submarines were used. They had successes, but suffered heavy losses when they began operations on 20 September 1940. Owing to the shortage of torpedoes, enemy ships could not be attacked unless the target in question was a warship, tanker or other "significant vessel". The flotilla's performance of the fleet was mixed at first. They sank of Italian shipping; half by one vessel, the submarine . It accounted for one Italian submarine, nine merchant vessels and one Motor Torpedo Boat (MTB). The loss of nine submarines and their trained crews and commanders was serious. Most of the losses were to mines. On 14 January 1941, U-class submarines arrived, and the submarine offensive began in earnest.
One of the most famous Mediterranean submarines was , commanded for its entire career by Lieutenant-Commander Malcolm Wanklyn. He received the Victoria Cross for attacking a well-defended convoy on 25 May 1941 and sinking an Italian liner, the . In her 16-month operational career in the Mediterranean, before she was lost in April 1942, Upholder carried out 24 patrols and sank around 119,000 tons of Axis ships – 3 U-boats, a destroyer, 15 transport ships with possibly a cruiser and another destroyer also sunk. Upholder probably struck a mine on 13 April 1942.
On 8 September 1944, C-in-C Mediterranean ordered that the submarine base at La Maddalena be closed, and that Tenth Flotilla be disestablished and the submarines be incorporated into the First Submarine Flotilla at Malta.
Cold War
The submarine force was cut back after the end of the war. The first British nuclear-powered submarine, was launched in 1960, based around a U.S.-built nuclear reactor. This was complemented by the from 1966, which used a new British-built Rolls-Royce PWR1 reactor. The UK's strategic nuclear deterrent was transferred to the Royal Navy from the Royal Air Force at midnight on 30 June 1968, i.e. 1 July. The ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) were introduced to carry out this role under the Polaris programme from 1968. These carried US-built UGM-27 Polaris A-3 missiles and were later replaced by the submarines and the Trident missile system from 1994.
In 1978 the Flag Officer Submarines double-hatted as NATO Commander Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic (COMSUBEASTLANT) part of Allied Command Atlantic, moved from HMS Dolphin at Gosport to the Northwood Headquarters.
made history in 1982 during the Falklands War when she became the first nuclear-powered submarine to sink a surface ship, the . HMS Splendid and HMS Spartan hunted the Argentine Navy carrier group Task Group 79.1 but did not engage.
At the end of the Cold War in 1989 the Flag Officer Submarines, who was also COMSUBEASTLANT, a rear admiral, who , commanded a fleet of 30 submarines, which were grouped into four squadrons (First, Second, Third, and Tenth (SSBN)) at three bases.
Post Cold War
In May 1991 s and her sister returned to the submarine base in Gosport from patrol in the Persian Gulf flying Jolly Rogers, indicating successful actions.
In 1999 participated in the Kosovo Conflict and became the first Royal Navy submarine to fire a Tomahawk cruise missile in anger.
During Operation Veritas, the attack on Al-Qaeda and Taliban forces following the September 11 attacks in the United States, was the first Royal Navy submarine to launch Tomahawk cruise missiles against targets in Afghanistan. was also involved in the initial strikes. launched fourteen Tomahawks during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
In 2011, HMS Triumph and Turbulent participated in Operation Ellamy. They launched Tomahawk cruise missiles at targets in Libya, firing the first shots of the operation.
In April 2016, The Sunday Times reported that Royal Navy submarines were to resume under-ice operations in the Arctic. Such operations have not taken place since 2007 after a fatal explosion on board . The crews of all seven active Royal Navy attack submarines will receive training on how to navigate below and "punch through" ice floes.
As of 2018, there had been three near misses between submerged Royal Navy submarines and civilian vessels due to "an insufficient appreciation of the location of surface ships in the vicinity", according to a Marine Accident Investigation Branch report.
For an extended period of time, the navy has had difficulty in attracting specialist staff into the nuclear submarine force, in part because of the long undersea patrols. In 2008 there were shortfalls of 28% in senior nuclear engineering officers, 23% in sonar and sensor operators, and 20% in nuclear weapons system junior ranks. In 2018, the National Audit Office highlighted the shortage of 337 skilled Royal Navy nuclear staff. In 2023, Chief of the Naval Staff Admiral Sir Ben Key said recruiting for the submarine service was still proving difficult and the service was in a "war for talent".
Perisher
'Perisher' (as the Submarine Command Course is better known) is a 24-week course all officers must take prior to serving as an executive officer on board a Royal Navy submarine. It has been run twice a year since 1917, usually starting on 2 July and 14 November each year. It is widely regarded as one of the toughest command courses in the world, with a historical failure rate of 25%.
If at any point during the training a candidate is withdrawn from training they will be nominated for boat transfer and kept occupied until the transfer. Their bag is packed for them and they are notified of the failure when the boat arrives. On departure they are presented with a bottle of whisky. A failure on Perisher means that the unsuccessful candidate is not permitted to return to sea as a member of the Submarine Service (although they are still allowed to wear the dolphin badge). They are, however, permitted to remain in the Royal Navy, moving into the surface fleet.
In more recent years, the United States Navy has sent some of its own submariner officers to undergo the 'Perisher', in order to foster and maintain closer links with the Royal Navy.
In 1995 the Royal Netherlands Navy took over the Perisher course for diesel-electric submarines, since the Royal Navy no longer operates boats of that type. The course is attended by candidate submarine commanders from navies around the world.
Traditions
The Submarine Service has many traditions that are not found in the surface fleet. These include slang unique to submariners (such as referring to the torpedo storage compartment as the Bomb Shop and the diesel engine room as the Donk Shop), a special communications code known as the Dolphin Code and the entitlement of a sailor to wear Dolphins and black cap covers upon entering the service. These are only awarded after completion of training and qualification in ships' systems during the first submarine posting (Part III training).
The Jolly Roger and the Submarine Service
Rear-Admiral Arthur Wilson VC, the Controller of the Royal Navy, has gone down in history as the officer who claimed in 1901 "[Submarines are] underhand, unfair, and damned un-English. ... treat all submarines as pirates in wartime ... and hang all crews," In fact he had advocated the purchase of submarines the year before, and he was actually expressing a desire to continue the policy of discouraging foreign powers from building submarines while the Royal Navy developed its own in secret. The legend goes that in response to these top secret remarks of Wilson's made 13 years earlier Lieutenant-Commander (later Admiral Sir) Max Horton first flew the Jolly Roger on return to port after sinking the German cruiser and the destroyer in 1914 while in command of the E-class submarine .
In World War II it became common practice for the submarines of the Royal Navy to fly the Jolly Roger on completion of a successful combat mission where some action had taken place, but as an indicator of bravado and stealth rather than of lawlessness. For example, in 1982 returning from the Falklands conflict flew the Jolly Roger depicting one dagger for the SBS deployment to South Georgia and one torpedo for her sinking of the Argentinian cruiser General Belgrano. The Jolly Roger is now the emblem of the Royal Navy Submarine Service.
Dolphins Badge
First officially adopted in the 1950s, qualified submariners are presented the Golden Dolphins badge to wear on their uniform on the left breast above any medals. The current badge, adopted in 1972, depicts two golden dolphins facing an anchor surmounted by St Edwards Crown. In September 2020, it was announced that all trainee submariners would be issued their own dolphins badge; similar to the Golden Dolphins in size and shape, though completely black.
Active submarines
The Submarine Service consists of two classes of Fleet submarines and one class of Ballistic Missile submarines.
Fleet submarines
There are six fleet submarines in commission – one and five . They are all nuclear submarines and are classified as SSNs.
These submarines are armed with the Spearfish torpedo for anti-submarine and anti-surface warfare. They have the ability to fire Tomahawk cruise missiles for attacking targets on land. This capability was used by against the Taliban in 2001 during Operation Veritas. The Fleet submarines are also capable of surveillance and reconnaissance missions. Fleet submarines are sometimes referred to as attack or hunter-killer vessels.
Ballistic submarines
The four ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) of the Royal Navy are all of the . They were all built by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering Ltd., now BAE Systems Submarine Solutions. The SSBN flotilla or bomber 'fleet' tends to be almost a separate entity; for example, it rarely uses pennant numbers preferring to use hull numbers, thus Vanguard 05, Victorious 06, Vigilant 07 and Vengeance 08.
The four Vanguard class boats are responsible for the United Kingdom's nuclear deterrent, and use the Trident missile system. Each boat can carry up to 16 Trident II D5 Missiles, each of which may carry up to 12 nuclear warheads. As of 2022 it is UK Government policy to refrain from declaring current stockpiles, deployed warheads and deployed missile numbers.
There has been at least one SSBN on patrol at all times since April 1969.
Rescue systems
The Royal Navy operated the LR5 Submarine Rescue System, designed for retrieving sailors from stranded submarines. Capable of rescuing up to 16 sailors at a time, the system was deployed to the wreck site of the sunken . The system was replaced in 2004 with the NATO Submarine Rescue System which remains based in the UK.
The Royal Navy, along with France and Norway, is part of the NATO Submarine Rescue System.
Decommissioning nuclear submarines
Twenty-one nuclear submarines awaiting decommissioning have been laid-up at Rosyth and Devonport. In 2014 the MOD announced a plan to decommission 7 of the submarines awaiting disposal, in a project expected to take 12 years. A site for the intermediate-level nuclear waste produced is expected to be identified by 2016. A trial dismantling of a nuclear submarine is planned to start in January 2016 at Rosyth.
In 2018, the UK Parliament's Public Accounts Committee criticised the slow rate of decommissioning of these submarines, with the Ministry of Defence admitting that it had put off decommissioning due to the cost. The National Audit Office in 2019 stated that the accumulative costs of laid up storage had reached £500 million, and they represent a liability of £7.5 billion.
in 2019 it has been acknowledged that the UK has more obsolete submarines than they have in service, a problem that has been ignored for over 50 years as the UK do not currently have a clear funding plan for defuelling and dismantling of these submarines. The US have been decommissioning nuclear submarines for many years in a programme that is self funding by recycling many of the components. It's possible that their expertise in decommissioning could be leverage in securing submarine building contracts from the UK.
Future submarines
A total force of seven fleet submarines is planned. As of August 2022, the first five boats are in commission and in service, while boats six and seven are in various stages of construction. Boat number seven was confirmed in the October 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review and long-lead items have been ordered. The Astute-class submarine is the largest nuclear fleet submarine ever to serve with the Royal Navy, being nearly 30% larger than its predecessors. Its powerplant is the Rolls-Royce PWR2 reactor, developed for the Vanguard-class SSBN. The submarine's armament consists of up to 38 Spearfish torpedoes and Tomahawk Block IV land-attack cruise missiles.
The replacement class for the SSBNs was ordered in 2016 and is named the after its lead boat. The programme will seek to replace one-for-one the current four ballistic missile submarines starting sometime during the early 2030s.
There is also a program for a Maritime Underwater Future Capability (MUFC), that is, a successor to the Astute-class SSN. MUFC was initially known as the 'Astute Replacement Nuclear Submarine (SSN (R))'. However, in 2023 the program expanded to include the joint acquisition, with American support, of nuclear-powered submarines by the United Kingdom and Australia. The successor submarine was then renamed SSN-AUKUS.
See also
List of submarine classes of the Royal Navy
List of submarines of the Royal Navy
Royal Navy Submarine Museum
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1901 establishments in the United Kingdom
S
Submarine services
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Kerry
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John Kerry
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John Forbes Kerry (born December 11, 1943) is an American attorney, politician and diplomat currently serving as the first U.S. Special Presidential Envoy for Climate. A member of the Forbes family and the Democratic Party, he previously served as the 68th United States secretary of state from 2013 to 2017 in the administration of Barack Obama and represented Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1985 to 2013. Kerry was the Democratic nominee for president of the United States in the 2004 election, losing to incumbent President George W. Bush.
Kerry grew up as a child of military personnel in Massachusetts and Washington, D.C., before attending boarding school in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. In 1966, after graduating from Yale University, he enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve, ultimately attaining the rank of lieutenant. From 1968 to 1969, during the Vietnam War, Kerry served an abbreviated four-month tour of duty in South Vietnam. While commanding a Swift boat, he sustained three wounds in combat with the Viet Cong, for which he earned three Purple Heart Medals. Kerry was awarded the Silver Star Medal and the Bronze Star Medal for valorous conduct in separate military engagements. After completing his active military service, Kerry returned to the United States and became an outspoken opponent of the Vietnam War. He gained national recognition as an anti-war activist, serving as a spokesperson for the Vietnam Veterans Against the War organization. Kerry testified in the Fulbright Hearings before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, where he described the United States government's policy in Vietnam as the cause of war crimes.
In 1972, Kerry entered electoral politics as a Democratic candidate for the United States House of Representatives in Massachusetts's 5th congressional district. Kerry won the Democratic nomination but was defeated in the general election by his Republican opponent. He subsequently worked as a radio talk show host in Lowell and as the executive director of an advocacy organization while attending the Boston College School of Law. After obtaining his juris doctor in 1976, Kerry served from 1977 to 1979 as the first assistant district attorney of Middlesex County, where he tried criminal cases and managed the district attorney's office. After a period in private legal practice, he was elected Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts in 1982. In 1984, Kerry was elected to the United States Senate. As a member of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, he led a series of hearings investigating narcotics trafficking in Latin America, which exposed aspects of the Iran–Contra affair. He was reelected to additional terms in 1990, 1996, 2002 and 2008.
Kerry won the Democratic Party presidential nomination in 2004, alongside vice presidential nominee and North Carolina Senator John Edwards. Kerry campaigned as a critic of Republican President George W. Bush's prosecution of the Iraq War and advocated a liberal domestic policy. He lost the Electoral College and the popular vote by slim margins, winning 251 electors to Bush's 286 and 48.3% of the popular vote to Bush's 50.7%. Kerry remained in the Senate and chaired the Committee on Foreign Relations from 2009 to 2013.
In January 2013, Kerry was nominated by Obama to succeed Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, and was confirmed by his Senate colleagues on a vote of 94 to 3. He was U.S. secretary of state throughout the second term of the Obama administration from 2013 to 2017. During his tenure, he initiated the 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks and negotiated agreements restricting the nuclear program of Iran, including the 2013 Joint Plan of Action and the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. In 2015, Kerry signed the Paris Agreement on climate change on behalf of the United States.
At the end of the Obama administration in January 2017, Kerry remained active in public affairs from 2017 to 2021 as a vocal opponent of Obama's successor, President Donald Trump. Kerry returned to government in January 2021, becoming the first person to hold the new position of U.S. special presidential envoy for climate, under Joe Biden.
Early life and education (1943–1966)
John Forbes Kerry was born on December 11, 1943, at Fitzsimons Army Medical Center in Aurora, Colorado. He is the second of four children born to Richard John Kerry, a U.S. diplomat and lawyer, and Rosemary Forbes, a nurse and social activist. His father was raised Catholic (John's paternal grandparents were Austro-Hungarian Jewish immigrants who converted to Catholicism) and his mother was Episcopalian. He was raised with an elder sister Margaret, a younger sister Diana, and a younger brother Cameron. The children were raised in their father's Catholic faith, and John served as an altar boy.
Kerry was originally considered a military brat, until his father was discharged from the Army Air Corps. Kerry lived in Groton, Massachusetts his first year and Millis, Massachusetts afterwards before moving to the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C. at age seven, when his father took a spot in the Department of the Navy's Office of General Counsel and soon became a diplomat in the State Department's Bureau of United Nations Affairs.
As members of the Forbes and Dudley–Winthrop families, his maternal extended family enjoyed great wealth. Kerry's parents themselves were upper-middle class, and a wealthy grand-aunt paid for him to attend elite boarding schools such as Institut Montana Zugerberg in Switzerland. Through his maternal ancestry, Kerry also descends from Rev. James McGregor who was among the first 500 Scots-Irish immigrants to Boston Harbor in the 18th century.
At the age of ten, Kerry's father took a position as the U.S. Attorney for Berlin. When Kerry was twelve, he crossed into the Soviet Occupation Zone to visit Hitler's bunker and ride through the Brandenburg Gate. If Kerry had been captured, it would have caused an international incident.
In 1957, his father was stationed at the U.S. Embassy in Oslo, Norway, and Kerry was sent back to the United States to attend boarding school. He first attended the Fessenden School in Newton, Massachusetts, and later St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire, where he learned skills in public speaking and began developing an interest in politics. Kerry founded the John Winant Society at St. Paul's to debate the issues of the day; the Society still exists there. In 1960, while at St. Paul's, he played bass in a minor rock band called The Electras with six of his classmates. The band had about five hundred copies of one album printed in 1961, which they sold some of at dances at the school; it was made available on streaming platforms many years later.
In 1962, Kerry attended Yale University, majoring in political science and residing in Jonathan Edwards College. By that year, his parents returned to Groton. While at Yale, Kerry briefly dated Janet Auchincloss, the younger half-sister of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy. Through Auchincloss, Kerry was invited to a day of sailing with then-President John F. Kennedy and his family.
Kerry played on the varsity Yale Bulldogs men's soccer team, earning his only letter in his senior year. He also played freshman and junior varsity hockey and, in his senior year, junior varsity lacrosse. In addition, he was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity and took flying lessons.
In his sophomore year, Kerry became the chairman of the Liberal Party of the Yale Political Union, and a year later he served as president of the union. Amongst his influential teachers in this period was Professor H. Bradford Westerfield, who was himself a former president of the Political Union. His involvement with the Political Union gave him an opportunity to be involved with important issues of the day, such as the civil rights movement and the New Frontier program. He also became a member of Skull and Bones Society, and traveled to Switzerland through AIESEC Yale.
Under the guidance of the speaking coach and history professor Rollin G. Osterweis, Kerry won many debates against other college students from across the nation. In March 1965, as the Vietnam War escalated, he won the Ten Eyck prize as the best orator in the junior class for a speech that was critical of U.S. foreign policy. In the speech he said, "It is the spectre of Western imperialism that causes more fear among Africans and Asians than communism and thus, it is self-defeating."
Kerry graduated from Yale with a bachelor of arts degree in 1966. Overall, he had lackluster grades, graduating with a cumulative average of 76 over his four years. His freshman-year average was a 71, but he improved to an 81 average for his senior year. He never received an "A" during his time at Yale; his highest grade was an 89.
Military service (1966–1970)
Duty on USS Gridley
On February 18, 1966, Kerry enlisted in the Naval Reserve. He began his active duty military service on August 19, 1966. After completing 16 weeks of Officer Candidate School at the U.S. Naval Training Center in Newport, Rhode Island, Kerry received his officer's commission on December 16, 1966. During the 2004 election, Kerry posted his military records at his website, and permitted reporters to inspect his medical records. In 2005, Kerry released his military and medical records to the representatives of three news organizations, but has not authorized full public access to those records.
During his tour on the guided missile frigate , Kerry requested duty in South Vietnam, listing as his first preference a position as the commander of a Fast Patrol Craft (PCF), also known as a "Swift boat". These boats have aluminum hulls and have little or no armor, but are heavily armed and rely on speed. "I didn't really want to get involved in the war," Kerry said in a book of Vietnam reminiscences published in 1986. "When I signed up for the swift boats, they had very little to do with the war. They were engaged in coastal patrolling and that's what I thought I was going to be doing." However, his second choice of billet was on a river patrol boat, or "PBR", which at the time was serving a more dangerous duty on the rivers of Vietnam.
Military honors
During the night of December 2 and early morning of December 3, 1968, Kerry was in charge of a small boat operating near a peninsula north of Cam Ranh Bay together with a Swift boat (PCF-60). According to Kerry and the two crewmen who accompanied him that night, Patrick Runyon and William Zaladonis, they surprised a group of Vietnamese men unloading sampans at a river crossing, who began running and failed to obey an order to stop. As the men fled, Kerry and his crew opened fire on the sampans and destroyed them, then rapidly left. During this encounter, Kerry received a shrapnel wound in the left arm above the elbow. It was for this injury that Kerry received his first Purple Heart Medal.
Kerry received his second Purple Heart for a wound received in action on the Bồ Đề River on February 20, 1969. The plan had been for the Swift boats to be accompanied by support helicopters. On the way up the Bo De, however, the helicopters were attacked. As the Swift boats reached the Cửa Lớn River, Kerry's boat was hit by a B-40 rocket (rocket propelled grenade round), and a piece of shrapnel hit Kerry's left leg, wounding him. Thereafter, enemy fire ceased and his boat reached the Gulf of Thailand safely. Kerry continues to have shrapnel embedded in his left thigh because the doctors that first treated him decided to remove the damaged tissue and close the wound with sutures rather than make a wide opening to remove the shrapnel. Although wounded like several others earlier that day, Kerry did not lose any time off from duty.
Silver Star
Eight days later, on February 28, 1969, came the events for which Kerry was awarded his Silver Star Medal. On this occasion, Kerry was in tactical command of his Swift boat and two other Swift boats during a combat operation. Their mission on the Duong Keo River included bringing an underwater demolition team and dozens of South Vietnamese Marines to destroy enemy sampans, structures and bunkers as described in the story The Death Of PCF 43. Running into heavy small arms fire from the river banks, Kerry "directed the units to turn to the beach and charge the Viet Cong positions" and he "expertly directed" his boat's fire causing the enemy to flee while at the same time coordinating the insertion of the ninety South Vietnamese troops (according to the original medal citation signed by Admiral Elmo Zumwalt). Moving a short distance upstream, Kerry's boat was the target of a B-40 rocket round; Kerry charged the enemy positions and as his boat hove to and beached, a Viet Cong ("VC") insurgent armed with a rocket launcher emerged from a spider hole and ran. While the boat's gunner opened fire, wounding the VC in the leg, and while the other boats approached and offered cover fire, Kerry jumped from the boat to pursue the VC insurgent, subsequently killing him and capturing his loaded rocket launcher.
Kerry's commanding officer, Lieutenant Commander George Elliott, stated to Douglas Brinkley in 2003 that he did not know whether to court-martial Kerry for beaching the boat without orders or give him a medal for saving the crew. Elliott recommended Kerry for the Silver Star, and Zumwalt flew into An Thoi to personally award medals to Kerry and the rest of the sailors involved in the mission. The Navy's account of Kerry's actions is presented in the original medal citation signed by Zumwalt. The engagement was documented in an after-action report, a press release written on March 1, 1969, and a historical summary dated March 17, 1969.
Bronze Star
On March 13, 1969, on the Bái Háp River, Kerry was in charge of one of five Swift boats that were returning to their base after performing an Operation Sealords mission to transport South Vietnamese troops from the garrison at Cái Nước and MIKE Force advisors for a raid on a Vietcong camp located on the Rach Dong Cung canal. Earlier in the day, Kerry received a slight shrapnel wound in the buttocks from blowing up a rice bunker. Debarking some but not all of the passengers at a small village, the boats approached a fishing weir; one group of boats went around to the left of the weir, hugging the shore, and a group with Kerry's PCF-94 boat went around to the right, along the shoreline. A mine was detonated directly beneath the lead boat, PCF-3, as it crossed the weir to the left, lifting PCF-3 "about 2–3 ft out of water".
James Rassmann, a Green Beret advisor who was aboard Kerry's PCF-94, was knocked overboard when, according to witnesses and the documentation of the event, a mine or rocket exploded close to the boat. According to the documentation for the event, Kerry's arm was injured when he was thrown against a bulkhead during the explosion. PCF 94 returned to the scene and Kerry rescued Rassmann who was receiving sniper fire from the water. Kerry received the Bronze Star Medal with Combat "V" for "heroic achievement", for his actions during this incident; he also received his third Purple Heart.
Return from Vietnam
After Kerry's third qualifying wound, he was entitled per Navy regulations to reassignment away from combat duties. Kerry's preferred choice for reassignment was as a military aide in Boston, New York City or Washington, D.C. On April 11, 1969, he reported to the Brooklyn-based Atlantic Military Sea Transportation Service, where he would remain on active duty for the following year as a personal aide to an officer, Rear Admiral Walter Schlech. On January 1, 1970, Kerry was temporarily promoted to full lieutenant. Kerry had agreed to an extension of his active duty obligation from December 1969 to August 1970 in order to perform Swift Boat duty. John Kerry was on active duty in the United States Navy from August 1966 until January 1970. He continued to serve in the Naval Reserve until February 1978.
"Swiftboating" controversy
With the continuing controversy that had surrounded the military service of George W. Bush since the 2000 presidential election (when he was accused of having used his father's political influence to gain entrance to the Texas Air National Guard, thereby protecting himself from conscription into the United States Army, and possible service in the Vietnam War), John Kerry's contrasting status as a decorated Vietnam War veteran posed a problem for Bush's re-election campaign, which Republicans sought to counter by calling Kerry's war record into question. As the presidential campaign of 2004 developed, approximately 250 members of a group called Swift Boat Veterans for Truth (SBVT, later renamed Swift Vets and POWs for Truth) opposed Kerry's campaign. The group held press conferences, ran ads and endorsed a book questioning Kerry's service record and his military awards. The group included several members of Kerry's unit, such as Larry Thurlow, who commanded a swift boat alongside of Kerry's, and Stephen Gardner, who served on Kerry's boat. The campaign inspired the widely used political pejorative '"swiftboating," to describe an unfair or untrue political attack. Most of Kerry's former crewmates have stated that SBVT's allegations are false.
Anti-war activism (1970–1971)
After returning to the United States, Kerry moved to Waltham, Massachusetts and joined the Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW). Then numbering about 20,000, VVAW was considered by some (including the administration of President Richard Nixon) to be an effective, if controversial, component of the antiwar movement. Kerry participated in the "Winter Soldier Investigation" conducted by VVAW of U.S. atrocities in Vietnam, and he appears in a film by that name that documents the investigation. According to Nixon Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird, "I didn't approve of what he did, but I understood the protesters quite well", and he declined two requests from the Navy to court martial Reserve Lieutenant Kerry over his antiwar activity.
On April 22, 1971, Kerry appeared before a U.S. Senate committee hearing on proposals relating to ending the war. The day after this testimony, Kerry participated in a demonstration with thousands of other veterans in which he and other Vietnam War veterans threw their medals and service ribbons over a fence erected at the front steps of the United States Capitol building to dramatize their opposition to the war. Jack Smith, a Marine, read a statement explaining why the veterans were returning their military awards to the government. For more than two hours, almost 1,000 angry veterans tossed their medals, ribbons, hats, jackets, and military papers over the fence. Each veteran gave his or her name, hometown, branch of service and a statement. Kerry threw some of his own decorations and awards as well as some given to him by other veterans to throw. As Kerry threw his decorations over the fence, his statement was: "I'm not doing this for any violent reasons, but for peace and justice, and to try and make this country wake up once and for all."
Kerry was arrested on May 30, 1971, during a VVAW march to honor American POWs held captive by North Vietnam. The march was planned as a multi-day event from Concord to Boston, and while in Lexington, participants tried to camp on the village green. At 2:30a.m., local and state police arrested 441 demonstrators, including Kerry, for trespassing. All were given the Miranda Warning and were hauled away on school buses to spend the night at the Lexington Public Works Garage. Kerry and the other protesters later paid a $5 fine, and were released. The mass arrests caused a community backlash and ended up giving positive coverage to the VVAW.
Early political career (1972–1985)
1972 congressional election
In 1970, Kerry had considered running for Congress in the Democratic primary against hawkish Democrat Philip J. Philbin of Massachusetts's 3rd congressional district, but deferred in favor of Robert Drinan, a Jesuit priest and anti-war activist, who went on to defeat Philbin. In February 1972, Kerry's wife bought a house in Worcester, with Kerry intending to run against the 4th district's aging thirteen-term incumbent Democrat, Harold Donohue. The couple never moved in. After Republican Congressman F. Bradford Morse of the neighboring 5th district announced his retirement and then resignation to become Under-Secretary-General for Political and General Assembly Affairs at the United Nations, the couple instead rented an apartment in Lowell, so that Kerry could run to succeed him.
Including Kerry, the Democratic primary race had 10 candidates, including attorney Paul J. Sheehy, State Representative Anthony R. DiFruscia, John J. Desmond and Robert B. Kennedy. Kerry ran a "very expensive, sophisticated campaign", financed by out-of-state backers and supported by many young volunteers. DiFruscia's campaign headquarters shared the same building as Kerry's. On the eve of the September 19 primary, police found Kerry's younger brother Cameron and campaign field director Thomas J. Vallely, breaking into where the building's telephone lines were located. They were arrested and charged with "breaking and entering with the intent to commit grand larceny", but the charges were dropped a year later. At the time of the incident, DiFruscia alleged that the two were trying to disrupt his get-out-the vote efforts. Vallely and Cameron Kerry maintained that they were only checking their own telephone lines because they had received an anonymous call warning that the Kerry lines would be cut.
Despite the arrests, Kerry won the primary with 20,771 votes (27.56%). Sheehy came second with 15,641 votes (20.75%), followed by DiFruscia with 12,222 votes (16.22%), Desmond with 10,213 votes (13.55%) and Kennedy with 5,632 votes (7.47%). The remaining 10,891 votes were split amongst the other five candidates, with 1970 nominee Richard Williams coming last with just 1,706 votes (2.26%).
In the general election, Kerry was initially favored to defeat the Republican candidate, former State Representative Paul W. Cronin, and conservative Democrat Roger P. Durkin, who ran as an Independent. A week after the primary, one poll put Kerry 26-points ahead of Cronin. His campaign called for a national health insurance system, discounted prescription drugs for the unemployed, a jobs program to clean up the Merrimack River and rent controls in Lowell and Lawrence. A major obstacle, however, was the district's leading newspaper, the conservative The Sun. The paper editorialized against him. It also ran critical news stories about his out-of-state contributions and his "carpetbagging", because he had only moved into the district in April. Subsequently, released "Watergate" Oval Office tape recordings of the Nixon White House showed that defeating Kerry's candidacy had attracted the personal attention of President Nixon. Kerry himself asserts that Nixon sent operatives to Lowell to help derail his campaign.
The race was the most expensive for Congress in the country that year and four days before the general election, Durkin withdrew and endorsed Cronin, hoping to see Kerry defeated. The week before, a poll had put Kerry 10 points ahead of Cronin, with Durkin at 13%. In the final days of the campaign, Kerry sensed that it was "slipping away" and Cronin emerged victorious by 110,970 votes (53.45%) to Kerry's 92,847 (44.72%). After his defeat, Kerry lamented in a letter to supporters that "for two solid weeks, [The Sun] called me un-American, New Left antiwar agitator, unpatriotic, and labeled me every other 'un-' and 'anti-' that they could find. It's hard to believe that one newspaper could be so powerful, but they were." He later felt that his failure to respond directly to The Suns attacks cost him the race.
Law career
After Kerry's 1972 defeat, he and his wife bought a house in the Belvidere section of Lowell, Massachusetts, entering a decade which his brother Cameron later called "the years in exile". He spent some time working as a fundraiser for the Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), an international humanitarian organization. In September 1973, he entered Boston College Law School. While studying, Kerry worked as a talk radio host on WBZ and, in July 1974, was named executive director of Mass Action, a Massachusetts advocacy association.
Kerry received his juris doctor (J.D.) from Boston College in 1976. While in law school he had been a student prosecutor in the office of the District Attorney of Middlesex County, John J. Droney. After passing the bar exam and being admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1976, he went to work in that office as a full-time prosecutor and moved to Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts.
In January 1977, Droney promoted him to First Assistant District Attorney, essentially making Kerry his campaign and media surrogate because Droney was afflicted with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig's Disease). As First Assistant, Kerry tried cases, which included winning convictions in a high-profile rape case and a murder. He also played a role in administering the office, including initiating the creation of special white-collar and organized crime units, creating programs to address the problems of rape and other crime victims and witnesses, and managing trial calendars to reflect case priorities. It was in this role in 1978 that Kerry announced an investigation into possible criminal charges against then Senator Edward Brooke, regarding "misstatements" in his first divorce trial. The inquiry ended with no charges being brought after investigators and prosecutors determined that Brooke's misstatements were pertinent to the case, but were not material enough to have affected the outcome.
Droney's health was poor and Kerry had decided to run for his position in the 1978 election should Droney drop out. However, Droney was re-elected and his health improved; he went on to re-assume many of the duties that he had delegated to Kerry. Kerry thus decided to leave, departing in 1979 with assistant DA Roanne Sragow to set up their own law firm. Kerry also worked as a commentator for WCVB-TV and co-founded a bakery, Kilvert & Forbes Ltd., with businessman and former Kennedy aide K. Dun Gifford.
Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts
In the 1982 Massachusetts gubernatorial election, Lieutenant Governor Thomas P. O'Neill III declined to seek a third term, instead deciding to run for governor of Massachusetts. Kerry declared his candidacy, entering the primary election alongside Massachusetts Secretary of Environmental Affairs Evelyn Murphy, State Senator Samuel Rotondi, State Representative Lou Nickinello, and Lois Pines.
Kerry won the nomination with 325,890 votes (29%) to Murphy's 286,378 (25.48%), Rotondi's 228,086 (20.29%), Nickinello's 150,829 (13.42%) and Pines' 132,734 (11.81%). In the concurrent gubernatorial primary, former Governor Michael Dukakis defeated O'Neill and incumbent Governor Edward J. King. The Dukakis and Kerry ticket defeated the Republican ticket of John W. Sears and Leon Lombardi in the general election by 1,219,109 votes (61.92%) to 749,679 (38.08%).
As Lieutenant Governor, Kerry led meetings of the Massachusetts Governor's Council. Dukakis also delegated other tasks to Kerry, including serving as the state's liaison to the Federal government of the United States. He was also active on environmental issues, including combating acid rain.
1984 U.S. Senate election
The junior U.S. senator from Massachusetts, Paul Tsongas, announced in 1984 that he would be stepping down for health reasons. Kerry ran, and as in his 1982 race for Lieutenant Governor, he did not receive the endorsement of the party regulars at the state Democratic convention. Congressman James Shannon, a favorite of House Speaker Tip O'Neill, was the early favorite to win the nomination, and he "won broad establishment support and led in early polling". Again as in 1982, however, Kerry prevailed in a close primary.
In his general election campaign, Kerry promised to mix liberalism with tight budget controls. He defeated Republican Ray Shamie despite a nationwide landslide for the re-election of Republican President Ronald Reagan, for whom Massachusetts voted by a narrow margin. In his victory speech, Kerry asserted that his win meant that the people of Massachusetts "emphatically reject the politics of selfishness and the notion that women must be treated as second-class citizens".
Tsongas resigned on January 2, 1985, one day before the end of his term. Dukakis appointed Kerry to fill the vacancy, giving him seniority over other new senators who were sworn in on January 3, the scheduled start of their new terms.
U.S. Senate (1985–2013)
Iran–Contra hearings
On April 18, 1985, a few months after taking his Senate seat, Kerry and Senator Tom Harkin of Iowa traveled to Nicaragua and met the country's president, Daniel Ortega. Although Ortega had won internationally certified elections, the trip was criticized because Ortega and his leftist Sandinista government had strong ties to Cuba and the USSR and were accused of human rights abuses. The Sandinista government was opposed by the right-wing CIA-backed rebels known as the Contras. While in Nicaragua, Kerry and Harkin talked to people on both sides of the conflict. Through the senators, Ortega offered a cease-fire agreement in exchange for the U.S. dropping support of the Contras. The offer was denounced by the Reagan administration as a "propaganda initiative" designed to influence a House vote on a $14million Contra aid package, but Kerry said "I am willing... to take the risk in the effort to put to test the good faith of the Sandinistas." The House voted down the Contra aid, but Ortega flew to Moscow to accept a $200million loan the next day, which in part prompted the House to pass a larger $27million aid package six weeks later.
Meanwhile, Kerry's staff began their own investigations and, on October 14, issued a report that exposed illegal activities on the part of Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, who had set up a private network involving the National Security Council and the CIA to deliver military equipment to right-wing Nicaraguan rebels (Contras). In effect, North and certain members of the President's administration were accused by Kerry's report of illegally funding and supplying armed militants without the authorization of Congress. Kerry's staff investigation, based on a year-long inquiry and interviews with fifty unnamed sources, is said to raise "serious questions about whether the United States has abided by the law in its handling of the contras over the past three years".
The Kerry Committee report found that "the Contra drug links included... payments to drug traffickers by the U.S. State Department of funds authorized by the Congress for humanitarian assistance to the Contras, in some cases after the traffickers had been indicted by federal law enforcement agencies on drug charges, in others while traffickers were under active investigation by these same agencies." The U.S. State Department paid over $806,000 to known drug traffickers to carry humanitarian assistance to the Contras. Kerry's findings provoked little reaction in the media and official Washington.
The Kerry report was a precursor to the Iran–Contra affair. On May 4, 1989, North was convicted of charges relating to the Iran/Contra controversy, including three felonies. On September 16, 1991, however, North's convictions were overturned on appeal.
George H. W. Bush administration
On November 15, 1988, at a businessmen's breakfast in East Lynn, Massachusetts, Kerry made a joke about then-President-elect George H. W. Bush and his running mate, saying "if Bush is shot, the Secret Service has orders to shoot Dan Quayle." He apologized the following day.
During their investigation of General Manuel Noriega, the de facto ruler of Panama, Kerry's staff found reason to believe that the Pakistan-based Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) had facilitated Noriega's drug trafficking and money laundering. This led to a separate inquiry into BCCI, and as a result, banking regulators shut down BCCI in 1991. In December 1992, Kerry and Senator Hank Brown, a Republican from Colorado, released The BCCI Affair, a report on the BCCI scandal. The report showed that the bank was crooked and was working with terrorists, including Abu Nidal. It blasted the Department of Justice, the Department of the Treasury, the Customs Service, the Federal Reserve Bank, as well as influential lobbyists and the CIA.
Kerry was criticized by some Democrats for having pursued his own party members, including former Secretary of Defense Clark Clifford, although Republicans said he should have pressed against some Democrats even harder. The BCCI scandal was later turned over to the Manhattan District Attorney's office.
Precursors to presidential bid
In 1996, Kerry faced a difficult re-election fight against Governor William Weld, a popular Republican incumbent who had been re-elected in 1994 with 71% of the vote. The race was covered nationwide as one of the most closely watched Senate races that year. Kerry and Weld held several debates and negotiated a campaign spending cap of $6.9million at Kerry's Beacon Hill townhouse. Both candidates spent more than the cap, with each camp accusing the other of being first to break the agreement. During the campaign, Kerry spoke briefly at the 1996 Democratic National Convention. Kerry won re-election with 52 percent to Weld's 45 percent.
In the 2000 presidential election, Kerry found himself close to being chosen as the vice presidential running mate.
A release from the presidential campaign of presumptive Democratic nominee Al Gore listed Kerry on the short list to be selected as the vice-presidential nominee, along with North Carolina Senator John Edwards, Indiana Senator Evan Bayh, Missouri Congressman Richard Gephardt, New Hampshire Governor Jeanne Shaheen and Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman. Gore ultimately chose Lieberman.
"You get stuck in Iraq" controversy
On October 30, 2006, Kerry was a headline speaker at a campaign rally being held for Democratic California gubernatorial candidate Phil Angelides at Pasadena City College in Pasadena, California. Speaking to an audience composed mainly of college students, Kerry said, "You know, education, if you make the most of it, you study hard, you do your homework and you make an effort to be smart, you can do well. If you don't, you get stuck in Iraq."
The day after he made the remark, leaders from both sides of the political spectrum criticized Kerry's remarks, which he said were a botched joke. Republicans including President George W. Bush, Senator John McCain and then-Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert, said that Kerry's comments were insulting to American military forces fighting in Iraq. Democratic Representative Harold Ford Jr. called on Kerry to apologize.
Kerry initially stated: "I apologize to no one for my criticism of the president and of his broken policy". Kerry also responded to criticism from George W. Bush and Dick Cheney.
Kerry said that he had intended the remark as a jab at President Bush, and described the remarks as a "botched joke", having inadvertently left out the key word "us" (which would have been, "If you don't, you get us stuck in Iraq"), as well as leaving the phrase "just ask President Bush" off of the end of the sentence. In Kerry's prepared remarks, which he released during the ensuing media frenzy, the corresponding line was "...you end up getting us stuck in a war in Iraq. Just ask President Bush". He also said that from the context of the speech which, prior to the "stuck in Iraq" line, made several specific references to Bush and elements of his biography, that Kerry was referring to President Bush and not American troops in general.
After two days of media coverage, citing a desire not to be a diversion, Kerry apologized to those who took offense at what he called the misinterpretation of his comment.
Afghanistan and Pakistan
A Washington Post report in May 2011 stated that Kerry "has emerged in the past few years as an important envoy for Afghanistan and Pakistan during times of crisis", as he undertook another trip to the two countries. The killing of Osama bin Laden "has generated perhaps the most important crossroads yet", the report continued, as the senator spoke at a press conference and prepared to fly from Kabul to Pakistan. Among matters discussed during the May visit to Pakistan, under the general rubric of "recalibrating" the bilateral relationship, Kerry sought and retrieved from the Pakistanis the tail-section of the U.S. helicopter which had had to be abandoned at Abbottabad during the bin Laden strike. In 2013, Kerry met with Pakistan's army chief Gen. Ashfaq Parvez Kayani to discuss the peace process with the Taliban in Afghanistan.
Voting record
Overall
Most analyses place Kerry's voting record on the left within the Senate Democratic caucus. During the 2004 presidential election he was portrayed as a staunch liberal by conservative groups and the Bush campaign, who often noted that in 2003 Kerry was rated the top Senate liberal by National Journal. However, that rating was based only upon voting on legislation within that past year. In fact, in terms of career voting records, the National Journal found that Kerry is the 11th most liberal member of the Senate. Most analyses find that Kerry is at least slightly more liberal than the typical Democratic Senator. Kerry has stated that he opposes privatizing Social Security, supports abortion rights for adult women and minors, supports same-sex marriage, opposes capital punishment except for terrorists, supports most gun control laws, and is generally a supporter of trade agreements. In some of these, as in the case of abortion, Kerry distinguishes his personal views as in line with his Catholic faith, but believes that separation of church and state demands that he not legislate his religious beliefs upon those who do not share those beliefs. Kerry supported the North American Free Trade Agreement and Most Favored Nation status for China, but opposed the Central American Free Trade Agreement.
In July 1997, Kerry joined his Senate colleagues in voting against ratification of the Kyoto Treaty on global warming without greenhouse gas emissions limits on nations deemed developing, including India and China. Since then, Kerry has attacked President Bush, charging him with opposition to international efforts to combat global warming.
On October 1, 2008, Kerry voted for Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, also known as the TARP bailout.
Iraq
In the lead up to the Iraq War, Kerry said on October 9, 2002; "I will be voting to give the President of the United States the authority to use force, if necessary, to disarm Saddam Hussein because I believe that a deadly arsenal of weapons of mass destruction in his hands is a real and grave threat to our security." Bush relied on that resolution in ordering the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Kerry also gave a January 23, 2003, speech to Georgetown University saying "Without question, we need to disarm Saddam Hussein. He is a brutal, murderous dictator; leading an oppressive regime he presents a particularly grievous threat because he is so consistently prone to miscalculation. So the threat of Saddam Hussein with weapons of mass destruction is real." Kerry did, however, warn that the administration should exhaust its diplomatic avenues before launching war: "Mr. President, do not rush to war, take the time to build the coalition, because it's not winning the war that's hard, it's winning the peace that's hard."
After the invasion of Iraq, when no weapons of mass destruction were found, Kerry strongly criticized Bush, contending that he had misled the country: "When the President of the United States looks at you and tells you something, there should be some trust."
Libya
In 2011, Kerry supported American military action in Libya.
Leadership
Kerry chaired the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs from 1991 to 1993. The committee's report, which Kerry endorsed, stated there was "no compelling evidence that proves that any American remains alive in captivity in Southeast Asia". In 1994 the Senate passed a resolution, sponsored by Kerry and fellow Vietnam veteran John McCain, that called for an end to the existing trade embargo against Vietnam; it was intended to pave the way for normalization. In 1995, President Bill Clinton normalized diplomatic relations with the country of Vietnam.
Kerry was the chairman of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee from 1987 to 1989. He was reelected to the Senate in 1990, 1996 (after winning re-election against the then-Governor of Massachusetts Republican William Weld), 2002, and 2008. In January 2009, Kerry replaced Joe Biden as the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.
As a role model for campus leaders across the nation and strong advocate for global development, Kerry was honored by the Millennium Campus Network (MCN) as a Global Generation Award winner in 2011.
Committee assignments
During his tenure, Kerry served on four Senate committees and nine subcommittees:
Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation
Subcommittee on Aviation Operations, Safety, and Security
Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, and the Internet (chairman)
Subcommittee on Competitiveness, Innovation, and Export Promotion
Subcommittee on Oceans, Atmosphere, Fisheries, and Coast Guard
Subcommittee on Science and Space
Subcommittee on Surface Transportation and Merchant Marine Infrastructure, Safety, and Security
Committee on Finance
Subcommittee on Health Care
Subcommittee on Energy, Natural Resources, and Infrastructure
Subcommittee on International Trade, Customs, and Global Competitiveness
Committee on Foreign Relations (Chairman 2009–2013)
Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe
Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction
Caucus memberships
Congressional Bicameral High-Speed and Intercity Rail Caucus
Congressional Internet Caucus
Congressional Vietnam-Era Veterans Caucus (Co-chair)
International Conservation Caucus
Senate Prosecutors Caucus (Co-chair)
Senate Oceans Caucus
Seniority
From the beginning of the 113th United States Congress until his resignation, Kerry ranked as the 7th most senior U.S. Senator. Due to the longevity of Ted Kennedy's service, Kerry was the most senior junior Senator in the 111th United States Congress. On Tuesday, August 25, 2009, Kerry became the senior senator from Massachusetts following Ted Kennedy's death.
Sponsorship of legislation
Areas of concern in the bills Kerry introduced into the Senate included small business concerns, education, terrorism, veterans' and POW/MIA issues, and marine resource protection. A full list of Kerry's sponsored legislation was available on his Senate web site.
During his Senate career, Kerry was primary sponsor of the following bills (excluding resolutions and amendments sponsored). This table does not count bills which Kerry co-sponsored.
A chronological list of various bills and resolutions sponsored by Kerry follows.
A concurrent resolution condemning North Korea's support for terrorist activities. Measure passed Senate, amended. 100th Congress.
A resolution relating to declassification of Documents, Files, and other materials pertaining to POWs and MIAs. Agreed to without amendment. 100th Congress.
A bill to authorize appropriations to carry out the National Sea Grant College Program Act, and for other purposes. Signed by President.
A bill to amend the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 to prohibit certain transactions with respect to managed accounts. Referred to committee. 102nd Congress.
A bill to authorize appropriations for the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and to improve the program to reduce the incidental taking of marine mammals during the course of commercial fishing operations, and for other purposes. Became public law #103-238. 103rd Congress.
A bill to amend the Small Business Act to enhance the business development opportunities of small business concerns owned and controlled by socially and economically disadvantaged individuals, and for other purposes. Referred to committee. 103rd Congress.
A bill to designate a portion of the Sudbury, Assabet, and Concord Rivers as a component of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Passed without objection. 105th Congress.
A bill to amend the Small Business Act with respect to the women's business center program. Became Public Law #106-165. 106th Congress.
A bill to authorize the Small Business Administration to provide financial and business development assistance to military reservists' small businesses, and for other purposes. Referred to committee. 106th Congress.
A bill to amend the Small Business Act with respect to the microloan program, and for other purposes. Ordered to be Reported. 107th Congress.
A bill to reauthorize the Small Business Technology Transfer Program, and for other purposes. Became Public Law #107-50. 107th Congress.
A bill to provide assistance to small business concerns adversely impacted by the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, and for other purposes. Referred to committee. 107th Congress.
A bill to provide emergency assistance to nonfarm-related small business concerns that have suffered substantial economic harm from drought. Referred to committee. 108th Congress.
The Building and Upgrading Infrastructure for Long-Term Development (BUILD) Act, described by the National Taxpayers Union Foundation as its "most expensive bill of the Week" when it was introduced into the Senate in 2011.
2004 presidential campaign
In the 2004 Democratic presidential primaries, John Kerry defeated several Democratic rivals, including Sen. John Edwards (D-North Carolina), former Vermont Governor Howard Dean and retired Army General Wesley Clark. His victory in the Iowa caucuses is widely believed to be the tipping point where Kerry revived his sagging campaign in New Hampshire and the February 3, 2004, primary states like Arizona, South Carolina and New Mexico. Kerry then went on to win landslide victories in Nevada and Wisconsin. Kerry thus won the Democratic nomination to run for President of the United States against incumbent George W. Bush. On July 6, 2004, he announced his selection of John Edwards as his running mate. Democratic strategist Bob Shrum, who was Kerry's 2004 campaign adviser, wrote an article in Time magazine claiming that after the election, Kerry had said that he wished he had never picked Edwards, and that the two have since stopped speaking to each other. In a subsequent appearance on ABC's This Week, Kerry refused to respond to Shrum's allegation, calling it a "ridiculous waste of time".
During his bid to be elected president in 2004, Kerry frequently criticized President George W. Bush for starting the Iraq War. While Kerry had initially voted in support of authorizing President Bush to use force in dealing with Saddam Hussein, he voted against an $87billion supplemental appropriations bill to pay for the subsequent war. His statement on March 16, 2004, "I actually did vote for the $87billion before I voted against it", helped the Bush campaign to paint him as a flip-flopper and has been cited as contributing to Kerry's defeat.
On November 3, 2004, Kerry conceded the race. Kerry won 59.03 million votes, or 48.3 percent of the popular vote; Bush won 62.04 million votes, or 50.7 percent of the popular vote. Kerry carried states with a total of 252 electoral votes. One Kerry elector voted for Kerry's running mate, Edwards, so in the final tally Kerry had 251 electoral votes to Bush's 286.
Subsequent presidential-election activities
Immediately after the 2004 election, some Democrats mentioned Kerry as a possible contender for the 2008 Democratic nomination. His brother had said such a campaign was "conceivable", and Kerry himself reportedly said at a farewell party for his 2004 campaign staff, "There's always another four years".
Kerry established a separate political action committee, Keeping America's Promise, which declared as its mandate "A Democratic Congress will restore accountability to Washington and help change a disastrous course in Iraq", and raised money and channeled contributions to Democratic candidates in state and federal races. Through Keeping America's Promise in 2005, Kerry raised over $5.5million for other Democrats up and down the ballot. Through his campaign account and his political action committee, the Kerry campaign operation generated more than $10million for various party committees and 179 candidates for the U.S. House, Senate, state and local offices in 42 states focusing on the midterm elections during the 2006 election cycle. "Cumulatively, John Kerry has done as much if not more than any other individual senator", Hassan Nemazee, the national finance chairman of the DSCC said.
On January 10, 2008, Kerry endorsed Illinois Senator Barack Obama for president. He was mentioned as a possible vice presidential candidate for Senator Obama, although fellow Senator Joe Biden was eventually chosen. After Biden's acceptance of the vice presidential nomination, speculation arose that John Kerry would be a candidate for Secretary of State in the Obama administration. However, Senator Hillary Clinton was offered the position.
During the 2012 Obama reelection campaign, Kerry participated in one-on-one debate prep with the president, impersonating the Republican candidate Mitt Romney.
Secretary of State (2013–2017)
Nomination and confirmation
On December 15, 2012, several news outlets reported that President Barack Obama would nominate Kerry to succeed Hillary Clinton as Secretary of State, after Susan Rice, widely seen as Obama's preferred choice, withdrew her name from consideration citing a politicized confirmation process following criticism of her response to the 2012 Benghazi attack. On December 21, Obama proposed the nomination, which received positive commentary. His confirmation hearing took place on January 24, 2013, before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the same panel where he first testified in 1971. The committee unanimously voted to approve him on January 29, 2013, and the same day the full Senate confirmed him on a vote of 94–3. In a letter to Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick, Kerry announced his resignation from the Senate effective February 1.
Tenure
Kerry was sworn in as Secretary of State on February 1, 2013.
While serving as the Secretary of State, Kerry spoke in the French language on several occasions in his official capacity.
After six months of rigorous diplomacy within the Middle East, Kerry was able to have Israeli and Palestinian negotiators agree to start the 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks. Senior U.S. officials stated the two sides were able to meet on July 30, 2013, at the State Department without American mediators following a dinner the previous evening hosted by Kerry.
On September 27, 2013, he met with the Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif during the P5+1 and Iran summit, which eventually led to the JCPOA nuclear agreement. It was the highest-level direct contact between the United States and Iran in the last six years, and made him the first U.S. Secretary of State to have met with his Iranian counterpart since 1979 Iranian Revolution.
In the State Department, Kerry quickly earned a reputation "for being aloof, keeping to himself, and not bothering to read staff memos". Career State Department officials complained that power became too centralized under Kerry's leadership, which slowed department operations when Kerry was on frequent overseas trips. Others in State described Kerry as having "a kind of diplomatic attention deficit disorder" as he shifted from topic to topic instead of focusing on long-term strategy. When asked whether he was traveling too much, he responded, "Hell no. I'm not slowing down." Despite Kerry's early achievements, morale at State was lower than under Hillary Clinton, according to department employees. However, after Kerry's first six months in the State Department, a Gallup poll found he had high approval ratings among Americans as Secretary of State. After a year, another poll showed Kerry's favorability continued to rise. Less than two years into Kerry's term, the Foreign Policy Magazine's 2014 Ivory Tower survey of international relations scholars asked, "Who was the most effective U.S. Secretary of State in the past 50 years?"; John Kerry and Lawrence Eagleburger tied for 11th place out of the 15 confirmed Secretaries of State in that period.
In January 2014, having met with Vatican Secretary of State Archbishop Pietro Parolin, Kerry said: "We touched on just about every major issue that we are both working on, that are issues of concern to all of us. First of all, we talked at great length about Syria, and I was particularly appreciative for the Archbishop's raising this issue, and equally grateful for the Holy Father's commentsthe Pope's comments yesterday regarding his support for the GenevaII process. We welcome that support. It is very important to have broad support, and I know that the Pope is particularly concerned about the massive numbers of displaced human beings and the violence that has taken over 130,000 lives."
Kerry expressed support for Israel's right to defend itself during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.
Kerry said the United States supported the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen because Saudi Arabia, an ally, was threatened "very directly" by the takeover of neighboring Yemen by the Houthis, but noted that the United States would not reflexively support Saudi Arabia's proxy wars against Iran.
On December 28, 2016, soon after United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 passed 14–0 with the U.S. abstaining, Kerry joined the rest of the U.N. Security Council in strongly criticizing Israel's settlement policies in a speech. His speech and criticisms met negative reactions from Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, while UK Prime Minister Theresa May distanced the UK from Kerry's strongly worded speech in what appeared to be an attempt to build bridges with the incoming Trump administration. Kerry's speech received positive reactions from Arab nations, but some criticized his remarks as too little, too late from the outgoing administration.
Syria
Following the August 21, 2013, chemical weapons attack on the Ghouta suburbs of Damascus attributed to Syrian government forces, Kerry became a leading advocate for the use of military force against the Syrian government for what he called "a despot's brutal and flagrant use of chemical weapons".
On September 9, in response to a reporter's question about whether Syrian President Bashar al-Assad could avert a military strike, Kerry said "He could turn over every single bit of his chemical weapons to the international community in the next week. Turn it over, all of it, without delay, and allow a full and total accounting for that. But he isn't about to do it, and it can't be done, obviously." This unscripted remark initiated a process that would lead to Syria agreeing to relinquish and destroy its chemical weapons arsenal, as Russia treated Kerry's statement as a serious proposal. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said Russia would work "immediately" to convince Syria relinquish and destroy its large chemical weapons arsenal. Syria quickly welcomed this proposal and on September 14, the UN formally accepted Syria's application to join the convention banning chemical weapons, and separately, the U.S. and Russia agreed on a plan to eliminate Syria's chemical weapons by the middle of 2014, leading Kerry to declare on July 20, 2014: "we struck a deal where we got 100 percent of the chemical weapons out". On September 28, the UN Security Council passed a resolution ordering the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons and condemning the August 21 Ghouta attack.
Latin America
In a speech before the Organization of American States in November 2013, Kerry remarked that the era of the Monroe Doctrine was over. He went on to explain, "The relationship that we seek and that we have worked hard to foster is not about a United States declaration about how and when it will intervene in the affairs of other American states. It's about all of our countries viewing one another as equals, sharing responsibilities, cooperating on security issues, and adhering not to doctrine, but to the decisions that we make as partners to advance the values and the interests that we share."
Environmentalism
In April 2016, he signed the Paris Climate Accords at the United Nations in New York.
On November 11, 2016, Kerry became the first Secretary of State and highest-ranking U.S. official to date to visit Antarctica. Kerry spent two days on the continent meeting with researchers and staying overnight at McMurdo Station.
In 1994, Kerry led opposition to continued funding for the Integral Fast Reactor, which resulted in the end of funding for the project. However, in light of increasing concerns regarding climate change, in 2017 Kerry reversed his position on nuclear power, saying "Given this challenge we face today, and given the progress of fourth generation nuclear: go for it. No other alternative, zero emissions."
Global Connect initiative
In September 2015, the U.S. Department of State unveiled a new initiative called "Global Connect" which sought to provide internet access to more than 1.5 billion people around the world within five years. In 2016, in partnership with OPIC, Kerry announced an investment of $171million to enable "a low-cost and rapidly scalable wireless broadband network in India". OPIC's financing is aimed at helping its Indian Partner, Tikona Digital Networks, to provide Internet through wireless technology.
Out of government (2017–2021)
Kerry retired from his diplomatic work following the end of the Obama administration on January 20, 2017. He did not attend Donald Trump's inauguration on that day, and the following day took part in the 2017 Women's March in Washington, D.C.
Kerry has taken a strong stand against Trump policies and joined in filing a brief arguing against Trump's executive order banning entry of persons from seven Muslim countries. In November 2018, in a "Guardian Live" conversation with Andrew Rawnsley, sponsored by The Guardian at London's Central Hall, Kerry discussed several issues which have developed further since his tenure as Secretary of State, including migration into Europe and climate change.
On December 5, 2019, Kerry endorsed Joe Biden's bid for the Democratic nomination for president, saying "He'll be ready on day one to put back together the country and the world that Donald Trump has broken apart" and asserting that "Joe will defeat Donald Trump next November. He's the candidate with the wisdom and standing to fix what Trump has broken, to restore our place in the world, and improve the lives of working people here at home."
Following retirement from government service, Kerry signed an agreement with Simon & Schuster for publishing his planned memoirs, dealing with his life and career in government. In September 2018, he published Every Day Is Extra.
Special Presidential Envoy for Climate
On November 23, 2020, President-elect Joe Biden's transition team announced that Kerry would be taking a full-time position in the administration, serving as a special envoy for climate; in this role he will be a principal on the National Security Council. Kerry assumed office on January 20, 2021, following Biden's inauguration.
Leaked audiotape
On April 25, 2021, The New York Times published content from a leaked audiotape of a three-hour taped conversation between economist Saeed Leylaz and Iranian foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif. The taped conversation was connected to an oral history project, known as "In the Islamic Republic the military field rules", which documents the work of Iran's current administration. The tape was obtained by the London-based news channel Iran International.
In the tape, which the Times referred to as "extraordinary", Zarif reveals that then-Secretary of State Kerry told him that Israel attacked Iranian assets in Syria, "at least 200 times". Although the tape has not been verified, the spokesman for the Iranian foreign ministry did not deny its validity.
Nineteen Republican senators signed a letter asking President Biden to investigate Zarif's claim. On April 27, 2021, Republicans called on Kerry to resign from the Biden administration's National Security Council. In a tweet, Kerry denied Zarif's account, writing, "I can tell you that this story and these allegations are unequivocally false. This never happened — either when I was Secretary of State or since."
Climate cooperation with China
In July 2023 John Kerry visited China for advance climate cooperation. The main achievement of the visit was some progress in the fields of: "methane reduction commitments; reducing China's reliance on coal; China's objections to trade restrictions on solar panel and battery components; and climate finance." This was obtained despite many currently existing obstacles to cooperation. The visit was made in the middle of the 2023 Asia heat wave that broke the previous temperature record in China.
Climate cooperation with India
At the end of July 2023 John Kerry visited India. Among others he declared, the USA will be committed to the target of delivering 100 billion dollars for climate action to low income countries and no future US president can retreat from climate commitment. He criticized Donald Trump for leaving the Paris agreement before.
Climate cooperation with countries in the Middle east
In June 2023 John Kerry arrived to the Middle East, making visits to Israel, Jordan, United Arab Emirates. In Israel, he emphasized the need for climate legislation to reach climate targets and reached an agreement about the renewal of "Memorandum of understanding between Israel and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Israel is one of the few developed countries that still not approved a climate law and lags behind other OECD countries in climate action. Israel environmental protection minister Idit Silman said Israel wants to go to COP28 "with an ambitious and applicable climate law and put the State of Israel on the same level as the developed countries of the OECD.” John Kerry held meetings with leaders of global oil and gas industry, calling for them to come up with strong plans to the UN climate summit, COP28, to cut their scope 1 and scope 2 emissions by 2030. He said the discussion was to include the fossil fuel industry, adding that its targets set for 2050 were not sufficient. Kerry mentioned that there was a need for net zero carbon emissions. Meanwhile, climate experts and campaigners had been concerned over the petrostate of the UAE hosting the COP28. They said the climate event will become an “oil COP”, while the industry plays a crucial role in the discussions to over climate change.
Personal and family life
Ancestry
Kerry's paternal grandparents, shoe businessman Frederick A. "Fred" Kerry and musician Ida Löwe, were immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Fred, his wife, and his brother converted from Judaism to Catholicism in 1901, and changed their names from Kohn to Kerry. Ida was of remote ancestry of Rabbi Sinai Loew of Worms, brother of Judah Loew ben Bezalel. Fred and Ida Kerry emigrated to the United States in 1905, living at first in Chicago and eventually moving to Brookline, Massachusetts, by 1915. According to The New York Times, "[the] brother and sister of John Kerry's paternal grandmother, Otto and Jenni Lowe, died in concentration camps". Kerry's Jewish ancestry was publicly revealed during his 2004 presidential campaign; he has stated that he was unaware of it until a reporter informed him of it in 2003.
Kerry's maternal ancestors were of Scottish and English descent, and his maternal grandparents were James Grant Forbes II of the Forbes family and Margaret Tyndal Winthrop of the Dudley–Winthrop family. Margaret's paternal grandfather Robert Charles Winthrop served as the 22nd Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives. Robert's father was Governor Thomas Lindall Winthrop. Thomas' father John Still Winthrop was a great-great-grandson of Massachusetts Bay Colony Governor John Winthrop and great-grandson of Governor Thomas Dudley. Through his mother, Kerry is a first cousin once removed of French politician Brice Lalonde.
Marriages and children
Kerry was married to Julia Thorne in 1970, and they had two daughters together: documentary filmmaker Alexandra Kerry (born September 5, 1973) and physician Vanessa Kerry (born December 31, 1976).
Alexandra was born days before Kerry began law school. In 1982, Julia asked Kerry for a separation while she was suffering from severe depression. They were divorced on July 25, 1988, and the marriage was formally annulled in 1997. "After 14 years as a political wife, I associated politics only with anger, fear and loneliness", she wrote in A Change of Heart, her book about depression. Thorne later married Richard Charlesworth, an architect, and moved to Bozeman, Montana, where she became active in local environmental groups such as the Greater Yellowstone Coalition. Thorne supported Kerry's 2004 presidential run. She died of cancer on April 27, 2006.
Kerry and his second wife—Portuguese-born businesswoman and philanthropist Teresa Heinz, the widow of Kerry's late Pennsylvania Republican Senate colleague John Heinz—were introduced to each other by Heinz at an Earth Day rally in 1990. Early the following year, Senator Heinz was killed in a plane crash near Lower Merion. Teresa has three sons from her marriage to Heinz, Henry John IV, André, and Christopher. Heinz and Kerry were married on May 26, 1995, in Nantucket, Massachusetts.
Net worth
The Forbes 400 survey estimated in 2004 that Teresa Heinz Kerry had a net worth of $750million. However, estimates have frequently varied, ranging from around $165million to as high as $3.2billion, according to a study in the Los Angeles Times. Regardless of which figure is correct, Kerry was the wealthiest U.S. Senator while serving in the Senate. Independent of Heinz, Kerry is wealthy in his own right, and is the beneficiary of at least four trusts inherited from Forbes family relatives, including his mother, Rosemary Forbes Kerry, who died in 2002. Forbes magazine (named for the Forbes family of publishers, unrelated to Kerry) estimated that if elected, and if Heinz family assets were included, Kerry would have been the third-richest U.S. president in history, when adjusted for inflation. This assessment was based on Heinz's and Kerry's combined assets, but the couple signed a prenuptial agreement that keeps their assets separate. Kerry's financial disclosure form for 2011 put his personal assets in the range of $230,000,000 to $320,000,000, including the assets of his spouse and any dependent children. This included slightly more than $3,000,000 worth of H. J. Heinz Company assets, which increased in value by over $600,000 in 2013 when Berkshire Hathaway announced their intention to purchase the company.
In April 2017, Kerry purchased an 18-acre property on the northwest corner of Martha's Vineyard overlooking Vineyard Sound in the town of Chilmark, Massachusetts. The property is located in Seven Gates Farm and according to property records, cost $11.75million for the seven bedroom home.
Religious beliefs
Kerry is a Roman Catholic, and is said to have carried a religious rosary, a prayer book, and a St. Christopher medal (the patron saint of travelers) when he campaigned. Discussing his faith, Kerry said: "I thought of being a priest. I was very religious while at school in Switzerland. I was an altar boy and prayed all the time. I was very centered around the Mass and the church." He also said that the Letters of Paul (Apostle Paul) moved him the most, stating that they taught him to "not feel sorry for myself".
Kerry told Christianity Today in October 2004:
He said that he believed that the Torah, the Quran, and the Bible all share a fundamental story which connects with readers.
Health
In 2003, Kerry was diagnosed with and successfully treated for prostate cancer. On May 31, 2015, Kerry broke his right leg in a biking accident in Scionzier, France, and was flown to Boston's Massachusetts General Hospital for recovery. MGH Hip and Knee Replacement Orthopaedic Surgeon Dr. Dennis Burke, who had met Kerry in France and had accompanied him in the plane from France to Boston, set Kerry's right leg on Tuesday, June 2, in a four-hour operation.
Athletics and sailing
In addition to the sports he played at Yale, Kerry is described by Sports Illustrated, among others, as an "avid cyclist", primarily riding on a road bike. Prior to his presidential bid, Kerry had participated in several long-distance rides. During his many campaigns, he was reported to have visited bicycle stores in both his home state and elsewhere. His staff requested recumbent stationary bikes for his hotel rooms. He has also been a snowboarder, windsurfer, and sailor.
The Boston Herald reported on July 23, 2010, that Kerry commissioned construction on a new $7million yacht (a Friendship 75) in New Zealand and moored it in Portsmouth, Rhode Island, where the Friendship yacht company is based. The article claimed this allowed him to avoid paying Massachusetts taxes on the property including approximately $437,500 in sales tax and an annual excise tax of about $500. On July 27, Kerry stated he would voluntarily pay $500,000 in Massachusetts taxes on his yacht.
Foreign honors
John Kerry was awarded:
: Grand Cross 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
: Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour
Honorary degrees
John Kerry has received several honorary degrees in recognition of his service to the United States, These include:
Electoral history
Works
Memoir.
See also
List of foreign ministers in 2017
References
Further reading
External links
Official
Kerry's military records—from JohnKerry.com via the Internet Archive
Information
John Kerry Campaign material —from ArchivoElectoral.org
Political donations made by John Kerry
Snopes.com: "Service Mettle"—Snopes.com on Kerry's Vietnam service medals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baiju%20Bawra%20%28film%29
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Baiju Bawra (film)
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Baiju Bawra () is a 1952 Hindi musical romantic drama film directed by Vijay Bhatt. Produced by Prakash Pictures, with story by Ramchandra Thakur and dialogues by Zia Sarhadi, Baiju Bawra was a musical "megahit" which had a mighty run of 100 weeks in the theatres. Bhatt's decision to make a film based on classical music was met with scepticism by the Indian film industry due to its "lack of mass appeal", but the film and music turned out be an "overwhelming success".
The film's music director was Naushad, who had become popular giving folk-based music in films such as Rattan, , Shahjehan (1946) and Deedar (1951). With Bhatt's Baiju Bawra, Naushad introduced a classical component in Hindi film songs. The soundtrack was based on classical ragas such as Puriya Dhanashree, Todi, Malkauns, Darbari and Desi. The lyricist was Shakeel Badayuni, a Naushad discovery. For Baiju Bawra, he had to forgo Urdu, and write lyrics in pure Hindi, with songs such as the bhajan "Man Tadpat Hari Darshan Ko Aaj", becoming popular.
The film starred Bharat Bhushan as Baiju, with Meena Kumari playing his love interest Gauri. Meena made her acting debut in Bhatt's Leatherface (1939) as a six-year-old. Surendra portrayed Tansen, one of the Navratnas in Akbar's court. Kuldip Kaur played the role of the dacoit queen Roopmati. The rest of the cast included Bipin Gupta, Manmohan Krishna, B. V. Vyas and Baby Tabassum.
The film merges the legend of Baiju Bawra with the historic setting of Mughal Emperor Akbar's court in India. Baiju (Bhushan) is the son of a musician who also grows up to be a musician. He comes to believe that Tansen, the famed musician at the court of Akbar, is responsible for his father's death. The movie then follows Baiju's attempt to avenge his father's death by challenging Tansen to a musical duel.
Even though there were many changes in the storyline from the original life of Baiju Bawra, the film was both a commercial and critical success and catapulted both its lead actors into stardom. Meena Kumari became the first-ever Filmfare Best Actress Award winner in 1954, the first of four Best Actress trophies she won in her career. The film's music director, Naushad, also received the inaugural Filmfare Best Music Director Award for the song "Tu Ganga Ki Mauj"; this was Naushad's first and only Filmfare Award win. It was ranked #13 in the list of 20 greatest Indian films by BFI in 2002.
Plot
Tansen is known to be the greatest classical vocalist ever to have existed in India, and was one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of Emperor Akbar's court. Nobody could sing in the city unless he or she could sing better than Tansen. If this was not the case, he or she was executed. Baiju Bawra is the story of an unknown singer, Baiju, who is on a mission to defeat Tansen in a musical duel to avenge the death of his father.
When Baiju is still a child, Tansen's sentry tries to stop Baiju's father from singing, and in the ensuing scuffle, his father dies. Before dying, he extracts a promise from his son to take revenge against Tansen. Baiju gets shelter from a village priest and while growing up, falls in love with Gauri, the daughter of a boatman. He continues his musical education on his own, but gets so enamoured by Gauri's love that he forgets the promise made to his father.
Later, a group of dacoits raid Baiju's village. With his song, Baiju persuades them against looting the village, but the female leader of the dacoits falls in love with him and asks him to follow them to their fort as a condition for their sparing the village. Baiju leaves with her, leaving the wailing Gauri behind. In the fort, the dacoit leader, who is actually a princess living in exile, tells Baiju how her father's serfdom had been usurped and she was seeking revenge because the village too previously belonged to her father. The word "revenge" brings all of Baiju's memories back; he leaves the fort greatly agitated, and the princess does not try to stop him.
Baiju sneaks into the Mughal palace, where Tansen is singing. He is dumbstruck by the way Tansen sings, and the sword that was supposed to cut the maestro's throat fell on the tanpura, saddening Tansen. He said he could only be killed by music, and the pain that accompanies it. "Dip your notes in melancholy and I'll die on my own," he said. Baiju accordingly leaves the palace to learn "real" music.
Baiju remembers that when his father was killed, he was taking Baiju to Swami Haridas. He goes to see the Swami himself and asks for his guidance, informing him of his plan to take revenge against Tansen. Haridas tells Baiju that one must be in love to be a true musician, and thus Baiju must rid himself of all the hatred in his heart, but still gives him a veena and accepts him as his disciple. Baiju again starts his musical training, spending all his time in a Shiva temple, but his vengeful feelings never leave him. Nonetheless, he still reveres his guru, Haridas. After learning that his teacher had fallen seriously ill and was unable to walk, Baiju sings a song that so thrills Haridas that the master gets out of his bed and starts to walk.
Gauri, meanwhile, is so distraught over Baiju's departure that she is about to swallow poison. At that point, the princess who had taken Baiju from the village comes to her and tells her that she knows of Baiju's whereabouts. Gauri meets Baiju and tries to convince him to return to the village so they can be married; Baiju, however, refuses, as he feels he must take revenge against Tansen. At this point, Haridas arrives, and Baiju goes to receive him, once again leaving a crying Gauri behind. Haridas tells Baiju that to be a true singer, he has to feel real pain. Hearing this, Gauri decides to make a venomous snake bite her, thinking that her death would bring enough grief to Baiju that he would defeat Tansen. Baiju sees Gauri's lifeless body and goes mad, with the princess' attempts to get through to him being futile. Baiju instead goes to the Shiva temple and sings a heart-wrenching song condemning the God who had consigned him to his fate; even the idol of Lord Shiva sheds tears at Baiju's grief.
In his delirious state, Baiju reaches Tansen's city, singing the whole way. The residents fear for his life and call him bawra (insane), hence the title of the movie. Baiju is caught and imprisoned, but the princess frees him. However, both of them are caught by Mughal soldiers when escaping, leaving a musical duel with Tansen as the only way to save his life.
Emperor Akbar himself witnesses the competition. For a long time, both the singers prove to be equally good. Then Akbar suggests that whoever could melt a marble slab with his singing would win the duel. Baiju manages to do so and wins the competition, saving his own life and finally avenging his father's death. Tansen accepts his defeat graciously, and is in fact happy that there is someone better than him. Baiju persuades Akbar to spare Tansen's life, to return the princess' land to her, and to allow music in the streets.
After winning the musical duel, Baiju departs from the court. Emperor Akbar is unhappy to see him go and asks Tansen to sing to produce a storm and floods to make him stay. Tansen sings raga Megh and the river Yamuna floods. (This scene was cut from the final film.)
Meanwhile, Gauri is alive but her father is deeply upset. The entire village makes fun of Gauri's and Baiju's love affair. Her father warns her that either Baiju should be found, or Gauri should marry a village moneylender, and in case she refuses, he would commit suicide. Gauri, unwilling to divulge Baiju's whereabouts, agrees to marry the money-lender.
Discovering that she is still alive, Baiju goes to meet Gauri. On the other side of a swollen Yamuna River, Baiju is stuck. The boatmen refuse to take him to the other side. Despite not knowing how to swim, Baiju pushes the boat into the raging waters and starts rowing it. He starts singing and Gauri hears it. She starts running towards the bank. When she sees Baiju struggling with the boat, she jumps into the water to rescue Baiju. The boat topples over and after a lot of struggle Gauri manages to reach him. He urges her to go back and leave him, but Gauri replies that they had promised to be together in life and in death, and she would be content in dying with him. They both drown as the film comes to an end.
Cast
Bharat Bhushan as Baiju
Meena Kumari as Gauri
Kuldip Kaur as Roopmati
Bipin Gupta as Akbar
Manmohan Krishna as Shankaranand
B. M. Vyas as Mohan
Mishra as Narpat
Radha Kishan as Ghasitkhan
Kesari as Ganjoo
Ratan Kumar as Young Baiju
Baby Tabassum as Young Gauri
Rai Mohan as Swami Haridas
Bhagwanji as Baiju's Father
Nadir as Hathi Singh
Ramesh as Suhil Khan
Krishna Kumari as Vasanti
Surendra as Tansen
Sitaram, Tikaram, Athavale
Production
Story and location
Vijay Bhatt had earlier made religious classics such as Bharat Milap (1942) and Ram Rajya (1943), with Ram Rajya being the only film Mahatma Gandhi watched. Bhatt's interest in literature and music compelled him to make a film about Tansen and the folk-legend singer Baiju Bawra as the main focus. A revenge theme was brought in with a love story and some comic interludes. Emphasis was also laid on the Guru-shishya tradition concentrating on the bond between Baiju and his Guru Swami Haridas, who was also Tansen's Guru.
Bhatt's decision to make a film based on Indian classical music was met with scepticism by the film industry due to its "lack of mass appeal", with his friends referring to him as "Viju Bawra" (Viju Crazy/Insane). Vijay Bhatt was the first to use two "classical giants on a common platform for path-breaking duets" twice. Ustad Amir Khan with Pandit D. V. Paluskar in Baiju Bawra and shehnai maestro Ustad Bismillah Khan and the innovative sitar player Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan in Goonj Uthi Shehnai.
The film was shot at Prakash Pictures studio at Andheri East in Bombay. According to Ayaz, nobody working on the sets "felt that they were working on a film that would become a milestone". The song sequence of "Tu Ganga ki Mauj" was shot at a river in Dahisar, near Bombay. The film took a year for completion.
Casting
The original choice for the cast were Dilip Kumar as Baiju and Nargis as Gauri. Bhatt's option for Bharat Bhushan and Meena Kumari in the main roles was a matter of financial deliberation and continuity of dates required for the shooting.
Meena Kumari, earlier called Mahjabeen Bano, started her acting career at the age of four in Vijay Bhatt's film Leatherface (1939). Her name was changed by Bhatt to Baby Meena in 1940. She acted in several films as a child star including Bhatt's Ek Hi Bhool (1940). Meena Kumari's first adult role was in Bachchon Ka Khel (Child's Play) (1946) directed by Raja Nene. Filmindia in the June 1946 issue, commented on her appearance "Meena Kumari, up till recently a 'baby,' now plays the charming heroine of the story". Several socials, mythologicals and fantasy films followed. In 1952, Meena Kumari "shot into stardom" following the release of Baiju Bawra. Kumari became the inaugural best actress winner at Filmfare Award for the film. The category for Best Actress was introduced by the Filmfare Awards Committee for the first time that year.
Bharat Bhushan began his career in Kidar Sharma's film Chitralekha (1941) made in Calcutta. After some supporting roles, he was cast in Sohag Raat (1948) opposite Geeta Bali and Begum Para, and in Devendra Goel's Aankhen (1950). His career as a tragic hero ran parallel with that of Dilip Kumar in the 1950s, but he lacked the "intensity and charisma" of Kumar. However, his "mellow looks matched by a soft voice" had the compassion required to depict sympathetic roles, with his specialty being a "sensitive, suffering poet-musician" in several hit musicals such as Baiju Bawra, Mirza Ghalib (1954), Basant Bahar (1956), Barsaat Ki Raat (1960) and Sangeet Samrat Tansen (1962). Signed by Bhatt for Baiju Bawra, his "unruly mop and simple demeanour" established him as a star and "crystallised Bhushan's image as an actor of 'note'". The pathos required of his role was acclaimed by critics as well as audiences, as were the singing sequences of classical raga-based songs in Mohammad Rafi's voice. Bhatt and Bhushan worked again the following year in Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1953), for which Bhushan received the Filmfare Best Actor Award.
Surendra, a popular leading actor of the 1930s and 1940s, turned to character roles in the 50s. The character of Tansen in Baiju Bawra was a career-reviving role for him. One of the "greatest" highlights of the film was the music-singing competition (jugalbandi) between the court musician Tansen and Baiju. Surendra had sung his own songs in his early career, however, he had to lip-sync to Ustad Amir Khan for the song "Ghanana Ghanana Kar Barso Re" in raga Malhar, while the song sequence between Tansen and Baiju had Ustad Amir Khan and D. V. Paluskar providing playback singing for them. He played the role of Tansen in three films, Baiju Bawra, Rani Roopmati (1957) and Mughal-E-Azam (1960).
Kuldip Kaur was known for her negative characters and cited as Indian cinema's "most polished vamps". Starting her career with a Punjabi film Chaman (1948), she went on to portray female villain roles in several films. Her role as the "strong dacoit queen" who lures Baiju away from his village made a "major impact" and was critically acclaimed.
Music
Naushad had come into prominence following his fourth film Station Master (1942), a Bhatt film production. The box office success of Station Master helped Naushad showcase his talent and become popular. Naushad at this time was under contract to A. R. Kardar, who had allowed him to score music for other companies.
Bhatt brought in Naushad to give music for Baiju Bawra because of his expertise in classical music. The two worked together along with Bhatt's older brother Shankar for six months. Shankar was "opposed" to the idea of a Hindi film filled with ragas as he feared it would drive the audiences away. But Naushad and Bhatt were adamant to change "public taste" in film music and in Naushad's words "it worked". Naushad's use of classical music in Baiju Bawra helped it become one of the top ten films of the 1950s and is "remembered mostly for its music". The bandish in raga Desi between Amir Khan and D. V. Paluskar, and Khan's "Tori Jai Jai Kar" in raga Puriya Dhanashree constituted the highlights of the film. However, the solos by Mohammed Rafi "Man Tadpat Hari Darshan Ko Aaj" in raga Malkauns, "O Duniya Ke Rakhwale" in raga Darbari, "Tu Ganga Ki Mauj" in raga Bhairavi and "Insaan Bano" in raga Todi are cited as "real treasures". His composition in the film is cited as the first use of the classical medium by Naushad, but he had based a large number of his songs on Indian rāgas. In Shahjehan (1946) he had composed three classical based tunes for K. L. Saigal. He did the same in Mela 1948 and Deedar 1951.
Soundtrack
The plot centered around music, so it was a necessity that the movie's soundtrack be outstanding. Renowned Bollywood music director Naushad and lyricist Shakeel Badayuni created memorable songs for the movie, with all but one being based on Hindustani classical melodies (ragas). Noted playback singers Mohammad Rafi, Lata Mangeshkar, and Shamshad Begum, and renowned classical vocalists Amir Khan and D. V. Paluskar lent their voices to the score.
Amir Khan was a consultant for the music. The result was a critically acclaimed movie soundtrack. Famous songs from the movie include "O Duniya Ke Rakhwale" (based on Raga Darbari), "Tu Ganga Ki Mauj" (based on Raga Bhairavi), "Mohe Bhool Gaye Sanwariya" (based on Raga Bhairav with traces of Raga Kalingda), "Man Tarpat Hari Darshan Ko Aaj" (based on Raga Malkauns), "Aaj Gaawat Man Mero" (Raga Desi), and Jhoole Mein Pawan Ki Aayi Bahar (based on Raga Pilu). Naushad won the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director, his first and only win.
The film also established Mohammad Rafi as a top playback singer in Hindi films, a position he held until his death in 1980. The songs Rafi sang for the film, including "Man Tarpat Hari Darshan Ko Aaj" and "O Duniya Ke Rakhwale", went on to become smash hits.
Awards
Remake
A remake of the film tentatively titled Baiju-The Gypsy was announced on November 2010. As per the details, it was to be written, directed and produced by American-Indian writer Krishna Shah and big names like Aamir Khan and A. R. Rahman were to come together in this film but eventually, the film was shelved.
Narendra Hirawat of NH Studioz held the rights of the film's negative. It has been more than 60 years since Baiju Bawra was released and the rights have now lapsed. In February 2019, it was reported that filmmaker Sanjay Leela Bhansali is planning a remake of this film. It will star Ranveer Singh, Alia Bhatt and Nayanthara in the lead. The shooting of this film was speculated to commence from mid-2023. However, the film shooting was postponed to early 2024.
References
External links
1952 films
1950s Hindi-language films
Films about classical music and musicians
Films set in the Mughal Empire
1950s historical musical films
Indian historical musical films
Films directed by Vijay Bhatt
Films scored by Naushad
Cultural depictions of Tansen
Cultural depictions of Akbar
Indian black-and-white films
Filmfare Awards winners
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blowout%20%28well%20drilling%29
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Blowout (well drilling)
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A blowout is the uncontrolled release of crude oil and/or natural gas from an oil well or gas well after pressure control systems have failed. Modern wells have blowout preventers intended to prevent such an occurrence. An accidental spark during a blowout can lead to a catastrophic oil or gas fire.
Prior to the advent of pressure control equipment in the 1920s, the uncontrolled release of oil and gas from a well while drilling was common and was known as an oil gusher, gusher or wild well.
History
Gushers were an icon of oil exploration during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During that era, the simple drilling techniques, such as cable-tool drilling, and the lack of blowout preventers meant that drillers could not control high-pressure reservoirs. When these high-pressure zones were breached, the oil or natural gas would travel up the well at a high rate, forcing out the drill string and creating a gusher. A well which began as a gusher was said to have "blown in": for instance, the Lakeview Gusher blew in in 1910. These uncapped wells could produce large amounts of oil, often shooting or higher into the air. A blowout primarily composed of natural gas was known as a gas gusher.
Despite being symbols of new-found wealth, gushers were dangerous and wasteful. They killed workmen involved in drilling, destroyed equipment, and coated the landscape with thousands of barrels of oil; additionally, the explosive concussion released by the well when it pierces an oil/gas reservoir has been responsible for a number of oilmen losing their hearing entirely; standing too near to the drilling rig at the moment it drills into the oil reservoir is extremely hazardous. The impact on wildlife is very hard to quantify, but can only be estimated to be mild in the most optimistic models—realistically, the ecological impact is estimated by scientists across the ideological spectrum to be severe, profound, and lasting.
To complicate matters further, the free flowing oil was—and is—in danger of igniting. One dramatic account of a blowout and fire reads,
With a roar like a hundred express trains racing across the countryside, the well blew out, spewing oil in all directions. The derrick simply evaporated. Casings wilted like lettuce out of water, as heavy machinery writhed and twisted into grotesque shapes in the blazing inferno.
The development of rotary drilling techniques where the density of the drilling fluid is sufficient to overcome the downhole pressure of a newly penetrated zone meant that gushers became avoidable. If however the fluid density was not adequate or fluids were lost to the formation, then there was still a significant risk of a well blowout.
In 1924 the first successful blowout preventer was brought to market. The BOP valve affixed to the wellhead could be closed in the event of drilling into a high pressure zone, and the well fluids contained. Well control techniques could be used to regain control of the well. As the technology developed, blowout preventers became standard equipment, and gushers became a thing of the past.
In the modern petroleum industry, uncontrollable wells became known as blowouts and are comparatively rare. There has been significant improvement in technology, well control techniques, and personnel training which has helped to prevent their occurring. From 1976 to 1981, 21 blowout reports are available.
Notable gushers
A blowout in 1815 resulted from an attempt to drill for salt rather than for oil. Joseph Eichar and his team were digging west of the town of Wooster, Ohio, US along Killbuck Creek, when they struck oil. In a written retelling by Eichar's daughter, Eleanor, the strike produced "a spontaneous outburst, which shot up high as the tops of the highest trees!"
Oil drillers struck a number of gushers near Oil City, Pennsylvania, US in 1861. The most famous was the Little & Merrick well, which began gushing oil on 17 April 1861. The spectacle of the fountain of oil flowing out at about per day had drawn about 150 spectators by the time an hour later when the oil gusher burst into flames, raining fire down on the oil-soaked onlookers. Thirty people died. Other early gushers in northwest Pennsylvania were the Phillips #2 ( per day) in September 1861, and the Woodford well ( per day) in December 1861.
The Shaw Gusher in Oil Springs, Ontario, was Canada's first oil gusher. On January 16, 1862, it shot oil from over below ground to above the treetops at a rate of per day, triggering the oil boom in Lambton County.
Lucas Gusher at Spindletop in Beaumont, Texas, US in 1901 flowed at per day at its peak, but soon slowed and was capped within nine days. The well tripled U.S. oil production overnight and marked the start of the Texas oil industry.
Masjed Soleiman, Iran, in 1908 marked the first major oil strike recorded in the Middle East.
Dos Bocas in the State of Veracruz, Mexico, was a famous 1908 Mexican blowout that formed a large crater. It leaked oil from the main reservoir for many years, continuing even after 1938 (when Pemex nationalized the Mexican oil industry).
Lakeview Gusher on the Midway-Sunset Oil Field in Kern County, California, US of 1910 is believed to be the largest-ever U.S. gusher. At its peak, more than of oil per day flowed out, reaching as high as in the air. It remained uncapped for 18 months, spilling over of oil, less than half of which was recovered.
A short-lived gusher at Alamitos #1 in Signal Hill, California, US in 1921 marked the discovery of the Long Beach Oil Field, one of the most productive oil fields in the world.
The Barroso 2 well in Cabimas, Venezuela, in December 1922 flowed at around per day for nine days, plus a large amount of natural gas.
Baba Gurgur near Kirkuk, Iraq, an oilfield known since antiquity, erupted at a rate of a day in 1927.
The Yates #30-A in Pecos County, Texas, US gushing 80 feet through the fifteen-inch casing, produced a world record 204,682 barrels of oil a day from a depth of 1,070 feet on 23 September 1929.
The Wild Mary Sudik gusher in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, US in 1930 flowed at a rate of per day.
The Daisy Bradford gusher in 1930 marked the discovery of the East Texas Oil Field, the largest oilfield in the contiguous United States.
The largest known 'wildcat' oil gusher blew near Qom, Iran, on 26 August 1956. The uncontrolled oil gushed to a height of , at a rate of per day. The gusher was closed after 90 days' work by Bagher Mostofi and Myron Kinley (USA).
On October 17, 1982, a sour gas well AMOCO DOME BRAZEAU RIVER 13-12-48-12, being drilled 20 km west of Lodgepole, Alberta blew out. The burning well was finally capped 67 days later by the Texas well-control company, Boots & Coots.
One of the most troublesome gushers happened on 23 June 1985, at well #37 at the Tengiz field in Atyrau, Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union, where the 4,209-metre deep well blew out and the 200-metre high gusher self-ignited two days later. Oil pressure up to 800 atm and high hydrogen sulfide content had led to the gusher being capped only on 27 July 1986. The total volume of erupted material measured at 4.3 million metric tons of oil and 1.7 billion m³ of natural gas, and the burning gusher resulted in 890 tons of various mercaptans and more than 900,000 tons of soot released into the atmosphere.
Deepwater Horizon explosion: The largest underwater blowout in U.S. history occurred on 20 April 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico at the Macondo Prospect oil field. The blowout caused the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon, a mobile offshore drilling platform owned by Transocean and under lease to BP at the time of the blowout. While the exact volume of oil spilled is unknown, , the United States Geological Survey Flow Rate Technical Group has placed the estimate at between of crude oil per day.
Cause of blowouts
Reservoir pressure
Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Because most hydrocarbons are lighter than rock or water, they often migrate upward and occasionally laterally through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping. The downhole pressure in the rock structures changes depending upon the depth and the characteristics of the source rock. Natural gas (mostly methane) may be present also, usually above the oil within the reservoir, but sometimes dissolved in the oil at reservoir pressure and temperature. Dissolved gas typically comes out of solution as free gas as the pressure is reduced either under controlled production operations or in a kick, or in an uncontrolled blowout. The hydrocarbon in some reservoirs may be essentially all natural gas.
Formation kick
The downhole fluid pressures are controlled in modern wells through the balancing of the hydrostatic pressure provided by the mud column. Should the balance of the drilling mud pressure be incorrect (i.e., the mud pressure gradient is less than the formation pore pressure gradient), then formation fluids (oil, natural gas, and/or water) can begin to flow into the wellbore and up the annulus (the space between the outside of the drill string and the wall of the open hole or the inside of the casing), and/or inside the drill pipe. This is commonly called a kick. Ideally, mechanical barriers such as blowout preventers (BOPs) can be closed to isolate the well while the hydrostatic balance is regained through circulation of fluids in the well. But if the well is not shut in (common term for the closing of the blow-out preventer), a kick can quickly escalate into a blowout when the formation fluids reach the surface, especially when the influx contains gas that expands rapidly with the reduced pressure as it flows up the wellbore, further decreasing the effective weight of the fluid.
Early warning signs of an impending well kick while drilling are:
Sudden change in drilling rate;
Reduction in drillpipe weight;
Change in pump pressure;
Change in drilling fluid return rate.
Other warning signs during the drilling operation are:
Returning mud "cut" by (i.e., contaminated by) gas, oil or water;
Connection gases, high background gas units, and high bottoms-up gas units detected in the mudlogging unit.
The primary means of detecting a kick while drilling is a relative change in the circulation rate back up to the surface into the mud pits. The drilling crew or mud engineer keeps track of the level in the mud pits and closely monitors the rate of mud returns versus the rate that is being pumped down the drill pipe. Upon encountering a zone of higher pressure than is being exerted by the hydrostatic head of the drilling mud (including the small additional frictional head while circulating) at the bit, an increase in mud return rate would be noticed as the formation fluid influx blends in with the circulating drilling mud. Conversely, if the rate of returns is slower than expected, it means that a certain amount of the mud is being lost to a thief zone somewhere below the last casing shoe. This does not necessarily result in a kick (and may never become one); however, a drop in the mud level might allow influx of formation fluids from other zones if the hydrostatic head is reduced to less than that of a full column of mud.
Well control
The first response to detecting a kick would be to isolate the wellbore from the surface by activating the blow-out preventers and closing in the well. Then the drilling crew would attempt to circulate in a heavier kill fluid to increase the hydrostatic pressure (sometimes with the assistance of a well control company). In the process, the influx fluids will be slowly circulated out in a controlled manner, taking care not to allow any gas to accelerate up the wellbore too quickly by controlling casing pressure with chokes on a predetermined schedule.
This effect will be minor if the influx fluid is mainly salt water. And with an oil-based drilling fluid it can be masked in the early stages of controlling a kick because gas influx may dissolve into the oil under pressure at depth, only to come out of solution and expand rather rapidly as the influx nears the surface. Once all the contaminant has been circulated out, the shut-in casing pressure should have reached zero.
Capping stacks are used for controlling blowouts. The cap is an open valve that is closed after bolted on.
Types of blowouts
Well blowouts can occur during the drilling phase, during well testing, during well completion, during production, or during workover activities.
Surface blowouts
Blowouts can eject the drill string out of the well, and the force of the escaping fluid can be strong enough to damage the drilling rig. In addition to oil, the output of a well blowout might include natural gas, water, drilling fluid, mud, sand, rocks, and other substances.
Blowouts will often be ignited from sparks from rocks being ejected, or simply from heat generated by friction. A well control company then will need to extinguish the well fire or cap the well, and replace the casing head and other surface equipment. If the flowing gas contains poisonous hydrogen sulfide, the oil operator might decide to ignite the stream to convert this to less hazardous substances.
Sometimes blowouts can be so forceful that they cannot be directly brought under control from the surface, particularly if there is so much energy in the flowing zone that it does not deplete significantly over time. In such cases, other wells (called relief wells) may be drilled to intersect the well or pocket, in order to allow kill-weight fluids to be introduced at depth. When first drilled in the 1930s relief wells were drilled to inject water into the main drill well hole. Contrary to what might be inferred from the term, such wells generally are not used to help relieve pressure using multiple outlets from the blowout zone.
Subsea blowouts
The two main causes of a subsea blowout are equipment failures and imbalances with encountered subsurface reservoir pressure. Subsea wells have pressure control equipment located on the seabed or between the riser pipe and drilling platform. Blowout preventers (BOPs) are the primary safety devices designed to maintain control of geologically driven well pressures. They contain hydraulic-powered cut-off mechanisms to stop the flow of hydrocarbons in the event of a loss of well control.
Even with blowout prevention equipment and processes in place, operators must be prepared to respond to a blowout should one occur. Before drilling a well, a detailed well construction design plan, an Oil Spill Response Plan as well as a Well Containment Plan must be submitted, reviewed and approved by BSEE and is contingent upon access to adequate well containment resources in accordance to NTL 2010-N10.
The Deepwater Horizon well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 occurred at a water depth. Current blowout response capabilities in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico meet capture and process rates of 130,000 barrels of fluid per day and a gas handling capacity of 220 million cubic feet per day at depths through 10,000 feet.
Underground blowouts
An underground blowout is a special situation where fluids from high pressure zones flow uncontrolled to lower pressure zones within the wellbore. Usually this is from deeper higher pressure zones to shallower lower pressure formations. There may be no escaping fluid flow at the wellhead. However, the formation(s) receiving the influx can become overpressured, a possibility that future drilling plans in the vicinity must consider.
Blowout control companies
Myron M. Kinley was a pioneer in fighting oil well fires and blowouts. He developed many patents and designs for the tools and techniques of oil firefighting. His father, Karl T. Kinley, attempted to extinguish an oil well fire with the help of a massive explosion—a method still in common use for fighting oil fires. Myron and Karl Kinley first successfully used explosives to extinguish an oil well fire in 1913. Kinley would later form the M. M. Kinley Company in 1923. Asger "Boots" Hansen and Edward Owen "Coots" Matthews also begin their careers under Kinley.
Paul N. "Red" Adair joined the M. M. Kinley Company in 1946, and worked 14 years with Myron Kinley before starting his own company, Red Adair Co., Inc., in 1959.
Red Adair Co. has helped in controlling offshore blowouts, including:
CATCO fire in the Gulf of Mexico in 1959
"The Devil's Cigarette Lighter" in 1962 in Gassi Touil, Algeria, in the Sahara Desert
The Ixtoc I oil spill in Mexico's Bay of Campeche in 1979
The Piper Alpha disaster in the North Sea in 1988
The Kuwaiti oil fires following the Gulf War in 1991.
The 1968 American film, Hellfighters, which starred John Wayne, is about a group of oil well firefighters, based loosely on Adair's life; Adair, Hansen, and Matthews served as technical advisors on the film.
In 1994, Adair retired and sold his company to Global Industries. Management of Adair's company left and created International Well Control (IWC). In 1997, they would buy the company Boots & Coots International Well Control, Inc., which was founded by Hansen and Matthews in 1978.
Methods of quenching blowouts
Subsea Well Containment
After the Macondo-1 blowout on the Deepwater Horizon, the offshore industry collaborated with government regulators to develop a framework to respond to future subsea incidents. As a result, all energy companies operating in the deep-water U.S. Gulf of Mexico must submit an OPA 90 required Oil Spill Response Plan with the addition of a Regional Containment Demonstration Plan prior to any drilling activity. In the event of a subsea blowout, these plans are immediately activated, drawing on some of the equipment and processes effectively used to contain the Deepwater Horizon well as others that have been developed in its aftermath.
In order to regain control of a subsea well, the Responsible Party would first secure the safety of all personnel on board the rig and then begin a detailed evaluation of the incident site. Remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) would be dispatched to inspect the condition of the wellhead, Blowout Preventer (BOP) and other subsea well equipment. The debris removal process would begin immediately to provide clear access for a capping stack.
Once lowered and latched on the wellhead, a capping stack uses stored hydraulic pressure to close a hydraulic ram and stop the flow of hydrocarbons. If shutting in the well could introduce unstable geological conditions in the wellbore, a cap and flow procedure would be used to contain hydrocarbons and safely transport them to a surface vessel.
The Responsible Party works in collaboration with BSEE and the United States Coast Guard to oversee response efforts, including source control, recovering discharged oil and mitigating environmental impact.
Several not-for-profit organizations provide a solution to effectively contain a subsea blowout. HWCG LLC and Marine Well Containment Company operate within the U.S. Gulf of Mexico waters, while cooperatives like Oil Spill Response Limited offer support for international operations.
Use of nuclear explosions
On Sep. 30, 1966, the Soviet Union experienced blowouts on five natural gas wells in Urta-Bulak, an area about 80 kilometers from Bukhara, Uzbekistan. It was claimed in Komsomoloskaya Pravda that after years of burning uncontrollably they were able to stop them entirely. The Soviets lowered a specially made 30 kiloton nuclear physics package into a borehole drilled away from the original (rapidly leaking) well. A nuclear explosive was deemed necessary because conventional explosives both lacked the necessary power and would also require a great deal more space underground. When the device was detonated, it crushed the original pipe that was carrying the gas from the deep reservoir to the surface and vitrified the surrounding rock. This caused the leak and fire at the surface to cease within approximately one minute of the explosion, and proved to be a permanent solution. An attempt on a similar well was not as successful. Other tests were for such experiments as oil extraction enhancement (Stavropol, 1969) and the creation of gas storage reservoirs (Orenburg, 1970).
Notable offshore well blowouts
Data from industry information.
See also
Drilling fluid
Drilling rig
List of oil spills
Oil platform
Oil well
Oil well control
Oil well fire
Petroleum geology
Underbalanced drilling
References
External links
San Joaquin Geological Society article on famous Californian gushers
Blowout
Petroleum geology
Oil wells
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Juniper%20Tree%20%28fairy%20tale%29
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The Juniper Tree (fairy tale)
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"The Juniper Tree" (also The Almond Tree; ) is a German fairy tale published in Low German by the Brothers Grimm in Grimm's Fairy Tales in 1812 (KHM 47). The story contains themes of child abuse, murder, cannibalism and biblical symbolism and is one of the Brothers Grimm's darker and more mature fairy tales.
The tale is of Aarne–Thompson type 720 ("The Juniper Tree"). Another such tale is the English The Rose-Tree, although it reverses the sexes from The Juniper Tree; The Juniper Tree follows the more common pattern of having the dead child be a boy.
Origin
The tale was published by the Brothers Grimm in the first edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen in 1812. A somewhat different version appeared a few months earlier Johann Gustav Büsching's Volks-Sagen, Märchen und Legenden (1812).
It was believed until the early 1870s that the Brothers Grimm re-adapted various oral recountings and fables heard from local peasants and townspeople in order to write their well-known fairy tales. However, various critics including Vanessa Joosen argue that this assumption is false, based on an overwhelming amount of disputing evidence. Literary critic Walter Scherf argued that the Grimm brothers were inspired by the painter Philipp Otto Runge's original adaptation of The Juniper Tree, originally written as The Almond Tree. The Grimm brothers themselves wrote in the appendix to the 1812 first edition of the KHM that the text was supplied by Philipp Otto Runge.
Synopsis
A wealthy and pious couple pray every day for God to grant them a child. One winter, under the juniper tree in the courtyard, the wife peels an apple. She cuts her finger and drops of blood fall onto the snow. This leads her to wish for a child to be as white as snow and as red as blood. Six months later, the wife becomes gravely ill from eating juniper berries and asks her husband to bury her beneath the juniper tree if she dies. A month later, she gives birth to a baby boy as white as snow and as red as blood. She dies of happiness. Keeping his promise, the husband buries her beneath the juniper tree. He eventually marries again and he and his new wife have a daughter named Marlinchen (in some versions Marlene, Marjory or Ann Marie).
The new wife loves Marlinchen but despises her stepson. She abuses him every day, claiming that she wishes Marlinchen to inherit her father's wealth instead of her stepson. One afternoon after school, the stepmother plans to lure her stepson into an empty room containing a chest of apples. Marlinchen sees the chest and asks for an apple, which the stepmother gracefully offers. However, when the boy enters the room and reaches down the chest for an apple, the stepmother slams the lid onto his neck, decapitating him. The stepmother binds his head with the rest of his body with a bandage and props his body onto a chair outside, with an apple on his lap. Marlinchen, unaware of the situation, asks her stepbrother for an apple. Hearing no response, she is forced by her mother to box him in the ear, causing his head to roll onto the ground. Marlinchen profusely cries throughout the day whilst the stepmother dismembers the stepson's body and cooks him into a "blood-soup" (Black Puddings Sauer/Suur) for dinner. She later deceives her husband by telling him that his son stayed at the mother's great uncle's house. The husband unwittingly eats the "blood-soup" during dinner and proclaims it to be delicious. Marlinchen gathers the bones from the dinner and buries them beneath the juniper tree with a handkerchief.
Suddenly, a mist emerges from the juniper tree and a beautiful bird flies out. The bird visits the local townspeople and sings about its brutal murder at the hands of its stepmother. Captivated by its lullaby, a goldsmith, a shoemaker and a miller offer the bird a gold chain, a pair of red shoes and a millstone in return for the bird singing its song again. The bird returns home to give the gold chain to the husband while giving Marlinchen the red shoes. Meanwhile, the stepmother complains about the "raging fires within her arteries", revealed to be the real cause of her anger and hatred towards her stepson. She goes outside for relief but the bird drops the millstone onto her head, killing her instantly. Surrounded by smoke and flames, the son, revealed to be the bird, emerges and reunites with his family. They celebrate and head inside for lunch, and live happily ever after.
Motifs
There are many themes, such as cannibalism, death, and food, that play an important role in the short story, The Juniper Tree. These overall themes are listed below.
Cannibalism
Some argue that The Juniper Tree draws cues from the short story Hansel and Gretel. Following the death of the main character, the mother (in an attempt to cover up his death) literally "chopped him in pieces, put him into the pan and... [cooked him up in blood-soup/black puddings]. The husband then eats the blood-soup/black pudding, saying how “delicious [the] food is," and even asks for the wife to "give [him] some more.”
Parallel between food and death
It is quite clear by the end of the tale that food is associated with death. At the beginning of the short story, the first wife is cutting an apple when she cuts her fingers and "blood [falls to] the snow." An apple later is even referred to as ushering in the Devil when the little boy comes home and the Devil figuratively makes the mother say to him, "My son, wilt thou have an apple?” You could even look to the son as a source of death when he is turned into stew. Finally, a millstone is used to kill the mother. A millstone is a tool typically used to grind corn.
Guardianship
Critics suggest that the character of the mother in "The Juniper Tree" is used to represent a guardian spirit. This theme of guardianship is shown throughout other Grimm fairy tales such as Cinderella, Briar Rose, and Snow White. In all of these stories, there is some object (normally represented through nature) that watches after the main character. In the case of "Briar Rose," "the briar hedge is the symbol of nature guarding her rose: the princess who sleeps inside the castle."
Gift giving
When the son becomes a bird, he requests gifts such as a gold chain from a goldsmith and a pair of shoes for his sister. In addition, he asks for a millstone from a group of millers, which he drops on the wife's head leading to her swift death. Critics argue that while the chain may represent power (to leave the wife), the shoes may also allude to freedom.
Song
Song is a symbolic motif in that it served as a vessel to expose the son's wrongful death. The bird sang this song to different townspeople in order to get gifts that he will later bestow on his sister and father after they heard the bird sing as well. This song fueled the personification of a bird, which naturally does not have the ability to communicate words to humans.
The song went like this:
Lyrics
"My mother she killed me,
My father he ate me,
My sister, little Marlinchen,
Gathered together all my bones,
Tied them in a silken handkerchief,
Laid them beneath the juniper-tree,
Kywitt, kywitt, what a beautiful bird am I!"
Child abuse
Child abuse is a prevalent theme shown through the stepmother constantly abusing her stepson and eventually murdering him. This theme, along with cruel oppression, is a recurring theme in the works of the Brothers Grimm, such as The Frog Prince and Rapunzel. Critic Jack Zipes suggests that the theme of child abuse leads to a more adult centered story. This veers away from the more accepted thought that fairy tales are meant for children.
Personification of the Devil
The devil makes an appearance in many Grimms' tales, often in “various disguises.” He takes many identities including anything from a “little man,” to an “old goat.” The stepmother's deep disgust and violent tendencies towards the stepson play right into the mindset that she may be an offshoot of the devil himself. The stepmother offering the stepson an apple before brutally killing him and manipulating her daughter's innocence to cover up the murder is also a direct allusion to the biblical temptation of Eve in the Garden of Eden. Near the end, the stepmother experiences "raging fires" within her veins, symbolising the weight of her sins and possibly the damnation of her soul. It is even described at one point during the story that the Devil (who is referred as the Evil One in most adaptions) has gone into her mind before her villainous breakdown.
Religion
Religion plays a major symbolic role in the story. Devotion to God was often associated with purity and innocence, as shown through the boy's biological parents and presumably, the boy himself and Marlinchen. The boy reincarnating into the bird and killing the stepmother with the millstone out of revenge can also symbolize the Holy Spirit, who is often depicted as a white dove, executing divine judgement upon the wicked. The story also takes place "well on two thousand years ago" placing it firmly in Biblical times. In most English language translations, the dish/cooking method that is described in the text is translated as "stew" or as in Margaret Hunt's 1884 translation as "black puddings." What is important here is that the body and the blood of the boy are cooked and consumed by the father. What is missing in most English language translations in the word "stew" is that the blood of the boy is also cooked and eaten. The symoblism in relation to the Eucharist - eating the body and drinking the blood of Christ - then become unmistakable.
Reincarnation
"In fairy tales the cycle of human life is intimately related to the cycle of nature."
Particularly seen in the Grimm Brother's "The Juniper Tree," reincarnation plays a major role in the tale. The audience first sees reincarnation when the first wife asks to be buried under the juniper tree. Although the mother never truly comes back to life, her spirit appears to have supernatural influence over the juniper tree, which allows her son to be physically reincarnated, as a bird and as his originally physical form, at the end of the story.
Theory of Grimm
Each Grimm tale follows a predetermined and categorical format. Every tale is based on the idea that each character is born with fault. For example, if a child is “loved by his parents, he is hated by a brother or sister.” Another example could include a child “surrounded by affection.” Using the Grimm theory, the child then must be “pursued by an offense committed prior to his birth, generally by one of his family.” It is this format that pushes a "coming of character moment" where the main character (in order to survive) “set[s] out on a road strew with pitfalls, pursued by an evil willpower, as if distance itself could not take him away from the fatality of [the character’s] family."
Transformative bodies in Grimm
Continuous throughout each of the Grimm tales are the reappearance of transformative bodies. Critic Jeana Jorgensen, argues that there is a connection between the physical transformation of characters and their genders. Drawing a connection between beauty ideals consistently being a major factor in female character development to Grimm, while transformations playing a significant role in the development of mostly male characters. She concludes that female characters are usually described with a focus on their physical attributes such as small, petite, wicked, beautiful, and ugly compared to the adjectives used in male transformations that overall relate strictly to age and size. Specifically, in The Juniper Tree, Jorgensen uses Miriam's depiction of sorrow as a representation of the fact that in several of Grimm's tales "suffering is written on women’s bodies in a way that naturalizes their pain and almost leads us to expect women to cry in fairy tales."
Fantasy and magic in Grimm
For the Grimm Brother's audience "the fantasy and magic of the story can be interpreted as instruments to establish or restore social and economic justice." Roberta Markman believes that this is the case among all of the Grimm fairy tales because the creative process' "transformative power[s]" can change social norms. As a result, literature and other creative art forms have the power to change someone's personal attitude regarding their economic and social situations. This is especially prevalent in Grimm fairy tales where normally the character's social and economic situation is poor at best. For example, in the Grimm's Cinderella, Cinderella's social situation is contingent upon her servitude to her stepmother. As an audience member, when one reads this they are reminded of how good their social situation is in comparison.
Family conflict in Grimm
There is an apparent parallel between Grimm's The Juniper Tree and his previous works, familial drama. Critic Walter Scherf in a study of the introductions of children's literature, noted that out of 176 texts, 169 of them started with a basic family conflict. Similar to the plot in Juniper Tree, in Grimm's Hansel and Gretel, the children live with their stepmother who does not like them, and makes a plan to get rid of them. She states that in the morning she and her husband will take the children into the thickest part of the forest and leave them there, with the intention that they won't be able to find their way back, and end up starving to death. In comparison to the Stepmother in The Juniper Tree who wanted her daughter to inherit everything from the Father, killing the Son in order to guarantee this possibility.
Original translation and background
The Juniper Tree is both the title of the collection and a piece of prose within the book. The collection of short stories was not written by the Grimm brothers, but instead collected from “various sources… many of which were the original authors.” In total, there are twenty-seven short stories spanning three hundred and thirty-three pages. The Grimm brothers also used illustrations to add to the overall work. According to Grimm, the "illustrations [used are] delicate in detail, imaginative in concept, and truly beautiful."
Commentary
Listed below, in alphabetical order, are some examples of commentary written by academic scholars regarding this fairy tale. This represents their individual opinions regarding The Juniper Tree.
Alfred and Mary Elizabeth David
In Alfred and Elizabeth David's essay, they interpret "The Juniper Tree" as "folk literature for inspiration." They believe that the nature and native culture presented in most Grimm fairy tale inspires other artists in their literary endeavors In "The Juniper Tree," this theme of nature is present. The Grimm Brothers use the juniper tree as a life source for the mother and the son. The use of nature as a life source inspired other literary work such as "Briar Rose".
Maria Tatar
Many folklorists interpret evil stepmothers as stemming from actual competition between a woman and her stepchildren for resources. In this tale, the motive is made explicit: the stepmother wants her daughter to inherit everything.
The millstone in the story would have had biblical connotations for the readers of the Grimms' days, especially as the verse Luke 17:2 says that anyone who causes a child to sin would be better off being thrown into the sea with a millstone about his neck; both refer to a millstone as a punishment for those who harm the young and innocent. Another biblical connotation could be the offering of the apple from the stepmother, possessed by the devil, to the son, which parallels the devil, disguised as a serpent, offering the forbidden fruit (traditionally an apple) to Eve.
J. R .R Tolkien
In his essay "On Fairy-Stories", J. R. R. Tolkien cited The Juniper Tree as an example of the evils of censorship for children; many versions in his day omitted the stew, and Tolkien thought children should not be spared it, unless they were spared the whole fairy tale.
Adaptations
Throughout the centuries, the Grimm Brothers fairy tales have been retold and adapted by an abundance of sources. The story was adapted:
For the book Grimm Fairy Tales. The story goes: an evil stepmother kills her stepson and makes her daughter think that she killed him. The stepmother than cooks him for dinner for the rest of the family. Her daughter finds her stepbrother's bones and puts them underneath the juniper tree. -A.K
By Barbara Comyns Carr in her novel, The Juniper Tree, published by Methuen in 1985. In Comyns Carr's adaptation the stepmother is a sympathetic character and the son's death an accident. Whereas in Grimm's fairy tale it is Marlene (the daughter) who buries the bones of the son, Comyns Carr makes Marlene ignorant of the death and has the stepmother, desperate to prevent her husband from finding out and in the throes of a nervous breakdown, bury the little boy under the juniper tree. At the end of the adaptation, the stepmother does not die but is treated and begins a new life. The Juniper Tree was Barbara Comyns Carr's first novel after an 18-year hiatus in her work and was described in The Financial Times, at the time of publication, as "delicate, tough, quick-moving .... haunting".
As The Juniper Tree, an opera in two acts by Philip Glass & Robert Moran, (1985); libretto by Arthur Yorinks.
For BBC Radio 3 by Peter Redgrove in 1987 and directed by Brian Miller as part of a series of plays drawn from the Grimm fairy tales, with Jennifer Piercey, Deborah Makepeace, Michael McStay and Abigail Docherty.
As the 1990 Icelandic film The Juniper Tree, based on the Grimm Brothers' tale, starring Björk as a visionary young girl whose mother has been put to death as a witch.
Micheline Lanctôt's 2003 film Juniper Tree (Le piège d'Issoudun) juxtaposes a straight dramatization of the fairy tale with an original dramatic story exploring some of the same themes in a realistic contemporary setting.
The story "The Crabapple Tree", by Robert Coover, appearing in the January 12, 2015, issue of The New Yorker, is based on the fairy tale.
English folk singer Emily Portman composed a song titled "Stick Stock" based on the story, and recorded it on her album The Glamoury.
The book The Grimm Conclusion (by Adam Gidwitz) was based on this fairy tale.
For a collection of fairy tales created by Lore Segal and Maurice Sendak entitled The Juniper Tree.
Lorrie Moore published a short story entitled "The Juniper Tree", dedicated to the late Nietzchka Keene, director of the film The Juniper Tree. In the story, a red-haired playwright (apparently based on Keene) appears on the night after her death to visit her friends.
The fantasy novel Juniper and Thorn (2022) by the American writer Ava Reid was inspired by the fairy tale.
See also
"Buttercup", another fairy tale where a father unknowingly eats stew made from his child's remains
Child cannibalism
References
Oliver Loo. The Original 1812 Grimm Fairy Tales. A New Translation of the 1812 First Edition Kinder- und Hausmärchen Collected through the Brothers Grimm. Volume I. 200 Year Anniversary Edition 2014. .
Further reading
External links
Grimms' Fairy Tales
Fictional trees
The Devil in fairy tales
Fiction about shapeshifting
Fiction about reincarnation
Horror short stories
Child abuse in fiction
Cannibalism in fiction
Domestic violence in fiction
ATU 700-749
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5123499
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Scottish%20Americans
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List of Scottish Americans
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This is a list of notable Scottish Americans, including both immigrants who obtained U.S. citizenship and their American descendants.
To be included in this list, the person must have a Wikipedia article showing they are Scottish American or must have references showing they are Scottish American and are notable.
List
Artists
Alexander Anderson, illustrator
Earl W. Bascom, cowboy artist and sculptor
Alexander Calder
Herbert A. Collins
John M. Donaldson, artist and architect
Leslie Erganian
John Mackie Falconer
Joseph Glasco
Tim Gunn
Tommy Hilfiger, fashion designer
Jackson Pollock, artist
Christopher Ross, sculptor, designer and collector
Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait
Business and Philanthropy
John D. Rockefeller
Alexander Graham Bell, founder of AT&T
Philip Danforth Armour, founder of Armour and Company, a meatpacking firm
William M. Blair
Glen Bell, founder of Taco Bell
David Dunbar Buick, founder of the Buick Motor Company
William Wallace Cargill, son of a Scottish sea captain
Andrew Carnegie, philanthropist and steel
Jasper Newton "Jack" Daniel, founder of Jack Daniel's Tennessee whiskey distillery; Scottish-Welsh American; his grandmother, Elizabeth Callaway, was born in Scotland
David Eccles, Utah's first ever millionaire
John Malcolm Forbes
John Murray Forbes
William Cameron Forbes
Jay Gould, railroad developer
Archibald Gracie, shipping magnate
W.K. Kellogg, industrialist, founder of the Kellogg Company
James Lenox, philanthropist, bibliophile whose books became part of the founding collection of the New York Public Library
Malco(l)m McLean, 'Father of Containerization'
Cyrus McCormick, International Harvester
Harold Fowler McCormick
Ira O. McDaniel
Rupert Murdoch, Australian-born chairman and director of NewsCorp
Allan Pinkerton, detective and director of a security business
Ross Perot, entrepreneur, founder of Electronic Data Systems and Perot Systems
Alexander Turney Stewart, born in Ireland to Scottish parents
Arch West, executive; developer of Doritos
Entertainment
Jensen Ackles, Emmy-nominated actor, of part Scottish descent
Ben Affleck, actor, writer, director, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Casey Affleck, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Richard Dean Anderson, actor, mother is of Scottish ancestry
Muriel Angelus
Jennifer Aniston, maternal grandfather of part Scottish ancestry
Karen Allen, film and stage actress
Andrew Arbuckle
Macklyn Arbuckle
Roscoe Arbuckle
Robert Armstrong
Samaire Armstrong, actress best known for her roles in The O.C. and Dirty Sexy Money; father is Scottish
Mary Astor
Clara Bow, actress
Harry Belafonte, actor, singer
Lucille Ball, actress and comedian; father was part Scottish American
Hailey Baldwin, model, television personality, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Alison Brie, actress, of partial Scottish descent
Tallulah Bankhead
Al Barr
Cate Blanchett, actress
Patricia Breslin, actress
Haley Bennett, actress, singer
John Barrowman, born and semi-raised in Scotland
Earl W. Bascom, descendant of John Alexander, Scottish settler who founded Alexandria, Virginia, worked with cowboy actor Roy Rogers
Catherine Bell, actress and model, father was of Scottish descent
Scott Clifton, actor, musician, of half Scottish ancestry
Kristen Bell, actress, of part Scottish descent
Alexis Bledel, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jordana Brewster, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
James Brolin, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Samantha Brown, television host on the Travel Channel
James D. Brubaker, film producer, production manager and actor
Gina Carano, mixed martial artist, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jim Carrey, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Myra Carter
Lacey Chabert, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Charles Coburn
Chris Connelly, born in Edinburgh
Miriam Cooper
Stewart Copeland, drummer in the band The Police
Laird Cregar
Matt Damon, actor, father is of partial Scottish ancestry
Ted Danson, actor, of part Scottish descent
Mona Darkfeather
Yvonne De Carlo, mother was of Italian and Scottish descent
James Dean, actor, of part Scottish descent
Laura Dern, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Vin Diesel, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Matt Dillon, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Joanie Dodds, fashion model
Shannen Doherty, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Helen Douglas
Michael Douglas, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Gary Dourdan, African-American actor with some Scottish ancestors (CSI: Crime Scene Investigation)
Nancy Dow, actress, father was of part Scottish ancestry
Robert Downey Jr., actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry on mother's side
Hilary Duff, actress and singer
Minnie Driver
David Duchovny, actor (mother Scottish)
Daniel Ducovny, brother of David (note, no "h")
Robert Duvall, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Leslie Easterbrook, actor, of partial Scottish descent
Clint Eastwood, actor and instructor, of partial Scottish ancestry
Aaron Eckhart, actor, mother is of partial Scottish ancestry
George Eldredge
Craig Ferguson, actor and comedian
George Ferguson
Jane Fonda, actress, writer, producer
Jimmy Finlayson
Scott Foley, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
China Forbes, lead singer of Pink Martini; father Scottish American, mother African-American
Glenn Ford
Edwin Forrest
Drew Fuller
Judy Garland (Milne from Aberdeenshire), of part Scottish ancestry
Lauren Graham, actress
Greer Garson, actress
Ashlyn Gere
Paul Giamatti, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Isabel Gillies
Brian Austin Green
Andy Griffith, comedian, actor and singer best known for The Andy Griffith Show
Rebecca Hall, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Oliver Hardy, comedic actor, best known for Laurel and Hardy
Roy Ellsworth Harris, classical composer of Scottish, Irish, and Welsh ancestry
Colton Haynes, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Katharine Hepburn, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Charlton Heston, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Paris Hilton, actress, model, of partial Scottish ancestry
Edward Everett Horton
Ron Howard, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Steve Howey
Felicity Huffman, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Anjelica Huston, her father, director John Huston, was of part Scottish descent
Josh Hutcherson, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jonathan Jackson, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Caitlyn Jenner, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Kendall Jenner, of partial Scottish ancestry
Kris Jenner, of partial Scottish ancestry
Kylie Jenner, of partial Scottish ancestry
Spike Jonze, director, producer, screenwriter and actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Khloé Kardashian, of partial Scottish ancestry
Kim Kardashian, of partial Scottish ancestry
Kourtney Kardashian, of partial Scottish ancestry
Rob Kardashian, of partial Scottish ancestry
Cody Kasch, television actor (Desperate Housewives)
Max Kasch, television and film actor
Michael Keaton, small amount of Scottish ancestry
David Keith, actor
Anna Kendrick, actress, mother is of Scottish descent
Deborah Kerr, actress
Val Kilmer, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Nancy Kwan, mother was of Scottish descent
Sunny Lane, porn star
Brie Larson, actress, filmmaker
Eva LaRue, actress, model
Jennifer Lawrence, actress
Jay Leno, comedian, former actor, host of The Tonight Show; mother was from west lowland Scotland
Hamish Linklater, best known for his role in the series The New Adventures of Old Christine; son of Scottish vocal coach, dialect professor, actor and theater director Kristin Linklater
Ray Liotta, actor
Marion Lorne, actress best known for her recurring role as Aunt Clara in the series Bewitched
Julia Louis-Dreyfus, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Chad Lowe, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Myrna Loy
Kate McKinnon, actress, comedian, of half Scottish ancestry
Karen McDougal, model, actress
Jeanette MacDonald, actress and singer
Andie MacDowell, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Seth MacFarlane, writer of Family Guy, of partial Scottish ancestry
Ali MacGraw, father was of Scottish descent, mother was of Hungarian Jewish ancestry
Alexander Mackendrick
Kyle MacLachlan, actor (Twin Peaks), paternal grandfather was of Scottish ancestry
Patrick Macnee, actor
Michael Madsen, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Virginia Madsen, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
John Malkovich, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Matthew McConaughey, of part Scottish descent
Ross McCorkell, drag queen known as Rosé, born in Scotland
Gates McFadden, actress
Danica McKellar, actress
Benjamin McKenzie, of part Scottish ancestry
Kevin McKidd
Zoe McLellan
Wendi McLendon-Covey, actress
Steve McQueen, actor, mother and father both of Scottish descent
Steven R. McQueen, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Caroline McWilliams
Donald Meek, actor
Marian Mercer, actress
Andy Milligan
Cameron Mitchell
John Cameron Mitchell, mother is native Scottish
Demi Moore, actress, mother is Scottish
Julianne Moore, actress, mother is from Scotland
Agnes Moorehead
Marilyn Monroe, actress
Elizabeth Montgomery, actress
Robert Montgomery, film and television actor, director and producer; father of actress Elizabeth Montgomery
Jennifer Morrison, father is of Scottish descent
Jim Morrison, singer/songwriter of The Doors
Sean Murray, Australian mother and Australian-American father, both of Scottish ancestry
Timothy Olyphant, actor; his surname is a variant spelling of the Scottish Clan Oliphant
Mary-Louise Parker, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Aaron Paul, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Sara Paxton, father is of part Scottish ancestry
Nia Peeples, actress and singer
Lou Diamond Phillips, biological father was of mostly Scottish descent
Freddie Prinze Jr., actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Margaret Qualley, actress
Rachael Ray, television personality, chef
Burt Reynolds, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jason Ritter, actor, small amount of Scottish ancestry
AnnaSophia Robb, of part Scottish descent
Amber Rose, model, actress, mother is of half Scottish descent
Emma Roberts, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Julia Roberts, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Sarah Roemer, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Ginger Rogers, actress; born Virginia Katherine McMath
Mickey Rooney, actor, father was Scottish-born
Brandon Routh, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jane Russell
George C. Scott, actor
Seann William Scott, actor, Steve Stifler of American Pie, of part Scottish ancestry
Brooke Shields, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Alicia Silverstone, actress, mother is Scottish
Barbara Stanwyck, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jimmy Stewart, actor, Brigadier General (USAFR)
John Stewart, musician
Emma Stone, actress, of part Scottish descent
David Strathairn, actor, The River Wild, of part Scottish ancestry
Donald Sutherland, actor, of part Scottish descent
Kiefer Sutherland, actor, of mostly Scottish descent
Michael Tait, musician
Kate Upton, actress, model, of partial Scottish ancestry, Great-grandmother is of Scottish ancestry
Casper Van Dien, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Milo Ventimiglia, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Jurgen Vsych, film director, screenwriter and author
Christopher Walken, actor; mother was a Scottish immigrant
Kerry Washington, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
John Wayne, actor (both parents of part Scottish and Scots-Irish ancestry)
Sigourney Weaver, actress, father was of part Scottish ancestry
Kristen Wiig, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Olivia Wilde, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Michelle Williams, actress, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Patrick Wilson, small amount of Scottish ancestry
Katherine Waterston, actress
Reese Witherspoon, actress; Scottish ancestor John D. Witherspoon signed the Declaration of Independence
Steven Wright, comedian, actor and writer; Scottish and Italian descent
Alan Young, Film and Television Actor and voice actor
Joe Yule, comedian, burlesque and motion pictures
Cyma Zarghami, current president of Nickelodeon and MTV's Kids and Family Group (father Iranian, mother Scottish)
Zendaya, actress, singer (mother is of part Scottish descent)
Government and military
Creighton Abrams, U.S. Army general, commanded military operations in Vietnam from 1968–1972
John Adair
Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, U.S. Air Force pilot and astronaut, second man to walk on the Moon in 1969 on Apollo 11. First mission into space was Gemini 12 in 1966.
William Alexander, major-general during the American Revolutionary War
John Anderson, colonial governor of New Jersey in 1736
Matthew Arbuckle, general, closely identified with the Indian Territory (Oklahoma) for the last thirty years of his life; commanded Fort Smith near Indian Territory; established Forts Gibson and Towson in Indian Territory
Neil Armstrong, Naval aviator and astronaut, first man to walk on the Moon in 1969 on Apollo 11. First mission into space was Gemini 8 in 1966.
Chester A. Arthur, American president
John S. Barbour Jr.
Maryanne Trump Barry, Judge
Alan Bean, astronaut and fourth person to walk on the Moon in 1969 on Apollo 12
James B. Beck
Austin Blair
Sherrod Brown, Democratic Senator of Ohio
Jim Bowie, frontiersman and a defender of the Alamo
Omar N. Bradley, general
John Breathitt
George A. Bruce
Albert Bryant Jr.
Bay Buchanan
Pat Buchanan
Irvine Bulloch
Ambrose Burnside
Joseph R. Burton
George H. W. Bush, 41st president of the United States
George W. Bush, 43rd President of the United States
Jeb Bush, former Republican governor of Florida
John C. Caldwell
Archibald Campbell
Bill Campbell
George W. Campbell
John B. T. Campbell III
Thomas Mitchell Campbell
William Joseph Campbell
Wooda Nicholas Carr
Kit Carson
Richard Caswell
Chris Christie, former Republican governor of New Jersey
William Claflin, Governor of Massachusetts
George Rogers Clark
Grover Cleveland, 22nd and 24th President of the United States
Hillary Clinton, former U.S. Senator and First Lady of the United States, mother is of Scottish ancestry
Jack Coghill
Merian C. Cooper
Samuel W. Crawford, U.S. Army surgeon and Union general in the American Civil War
Davy Crockett, frontiersman, U.S. Congressman and a defender of the Alamo
Marcus Henderson Cruikshank
Alexander J. Dallas
George M. Dallas, Vice president of the United States, US Senator from Pennsylvania, Mayor of Philadelphia and Secretary of the Treasury. US Minister to Court of St. James and Russia
Howard Dean, Governor of Vermont
John Edwards
James E. Ferguson
Millard Fillmore, 13th President of the United States
William Fleming
James Florio, Governor of New Jersey
John B. Frazier
John Kenneth Galbraith, economist
Alexander Garden, American Revolutionary War soldier
James Lorraine Geddes
James Gilfillan, 13th Treasurer of the United States
Henry Bell Gilkeson
Newt Gingrich, former U.S. Congressman and Speaker of the House.
John Glenn, former U.S. Senator from Ohio, Marine Corps aviator and astronaut; first American to orbit the Earth, Mercury/Friendship 7
John B. Gordon, Confederate general
Arthur F. Gorham, World War II paratrooper and hero during the invasion of Sicily
Archibald Gracie III
Kirsten Gillibrand, U.S. Senator from New York
Ulysses S. Grant, 18th President of the United States, Union Army General, 1864 promoted to Lieutenant General and Commander of all the Union armies in American Civil War.
Charles McNeill Gray
Robert Gray
William Halsey Jr., Fleet Admiral during World War II in the Pacific theater
Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury
John Hancock, president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first and third Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and first signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence, known for his large signature
Steny Hoyer, Democratic House Majority leader in the 116th Congress, and a U.S. representative from Maryland's 5th congressional district
Warren G. Harding, 29th President of the United States
Rutherford B. Hayes, 19th President of the United States. Colonel of the 23rd Ohio in the American Civil War, Later Brevetted to Brigadier General then Major General during the Civil War
George Hairston, politician
Robert Hairston, politician, military officer
Patrick Henry, Revolutionary War officer, colonel of the 1st Virginia Infantry, known for the "give me liberty, or give me death!" speech
Harold G. Hoffman, Governor of New Jersey
William Hooper
Sam Houston, 1st and 3rd president of Texas and later 7th governor of Texas, 6th Governor of Tennessee 1827–1829, US Congressman from Tennessee and US Senator from Texas. Major General in the Texas Revolution. Defeated Santa Anna at Battle of San Jacinto. Opposed secession and remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War.
John Houstoun
Rufus Ingalls
James Iredell Jr., Governor of North Carolina
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd President of the United States
Samuel Johnston
John Paul Jones, Scottish-born, American Revolutionary War naval officer, American Admiral and Rear Admiral in the Imperial Russian Navy
Tim Kaine, US Senator from Virginia
John Kerry, former US Senator from Massachusetts, 2004 Democratic presidential nominee, US Secretary of State in Obama Administration
Henry Latimer
Roberta Lawson
Hugh Swinton Legaré, lawyer and politician of Huguenot and Scottish ancestry
Edward Livingston
Matthew B. Lowrie
Dan Lungren
Nathaniel Lyon, American general, first Union general killed in the Civil War in 1861 at the Battle of Wilson's Creek
Arthur MacArthur Jr., Union officer during the Civil War, American general, father of General Douglas MacArthur
Douglas MacArthur, five-star American Army General in the Pacific theater during World War II and commander of American forces in Korean War
John Lewis MacDonald
Clark MacGregor
Archibald T. MacIntyre, politician
George MacKinnon
Franklin MacVeagh
Duncan McArthur
Tom McClintock
Henry Dickerson McDaniel, Governor of Georgia
James McDivitt, Brig Gen, USAF, Ret., former astronaut, test pilot and aeronautical engineer who flew in the Gemini 4 and Apollo 9 missions
Irvin McDowell, American general, commanded Union forces at the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas)
Samuel McDowell
George B. McClellan, Union major general during the American Civil War; Democratic presidential nominee in 1864; later Governor of New Jersey; organized the Army of the Potomac; served briefly (November 1861 to March 1862) as the general-in-chief of the Union Army
Robert Mueller, lawyer and government official
Scott McClellan, former White House press secretary
John J. McCloy
Lachlan McIntosh
Mike McIntyre
Kenneth McKellar
Alexander McKenzie
William McKinley, 25th President of the United States, 3rd US President to be assassinated in 1901 on the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition at the Temple of Music in Buffalo, New York. McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War.
John McLane
Mack McLarty
James C. McLaughlin
Robert McNamara, U.S. Defense Secretary and President of the World Bank
Dan K. McNeill, American general
David Brydie Mitchell, Governor of Georgia
Walter Mondale, U.S. Senator from Minnesota, 1984 Democratic presidential nominee
James Monroe, 4th President of the United States
George Stephen Morrison, United States Navy rear admiral (upper half) and naval aviator, father of Jim Morrison, the lead singer of the rock band The Doors
Thomas Z. Morrow, Colonel of the 32nd Kentucky Infantry during the American Civil War
William Moultrie
Patty Murray Democratic United States Senator from Washington
Hugh Nelson
Francis G. Newlands
Gavin Newsom
Samuel D. Nicholson
Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States, first Black president of the United States, elected in 2008
David Paterson
George S. Patton, American general, commanded troops in North Africa and in Europe during World War 2
Thomas Baldwin Peddie
James K. Polk, 11th president of the United States
Colin Powell, former U.S. general and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, US Secretary of State
Marilyn Quayle, lawyer, wife of former vice president of the United States Dan Quayle; former second Lady of the United States
William Wilson Quinn, Director of the Strategic Service Unit, American general
Samuel Ralston, Governor of Indiana and US Senator
Ronald Reagan, 40th president of United States, governor of California
Jim Risch
Mitt Romney, Governor of Massachusetts and 2012 Republican presidential nominee
Theodore Roosevelt, 26th president of the United States, Former vice president of the United States, Governor of New York
Winfield Scott, general, veteran of War of 1812, commanded American Army of Occupation during the Mexican–American War in battles, i.e. Cerro Gordo and Chapultepec
Alan Shepard, Naval aviator and astronaut; first American in space and fifth man to walk on the Moon, Apollo 14
George Spalding
John C. Stennis, U.S. Senator from Mississippi
Ted Stevens, U.S. Senator from Alaska, U.S. Attorney and Solicitor of Interior
Jeb Stuart, Confederate cavalry general; commanded the cavalry corps in Lee's Army of Northern Virginia; killed at Battle of Yellow Tavern
William Howard Taft, 27th president of the United States, Chief Justice of the United States, United States Secretary of War, 1st Provisional Governor of Cuba, Governor-General of the Philippines, Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, United States Solicitor General
Edward Telfair, Governor of Georgia
David P. Thompson
George Troup, Governor of Georgia
Donald Trump, 45th president of the United States
James Webb, U. S. Senator, author of Born Fighting: How the Scots-Irish Shaped America (2004)
Alexander White
Heather Wilson
Malcolm Wilson
Woodrow Wilson, 28th president of the United States
Henry A. Wise, Confederate Brigadier General and Governor of Virginia
John Witherspoon, Scots Presbyterian minister and signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence
Inventors, engineers, and academics
Thomas Addis, physician and scientist
Sextus Barbour
Earl W. Bascom, inventor of rodeo equipment
Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone
Alexander Melville Bell
James Blair, founder of the College of William and Mary
Walter Houser Brattain, inventor of the transistor
George Harold Brown
James McGill Buchanan, economist
Nicholas Murray Butler
Joseph Campbell, professor of comparative mythology
William Wallace Campbell, astronomer
Allan McLeod Cormack
Donald J. Cram, shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Jean-Marie Lehn and Charles J. Pedersen
Alexander Garden, botanist; namesake of gardenia flower; physician and zoologist
William Harkness
Irving Langmuir
David MacAdam, color scientist
James Ross MacDonald, physicist
Kevin B. MacDonald, psychology professor at California State University
Colin Munro MacLeod
Katherine McAlpine
Richard Sears McCulloh
Andrew Cunningham McLaughlin, historian
Robert Burns Woodward, Nobel Prize-winning chemist
Musicians and singers
David Gunn, rapper and singer songwriter for American band KING 810
Billie Joe Armstrong, singer and guitarist for Green Day
Billie Eilish, singer-songwriter
Tim Armstrong, lead singer and guitarist for Rancid
Emilie Autumn
Joan Baez, singer-songwriter and activist; her mother was born in Edinburgh
Jeff Baxter, guitarist for Steely Dan
Shannon Bex, former member of Danity Kane
Wes Borland, of the band Limp Bizkit
Roy Buchanan, guitarist and blues musician; a pioneer of the Telecaster sound
David Byrne, musician, singer-songwriter of the band Talking Heads, born in Dumbarton
David Campbell
Glen Campbell, singer
Aaron Carter, singer
Nick Carter, singer
Johnny Cash, singer
Rosanne Cash, singer-songwriter; daughter of Johnny Cash
Kurt Cobain, American musician who was the lead singer, guitarist, and primary songwriter of the rock band Nirvana, of partial Scottish ancestry
Alice Cooper, rock singer
Miley Cyrus, pop and country singer, songwriter, actress, daughter of Billy Ray Cyrus and Tish Cyrus, sister of Noah Cyrus and ex of Nick Jonas and Liam Hemsworth
Brann Dailor, drummer for Mastodon
Glen Danzig, singer known for work with Misfits and Danzig
Jonathan Davis, lead singer and songwriter for Korn
Stacy "Fergie" Ferguson, singer best known as part of The Black Eyed Peas
Lana Del Rey, singer-songwriter; father and mother of Scottish descent/ancestry; family roots in Lanarkshire
Brandon Flowers, singer and keyboardist of The Killers
Dan Fogelberg, singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist
Alison Fraser
G-Eazy, (born 1989), rapper
Lady Gaga, maternal grandfather was of partial Scottish descent
Kim Gordon, singer/guitarist for Sonic Youth
Kina Grannis
Debbie Harry, of English and Scottish descent
Langston Hughes, African-American musician with some Scottish ancestry
Oscar Hammerstein II, writer of musicals of "Rodgers and Hammerstein" fame, Scottish grandparent
Gil-Scott Heron, African-American musician with some Scottish ancestry
James Hetfield, singer/rhythm guitarist of Metallica
Faith Hill
John S. Hilliard, composer
Brent Hinds, singer/guitarist for Mastodon
David Homyk
Alan Hovhaness
Alicia Keys, mother of mostly Italian and English descent with some Scottish and Irish ancestry
Chris Kirkpatrick, former member of N'Sync
Amy Lee, lead singer of Evanescence
Joanna Levesque, better known by her stage name JoJo
Tony MacAlpine, African American guitarist with Scottish ancestry
Adam MacDougall
Ian MacKaye, early hardcore and emo personality, noted for Minor Threat and Fugazi
Talitha MacKenzie, singer
Marshall "Eminem" Mathers, rapper
Mandy Moore, singer
Tim McAllister
Jesse McCartney, singer
Paul McCoy
Country Joe McDonald, lead singer of the 1960s psychedelic rock group Country Joe and the Fish
Tim McGraw, country music singer; father is Scots-Irish, mother is Italian-Irish
Ray McKinley
Jon McLaughlin, singer-songwriter
Don McLean
Katharine McPhee, pop and R&B musician
Ed McTaggart
Meat Loaf
Johnny Mercer
Brian Molko, lead singer of Placebo(mother Scottish)
Jim Morrison, singer, poet; father and mother of Scottish descent
Michael Nesmith, musician, actor, The Monkees
Mike Ness, guitarist and songwriter in the band Social Distortion
Wayne Newton, singer
Brad Paisley, country music singer
Tom Petty, guitarist and vocalist in the band Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers
Elvis Presley, singer
Bonnie Raitt, singer-songwriter
John Raitt, Broadway musical star
Doug Robb, musician and lead singer of rock band Hoobastank
Axl Rose, lead singer from Guns and Roses; of Scottish German descent
Ryan Ross, musician, previously with Panic! at the Disco and now with The Young Veins
Hillary Scott, singer-songwriter
Jessica Simpson, singer
Layne Staley, original lead singer of Alice in Chains
Gwen Stefani, singer
Izzy Stradlin, rock musician
Taylor Swift, country/pop singer
Carrie Underwood, singer-songwriter, and actress
Brendon Urie, lead singer of Panic! at the Disco
Gene Vincent, rockabilly singer
Kate Voegele, singer
Tom Waits, singer-songwriter
Sheila Walsh, Christian singer
Gerard Way, lead singer of My Chemical Romance
Mikey Way, bass guitarist for My Chemical Romance
Florence Welch, lead singer of Florence and the Machine
Jack White aka John Anthony Gillis, of The White Stripes
Native American leaders
Alexander McGillivray, Creek (Muscogee) chief
William McIntosh, Creek (Muscogee) military leader
Peter McQueen, Creek (Muscogee) military leader
Menawa, Creek (Muscogee) military leader
John Norton, Mohawk chief
John Ross, Cherokee chief
William Weatherford, Creek (Muscogee) military leader
Religion
John Fulton, Episcopal priest, journalist, and author
George Grant
John Menzies Macfarlane, hymn writer
Mike MacIntosh
David O. McKay, ninth president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), Scottish father
Scotty McLennan
Pat Robertson, founder and host of the 700 Club
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, through his mother Lucy Mack Smith
Sports
Robert Archibald, first Scottish NBA player
Tommy Armour III, professional golfer
Earl W. Bascom, rodeo pioneer, hall of fame inductee, "Father of Modern Rodeo"
Don Budge, tennis player
Gordon Burness
Roy Carlyle
Mickey Cochrane, Hall of Famer
Jason Castro, MLB player for Minnesota Twins
Meryl Davis, ice skater
Walter Dick, soccer player
Julian Edelman, professional football player
Brandon Forsyth, ice skater
Patrick Galbraith
Tony Gonzalez, former professional football player, father is of part Scottish ancestry
Jimmy Gallagher, soccer player who was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame
Malcolm Goldie, soccer player who won one cap for the US national team
Drew Galloway, professional wrestler
Hulk Hogan, former professional wrestler
John Harkes
Dan Henderson, wrestler
Josh Hamilton, Texas Rangers outfielder
Jack Hobens, golfer
Euan Holden, American soccer player currently playing for Danish team Vejle BK
Stuart Holden, US international soccer player, currently playing for Houston Dynamo
April Hunter, professional wrestler
Jock Hutchison
Chris Jericho, professional wrestler
Dominic Kinnear, US international soccer player and current head coach of Houston Dynamo, born in Glasgow
Bob MacDonald, former Major League Baseball player
Danny MacFayden, baseball player
Arthur Matsu, football player
Mac McClung, basketball player
Seth McClung
Charlie McCully, soccer player who won 11 caps for the US national team
Brandon McDonald
Shaun McDonald, American football player
Tommy McFarlane
Parker McLachlin
Jason McLaughlin, soccer player
Fred McLeod
Nate McLouth, baseballer currently playing for the Atlanta Braves
Doug McMillan
Jamie McMurray
Tommy Morrison, boxer
James Naismith, Canadian-born innovator, invented the game of basketball, member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame & FIBA Hall of Fame
Joe Ogilvie
Arnold Palmer, golfer
Michael Phelps
Roddy Piper, wrestler
Frank Ramsey
Aaron Rodgers
Jock Sutherland, American football player and coach
Bobby Thomson, baseball player
Lawrence Tynes, NFL Player
J. J. Watt, NFL Player for Houston Texans
Rube Waddell, Hall of Fame pitcher
Writers
Henry David Thoreau
Helen Adam
Louis Auchincloss
Paul Dayton Bailey
Lesley Bannatyne
Hugh Henry Brackenridge, writer
Quinn Bradlee, author
Carol Brink
Fredric Brown, short story writer
Erskine Caldwell
Taylor Caldwell
John Dickson Carr
Michael Crichton, author
Laurie York Erskine
William Faulkner, author
Alex Finlayson
B. C. Forbes, journalist and author who founded Forbes magazine
Esther Forbes, novelist and children's writer
Robert Frost, poet
Cork Graham, author; imprisoned in Vietnam for trespassing while looking for treasure buried by Captain Kidd
Alex Haley, author of Roots
Alice Henderson
Robert E. Howard, author of the Conan fantasy series
Washington Irving
Garrison Keillor, author, storyteller, humorist, and radio personality; host of the Minnesota Public Radio show A Prairie Home Companion
Steven Keillor
Will Leitch
Amy MacDonald
Sally MacKenzie
Norman Maclean, author of A River Runs Through It
Archibald MacLeish, modernist poet, Pulitzer Prize winner and Librarian of Congress
Sean McAdam
Helen McCloy
David McCullough
Richard McCulloch
Dennis McDougal
Al McIntosh, distinguished newspaper editor
Larry McMurty
Judith McNaught
James Alan McPherson
Herman Melville
Edgar Allan Poe, short story writer, poet and critic
Sally Quinn, author
J. D. Salinger, writer of The Catcher in the Rye
Phyllis Schlafly, politically conservative, anti-abortion activist and writer
Upton Sinclair, Pulitzer Prize–winning author
Mark Twain, author
Thomas Clayton Wolfe, author whose mother was Scots-Irish
Other
Tom Bendelow
Alfred Blalock, surgeon
Catherine Wolfe Bruce
Pat Buchanan, paleoconservative political commentator, nativist, author, syndicated columnist, politician, and broadcaster; former conservative host of CNN Crossfire
Erin Burnett, CNN news anchor; maternal great-grandfather was a Scottish immigrant
Mary Katherine Campbell (1905–1990), Miss America titleholder 1922 and 1923, first runner-up in 1924
Butch Cassidy
William Sloane Coffin
Virgil Earp
Wyatt Earp
Mary Baker Eddy, founder of the Christian Science movement
William Henry Farquhar
Jenna Bush Hager, journalist, news personality, author
Ilan Hall, chef
Arlo Hemphill
Doc Holliday, gambler,
Indiana Jones, fictional archeologist, associate dean, college professor, adventurer and soldier
Kennedy, political commentator for Fox News
Lincoln Loud, fictional character, main protagonist in the Nickelodeon animated series The Loud House
Barbour Lathrop
Malcolm X, militant and religious leader
Flora MacDonald (emigrated to America after failure of Jacobite rising of 1745)
Ranald MacDonald, first person to teach the English language in Japan
Catharine MacKinnon
Jane McCrea
George Henry Mackenzie
Lisa McPherson, Scientologist whose death was a source of much controversy for the Church of Scientology
Lee Miller
David Muir, television journalist. His paternal great-grandfather was Scottish
John Muir, naturalist
Charlie Rose, television journalist, talk show host
Trump Family
Barron, youngest child of Donald Trump
Don Jr, businessman, philanthropist
Eric, businessman, philanthropist
Ivanka, businesswoman, author, fashion designer
Mary Anne MacLeod Trump, philanthropist and mother of Donald Trump
Tiffany, socialite, model
See also
List of Scots
Scottish Canadians
References
External links
Scottish Americans
Website of An Comunn Gáidhealach Ameireaganach
Scottish Americans
Scottish
Americans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withrow%2C%20Minnesota
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Withrow, Minnesota
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Withrow is an unincorporated community located in the city of Grant, Washington County, Minnesota, United States. Formerly an unincorporated village on the edge of the Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area, Withrow was located in three different local government jurisdictions: May Township, Grant Township, and Oneka Township. The village had a post office and general store in May Township and a railroad station in Oneka. Withrow is located northeast of White Bear Lake and northwest of Stillwater.
Withrow was established when the Minneapolis and St. Croix Railroad, which later merged with the Soo Line Railroad, was extended through Washington County in 1883. The village was named after Thomas Joshua Withrow, a farmer from Nova Scotia who had settled in the area in 1874. The well-drained, sandy soils around Withrow made it ideal for growing potatoes. Withrow was formally platted in 1914, but it was never incorporated; a petition to incorporate was denied in 1947, since Withrow did not meet the population requirement of fifty inhabitants. Immigrants to the area were primarily French-Canadian, Irish, and German.
The center of Withrow today is generally considered to be the intersection of Keystone Avenue North and 119th Street North. The portion of the community that was located in Section 36 of Oneka Township was absorbed by Hugo in January 1972; the portion that was located in Section2 of Grant Township was absorbed into Grant Township when it was incorporated as a city in November 1996. A small portion of Withrow existed in Section 31 of May Township; that section contains the Keystone Weddings and Events Center (formerly the Withrow Ballroom) and the cemetery.
The Stillwater Area School District, ISD #834, maintained an elementary school at Withrow until 2017. Withrow is currently considered to be a distinct residential and business district instead of an official village. Today, the district contains a few small businesses, a private school, and a handful of residential homes.
History
The three townships that now contain parts of Withrow were surveyed in 1847 and 1848.
The Withrow family and notable Withrow residents
The settlement was named for Thomas Joshua Withrow.
Establishment and community
The Minneapolis & St. Croix Railroad was extended through Washington County in 1883, giving rise to the village of Withrow. A cooperative creamery was built south of the tracks in 1896, bringing farmers into the area on a daily basis. An ice house was located behind the creamery, containing ice blocks harvested from School Section Lake, about north of Withrow; the ice kept the butter cool during warm weather. A separate creamery building housed the butter maker. The Withrow Creamery gained much prestige and a larger market after winning second prize for best creamery butter at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904. Butter was originally sold in bulk form only; later, it was cut in blocks and wrapped. The creamery closed in 1930 and later became a feed mill, a restaurant, the Onekan store, and then a bar with risqué entertainment, Stan's Withrow Junction, before burning in a fire reported by the Soo Line depot agent in the early morning hours on November 22, 1979.
South of the creamery, the Interstate Lumber Company maintained a machine shop which sold Minnesota Machinery farm equipment made by inmates at the state prison, as well as repair parts and hardware. After the lumberyard burned down in 1944, Interstate Lumber made a large addition to this building to accommodate their lumber sales, but sold the building due to dwindling sales. The former machine shop was later used as a manufacturing facility for fiberglass toboggans, a cabinet shop and construction business, a residence, a beauty shop, a convenience store, and two taverns, and became the east side of Sal's Angus Grill in 2003. Interstate Lumber Company also owned a coal shed near the depot. Coal from rail cars would be unloaded in the building, and wagons would be backed up behind the building to pick up an order of coal. Lumber was unloaded at the depot and reloaded on to horse-drawn wagons for transport to the lumber yard.
By the early 1900s the village had acquired several general stores selling a variety of items including general merchandise, produce, grain, flour, hay rakes, and fresh butchered meats. A blacksmith provided horseshoeing, wagon repair, and other metal fabrication. Potato warehouses stored bags of potatoes until they could be shipped by rail to market. A combination barbershop and pool hall was the only place in town where one could get a hair cut, shoot pool, have a sandwich, and purchase an ice cream cone; dry cleaning could also be dropped off there for pickup by a company in Stillwater. Adjacent to the barbershop and pool hall was a well-fortified building, constructed in 1913, which housed the Withrow State Bank. The bank was robbed only once, around 1920, and was permanently closed in 1923. The building was leased afterwards as living quarters, then housed the post office in the mid- to late 1940s. By 1910 there was also a Chevrolet dealership and garage, which generated power using gasoline engines to run the lights in the dance hall above the Kinyon Store. The land south of the railroad tracks was surveyed and platted into lots; the map was filed at the Washington County Courthouse on December 13, 1914. In 1947 the community voted to incorporate as a village, but the petition was denied because Withrow did not meet the population requirement of fifty inhabitants.
Withrow was a viable community while the railroad dominated shipping. However, in the 1920s, roads were being improved, and farmers started hauling their own potatoes and cattle to market, and milk producers from Minneapolis–St. Paul began picking up milk directly from the farms. Less grain such as wheat, oats, and barley were being grown, and the grain elevator ceased operation in the mid-1920s. A special train carrying cattle would come through Withrow every Wednesday at 8:00pm. Farmers would bring their cattle to the stockyard, weigh them on a nearby scale, and load them into a stock car bound for the stockyards in South St. Paul. This practice also ended in the mid-1920s, and the stockyard was dismantled. A feed mill was located on the north side of the tracks, next to the Lambert General Store, which sold mainly groceries, candy and ice cream; a pool table and barbershop were located in the basement. The grinder of the feed mill was run by a 20-horsepower gasoline engine with a flywheel which was located in the basement of the building. It made a distinctive noise which could be heard from some distance away. The store's proximity to the depot made it a favorite for passengers waiting for a train and railroad workers alike. Fire destroyed the store in the early 1920s. The Germans constructed the only church in the area, St. Matthew's Lutheran church, southeast of Withrow. A wooden church was built in 1874 and replaced with a brick structure in 1899. In 1904 it burned down after a lightning strike and was rebuilt except for the steeple. The church is now home to the St. Croix Ballet.
At the height of its population from 1900 to 1950, Withrow had a baseball team, the Gophers, a Woodmen of the World Camp, a Mothers club, a 4-H club, and a Community Club. The Community Club was the focal point of social activity in Withrow. It was founded in the early 1920s and held monthly meetings. The membership fee included free admission to club-sponsored dances at Zahler's Withrow Ballroom. It disbanded in 1949 as residents lost interest. As late as 1978, Withrow also had a Girl Scout troop, #1292, and as late as 2012, a Boy Scout troop, #169.
Withrow is a popular destination for bicyclists and motorcyclists. The March of Dimes utilized the old Chevrolet garage at the intersection of Keystone Avenue (formerly Washington County Road68, formerly Washington County Road8) and Washington County Road9 as a checkpoint for their Bike-A-Thon fundraisers in the 1970s, and many Twin Cities bicycle clubs conduct time trials on a circuitous route that begins and ends at the former Withrow Elementary School. The Warlords motorcycle club was founded in Withrow in 1972.
Post office
Withrow had an official U.S. post office from 1890 to 1963, and a rural branch office from 1963 to 1966. The post office opened on June 11, 1890, in the rear of the B. W. Ellis general store; Ellis was the postmaster. In 1909 fire destroyed the store, and stamps and documents pertaining to the U.S. postal service were lost. After the fire, Clarence LeRoy Kinyon, who had been the mail carrier, reopened the store and post office, selling hardware, groceries, fabric, and clothing. The post office relocated to the former Withrow State Bank building in the mid- to late 1940s, and relocated again to the former Kinyon house, which had been purchased by William and Vivian Guse, in 1950; the post office was moved to the porch of the house, where residents could pick up mail from their P.O. boxes, buy stamps, and mail packages. Vivian Guse was the postmistress until 1966. The mail pouch was brought to the train depot daily and hung on the mail hook, where it was picked up by a passing train. In 1962 the Guses opened the Withrow Tavern and a small grocery store selling Gulf gasoline in the old creamery building, locating the post office there until mail delivery was taken over by rural route carrier. The Kinyon general store building was destroyed by fire in 1981.
Railroads
The rise of the lumber industry quickly led to population booms in cities like Stillwater, and railroads hauled the lumber. Communities sprang up around the railroads. The Minneapolis & St. Croix Railroad was extended through Washington County in 1883; in 1888, this railroad merged with three others to form the Soo Line Railroad.
Two rail lines converged at Withrow, making it an important railway and telegraph station; in 1887, a depot was built that turned out to be far larger than the village ever needed. At one point, the railroad maintained telegraph operators and depot agents 24 hours a day, with at least one permanently assigned depot agent. It was a busy place, with nearly thirty freight trains and passenger trains coming through town daily, and a favorite rest stop for transients riding the rails. The rail crossing at Withrow took a heavy toll of victims over the years. After the creamery closed, the Soo Line bought the building which had housed the butter maker as a residence for the station agent. The number of trains dropped to sixteen in the early 1960s; only four of those were passenger trains, and Withrow became a flag stop. Like many towns dependent on the railroad, Withrow lost much of its industry with the passing of the railroad era. The Soo Line discontinued passenger service to Withrow in 1963.
In July 1990, a Soo Line crane and flatcar traveled to Withrow and demolished the Withrow depot.
The Canadian National Railway's Dresser Subdivision at Withrow has been taken out of service.
Schools
Before 1955, there were three schools located in the Withrow area. Each school was known by a number. School #10, a one-room schoolhouse, was on 100th Street and Lansing Avenue North. School #40, another one-room schoolhouse, was located on Lynch Road. On the west side of the intersection of Washington County Road7 and County Road8A in Oneka Township was a third one-room school, #51, built in 1871. The first teacher at this school was Mary Withrow, with an enrollment of 32 students. Clarence LeRoy Kinyon owned straddling County Road7 at this location, and this school came to be known as the Kinyon School. In 1877 a new school district was organized, and this school was renumbered #63. Thomas Withrow became a member of the new school board, and enrollment increased to 56 students, with Lizzie Withrow appointed as the teacher.
In March 1952 the Board of Education for the Stillwater area made the recommendation to replace the inadequate school buildings with a new school with more classrooms to provide for increased enrollment. The specific recommendation was to purchase a site of at least in or near Withrow as the site of a new elementary school. The school was to have three classrooms, a kindergarten, a multi-purpose room, and office and storage space. The estimated cost of construction was $165,000. The school was built in 1955 in the southeast corner of what was then Oneka Township, north of County Road7, about west of the intersection with County Road15, on of land originally owned by Thomas Withrow. Many additions were made over time, with the last addition to the building made in 1997. In 2008 Withrow Elementary was used as a location for the film Killer Movie.
Withrow Elementary was in the Stillwater Area School District, ISD #834, and served 219 students from kindergarten through sixth grade. A STEM school, it was ranked fourteenth among 842 elementary schools in Minnesota, with specialists in music, physical education, media, and art. In 2012 it was rated a National Blue Ribbon School by the U.S. Department of Education.
In December 2015 the Stillwater Area School District, as a part of its Building Opportunities to Learn and Discover (BOLD) program, proposed the closure of Withrow Elementary along with two other elementary schools in the northern part of the school district due to low enrollment, despite the passage of a $97.5million bond earlier that year that would have funded improvements to Withrow Elementary. Parents protested, fearing that placement of students into larger schools and classrooms would result in lower standardized test scores and academic performance, and higher dropout rates, school violence, and bullying. The school district argued that the closures and reallocation of funds were necessary due to population growth in the southern half of the school district. Several legal challenges were filed against the school district, individual school board members, and school district administrators, citing significant conflicts of interest and open-meeting violations. Despite these protests and legal challenges, Withrow Elementary was closed on May 31, 2017.
On November 4, 2021, the Stillwater Area School District accepted an offer of $1.4million for the vacant Withrow Elementary School from an anonymous donor on behalf of a private school, Liberty Classical Academy.
Withrow Ballroom
The Kinyon general store had a dance hall on the second floor and held dances on Saturday nights. Dances were well attended, and the hitching rail to the south of the building was often full of horses. There was no indoor plumbing at the time, so the dance hall's lavatory, attached to the back of the building, was a two-story outhouse. The dance hall was condemned by the state as a fire hazard having only one exit in the late 1920s. Bernard and Anna Zahler, who lived on the old Withrow farm, offered to build a new ballroom. They bought the empty grain elevator, had it dismantled, and used the lumber to build a new ballroom. Zahler's Withrow Ballroom was built on the site of the old blacksmith shop in 1928, and is the oldest ballroom in the state of Minnesota. The first dance was held on the Fourth of July. The band was a local group of musicians who were paid five dollars each. Admission was 25 cents, soft drinks were five cents, and near beer (a beverage that arose during Prohibition) was available to patrons. Identified as an historic landmark in May Township, the ballroom and hardwood dance floor are widely regarded as one of the best rooms for live music in the Twin Cities. The couple sold the ballroom to their son, Ed Zahler Sr., in 1946, after managing the place for nearly twenty years. Ed Zahler Sr. received a liquor license for the Withrow Ballroom in 1950. It was basically a BYOB license, so customers would bring their own bottles, but the bar would sell the mixers. Ed and Gertrude Zahler continued the tradition of polka dances, but during the late 1950s, musical tastes started to change. Rock and roll became more popular than the traditional polka music of the area's German immigrant farmers, and Ed began to introduce rock and roll music, playing rock records during intermissions. Ed Zahler Jr. purchased the ballroom from his father in 1974, adding large picture windows, food, and a kitchen, and made the venue available for weddings and catered events.
After ownership by three generations of Zahlers, Marvin and Mary Jane Babcock purchased the ballroom from Ed Zahler Jr. in 1983, renaming it the "Withrow Ballroom", and turning it over to their son Mark and his future wife Lori in 1985. When Mark Babcock purchased the facility, the Withrow Ballroom was a white rectangular box in the middle of a corn field. At that time Washington County had more horses per capita than anywhere else in the country, so Babcock added a gazebo to the property and had the place remodeled to look like a Kentucky horse farm, complete with cupolas on the roof, an arched entrance, and of white fencing. The ballroom was sold to Keith and Kim Warner in 1997, then to Scott and Kimberly Aamodt in 2001. The Aamodts added dance lessons with the concept of expanding the Withrow Ballroom to include a future conference center, motel, bar, and restaurant. The ballroom closed on November 1, 2008, a consequence of the great recession, and the building went into foreclosure. A pending sale of the Withrow Ballroom fell through in February 2009, when prospective owner Molly Behmyer withdrew her application to May township for a conditional use permit, which would have allowed the ballroom to remain open seven days a week. John Rawson of Hugo subsequently formed the non-profit Withrow Historical Society in the hope of acquiring and preserving the Withrow Ballroom. In November 2009 Paul Bergmann bought the ballroom and expanded the facility's events to include a dinner theater and classic car and tractor shows, selling the Ballroom at auction in 2017 to Laura Miron Mendele. Lawrence Xiong purchased the facility from Mendele in December 2019, who rebranded the ballroom as the Keystone Wedding and Events Center.
Many popular musicians have played at the Withrow Ballroom, including the Six Fat Dutchmen, the Lamont Cranston Band, Bobby Z., and Grammy-award winning musicians Yanni and Jonny Lang, in addition to many local bands and comedians, including Kevin Farley. The Withrow Ballroom has hosted the Minnesota Bluegrass and Old Time Music Festival and the Minnesota State Polka Festival. It has been the setting for hundreds of fundraisers (including a fundraiser for Zach Sobiech), and a venue for conferences, class reunions, wedding receptions, ceremonies and anniversaries.
Geography
Withrow is located in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province in the ecological subsection of the St. Paul–Baldwin Plains, which consists of oak woodland, oak savanna, and prairie. Oak woodland and brushland was a common ecotonal type between tallgrass prairie and the Eastern deciduous forest. When the area was originally settled, vegetation consisted of oak openings and barrens: scattered areas and groves of oaks (mostly bur oak and pin oak) of scrubby form, with some brush and occasional pines, maples, and basswoods. Land cover today mostly consists of cultivated crops, pasture, and hay, along with scattered deciduous forests of oak and aspen, hazelnut thickets, and prairie openings. A grove of black walnut trees lines the east side of Keystone Avenue at its intersection with County Road9.
Brown's Creek has its source near Withrow.
The bedrock formations of Washington County at Withrow are part of regionally extensive, gently sloping layers of sandstone, shale, and carbonate rock.
Climate
Withrow is in the northern continental United States and is characterized by a cool, subhumid climate with a large temperature difference between the summer and winter seasons. Winters are very cold, and summers are fairly short and warm. Snow covers the ground much of the time from late fall through early spring. Average summer temperatures are approximately June through August, and winter temperatures are approximately December through February. July is the warmest month, when the average high temperature is and the average low is . January is the coldest, with an average high temperature of and average low of . Its Köppen climate classification is Dfa. Annual normal precipitation ranges from in the north to in the south, and the growing season precipitation averages . The average growing season length ranges from 146 to 156 days. Normal annual snowfall totals about . It was a newsworthy event whenever the snowplow came through Withrow.
Withrow lies at an elevation of in Washington County, Minnesota, northeast of St. Paul. Withrow is located northeast of White Bear Lake and northwest of Stillwater, north of Minnesota State Highway 96 and east of U.S. Highway 61. The last year Withrow appeared on the Official Minnesota State Highway Map was 2012.
See also
List of ghost towns in the United States
References
Sources
1883 establishments in Minnesota
Geography of Washington County, Minnesota
Populated places established in 1883
Unincorporated communities in Washington County, Minnesota
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drill%20cuttings
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Drill cuttings
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Drill cuttings are broken bits of solid material removed from a borehole drilled by rotary, percussion, or auger methods and brought to the surface in the drilling mud. Boreholes drilled in this way include oil or gas wells, water wells, and holes drilled for geotechnical investigations or mineral exploration.
The drill cuttings are commonly examined to make a record (a well log) of the subsurface materials penetrated at various depths. In the oil industry, this is often called a mud log.
Drill cuttings are produced as the rock is broken by the drill bit advancing through the rock or soil; the cuttings are usually carried to the surface by drilling fluid circulating up from the drill bit. Drill cuttings can be separated from liquid drilling fluid by shale shakers, by centrifuges, or by cyclone separators, the latter also being effective for air drilling. In cable-tool drilling, the drill cuttings are periodically bailed out of the bottom of the hole. In auger drilling, cuttings are carried to the surface on the auger flights.
One drilling method that does not produce drill cuttings is core drilling, which instead produces solid cylinders of rock or soil.
Management of drill cuttings
Drill cuttings carried by mud (drilling fluid) are usually retrieved at the surface of the platform where they go through shakers or vibrating machines to separate the cuttings from the drilling fluid, this process allows the circulating fluid to re-enter the drilling process.
Samples from the cuttings are then studied by mud loggers and wellsite geologist. In the oil and gas industry the operator will likely require a set of samples for further analysis in their labs. Many national regulations stipulate that for any well drilled, a set of samples must be archived with a national body. For example, in the case of the UK with the British Geological Survey (BGS).
The bulk of the cuttings require disposal. The methodology for disposal is dependent on the type of drilling fluid used. For water based drilling fluid (WBM) with no particular dangerous additives, the cuttings can be dumped overboard (in offshore scenario). If however an oil based drilling fluid (OBM) is used then the cuttings must be processed before disposal. Either in skips and transported to a dedicated facility (aka skip and ship), or now there are mobile plants that can process them at the rigsite burning off the drilling fluid contamination. This saves the logistics and cost of transporting such quantities of cuttings. Although possibly thought of as an uninteresting topic, if in a skip and ship scenario, the dependency on crane operations to move skips can lead to situations whereby bad weather halts drilling as the cuttings handling cannot continue.
Disposal as waste
Burial
Burial is the placement of waste in man-made or natural excavations, such as pits or landfills. Burial is the most common onshore disposal technique used for disposing of drilling wastes (mud and cuttings). Generally, the solids are buried in the same pit (the reserve pit) used for collection and temporary storage of the waste mud and cuttings after the liquid is allowed to evaporate. Pit burial is a low-cost, low-tech method that does not require wastes to be transported away from the well site, and, therefore, is very attractive to many operators.
Burial may be the most misunderstood or misapplied disposal technique. Simply pushing the walls of the reserve pit over the drilled cuttings is generally not acceptable. The depth or placement of the burial cell is important. A moisture content limit should be established on the buried cuttings, and the chemical composition should be determined. Onsite pit burial may not be a good choice for wastes that contain high concentrations of oil, salt, biologically available metals, industrial chemicals, and other materials with harmful components that could migrate from the pit and contaminate usable water resources.
In some oil field areas, large landfills are operated to dispose of oil field wastes from multiple wells. Burial usually results in anaerobic conditions, which limits any further degradation when compared with wastes that are land-farmed or land-spread, where aerobic conditions predominate.
Application to land surfaces
The objective of applying drilling wastes to the land is to allow the soil's naturally occurring microbial population to metabolize, transform, and assimilate waste constituents in place. Land application is a form of bioremediation are described in a separate fact sheet.
Several terms are used to describe this waste management approach, which can be considered both treatment and disposal. In general, land farming refers to the repeated application of wastes to the soil surface, whereas land spreading and land treatment are often used interchangeably to describe the one-time application of wastes to the soil surface. Some practitioners do not follow the same terminology convention, and may interchange all three terms. Readers should focus on the technologies rather than on the specific names given to each process.
Optimal land application techniques balance the additions of waste against a soil's capacity to assimilate the waste constituents without destroying soil integrity, creating subsurface soil contamination problems, or causing other adverse environmental impacts.
Land farming
The exploration and production industry has used land farming to treat oily petroleum industry wastes for years. Land farming is the controlled and repeated application of wastes to the soil surface, using microorganisms in the soil to naturally biodegrade hydrocarbon constituents, dilute and attenuate metals, and transform and assimilate waste constituents.
Land farming can be a relatively low-cost drilling waste management approach. Some studies indicate that land farming does not adversely affect soils and may even benefit certain sandy soils by increasing their water-retaining capacity and reducing fertilizer losses. Inorganic compounds and metals are diluted in the soil, and may also be incorporated into the matrix (through chelation, exchange reactions, covalent bonding, or other processes) or may become less soluble through oxidation, precipitation, and pH effects. The attenuation of heavy metals (or the taking up of metals by plants) can depend on clay content and cation-exchange capacity.
Optimizing Land Farm Operations: The addition of water, nutrients, and other amendments (e.g., manure, straw) can increase the biological activity and aeration of the soil, thereby preventing the development of conditions that might promote leaching and mobilization of inorganic contaminants. During periods of extended dry conditions, moisture control may also be needed to minimize dust.
Periodic tillage of the mixture (to increase aeration) and nutrient additions to the waste-soil mixture can enhance aerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons. After applying the wastes, hydrocarbon concentrations are monitored to measure progress and determine the need for enhancing the biodegradation processes. Application rates should be controlled to minimize the potential for runoff.
Pretreating the wastes by composting and activating aerobic biodegradation by regular turning (windrows) or by forced ventilation (biopiles) can reduce the amount of acreage required for land farming (Morillon et al. 2002).
Drilling Waste Land Farm Example: In 1995, HS Resources, an oil and gas company operating in Colorado, obtained a permit for a noncommercial land farm to treat and recycle the company's nonhazardous oil field wastes, including drilling muds. At the land farm, wastes mixed with soil contaminated with hydrocarbons from other facilities are spread in a layer one foot thick or less. Natural bacterial action is enhanced through occasional addition of commercial fertilizers, monthly tilling (to add oxygen), and watering (to maintain 10–15% moisture content). Treatment is considered complete when hydrocarbon levels reach concentrations specified by regulatory agencies; not all agencies employ the same acceptability standards. Water and soil are monitored periodically to confirm that no adverse soil or groundwater impacts have occurred, and records of the source and disposition of the remediated soil are maintained. Estimated treatment costs, which include transportation, spreading, amendments, and monitoring, are about $4–5 per cubic yard. When the treated material is recycled as backfill, net costs are about $1 per cubic yard. Capital costs (not included in the treatment cost estimates) were recovered within the first eight months of operation (Cole and Mark 2000).
Implementation Considerations: Advantages of land farming include its simplicity and low capital cost, the ability to apply multiple waste loadings to the same parcel of land, and the potential to improve soil conditions. Concerns associated with land farming are its high maintenance costs (e.g., for periodic land tilling, fertilizer); potentially large land requirements; and required analysis, testing, demonstration, and monitoring. Elevated concentrations of hydrocarbon in drilling wastes can limit the application rate of a waste on a site.
Wastes containing salt must also be applied to soil only with care. Salt, unlike hydrocarbons, cannot biodegrade but may accumulate in soils, which have a limited capacity to accept salts. If salt levels become too high, the soils may be damaged and treatment of hydrocarbons can be inhibited. Salts are soluble in water and can be managed. Salt management is part of prudent operation of a land farm.
Another concern with land farming is that while lower molecularweight petroleum compounds biodegrade efficiently, higher molecular weight compounds biodegrade more slowly. This means that repeated applications can lead to accumulation of high molecular weight compounds. At high concentrations, these recalcitrant constituents can increase soil-water repellency, affect plant growth, reduce the ability of the soil to support a diverse community of organisms, and render the land farm no longer usable without treatment or amendment. Recent studies have supported the idea that field-scale additions of earthworms with selected organic amendments may hasten the long-term recovery of conventionally treated petroleum contaminated soil. The burrowing and feeding activities of earthworms create space and allow food resources to become available to other soil organisms that would be unable to survive otherwise. The use of earthworms in Europe has improved the biological quality of soils of some large-scale land-reclamation projects.
When considering land farming as a waste management option, several items should be considered. These include site topography, site hydrology, neighboring land use, and the physical (texture and bulk density) and chemical composition of the waste and the resulting waste-soil mixture. Wastes that contain large amounts of oil and various additives may have diverse effects on parts of the food chain. Constituents of particular concern include pH, nitrogen (total mass), major soluble ions (Ca, Mg, Na, Cl), electrical conductivity, total metals, extractable organic halogens, oil content, and hydrocarbons. Oil-based muds typically utilize an emulsified phase of 20 to 35 percent by weight CaCl2 brine. This salt can be a problem in some areas, such as some parts of Canada, the mid-continent, and the Rocky Mountains. For this reason, alternative mud systems have emerged that use an environmentally preferred beneficial salt, such as calcium nitrate or potassium sulfate, as the emulsified internal water phase.
Wastes that contain significant levels of biologically available heavy metals and persistent toxic compounds are not good candidates for land farming, as these substances can accumulate in the soil to a level that renders the land unfit for further use (E&P Forum 1993). (Site monitoring can help ensure such accumulation does not occur.) Land farms may require permits or other approvals from regulatory agencies, and, depending on soil conditions, some land farms may require liners and/or groundwater monitoring wells.
Land treatment
In land treatment (also known as land spreading), the processes are similar to those in land farming, where natural soil processes are used to biodegrade the organic constituents in the waste. However, in land treatment, a one-time application of the waste is made to a parcel of land. The objective is to dispose of the waste in a manner that preserves the subsoil's chemical, biological, and physical properties by limiting the accumulation of contaminants and protecting the quality of surface and groundwater. The land spreading area is determined on the basis of a calculated loading rate that considers the absolute salt concentration, hydrocarbon concentration, metals concentration, and pH level after mixing with the soil. The drilling waste is spread on the land and incorporated into the upper soil zone (typically upper 6–8 inches of soil) to enhance hydrocarbon volatization and biodegradation. The land is managed so that the soil system can degrade, transport, and assimilate the waste constituents. Each land treatment site is generally used only once.
Optimizing Land Treatment Operations: Addition of water, nutrients, and other amendments (e.g., manure, straw) can increase the biological activity/aeration of the soil and prevent the development of conditions that might promote leaching and mobilization of inorganic contaminants. During periods of extended dry conditions, moisture control may also be needed to minimize dust. Periodic tillage of the mixture (to increase aeration) and nutrient additions to the waste soil mixture can enhance aerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons, although in practice not all land treatment projects include repeated tilling. After applying the wastes, hydrocarbon concentrations may be monitored to measure progress and determine the need for enhancing the biodegradation processes.
Implementation Considerations: Because land spreading sites receive only a single application of waste, the potential for accumulation of waste components in the soil is reduced (as compared with land farming, where waste is applied repeatedly). Although liners and monitoring of leachate are typically not required at land treatment sites, site topography, hydrology, and the physical and chemical composition of the waste and resultant waste-soil mixture should be assessed, with waste application rates controlled to minimize the possibility of runoff.
Experiments conducted in France showed that after spreading oil-based mud cuttings on farmland, followed by plowing, tilling, and fertilizing, approximately 10% of the initial quantity of the oil remained in the soil. Phytotoxic effects on seed germination and sprouting were not observed, but corn and wheat crop yields decreased by 10%. Yields of other crops were not affected. The percentage of hydrocarbon reduction and crop yield performance will vary from site to site depending on many factors (e.g., length of time after application, type of hydrocarbon, soil chemistry, temperature).
Land spreading costs are typically $2.50 to $3.00 per barrel of water-based drilling fluids not contaminated with oil, and they could be higher for oily wastes containing salts (Bansal and Sugiarto 1999). Costs also depend on sampling and analytical requirements.
Advantages of land spreading are the low treatment cost and the possibility that the approach could improve soil characteristics. Land spreading is most effectively used for drilling wastes that have low levels of hydrocarbons and salts. Potential concerns include the need for large land areas; the relatively slow degradation process (the rate of biodegradation is controlled by the inherent biodegradation properties of the waste constituents, soil temperature, soil-water content, and contact between the microorganisms and the wastes); and the need for analyses, tests, and demonstrations. Also, high concentrations of soluble salts or metals can limit the use of land spreading.
When evaluating land spreading as a drilling waste management option, several items should be considered. These include area-wide topographical and geological features; current and likely future activities around the disposal site; hydrogeologic data (location, size, and direction of flow for existing surface water bodies and fresh or usable aquifers); natural or existing drainage patterns; nearby environmentally sensitive features such as wetlands, urban areas, historical or archeological sites, and protected habitats; the presence of endangered species; and potential air quality impacts. In addition, historical rainfall distribution data should be reviewed to establish moisture requirements for land spreading and predict net evaporation rates. Devices needed to control water flow into, onto, or from facility systems should be identified. Wastes should be characterized during the evaluation; drilling wastes with high levels of hydrocarbons and salts may not be appropriate for land spreading.
Recycling
Some cuttings can be beneficially reused. Before the cuttings can be reused or recycled, it may be necessary to follow steps to ensure the hydrocarbon and chloride content are lowered to within the standards for reuse of appropriate governing bodies.
Reuse of cuttings through road spreading is permitted in some areas. To do this may require permission from both appropriate governing agencies as well as land owners.
Drill cuttings can also be recycled for use as bulk particulate solid construction materials such as road base for site roads and pads. The cuttings must first be screened and dried, before being processed in a pugmill or similar mixing method. Drilling waste can also be recycled in mixes for other large, substantially monolithic specialized concrete structures.
References
Bansal, K. M., and Sugiarto, 1999, "Exploration and Production Operations - Waste Management A Comparative Overview: U.S. and Indonesia Cases", SPE 54345, SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference, Jakarta, Indonesia, April 20–22, 1999.
Callahan, M. A., A. J. Stewart, C. Alarcon, and S. J. McMillen, 2002, "Effects of Earthworm (Eisenia Fetida) and Wheat (Triticum Aestivum) Straw Additions on Selected Properties of Petroleum-Contaminated Soils", Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Vol. 21, No. 8, pp. 1658–1663.
Cole, E., and S. Mark, 2000, "E&P Waste: Manage It Cost Effectively through Land Farming", World Oil, August Vol. 221, No. 8.
E&P Forum, 1993, "Exploration and Production (E&P) Waste Management Guidelines", Report No. 2.58/196, September.
Morillon, A., J. F. Vidalie, U. S. Hamzah, S. Suripno, and E. K. Hadinoto, 2002, "Drilling and Waste Management", SPE 73931, presented at the SPE International Conference on Health, Safety, and the Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, March 20–22, 2002.
Smith, M., A. Manning, and M. Lang, 1999, "Research on the Re-use of Drill Cuttings Onshore" , November 11, 1999
Economic geology
Petroleum geology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Palace%20%28Mexico%29
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National Palace (Mexico)
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The National Palace () is the seat of the federal executive in Mexico. Since 2018 it has also served as the official residence for the President of Mexico. It is located on Mexico City's main square, the Plaza de la Constitución (El Zócalo). This site has been a palace for the ruling class of Mexico since the Aztec Empire, and much of the current palace's building materials are from the original one that belonged to the 16th-century leader Moctezuma II.
Current complex
Used and classified as a government building, the National Palace, with its red tezontle facade, fills the entire east side of the Zócalo, measuring over long. It is home to some of the offices of both the Federal Treasury and the National Archives.
Description
The facade is bordered on the north and south by two towers and includes three main doorways, each of which lead to a different part of the building. The southern door leads to the Patio of Honor and presidential offices (no public access). The northern door is known as the Mariana Door, named in honor of Mariano Arista who had it constructed in 1850. The area next to this door used to be the old Court Prison, with courtrooms and torture chambers. It is now occupied by the Finance Ministry. It contains the Treasury Room, constructed by architects Manuel Ortiz Monasterio and Vicente Mendiola. The iron and bronze door is the work of Augusto Petriccioli.
Above the central doorway, facing the Zócalo, is the main balcony where just before 11pm on September 15, the president of Mexico gives the Grito de Dolores, in a ceremony to commemorate Mexican Independence. Part of this ceremony includes ringing the bell that hangs above the balcony. This bell is the original one that Father Miguel Hidalgo rang to call for rebellion against Spain. It originally hung in the church of Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato, but was relocated here. In the niche containing the bell, there is the Mexican coat of arms. On each side there is an Aztec eagle knight and his Spanish counterpart. These were sculpted by Manuel Centurion and symbolize the synthesis of Mexican culture and Spanish culture.
The central door leads to the main patio which is surrounded by Baroque arches. Only the balustrade of this area has been remodeled, conserving the murals by Diego Rivera that adorn the main stairwell and the walls of the second floor. In the stairwell is a mural depicting the history of Mexico from 1521 to 1930, and covers an area of 450 m2 (4800 ft2). These murals were painted between 1929 and 1935, jointly titled "The Epic of the Mexican People". The work is divided like a triptych with each being somewhat autonomous. The right-hand wall contains murals depicting pre-Hispanic Mexico and centers around the life of the Aztec god Quetzalcóatl. Quetzalcóatl appears in the mural as a star, a god, and a human being. Created by serpents, he sails through space as a star that accompanies the sun at night. Quetzalcóatl then assumes a human body to teach the Aztec people as their king and patriarch. Last, when he sacrifices his blood to give life to men, he returns to the sky having completed his earthly cycle. Once he leaves the earth, Quetzalcóatl assumes the shape the morning star, called Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli. The cycle that he undergoes signifies the continuous cycle of life. Rivera's creation of a Mexican identity helps to continue the reform that began with the Mexican Revolution of 1910. Before this time, any individualism from the Indians was discouraged as well as any allusion toward Aztec origins. The mural aims to dismiss any idea of inferiority.
In the middle and largest panel, the Conquest is depicted with its ugliness, such as rape and torture, as well as priests defending the rights of the indigenous people. The battle for independence occupies the uppermost part of this panel in the arch. The American and French invasions are represented below this, as well as the Reform period and the Revolution. The left-hand panel is dedicated to early and mid-20th century, criticizing the status quo and depicting a Marxist kind of utopia, featuring the persons of Plutarco Elías Calles, John D. Rockefeller, Harry Sinclair, William Durant, J.P. Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt and Andrew Mellon as well as Karl Marx. This part of the mural also includes Frida Kahlo, Diego's wife. This mural reflects Diego's own personal views about Mexico's history and the indigenous people of the country in particular.
Diego also painted 11 panels on the middle floor, such as the "Tianguis of Tlatelolco" (tianguis means "market"), and the "Arrival of Hernán Cortés in Veracruz". These are part of a series depicting the pre-Hispanic era. Peoples such as the Tarascos of Michoacán, the Zapotecs and Mixtecs of Oaxaca and the Huastecs of Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí and Veracruz. However, this series was not finished.
On the upper floor is what once was the Theatre Room of the viceroys, which became the Chamber of Deputies from 1829 to August 22, 1872, when the room was accidentally destroyed by fire. In this parliamentary chamber the Reform Constitution of 1857 was written. This and the Constitution of 1917 are on display.
The Palace has fourteen courtyards but only a few of these, such as the Grand Courtyard beyond the central portal, are open to the public. The National Palace also houses the main State Archives, with many historical documents, and the Biblioteca Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, one of the largest and most important libraries in the country.
On north annex of the building is the Treasury Room and the Benito Juárez Museum. Between the two is the Empress Stairway, built by brothers Juan and Ramón Agea. When faced with claims that their work was unstable and would collapse, they had a full battalion charge down them while they stood underneath. The Treasury Room is no longer in use. Leading to the Museum part of the complex, which used to be the Finance Ministry, is a statue of Benito Juárez by Miguel Noreña. This work was criticized at the time because it was felt that such an honored person should not be depicted sitting on his coattails, as it was contrary to social etiquette at the time. In the Finance Ministry patio is the Benito Juárez Room, where this president lived during the end of his term and where he died on July 18, 1872. The bedroom, living room and study have been preserved complete with a number of objects belonging to the president.
History of the building
Moctezuma's "New Houses"
The site and much of the building material of the current building is of what were called Moctezuma II's "New Houses". This palace functioned as the Aztec tlatoani's residence and performed a number of official functions as well. The building was divided into two sections and decorated with marble and painted stucco. The main façade contained the shield of the monarchy, an eagle with a snake in its claws. It has three patios surrounded by porticos, indoor sanitary facilities, fountains and gardens. The bedrooms had tapestries of cotton, feathers and rabbit fur painted in bright colors. The floors were of polished stucco and covered in animal furs and finely-woven mats. There were rooms for servants, administrative staff, and military guards, along with kitchens, pantries and storage rooms. The richness of the palace surprised Cortés, which he relayed in letters to Charles I of Spain.
The palace also held a chamber reserved for the "tlacxitlan" where a group of elders, presided over by the emperor himself, would settle disputes among the citizenry. After the Conquest, these New Houses were not completely leveled to the ground but were sufficiently destroyed as to make them uninhabitable.
Cortés's palace
The land and the buildings on it were claimed by Hernán Cortés, who had architects Rodrigo de Pontocillos and Juan Rodríguez rebuild the palace while Cortés lived in the "Old Houses" (now the Nacional Monte de Piedad building) across the plaza from 1521 to 1530.
Cortés's palace was a massive fortress with embrasures for cannon at the corners and the mezzanine had crenels for musketeers. The façade had only two doors with arches (medio punto). Inside there were two patios, with a third being built after 1554 and a fourth sometime after that. Its garden was extensive, occupying much of the south and southwest portions of the property up to what is now Correo Mayor Street. The palace has living quarters, offices, two audience rooms, and a tower for gunpowder. A secondary building behind the main one has nineteen windows spanning its façade. It also had a parapet, above which was a clock and a bell. The main courtyard was built large enough so he could entertain visitors with New Spain's first recorded bullfights.
The Spanish crown bought the palace from the Cortés family in 1562 to house the Viceregal Palace. It remained so until Mexican Independence in the 1820s.
Viceregal palace
In 1562, the Spanish Crown bought the palace and land from Martin Cortés, son of Hernán Cortés, retaining much of the Cortés palace features. It was known as the Palacio del Virrey (Palace of the Viceroy) or Casa Real de los Virreyes (Royal House of the Viceroys).
Italian Capuchin friar Ilarione da Bergamo included a description of the viceregal palace in his travel narrative. He notes that the building is not just the residence of the viceroy and his family, but also has a number of government offices including the high court (Real Audiencia) and other legal offices, royal treasury agents, attorneys including those of the General Indian Court, as well as small prisons in the complex. During the tenure of viceroy Bernardo Gálvez, he sought a residence separate from the palace and plans for Chapultepec Castle were drawn up in 1785, to be constructed on a high point outside the core of the city.
The palace was the site of viceregal power and centrally located so that when there were outbreaks of violence toward the regime, the palace was a target. Due to tensions between the viceroy and the archbishop, the palace was set on fire by supporters of the archbishop in 1624. On 8 June 1692, the palace was almost completely destroyed. Viceroy Gaspar de Sandoval then had Friar Diego Valverde reconstruct the palace. Historian Manuel Rivera Cambas states that after reconstruction, the palace lost its fortress-like appearance, and took on a Baroque appearance. Its crenels were converted into windows with ironwork grilles. framed in stonework. Inscriptions were etched above these windows and coats-of-arms were places to the sides. A smaller, third door was added on the north side of the building. On the inner, secondary building, tall windows with small ironwork balconies were installed. The south door led to what was named the "Patio of Honor"; in this section were the viceroy's quarters. The mezzanine held the offices of the Secretary and the Archives of the Viceroyalty. The lower part has servants' and halberdiers' quarters as well as storage bins for mercury. This Patio of Honor opened in back toward a garden for the use of the viceroy and his court. The north door led to a small patio in which was located the jail and the guards' quarters. When the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain was at work in Mexico (1787-1803), the establishment of the Royal Botanical Garden on the model of that in the imperial capital of Madrid was an essential mandate of the enterprise. The viceregal palace itself became a site of the botanical garden, with excavations of the original site done so that fertile soil could be substituted. The palace essentially remained unchanged until after independence in the 1830s.
After independence
Many of Mexico's leaders after independence made changes to the Viceroy Palace, including renaming it the "National Palace". Mexico's first ministries were installed such as the Ministry of Hacienda (internal revenue), Ministry of War, Ministry of Justice, and the Ministry of Internal and External Relations, as well as the Supreme Court. During an uprising led by Valentín Gómez Farías against then-president Anastasio Bustamante, the southwest balustrade was seriously damaged during a siege lasting twelve days. In 1845, the old Chambers of Deputies was constructed, with the Senate on the upper floor of the south wing. In 1850, Mariano Arista had the old north prison door cemented shut and constructed the current northern door. He also converted the north wing into barracks of the "Batallón de Guardia de Supremos Poderes" (Battalion of Guards for the Supreme Powers). In 1864, Maximilian of Habsburg had three flagpoles installed in front of the three main doors. By the central door was the Mexican flag; at the north door was the flag of Austria and at the south door was the flag of France. He also had Lorenzo de la Hidalga construct the grand marble staircase that is in the Patio of Honor in the southern wing, as well as having the public rooms roofed and furnished with paintings, candelabras, and chamber pots from Hollenbach, Austria and Sirres, France. In opposition, Benito Juárez chose to have his quarters in the north end of the Palace, rather than in the traditional southern end.
In 1877, the Secretaría de Hacienda y Credito Público (Secretary of Internal Revenue and Public Credit), José Ives Limantour, as part of his overhaul of the department, moved their offices to the north wing, finishing in 1902. He chose the largest room in the wing for the Office of Seals. In 1896, the bell that Father Hidalgo rung at the parish of Dolores, Guanajuato was moved here.
A number of changes were made during the rule of Porfirio Díaz. The English-made clock on the parapet was moved to the tower of the Church of Santo Domingo. The façade was cemented over and etched to look like stone block. Cloth awnings were placed on the windows of the upper floors. On pedestals near the main door, statues of female forms were placed. Inside, the ambassador's room, the dining room, the kitchens, the lounge, the garages and the stables were all refurnished. This was done at a time when French style was popular in Mexico.
Between 1926 and 1929, the third floor was added during the term of President Plutarco Elías Calles by Alberto J. Pani, an engineer and then finance minister and designed by Augusto Petriccioli. Merlons were placed on the towers and parapet and decorative caps were placed on all three doors. The Dolores Bell was placed in a niche flanked by atlantes above the balcony above the central door. The façade was covered with red tezontle stone and installed stone frames on the doors, windows, cornices, and parapets. In the interior, a grand staircase of marble was installed in the central patio (where Diego Rivera would later paint The History of Mexico mural) and constructed stairs to the internal revenue department and the offices of the General Treasury in the north wing. The old Chamber of Deputies, abandoned after a fire in 1872, was reconstructed and re-inaugurated as a museum to the centennial. A statue of Benito Juárez was placed in the north wing near his old quarters. This statue was made with bronze from the cannons of the Conservative Army during the Reform War and from French projectiles from the Battle of Puebla. This caused the Palace to give it the appearance it has today.
Palace as presidential residence
All the viceroys that ruled New Spain during the colonial period lived in this residence except for Antonio de Mendoza and Juan O’Donojú, the first and last viceroys. After independence, the palace was home to the two emperors who ruled Mexico during brief periods: Agustin de Iturbide and Maximilian I of Mexico. The first president to live in the building was also Mexico's first president, Guadalupe Victoria, and its last occupant in the 19th century was Manuel González, president from 1880 to 1884. After that, the presidential residence was moved to Chapultepec Castle and later, in 1934, to Los Pinos, but the National Palace became the official residence once again with Andrés Manuel López Obrador, president since 2018. Famous people who stayed here include Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Mateo Alemán, Friar Servando de Mier (he also died here), Alexander von Humboldt and Simón Bolívar.
2014 damage
On November 8, 2014, alleged anarchists intentionally damaged the palace facade and windows with graffiti and by breaking windows, and burned down a section of the Mariana Door after a failed attempt at breaking it down. The National Institute of History and Anthropology (INAH) handled the restoration and presented charges for the damage.
Archaeological work
Because of work related to the construction of Metro Line 2 and the acceleration of the sinking of many of the buildings in the historic center, the basic structure of the Palace suffered deterioration, requiring work to secure the building's foundation and supports, especially on the third floor, the central patio and the Patio of Honor. During this work, the old column bases of the Viceroy Palace were found, two of which were restored where they were found. They also found old cedar rafters with their brackets, which were used to form the foundation of the first floor.
Recently, excavations in and next to the National Palace have unearthed parts of Moctezuma's "New Houses", the name of the palaces that Hernán Cortés razed to build what has become the current edifice. Parts of a wall and a basalt floor were found during recent renovations on the building that now houses the Museum of Culture, which adjoins the Palace on its north side. The wall and floor are believed to be part of Casa Denegrida, or the Black House, which Spanish conquerors described as a windowless room painted in black. In here, Moctezuma would meditate on what he was told by professional seers and shamans. It was part of a construction which is thought to have consisted of five interconnected buildings containing the emperor's office, chambers for children and several wives and even a zoo. More excavations are planned.
The building's significance
On the webpage of past president Ernesto Zedillo, Carlos Fuentes calls the National Palace a "traveling and an immobile construction". Traveling is used in the sense that much of its architectural style is Spanish in origin and symbolized the transplanting of Spanish civilization to the New World. It is immobile in the sense that since Aztec times, this has been the seat of earthly political power, first as the palaces of the Aztec tlatoani, then of the Spanish viceroys, then of Mexican heads of state. Only until very recently, those who held power over Mexico lived here as well as asserted their authority.
The building itself represents the Mexican people as a blending of both Spanish and Aztec. The old palace was destroyed to make way for the new, but both were built of the very same stone. According to Zedillo, this represents something that is not quite Aztec, but not quite Spanish either, much like the country itself. These same stones were present during all of Mexico's major historical events and had seen foreign flags fly above them.
On the eve of Mexican Independence Day, the National Palace is the star of the show. The original bell Father Hidalgo rang is here and the President himself gives the Grito de Dolores from its main balcony. He also notes one such Independence Eve, in 1964, when General Charles de Gaulle, then-President of France, spoke to the crowd in Spanish from the Palace. He notes this to assert that the Palace is not only a place but also a destination where friends of the country can be welcomed.
See also
List of colonial non-religious buildings in Mexico City
List of colonial churches in Mexico City
Gallery
References
External links
El Zócalo de la Ciudad de México
Mexico City's National Palace. A visit, review and photos of Mexico City's Palacio nacional
Museo Virtual. A virtual tour of the National Palace
Palaces in Mexico
Government buildings in Mexico
History museums in Mexico
Museums in Mexico City
National museums of Mexico
Historic house museums in Mexico
Historic center of Mexico City
Houses in Mexico City
Castles in Mexico
Landmarks in Mexico City
National Monuments of Mexico
State archives
Official residences in Mexico
Royal residences in Mexico
Presidential residences
History of Mexico City
History of Mexico
Arts in Mexico City
Mexican culture
Mexican paintings
Murals in Mexico
1920s murals
1930s murals
17th century in Mexico
18th century in Mexico
19th century in Mexico City
20th century in Mexico City
Aztec sites
Colonial Mexico
New Spain
1563 establishments in New Spain
1560s establishments in Mexico
Buildings and structures completed in 1563
Baroque palaces in Mexico
Spanish Colonial architecture in Mexico
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristina%20Keneally
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Kristina Keneally
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Kristina Marie Kerscher Keneally (born 19 December 1968) is an American-born Australian politician who served as the first female Premier of New South Wales from 2009 to 2011 and was later a Labor Senator for New South Wales from February 2018 until April 2022. She resigned from the Senate to contest the House of Representatives seat of Fowler, but was unsuccessful. From 2019 to 2022 she served as Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Senate, Shadow Minister for Home Affairs, and Shadow Minister for Immigration and Citizenship.
Keneally was born in the United States to an American father and an Australian mother. She grew up in Toledo, Ohio, and is a graduate of the University of Dayton. After marrying an Australian, Ben Keneally, she settled in Australia permanently and became a naturalised citizen in 2000. Keneally was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Assembly seat of Heffron at the 2003 state election, succeeding Deirdre Grusovin after a controversial preselection process. After being re-elected to parliament at the 2007 state election, she became the Minister for Ageing and Disability Services and was subsequently appointed Minister for Planning by Premier Nathan Rees in 2008. She was also the state government's spokeswoman for World Youth Day 2008.
By December 2009, Keneally had emerged as the preferred leadership candidate of the Labor Right faction, and defeated incumbent Premier Nathan Rees (who had been in office for just 15 months) in a party room ballot, winning by 47 votes to 21. The Keneally Government went on to suffer a 16.5 percent two-party preferred statewide swing at the 2011 state election – the biggest swing in Australian political history. She resigned as Labor Party leader on election night and was succeeded by John Robertson, who was elected unopposed, on 31 March 2011. She resigned from Parliament in June 2012.
In 2014, Keneally joined Sky News Live as a political commentator, later becoming co-host of To The Point. She took leave in November 2017 to stand as the Labor candidate for the Bennelong by-election, achieving a swing to Labor but losing to previous member John Alexander. In February 2018 she was appointed to the Senate to fill a casual vacancy caused by Sam Dastyari's resignation. After the 2019 leadership election, Keneally was selected as deputy Senate leader in the shadow cabinet of new Labor leader Anthony Albanese. She was also given the portfolios of Home Affairs and Immigration and Citizenship.
At the 2022 federal election, Keneally, whose main residency is in the Northern Beaches, was parachuted into the traditionally safe Labor seat of Fowler, which has one of the highest concentrations of Vietnamese Australians in the country. As a result of community backlash against her candidacy, Labor suffered a 15.6% swing against them, and she was defeated by independent challenger Dai Le, a Vietnamese-Australian journalist and former Liberal Party candidate.
Early life
Keneally was born Kristina Marie Kerscher in Las Vegas to an American father and an Australian mother (born in Brisbane). She lived briefly in Colorado but grew up in Toledo, Ohio, where she attended high school at Notre Dame Academy. While at Notre Dame she was twice awarded most valuable player (1985, 1986) in the Academy's soccer team.
Upon graduating from Notre Dame, she undertook studies at the University of Dayton, also in Ohio. While there she became involved in student politics, and was involved in founding the National Association of Students at Catholic Colleges and Universities, serving as president of the group in 1990 and 1991. She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in political science in 1991, was a registered Democrat and worked as an intern for the Lieutenant Governor of Ohio, Paul Leonard. In 1995 she graduated with a Master of Arts in religious studies. She later studied at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. After graduating from the University of Dayton she worked for a year as a volunteer teacher in New Mexico.
For most of her life, she has identified as a staunch feminist. In 2009, she told The Daily Telegraph that when she heard her diocese's bishop was on a local talk show, she called to ask him why girls could not be altar servers. The bishop's "unsatisfactory answer," she said, awakened her to "how women are disadvantaged in the Church and society."
Keneally met her future husband, a member of the Australian Labor Party, Ben Keneally, at World Youth Day 1991 in Poland. She moved to Australia in 1994 to be with him, but they returned to the US, so Ben could take up a position with the Boston Consulting Group. They married there in 1996. They returned to Australia two years later, after their elder son was born. She became a naturalised Australian in 2000, the same year she joined the Labor Party. She renounced U.S. citizenship in 2002, prior to standing for election.
After arriving in Australia she worked for the New South Wales branch of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul as State Youth Coordinator before leaving full-time work to care for her children. She also briefly attended the Australian Catholic University in Strathfield, New South Wales.
State politics
Keneally was elected to the seat of Heffron in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly in 2003, following a bitter pre-election battle with Deirdre Grusovin, the sister of senior Labor politician Laurie Brereton. It was in fact her husband Ben who was more interested in a political career, relying on his friendship with Joe Tripodi. However, the party's affirmative action rules required a female candidate, so Keneally ran instead. Before the election, Labor insiders were concerned that her strong American English accent would not play well with voters. Although she reportedly took elocution lessons to sound more Australian, to this day she speaks with a marked American accent.
In her maiden speech, she talked about her commitment to social justice, equal opportunity for women and her Roman Catholic faith. She also made light of an incident that happened during the 1999 state election. She was working in John Watkins' campaign office when she took a call from Premier Bob Carr's communications director, Walt Secord. Keneally later learned that Secord had demanded that Watkins' campaign team "get that woman with an American accent off the telephones." She replied, "Well, I got off the phones that day, but today I have the floor."
As NSW Minister for Disability Services, Keneally undertook measures to rebuild outdated institutional residential facilities for people with disability, going back on promises made by her (non-immediate) predecessor Faye Lo Po'.
As NSW Planning Minister from August 2008, Keneally's department oversaw the local traffic diversions, and strict environmental management during construction, around the desalination pipeline works between Erskineville and Kurnell, approved by the department under the desalination pipeline project approval, granted by Frank Sartor, in November 2007.
In August 2009, Keneally was alleged to be one of the names being put forward in a challenge to wrest the leadership from NSW Premier Nathan Rees. Keneally responded to the accusations by stating: "He (Nathan Rees) has my support (as Premier)" and it was reported that she insisted she would never be Premier of New South Wales, something that was continuously disputed in the media.
On 17 November 2009, Keneally was appointed Minister for Infrastructure after her friend and supporter Joe Tripodi was sacked by Rees from the frontbench. It was rumoured that she was angered at the sacking, which she denied. She also said she had "always supported the Premier, Bob Carr, Morris Iemma and now Nathan Rees" and it was "time to put this ridiculous leadership speculation behind us".
Premier
Challenges for leadership
Less than a month later, however, the dominant Right faction withdrew support from Rees. On 3 December, Keneally narrowly defeated Sartor by two votes to become the Right's candidate in a leadership spill against Rees. Later that day, she defeated Rees in a party room ballot with a majority of 45–21. Prior to the vote, Rees declared "Should I not be Premier at the end of this day, let there be no doubt in the community's mind that any challenger would be a puppet of Eddie Obeid and Joe Tripodi", a claim later rejected by Keneally, who stated "I am nobody's puppet, I am nobody's protege, I am nobody's girl."
On 4 December 2009 Keneally was sworn in as the 42nd (and first female) premier of New South Wales by the State Governor, Marie Bashir. For the first time in Australian history, both the Premier and Deputy Premier (Carmel Tebbutt) of a state were women.
During her time as Premier Keneally was a supporter of the development of the headlands. To ensure the project was completed without delay, Keneally transferred various local government planning powers to the state government, created a new portfolio relating to the major development Barangaroo for which she took responsibility, and oversaw the project while Premier. Despite her dedication to the project she was criticised for a perceived conflict of interest in the development of Barangaroo worth over one million dollars and linked to installation of electric car infrastructure associated with the development and additionally for giving exemption to Barangaroo from environmental planning laws. In the eve of her time as premier, during investigations into corrupt dealings by former minister Ian Macdonald, Keneally refused to release a report made about him relating to misuse of taxpayer funds, though she was compelled to release the report to the Independent Commission Against Corruption (ICAC).
Party renewal
Keneally pushed to renew the Labor Party, with 23 members of the 50 caucus members retiring. Her push also included the resignation of the NSW Labor President, Bernie Riordan and retirements of Labor powerbrokers, Joe Tripodi and Eddie Obeid.
Electricity privatisation
On 14 December 2010 her government sold the first tranche of the partial privatisation of the state's electricity assets for $5.3 billion. Eight of the directors quit in protest over the sale of trading rights to the output of generators. After criticism of the privatisation, her Government abandoned the second stage of its electricity privatisation plan, as no companies bid.
On 22 December 2010 NSW Governor Marie Bashir prorogued Parliament on Keneally's request. This act normally takes place later than December prior to elections. There were accusations that Keneally tried to halt the electricity inquiry, which later proceeded.
In October 2011, the inquiry which the O'Farrell government set up reported to the NSW Liberal/National Government that the partial sale was "reasonable and appropriate".
Popularity
When she became Premier, she was highly popular and was the most popular Australian political leader at one stage, as the Galaxy poll showed in March 2010, her public satisfaction of her was 53 per cent. However, her own personal popularity did not transfer to her party, which had been well behind the Coalition in opinion polling since 2008.
With her governments popularity declining, Keneally’s personal popularity began to decline too, with her approval rating falling to 39 per cent in an August 2010 poll. In October 2010, Newspoll reported that the Keneally government only had 23 per cent of the primary vote—the worst showing on record for a Labor government at the state level in Australia. The only lower result Newspoll had recorded at the time was in 1989, when the Queensland Nationals polled at 22 percent.
In May 2010, junior minister Karyn Paluzzano was forced out of politics for using public money for her 2007 reelection campaign and lying about it. Keneally moved to have Paluzzano suspended from the Labor Party, and Paluzzano resigned soon afterward. It was not enough to prevent Paluzzano's once-safe seat of Penrith from being resoundingly lost to the Liberals at the ensuing by-election. Labor suffered a swing of over 26 points—the largest swing against a sitting government in New South Wales history.
Election defeat
Keneally led Labor into the 2011 state election. She was seeking to lead Labor to a fifth consecutive term in government, and also to become the second woman elected as a state premier in her own right, after Anna Bligh in Queensland.
However, Keneally was a heavy underdog for most of the campaign. At one point, polls showed Labor trailed the Barry O'Farrell-led Coalition by 26 points on the two-party vote and Keneally trailed O'Farrell by 16 points as preferred premier. Despite Keneally's efforts to rehabilitate Labor's image, opinion polls and commentators had almost universally written Labor off by the time the writs were dropped. An election-eve poll showed Labor's support at a record low of 23 percent primary vote. The ABC's Antony Green estimated that Labor faced being cut down to as few as 13 seats.
In the 26 March election, the Labor government was heavily defeated, suffering a swing of over 16 points on a two-party basis —the largest in a general election at any level in Australia since World War II. In the process, Labor lost many seats in its former western Sydney heartland. Ultimately, Labor was reduced to 20 seats (down from 48 at dissolution), its worst showing in over a century
Keneally resigned as Premier and state Labor leader on election night and announced she would return to the backbench. Accepting responsibility for the worst defeat of a sitting government in NSW's history, Keneally said, "The truth is the people of NSW, who entrusted us with government for 16 years, did not leave us. We left them." On 11 June 2011, Keneally was granted by the Governor retention of the title "The Honourable". On 23 June 2012, Keneally announced her resignation from the New South Wales Parliament.
Labor government and ICAC
After the defeat of the Labor government, a series of investigations at the Independent Commission Against Corruption, found that Keneally ministers Obeid, Tripodi, and McDonald had acted in a corrupt manner. Counsel assisting the inquiry, Geoffrey Watson , said in 2012 of investigations into the actions taken by the men in 2010 that these inquiries were the most important investigation ever undertaken by the ICAC and that there was corruption on a scale probably unexceeded since the days of the Rum Corps.
Keneally appeared as a witness at the ICAC in March 2014 concerning investigations of her former colleagues. She said that she had had concerns about Obeid, Tripodi and Tony Kelly's lobbying and that their efforts had not influenced her. Asked if Obeid had "put her in her job" as premier, Keneally replied: "No, caucus did".
Private sector
Sporting roles
In 2011, Keneally became a director of Souths Cares, the nominated charity of the South Sydney Rabbitohs and Chair of the Basketball Australia board.
She resigned from Parliament on 29 June 2012, to commence work as the Chief Executive of Basketball Australia. Keneally left Basketball Australia in April 2014 to spend more time with her family.
In 2016, she was named as Chairperson of Souths Cares following incumbent Chairman Nicholas Pappas stepping aside after eight years.
Political commentator and television host
In 2014, Keneally began a career as a media presenter. In May, she spent a week filling in for Ita Buttrose on panel show Studio 10.
In July, Keneally joined Sky News Australia and began co-hosting panel program The Contrarians every Friday afternoon with Ross Cameron, before the pair were given their own self-titled program Keneally and Cameron. This program was axed in April 2015. Keneally joined Peter van Onselen as co-host of Sky News daytime program To The Point on 1 June 2015 which airs during PVO NewsDay. Keneally was also a regular presenter of primetime programs The Cabinet and Credlin & Keneally. Upon announcing her intention to stand for Federal parliament, she took leave from Sky News on the same day as her announcement on 14 November 2017.
Keneally regularly contributed to The Guardian Australia on a range of politico-social issues such as religion in politics, same sex marriage and asylum seeking between December 2014 and June 2019.
Federal politics
Bennelong by-election, 2017
In November 2017, Keneally was preselected by federal Labor as their candidate for the Bennelong by-election on 16 December. Despite picking up a five percent two-party swing, she lost to the previous incumbent and Liberal candidate John Alexander.
Senator and opposition frontbencher, 2018–2022
On 30 January 2018, the Labor Party announced that Keneally would fill the casual vacancy caused by the resignation of New South Wales senator Sam Dastyari, who resigned earlier that month. Keneally was formally appointed to the vacancy on 14 February 2018 and was sworn in as a senator the following day.
In June 2018, Keneally stated her opposition to mandatory reporting for Catholic priests who are informed of child sexual abuse in confession; she believes it is not the most effective way to prevent abuse. Keneally also attended the Rambam Israel Fellowship Program in Israel, sponsored by the Australia/Israel and Jewish Affairs Council. The lobby group funded "transport, accommodation, meals and other associated costs".
After the 2019 federal election, new leader Anthony Albanese expressed his intention to bring Keneally onto the frontbench despite opposition from the NSW Right faction. On 29 May, Ed Husic announced his resignation from the frontbench and endorsed Keneally as his replacement. On 30 May, Labor's deputy leader in the Senate Don Farrell announced his resignation from the position to make way for a gender-balanced leadership team (since 2013, two of the four leadership positions were held by women). Keneally was subsequently announced as the new Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Senate, Shadow Minister for Home Affairs, and Shadow Minister for Immigration and Citizenship in the Albanese shadow cabinet. She resigned from the senate on 13 April 2022.
Fowler candidacy, 2022
In September 2021, it was reported that Keneally would seek preselection for the Division of Fowler in the House of Representatives to succeed retiring MP Chris Hayes at the 2022 federal election.
This occurred after Tu Le, a Vietnamese-Australian lawyer was endorsed by Hayes. Le was his preferred candidate due to her ability to reflect the multiculturalism of the area and her strong links to the community. The electorate of Fowler includes Sydney suburbs such as Cabramatta and Liverpool which has a population of over 50,000 Asian-Australians. Though Keneally moved to the seat after winning preselection, she did not have roots within the electorate and previously resided on Scotland Island in the Northern Beaches area of Sydney. The push for a white American-born woman with limited connections to a safe Labor seat primarily made up of people of Asian or Middle Eastern background, including a large proportion of recent migrants and refugees, was criticised by Labor MPs such as Anne Aly and Peter Khalil. Others, including former prime minister Paul Keating, supported Keneally, who was installed by party leadership without a pre-selection ballot. Independent Dai Le, a Vietnamese refugee and former Liberal Party councillor and candidate, nominated for the seat, and defeated Keneally in one of only two Labor losses at the 2022 federal election.
Personal life
Keneally is married to former Mayor of Botany Bay, Ben Keneally; together they have two sons. A daughter died at birth. Her husband is the nephew of Australian writer Thomas Keneally. Keneally is the patron of the Stillbirth Foundation Australia.
Keneally and her family previously lived in Pagewood, within the electorate of Heffron which she represented in state parliament. In 2016, Keneally and her husband sold their home and moved across Sydney to a rented home in Hunters Hill. Together they own a $1.8 million home on the isolated Scotland Island on the Northern Beaches of Sydney and a townhouse in Wollstonecraft purchased for $1.3 million in 2016. Keneally and her family moved to Liverpool prior to contesting the local seat of Fowler at the 2022 federal election.
In late 2022, Keneally was appointed as chief executive officer of the Sydney Children's Hospitals Foundation, which raises funds for children's healthcare.
Keneally is a supporter of the South Sydney Rabbitohs in the NRL.
Keneally is ketogenic.
Publications
See also
Keneally ministry
2011 New South Wales state election
List of female heads of government in Australia
References
External links
Australian Senate – Senator the Hon Kristina Keneally
Personal website – kristinakeneally.com.au
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1968 births
American emigrants to Australia
Australian chief executives
Australian Roman Catholics
Australian feminists
Living people
Marquette University alumni
Members of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1952 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1952 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 20th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 14–15 June 1952 at Circuit de la Sarthe.
After 22 years away, Mercedes-Benz returned in triumph, scoring a 1–2 victory with their new gull-wing Mercedes-Benz W194 which was equipped with a 3.0L S6 engine that had less power than the road car sold two years later.
Aston Martin, with their DB3, joined Ferrari, Jaguar, Mercedes-Benz, and Cunningham in the top-level sports prototype game, setting the stage for the rivalries that provided so much drama during the rest of the decade.
This race was notable in that Pierre Levegh attempted to drive the entire 24 Hours by himself – and almost won. With just over an hour to go however, the connecting rod of Levegh's car broke, taking it out of the race.
Regulations
This year the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) decreed that mudguards now had to be integral with the bodywork, unlike the pre-war style of cycle-type mudguards. This meant cars had proper sports-car bodies and were not just modified grand prix cars. After ongoing issues with the fuel used in the race, the ACO's ‘ternary' fuel was made up of 75% petrol, 15% alcohol and 10% benzole.
The minimum replenishment period for fuel, water and oil was extended from 25 laps to 28. The target average lap speeds (i.e. minimum distances per hour) for each class were also increased.
Finally, after 19 runs of the event, the prize money (FF 1 500 000) for the race-winner was raised to make it the same as that for the Index of Performance winner – just reflecting the stature that the teams and spectators had always placed on the overall race win.
Entries
There was huge interest this year in the race with well over a dozen multi-car works teams, self-built team owners and works-supported private entries. There were less than 20 genuine private entries, well in the minority of the 60 starters and reserves. This year the big news was the return of Mercedes-Benz to La Sarthe after 22 years, and the first entry from the Scuderia Ferrari works team.
Mercedes, led again by their pre-war team manager Alfred Neubauer arrived with a trio of W194 prototypes of what was to become the iconic '300SL' (Sport Leicht). To fit, its new 3.0L S6 engine was tilted at a 50° angle, and tuned down a fraction to 165 bhp for better durability.
Along with Neubauer were his pre-war team-drivers Hermann Lang and Karl Kling. Another pre-war Mercedes hero, Rudolf Caracciola might have driven, but had been side-lined by a serious accident that was to end his illustrious career.
Jaguar returned with a strong 3-car team. Having been beaten for speed by the new Ferrari and Mercedes-Benz in the Mille Miglia, the C-types were hurriedly redesigned with a more aerodynamic shell, which unfortunately meant a smaller radiator and a relocated header tank. They also presented a strong driver line-up with the previous year's winners Peter Walker with Stirling Moss, and Peter Whitehead with new driver Ian Stewart, as well as Tony Rolt and Duncan Hamilton who had previously driven for Healey.
Aston Martin, after their great success in the 1951 race, arrived with three new DB-3 cars, as well as two privately entered DB-2s, all fitted with the reliable 2.6L S6 engine. Sydney Allard decided to change engines this year, swapping the Cadillac for a Chrysler V8 and the new J2X had new bodywork to comply with the new ACO regulations. This year Donald Healey entered a pair of Nash-engined prototypes, one with a new body for the British drivers, the other with a new engine for his French drivers.
Talbot was the last of the old French manufacturers remaining in the large-engine classes with four privately entered T-26 cars (with strong support from the factory), now with the required new enclosed bodywork. André Chambas had modified his 4.5L engine by adding twin-superchargers which (by using the x1.4 supercharge-equivalence factor) meant his car (#6) had the biggest effective engine capacity and started at the head of the grid. Gordini, having gone their separate ways from Simca, were now powered with their own engines: a smaller team with the standard 1100cc car, and a special 2.3L version for its regular GP drivers, Jean Behra and Robert Manzon, which was very nimble. With the swarm of small-engined Panhards, Renaults and Simcas (as well as a supercharged Peugeot special), the French were the biggest nationality represented with 20 cars, followed by the 18 British cars.
Ferrari was back again in force, with eight entrants including two in a works team, and a trio from Luigi Chinetti's American team. Alongside the previous year's '340 America' 4.1L model was the new '250 Sport' with a 3.0L V12 engine capable of 220 bhp (fresh from beating Mercedes and Jaguar in the Mille Miglia) and one of the smaller 2.7L '225 Sport' that had just taken the top five places at the Monaco Grand Prix (this year a sports-car race) a fortnight earlier. The '250 S' was to be driven by Enzo Ferrari's GP drivers Alberto Ascari and Luigi Villoresi, while the smaller works '225 S' was driven by Tom Cole Jr., latterly with Allard. Even Louis Rosier had jumped from Talbot to a pair of Ferrari 340 Americas. He was entered in one (racing with fellow French F1 racer Maurice Trintignant) and the other for his son.
Lancia's first foray the year before had been a win, and the works team returned with a pair of updated B20 Aurelias to again contest the 2-litre class. Another pre-war veteran, Luigi Fagioli, was to have driven (after scoring a 3rd place in the Mille Miglia) but had been critically injured at the same Monaco GP that Ferrari had won and could not compete. (He died of his wounds less than a week after the Le Mans race.)
Another future Italian stalwart of the race made its debut this year: OSCA had been set up by the three Maserati brothers after selling their namesake company, and arrived with their first sports car, the MT-4. Its 1.3L engine developed 90 bhp, putting it in a competitive contest against the Jowetts and Porsche.
Briggs Cunningham returned with his own cars and regular team-drivers John Fitch and Phil Walters. This year they had two new C-4R roadsters and one with a closed coupé body (C-4RK) designed by renowned pre-war aerodynamicist Wunibald Kamm. Made over 500 kg lighter than the 1951 C-2, they claimed the biggest engines just ahead of the Allards, with the burly 5.4L Chrysler 'Firepower' V8 putting out 320 bhp.
Potential works entries from Alfa Romeo (for Juan-Manuel Fangio and José Froilán González) and Pegaso were scratched amid concerns about the cars being able to last the distance.
Practice
The remodelled Jaguars soon showed up overheating problems what were to plague them through the race, despite some hasty modifications.
A Le Mans star of the future, Phil Hill drove one of the Cunninghams in practice, but not in the race.
In the second practice session, Griffith heavily crashed his Aston Martin into the sandbank at Tertre Rouge, but team manager John Wyer managed to swap in the spare car without the officials noticing. Also needing a full rebuild after a practice crash was the new DB coupé.
A piston failure during practice forced the scratching one of Louis Rosier's Ferraris.
But it was Hermann Lang in the Mercedes which both set the fastest unofficial top speed on the 3 mile Mulsanne Straight, at some 150 mph. And the fastest lap in practice at 4m40s, just a tenth ahead of Ascari's Ferrari, with both fully 20 seconds faster than the ‘official' time of the Cunningham in 1951.
Race
Start
After the wet race the previous year, this year's race was essentially dry. Leader after the first lap was Phil Walters in the Cunningham coupé, chased by Moss in the Jaguar and the red and blue Ferraris of Ascari and Simon respectively, then the other two Jaguars and "Levegh's" Talbot. Ascari soon got to the front and between him and Simon they took turnabout lowering Stirling Moss's lap record – eventually setting it six seconds faster than the previous year.
Soon enough though, after just 6 laps, Ascari was in the pits with clutch problems – something that would plague the Ferraris through the race. It was worse news at the Jaguar garage. Moss had moved back up to second when Ascari pitted but soon was also pitting, with overheating problems. By nightfall all three Jaguars were out of the race in a dramatic change of fortune to the previous year. Two of the Aston Martins had retired with differential issues. Phil Walters had kept the Cunningham coupé in close reach, and after 4 hours handed the car over to his co-driver Duane Carter who promptly planted it into the sandbank at Tertre Rouge on his second lap out. Soon after getting back in the race their engine started playing up with similar problems that had already sidelined John Fitch's car.
Surprising the home crowd, that moved the Gordini of Robert Manzon up behind Simon. Though running a much smaller engine than the cars around it, it was proving very fast. When Simon had to start nursing a slipping clutch, Manzon took the lead in the 3rd hour. Meanwhile, the three Mercedes-Benzes were playing a waiting game, running to Neubauer's strict, conservative pace to preserve the cars and hovering just in the top 10. After several trips to the pits, Vincent stuck the former lead Ferrari into the sandbank at Mulsanne corner, dropping it right down the order. Chinetti's own Ferrari moved up into the top five, while his 3rd car had fallen to clutch problems in the early evening, as had Rosier's car.
Night
Going into the night, Manzon and Behra kept their lead, and by midnight were a lap ahead of "Levegh" in his Talbot. However just before half-time one of the Gordini's brakedrums jammed and despite repairs the team considered too dangerous to risk continuing. This left "Levegh" sitting four laps ahead of the two Mercedes-Benzes of Helfrich / Niedermeyer and Lang / Riess, followed by the Macklin / Collins Aston Martin. But it was not an easy lead – he had already decided to drive right through on his own; the engine had developed a vibration and he did not want to risk his co-driver, René Marchand, with a breakdown. The leading Mercedes had retired during the night with a broken alternator and Luigi Chinetti's Ferrari had been disqualified for refuelling a lap ahead of its prescribed time, leaving just the Simon / Vincent Ferrari in the race gradually making back ground. After successive second places in the previous years, luck ran out for Mairesse / Meyrat when their (aging) Talbot's oil pump expired around half-time.
Meanwhile, in the S2.0 class, the Lancias had been running 1-2 for most of the race ahead of the Frazer-Nash's
Morning
Dawn was masked by a heavy fog, which got so thick the Mercedes drivers had to open their gull-wing doors to be able to see. It also caused Alexis Constantin to crash and roll his supercharged Peugeot at Tertre Rouge barely missing Jack Fairman's Allard. The other Allard had an equally hairy moment soon after when Arkus-Duntov found himself with no brakes at the end of the Mulsanne straight taking to the escape road, scattering spectators and gendarmes and narrowly avoiding parked cars. As the sun rose, Neubauer instructed his drivers to finally pick up the pace, but it was too late, the lead was too great. "Levegh" had driven through the night and still held a good lead. Near noon a damaged wheel cost Helfrich time and dropped his car to third. Macklin and Collins kept their Aston Martin at a steady pace in fourth.
Late in the morning the leading Frazer-Nash of "Dickie" Stoop / Peter Wilson broke a halfshaft and retired, leaving the Lancias comfortably in front. Also retired at this time was the larger-engined Porsche, leading the S1500 class in a close tussle with the OSCA, running 14th and 15th overall respectively. It had come in to refuel and left the engine running in case it stalled permanently. That was against the safety rules and the officials disqualified the car. But the OSCA was no more fortunate: soon afterward, just coming out of Arnage, the clutch broke. Lacour got out and pushed the car the 3 km back to the pits only to be told by his pitcrew that the damage was terminal.
Finish and post-race
The race was quietly running down to its conclusion, with the home crowd looking forward to a second French victory in four years. But then suddenly, with just over an hour to go, the connecting rod of "Levegh's" Talbot broke, causing it to come to a halt at Maison Blanche about a mile from the pits. Driving without a working rev-counter, it is uncertain whether either the engine issues finally broke it, or through sheer exhaustion, he missed a gear-change and over-revved the engine catastrophically. But such was his lead it still took 20 minutes for the second-placed Mercedes-Benz to get ahead on distance. A final twist saw the Aston Martin retire, moving the Nash-Healey of Johnson/Wisdom up to 3rd ahead of Briggs Cunningham's own car and the recovering Ferrari of Simon / Vincent. Like many, Cunningham had been nursing a slipping clutch through most of the race, driving for 20 hours himself gradually moving up the order.
So Mercedes-Benz were as surprised as anyone to have the 1-2 victory. This was the first win for a closed-body car, and for a German manufacturer.
Although the weather had been good, it was a torrid race with a record 40 retirements from the 57 starters. The lone Ferrari had fought back into the top ten during the morning, and after the late-race retirements made it up to 5th. The privateer team of Clark and Keen was the only Aston Martin to finish this year (in 5th) and the only Talbot to finish was Chambas' supercharged special in 9th.
For the third year in a row, Pierre Hémard won the Index of Performance (although this year his co-driver was Eugène Dossous) in the little Monopole-Panhard. just ahead of the two Mercedes-Benz coupés. They also won the Biennial Cup and romped home in their S750 class fully 13 laps ahead of the closest Renault. Jowett also won its class, the S1500, for the third successive year, by outlasting the much faster but more fragile opposition.
The Lancias barely missed a beat getting a successive class win. The lead car of Bonetto / Anselmi was delayed around lunchtime, giving the lead to the sister car which it held to the end, with the team finishing 6th and 8th overall, well ahead (>20 laps) of the surviving Frazer-Nash rival in 10th which had been gingerly lapping for the last 3 hours with a loose wheel-mounting on the front right. Porsche repeated its S1100 class victory from the previous year, and by the same drivers as 1951: Paris Porsche agent, ‘Toto' Veuillet and Edmond Mouche. The last finisher in the race was a little Renault 4CV driven by Le Mans debutante, Jean Rédélé who, at 30 years old, was France's youngest Renault dealer. After a short racing career he would go on to found a significant new car company with Renault rear-mounted engines: Alpine.
So a very strong, varied field had promised a competitive race and the speed and excitement with the dramatic last-hour twist delivered, firmly cementing Le Mans' place as the most important Sports Car race on the motorsport calendar. Mercedes-Benz went on to win at the Nürburgring and a 1-2-3 in the Carrera Panamericana. Gordini had its biggest success two weeks after Le Mans in Formula 2, when Jean Behra beat the Ferrari 500s in the final Grand Prix de la Marne
Official results
Did not finish
18th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1951/1952)
Statistics
Fastest Lap in practice – Hermann Lang, #21 Mercedes-Benz W194 – 4m 40.0s; 173.40 kp/h (107.7 mph)
Fastest Lap – Alberto Ascari, #62 Ferrari 250 S– 4m 40.5s; 173.16 kp/h (107.6 mph)
Distance – 3733.8 km (2320.2 miles)
Winner's Average Speed – 155.58 km/h (96.7 mph)
Attendance – est. 400 000 (start), 200 000 during the race
Trophy winners
18th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup – #60 Pierre Hérnard / Eugène Dussous
Index of Performance – #60 Pierre Hérnard / Eugène Dussous
Coupe des Dames - Mme Denise Bouillin, as there were no female drivers this year
Citations
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Pomeroy, L. & Walkerley, R. - editors (1953) The Motor Year Book 1953 Bath: The Pitman Press
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1952 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
XX Grand Prix d'Endurance les 24 Heures du Mans 1952, www.formula2.net, as archived at web.archive.org
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1952 in French motorsport
June 1952 sports events in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook%20County%20Democratic%20Party
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Cook County Democratic Party
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The Cook County Democratic Party is an American county-level political party organization which represents voters in 50 wards in the city of Chicago and 30 suburban townships of Cook County. The organization has dominated Chicago politics (and consequently, Illinois politics) since the 1930s. It relies on an organizational structure of a ward or township committeeperson (until 2018 legal name change, "committeeman") to elect candidates. At the height of its influence under Richard J. Daley in the 1960s when political patronage in employment was endemic in American cities, it was one of the most powerful political machines in American history. By the beginning of the 21st century the party had largely ceased to function as a machine due to the legal dismantling of the patronage system under the Shakman Decrees issued by the federal court in Chicago . The current Chair is Toni Preckwinkle, who is also the elected Cook County Board president.
Organization and leadership
Article I of the by-laws of the Cook County Democratic Party states that the party exists to "attract, endorse, and support qualified Democratic candidates for office, to develop positions on issues of public importance, to advance the ideals and principles of the Democratic Party, and to seek to improve the lives of the people of Cook County through effective, efficient, and fair government." The by-laws also state that the party must "promote Democratic political activity in Cook County and encourage broad and diverse political participation by Cook County Democrats regardless or race, color, creed, national origin, gender, physical ability or sexual orientation ... and take an active role in county, state, and national political efforts which have an impact upon the people of Cook County."
The party was chaired by 31st ward committeeman Joseph Berrios from 2007 until April 2018, when Cook County President Toni Preckwinkle replaced him. The Executive Committee has eight other officers: two Executive Vice-Chairs, First Vice-Chair, City Vice-Chair, Suburban Vice-Chair, Secretary, Treasurer, and Sergeant-At-Arms. Each of the 50 wards of Chicago and the 30 suburban townships has its own committee and is represented in the Central Committee by an elected committeeperson (until 2018 legal name change, "committeeman").
In suburban Cook County, regional groups, such as the Southland Democrats, co-ordinate activities with their local Democratic township organizations and their committeemen. Article IV, Section 4 of the By-laws of the Cook County Democratic Party allows the Suburban Vice-Chair (a position currently held by Illinois State Senator Don Harmon) the authority to "convene caucuses and meetings, solicit support for the organization, assist the County Chair in any matters upon request, coordinate activities concerning recommendations for endorsements of candidate, and bring before the Central Committee issues of particular interest."
Committeepeople
As of early 2020:
See also Incumbent Chicago Democratic Party Committeepeople.
History
Early history
Cook County was created on 15 January 1831 and it was named after Daniel Cook. Cook had been one of the earliest and youngest statesmen in Illinois history and he was a registered Democrat in Randolph County. By 1837, local Democrats were winning electoral victories under the leadership of William B. Ogden. Ogden recruited Irish immigrants into the party. Their loyalty to native Democrats was established in return for petty political favors and an occasional elected office. The careers of Irish Democrats from this period, such as John Comiskey from the Blue Island area, were still limited by anti-Irish discrimination. Prior to the American Civil War, the city of Chicago and Cook County had created a strong two-party tradition. The local Democratic Party grew stronger in the decades that followed the Great Chicago Fire due in part to an influx of new immigrants from eastern and southern Europe. By 1890, Roger Charles Sullivan had accumulated major influence within the tumultuous Cook County Democratic Party. He would come to dominate the organization for two decades and he was a national figure during the age when urban political bosses reached the height of their power and prestige. After his death, he was followed as chairman by George Brennan in 1920.
Prior to the death of party chairman George Brennan in 1928, the Democratic Party in Cook County was divided along ethnic lines – the Irish, Polish, Italian, and other groups each controlled politics in their neighborhoods and municipalities. Under the leadership of Anton Cermak, a Czech American, the party combined its ethnic bases into one large organization. With the organization behind him, Cermak was able to win election as mayor of Chicago in 1931, an office he held until his assassination in 1933. After Cermak's death, Patrick Nash and Edward J. Kelly consolidated the Cook County Democratic Party into a political machine.
Nash and Kelly were able to bring African-Americans, who had been predominantly Republicans since the Civil War, into the Democratic Party. Nash died in 1943 and Kelly took over as Chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party. The extensive corruption that took place during Kelly's tenure caused him to become unelectable. Jacob Arvey assumed the position of Chairman of the organization after Kelly's ouster in 1947. Arvey put reformers on the slate, such as Martin H. Kennelly for mayor, Paul Douglas for United States Senate, and Adlai Stevenson for governor of Illinois. During the early years of the 1950s, Joseph L. Gill – George Brennan's brother-in-law – replaced Arvey as Chairman of the party. His role was more of a caretaker than that of a political leader.
Under Richard J. Daley
The Democratic committeemen of Cook County elected Richard J. Daley as their chairman in 1953 and the Democratic committeemen of Chicago slated him as their mayoral candidate in 1955. He served as chairman for 22 years and as mayor for twenty years. This was accomplished with the help and support of William L. Dawson. In return, an African-American "sub-machine" led by Dawson was created under the umbrella of the regular machine. In the predominantly African-American wards, Dawson was able to act as his own political boss. He amassed a considerable power base by awarding political appointments to his allies, just as Daley did in the larger machine. However, Dawson's machine had to continually support the regular machine in order to retain its own clout.
Daley helped turn out the vote for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election. Kennedy won Illinois by 9,000 votes, yet won Cook County by 450,000 votes, with some Chicago precincts going to Kennedy by over 10 to 1 margins. Illinois' 27 electoral votes helped give Kennedy the majority he needed. Chicago was selected to host the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Political commentator Len O'Connor described this period as Richard J. Daley's "High Water Mark" and described the Cook County Democratic Party at the time as one of the most powerful political machines in American history.
Under George Dunne and Edward Vrdolyak
The Shakman Decrees introduced judicial oversight of City and County hiring, reducing the number of voters who owed their livelihoods to the Democratic party. The 1968 convention had ended in disaster. The Walker Report concluded that a "police riot" had taken place at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. NBC News had televised the event and switched back and forth between demonstrators being beaten by the police in front of the convention hall and the festivities over Humphrey's victory inside. Racial tension over issues such as urban renewal in Woodlawn and Lincoln Park, red lining, open housing and public school desegregation alienated African-Americans and Latinos voters. Though Daley himself never faced any criminal charges, a number of his associates did, including Thomas Keane and Arvey. After Daley's death in 1976, no mayor has served as chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party. Michael Bilandic, Daley's successor as mayor, lost in a 1979 mayoral primary to Jane Byrne. In Bilandic's obituary, The New York Times wrote that the operation of the Cook County Democratic Party as a political machine ended during Bilandic's mayoralty.
Byrne's base of support was on the Northwest side of Chicago, and to a lesser extent the Southeast and Southwest, and she also benefited from independent African-American electoral support. Originally a Richard J. Daley appointee, Byrne did not have the backing of the influential ward committeemen such as John Daley, Michael Madigan, or Thomas Hynes. For a short while after Byrne's election Richard J. Daley's successor as Democratic County Party Chairman George Dunne supported her. In 1979, Oak Park Democratic committeeman and State Senator since 1970, Philip J. Rock became the Illinois State Senate's top Democrat. He would serve as such for the next 14 years and he would retire as the longest serving President of the Senate and Majority Leader in state history.
George Dunne had a falling out with the mayor and in 1982 he lost the party chairmanship to 10th Ward committeeman Edward Vrdolyak, an ally of Jane Byrne. When Richard J. Daley's son Richard M. Daley challenged Byrne for mayor in 1983, a coalition of African-American, Hispanic, and "good government" or "lakefront liberals" coalesced. Latinos who had been displaced for years from the downtown and lakefront neighborhoods joined the West Town Coalition and the Young Lords, and both groups backed Harold Washington. He won the three-way primary election with 80% of the Latino vote. The Young Lords leader Jose Cha Cha Jimenez introduced the new mayor in June 1983 in Humboldt Park before a crowd of 100,000 Puerto Ricans. For the next three years, the Cook County Democratic Party was divided by crippling Council Wars in the city of Chicago. This was essentially a racially polarized political conflict that blocked the agenda of Washington and his allies.
After Washington was elected – and in spite of the fact that African Americans and Latinos comprised 55 percent of the votes in the city's 49 wards – only 15 Blacks and one Latino served as alderman. Gerrymandering had prevented the Black and Latino majorities from electing candidates from their own communities. Washington's supporters and allies waged an unprecedented and successful battle over redistricting. Their broad, multiracial coalition then used grassroots organizing techniques that resulted in electoral wins. Those victories brought an end to the Council Wars that had paralyzed Chicago's city council since Washington was elected. Several prominent Democrats, led by Party Chairman Edward Vrdolyak, defected to the Republican Party. George Dunne, who had aligned himself with Harold Washington during the Council Wars period, was re-elected to the party chairmanship after Vrydolyak resigned following his defeat by Washington in the 1987 Mayoral election. Washington's death in the fall of 1987, a half-year into his second term, fractured the Washington political coalition. No subsequent African-American candidate was able to unify the West and South Side African-American communities or mobilize the same degree of support among white liberals as well as Washington had.
In 2008, Vrdolyak, former Democratic Committeeman from Chicago's 10th Ward, Chicago alderman, and former Cook County Democratic Party Chairman, pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit mail and wire fraud related to the sale of property by the Chicago Medical School.
Under Tom Lyons
Dunne did not seek re-election to the party chairmanship in 1990, amidst a scandal in which he admitted having sex with female county employees who alleged they were pressured into providing sexual favors to him. Following Dunne's departure, Thomas G. Lyons was elected chairman of the party and would serve in that capacity for 17 years. He had also been the 45th Ward committeeman and was a lawmaker, lawyer and lobbyist. After the March, 2000 County elections, Pulitzer Prize-winning Chicago Tribune editorial page editor R. Bruce Dold wrote in an op-ed,
Nobody wants to be the chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party, the job once held by Richard J. Daley, the job that made George Dunne a powerful man. Nobody wants it because the Democratic Party of Cook County has become nothing more than a distraction for the one Democrat who counts, Mayor Richard M. Daley. ... The Democrats, though, they had a thing of beauty, a big, genuine, political machine. But then it became a victim of Jane Byrne. And then it became a victim of Harold Washington. And now it's a victim of indifference.
Richard M. Daley's political operation was largely separate from the county organization. His power bloc included the growing Hispanic community, through a "powerful and feared patronage army" known as the Hispanic Democratic Organization. Unlike his father, the younger Daley also reached out to those who initially opposed him, and primarily through negotiated apportionment of city funds for aldermen's local projects, was able to gain control of the City Council to a degree that only the elder Daley ever enjoyed. In July 2005, the federal court-appointed Shakman monitor reported widespread abuses of a previous court decree against patronage hiring. On July 5, 2006, Robert Sorich, formally, Daley's director of the Mayor's Office of Intergovernmental Affairs and, informally, Daley's patronage chief, and Timothy McCarthy, Sorich's aide, were each convicted on two counts of mail fraud connected to rigging blue-collar city jobs and promotions.
In 1995, Mel Reynolds, Democratic congressman from Illinois's 2nd congressional district, which includes parts of the south side of Chicago and south suburbs in Cook County and parts of Will and Kankakee Counties, was convicted on 12 counts of sexual assault, obstruction of justice and solicitation of child pornography, and while serving his sentence, was convicted on 16 unrelated counts of bank fraud, misusing campaign funds for personal use and lying to FEC investigators.
Lyons died in 2007. Shortly after Lyons death, 13th Ward committeeman Michael Madigan said, "The party's been going through transition for a long time. This is a completely different Democratic Party than the one I joined in 1969." Richard M. Daley retired in 2011.
Under Joseph Berrios
On February 1, 2007, Joseph Berrios was unanimously elected Chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party and headed the organization until April 18, 2018. Berrios is the first Hispanic to serve as Party chairman. In 2010 Cook County Board President Toni Preckwinkle, a Berrios political ally, said, "When Joe came in, for the first time, African-Americans, Latinos, women had a real opportunity for leadership in the party and had a real opportunity to be slated by the party."
The party has recently won several notable elections in suburban Cook County. At the county level, the Democratic committeeman of Wheeling Township, Patrick Botterman, engineered Brendan Houlihan's successful campaign for Commissioner of Cook County Board of Review in 2006.
Berrios has been the subject of numerous investigations and legal proceedings involving ethical violations, corruption, fraud and nepotism. He has defended his right in the press and in courts to hire and promote family members and friends to taxpayer funded positions.
Under Toni Preckwinkle
On April 18, 2018, Toni Preckwinkle was unanimously elected Chair of the Cook County Democratic Party. She became the first woman and first African-American to hold the position.
List of chairmen
Public corruption convictions
Examples of high-profile cases which have resulted in the conviction of members of the Cook County Democratic Party include Rod Blagojevich, Isaac Carothers, Arenda Troutman, and Jesse Jackson, Jr.
See also
Cook County Republican Party
Political history of Chicago
Shakman v. Democratic Organization of Cook County
References
Further reading
Cohen, Adam and Taylor, Elizabeth, American Pharaoh: Mayor Richard J. Daley — His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (2000)
Grimshaw, William J, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (1992)
Morton, Richard Allen, Roger C. Sullivan and the Making of the Chicago Democratic Machine, 1881–1909 (2016)
Rakove, Milton L, Don't Make No Waves, Don't Back No Losers: An Insider's Analysis of the Daley Machine (1975)
Rakove, Milton L, We Don't Want Nobody Nobody Sent: An Oral History of the Daley Years (1979)
Royko, Mike, Boss: Richard J. Daley of Chicago (1971)
External links
Democratic Party of Illinois
Democratic Party (United States) organizations
Political parties in Illinois
Cook County, Illinois
Political machines in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto%20media
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Pashto media
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The Pashto media includes Pashto literature, Pashto-language newspapers, magazines, television and radio stations, as well as Pashto films and Pashto internet. Pashto media involves the Pashtuns of Pakistan, Afghanistan and the Pashtun diaspora around the world.
Pashto literature and poetry
Pashto is not only the name of a language, but it comprises all traditions, norms and values of the Pashtun people. The history of Pashto language comprises thousands of years. It is widely believed among the Pashtuns that the earliest written Pashto poems were written in the 8th century CE by Amir Kror Suri of Ghor, Afghanistan. Amir Kror was the son of Amir Polad and they belonged to the Suri Pashtun tribe. Since paper was not much in use in the Pashtun territory, Poets usually performed poetry verbally and its fans memorized the work. Another reason may be that most Pashtuns were nomads and warriors, thus lack writing skills. Due to these and other reasons, Pashto remained as a verbal language only. The poems by Amir Kror Suri were discovered and saved in Pata Khazana, a work compiled by Shah Hussain Hotaki and last edited by professor Abdul Hai Habibi from Kandahar. Abu Muhammad Hashim Sarwani was another poet of that period. He was born around the Helmand Province in the 9th century. He was the student of Ullema of Basat. It is also said that he was the student of popular Arabic writer, Ibn-e-Khalid. Hashim Sarwani translated some Arabic poems in Pashto, and his work also came under light through the book, Pata Khazana. He also wrote a book, SaloVagma, meaning ‘deserted breeze’ on the eloquence of Arabic verses. After Abu Muhammad Hashim Sarwani, Sheikh Razi is another poet whose work is saved in the book, Pata Khazana. He belonged to the Lodi tribe of Pashtuns. Similarly, there are many other poets in the first phase of Pashto poetry (i.e. Amir Nasir Lodhi, Beat Neeka, Ismail Ster Bani (son of Beat Neeka), Kharshaboon (cousin of Ismail Ster Bani), Sheikh Asad Soori and others).
Intellectual, scholars and critics divide Pashto literature into two parts, i.e. poetry and prose. Poetic literature like Amir Crore Nazam and Sheikh Mati Munajat were all in poetic form. Prose found its place in Pashto literature very late. The reason is that poetry is a far common and effective genre for translating and expressing one's feeling into it and conveying the same to others. However prose vis-à-vis poetry appeals to a very selective mind and heart. Now the question arises as to when prose writing came into vogue in Pashto literature. There are various profound claims and arguments regarding the origin of prose in Pashto literature like it having been originated as back as 223 Hijri in the form of translation of Arabic verses in book titled ‘SaloVagma’ (Deserted Breeze). Since the book is not vogue and the idea is based on mere assumption, it cannot be taken as authentic. Similarly, another book Tazkiratul Aulia, written by Suleman Makoo in 612 Hijri, is said to be the first recognized book in Pashto. The book contains descriptions of major Aulia, like Shiekh Malkair, Shiekh Ismial and Sheikh Bakhtiar. The complete book is not in existence but a part of it is available. However, the oldest complete prose book in Pashto that is still in existence today is Khairul Bayan. After that we come across Akhund Darvez’s book title Makhzanul Islam and various other books written in the 9th and 10th centuries by Babu Jan, Mlamast Zamand, Allah Yar, and Akhun Qasim. But all these books were in prose-verse as they contained difficult words and rhetorical expressions and poetic rhythms as well. After that comes the era of the great Pashto poet Khushal Khan Khattak, who along with his family has made a remarkable contribution to Pashto prose writing. His sons, one of his daughters, Haleema Khatak and his grandchildren (Khushaal Khan Khatak's) contributed to Pashto prose in an especially unique way. It was this period when prose was written in clear, short and easy to follow and comprehensible form. Then comes the period of some of the greatest prose writers Saleh Mohammad, Ghulam Mohyuddin Afghan, Zamarley, Maulvi Mir Ahmed Shah, and Abdul Rauf Qaney further contributed to the cause of Pashto prose in Afghanistan. To conclude, Pashto expressions far more exceeds prose collections in Pashto literature as prose needs special attention on the part of intellectuals and critics and as this very form of expression is less developed in prose vis-à-vis poetry.
Pashto Academy
The Pashto Academy was established during the mid-1950s in Peshawar, the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The founder of the academy was Maulana Abdul Qadir who since his student-life was very concerned about the future of Pashto language. He was a scholar in Arabic, Persian, English, Urdu and Pashto. The establishment of the Academy helped give writers and intellectuals a platform, as well as helping the Pashto written word adopt a certain discipline. The academy publishes a quarterly magazine, Pashto, providing an establishment of appreciation for the Pashto prose form.
Positive impact of the Pashto Academy on Pashto literature: The Pashto academy has played an important role in the development of Pashto language as the total number of books published after the establishment of the Pashto Academy are many-fold more than the number of books published in the past 1200 years of literary history of Pashto language. To conclude, we can say Pashto literature, especially, Pashto poetry is on its peak as the Pashto poets are not afraid to write Ghazal, couplet or to do any kind of poetry, containing four, six or eight stanzas. The late historian, Khan Roshan khan from Swabi District along with Pashto Academy wrote the book, Tawarikh-e-Hafiz Rehmat khani.
Pashto newspapers and magazines
Syed Rahat Zakheili was not only a novelist and fiction writer of Pashto language, but Pashto first journalist who through journalism served the Pashto literature. To develop the Pashto literature, he started a weekly newspaper. Afghan and appreciated the Pashto poets and writers through the weekly. Unlike other language newspapers, Pashto journalism started to develop Pashto literature, so we can easily say that there was a strong link between Pashto literature and Pashto journalism and the journalism started to help develop the Pashto literature. The editor of the weekly, Afghan was Syed Abdullah Shah Kaka Khiel. Before Afghan Pashto journalism existed, but not in a regular and disciplined way. For instance, Al Jihad, a one-page newspaper owned by Abdul Ghaffar Peshawari used to be published under the editorship of Ghazi Abdul Ghafoor of Swat. Haji Sab Torakzai established a Litho press (printing press) in Tribal areas in 1915 during the ‘Jihad’ against Britain. Through this press, special kinds of pamphlets against Britain used to publish and distributed among the people of the tribal areas. Similarly, Al Mujahid was another Pashto newspaper that started publishing in 1923 under the editorship of Maulvi Muhammad Bashir. This newspaper also used to publish in the tribal areas and printed material against Britain. Zalmi Pashtoon was another daily newspaper which used to publish in 1933 and Hamdard Afghan published in 1929 under the editor ship of Khan Mir Hilali. During these days, Mohammad Nawaz Khatak started Watan which was a weekly newspaper.
Wahdat and Khabroona are the two main dailies from Peshawar, Pakistan. Wahdat started its publication in the 1980s during the Afghan war for the purpose to create a link between Pashtoons living on the Pakistan–Afghanistan border. Daily Qudrat is the only Pashto daily published in Quetta, Pakistan. Weekly newspaper BADLOON published by Mardan Editor Muhammad Zaman Adil in the Association of Writer Hands Media Group.
Pashto Online News Networks
Pashto Press Germany is also the first Pashto News website which is covering the Pashtuns Afghan Diaspora in Germany, and Provides news, articles, and Pashto & German Languages. Pashto Press Germany was founded by Noor Badshah Yousafzai in March 2016.
Pashto Editorial Policy
The editorial policy of the Pashto newspaper is free in a way that the paper is not under any kind of pressure from the government. Most of the material published in the editorial is Islamic. The newspaper mostly contains Islamic material. One page is a literature page comprising, editions related to religion (Islam). No such place has been given to sports or show biz news. Wahdat has no such magazine, etc., as a supplement. Wahdat is mostly read in cities of Peshawar, Mardan, Swat, Karachi and Kandahar. Khabroona is another daily newspaper of the Pashto language that started between 2001 and 2002. Khabroona is read in Peshawar, Mardan, Swat, suburbs of Peshawar, and in Kabul, Afghanistan. The editorial policy of the newspaper is quite free and liberal as well vis-à-vis Wahdat. The newspaper is not under any governmental pressure. The content of the newspaper is quite different from Wahdat, as it gives enough space to sports and show-biz news. As for its ad policy, the newspaper publishes government and private sector ads. The head offices of both Wahdat and Khabroona are in Peshawar.
The regular publication of magazines in Pashto language started when the owner of the weekly Afghan, Rahat Zakheili, started the magazine, Stari Mashi in 1931. During those days Pashtoon magazine started under the editorship of Abdul Khaliq. And then some other people found the environment conducive for magazines reading and started the magazines like Selab and Angar on regular bases. During the world war-II, a magazine, Nan Paroon was published from Delhi under the editorship of Maulana Abdul Qadir and barrister Nasrullah Khan. Khyber Magazine, a magazine published from Government Islamia College, Peshawar in the 1950s played a great role to project the views and problems of students on one hand and to promote Pashto literature on the other hand. Some other magazines which have their own fundamental and historical place in Pashto journalism are Qand, Adal, Qandeel and Tamas. These magazines have ceased publication. Monthly magazine KARAHMAR published from Peshawar editor Muhammad Zaman Adil in Association of Writer Hands Media Group.
Noor-ul-bashaf Naveed publishes the magazine Likwal. Pashtun is claimed by Awami National Party. One of the most popular Pashto magazines is Pasoon, headed by Dr Israr. Watan and Mashal are the other two Pashto magazines
Pashto radio
Radio Kabul is the official radio station of Afghanistan. The first radio transmitters were installed in Kabul in the 1920s. King Amanullah Khan installed a 200 watt Russian transmitter opejjgandi khan khel
rating at AM 833 kHz at his Kabul Palace in 1925. The transmitter was replaced in 1931 by King Nadir Khan, and was upgraded during Zahir Shah's reign in 1940 when a new 20 kilowatt transmitter was installed in its place, operating at 600 kHz.
In the meantime, Radio Pakistan, Peshawar started its programs in 1935. The first word broadcast from the station was Kalma-e-Tauheed. Radio had great importance at the time because there were limited newspapers and no televisions, people listened to radio not only for news but for entertainment purposes as well. Radio has an important role in the lives of the Pashtun people. Since the literacy rate is low among them, every family has a radio set in their house. Even the women in rural areas are informed and entertained by radio.
Stations like FM Boraq and FM 101 are heard in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The private radio stations usually discuss the problems of youths, and as a result of which they listen to it and owing to this, these private stations get more funds as compared to the stations supervised by the government. Radio Pakistan in Peshawar played a huge role in the development of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Not only does it broadcast entertainment programs but also programs related to the development and welfare of the province. For instance, it broadcasts programs for women development, for health, education, for children, agriculture and so on. Pakistani FM radios which promotes Pashto partially or fully:
Arman Fm 98.1 in Kabul
Radio Afghanistan in Kabul
Radio Azadi FM 100.5 in Kabul
Kabul Rock FM 108.0 in Kabul
Spogmai FM 102.2 in Kabul
FM 91.00 Radio Khyber from Khyber agency
FM 92.2 Radio Pakhtunkhwa
FM 92.6 Radio Aman Mardan
FM 93.00 Radio Dilber, Charsadda
FM 96.00 Swat
FM 102.00 Bannu / North Waziristan
FM 90.7Mhz Hamasha Bahar FM in Nangarhar Province - Afghanistan
FM 99.9 NAN ( Today ) 99.9 in Nangarhar province - Afghanistan
FM AMN FM ( Peace ) 96.8 in Nangarhar province - Afghanistan
FM Muram ( Hope ) Pashto broadcasting
FM Abasin Ningarhar
FM Awoshton Paktia
AM Talwasa Sharana City
FM Paiwastoon Urzgan
FM Wronga Kandahar
FM Zanat Logar
FM Bost In Helmand
FM SAMOON in Helmand
FM Sabawoon In Helmand
FM Chenar in Khost
FM NAN in Khost
FM Mena in Ningarhar
FM SANGA in Kandahar
FM Da Hilo Karwan Khost
FM Suli Paygham Khost
FM Sharq Nangarhar
FM Enikas Nangarhar
FM Nargis Nangarhar
FM Safa Nangarhar
FM Nakhtar Kunar
Radio stations from international religious organizations are also broadcast into the region. These stations tend to focus on community issues with programs about education, children, health and reconciliation.
International radio stations
Pashto though mainly a language in Afghanistan and Pakistan; is spoken in many parts of the world due to the large diaspora of these two countries. There are also a large number of Pashtuns living overseas particularly in the Middle East. Nabi Misdaq founded the Pashto Section of BBC World Service in the 1980s and in the same period Ali Ahmad Jalali was involved with Voice of America's Pashto in the United States. Some Pashto-language programs are included in the following international stations:
BBC World Service FM 89.0 in Pashto
Radio Free Afghanistan (RFA) in Pashto
Voice of America (VOA) in Pashto
China Radio International
Radio Moscow
Deutsche Welle
The above radio stations broadcast different programs like Khabarnama (news), dramas, musical, women and agricultural related programs. Similarly, most of the programs comprise literary short-dramas, discussions and mushairas.
Association of Radio Journalists (ARJ) is first Radio Journalists forum of Khyber pakhtunkhwa nad FATA. Muhammad Zaman Adil first elected president of ARJ.
Television and internet
The first TV channels broadcasting Pashto programs were during the 1970s. Pakistan Television Peshawar (PTV Peshawar) was inaugurated in 1974, at 2-Fort Road in the city of Peshawar, Pakistan. All programs were transmitted in black and white until February 1982 when color was transmission began. Besides Pashto. PTV Quetta was inaugurated in November 1974. In the meantime, Afghanistan had its own TV stations in the 1970s and 1980s, in which programs in Pashto and Dari were being broadcast throughout the country. During the Taliban era from 1994 to 2001, TV was banned in Afghanistan. It restarted under the 2001–present NATO-backed Karzai administration, and a number of stations are available which broadcast in Pashto. Voice of America in the United States also has a Pashto section called Ashna TV, which mainly broadcasts current news. One of its usual anchor is Ibrahim Nasar, a Pashtun from the Balochistan-Kandahar region.
AVT Khyber started its transmission in 2004 from Asia set 3. Earlier the period of time for programmes was 12 hours, but on completion of one year it extended the time period to 24 hours. AVT Khyber is mainly Pashto channel . The channel shows all kind of program, from talk shows and dramas to videos and movies. Like PTV Peshawar, the programs of AVT Khyber also consist of entertainment, news and current affairs. The policy for its news is the same as that of other private channels in the country.
Shamshad TV is a satellite television station based in Afghanistan, which was launched in early 2006. The channel broadcasts 18 hours a day, providing educational, news, shows, dramas, and entertaining programs to the Afghanistan region as well as other countries via satellite. Its name is taken from a mountain named Shamshad, which is one of the highest mountains in Afghanistan. It transmits hourly news, current affairs programs, entertainment programs, politics programs, sports programs and criminal incidents programs. It has many live shows such as Dini Larkhowani (Religious Guidance) and Nizaam Ao Meezaan (Government and Balance). Lemar TV (meaning "Sun TV" in Pashto) is another TV station based in Afghanistan, which was also launched in 2006. The channel broadcasts news, shows, and entertainment programs to certain parts of the country.
In the 2000s, Pashto joined the internet world. There are many websites which provide news and other information in the Pashto language. All Afghanistan related government or private websites provide access in Pashto language. Wikipedia and other international organizations also have Pashto versions available.
In August 2014, Sabaoon TV channel launched in Mardan, Pakistan which the first pashto's HD Tv channel.
some other new Pashto channels includes Aruj TV, Pashto 1, Attanr Tv and many others.
Pashto film industry
Pashto films are widely shown in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The first Pashto film was Laila Majnoon, released in 1942. It was shown in Peshawar, Quetta, Calcutta (now India). The director of the film was Mir Hamza Shinwari, while its composer was Abdul Karim. The heroine of Laila Majnoon was Harry Jay and the hero was Rafiqe Ghaznawi. The second Pashto film was made in 1960 and its story was a translation of an Urdu film, Nai Kiran (new ray). The dialogues of the film were written by Mir Hamza Shinwari. It was displayed at Novelty cinema, Peshawar. Pashto's 3rd film was the 1963 Tiga, also made by Mir Hamza Shinwari. The hero of the film was Umer Daraz, while Ludeel was the cameraman of the film. Then in 1968 another film Yakka Yousaf Khan was released. The heroine of the film was Ghazali while the hero was Rab Nawaz. This film was inaugurated by Urdu film star, Rangila.
Pashto hits
Yousaf Khan Sher Bano was made in 1969 and released in 1970. It was written and directed by Aziz Tabassum.
Sandar Gharai (Singer) was released in 1970. Badar Munir was the hero and Yasmin Khan was the heroine of the movie, whereas Niamat Sarahadi was the villain.
Kala Khazan Kala Bahar (meaning some times autumn some times spring) was directed by Jamil Ahmad and produced by Syed Amir Sarhadi in 1970. The hero of the film was Aman.
Aalaqa Ghair (means land of no law) was made (produced) by Habibullah khan in 1971. Dialogues and poetry was made by Amir Hamza Shinwari.
Similarly Darrae Khyber, Adam Khan Durkhanai (produced by Shakil Ayub and directed by Aziz Tabassum), Musa Khan Gul Makai (hero was Asif Khan and heroine was Yasmin Khan), Bahadur Khan (hero was Humayun Qureshi), Ajab Khan Afridi, Zama Badan''', Maghrur, Oarbal, Topak Zama Qanoon (produced by Aziz Tabassum), Dahqan (produced by Badar Munir), Baghi, Arman, Miranae Roar (step brother), Tarbooz, Iqrar, Angar, Zakhmoona, Navae au Nakriza (Bridal and Henna), Ujrati Qatil, Da Aoochea Khan, Prdang, Toofani Shappa, Bangri au Hathqardae, Ab-e-Hyat, Khulea Nave, Kufar au Islam, Da Karye Gorilla'' and many more are the Pashto hits from 1970-71 to 1985.
Role of film in the development of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa: From 1960 to 1980s Pashto film enjoyed its great times. Its standard was on no grounds less than that of Urdu films till mid-1970s and even 1980s. If there were waheed Murad, Nadim and Mohammad Ali in Lollywood (Urdu films), so Badar Munir, Asif Khan and many others were the chocolate heroes of
During these days cinema was the most effective way to communicate with the people as the standard of the movies were very good. Until the mid-1980s films were made on almost every subject and the people really loved to watch Pashto movies in cinema. So Pashto films played a great role in development of Pakhtoon khuwa as though cinema used to situate only in the urban areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, but people from far flung areas came to cities such as Peshawar, Mardan, and Mingora to watch films. Now though the standard of the Pashto film has fallen very much, but the youths, especially the rural people still love to go to cinema.
Pashto films in the 1990s: until 1990 there were some great names in the Pashto film industry. For instance, Mir Hamza Shinwari who was a producer, director and a great name in the Pashto poetry. Murad Shinwari is the one whose name comes in the list of the producers and directors who really served the Pashto industry in its real sense. Amir Ghulam Sadiq is the only name in the Pashto film industry, who did poetry for Pashto films for almost more than 30 years. But after 1990 owing to the absence of institutionalization in the Pashto film industry, there were no such dedicated people, which in intern created environment conducive to vulgarity and obscenity and the standard of the Pashto films fell.
See also
List of Pashto-language singers
List of television channels in Afghanistan
List of television stations in Pakistan
List of Afghan singers
Pollywood
References
External links
Afghan cinema to be revived by exiled cinematographers
Selections from the Poetry of the Afghans: From the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century by Henry George Raverty
Media
Pakistani literature
Afghan literature
Mass media in Pakistan
Mass media in Afghanistan
Pakistani literature by language
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioteca%20Marciana
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Biblioteca Marciana
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The Marciana Library or Library of Saint Mark (, but in historical documents commonly referred to as ) is a public library in Venice, Italy. It is one of the earliest surviving public libraries and repositories for manuscripts in Italy and holds one of the world's most significant collections of classical texts. It is named after St Mark, the patron saint of the city.
The library was founded in 1468 when the humanist scholar Cardinal Bessarion, bishop of Tusculum and titular Latin patriarch of Constantinople, donated his collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts to the Republic of Venice, with the stipulation that a library of public utility be established. The collection was the result of Bessarion's persistent efforts to locate rare manuscripts throughout Greece and Italy and then acquire or copy them as a means of preserving the writings of the classical Greek authors and the literature of Byzantium after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. His choice of Venice was primarily due to the city's large community of Greek refugees and its historical ties to the Byzantine Empire. The Venetian government was slow, however, to honour its commitment to suitably house the manuscripts with decades of discussion and indecision, owing to a series of military conflicts in the late-fifteenth and early-sixteenth centuries and the resulting climate of political uncertainty. The library was ultimately built during the period of recovery as part of a vast programme of urban renewal aimed at glorifying the republic through architecture and affirming its international prestige as a centre of wisdom and learning.
The original library building is located in Saint Mark's Square, Venice's former governmental centre, with its long façade facing the Doge's Palace. Constructed between 1537 and 1588, it is considered the masterpiece of the architect Jacopo Sansovino and a key work in Venetian Renaissance architecture. The Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio described it as "perhaps the richest and most ornate building that there has been since ancient times up until now" (). The art historian Jacob Burckhardt regarded it as "the most magnificent secular Italian building" (), and Frederick Hartt called it "one of the most satisfying structures in Italian architectural history". Also significant for its art, the library holds many works by the great painters of sixteenth-century Venice, making it a comprehensive monument to Venetian Mannerism.
Today, the building is customarily referred to as the '' and is largely a museum. Since 1904, the library offices, the reading rooms, and most of the collection have been housed in the adjoining Zecca, the former mint of the Republic of Venice. The library is now formally known as the . It is the only official institution established by the Venetian Republican government that survives and continues to function.
Historical background
Cathedral libraries and monastic libraries were the principal centres of study and learning throughout Italy in the Middle Ages. But beginning in the fifteenth century, the humanist emphasis on the knowledge of the classical world as essential to the formation of the Renaissance man led to a proliferation of court libraries, patronized by princely rulers, several of which provided a degree of public access. In Venice, an early attempt to found a public library in emulation of the great libraries of Antiquity was unsuccessful, as Petrarch's personal collection of manuscripts, donated to the republic in 1362, was dispersed at the time of his death.
In 1468, the Byzantine humanist and scholar Cardinal Bessarion donated his collection of 482 Greek and 264 Latin codices to the Republic of Venice, stipulating that a public library be established to ensure their conservation for future generations and availability for scholars. The formal letter announcing the donation, dated 31 May 1468 and addressed to Doge Cristoforo Moro () and the Senate, narrates that following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and its devastation by the Turks, Bessarion had set ardently about the task of acquiring the rare and important works of ancient Greece and Byzantium and adding them to his existing collection so as to prevent the further dispersal and total loss of Greek culture. The cardinal's stated desire in offering the manuscripts to Venice specifically was that they should be properly conserved in a city where many Greek refugees had fled and which he himself had come to consider "another Byzantium" ().
Bessarion's first contact with Venice had been in 1438 when, as the newly ordained metropolitan bishop of Nicaea, he arrived with the Byzantine delegation to the Council of Ferrara-Florence, the objective being to heal the schism between the Catholic and Orthodox churches and unite Christendom against the Ottoman Turks. His travels as envoy to Germany for Pope Pius II brought him briefly to the city again in 1460 and 1461. On 20 December 1461, during the second stayover, he was admitted into the Venetian aristocracy with a seat in the Great Council.
In 1463, Bessarion returned to Venice as the papal legate, tasked with negotiating the republic's participation in a crusade to liberate Constantinople from the Turks. For the duration of this extended sojourn (1463–1464), the cardinal lodged and studied in the Benedictine monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore, and it was to the monastery that he initially destined his Greek codices which were to be consigned after his death. But under the influence of the humanist Paolo Morosini and his cousin Pietro, the Venetian ambassador to Rome, Bessarion annulled the legal act of donation in 1467 with papal consent, citing the difficulty readers would have had in reaching the monastery, located on a separate island. The following year, Bessarion announced instead his intention to bequeath his entire personal library, both the Greek and Latin codices, to the Republic of Venice with immediate effect.
On 28 June 1468, Pietro Morosini took legal possession of Bessarion's library in Rome on behalf of the republic. The bequest included the 466 codices which were transported to Venice in crates the next year. To this initial delivery, more codices and incunabula were added following the death of Bessarion in 1472. This second shipment, arranged in 1474 by Federico da Montefeltro, departed from Urbino, where Bessarion had deposited the remainder of his library for safekeeping. It included the books that the cardinal had reserved for himself or had acquired after 1468.
Despite the grateful acceptance of the donation by the Venetian government and the commitment to establish a library of public utility, the codices remained crated inside the Doge's Palace, entrusted to the care of the state historian under the direction of the procurators of Saint Mark de supra. Little was done to facilitate access, particularly during the years of the conflict against the Ottomans (1463–1479) when time and resources were directed towards the war effort. In 1485, the need to provide greater space for governmental activities led to the decision to compress the crates into a smaller area of the palace where they were stacked, one atop the other. Access became more difficult and on-site consultation impracticable. Although codices were periodically loaned, primarily to learned members of the Venetian nobility and academics, the requirement to deposit a security was not always enforced. A few of the codices were subsequently discovered in private libraries or even for sale in local book shops. In exceptional circumstances, copyists were allowed to duplicate the manuscripts for the private libraries of influential patrons: among others Lorenzo de' Medici commissioned copies of seven Greek codices. During this period, reproduction of the manuscripts was rarely authorized for printers who needed working copies on which to write notes and make corrections whenever printing critical editions, since it was believed that the value of a manuscript would greatly decline once the editio princeps (first edition) had been published. Notably, Aldus Manutius was able to make only limited use of the codices for his publishing house.
Several prominent humanists, including Marcantonio Sabellico in his capacity as official historian and Bartolomeo d'Alviano, urged the government over time to provide a more suitable location, but to no avail. The political and financial situation during the long years of the Italian Wars stymied any serious plan to do so, notwithstanding the Senate's statement of intent in 1515 to build a library. Access to the collection itself was nevertheless improved after the appointment of Andrea Navagero as official historian and gubernator (curator) of the collection. During Navagero's tenure (1516–1524), scholars made greater use of the manuscripts and copyists were authorized with more frequency to reproduce codices for esteemed patrons, including Pope Leo X, King Francis I of France, and Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Lord High Chancellor of England. More editions of the manuscripts were published in this period, notably by Manutius’ heirs. With the nomination of Pietro Bembo as gubernator in 1530 and the termination of the War of the League of Cognac in that same year, efforts to gather support for the construction of the library were renewed. Probably at the instigation of Bembo, an enthusiast of classical studies, the collection was transferred in 1532 to the upper floor of the Church of Saint Mark, the ducal chapel, where the codices were uncrated and placed on shelves. That same year, Vettore Grimani pressed his fellow procurators, insisting that the time had come to act on the republic's long-standing intention to construct a public library wherein Bessarion's codices could be housed.
Building
Construction
The construction of the library was an integral part of the (renewal of the city), a vast architectural programme begun under Doge Andrea Gritti (). The programme was intended to heighten Venetian self-confidence and reaffirm the republic's international prestige after the earlier defeat at Agnadello during the War of Cambrai and the subsequent Peace of Bologna, which sanctioned Habsburg hegemony on the Italian peninsula at the end of the War of the League of Cognac. Championed by the Grimani family, it called for the transformation of Saint Mark's Square from a medieval town centre with food vendors, money changers, and even latrines into a classical forum. The intent was to evoke the memory of the ancient Roman Republic and, in the aftermath of the Sack of Rome in 1527, to present Venice as Rome's true successor. This would visually substantiate Venetian claims that, despite the republic's relative loss of political influence, its longevity and stability were assured by its constitutional structure, consisting in a mixed government modelled along the lines of the classical republics.
Monumental in scale, the architectural programme was one of the most ambitious projects of urban renewal in sixteenth-century Italy. In addition to the mint (begun 1536) and the loggia of the bell tower of Saint Mark's (begun 1538), it involved replacing the dilapidated thirteenth-century buildings that lined the southern side of the square and the area in front of the Doge's Palace. For this, the procurators of Saint Mark de supra commissioned Jacopo Sansovino, their proto (consultant architect and buildings manager), on 14 July 1536. A refugee from the Sack of Rome, Sansovino possessed the direct knowledge and understanding of ancient Roman prototypes necessary to carry out the architectural programme.
The commission called for a model of a three-storey building, but the project was radically transformed. On 6 March 1537, it was decided that the construction of the new building, now with only two storeys, would be limited to the section directly in front of the palace and that the upper floor was to be reserved for the offices of the procurators and the library. This would not only satisfy the terms of the donation, it would bring renown to the republic as a centre of wisdom, learning, and culture. Significantly, the earlier decree of 1515, citing as examples the libraries in Rome and in Athens, expressly stated that a perfect library with fine books would serve as an ornament for the city and as a light for all of Italy.
Sansovino's superintendence (1537–)
Construction proceeded slowly. The chosen site for the library, although owned by the government, was occupied by five hostelries (Pellegrino, Rizza, Cavaletto, Luna, Lion) and several food stalls, many of which had long-standing contractual rights. It was thus necessary to find a mutually agreed upon alternative location, and at least three of the hostelries had to remain in the area of Saint Mark's Square. In addition, the hostelries and shops provided a steady flow of rental income to the procurators of Saint Mark de supra, the magistrates responsible for the public buildings around Saint Mark's Square. So there was the need to limit the disruption of the revenue by gradually relocating the activities as the building progressed and new space was required to continue.
The lean-to bread shops and a portion of the Pellegrino hostelry adjoining the bell tower were demolished in early 1537. But rather than reutilizing the existing foundations, Sansovino built the library detached so as to make the bell tower a freestanding structure and transform Saint Mark's Square into a trapezoid. This was intended to give greater visual importance to the Church of Saint Mark located on the eastern side.
Work was suspended following the Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540) due to lack of funding but resumed in 1543. The next year, 1544, the rest of the Pellegrino hostelry was torn down, followed by the Rizza. On 18 December 1545, the heavy masonry vault collapsed. In the subsequent enquiry, Sansovino claimed that workmen had prematurely removed the temporary wooden supports before the concrete had set and that a galley in the basin of Saint Mark, firing her cannon as a salute, had shaken the building. Nevertheless, the architect was sentenced to personally repay the cost of the damage, which took him 20 years. Further, his stipend was suspended until 1547. As a consequence of the collapse, the design was modified with a lighter wooden structure to support the roof.
In the following years, the procurators increased funding by borrowing from trust funds, recovering unpaid rents, selling unprofitable holdings, and drawing upon the interest income from government bonds. Work proceeded rapidly thereafter. The Cavaletto hostelry was relocated in 1550. This was followed by the demolition of the Luna. By 1552, at least the seven bays in correspondence to the reading room, had been completed. The commemorative plaque in the adjacent vestibule, corresponding to the next three bays, bears the date of the Venetian year 1133 (i.e. 1554), an indication that the end of construction was already considered imminent. By then, fourteen bays had been constructed. However, owing to difficulties in finding a suitable alternative location, only in 1556 was the last of the hostelries, the Lion, relocated, allowing the building to reach the sixteenth bay in correspondence with the lateral entry of the mint. Beyond stood the central meat market. This was a significant source of rental income for the procurators, and construction was halted. The work on the interior decorations continued until about 1560. Although it was decided five years later to relocate the meat market and continue the building, no further action was taken, and in 1570 Sansovino died.
Scamozzi's superintendence (1582–1588)
The meat market was demolished in 1581. The following year Vincenzo Scamozzi was selected to oversee the construction of the final five bays, continuing Sansovino's design for the façade. This brought the building down to the embankment of Saint Mark's Basin and into alignment with the main façade of the mint. Scamozzi added the crowning statues and obelisks. Since the original plans by Sansovino do not survive, it is not known whether the architect intended for the library to reach the final length of twenty-one bays. Scamozzi's negative comment on the junction of the library with the mint has led some architectural historians to argue that the result could not have been intentionally designed by Sansovino. However archival research and technical and aesthetic assessments have not been conclusive.
During Scamozzi's superintendence, the debate regarding the height of the building was reopened. When Sansovino was first commissioned on 14 July 1536, the project expressly called for a three-storey construction similar to the recently rebuilt Procuratie Vecchie on the northern side of Saint Mark's Square. But by 6 March 1537, when the decision was made to locate the library within the new building, the plan was abandoned in favour of a single floor above the ground level. Scamozzi, nonetheless, recommended adding a floor to the library. Engineers were called to assess the existing foundation to determine whether it could bear the additional weight. The conclusions were equivocal, and it was ultimately decided in 1588 that the library would remain with only two floors.
Architecture
Upper floor
The upper storey is characterized by a series of Serlians, so-called because the architectural element was illustrated and described by Sebastiano Serlio in his Tutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetiva, a seven-volume treatise for Renaissance architects and scholarly patrons. Later popularized by the architect Andrea Palladio, the element is also known as the Palladian window. It is inspired by ancient triumphal arches such as the Arch of Constantine and consists in a high-arched opening that is flanked by two shorter sidelights topped with lintels and supported by columns. From his days in Florence, Sansovino was likely familiar with the Serlian, having observed it in the tabernacle of the Merchants’ guild by Donatello and Michelozzo () on the façade of the Church of Orsanmichele. He would have undoubtedly seen Donato Bramante's tripartite window in the Sala Regia of the Vatican during his Roman sojourn and may have been aware of the sixteenth-century nymphaeum at Genazzano near Rome, attributed to Bramante, where the Serlian is placed in a series. At the Marciana, Sansovino adopted the contracted Serlian of the Orsanmichele prototype, which has narrow sidelights, but these are separated from the tall opening by double columns, placed one behind the other. This solution of the narrow sidelights ensured greater strength to the structural walls, which was necessary to balance the thrust of the barrel vault originally planned for the upper storey.
Layered over the series of Serlians is a row of large Ionic columns. The capitals with the egg-and-dart motif in the echinus and flame palmettes and masks in the collar may have been directly inspired by the Temple of Saturn in Rome and perhaps by the Villa Medicea at Poggio a Caiano by Giuliano da Sangallo. For the bases, as a sign of his architectural erudition, Sansovino adopted the Ionic base as it had been directly observed and noted by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and Baldassare Peruzzi in ancient ruins at Frascati. The idea of an ornate frieze above the columns with festoons alternating with window openings had already been used by Sansovino for the courtyard of Palazzo Gaddi in Rome (1519–1527). But the insertion of windows into a frieze had been pioneered even earlier by Bramante at Palazzo Caprini in Rome (1501–1510, demolished 1938) and employed in Peruzzi's early sixteenth-century Villa Farnesina. In the library, the specific pattern of the festoons with putti appears to be based on an early second-century sarcophagus fragment belonging to Cardinal Domenico Grimani's collection of antiquities.
Ground floor
The ground floor is modelled on the Theatre of Marcellus and the Colosseum in Rome. It consists in a succession of Doric columns supporting an entablature and is layered over a series of arches resting on pillars. The combination of columns layered over an arcade had been proposed by Bramante for the Palazzo di Giustizia (unexecuted), and was employed by Antonio da Sangallo the younger for the courtyard of Palazzo Farnese (begun 1517). In adopting the solution for the Marciana Library, Sansovino was faithfully adhering to the recommendation of Leon Battista Alberti that in larger structures the column, inherited from Greek architecture, should only support an entablature, whereas the arch, inherited from Roman mural construction, should be supported on square pillars so that the resulting arcade appears to be the residual of "a wall open and discontinued in several places".
According to the architect's son, Francesco, Sansovino's design for the corner of the Doric frieze was much discussed and admired for its faithful adherence to the principles of Ancient Roman architecture as outlined by Vitruvius in De architectura. These principles required that a triglyph be centred over the last column and then followed by half a metope, but the space was insufficient. With no surviving classical examples to guide them, Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Raphael, and other great Renaissance architects had struggled with the dilemma, implementing various ideas, none of which satisfied the Vitruvian dictum. Sansovino's solution was to lengthen the end of the frieze by placing a final pilaster on a wider pier, thus creating the space necessary for a perfect half metope. Francesco Sansovino relates that his father additionally sensationalized the design by challenging the leading architects in Italy to resolve the problem and then triumphantly revealing his own solution.
Carvings
Rather than a two-dimensional wall, the façade is conceived as an assemblage of three-dimensional structural elements, including piers, arcades, columns, and entablatures layered atop one another to create a sense of depth, which is increased by the extensive surface carvings. These are the work of Sansovino's collaborators, including Danese Cattaneo, Pietro da Salò, Bartolomeo Ammannati, and Alessandro Vittoria. Male figures in high relief are located in the spandrels on the ground floor. With the exception of the arch in correspondence to the entry of the library which has Neptune holding a trident and Aeolus with a wind-filled sail, these figures represent allegories of non-specific rivers, characterized by the cornucopias and the urns with water flowing out. The enlarged keystones of the arches on the ground floor alternate between lions’ heads and the heads of pagan divinities (Ceres?, Pan, Apollo, Diana, Mercury, Minerva, Venus, Mars, Juno?, Jupiter, Saturn, and Phanes). In low relief, the underarches have either mythological scenes, mostly related to the divinity in the keystone, or grotesques. The spandrels on the upper floor have allegorical female figures with wings. These are in mid relief, thus creating the illusion that they are further from the viewer. The upright structural axes, consisting of the succession of columns and pedestals, become progressively lighter. This all serves to emphasize the verticality and counterbalance the long, horizontal succession of arcades.
The balustrade above is surmounted by statues of pagan divinities and immortalized heroes of Antiquity. Built by Scamozzi between 1588 and 1591 following Sansovino's design, this solution for the roofline may have been influenced by Michelangelo's designs for the Capitoline Hill in Rome and may have later inspired Scamozzi's own work at the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. Among the sculptors were Agostino and Vigilio Rubini, Camillo Mariani, Tiziano Aspetti, and Girolamo Campagna. Over time, however, several of the original statues were eroded or otherwise damaged and ultimately replaced with statues that are not always consistent with the original subjects.
The effect of the library, overall, is that the entire façade has been encrusted with archaeological artefacts. Statues and carvings abound, and there are no large areas of plain wall. In addition to the abundance of classical decorative elements – obelisks, keystone heads, spandrel figures, and reliefs – the Doric and Ionic orders, each with the appropriate frieze, cornice, and base, follow ancient Roman prototypes, giving the building a sense of authenticity. The proportions, however, do not always respect Vitruvian canons. Scamozzi, a rigid classicist, was critical of the arches on the ground floor, considered to be dwarfed and ill-proportioned, and the excessive height of the Ionic entablature with respect to the columns. Nevertheless, the classical references were sufficient to satisfy the Venetians’ desire to emulate the great civilizations of Antiquity and to present their own city as the successor of the Roman Republic. At the same time, the design respects many local building traditions and harmonizes with the gothic Doge's Palace through the common use of Istrian limestone, the two-storey arcades, the balustrades, and the elaborate rooflines.
Interior
The library historically occupied the upper floor, while the ground floor was let to shops, and later cafes, as sources of revenue to the procurators. The gilded interior rooms are decorated with oil paintings by the masters of Venice's Mannerist period, including Titian, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese, and Andrea Schiavone. Some of these paintings show mythological scenes derived from the writings of classical authors: Ovid's Metamorphoses and Fasti, Apuleius's The Golden Ass, Nonnus's Dionysiaca, Martianus Capella's The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, and the Suda. In many instances, these stories of the pagan divinities are employed in a metaphorical sense on the basis of the early Christian writings of Arnobius and Eusebius. Other paintings show allegorical figures and include Renaissance hieroglyphics, consisting in symbols of plants, animals, and objects with specific, but enigmatic, meanings. They reflect the particular interest in the esotericism of the Hermetic writings and the Chaldean Oracles that enthused many humanists following the publication in 1505 of Horapollo's Ἱερογλυφικά (), the book discovered in 1419 by Cristoforo Buondelmonti and believed to be the key for deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.
The iconographic sources vary and include Pierio Valeriano's dictionary of symbols, (1556); popular emblem books such as Andrea Alciati's (1531) and Achille Bocchi's (1555); the divination game (1540) by ; as well as Vincenzo Cartari's mythographic manual for painters (1556). The "Mantegna Tarocchi" were used as iconographic sources for the depictions of the liberal arts and the muses in the staircase.
Although several images have a specific pedagogical function aimed at forming temperate and stalwart rulers and inculcating qualities of dedication to duty and moral excellence in the noble youth who studied in the library, the overall decorative programme reflects the Venetian aristocracy's interest in philosophy as an intellectual pursuit and, in a broader sense, the growing interest in Platonic philosophy as one of the central currents in Renaissance thought. It is conceptually organized on the basis of the Neoplatonic ascent of the soul and affirms that the quest for knowledge is directed towards the attainment of divine wisdom. The staircase largely represents the life of the embodied soul in the early stages of the ascent: the practice of the cardinal virtues, the study and contemplation of the sensible world in both its multiplicity and harmony, the transcendence of mere opinions (doxa) through dialectic, and catharsis. The reading room corresponds to the soul's subsequent journey within the intellectual realm and shows the culmination of the ascent with the awakening of the higher, intellective soul, ecstatic union, and illumination. The programme culminates with the representation of the ideal Platonic State founded upon a transcendent understanding of a higher reality. By association, it is implied that the Republic of Venice is the very paradigm of wisdom, order, and harmony.
Staircase
The staircase consists of four domes (the Dome of Ethics, the Dome of Rhetoric, the Dome of Dialectic, and the Dome of Poetics) and two flights, the vaults of which are each decorated with twenty-one images of alternating quadrilinear stuccoes by Alessandro Vittoria and octagonal frescoes by Battista Franco (first flight) and Battista del Moro (second flight). At the entry and on the landings, Sansovino repeated the Serlian element from the façade, making use of ancient columns taken from the dilapidated sixth-century Byzantine Church of Santa Maria del Canneto in Pola on the Istrian peninsula.
Vestibule
The vestibule was conceived as a lecture hall for the public school of Saint Mark. Founded in 1446 to train civil servants for the Ducal Chancery, the school initially focused on grammar and rhetoric. With the addition of a second lectureship for poetry, oratory, and history in 1460, it evolved into a humanistic school, principally for the sons of the nobles and citizens. Among the Italian humanists who taught there were George of Trebizond, Giorgio Valla, Marcantonio Sabellico, Raphael Regius, Battista Egnazio, and Marco Musuro. The vestibule additionally hosted the meetings of the Accademia Veneziana from 1560 until the academy's dissolution for bankruptcy the following year.
The room was originally lined with wooden benches, interrupted by a lectern that was located under the central window of the western wall. Beginning in 1591, it was transformed into the public Statuary Hall by Vincenzo Scamozzi in order to display the collection of ancient sculpture that Giovanni Grimani had donated to the Venetian Republic in 1587. Of the original decoration, only the ceiling remains with the illusionistic three-dimensional decoration by Cristoforo and Stefano De Rosa of Brescia (1559). Titian's octagonal painting in the centre has most often been identified as a personification of Wisdom or History. Other suggestions include Poetry, Philosophy, Rhetoric, and Love of Letters.
Reading Room
The adjacent reading room originally had 38 desks in the centre, arranged in two rows, to which the valuable codices were chained according to subject matter. Between the windows were imaginary portraits of great men of Antiquity, the 'philosophers', each originally accompanied by an identifying inscription. Similar portraits were located in the vestibule. Over time, however, these paintings were moved to various locations within the library and eventually, in 1763, to the Doge's Palace in order to create the wall space necessary for more bookshelves. As a result, some were lost along with all of the identifying inscriptions. The ten that survive were returned to the library in the early nineteenth century and integrated with other paintings in 1929. Of the 'philosophers', only Diogenes by Tintoretto has been credibly identified.
The ceiling of the reading room is decorated with 21 roundels, circular oil paintings, by Giovanni de Mio, Giuseppe Salviati, Battista Franco, Giulio Licinio, Bernardo Strozzi, Giambattista Zelotti, Alessandro Varotari, Paolo Veronese, and Andrea Schiavone. They are inserted into a gilded and painted wooden framework along with 52 grotesques by Battista Franco. The roundels by Bernardo Strozzi and Alessandro Varotari are replacements from 1635 of earlier roundels, respectively by Giulio Licinio and Giambattista Zelotti, which were irreparably damaged by water infiltrations. The original roundels were commissioned in 1556.
Although the original seven artists were formally chosen by Sansovino and Titian, their selection for an official and prestigious commission such as the library was indicative of the ascendancy of the Grimani and of those other families within the aristocracy who maintained close ties with the papal court and whose artistic preferences consequently tended towards Mannerism as it was developing in Tuscany, Emilia, and Rome. The artists were mostly young and innovative. They were primarily foreign-trained and substantially outside the Venetian tradition in their artistic styles, having been influenced by the trends in Florence, Rome, Mantua, and Parma, particularly by the work of Michelangelo, Giulio Romano, and Parmigianino. To varying degrees, the roundels that they produced for the ceiling of the reading room are consequently characterized by the emphasis on line drawing, the greater sculptural rigidity and artificial poses of the figures, and the overall dramatic compositions. They nevertheless show the influence of the Venetian painting tradition in both the colouring and brushwork.
For the single roundels, various and conflicting titles have been proposed over time. The earliest titles that Giorgio Vasari suggested for the three roundels by Veronese contain conspicuous errors, and even the titles and visual descriptions given by Francesco Sansovino, son of the architect, for all 21 roundels are often imprecise or inaccurate.
CEILING OF THE READING ROOM
with Francesco Sansovino's titles/descriptions and the more recent proposals
KEY: (S) = Sansovino, 1581 (I) = Ivanoff, 1967 (P) = Paolucci, 1981 (H) = Hope, 1990 (B) = Broderick, 2016
Later history
Venetian administration
Although the procurators retained responsibility for the library building, in 1544 the Council of Ten assigned the custodianship of the collection to the , the educational committee of the Senate. Created in 1517, the had initially been tasked with reopening the University of Padua after its closure during the years of the War of Cambrai. This involved repairing physical damage to the buildings, hiring new professors, and organizing courses. Over time, their role came to encompass virtually all aspects of public education. Under the , the collection was first catalogued (1545). Preparations were made to move the manuscripts and books from the upper floor of Saint Mark's to the new building: the effective date of the transfer is not known from any surviving documents, but it must have occurred between 1559 and 1565, probably prior to July 1560. For the loaning of the valuable codices, the Council of Ten established stricter conditions which included the requirement of a deposit in gold or silver in the amount of 25 ducats. The sum, already substantial, was increased to 50 ducats in 1558.
Beginning in 1558, the nominated the librarian, a patrician chosen for life. But in 1626, the Senate once again assumed direct responsibility for the nomination of the librarian, whose term was limited by the Great Council in 1775 to three years. With few exceptions, the librarians were typically chosen from among the procurators of Saint Mark.
The reform of 1626 established the positions of custodian and attendant, both subordinate to the librarian, with the requirement that the custodian be fluent in Latin and Greek. The attendant was responsible for the general tidiness of the library and was chosen by the procurators, the riformatori, and the librarian. No indications were given regarding the nomination of the custodian, a lifetime appointment, until 1633 when it was prescribed that the election was to be the purview of the in concert with the librarian. To the custodian fell the responsibility for opening and closing the library: opening days (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings) were also fixed whereas access had previously been by appointment only. The custodian assisted readers, including the international scholars attracted by the importance of the manuscripts. Among these were Willem Canter, Henry Savile, Jacques Gaffarel, and Thomas van Erpe.
The custodian was additionally tasked with showing the library to foreigners who visited primarily to admire the structure and the manuscripts, commenting in their travel diaries on the magnificence of the building, the ancient statuary, the paintings, and on the codices themselves. Notably among these were the English travel-writer Thomas Coryat, the French archaeologist Jacob Spon, the French architect Robert de Cotte, and the German art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann.
In 1680, the Senate accepted the recommendation of the librarian, the future Doge Silvestro Valier (, ), to better protect the codices by removing them from their chains and putting them inside cabinets. In place of the earlier benches, four large tables were set up for consultation. Further, it was decided to limit loaning, but the library was to now be open daily.
Developments in library science in the eighteenth century led to increased efforts to organize and protect the manuscripts. Under the influence of important royal libraries, notably in Paris and Vienna, the bindings of all manuscripts were standardized, and an identifying ex libris was added so as to underscore the unity and prestige of the overall collection and its ownership by the republic. Modern catalogues were compiled by the scholarly custodian Antonio Maria Zanetti. These catalogues, printed in 1740 and 1741, largely adhered to the bibliographical guidelines of Bernard de Montfaucon for the library of Henry-Charles de Coislin, bishop of Metz, and identified the shelf mark of each manuscript along with an indication of its age and origin, a physical description, and a list of the texts it contained.
French and Austrian administrations
After the fall of the Venetian Republic to the French in 1797, the position of librarian, as with all government offices, ceased to exist. The custodian Jacopo Morelli became by default librarian. The name of the library was briefly changed to the under French occupation (May 1797 – January 1798) but reverted to at the time of the first period of Austrian rule (1798–1805). During the second period of French domination (1805–1814), it was designated the (Royal Library of Venice).
In 1811, the entire collection was moved to the former Hall of the Great Council in the Doge's Palace when the library, as a building, was transformed, together with the adjoining Procuratie Nuove, into an official residence for the viceroy of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Referred to as the '' (Old Library), the building continued to be used in this capacity in the second period of Austrian rule (1814–1866), whereas the collection, still inside the Doge's Palace, became the (Saint Mark's Royal Library of Venice).
Italian administration
In 1876, after the Third Italian War of Independence and the annexation of Venice to the Kingdom of Italy, the Marciana was designated as a national library, a title that recognizes the library's historical importance but does not involve particular legal jurisdiction within the Italian library system. Several other libraries share this title, but only two, the libraries in Rome and in Florence, constitute the national central library with the requirement of legal deposit for all publications printed in Italy. The Marciana receives copies of the books that are printed by local publishers.
The collection was moved from the Doge's Palace to the Zecca, the former mint, in 1904. It is Italian national property, and the library is a state library that depends upon the General Direction for Libraries and Authors' Rights () of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism (). The General Direction provides financial support and administrative assistance. The Central Institute for Archive and Book Pathology () specifically gives guidance with regard to the preservation and restoration of parchment and paper. The Marciana also participates in the National Library Service of Italy which seeks to standardize cataloguing among public, private, and university libraries through the Central Institute for the Union Catalogue of Italian Libraries and for Bibliographic Information (). This involves the creation of a single database for the collections held by the various institutions.
Under Italy, the '' passed to the Italian Crown, which ceded ownership to the state in 1919. The Marciana came into possession of the historical rooms of the library in 1924. These underwent extensive restoration and were reopened to the public in 1929 as a museum.
Collection
The Venetian government viewed the possession of the valuable codices as a source of civic pride and prestige for the republic. Little was done initially to facilitate public access to the library or to improve services to readers. Inventories were sporadically conducted, but no acquisition policy was established for the continued incrementation of the collection. Only two new manuscripts, both donations, entered into the library before the inventory of 1575. Although an attempt was made in 1603 to increase the library's holdings by legally requiring that a copy of all books printed within the territory of the Venetian Republic be henceforth deposited in the Marciana, the law had little initial effect due to lack of enforcement. Similarly disregarded was the Senate's decree in 1650, requiring that the procurators allocate funds annually for the acquisition of new books. Nevertheless, a series of individual bequests began in 1589 and greatly expanded the collection over time. The requirement for printers to deposit copies of new books was also increasingly enforced, beginning in the early eighteenth century. In addition, from 1724 onward, the Senate appropriated annual funding for the acquisition of newly printed foreign books so as to ensure that the collection remained up-to-date. Concurrently, the library began to sell books of marginal interest or little value, primarily books obligatorily deposited by printers, and then use the proceeds to purchase works of cultural importance in order to maintain the quality of the overall collection.
Bessarion's Library
The private library of Cardinal Bessarion constitutes the historical nucleus of the Marciana. In addition to liturgical and theological texts for reference, Bessarion's library initially reflected his particular interests in ancient Greek history, Platonic philosophy, and science, especially astronomy. Some of these texts were brought by Bessarion when he arrived in Italy (1438) for the Council of Ferrara-Florence; others were shipped at an unknown later date from the Venetian city of Modone (Methoni), near Mystras where Bessarion had studied under Gemistus Pletho. Among the early codices were works by Cyril of Alexandria, Euclid, Ptolemy, and Strabo, some of which were rare, if not unknown, in Western Europe. Elevated to the cardinalate in 1440, Bessarion enjoyed greater financial resources, and he added notable codices, including the precious tenth-century manuscripts of Alexander of Aphrodisias' works and of Ptolemy's Almagest that had once belonged to the library of Pope Boniface VIII.
Around 1450, Bessarion began to place his ecclesiastical coat of arms on his books and assign shelf marks, an indication that the collection was no longer limited to personal consultation but that he intended to create a lasting library for scholars. In 1454, following the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks (1453) and the ensuing devastation, he charged Michael Apostolius and Theophanes, bishop of Athens, with the task of locating and purchasing specific works throughout Greece, primarily in Adrianople, Athens, Thessaloniki, Aenos, Gallipoli, and Constantinople, with the objective of preserving the writings of the classical Greek authors and the literature of Byzantium. He also established a scriptorium on Crete, under the direction of Apostolius, where hired scribes copied the texts that could not be found for purchase. A similar scriptorium existed in his Roman residence where other texts were copied. Many of the originals were borrowed for this purpose from the monastery of Santa Croce di Fonte Avellana (Marche) and from several Basilian monasteries in southern Italy, of which Bessarion was nominated protector and apostolic visitor in 1446. These included his discoveries of the Posthomerica by Quintus Smyrnaeus and the Abduction of Helen by Coluthus, which would have otherwise been lost as a result of the Ottoman invasion of Otranto and the destruction of the monastic library of (Apulia) in 1480. Copies of Augustine's complete works were commissioned from the bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci.
Bessarion acquired several works from Giovanni Aurispa and later from his nephew and heir Nardo Palmieri. These works include the Anthologia Planudea containing 2400 Greek poems, the only autograph copy of the commentary on Homer's Odyssey by Eustathius of Thessalonica, the orations of Demosthenes, Roman History by Cassius Dio, the Bibliotheca of Photius, and the only surviving copy of Deipnosophistae by Athenaeus. "Venetus A" and "Venetus B", the oldest texts of Homer's Iliad, with centuries of scholia, may have also been acquired from Aurispa.
Simultaneously, Bessarion assembled a parallel collection of Latin codices with a relative preponderance of works on patrology, philosophy (primarily the medieval Platonic and Aristotelian traditions), history, mathematics, and literature. Some of these were purchased during his residence in Bologna (1450–1455) or copied from originals in San Giovanni Evangelista (Ravenna), including the works by Quintilian, Lactantius, Augustine, and Jerome. Of particular interest to Bessarion were the Latin historiographers. Among these were Livy and Tacitus. The Latin codices also included translations of Greek works, commissioned by Bessarion. Other Latin codices were purchased during his legation to Germany (1460–1461), notably exegetical and theological works by Nicholas of Lyra and William of Auvergne.
Towards the end of his life, printed books became increasingly available, and Bessarion began to add incunabula to his library, primarily from the printing house of Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim in Rome. These books included works by Cicero, Plutarch, Pliny, Quintilian, and Thomas Aquinas as well as the Latin translation of Bessarion's own work in defence of Plato, Adversus calumniatorem Platonis (1469).
The Marciana Library now possesses 548 Greek codices, 337 Latin codices, and 27 incunabula that once belonged to Cardinal Bessarion. Among these are codices with works of Middle Platonic and Neoplatonic authors, many of which constitute the most important, if not the sole, surviving source for their writings.
Additions
Major additions include:
1589 – Melchiorre Guilandino of Marienburg: the bequest of the Prussian-born doctor and botanist, director of the botanical gardens at the University of Padua and professor of botany and pharmacognosy, consisted of 2,200 printed books dealing with philosophy, medicine, mathematics, botany, theology, literature, poetry, and history.
1595 – Jacopo Contarini da S. Samuele: the bequest of the Venetian patrician, delayed until the extinction of the male line of the Contarini in 1713, consisted of 175 Greek and Latin manuscripts and 1,500 printed books and included works on Venetian history, Law, poetry, naval and military matters, astronomy, physics, optics, architecture, and philosophy.
1619 – Girolamo Fabrici d'Acquapendente: the bequest of the surgeon and professor of anatomy at the University of Padua consisted of 13 volumes with hand-coloured anatomical illustrations.
1624 – Giacomo Gallicio: the donation consisted of 21 Greek codices, comprising over 90 works, dealing primarily with exegetics, philology, and philosophy.
1734 – Giambattista Recanati: the bequest of the Venetian noble poet and man of letters, member of both the Florentine Academy and the Royal Society of London, consisted of 216 Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Franco-Venetian, and Illyric manuscripts, among which were several medieval illuminated manuscripts once belonging to the House of Gonzaga.
1792 – Tommaso Giuseppe Farsetti: the bequest of the Venetian patrician consisted of 386 Latin and Italian manuscripts and over 1600 printed books, primarily literature.
1794 – Amedeo Schweyer, called "Svajer": the purchase of the collection of the German-born antiquarian involved more than 340 manuscripts and included genealogies and Venetian and foreign documents, among which is the last will and testament of Marco Polo.
1797 – Jacopo Nani: the bequest of the Venetian collector consisted of 716 Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Arabic, Egyptian, Persian, Syrian, and Turkish manuscripts covering history, travel, literature, politics, science, military matters, architecture, philosophy, and religion.
1814 – Girolamo Ascanio Molin: the bequest of the Venetian nobleman, collector and author, included 2209 fine printed books and incunabula, 3835 prints, 408 drawings, and 136 maps.
1843 – Girolamo Contarini: the bequest of the Venetian nobleman consisted of some 4000 printed books and 956 manuscripts, including 170 musical codices.
1852 – Giovanni Rossi: the bequest consisted of 470 manuscripts dealing primarily with Venetian history and a collection of Venetian operas.
Three hundred and three precious manuscripts along with 88 rare printed books were transferred to the Marciana in 1789 from the religious libraries of Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Sant'Andrea della Certosa, and S. Pietro Martire di Murano by order of the Council of Ten after an investigation into a theft revealed unsatisfactory security conditions. Between 1792 and 1795, the Council of Ten also transferred to the Marciana works from its Secret Archives that were no longer considered politically sensitive. These included the scientific writings of Tycho Brahe and Cesare Cremonini, originally presented to the Inquisition for concerns over religious orthodoxy, as well as political documents of historical interest.
After the fall of the Venetian Republic to Napoleon in 1797, 470 precious manuscripts, selected from public, religious, and private libraries throughout Venice, were turned over to the French as prizes of war. Of these, 203 were subtracted from the Marciana along with two musical scores. Similarly, during the first period of Austrian occupation (1798–1805), six rare incunabula and 10 important manuscripts were removed. However, the Marciana obtained 4,407 volumes including 630 manuscripts when during the second period of French occupation (1805–1815), numerous convents and monasteries were suppressed and their libraries dispersed. In 1811, the map of Fra Mauro was transferred from the suppressed Camaldolese monastery of San Michele in Isola.
As of 2019, the collection consists of 13,117 manuscripts; 2,887 incunabula; 24,060 cinquecentine; and 1,000,000 (circa) post-sixteenth-century books. Overall, the Marciana remains specialized in the classics, the humanities, and Venetian history.
See also
Laurentian Library
Malatestiana Library
Vatican Library
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Catalogue of Greek codices
Catalogue of Latin codices (includes French and Italian codices)
Archives in Italy
Buildings and structures in Venice
Jacopo Sansovino buildings
Marciana
Museums in Venice
National libraries in Italy
Piazza San Marco
Renaissance architecture in Venice
Libraries established in the 15th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20graffiti
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Glossary of graffiti
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A number of words and phrases that have come to describe different styles and aspects of graffiti and its subculture. Like other jargon and colloquialisms, some of these terms may vary regionally, taking on different meanings across different cities and countries. The following terminology originates primarily in the United States.
A–D
angels
Famous or respected graffitist who have died. The people who admire them tag their names on a wall with halos above them or make tribute pieces with their faces or tag with the dates of their birth to death.
all city
The state of being known for one's graffiti throughout a city. Originally, this term meant to be known throughout the five boroughs of New York City through the medium of subway cars.
autorack
Type of freight rail car that is tall, long, low, and flat.
back-to-back
Graffiti that covers a wall from end-to-end, as seen on some parts of the West-Berlin side of the Berlin Wall. Similarly, trains sometimes receive end-to-end painting when a carriage has been painted along its entire length. This is often abbreviated as e2e. End-to-ends used to be called window-downs but this is an older expression that is falling from popularity.
backjump
A quickly executed throw up or panel piece. Backjumps are usually painted on a temporarily parked train or a running bus.
bencher
An individual who takes photographs of graffiti. The term originated in New York when the graffiti writers and non-graffiti writers would sit on benches at train stations waiting for the trains to go by to take pictures and admire graffiti.
black book
A graffiti artist's sketchbook. Also known as a "piece book." It is often used to sketch out and plan potential graffiti, and to collect tags from other writers. It is a writer's most valuable property, containing all or a majority of the person's sketches and pieces. A writer’s sketchbook is carefully guarded against the police and other authorities, as it can be used as material evidence in a graffiti vandalism case and link a writer to previous illicit works.
blockbuster
A large graffiti with simple, legible letters. Often painted by a brush or a roller.
bite
To steal another graffitist's ideas, name, lettering or color schemes. Seasoned graffitists will often complain about toys that bite their work.
bomb
To bomb or hit is to paint many surfaces in an area. Bombers often choose to paint throw-ups or tags instead of complex pieces, as they can be executed more quickly.
bulls
Security patrolling an area on the lookout for any on-the-whim individuals
buff
To remove painted graffiti with chemicals and other instruments, or to paint over it with a flat color.
burn
To beat a competitor with a style. To rat out an accomplice or crime partner either intentionally or unintentionally.
burner
1. A large, more elaborate type of piece. The piece could be said to be "burning" out of the wall, billboard, or train-side. Because they take so much time and effort, burners in downtown areas are more likely to be legal pieces, painted with the consent of the property owner. The early writers of New York City also did burners illegally on trains, and adventurous modern writers sometimes still do large-scale illegal pieces in heavily trafficked areas.
2. More recently, any quick chrome bombing or throwup.
burning
Any work having not been removed. "That piece is still burning on main street."
cannon(s)
A slang term for spray paint cans. This term is thought to originate in Brooklyn, New York.
cap
1. The nozzle for the aerosol paint can, also referred to as "tips." Different kinds are used for different styles. New York Thins, Rustos, and New York Fats are the most commonly used caps.
2. To slash or in any other way ruin a piece made by others. Derives from a writer named "Cap" who was infamous for making throw-ups over others' pieces.
clown or ass-clown
Any writer who is extremely careless to get himself caught and arrested, especially with observant citizens and even the police watching the writer in the act
crew
A crew, krew, or cru is a group of associated graffitists that often work together. Crews are differentiated from gangs in that their main objective is to paint graffiti, although gang-like activity may occur. Matthew O'Deane (formerly of San Diego District Attorney Investigators Foundation) described in 2016, taggers have become more violent and gang-like than in the earlier times. Any group of friends can quickly and informally form a crew if they are interested in graffiti and want to start conspiring. Often crews will recruit new members over time in order to maintain their relevance. There is a smaller risk of being held responsible for crew works if a single member gets arrested. From a legal point of view, the name could have been painted by anyone in the group.
Tagging crew names are usually three letters, but can be two to five letters long. The letters are abbreviations of the full crew name. Numbers in crew name can be derived from many things such as the alphabet sequence (1=A, 2=B, 3= C....), telephone keypad numbers (2=A, B, or C; 3=D, E or F), area codes, or penal codes or a combination of these.
Dog
UK term for going over or dissing someone's tag or piece
Domming
A color-mixing technique done by spraying one color over another while it is still wet, then rubbing the two together. Sometimes an abrasive like sand is used to create different effects. The term is derived from "condom," as a reference to its synonym rubber and is sometimes called fingering, as it is commonly done with one's fingers.
Dropsy
A bribe.
dress-up
To completely write all over a specific area like a door-way, wall or window that is untouched.
dubs
London/UK style of graffiti executed in silver or chrome paint. Usually, on railway walls or street locations, it is done quickly by a crew or group of writers.
E–K
end-to-end (...)
The opposite of top-to-bottom – meaning a train-car covered with paint from one side of it to the other. Used as an adjective and non-commonly as a noun.
etch
The use of acid solutions intended for creating frosted glass, such as Etch Bath, to write on windows. In Norway, some trains have even been taken temporarily out of service because of the acid tagging, which is potentially dangerous for other people's health.
fat cap
A nozzle used for wide coverage; while practical for quickly applying fill colors, most are also useful for thick outlines as well as lettering. When used for lettering, most fat caps can produce a characteristic flare by increasing the distance between the can and the canvas mid-spray.
fills or fill ins
A piece of graffiti that is either filled in a rush or a solid fill, also referred to as bombs, throw ups, or throwies. A fill is also the interior base color of the piece of graffiti.
fire extinguisher
A fire extinguisher that has been filled with diluted paint (typically of the latex variety) for the purpose of utilizing the pressurized paint to quickly produce large tags. Due to decreased control one has over the application of paint when using this method, it tends to result in a sloppier, far less polished look. While tags are the most common use for this technique, throwups are not unheard of.
gallery, also yard
Locations such as overpasses and walls facing train tracks that are secluded from the general public but are popular with writers. Since anything that is written is likely to stay for a while, an accumulation of styles and skills can be viewed.
genocidal
Any municipality that has zero tolerance for vigilante street art or unpermitted written messages and will not hestitate to buff anything detected.
German Montana
A specialty brand of paint marketed for graffiti. Not to be confused with the older Spanish brand, Montana Colors.
getting up
To develop your reputation or "rep" through writing graffiti. (see King)
ghost
The mark left after paint or ink has been unsuccessfully buffed.
going over
To "go over" a piece of graffiti simply means to paint on top of it. While most writers respect one another's artwork, to intentionally and disrespectfully paint on top of another's work is akin to a graffiti declaration of war. However (due partially to the limited amount of desirable wall-space) most graffiti writers maintain a hierarchy of sorts; a tag can legitimately be covered by a throw-up, and a throw-up by a piece, and this is commonly done without incident. If a piece has previously been slashed (or "dissed"), it is also acceptable for another writer to go over it. To violate these guidelines, or to simply paint lower-quality graffiti on top of a higher-quality work will quickly characterize a writer as an annoyance, or "toy." This is dangerous as most crews and writers will react with physical violence and/or by repeatedly going over writers not respecting their self-claimed rank in the hierarchy.
hat (honor-among-thieves)
A person who is described as wearing a "hat" is a graffitist who is considered trustworthy in the graffiti community. A person who knows a lot of information about other graffitists but does not spread such knowledge to the authorities. "Don't worry about him, he wears a dope hat"
head
1 Similar to a king or queen, a "head" is a writer who has much skill and a high reputation among other writers in his area.
2 Also "O.G. Head" (for Original, or Original Gangsta).
heaven spots
Spots that are challenging to graffiti but in highly visible locations with heavy exposure. Billboards, freeway signs, and tall bridges are potential examples, but the object itself does not determine whether or not it offers a heaven spot, as factors such as the amount of civilian and law enforcement traffic that passes within view of the target as well as the physical dangers inherent to reaching the spot in question generally must be present to qualify. A billboard in the middle of rural region poses little challenge even to many novice graffitists, while one in a busy part of a major city requires careful premeditation to pull off successfully. Graffitists pursue these spots for the increased exposure and notoriety they provide. This term also encompasses a double-meaning as the locations are often very dangerous to paint there and it may lead to death, thus, going to heaven (also known as "hitting up the heavens").
hollows
Also referred to as "outlines" and "shells." A hollow is a throwup that consists only of an outline (and perhaps a shadow effect) with no fill.
insides
Graffiti done inside trains, trams, or buses. In 1970s New York, there was as much graffiti inside the subway trains as outside, and the same is true of some cities today (like Rome, Italy and Melbourne, Australia). While still very common, insides are often perceived as being less artistic.
king
Graffitists of the highest accomplishments. Kings or queens (feminine) are writers especially respected among other writers. This is sometimes separated into "inside" and "outside" kings. To be a king of the inside means you have most tags inside trains (to "own the inside"), and to "own the outside" means having most pieces on the train surface. There are kings of style among a variety of other categories and the term is regionally subjective. For example, in Los Angeles, a King would be someone who has achieved that status for years-long runs in their graffiti, style, ups, and originality. Self-declared kings will often incorporate crowns into their pieces; a commonly used element of style. However, the people must be very self-confident when doing it, since other great writers tend to slash out self-proclaimed kings who have not gained that rank yet in their eyes. Typically a writer can only become a king if another king with that status already has expressed so.
Krylon
A paint brand that was one of the most popular with writers, it is thought of virtually synonymous with graffiti, due to general quality and availability. Heavily used during the hey-day of the New York City Subway graffiti era during the early 1970s to late 1980s, it has a nostalgic status. Starting in mid-2008, the brand introduced a generation of paint can design with an irremovable cap system that sprays a rectangular coverage instead of the circular coverage preferred by writers. The paint quality is runnier and translucent in comparison to graffiti specialty brands. Sherwin Williams, Krylon's parent company, has dominated a significant portion of the paint market and many retail outlets stock only Krylon paints. For this reason, Krylon is categorized into three groups.
360 krylon – from the "Ez touch 360 dial control" label
triple krylon – from the "No Runs, No Drips, No Errors" label
original krylon – The first line of cans, sought after as a collectors' item
It is considered to be an indication of being a toy if one chooses 360 Krylon
L–P
landmark
When an individual or crew tags on a certain location that becomes very difficult for removal, or is obscure and hidden from the buff. This will usually be demarcated with a signature that documents the time that they were written. Graffiti that is considered a "landmark" has usually been in place for at least 5 years. These spots are highly respected by other writers, and to go over them can warrant disfavor.
legal
A graffiti piece or production that is made with permission.
lock on
Sculptural street art in a public space, chained or locked to public furniture. The lock on style is a "non-destructive" form of underground art.
married couple
Two simultaneous whole cars painted next to each other. Some graffitists make fun of the term by connecting the two paintings across the car-gap often in a humorous or obvious way to signal the marriage. (Subway cars permanently coupled and sharing a single air-compressor and electrical generator between them are technically married pairs.)
massacre
When municipal authorities take down or cover up an accumulation of tags and pieces, leaving a blank space.
mop
A type of homemade graffiti marker used for larger tags that often has a round nib and leaves a fat, drippy line. Mops may be filled with various inks or paints.
mural
See, piece.
one-liner
A tag, throwie, or bomb written in one constant motion. These may be done with any writing utensil. The tip or nozzle of the writing implement does not lift from the canvas until the tag is complete.
paint-eater
An unprimed surface such as raw wood or concrete that eats up standard spray paint. If a location has been given the reputation of being a "paint eater" than in such cases a thicker paint should be used. Additionally, writers can use house paint to prime the surface before painting.
painters touch
A brand by Rust-Oleum that is favored for quality and general availability.
paste-up
A drawing, stencil, etc. on paper fixed to a wall or other surface using wheatpaste or wallpaper paste
patch
A tag that has been buffed by being painted over usually by gray paint or "patched" over.
pichação
A unique, Brazilian form of tagging found in that country characterized by its distinct, cryptic style.
piece (short form of masterpiece)
A large, complex, and labor-intensive graffiti painting. Pieces often incorporate 3-D effects, arrows, and many colors and color-transitions, as well as various other effects. These will usually be done by writers with more experience. Originally shorthand for masterpiece, considered the full and most beautiful work of graffiti. A piece requires more time to paint than a throw-up. If placed in a difficult location and well-executed it will earn the writer more respect. Piece can also be used as a verb that means: "to write."
PT
Painters Touch brand by Rust-Oleum.
punition
Form of graffiti that consists in repeating the same word endlessly covering a whole surface. It comes from the punition lines that kids do at school.
R–W
racking
Shoplifting of supplies to be used either directly or indirectly in the production of graffiti. In certain segments of graffiti culture there exist writers that look down on those that pay for supplies that could easily be stolen. With the advent of companies specializing in producing supplies for writers over the last couple decades, this attitude is now mostly reserved for supplies purchased from non-specialty retailers (e.g. hardware stores, arts/crafts/hobby shops, etcetera), with specialty "graffiti brands" generally only available through retailers less convenient to shoplift from.
Acquiring supplies through various forms of fraud can also be referred to as "racking" in some circles, though this use is far less common, as is likewise the use of fraud as a means to acquire writing supplies (largely reserved only for items that cannot be conveniently shoplifted, such as those in locked cages or behind display counters).
roll call
a form of graffiti that lists out a partial or full roster of graffiti crew. Sometimes gang members will insert ally gangs into their roll call. Roll calls are generally created by gang participants but other graffiti practitioners may use them sometimes.
roller
A paint roller, or any graffiti created primarily or exclusively through the use of such a paint roller. Due to the rectangular application pattern inherent to the use of a paint roller, rollers most often make use of block lettering, though some writers that specialize in rollers develop advanced techniques to get around this shortcoming. Rollers will more often than not involve the use of extension poles, with the added reach allowing the writer to place a roller in places that would otherwise require the use of ladders and/or rope-access gear to reach with a spray can. While rollers come in a range of sizes, they are particularly favored for writing letters larger than can be practically accomplished with spray paint alone, and the largest examples of graffiti to be found are virtually all produced as rollers. Writers that work with rollers will typically aim to combine size, spot visibility, a color choice that contrasts with the chosen canvas, and highly legible block lettering, resulting in a roller that's recognizable from much further distances than feasible with spray techniques.
rook
trusted member of a crew.
run
The length of time graffiti remains up before being covered or removed. If a piece has been up for a year, it is said to have "run for a year."
Rusto
A popular abbreviation among writers for the brand name Rust-Oleum spray paint.
scribe or scratch
Also called "scratchitti," scribing graffiti created by scratching or incising a tag into an object, generally using a key, knife, stone, sand paper, ceramic drill bit, or diamond tipped Dremel bit. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness determines which stones or other objects will scratch what surfaces. Particularly popular for catching tags on mirrors and windows, when done properly the writer's mark will be indelible, remaining until either the chosen canvas is replaced, or the tag in question is obscured by additional scratching.
slam
To paint an extremely conspicuous or dangerous location.
slash
To put a line through or tag over another writer's work. This generally happens for one of two reasons: either the individual being crossed out is considered to be lacking in style and/or originality to the point that another writer considers them an eyesore, or the crossing-out is part of an ongoing conflict between two or more writers (or crews). As it takes no skill and very little effort to cross someone out, and even the most incompetent toy can become a serious nuisance once slighted, much of the time writers cross each other out anonymously. Crossing another writer out and taking credit for the act (by leaving one's tag behind) could be considered either a challenge (of the unfriendly variety) or an assertion of one's dominance over a given canvas or area, depending upon the particular circumstances. The aggression of writers toward one another can range from negligible to outright hostile depending upon various factors that helped shape the local scene's culture, such as the availability of suitable canvases for writing, the ways in which local government and law enforcement approach the "graffiti problem", or even just the relative number of writers in a city's population, and the sort of stratification of skill and talent among those actively partaking in the practice. In some areas, writers are less likely to cross out their peers without provocation, while in other cities it is pretty much a given that anyone just getting started in the discipline will find themselves constantly crossed out until they either improve or give up. Though the latter environment is certainly less welcoming to the novice, this sort of trial-by-fire helps discourage toys from making a mess of the place, while also pressuring them to better themselves.
Back before camera-phones/smartphones and the proliferation of social media websites, watching to see whether your work gets left alone used to be the only feedback from strangers you had to go off of.
It may also be referred to as, capping (see, cap (2)), crossing out, dissing, going over, hating, marking, or to line, as in, "I lined their tag."
snitch
Someone who has detected or realised a writer is responsible for a tag and reports the writer to authority leading to arrest
soak up
To consider other pieces for inspiration.
Spanish Montana
A way of referring to Montana Colors, a specialty brand of paint marketed for use in graffiti. It is unrelated to the German company of the same name, and it is common for writers to differentiate between the two in conversation by referencing each company's respective nation of origin.
stainer
Ink used in a marker with the intention of being absorbed by the surface, thus staining the surface and making it much more difficult to buff.
sticker
Also referred to as "labels" or "slaps." A sticker (often obtained from shipping companies and name greeting labels) with the writer's tag on it. Stickers can be deployed more discretely than other forms of graffiti, making them a popular choice for public places such as crosswalk signs, newspaper dispensers, stop signs, phone booths, etc. A popular sticker that was used originally was the "Hello my name is" red stickers in which a writer would write their graffiti name in the blank space. Reflector stickers, found at hardware stores are sometimes assembled to form a crew meaning, or individual writer's moniker.
straight letter
A direct, blocky, easier to read and simpler style of graffiti, sometimes also referred to as straights, blockbusters, or simples. Straight letters can be read by anyone and usually contain only two colors and are most commonly completed in arrangements of silver, black, and/or white.
tag (scribble)
A stylized signature, normally done in one color. The simplest and most prevalent type of graffiti, a tag is often done in a color that contrasts sharply with its background. Tag can also be used as a verb meaning "to sign." Writers often tag on or beside their pieces, following the practice of traditional artists who sign their artwork. A less common type of tag is a "dust tag," done by smudging the dirt of a wall with the fingers. Writers use this technique to get up without technically vandalizing. The verb tagging has even become a popular verb today in other types of occasions that are non-graffiti-related. Tagging first appeared in Philadelphia, with spraypainted messages of "Bobby Beck In '59" on freeways surrounding the city. Since then, individual graffiti scenes have displayed very different forms of tagging that are unique to specific regions. For example, a Los Angeles tag will look very different from a Philadelphia tag, etc. The first "king" was also crowned in Philly: Cornbread (graffiti), a student who began marking his nickname around the city to attract the attentions of a girl. In New York City, TAKI 183 inspired a newspaper article about his exploits, leading to an explosion of tagging in the early seventies.
throw-up
A throw-up or "throwie" sits between a tag and a bomb in terms of complexity and time investment. It generally consists of a one-color outline and one layer of fill-color. Easy-to-paint bubble shapes often form the letters. A throw-up is designed for quick execution, to avoid attracting attention to the writer. Throw-ups are often utilized by writers who wish to achieve a large number of tags while competing with rival graffitists. Most graffitists have both a tag and a throw-up that are essentially fixed compared to pieces. It is mostly so because they need to have a recognizable logo for others to identify them and their own individual styles.
top-to-bottom
Pieces on trains that cover the whole height of the car. A top-to-bottom, end-to-end combined production is called a whole-car. A production with several writers might cover a whole-train, which means the entire side of the train has been covered. In the U.S. this term can also be used as a single noun instead of only an adjective.
topping
Painting directly above – but not over – someone else's work. A slightly passive-aggressive 'dis'.
toy
1. Used as an adjective to describe undesirable work, or as a noun referring to a novice or incompetent writer. Graffiti writers usually use this as a derogatory term for new writers in the scene, or writers who are old to the scene and still do not have any skill or reputation. The act of "toying" someone else's graffiti is to disrespect it by means of going over it (see "slash"/"going over").
2. "Toys" often added above or directly on a toy's work. An acronym meaning, "tag over your shit."
3. Term "HOT 110" also refers to graffitists not to be taken seriously.
undersides
Tags or signatures painted on the undercarriage of passenger trains. Undersides are normally marked in the yard after painting the train panel, most undersides will last somewhat longer than the original piece, as the railway workers primarily focus on the most visible things and sometimes do not have resources to clean everything.
up
Writers become up when their work becomes widespread and well-known. Although a writer can get up in a city by painting only tags (or throw-ups), a writer may earn more respect from skillfully executed pieces or a well-rounded repertoire of styles than from sheer number of tags. Usually, the more spots a writer can hit, the more respect he or she gains. Usually, if the writer hits more spots with better style they will get more respect than someone who simply tags. A writers ups is determined by how much prolific graffiti he/she has accomplished. Writers are considered "up" both in terms of the number of spots they have hit, but also those that are still running.
whole car
A single or collaborative piece that covers the entire visible surface of one side of a train car, usually excluding the front and rear of the train. A whole car is usually worked upon by one or more participants from the same crew and is completed in one sitting.
whole train
All train cars (usually between four and eight or more, regardless of the train length) completely covered with paint reaching the far end of the train on one or both sides. Such demanding actions are often done by multiple participants or crews and with a limited variation of colors – commonly in black and silver – because of the stressing time limitation they are facing when painting in the train yards (very often less than 30 minutes). However, the more participants who participate, the better works can come out of it and the cars are done quicker too. This type of graffiti, if finished successful, is one of the most respected forms among other graffitists, but is also rarer due to the higher risk of getting caught. it has also been known that 'crews' of graffiti participants would demonstrate their 'whole cart/train' skills, usually carried out by waiting at a train/metro stop or station, waiting for the train to approach. then when stopped quickly cover the full area of the cart, this can be finished within 2 minutes of the train pulling into the station. The Freedom Train, painted by Caine 1 in 1976, has often been described as the first whole train painted in graffiti history.
Wildstyle
Graffiti with text so stylized as to be difficult to read, often with interlocking, three-dimensional type.
window-down (...)
Graffiti that has been painted below the window borders, almost always covering the whole surface in its length. The term is commonly used as a prefix with whole car, although other variations are possible, too. Can be used as a more precise alternative to end-to-end, but not in addition to top-to-bottom as that will exceed the definition of the term.
woodblock graffiti
Artwork painted on a small portion of plywood or similar inexpensive material and attached to street sign posts with bolts. Often the bolts are bent at the back to prevent removal.
writer
A practitioner of graffiti who creates graffiti formats for the purpose of graffiti vandalism.
References
Graffiti and unauthorised signage
Graffiti
Wikipedia glossaries using description lists
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5126364
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Cissa
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Battle of Cissa
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The Battle of Cissa was part of the Second Punic War. It was fought in the fall of 218 BC, near the Celtic town of Tarraco in north-eastern Iberia. A Roman army under Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus defeated an outnumbered Carthaginian army under Hanno, thus gaining control of the territory north of the Ebro River that Hannibal had just subdued a few months prior in the summer of 218 BC. This was the first battle that the Romans had ever fought in Iberia.
It allowed the Romans to establish a secure base among friendly Iberian tribes, and due to the eventual success of the Scipio brothers in Spain, Hannibal looked for but never received reinforcements from Spain during the war.
Strategic situation
Hannibal's overland invasion of Italy was a highly risky venture, failure of which might have cost Carthage the war sooner, but he was forced to choose this strategy given the strategic limitations the Carthaginian empire faced in 218 BC, and this strategy had a better chance of succeeding than a seaborne invasion. Although sailing to Italy might have been faster and free from the hazards of a land march, at sea the entire fleet might be lost in a storm, and Roman naval dominance increased the risk to Hannibal's large armada, as it risked suffering crippling losses from Roman naval attacks despite Carthaginian warship escorts. Fleets normally sailed along the coast and beached at night or after every 2–3 days for victuals, yet Carthage had no bases on the coast between the Balearic Islands and Italy, which were dominated by Roman ally Massalia and her colonies and wild Ligurians, and Rome also controlled Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily, thus effectively dominating the coast between Spain and Italy, so making a seaborne invasion more dangerous than a land one. Moreover, enough horse transports to carry 9,000 horses to Italy might not have been available for Hannibal. An overland invasion, in contrast, would have the added advantage of achieving surprise.
Hannibal needed to time his movements carefully to keep the Romans in the dark, for if the Romans got hint of his intentions, they had enough recourses to fight a multi-front war: they could send one army to block the Carthaginian army at the Pyrenees, station a strong force in Cisalpine Gaul, and invade Africa with another simultaneously; or stand on the defensive with overwhelming forces in North Italy. After the successful conclusion of the Siege of Saguntum, Hannibal did nothing to provoke the Romans; he dismissed his army and did not immediately march for Italy in the Spring of 218 BC after he received the news of war. He spent the months of March – May strengthening the defense of Spain and Africa by garrisoning these areas, which were not threatening to Roman mainland— serving a dual purpose: along with securing the areas against the expected Roman invasion, it also reinforced the Roman perception that Carthage would fight a defensive war along the lines of the First Punic War, so Hannibal's overland invasion caught Rome off guard.
Carthaginian deployments
Hannibal stationed Hasdrubal Barca, his younger brother at the head of 12,650 infantry, 2,550 cavalry (11,580 African infantry, 300 Ligurains, 500 Balearic slingers, 450 Liby-Phoenician 300 Spanish Ilergetes and 1,800 Numidian cavalry from Masaesyli, Massylii, Mauri and Maccoei tribes) and 21 elephants to guard the Carthaginian possessions south of the Ebro. and sent 20,000 Iberian soldiers to Africa (including 13,850 infantry and 1,200 cavalry from the Mastiani, Thersitae, Olcades and Oretes tribes, and 870 Balearic slingers), and 4,000 soldiers garrisoning Carthage itself, probably between March -May. Hasdrubal and Carthage could raise additional soldiers if needed to fight Romans, and Carthage was unlikely to fall to a singular consular army in a few months.
Hannibal left Cartagena probably in late May or early June, timing his departure to allow the spring flooding of Spanish rivers to subside, ensuring the availability of food and fodder along the way, and after receiving envoys from Gallic tribes from the Po valley, who assured him of their willingness to cooperate against the Romans. Hannibal's army consisted of either 90,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry, or 77,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, or with 26,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants. The elephants were reported by Appian; there is no mention of the elephants by Polybius or Livy, so it has been speculated that the elephants may have been carried to Emporiae by sea. The Iberian contingent of the Punic navy, which numbered 50 quinqueremes (only 32 were manned) and 5 triremes, remained in Iberian waters, having shadowed Hannibal's army for some way. The army probably marched in smaller columns along a long stretch and the 290 mile march to the Ebro, during which they crossed the Sucor river and five major streams was uneventful, and the river was reached in the middle July.
Roman preparations and strategy
Rome expected Carthaginians to fight a defensive war, as Hannibal had anticipated, and they planned to attack both Spain and Africa, the only aggressive move they expected from Carthage was some form of attack on Sicily and they did not expect an overland attack. The Roman strategy was for Scipio was to set off first, engage Hannibal either north of the Ebro or east of the Pyrenees or the Rhône, where he may receive aid from Iberians or Gauls, and after Scipio had located and engaged Hannibal's forces, Sempronius, who would be stationed in Sicily, would invade Africa. Carthage was a strong city that would have to be blockaded for several months before it starved, also relief armies had to be beaten off during the time but since 241 BC, Rome had not negotiated but always dictated terms to Carthage, which had always backed down, so the Romans probably expected that Carthage was now bluffing by refusing to accept Roman terms and would capitulate as soon a Roman army blockaded the city, or roused the Numidians and Libyans to rebel against Carthage and decisively defeat Carthage Carthage came close to capitulation in 256-55 BC when Marcus Attilus Regulus invaded Africa and if Scipio could keep Hannibal away from Africa long enough Sempronius could repeat the feat by making Carthage agree to terms or the political opponents of Barcids, some of whom had relations with Roman senators might assume power or trigger the recall Hannibal and accept Roman demands.
The Roman navy had been mobilized in 219 BC, fielding 220 quinqueremes for the Second Illyrian War. Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus received 4 legions and instructions to sail for Africa with 160 quinqueremes. Publius Cornelius Scipio received 4 legions and was to sail for Iberia escorted by 60 ships.
Delay of Scipio
The Consuls took office in March and began organizing their forces, however, before Scipio's army was ready, the Boii and the Insubres, two major Gallic tribes in Cisalpine Gaul (modern northern Italy), antagonized by the founding of several Roman colonies on traditionally Gallic territory, and perhaps enticed by agents of Hannibal, attacked the Roman colonies of Placentia and Cremona, causing the Romans to flee to Mutina, which the Gauls then besieged. This probably occurred in April or May of 218 BC, the Roman Senate prioritized the defense of Italy over the overseas expedition, and Praetor Peregrinus Lucius Manlius Vulso marched from Ariminum with 600 Roman cavalry, 10,000 allied infantry and 1,000 allied cavalry, detached from Scipio's army, towards Cisalpine Gaul to aid the besieged Romans.
The Army of Manlius marched from Ariminum towards Mutina, and was ambushed twice on the way, losing 1,200 men and six standards, although they relieved Mutina, the army fell under a loose siege a few miles from Mutina at Tannetum. The Roman Senate now took one Roman and one allied legion (10,000 men) from the army of Scipio again and sent it to the Po valley under the command of Praetor Urbanus Gaius Atillius Serranus. As Atillius neared Tannetum, the Gauls retired without battle, and the Romans spent the summer of 218 BC recovering and fortifying Placentia and Cremona, probably in a two month long operation.
Sempronius remained in Rome until June/July, his army acting as a strategic reserve should more troops be needed in Cisalpine Gaul, Rome did not respond to the Carthaginian naval raids against Sicily and Lipari. Hannibal's passivity and non-threatening defensive dispositions during March – May probably influenced this decision by reinforcing the Roman perception they were fighting a repeat of the first war and the initiative lay with them. The Romans did not believe Hannibal would invade Italy, when they received news, probably in July, that Hannibal had crossed the Ebro, they probably assumed Hannibal's Catalonia campaign was part of securing Spain by subduing pro Roman tribes and creating a forward base, The Senate did not change the plan, Sempronius moved his forces to Sicily as planned while Scipio continued his preparations, to intercept Hannibal in Gaul. As a result, the departure of Scipo was delayed by two to three months.
The trans-Ebro Campaign
While Scipio raised new troops in Italy, the Carthaginian army crossed the Ebro River unopposed, in three columns: the northernmost detachment crossed at the confluence of the Ebro and Sicoris River and then proceeded along the river valley into the mountain countries, the central column crossed the Ebro at the oppidum of Mora and marched inland, the main column under Hannibal, along with the treasure chests and elephants, crossed the Ebro probably at the town of Adeba, and proceeded directly along the coast through Tarraco, Barcino, Gerunda, Emporiae and Illiberis. The separate detachments marched in such a way as to provide mutual support if needed, and the coastal detachment under Hannibal was also tasked with countering any possible Roman intervention. The area bordered Rhoda and Emporiae, colonies of Roman-allied Greek Massalia, so some of the neighboring tribes may have been pro Roman due to their influence.
Hannibal spent the months of July and August of 218 BC crossing the two hundred miles from the Ebro River to the Pyrenees, conquering the area by campaigning against the “Illurgetes” (perhaps not the Ilergetes at Lérida who were pro Carthaginian, but probably another obscure tribe between Tarraco and Barcino), the Bargusii at Serga valley, the Ausetani between Vich and Gerona along with the Lacetani, the Aeronosii, and the Andosini tribes. Hannibal stormed a number of unspecified cities and this campaign aimed to subdue region as quickly as possible, leading to heavy Carthaginian casualties. After subduing the Iberian tribes but leaving the Greek cities unmolested, Hannibal reorganized his army. A general named Hanno, who has been identified by various authors as Hannibal's nephew (son of Hasdrubal the Fair), a brother, or no Barcid relation, garrisoned the newly conquered territory north of the Ebro with 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, and based himself specifically to watch over the Bargusii, a pro-Roman tribe. Hanno also guarded the communication line with Hasdrubal Barca, and the heavy baggage left by Hannibal near a camp at Cissa.
Hannibal next released 3,000 Carpetani soldiers, along with 7,000 other warriors of dubious loyalty, so the Carthaginian army now numbered 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry and 37 elephants. The Carthaginian detachments next crossed the Pyrenees Mountains into Gaul and regrouped at Illiberis in early September of 218 BC. They probably avoided the coastal road, as it contains many forested gorges and moved either through the Col de Banyuls or Col du Perthus or Col de la Perche, avoiding the Greeks in the coast altogether.
The trans-Ebro campaign allowed Hannibal to give his new recruits valuable combat experience, and impress upon the Iberian tribes the extent of the power of Carthage, especially those which might have been influenced by the Greek colonies of Massalia, which were not captured, and his shedding of unwilling troops and heavy baggage allowed him to form a more mobile, streamlined, loyal, battle-hardened experienced army, also reduce his supply and provisioning burden by decreasing the number of soldiers, pack animals and size of the baggage train. Hannibal probably now abandoned any thoughts of fighting the Romans, as the season was getting late, and focused on quickly reaching Italy.
Hannibal eludes Scipio
Hannibal had spent 3 months marching from Cartagena to the Pyrenees; however, he would take three weeks to reach the Rhône. Hannibal had placated the Gallic chieftains —who had met at Ruscino for discussion on the Carthaginian expedition after mustering an army— with assurances of his peaceful intentions, accompanied by generous gifts, and then marched past Ruscino unmolested, along the future Via Domitia to Nemasus, the Volcae capital, and without any incidents reached the west bank of the Rhône by late September. Hannibal's negotiation skills and war chest were put to good use to placate individual Gallic tribes on the way, so the foraging of the Carthaginians caused no friction; supplies may also have been purchased from the Gauls as no reports exist of any fighting taking place during his march. Hannibal was opposed by some Gallic tribes at the Rhône, and lost days defeating the Gauls, which enabled Scipio to locate him by pure chance when he landed with his army at the allied Greek city of Massilia in mid September.
Scipio had already known before setting sail that Hannibal had crossed the Ebro, and assumed that the Carthaginians were still engaged beyond the Pyrenees, so he disembarked his troops, made camp, unloaded his heavy baggage, and allowed his soldiers to recuperate from their sea voyage. Scipio expected Hannibal to fight his way to the Rhône, and arrive exhausted and weakened, so he did not send out scouts to find out exactly where the Carthaginian army was, as he believed Hannibal was many days march away.
Scipio was thus astonished to learn in Massalia that Hannibal had already crossed the Pyrenees and the Carthaginians were approaching the Rhône with amazing speed. Scipio immediately dispatched 300 cavalry up the eastern bank of the river, unaware that Hannibal's army was only four days march upstream, just as Hannibal was not aware of the Roman army. The Roman cavalry clashed with a similar force of Numidian light cavalry and, after a hard-fought skirmish, drove off the Carthaginians and located the Carthaginian camp. Hannibal decided not to fight the Romans, because even a victory could cause casualties that would slow his march and force him to winter in Gaul, thus giving the Romans the opportunity to amass overwhelming forces in the Po valley the following spring, and defeating his strategy to gain an operational base, provisions and reinforcements from the Gauls.
Scipio marched north from his base to engage Hannibal, while Hannibal marched east towards the Alps. Arriving at the deserted Carthaginian camp, Scipio learned that Hannibal was three day's march away. Scipio decided against following Hannibal into the Alps, as his army was not equipped and provisioned for a winter campaign, and marching in unknown territory risked being ambushed by Gauls or the Carthaginians. Hannibal had scuttled the Roman plan by reaching the Rhône faster than the Romans expected, and made Publius Scipio fail in his mission to contain Hannibal in Spain or Gaul, and this risked ruining the entire Roman strategic plan. After marching back to the seacoast, Scipio decided to send the bulk of his forces to Iberia under the command of his elder brother Gnaeus (who had been consul in 221 BC), while he himself returned to Northern Italy with a small escort to organize the defenses against Hannibal. This move served a dual purpose: Gnaeus Scipio would be able to block reinforcements from reaching Hannibal overland, thereby reaping fame and spoils; while Publius Scipio, if he could defeat Hannibal in Italy, would become the Savior of Rome; thus this would also ensure, in the Roman aristocratic competition for fame and fortune, that the glory of the entire campaign belonged to the Scipio family. The Roman scouts had discovered Hannibal's Camp in late September, which was an eight-day round trip from the Roman camp in the Rhône estuary, so Gnaeus Scipio probably reached Spain by sail in mid October.
Prelude
The Romans had arrived in Iberia within four to five weeks of the departure of Hannibal from Catalonia, and caught Hanno, the Carthaginian commander in Catalonia, by complete surprise. Hanno had an army containing 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, and he was originally stationed to keep watch over the Bargusii, a pro-Roman tribe, but he had to march 150 miles south of Emporiae to subdue a rebellion, so the Carthaginians were in no position to oppose the Roman arrival, and Hanno probably did not have enough soldiers to do so even if he wished. Since the pro-Carthaginian tribes were located in the interior, Hanno probably did not bother with the coastal area, but instead withdrew inland to Cissa, a town that may have been located near Lérida near the pro-Carthaginian Ilergetes tribe. Hanno probably started raising Iberian levies, and Indibilis, chieftain of the Ilergetes who also held sway over the Lacetani and Sussateni tribes, probably commanded these troops. Hasdrubal Barca, who was in Cartagena nearly 300 miles away, was caught off guard by the sudden arrival of the Romans, and marched north to join Hanno with an army of 8,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry.
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus and his army arrived at Emporiae in Iberia under the escort of 60 quinqueremes. The Greek cities of Emporiae and Rhoda welcomed the Romans, and Gnaeus began to move south to win over the coastal tribes, some of whom were under the influence of the Massalian colonies and at odds with the inland tribes. Gnaeus sailed down the coast, unhindered by the Carthaginians, made some amphibious landings, using diplomacy, and failing that, besieging some town as a show of force for those who chose to resist, to create allies and ultimately gain control over the coast up to Tarraco, which surrendered to the Romans.
The Carthaginian had chosen to remain on the defensive during this time, probably waiting for Hasdrubal to arrive and gathering troops from allied tribes. Gnaeus Scipio now marched inland towards Cissa where Hanno was based, using diplomacy and force if needed, and he continued to gather further allies. Scipio found the Carthaginian army entrenched near Cissa; however, Hanno, seeing the grip of the Carthaginians on the newly conquered tribes loosening, decided to offer battle, instead of waiting in his fortified camp for Hasdrubal to arrive.
The battle
The army of Publius Scipio originally had 8,000 Roman and 14,000 allied infantry, 600 Roman and 1,600 allied cavalry, bulk of which arrived in Spain. Scipio had garrisoned some communities, and also had raised Iberian axillaries troops, so his army may have numbered between 20,000 – 25,000 soldiers. Hanno initially had 11,000 soldiers, and he had gathered some troops from his Iberian allies, but his army was outnumbered by the Romans.
There were no brilliant manoeuvres or ambushes, the armies formed up and faced off. Being outnumbered two to one, Hanno was defeated relatively easily, losing 6,000 soldiers in battle. Furthermore, the Romans managed to capture the Carthaginian camp, along with 2,000 more soldiers and Hanno himself. The camp contained all the baggage left by Hannibal. The prisoners also included Indibilis, who would cause severe trouble for the Romans later. The Romans also stormed the town of Cissa, though to the frustration of the Romans it did not contain any valuable booty.
Aftermath
Gnaeus became master of Iberia north of the Ebro. Hasdrubal, arriving too late to aid Hanno and not being strong enough to attack the Romans, still crossed the river and sent a flying column of light cavalry and infantry on a raid. This force caught some Roman sailors and marines foraging, and inflicted such casualties that the effectiveness of the Roman fleet in Iberia was reduced from 60 to 35 ships. The Roman fleet, however, raided the Carthaginian possessions in Iberia. The Ilergetes began to raid pro-Roman tribes, and Hasdrubal may have crossed the Ebro again in support, forcing Scipio to send punitive expeditions and restore peace. Roman prestige was established in Iberia, while the Carthaginians had suffered a significant blow. After punishing the officers in charge of the naval contingent for their lax discipline, and distributing the captured booty among his soldiers, Scipio and the Roman army wintered at Tarraco. Hasdrubal retired to Cartagena after garrisoning allied towns south of the Ebro.
If Hanno somehow had won the battle, it might have been possible for Hannibal to get reinforcements from Barcid Iberia as early as 217 BC. This battle brought the same results for Scipio in Iberia as the Battle of Trebia would bring for Hannibal in Italy: securing a base of operation, and winning over some of the native tribes as a source of provisions and recruits, and, most importantly, cutting off the overland communication of Hannibal from his base in Iberia. Unlike Hannibal, Scipio did not immediately launch a major campaign on enemy territory south of the river. Nor would he cut loose from his base like Hannibal did in the near future. Scipio took time to consolidate his holdings, subjugate or befriend Iberian tribes and raid Carthaginian territory. These activities laid the foundation for the future Roman operations in Iberia.
Strategic importance
Hannibal had started his march in late May or early June, and after crossing the Ebro he fought the Iberian tribes in a campaign that cost him 22,000 soldiers, and was of little value to Carthage strategically, he failed to leave enough soldiers to defend the area before leaving Spain. The reason for this slow pace across Spain, almost three months from Cartagena to the Pyrenees could probably be that Hannibal first waited for news of Roman deployments, and then marched slowly so the Romans had time to invade Spain and meet defeat, and also to give the impression of a difficult march through Iberia to the Romans before he marched to Italy. The Gallic rebellion delayed the arrival of Scipio by two to three months and foiled Hannibal's strategic goal of securing Spain, but even as Hannibal trimmed down his army by reducing its size and leaving his heavy baggage at Cissa to gain mobility and march towards the Rhône, he still expected to meet the Romans in Gaul, and kept the size of his army big enough to deal with the Romans.
Hannibal probably expected Scipio to go back to Italy with his army when he chose not to fight the Romans in Gaul. His choice not to fight Scipio near the Rhône enabled him to focus on reaching his primary strategic objective, reaching Italy by crossing the Alps, over his secondary goal, which was the security of Spain. Hannibal can be criticized for not securing Spain, which should have been his primary source of recruits, so he never received any reinforcements from Spain due to the activities of Scipio. However, had Hannibal secured Spain from invasion by defeating Scipio's army on the Rhône, but as a consequence had had to winter in Gaul due to a large number of wounded that would have slowed his movement and made the crossing Alps impossible, the Romans would have been able to amass overwhelming forces in the Po to oppose his advance and attack as his army emerged from the Alpine pass, exhausted and at its weakest; and furthermore, had Hannibal thus been stuck outside Italy as the Roman strategic plan required, Sempronius might have attacked Africa, triggering the recall of Hannibal and forcing him into a unwinnable war of attrition. When Alexander the Great invaded Persia, he left Antipater as his regent in Macedon, who kept the kingdom safe and sent reinforcements to Alexander as needed. Hannibal had to trust Hasdrubal Barca play a similar role, to keep Spain secure for Carthage , and to trust both Hasdrubal and Carthage to send reinforcements, yet despite never being reinforced from Spain and only once from Carthage, Hannibal still brought Rome to the brink of defeat.
Publius Scipio was tasked with holding Hannibal in Spain and Gaul, which was the essential prerequisite for implementation of the next step: invasion of Africa; Spain was a secondary objective. The Gallic rebellion in Cisalpine Gaul delayed Scipio's arrival to Spain, and probably saved his army from destruction, as Hannibal had mobilized 87,000 – 102,000 soldiers and had moved slowly through Spain to meet and beat the Romans before marching for Italy, whereas Scipio had 24,600 soldiers. The speed of Hannibal's march across Gaul scuttled the Roman plan: Hannibal had already crossed the Ebro before Scipio had even set sail, so that by the time the Romans arrived at the Rhône, Hannibal had already crossed the river, which Scipio discovered only by chance. Scipio now had no way to succeed in his primary objective of holding Hannibal out of Italy, but he could still go to Spain, the secondary objective.
Scipio's decision to send his brother to attack Spain mirrors the strategy Memnon of Rhodes had advocated against Alexander the Great to the Persians. Memnon suggested that the Persians attack Macedonia in conjunction with Sparta and Athens, with the help of the superior Persian fleet, while Alexander kept busy in Asia Minor through a "scorched earth" strategy. Due to the eventual success of the Scipio brothers in Spain, Hannibal looked for but never received reinforcements from Spain during the war, and one historian has speculated that if Publius Scipio had not sent his army to Spain in 218 BC, his son probably would not have won at Zama in 202 BC. On the other hand, Publius Scipio missed the chance to concentrate 40,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry against Hannibal in the Po valley by not taking his army to Italy, and probably missed the chance to attack Hannibal as the Carthaginians emerged from the passes, exhausted and diminished in numbers as Scipio had originally planned. Had Scipio brought his army back to Italy, Rome would have had the option to launch the invasion of Africa by allowing Sempronius to set sail from Sicily, or order him to join Scipio, so Hannibal would have faced 60,000 Roman soldiers instead of 40,000 at the Battle of Trebbia, from this line of thought Scipio made a grave mistake by sending his army to Spain, which probably prolonged the war for another sixteen years.
Notes
References
Sources and references
Further reading
Cissa
Battles involving the Roman Republic
Battles in Catalonia
Cissa
Cissa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alita%20%28Battle%20Angel%20Alita%29
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Alita (Battle Angel Alita)
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Alita, or in the original Japanese version, is the title character and the main protagonist of Yukito Kishiro's cyberpunk manga series Gunnm (also known as Battle Angel Alita in the English translation) and its sequels Last Order and Mars Chronicle.
Originally a Martian cyborg named , Alita is known for her fighting prowess as a practitioner of the powerful cyborg martial art and her racing skill at , the most popular sport in the western district of Scrapyard. Her background and past history were briefly hinted in the original series, but were not explored until Last Order and more extensively in Mars Chronicle, which reveals that in her previous life she was highly instrumental in creating the world within which the manga series are set. During the 10th ZOTT, Alita is entrusted the relic "Fata Morgana" by Caerula Sanguis, which grants her direct access to the quantum supercomputer Melchizedek and makes her the Last Order agent.
Last Order reveals that Alita has been a cyborg since she was three years old, while Mars Chronicle reveals that she has been a cyborg her entire life since "birth". She has been shown in a human body twice – during the dream sequence after Bigott Eizenburg halted her imminent execution and offered to recruit her as a TUNED agent, she appeared as a young human woman wearing the long-sleeved white top and pants of an institution. In the epilogue of the original series, years after sacrificing herself to save Zalem from crashing down to Iron City, Alita was regenerated as a fully flesh-and-blood woman with long black hair and appeared to be taller than her typical height.
In the original manga, "Alita" was actually the name of her adopted father Daisuke Ido's black pet tomcat, who died a month before he found the remains of cyborg girl in the huge junkyard. The cat makes an appearance in the manga as part of a dream that Alita experiences while being trapped in Desty Nova's Ouroboros program. In the dream, Alita is named "Gally" while the cat is named "Alita". The side story "Holy Night" reveals that Ido took the original "Alita" in shortly after he arrived in the Scrapyard, at least five years before he found the cyborg Alita in the junkyard.
Conception and creation
Character
Alita's appearance is that of a beautiful young woman of average height with shoulder-length dark hair. Although she used several cyborg bodies, her height has tended to remain consistent. The Japanese version of Angel Redux has a lineup of several characters in Last Order and shows that she is around tall in her Imaginos 2.0 body. Beginning with her TUNED body, Alita's face features permanent eye black, although it did not appear in her first Imaginos body. In the 1993 OVA she is depicted as having red eyes and black hair. While her face is fair-skinned, the rest of her body has typically been a metallic grey.
During the course of the story Alita wore several outfits. In her first cyborg body, this consisted of casual wear in the form of a shirt, track pants and sneakers. After gaining the Berserker Body, she switched to attire more appropriate for a hunter-warrior (bounty-hunter) that featured black sleeveless leather catsuit with fingerless gloves combined with brown knee-high boots and a light yellow trench coat. In Gunnm: Martian Memory, the trench coat is omitted.
Her Motorball body is depicted as being purple, with the number "99" in yellow on the cover of the third manga volume ("Killing Angel"), the 3D special and in Gunnm: Martian Memory. When not on the track, Alita wore dark pants over the lower half of the body, while switching out the upper half, over which she wore a jacket as well as dark fingerless gloves. While using her second civilian body she is first shown wearing a hat, a short black dress, light-coloured jacket, dark fingerless gloves, dark pantyhose and dark boots. She later wore a sleeveless dark top, dark elbow pads, dark fingerless gloves, jeans, and white shoes.
As a TUNED agent, Alita wore a black bodysuit with body armour, over which she typically wore a cape. Two illustrations that initially appeared in Business Jump and are reproduced in the Guncyclopedia depict the bodysuit as being red while the armour is white. The cover illustration of volume 5 of the Gunnm: Complete Edition depicts the bodysuit as being black and the armour a light green. In Gunnm: Martian Memory the bodysuit is a dark green with the armour in a lighter shade of green. Her signature weapon is a sword known as the Damascus Blade, which consists of two separate blades joined together.
Personality
Alita is known for her fierce determination and willingness to back this up with force when necessary. This is in stark contrast to her docile personality when she was a young girl, as she was much less certain of herself and tended to rely on her companion Erica for support. Nonetheless she developed into a highly competent Künstler who was assigned to carry out Operation Maulwurf in ES 386, when she was 16. After she was caught and sentenced to atmospheric drop as punishment, she lost most of her memories and temporarily her personality after atmospheric entry and crash landing near Star City.
When she was discovered two centuries later by Daisuke Ido and resuscitated, Alita's initial personality was that of an innocent teenage girl. However, after she saved him from the mutant woman, she began to instinctively recall her past Panzer Kunst training and also became much more confident and independent. Against Ido's wishes she decided to become a hunter-warrior in order to rediscover her memories through fighting. Alita has proven highly resilient as she has had to face her inner doubts and fears many times but has been able to rebound each time and reaffirm her belief in herself.
In Last Order, she suffered a mental breakdown when she discovered that her brain had been replaced with a brain bio-chip and her body was subsequently dissolved by Super Nova's Seca attack. However, after Melchizedek called out to her failing consciousness she responded, allowing her to be resurrected after fusing with Tunguska and absorbing its wormhole core. Her personality has become markedly more cat-like and mischievous, a physical manifestation of which is a tail that she chose to transform from a piece of Tunguska that was stuck to her rear end.
Background
From flashbacks in the original series, and further elaborated on in Last Order and Mars Chronicle, Alita remembered that she is from Mars and that her original name is Yoko. As a young adult, Yoko was part of a group of Künstlers whose final mission was to target Earth's orbital ring during the Terraforming Wars. At the penultimate moment, her comrades were ambushed by an unknown opponent. Yoko escaped, but was left to crash onto Earth. This event was later retconned by Last Order and Mars Chronicle, which elaborate more on Yoko's recruitment and activities as a Künstler.
Early life
Originally codenamed HK-BR035, Yoko was "born" in Cydonia in ES 370 during the crumbling Archduchy Era that was plagued with civil wars, as a maske tumor extracted from a woman named Nollin Sonann and grafted into a mechanical body, and is the only known successful case of such experiments that produced a healthy, viable subject. When the villain Baron Muster (Nollin's vengeful brother) learned of her existence, he took her away and named her Yoko, and used her in a conspiracy plotted with Marquis Maruki Baumburg to overthrow Cydonia's ruling queen Kagura Dornburg. As a result of Muster falsifying records to state that Yoko was Kagura's daughter (and thus had a claim to Kagura's throne), Yoko was abducted by the Cydonian armed forces and forced to walk across a minefield as a means of execution. As Yoko was unable to walk because she was too young to properly control her mechanical body, a sympathetic one-eyed girl named Erica Wald volunteered to accompany her. After walking together for a hundred paces, Yoko and Erica were rescued by a group of Panzer Kunst warriors, who slaughtered the soldiers. Left in the care of a nomadic medic named Finch, Yoko and Erica were left at an orphanage in the Flammarion town of Mamiana, which was later attacked and massacred by the renegade Papagei Corps. Yoko and Erica were the only two survivors (spared only for political propaganda purposes) and were later picked up by Finch, who returned half a day late and missed the slaughter. When the canopy membrane maintaining Mars' atmosphere was ruptured by an explosion, Yoko, Erica and Finch were rescued by Baldachin Association Gärtner Mui, who demanded they sacrifice their lives to restore the pillar that supports the canopy. However Mui was then contacted by her superior, who ordered them released according to a prophecy that one (or both) of Yoko and Erica would become the chosen one that could change humanity's direction.
Later, Finch was contacted by a woman called Kyoko Bima, who claimed to be Yoko's long-lost mother but in reality was an agent hired by Marquis Maruki to keep Yoko under custody. Yoko spent the next year living a happy comfortable life at the Baumburg Mansion under the watch of Kyoko, who actually developed a genuine maternal bond with her. When Muster came to visit Maruki to discuss their plan, Erica, who had become Muster's apprentice, plotted for Kyoko and Yoko to run away with the help of two bounty-hunters. However, in the chase, the bounty-hunters were killed and Erica stabbed Kyoko dead before both girls were retrieved by Muster and Maruki. Later Muster's assistant Zoe revealed to the girls that Yoko was not genetically related to Princess Kagura and her real genetic mother was Muster's late sister Nollin.
At some point, Yoko joined the mercenary organization Grünthal alongside Erica and was trained in Panzer Kunst at Grünthal's Mauser School, although she might also have received training on techniques from the Schneider School and possibly the later extinct Gossen School. However, as teenagers the two childhood friends had a falling-out, which resulted in Yoko mortally wounding Erica during a sparring. As an intermediate Geselle level Künstler, Yoko was recruited into the Mauser School's covert op unit Kammer Gruppe, and earned the nickname "Yoko von der Rasierklinge" ("Razorblade Yoko") for her ferocious efficiency in combat. In ES 386 during the height of the interplanetary Terraforming War, the 16-year-old Yoko was picked to carry out Operation Maulwurf against the Venusian-Earth alliance, and managed to infiltrate Ketheres and upload a virus into the supercomputer Melchizedek. This disrupted the navigational systems of the five Leviathan-class colony ships, destroying four and killing 450,000 civilians, as well as causing a complete Gestalt breakdown in Melchizedek's organizational processes, from which it never fully recovered. After this event (known as the Camranh Tragedy), Yoko was captured by Caerula Sanguis and tried as a class-A war criminal, and was sentenced to death by immolation via atmospheric drop as punishment. Due to special protocol built into her cyborg body, Yoko's brain survived atmospheric entry, but crash-landed near Star City where she lay in suspended animation for almost 200 years.
Depiction
Battle Angel Alita
In ES 577, Yoko's damaged head and torso were found by the exiled Tipharean cyberphysician Daisuke Ido when he was searching the dump for spare parts. When Ido discovered that she was still alive, he took the cyborg girl back to his clinic to rebuild her. As she was an amnesiac, he named her after his recently deceased black tomcat, Alita. When the reconstructed Alita suspects Ido of murdering women to provide her body parts, her guilt caused her to stalk and confront Ido, only to discover that he is a hunter-warrior seeking the true killer. When protecting the injured Ido, her fighting caused an instinctive recollection of the lost Martian battle technique "Panzer Kunst", which allowed her to quickly deliver a single killing blow to the murderer. She decided to become a hunter-warrior herself, in which job Alita occasionally displayed a disturbing bloodlust and love of battle. When fighting the powerful, body-snatching and brain-eating cyborg named Makaku, the original body that Ido had made for Alita was destroyed. Feeling he has no other choice, Ido reconnected Alita to a Berserker Body, which allowed her to kill an upgraded Makaku in a long fight in the sewers beneath the Scrapyard.
Shortly after becoming a hunter-warrior, Alita met and fell in love with Hugo, a young boy who dreamed of going to Tiphares. Hugo's obsession with Tiphares wound up ruining any chance of them being together, as he was caught mugging cyborgs for their spinal columns and had a bounty placed on him. Alita protected Hugo from Zapan – resulting in the latter's humiliation – and resuscitated him. However, upon Vector telling Hugo that going to Tiphares alive was impossible, Hugo snapped and tried to scale the massive pipes connecting the Factories to the floating city. Alita tried to persuade Hugo to turn back, but a defense ring threaded him to pieces and Alita was unable to save Hugo from falling to his death.
After Hugo's death, the grieving Alita ran away from home. She was found crying in a bar by Esdoc, a former Top League Motorball player, who talked her into signing a 12-race contract. To keep her from quitting, Esdoc secretly sold Alita's Berserker Body to the mad scientist Desty Nova. Alita's final and greatest match was against Jashugan, the Top League champion whose mastery of chi' enabled him to surpass the limits of his body despite having been mortally wounded. Alita was defeated but survived the fight to become the champion. She then retired from Motorball and lived as a civilian for two years, taking up music and often performing as a bar singer. Later on, Desty Nova attached Zapan's brain to the Berserker Body, creating a rampaging monster that killed Ido and destroyed Bar New Kansas. Promising to resurrect Ido, Nova provided Alita with a Smith & Wesson Model 610 revolver and a capsule containing collapser, an agent designed to destroy Berserker cells. After a battle that almost ended in Zapan assimilating her, Alita managed to shoot Zapan with the collapser-loaded hollow-point bullets. She was then apprehended by Factory forces and sentenced to death for the Class A crime of using a firearm.
The head of the Tipharean Ground Investigation Bureau, Bigott Eizenburg, intervened and managed to postpone Alita's execution. Bigott offered to give Alita a purpose in life working as an agent of Tiphares, but she refused until he mentioned that her primary mission would be to hunt down Desty Nova. Given a new body and weapons, Alita spent ten years working in the Badlands as the TUNED agent A-1, hunting down rogue Deckmen and other criminals. She quickly came to resent Bigott's callous attitude towards "surface dwellers" like her, and came to revel in combat and bloodlust as a means of drowning out her despair. In ES 590 she was tasked with eliminating the rebel organization Barjack. Cultivating a friendship with her new operator, Lou Collins, Alita also fell in love with a mercenary named Figure Four, who helped break her out of her fatalistic mindset while she accompanied him to his hometown of Alhambra. Promising to return once her business with TUNED was concluded, Alita learned that Desty Nova was behind Barjack and that if she wanted to find him she would have to defeat Barjack's leader, Den. After falling into a river and being rescued by a sickly radio host named Kaos, Alita persuaded him to stand up against Barjack and faced off with Den; discovering that not only was Kaos the son of Desty Nova but that Den was Kaos' split personality projected into a remote body. Locating the supposedly revived Ido with help from Kaos, Alita travelled to Farm 21 only to learn from nurse Kayna that Ido had erased his memories after learning the "truth about Tiphares". Learning that Nova's hideout was in the Granite Inn, Alita set out to apprehend him but was attacked by AR-2, one of the TUNED AR Series 2 androids that Bigott ordered to be built in order to replace Alita. With Lou's help Alita managed to kill AR-2, and persuaded Bigott to let her finish the original mission and win her freedom. Alita infiltrated Granite Inn and confronted Nova, who revealed the secret of Tiphares – that all adults had their brains extracted and replaced with brain bio-chips. With Bigott and several of the other adults going insane and committing suicide from this revelation, Nova trapped Alita inside a virtual reality called the Ouroboros Program and attempted to break her fighting spirit. Breaking free with Kaos' help, Alita decapitated Nova and set out to reunite with Figure Four, but was killed by a doll bomb planted by Nova, who had survived decapitation by having a second brain-ship installed into his abdomen. However, Nova then transports Alita's remains to Tiphares and resurrects her with a new "Imaginos Body" with a neuronal accelerator which gives her unlimited potential.
In the original series, Nova guides Alita to confront the Melchizedek – the supercomputer ruler of Tiphares – about the truth of Tiphares and Ketheres' history. Nova provokes Melchizedek too far, causing it to go haywire and self-destruct. To save Tiphares from falling and colliding with Scrapyard below, Alita takes an Imaginos trigger given by Nova and sacrificed herself to secure the Sky Hook by fusing with it. Nova immediately regrets giving Alita the trigger, as he cannot bear being saved by her selflessness, and goes completely mad. Five years later, Kiyomi and Figure encounters a senile, insane Nova, who lures them in to a cavern deep in Ketheres, where they find Alita reborn from the Tree of Life with a human body.
Last Order
The original ending of Battle Angel Alita is retconned in Last Order, where Alita wakes up in the new Imaginos Body only to find Nova has died a week earlier. A pre-recorded video message then reveals that Nova exposed the brain bio-chip conspiracy to the Tipharean population, resulting in mass insanity quickly spreading and devastating the floating metropolis, culminating in a chaotic two-week civil war. His assistant Roscoe also goes crazy and kills Nova, disembowelling him and looting his two brain bio-chips, which later fall into Alita's hands. However, it is later revealed that Nova has already invented the Stereotomy process, which allows him to create reincarnations of himself, making him effectively an immortal presence. Going into space with new and old companions alike, to look for her lost friend Lou Collins and to find out more about her forgotten past, Alita is caught up in an interplanetary struggle between the major powers of the colonized solar system. Along the way, she forms an alliance with three of the Alita Replicas who have now begun to think for themselves, an unsavory superhacker, and Nova himself when she enters the Zenith of Things Tournament (Z.O.T.T.), a fighting competition held every ten years. Later on, Super Nova (one of reborn versions of Nova) reveals that the Alita in the story is actually a replica android with a brain bio-chip that contains the same memories and combat abilities, while her original organic brain is actually sealed inside a box that she was tasked to safeguard the whole time. When the android Alita was revived by Melchizedek, she chooses to let her organic brain be reborn into a genetically reconstructed organic body and live a normal peaceful human life with Figure Four, while the android Alita goes on to discover her past life and explore her new destiny.
Mars Chronicle
Three years after the 10th ZOTT, Alita visits Mars to honor the slaughtered inhabitants of the orphanage she lived at during childhood. At the Mariama memorial site, she re-encounters her childhood friend and fellow Künstler Erica, who became an undead Necro-Soldier – the infamous assassin known as "Frau X" – and is immediately drawn into a Martian power struggle. Determined to save her childhood companion from the control of the Einherjar, Alita vows to unveil the truth and discover the cure for Necro-Soldiers.
Appearances
In anime
In the 1993 OVA Battle Angel, Gally (known as Alita in the Manga Entertainment UK and European releases) is immediately given a variant of the Berserker Body after being discovered by Ido. She is voiced by Miki Itō in the Japanese version, Amanda Winn-Lee in the ADV Films dub, and Larissa Murray in the Manga UK dub.
In film
Rosa Salazar portrays Alita through performance capture in the 2019 live-action adaptation Alita: Battle Angel, produced and co-written by James Cameron and directed by Robert Rodriguez. Alita's design was noted for retaining the big eyes of the manga's art, which Rodriguez stated was an intent to "bring a true manga and anime character to life.” In the film, she is given the name Alita by Dr. Dyson Ido (played by Christoph Waltz) after his late daughter, as well as given a cyborg body that was originally meant for said daughter. While traveling with Hugo (played by Keean Johnson) and his friends to a ruined Martian warship, Alita acquires a highly advanced Berserker body and brings it home, but Ido refuses to transplant her into it, fearing the consequences of combining lost Martian technology will trigger her instinct for conflicts. However, after her body is destroyed by the giant cyborg killer Grewishka (played by Jackie Earle Haley), Ido proceeds to transplant her into the Berserker body, which brought back more of her lost memories.
In video game
Gally is the main character in the 1998 Sony PlayStation video game Gunnm: Martian Memory.
Further reading
References
Battle Angel characters
Comics characters introduced in 1990
Female characters in anime and manga
Fictional bounty hunters
Fictional gynoids
Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder
Fictional female martial artists
Fictional female sportspeople
Fictional Martians
Fictional swordfighters in anime and manga
Fictional super soldiers
Female soldier and warrior characters in anime and manga
Martial artist characters in anime and manga
Fictional skaters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamalapur%20railway%20station
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Kamalapur railway station
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Kamalapur Railway Station (officially Dhaka Railway Station) is the central railway station in Dhaka, capital of Bangladesh. It is the largest station and the busiest infrastructure for transportation in the country that acts as a gateway of the country's capital. It was opened on 1 May 1968.
It was built during the Pakistan period but its railway line was built during the British Indian period. After the creation of Pakistan, another railway station was constructed at Kamalapur as the old railway station in Dhaka was inadequate and a part of the existing railway line was moved from the previous position. Built in 1968, this railway station was witness to the massacre that took place during the liberation war in 1971.
After the liberation, the country's first inland container depot was established here. After that several proposals and decisions were made to relocate and demolish the station building but due to objections from the authorities and dignitaries it was not done. A multimodal transport hub around the station is currently under construction which is expected to be completed by 2030.
This station is plagued with various issues. Among them are homeless people, height of platforms, insecurity, criminal activities, reluctance of passengers to use foot overbridges, problem of railway porters and unavailability of information. This central railway station of the country has 8 platforms. Apart from this, there are various facilities including hospital, mosque and police station.
History
Pre-independence era
Predecessor
In 1885, when Bangladesh was under the British Raj, Dacca State railway built Narayanganj–Bahadurabad Ghat line and opened its part for train service from the old city of Dacca (now Dhaka) to Narayanganj. In 1895, Dacca railway station (also known as Fulbaria railway station) was built with other facilities. It was established on the south side of the then main city of Dhaka. In the same year, railway connections from Dhaka to Narayanganj and Dhaka to Mymensingh were established. After the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, Dhaka became the main city and capital of East Bengal (later East Pakistan). In that time, the railway line used to go straight from Tejgaon railway station to Fulbaria.
Establishment
Dhaka's urban status grew in the early 20th century, and so did its economy, especially after 1947. The existing railway lines extended northwards bisecting Dhaka into old and new cities, and these railway lines intersected with roads at various points, blocking the flow of north-south road traffic. Also the old Dacca railway station on the northern side of the city was incomplete, consisting of a platform, a small yard and a locomotive shed. Relocating the station to a less congested area is expected to facilitate unhindered north-south vehicular flow, and also bring old and new Dhaka cities together. In 1948, experts suggested shifting the station to Kamalapur. After 10 years in 1958, the provincial government entrusted the implementation of the scheme. Before the construction of the station, there was a paddy field at the construction site. From Tejgaon the railway line was diverted to Khilgaon, and then to Kamalapur. The station was inaugurated by Pakistani president Ayub Khan on 27 April 1968. Its construction cost was . A year after that, the headquarters of the railway mail service of the province was moved here.
Post-independence era
Recent developments
On 11 April 1987, after sixteen years of the independence of Bangladesh, the first inland container depot in Bangladesh was opened in the railway station. In 2005, American consultancy firm Louis Berger Group prepared a strategic transport plan (STP) for Dhaka. The STP suggested the relocation of the central railway station to Tongi, but the steering committee, formed by Dhaka Transport Coordination Board, rejected the suggestion. In the 2010s, the government proposed to shift the railway station to Gazipur District. But the ministry of Railways opposed the proposal considering the inconvenience of the city dwellers. The station building underwent renovation four times between 2013 and 2023.
Under the construction project of Dhaka–Jessore line which started in 2016, it was decided to renovate six railway stations which included Kamalapur railway station. In 2020, a government meeting held at the Railway Bhaban in Dhaka informed that as part of the renovation work, three new dual gauge railway line and a new platform for the station's broad gauge railway line will be constructed at the station.
The Dhaka–Narayanganj section of the existing Narayanganj–Bahadurabad Ghat line has been declared closed from 4 December 2022 for upgradation from meter gauge to dual gauge and the Padma Bridge Rail Link project. The announcement led to the suspension of train services from Kamalapur to Narayanganj railway station, causing suffering to commuters plying the route who used to travel by train to save money. Md. Nurul Islam Sujon, railway minister of the country, had announced on 14 January 2023 that the section would be opened for train traffic by March. But it could not be done as two projects were not completed. On 25 July 2023, the Railway Minister announced that the Dhaka–Narayanganj section would be reopen on the first day of August. On the final promised day, train services resumed from Kamalapur to Narayanganj.
COVID-19 pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, train services at Kamalapur railway station were suspended and access to the station was closed. Although the Kamalapur railway station was opened in June, the authority did not arrange additional trains for passengers on the occasion of Eid al-Adha. After the end of the lockdown in 2021, the government mandated online-only ticket sales, leaving the lower classes deprived of using the station. On the other hand, they could not travel sitting on the roof of the train as they were not allowed to enter the station without a ticket. After the second phase of lockdown, Kamalapur railway station was opened and rail communication resumed. In early 2022, new restrictions were imposed on the railway station as a result of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant, and ticket sales were halved. It faced disaster due to the overcrowding of passengers due to the ban on the use of motorcycles in the highways and outside of district by the government around Eid-ul-Azha of the same year. As a result, its trains schedule was disrupted.
Multimodal transport hub
In 2018, a public-private joint investment (PPP) project with Kajima was approved to create a multimodal hub around Dhaka Airport and Tejgaon railway station along with Kamalapur Railway Station. Under this infrastructure will be built around Kamalapur Railway Station; There will be multi-storied residential buildings, hotels, shopping malls, subways and runways. In 2019, the Bangladesh Railway authority objected to the construction of a multimodal hub in front of the station building. In 2020, Bangladesh Railway and Dhaka Mass Transit Company Limited have decided to connect Kamalapur railway station with MRT Line 6 of Dhaka Metro Rail. But as the current station could not match the proposed route of MRT Line 6, it was decided to demolish the Kamalapur station and construct a new one 130 meters north. Various architects and individuals of the country opposed this decision. On 30 January 2021, the Prime Minister's Office gave permission to demolish the railway station, but in February, the Railway Ministry withdrew its decision to demolish Kamalapur. However, related authority said that the railway station may be shifted in the near future if required. Instead of demolishing the station, the government plans to construct a station complex for metrorail, subway, elevated express and bus rapid transit under the railway station area as part of the multimodal hub that is scheduled to be completed by 2030.
Architecture
The architects of Kamalapur railway station were two Americans: Daniel Dunham and Bob Buie. Both came to East Pakistan as architects with Louis Berger Group. The design process started under the direction of Dunham, followed by Robert Boughey.
Dunham & Buie's design included the creation of a wide-span structure that would be suitable for the climate of the region, a challenge to them. For that they designed a concrete structure of the station building roof that was unusual, the structure had a parasol roof. The roof shelters a row of downward-facing interconnected structures. The terminal's profile – a rhythmic arrangement of gently tapered and arched shells evokes the typical image of a tropical climate, with an umbrella providing protection from monsoon rains. The design of the station includes various functional spaces including the station's ticket booth, administrative offices, passenger rest areas and waiting areas under an integrated canopy roof.
The entire structure consists of 36 squares. It has a total of 49 columns. Above it stands a roof with 36 slender concrete domes. Each column, 59 feet high, extends four branches upward and supports the roof. The station is spread over an area of 156 acres. It has 11 ticket counters and several passenger rest areas.
A monument called "Suryaketan" was constructed at the entrance of the railway station in 1999 in memory of all the railway officers and employees who were martyred in the 1971 liberation war.
Accidents and incidents
In 1971, Pakistan Army attacked the Kamalapur railway station soon after Operation Searchlight began. They killed the people in the trains reaching the station and burnt the trains. Also everyone in the station building was killed by Pakistani army. About 30 employees working at the railway station died in this massacre.
On 29 December 2014, Kamalapur railway station was involved in an accident when a train collided with a lorry, resulting in the death of 6 people. On 12 August 2017, around Eid-ul-Azha, 18 persons accused of various crimes were arrested from the railway station during the operation of the railway police station. In January 2019, a fire broke out in the station's control room, disrupting train schedules. In May 23 of the same year, a fire broke out in the station master's room, but it was extinguished with the use of fire extinguishers. On 19 August 2019, a girl was raped and killed in an abandoned compartment of the station. On 23 December 2021, a person was crushed under a train and died due to an accident on the second platform of the terminal.
On 9 January 2022, a points man of the railway station was cut and killed by an approaching train while connecting train carriages. On 23 April of the same year, During a press conference organized by Kamalapur railway station, the belongings of the station master were stolen. Later during the investigation on 18 May, the detective police recovered the stolen items along with the thieves. On 7 May, a cargo container caught fire at the station, which was brought under control by three units of the fire service.
On 7 October, a girl, who was seventeen, was raped in a train on the first platform of the station. The incident involved 6 people who worked as cleaners at the railway terminal. On 20 October 2022, Rapid Action Battalion arrested a gang of ticket black marketers of Kamalapur railway station, who since 2015 used to buy station tickets from others and sell them at high prices, creating a shortage of tickets. On 29 December, 2022, during the anti-government protest in the country, a railway security guard was killed by the explosion of a crude bomb on its platform.
On Eid-ul-Fitr 2023, it was prohibited to enter the station and travel on the roof of the train without purchasing an advance ticket online. As a result of this decision, tickets are sold out quickly, so some people come to the station plaza to buy tickets before Eid and suffered. So The station counters were not crowded with people waiting for tickets.
Station facilities
There are eight 918.4 meter long platforms at this station, numbered 1-8 from the North West to the South East (left to right when viewed from the passenger entrance):
Platform 1-7 are generally used for commuters, inter-city rail and long distance services.
Suburban platform is generally used for suburban services on the Narayanganj–Bahadurabad Ghat line towards Narayanganj.
Kamalapur railway station has a yard of Dhaka Inland Container Depot owned by the authority of the Port of Chittagong. Saif Power Tech Limited was appointed as its operator in 2015. It was built on 32 acres of land near the terminal. It can hold 10 percent of Chittagong Port's 70 percent containers, i.e. 90,000 TEUS.
The Railway General Hospital, Kamalapur was constructed in 1986 on 4.3 acres. The hospital was started to provide medical services to the officers and employees of the Bangladesh Railway. In 2013, the hospital was planned to be taken up in public private partnership and two years later, its services were opened to all and expanded to 100 beds. Its current number of beds is 40.
There is a mosque for passengers use in the station known as the "Dhaka Railway Station Central Jame Mosque". Free food is distributed during iftar every year in the month of Ramadan to those who come to pray at the mosque.
The Railway Police maintains a police station at Kamalapur, with a custody suite. At the station, various accused are arrested in this railway station. The police station was modernized and renovated in 2021. After the renovation, a library and drinking water facilities have been kept here for the prisoners and the police.
Ridership
As of 2022, at least 115,000 passengers travel by train using Kamalapur railway station daily. The railway station is usually crowded with people returning home by train on the occasion of the festivals of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha every year. However, there was an exception during the year of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Issues
According to the statistics of 2014, the number of homeless people in Dhaka is at least 7 thousand. Many of them live in Kamalapur railway station because of lack of means. Today it is one of the refuges of the destitute population in the city. This unguarded railway station building is the target of criminal activities of vagrants. According to the information of the detective branch, various criminals are waiting to commit misdeeds at this railway terminal and hence the station is dangerous for passengers. According to Railway Police data, 86 criminals were arrested from the terminal in 2021. This is also a safe place for drug dealers. In 2022, Newsbangla24.com reported that there is a lack of security at the terminal and a lack of police personnel can be seen after the evening. The reporter saw some people taking drugs in public and interviewed a porter who was there revealed that the policemen are removed after 12:00 am. On the other hand, the railway police authority blamed the lack of manpower for this insecurity in the station.
The height of the platforms at Kamalapur railway station is disproportionate to the height of the trains. As all trains in East Pakistan were meter gauge when the railway station was built, the platforms were designed keeping meter gauge trains in mind. As a result, passengers face problems in boarding broad gauge and demo trains from the platforms. In 2021, the station was renovated to raise some of the platforms to address the issue. But after renovate it at a cost of , questions arose about the substandard construction work on those platforms. Although foot overbridges are provided at each platform for movement between the platforms of the station, many passengers walk over the tracks without using them to save time and the station authority does not take any measures to prevent and discourage them.
Most of the displays and schedule boards at the station are non-functional and passengers do not get accurate train information from the police information center at the station. Passengers face the problem of missing station master to get various train related information at the station. The microphone to announce the train schedule at the terminal cannot be heard clearly, leading to confusion. As of 2021, the number of railway porters work in this railway station is 210. To work as a railway porter, permission is required from the railway station authority. A reporter from Jago News 24 reported that bribes are being paid to work as porters here. Besides, it is said that the authority does not take any measures or help to solve the problems of the porters. It is also alleged by passengers that porters charge more than the government fixed rates for carrying goods.
Legacy
Kamalapur railway station is often featured in films and other pop culture in the country. The station has been used in numerous Bangladeshi film and television productions over the years. Many films and television programs have been filmed at the station, including:
Swatta, Fereshte, and Istition.
The original design of Bangabandhu Hi-Tech City railway station, situated in Bangabandhu Hi-Tech City near Dhaka is designed like this station. Sylhet railway station, another railway station in the north-eastern region of the country, has the structure like the central station.
Gallery
See also
Bangabandhu Hi-Tech City railway station
Sylhet railway station
References
Further reading
Daniel Dunham, Pioneer of Modern Architecture in Bangladesh by Rafique Islam pages 83–90
External links
Schedule of trains at Kamalapur railway station: Bangladesh Railway
Kamalapur
Rail transport in Dhaka
Railway stations in Dhaka District
Railway stations opened in 1968
1968 establishments in East Pakistan
History of rail transport in Pakistan
National symbols of Bangladesh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Prostitution in the United States
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Prostitution is illegal in the vast majority of the United States as a result of state laws rather than federal laws. It is, however, legal in some rural counties within the state of Nevada. Additionally, it is decriminalized in the state of Maine. Prostitution nevertheless occurs elsewhere in the country.
The regulation of prostitution in the country is not among the enumerated powers of the federal government. It is therefore exclusively the domain of the states to permit, prohibit, or otherwise regulate commercial sex under the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, except insofar as Congress may regulate it as part of interstate commerce with laws such as the Mann Act. In most states, prostitution is considered a misdemeanor in the category of public order crime–crime that disrupts the order of a community. Prostitution was once considered a vagrancy crime.
Currently, Nevada is the only U.S. state to allow legal prostitution – in the form of regulated brothels – the terms of which are stipulated in the Nevada Revised Statutes. In addition, it is decriminalized in Maine.
Only these six counties currently contain active brothels: Elko, Lyon, Nye, White Pine, Lander & Storey.
All forms of prostitution are illegal in these counties: Clark (which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area), Washoe (which contains Reno), Carson City, Douglas, Eureka, Lincoln & Pershing. The other ten counties theoretically allow brothel prostitution, but four of these counties currently have no active brothels. Street prostitution, "pandering", and living off of the proceeds of a prostitute remain illegal under Nevada law, as is the case elsewhere in the country.
According to the National Institute of Justice, a study conducted in 2008 alleged that approximately 15-20 percent of men in the country have engaged in commercial sex.
As with other countries, prostitution in the U.S. can be divided into three broad categories: street prostitution, brothel prostitution, and escort prostitution.
History
18th century
Some of the women in the American Revolution who followed the Continental Army served the soldiers and officers as sexual partners. Prostitutes were a worrisome presence to army leadership, particularly because of the possible spread of venereal diseases (in modern terms, sexually transmitted infection or STI).
19th century
In the 19th century, parlor house brothels catered to upper class clientele, while bawdy houses catered to the lower class. At concert saloons, men could eat, listen to music, watch a fight, or pay women for sex. Over 200 brothels existed in lower Manhattan. Prostitution was illegal under the vagrancy laws, but was not well-enforced by police and city officials, who were bribed by brothel owners and madams. Attempts to regulate prostitution were struck down on the grounds that regulation would be counter to the public good.
The gold rush profits of the 1840s to 1900 attracted gambling, crime, saloons, and prostitution to the mining towns of the wild west. A brothel-keeper, Julia Bulette, who was active in the mining town of Virginia City, Nevada, was murdered in 1867. Thirty years before, in 1836, the New York City courtesan Helen Jewett was murdered by one of her customers, gaining prostitution considerable attention. The Lorette Ordinance of 1857 prohibited prostitution on the first floor of buildings in New Orleans. Nevertheless, prostitution continued to grow rapidly in the U.S., becoming a $6.3 million business in 1858, more than the shipping and brewing industries combined.
Some army officers, however, encouraged the presence of prostitutes during the Civil War to keep troop morale high. On August 20, 1863, the U.S. military commander Brig. General Robert S. Granger legalized prostitution in Nashville, Tennessee, in order to curb venereal disease among Union soldiers. The move was successful and venereal disease rates fell from forty percent to just four percent due to a stringent program of health checks which required all prostitutes to register and be examined by a board certified physician every two weeks for which they were charged five dollars registration fee plus 50 cents each time.
By the U.S. Civil War, Washington's Pennsylvania Avenue had become a disreputable slum known as Murder Bay, home to an extensive criminal underclass and numerous brothels. So many prostitutes took up residence there to serve the needs of General Joseph Hooker's Army of the Potomac that the area became known as "Hooker's Division." (It is from this period that the slang term "hooker" originates.) Two blocks between Pennsylvania and Missouri Avenues became home to such expensive brothels that it was known as "Marble Alley."
In 1873, Anthony Comstock created the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, an institution dedicated to supervising the morality of the public. Comstock successfully influenced the United States Congress to pass the Comstock Law, which made illegal the delivery or transport of "obscene, lewd, or lascivious" material and birth control information. In 1875, Congress passed the Page Act of 1875 that made it illegal to transport women into the nation to be used as prostitutes.
In 1881, the Bird Cage Theatre opened in Tombstone, Arizona. It included a brothel in the basement and 14 cribs suspended from the ceiling, called cages. Local men such as Doc Holliday, Bat Masterson, Diamond Jim Brady, and George Hearst frequented the establishment.
In the late 19th century, newspapers reported that 65,000 white slaves existed. Around 1890, the term "red-light district" was first recorded in the United States. From 1890 to 1982, the Dumas Brothel in Montana was America's longest-running house of prostitution.
New Orleans city alderman Sidney Story wrote an ordinance in 1897 to regulate and limit prostitution to one small area of the city, "The District", where all prostitutes in New Orleans must live and work. The District, which was nicknamed Storyville, became the best known area for prostitution in the nation. Storyville at its peak had some 1,500 prostitutes and 200 brothels.
20th century
Legal measures and morality campaigns
In 1908, the government founded the Bureau of Investigation (BOI, from 1935, the FBI) to investigate "white slavery" by interviewing brothel employees to discover if they had been kidnapped. Out of 1,106 prostitutes interviewed in one city, six said they were victims of white slavery. The White-Slave Traffic Act (Mann Act) of 1910 prohibited so-called white slavery. It also banned the interstate transportation of women for "immoral purposes". Its primary stated intent was to address prostitution and perceived immorality. The Supreme Court later included consensual debauchery, adultery, and polygamy under "immoral purposes". Prior to World War I, there were few laws criminalizing prostitutes or the act of prostitution.
During World War I, the U.S. government developed a public health program called the American Plan which authorized the military to arrest any woman within five miles of a military cantonment. If found infected, a woman could be sentenced to a hospital or a "farm colony" until cured. By the end of the war 15,520 prostitutes had been imprisoned, the majority never being medically hospitalized.
In 1918, the Chamberlain–Kahn Act which implemented the American Plan, gave the government the power to quarantine any woman suspected of having venereal disease. A medical examination was required, and if it revealed to be VD, this discovery could constitute proof of prostitution. The purpose of this law was to prevent the spread of venereal diseases among U.S. soldiers. During World War I, Storyville, a district in New Orleans where prostitution was permitted, was shut down to prevent VD transmission to soldiers in nearby army and navy camps.
On January 25, 1917, an anti-prostitution drive in San Francisco attracted huge crowds to public meetings. At one meeting attended by 7,000 people, 20,000 were kept out for lack of room. In a conference with Reverend Paul Smith, an outspoken foe of prostitution, 300 prostitutes made a plea for toleration, explaining they had been forced into the practice by poverty. When Smith asked if they would take other work at $8 to $10 a week, the ladies laughed derisively, which lost them public sympathy. The police closed about 200 houses of prostitution shortly thereafter.
The National Venereal Disease Control Act, which became effective July 1, 1938, authorized the appropriation of federal funds to assist the states in combating venereal diseases. Appropriations under this act were doubled after the United States entered the war.
The May Act, which became law in June 1941, intended to prevent prostitution on restricted zones around military bases. It was invoked chiefly during wartime. See World War II U.S. Military Sex Education.
Mortensen vs. United States, in 1944, ruled that prostitutes could travel across state lines, if the purpose of travel was not for prostitution.
Later decades
Conditions for sex trade workers changed considerably in the 1960s. The combined oral contraceptive pill was first approved in 1960 for contraceptive use in the United States. "The Pill" helped prostitutes prevent pregnancy.
In 1967, New York City eliminated license requirements for massage parlors. Many massage parlors became brothels. In 1970, Nevada began regulation of houses of prostitution. In 1971, the Mustang Ranch became Nevada's first licensed brothel, eventually leading to the legalization of brothel prostitution in 10 of 17 counties within the state. In time, Mustang Ranch became Nevada's largest brothel, with more revenue than all other legal Nevada brothels combined. By World War II, prostitutes had increasingly gone underground as call girls.
In 1971, the New York madam Xaviera Hollander wrote The Happy Hooker: My Own Story, a book that was notable for its frankness at the time, and considered a landmark of positive writing about sex. An early forerunner (1920s-1930s) of Xaviera Hollander's, both as a madam and author, was Polly Adler, whose bestselling book, A House Is Not a Home, was eventually adapted as a film also entitled A House is Not a Home. Carol Leigh, a prostitute's rights activist known as the "Scarlot Harlot," coined the term "Sex worker" in 1978. That same year, the Broadway musical The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas opened. It was based on the real-life Texas Chicken Ranch brothel. The play was the basis for the 1982 film starring Dolly Parton and Burt Reynolds.
COYOTE, formed in 1973, was the first sex worker' rights group in the country. Other sex workers movements later formed, such as FLOP, HIRE, and PUMA.
In 1997, "Hollywood Madam" Heidi Fleiss was convicted in connection with her prostitution ring with charges including pandering and tax evasion. Her ring had numerous wealthy clients. Her original three-year sentence prompted widespread outrage at her harsh punishment, while her customers had not been punished. Earlier, in the 1980s, a member of Philadelphia's social elite, Sydney Biddle Barrows was revealed as a madam in New York City. She became known as the Mayflower Madam.
In 1990, U.S. Representative Barney Frank (D-MA) admitted to paying for sex in 1989. The House of Representatives voted to reprimand him.
21st century
Ted Haggard, former leader of the National Association of Evangelicals, resigned in 2006 after he was accused of soliciting homosexual sex and methamphetamine.
Randall L. Tobias, former Director of U.S. Foreign Assistance and U.S. Agency for International Development Administrator, resigned in 2007 after being accused of patronizing a Washington escort service.
In 2007, U.S. Senator from Louisiana David Vitter acknowledged past transgressions after his name was listed as a client of "D.C. Madam" Deborah Jeane Palfrey's prostitution service in Washington.
Eliot Spitzer resigned as governor of New York in 2008 amid threats of impeachment after news reports alleged he was a client of an international prostitution ring.
In 2009, Rhode Island signed a bill into law making prostitution a misdemeanor. Prior to this law, between 1980 and 2009, Rhode Island was the only U.S. state where prostitution was decriminalized, as long as it was done indoors. (See Prostitution in Rhode Island).
In 2014, due to the stagnant economy in Puerto Rico, the government considered legalizing prostitution. In 2018, economist Robin Hanson suggested that the legalization of prostitution may solve the problem of inceldom, ideology responsible for numerous outbreaks of violence and mass killings throughout the United States.
On April 11, 2018, the United States Congress passed the Stop Enabling Sex Traffickers Act, commonly known as FOSTA-SESTA, which imposed severe penalties on online platforms that facilitated illicit sex work. The effectiveness of the bill has come into question as it has purportedly endangered sex workers and has been ineffective in catching and stopping sex traffickers. Prior to the Act being signed, the Department of Justice seized the website Backpage and charged its founders with money laundering and promotion of prostitution, contributing to major destabilization in the lives of people who trade sex.
On June 16, 2021, Texas governor Greg Abbott signed HB1540, a law which makes paying for sex in the state of Texas a state jail felony punishable up to two years in prison for a first-time offense, in addition to enhanced penalties for recruitment from child care or treatment facilities. Texas is the first state in the United States to make the buying of sex a felony. This law represents a shift from the traditional approach, targeting buyers of sexual services rather than sellers. State representative Senfronia Thompson (D-Houston), the author of the bill, said "We know the demand is the driving force behind human sex trafficking. If we can curb or stamp out the demand end of it, then we can save the lives of numerous persons." The law went into effect on September 1, 2021.
On June 26, 2023, the state of Maine enacted a law that would partially decriminalize the act of prostitution, following the Nordic model; it is currently in effect.
Types of prostitution
Red light districts
Although informal, red light districts can be found in some areas of the country. Since prostitution is illegal, there are no formal brothels, but massage parlors offering prostitution may be found along with street prostitution. Typically, these areas will also have other adult-oriented businesses, often due to zoning, such as strip clubs, sex shops, adult movie theaters, adult video arcades, peep shows, sex shows, and sex clubs.
Street prostitution
Street prostitution is illegal throughout the United States. Street prostitution tends to be clustered in certain areas known for solicitation. For instance, statistics on official arrests from the Chicago Police Department from August 19, 2005, to May 1, 2007, suggest that prostitution activity is highly concentrated: nearly half of all prostitution arrests occur in a tiny one-third of one percent of all blocks in the entire city of Chicago. Street prostitutes who exchange sex for drugs are sometimes known as "strawberries".
A study of violence against women engaged in street prostitution by clinical psychologist and anti-prostitution activist Melissa Farley found that 68% reported having been raped and 82% reported having been physically assaulted.
A variation of street prostitution is that which occurs at truck stops along Interstate highways in rural areas. Called "lot lizards", these prostitutes solicit at truck stop parking lots and may use CB radios to communicate.
In today's society there is a hierarchy amongst prostitutes and an even greater distinction between indoor workers and outdoor workers. The indoor prostitutes occupy the top tier to include independent call girls, and workers in brothels and massage parlors. The outdoor street walkers occupy the lowest level and are more likely to experience abuse.
250 prostitutes, including 150 outdoor workers and 125 indoor workers, were interviewed for a study about victimization. Weitzer, R (2005) noted that indoor workers experienced less harm compared to outdoor workers:
The outdoor prostitutes or streetwalkers are the most recognized sex workers, but they make up a small number of workers. Cunningham & Kendall (2011) report that only 20% of prostitutes work on the streets. The indoor workers have more freedom to choose their clients and set boundaries that contribute to their safety.
Escort or out-call prostitution
In spite of its illegality, escort prostitution exists throughout the United States from both independent prostitutes and those employed through escort agencies. Both freelancers and agencies may advertise under the term "bodywork" in the back of alternative newspapers, although some of these bodywork professionals are straightforward massage professionals.
Typically, an agency will charge its escorts either a flat fee for each client connection or a percentage of the prearranged rate. In San Francisco, it is usual for typical heterosexual-market agencies to negotiate for as little as $100 up to a full 50% of a woman's reported earnings (not counting any gratuity received). Most transactions occur in cash, and optional tipping of escorts by clients in most major U.S. cities is customary but not compulsory. Credit card processing offered by larger scale agencies is often available for a service charge.
Escorts and escort agencies have historically advertised through classified ads, yellow pages advertising, or word-of-mouth, but in more recent years, much of the advertising and soliciting of indoor prostitution has shifted to internet sites. Sites may represent individual escorts, agencies, or may run ads for many escorts. There are also a number of sites in which customers can discuss and post reviews of the sexual services offered by prostitutes and other sex workers. Many sites allow potential buyers to search for sex workers by physical characteristics and types of services offered.
Internet advertising of sexual services is offered not only by specialty sites, but in many cases by more mainstream advertising sites. Craigslist for many years featured an "adult services" section of this kind. After several years of pressure from law enforcement and anti-prostitution groups, Craigslist closed this section in 2010, first for its U.S. pages, then some months later internationally. In March 2018 the personals section of Craigslist was closed down. In 2017, the "Adult" section of Backpage was closed down. Currently, internet advertising is the most important resource for anyone interested in prostitution. There are websites catering to different clientele, from upscale escorts to budget low end.
Brothel prostitution
With the exception of some rural counties of Nevada, brothels are illegal in the United States. Along with these legal brothels in Nevada, commercial sex also occurs. Due to the topic regarding legal prostitution, the rights of these establishments are neglected. Both participants in establishments such as brothels, are subjected to background checks, cleanliness checks, and working licenses at the government's request. Aside from this, many massage parlors, saunas, spas, and similar otherwise-legal establishments serve as fronts for prostitution, especially in larger cities. They tend to be located in cities or along major highways.
Child prostitution
The prostitution of children in the United States is a serious concern. More than 100,000 children are reportedly forced into prostitution in the United States every year.
In 2007, a scholarly article stated an immigration issue pertaining to the difference between underage females committing this crime as citizens and non-citizens stating, "Furthermore, a 14 year old Chinese girl trafficked into the country for use in prostitution would be viewed as a victim and offered a temporary visa, protection, and support services. A 14 year old American girl in Boston arrested for prostitution would be seen as a criminal and may end up in a juvenile facility (Lustig, 2007)."
Legal status
Nevada is the only U.S. jurisdiction to allow some legal prostitution. Currently eight of Nevada's seventeen counties have active brothels (all being rural counties); as of February 2018, there are 21 brothels in Nevada. Prostitution outside the licensed brothels is illegal throughout Nevada. Prostitution is illegal in the major metropolitan areas of Las Vegas, Reno, and Carson City, where most of the population lives; more than 90% of Nevada citizens live in a county where prostitution is illegal.
In addition, it is decriminalized in Maine.
Prostitution in Rhode Island was outlawed in 2009. On November 3, governor Donald Carcieri signed into law a bill which makes the buying and selling of sexual services a crime.
Prostitution was legal in Rhode Island between 1980 and 2009 because there was no specific statute to define the act and outlaw it, although associated activities such as street solicitation, running a brothel and pimping were illegal.
Louisiana is the only state where convicted prostitutes are required to register as sex offenders. The State's crime against nature by solicitation law is used when a person is accused of engaging in oral or anal sex in exchange for money. Only prostitutes prosecuted under this law are required to be registered. This has led to a lawsuit filed by the Center for Constitutional Rights.
The federal government also prosecutes some prostitution offenses. One man who forced women to be prostitutes received a 40-year sentence in federal court. Another was prosecuted for income tax evasion. Another man pleaded guilty to federal charges of harboring a 15-year-old girl and having her work as a prostitute. Another federal defendant got life imprisonment for sex trafficking of a child by force.
The ban on prostitution in the US has been criticized from a variety of viewpoints.
Push for legalization in New York
In 2020, some elected officials introduced bills to legalize prostitution in the state, but those have not received widespread support. The State did however repeal an anti-loitering law that critics argued discouraged street prostitution and targeted transgender people.
Local district attorneys have significant discretion over how to enforce existing prostitutions offenses. In New York City, District Attorneys often dismiss cases after community service is complete. In January 2021, the Brooklyn DA office stated that it will dismiss over a 1,000 warrants based of prostitution in the past 50 years, and erase prostitution in the crime history of over 25,000 people who were convicted of prostitution. Despite this, the issue often comes up in District Attorney elections, such as most recently in Manhattan, where prominent attorneys for the city, notably P. A. Potter the assistant DA for the borough, included an amnesty for sex workers as part of his successful campaign. Some New York District Attorneys have stated their support for the Nordic Model, however this came with backlash from sex worker advocates who oppose the prosecution of buyers.
Statistics on prostitutes and customers
One 1990 study estimated the annual prevalence of full-time equivalent prostitutes in the United States to be 23 per 100,000 population based on a capture–recapture study of prostitutes found in Colorado Springs, CO, police and sexually transmitted diseases clinic records between 1970 and 1988.
A continuation of the Colorado Springs study found a death rate among active prostitutes of 459 per 100,000 person-years, which is 5.9 times that for the (age and race adjusted) general population. Many people view prostitution as a victimless crime, as usually both sides are in agreement. However, many statistics show that it is very physically dangerous. The death rate per 100,000 of prostitutes in the U.S. is nearly double that of Alaskan fishermen.
Among voluntary substance abuse program participants, 41.4% of women and 11.2% of men reported selling prostitution services during the last year (March 2008). In Newark, New Jersey, one report claims 57 percent of prostitutes are reportedly HIV-positive, and in Atlanta, 12 percent of prostitutes are possibly HIV-positive.
A 2004 TNS poll reported 15 percent of all men have paid for sex and 30 percent of single men over age 30 have paid for sex. Over 200 men answered ads placed in Chicago area sex service classifieds for in depth interviews. Of these self-admitted "johns", 83% view buying sex as a form of addiction, 57% suspect that the women they paid were abused as children, and 40% said they are usually intoxicated when they purchase sex.
The prostitution trade in the United States is estimated to generate $14 billion a year. A 2012 report by Fondation Scelles indicated that there were an estimated 1 million prostitutes in the U.S.
John schools
John schools are programs whose mission is the rehabilitation of purchasers of prostitution. A mandated program that is used as treatment for men who have been detained for soliciting sex from prostitutes. This program consists of several therapy sessions and informational meeting regarding legal actions, the dangers, and lasting outcomes that may take place as a result of soliciting sex from a prostitute. In the first 12 years of the ongoing program, now denominated the "First Offender Prostitution Program", the recidivism rate of offenders was reduced from 8% to less than 5%. Since 1995, similar programs have been implemented in more than 40 communities in the US, including Washington, D.C.; West Palm Beach, Florida; Buffalo and Brooklyn, New York; and Los Angeles, California. An audit in 2009 of the first john school in San Francisco, California by the budget analysts of the City faulted the program with poorly defined objectives and absence of a method to determine its efficacy. Despite being touted as a national model for which taxpayers pay nothing, the audit stated that the program did not fully cover its expenses in each of the preceding 5 years, which resulted in a deficit of $270,000.
Sex trafficking
Sex trafficking includes the transportation of persons by means of coercion, deception and/or force into exploitative and slavery-like conditions, and is commonly associated with organized crime.
It has been estimated that two-thirds of trafficking victims in the United States are US citizens. Most victims who are foreign-born come into the US legally, on various visas. State Department estimated that between 15,000 and 50,000 women and girls are trafficked each year into the United States.
The measures against trafficking of women focus on harsher criminal legislation and punishments, and improving international police cooperation. There are vast media campaigns which are designed to be informative to the public, as well as policy makers and potential victims.
See also
Male prostitution
Prostitution in American Samoa
Prostitution in California
Prostitution in Guam
Prostitution in Hawaii
Prostitution in Nevada
Prostitution in Rhode Island
References
Further reading
Blackburn, George M., and Sherman L. Ricards. "The prostitutes and gamblers of Virginia City, Nevada: 1870." Pacific Historical Review 48.2 (1979): 239–258. online
Best, Joel. "Careers in Brothel Prostitution: St. Paul, 1865-1883," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 22 (1982), 597–619. online
Blackman, Kayla. "Public power, private matters: The American Social Hygiene Association and the policing of sexual health in the Progressive era." (MA Thesis, University of Montana, 2014). online
Butler, Anne M. Daughters of joy, sisters of misery: prostitutes in the American West, 1865-90 (University of Illinois Press, 1987).
Clement, Elizabeth Alice. Love for Sale: Courting, Treating, and Prostitution in New York City, 1900-1945 (U of North Carolina Press, 2006). online
Connelly, Mark Thomas. The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (U of North Carolina Press, 1980). online
Donovan, Brian. White Slave Crusades: Race, Gender, and Anti-vice Activism, 1887-1917 (U of Illinois Press, 2005)
Hobson, Barbara Meil. Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (1987). online
James, Ronald Michael, and C. Elizabeth Raymond, eds. Comstock women: the making of a mining community (U of Nevada Press, 1998).
McNamara, Robert P. The Times Square Hustler: Male Prostitution in New York City (1994) online
Pivar, David J. Purity and Hygiene: Women, Prostitution, and the "American Plan," 1900-1930 (Greenwood Press, 2002).
Ringdal, Nils Johan. Love for sale: A world history of prostitution (Grove/Atlantic, Inc., 2007).
Rosen, Ruth. The Lost Sisterhood: Prostitution in America, 1900-1918 (Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1983).
Spude, Catherine Holder. Saloons, Prostitutes, and Temperance in Alaska Territory (U of Oklahoma Press, 2015).
Weitzer, Ronald. Legalizing Prostitution: From Illicit Vice to Lawful Business (2012) online
West, Elliott. "Scarlet West: The oldest profession in the trans-Mississippi West." Montana: The Magazine of Western History 31.2 (1981): 16–27.
External links
Crime in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CID%20%28Indian%20TV%20series%29
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CID (Indian TV series)
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CID is an Indian police procedural television series originally aired on Sony Entertainment Television from 1998 to 2018. The series was created by B. P. Singh and stars Shivaji Satam as ACP Pradyuman, Aditya Srivastava as Sr. Inspector Abhijeet, Dayanand Shetty as Sr. Inspector Daya, Dinesh Phadnis as Inspector Fredricks aka Freddy and Narendra Gupta as Forensic expert Dr. Salunkhe respectively.
The location of CID is set in Mumbai. The series aired for 20 years on Sony Entertainment Television and is one of the longest-running television series in India. The series first premiered on 21 January 1998 and aired its 500th episode on 18 January 2008, 1000th episode on 13 September 2013, 1500th episode on 25 February 2018 and the last episode on 27 October 2018.
Cast
Main
Shivaji Satam as ACP Pradyuman (1998–2018). Initially referred as Sr. Inspector Pradyuman in the first few episodes after which he got a promotion to ACP in episode "The Case of the Thief Within – I" and had been referred to ACP Pradyuman since.
Dinesh Phadnis as Inspector Fredricks aka Freddy (1998–2018). He first appeared in episode "Kissa Raat Ke Shikhar Ka – I", but his role as Sub-Inspector started in episode "The Case of the Third Man – I" where he was initially referred as Sub Inspector Prince/Michael but referred as Fredricks from episode "The Case of the Last Five Minutes – I".
Ashutosh Gowariker as Sr. Inspector Virendra (1998–1999). He first appeared in episode "The Case of the Thief Within – I". His last episode in the show was episode "The Case of Missing Fugitive – II". He was transferred.
Dayanand Shetty as Sr. Inspector Daya (1998–2018). He first appeared in episode "The Case of the Anonymous Threats – I" as Sub Inspector Daya. He is referred to as Senior Inspector Daya in later episodes.
Narendra Gupta as Dr. R. P. Salunkhe (1998–2003, 2005, 2007–2018). He made his debut in the episode "The Case of the Incomplete Letter", where he was initially referred to as Dr. Verma but referred to as Dr. Salunkhe from episode "The Case of the Burnt Letter – I".
Aditya Srivastava as Sr. Inspector Abhijeet (1998, 1999–2018). He first appeared as character named 'Paresh', who stole ACP's gun in episode "The Case of the Stolen Gun". His role as Inspector Abhijeet started in the episode "The Case of the Stolen Dynamite – I".
Recurring
Afshan Khan as Sub-Inspector Mridula (1998). She first appeared in episode "Case of the Thief Within – I".
Ashwini Kalsekar as Sub-Inspector Asha (1998–2004). She first appeared in the episode "The Case of Second Statement – I". Her last episode was episode "Case of the Dazed Man – II".
Dhananjay Mandrekar as Sub-Inspector Sudhakar (1998–2005). He appeared as Sub Inspector Bhonsale in starting episodes but after episode 35 he was referred as Sub Inspector Sudhakar. He was last seen in episode "The Case of the Stolen Ring – I".
Vaquar Shaikh as Inspector Jeet (1998). He appeared in episode "The Case of the Contract Killer"
Sanjay Shemkalyanee as Sub-Inspector Desai (1998)
Manoj Verma as Sub-Inspector Shinde (1998)
Dilip Kulkarni as DCP Dipankar Deshmukh (1998–2002). He was first seen in episode 7 and was last seen on episode The Case of the Invisible Bullet- II
Shweta Kanoje as Neha (1998)
Sanjeev Seth as Sub-Inspector Sanjeev (1998). He first appeared in episode "The Case of the Anonymous Threats – I". Additionally, he also appeared as a case victim named Sanjeev in episode "The Case of The Red Cloth – I".
Tushar Dalvi as Inspector Jayant (1999). He first appeared in episode "The Case of Cross Connection – I". He was last seen in episode "The Case Of Stolen Dynamite – ll".
Mouli Ganguly as Dr. Amrita (2002). She appeared as junior Forensic Doctor in episode "The Case Of the Invisible Bullet – I" when Dr. Salunkhe was accused by ACP for hiding the bullet used in the murder.
Shweta Kawatra as Dr. Niyati Pradhan (2003, 2005–2007). Her first episode was episode "The Case of Nailing the Suspect – I". She was last seen in episode "The Case of Perfect Murder".
Mandeep Bhandar as Dr. Vrinda Wagle (2003–2004). Her first episode was episode "The Case of the Red Rain – l". Her last episode was "The Case of the Dazed Man – II".
Mona Ambegaonkar as Dr. Anjalika Deshmukh (2004–2005) Her first episode was episode "Case of the Invisible Bomb – I". She was last seen in episode "Murder By Marriage – I".
Rahil Azam as Nakul Pradyuman alias Rajeev (2004–2005, 2015) ACP Pradyuman's criminal son first seen in episode "Murders at Sunrise – II" and killed by Pradyuman in episode "Trail in London – III".
Manav Gohil as Inspector Daksh (2004–2005) His first episode as a cop was "Trust Me – Trust Me Not – I". His last episode was "Trail in London – II". He was killed by Nakul.
Smita Bansal as Inspector Aditi (2004–2005) Her first episode was "The Case of the Haunted Building – I". Her last episode was "Mad Bomber – II". She died in the episode.
Surendra Pal as DCP (2005). His first episode was "The Case of the Killer Lake – l". He was last seen in episode "Face Off – lll".
Kavita Kaushik as Sub-Inspector Anushka (2005–2006). She appeared in episodes "Trail in London" (all parts) as a Central Intelligence Sub-Inspector who secretly helps ACP Pradyuman. She enters CID in episode "Poison In The Nail – l". Her last episode was "Secret of the Code No. 571E1115".
Sai Deodhar as Sub-Inspector Priyanka (2005) Her first episode was "Case of the Dead Waiter – I". Her last episode was "Trail in London – lll"
Rajeev Khandelwal as ACP Prithviraj (2005, 2007) He appeared as the ACP in episodes: "Face Off – lll & lV" and "Trail in London" (all parts) when ACP Pradyuman was in London for the investigation. He was also in the episode "The Case of the Missing Bride" as himself.
B. P. Singh (2005–2016) His first appearance was as DIG Shamsher Singh in the episode "Face Off-lll". After a long time he appears as DCP Shamsher Singh Chitrole, the senior of the CID team and also an egoistic man who is also quite funny sometimes. He was a friend of ACP Pradyuman in college.
Vivek Mashru as Sub-Inspector Vivek (2006–2012). His first episode was "The Case of the Killer Eyes". He was last seen in episode "Rahasyamay Bullet – III".
Amar Upadhyay as Inspector Rishi (2006). He appeared as an inspector in episode "Murder in the Safety Vault". He joined the CID in that episode when he came to Mumbai for spend holidays. He was also seen as a supporting character named Harry in episode "Return of the Clown".
Priya Wal as Dr. Nyla Rajadhyaksha (2006–2007). Her first episode was "The Case of the Killer Statues". Her last episode was "The Case of the Dangerous Lady".
Alka Verma as Sub-Inspector Muskaan (2006–2007). Her first episode was episode "Red Rose Killer". "The Case of Inspector Daya's Abduction" was her last episode. She was transferred.
Shraddha Musale as Dr. Tarika (2007–2018). Her debut episode was "The Don's Final Revenge".
Megha Gupta as Sub-Inspector Devyana (2007–2008) Her first episode was "The Don's Final Revenge" and she played her character till episode 492 "Mystery Of A Train Passenger". But then she was not seen again for 11 consecutive episodes and officially her last episode was "Bhoot Bangala" (503).
Parinita Seth as Sub-Inspector Kaveri (2008). She first appeared as Shreya in episode "The Great Diamond Robbery" and as Rohini in episode "The "Curse of the Rose Queen", but as a cop her first appearance was in Episode "Khoon Bhari Holi", recruited by ACP Pradyuman through interview. In Episode 524 she was revealed to have gone for a Special Training in Delhi. But she made a comeback in episode "Triangular Bullet's Mystery". Her last episode was "Khooni Goli Ka Rahasya".
Jimmy Kunal Nanda as Sub-Inspector Lavanya (2008–2009) She was first seen spying on the CID team in episode "Khoon Bhari Holi". She was revealed as the new CID officer in episode "Katil Kaun Dohri Uljhan". She was last seen in episode "Students Mass Murderer".
Vaishnavi Dhanraj as Sub-Inspector Tasha Kumar (2009–2010). She first appeared as an episodic character named Nathalia in episode "Qaatil Dank". Her first episode as a CID cop was episode "Anjaan Laash". Her last episode was Episode "Khatre Mein Tasha" in which she dies.
Hrishikesh Pandey as Inspector Sachin (2010–2016). He first appeared in episode "Khooni Deewar" as an undercover CID cop under the alias Siddharth, but in middle of the episode CID team finds out that he is an undercover. Later he is introduced by ACP as Inspector Sachin in episode "Maut ka Aashirwad". He was last seen in episode "Bank Robbery". Also in CID Special Bureau, he played the role of Inspector Abhimanyu.
Jasveer Kaur as Sub-Inspector Kajal (2010–2012). She was first seen as a contract killer in episode "The Case of the Mysterious Gift" and a drug seller in episode "The Case of the Talking Parrot". Her first episode as a cop was episode "Maut Ka Aashirwad". Her last episode was "Khoon Ka Deewana".
Manini Mishra as Dr. Sonali Barwe (2010–2011) She was first seen as an actress Kushi in episode "The Secret of the Deadly Chest" and fashion designer Menka in episode "Zehrily Dress". Her first episode as a forensic expert was "Rahasyamayi Darwaza".
Abhay Shukla as Inspector Nikhil (2010–2016). His first appearance as a reporter "Traitors in CID". Next seen as security guard Ishaan in episode "Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai" (641) and a shopkeeper in episode "Bhutiya Ladki Ka Raaz" (655). He also played a negative role in his own name Abhay in the episode "AKAKR part-9". His first episode as a CID cop was episode "Qatl Ka Raaz Mare Hue Qatl Ke Paas". He was last seen in episode 1348 "Raaz Machli Ka".
Ansha Sayed as Sub-Inspector Purvi (2011–2018). She was first seen as episodic character named Chandha in episode "Case of the Double Identity", Khushi in episode "Case of the Bomb Robbery", Pallavi in episode "7 Days to Die" and Pamela in episode "The Gift". Her first episode as Sub-Inspector Purvi was episode "Kissa Paagal Ashiq Kaa".
Janvi Chheda as Sub-Inspector Shreya (2012–2016, 2018). She made her debut in episode "Raaz Sar Aur Haath Ka" where she was introduced along with Sub-Inspector Vineet. She was last seen in episode "Maut Ka Hathoda". She returned as an Intelligence Bureau Inspector in episodes 1491 and 1492.
Vikas Kumar as Sr. Inspector Rajat (2012–2013). He joined in Episode "Khooni Paani". He was last seen in episode "Ped Ka Rahasya".
Ajay Nagrath as Sub-Inspector Pankaj (2012–2018). He made his debut in the episode "CID Par Grahan – III".
Vineet Kumar Chaudhary as Sub-Inspector Vineet (2012–2013). His first episode was "Raaz Sar Aur Haath Ka" where he was introduced along with Sub-Inspector Shreya. His last seen in episode "Raaz Teen Laashon Ka".
Neha Gadoria as Trainee Officer Roma (2012) Her first episode was episode "Khoon Khabri Ka". She died in Episode "Khatre Mein CID Officer – II" due to being kidnapped and overflow of blood.
Saanand Verma as Lab Assistant (2012)
Maninder Singh as Inspector Dushyant Hemraj (2014). His first episode was episode "Bus Hijack – l". His last episode was episode "Kulhaadi Ka Raaz".
Gaurav Khanna as Inspector Kavin (2014). His first episode was episode "Bus Hijack – ll". His last episode was episode "Band Kamre Mein Laash".
Tanya Abrol as Sub-Inspector Jaywanti Shinde (2014–2016) Her first episode was episode "Action Jackson". She was last seen in episode "Bank Robbery".
Tarun Khanna as Inspector Suraj (2012–2013). He was first appeared as supporting character named Rohan in episode "Gawah Bana Shikaar" and Rajveer in episode "Case of the Hotel Murder Mystery". His first episode as cop was "CID Par Grahan – III". He was last seen in episode "Raaz Haddiyo Ki Crockery Ka".
Deepak Shirke as ACP Digvijay (2012–2013). He was brought in CID by DCP Chitrole as the new ACP in place of Pradyuman in episodes: "CID Par Grahan – ll, lll, lV". It was later revealed that he committed a crime long ago.
Jagjit Athwal as Sub-Inspector Vansh (2014–2016). His first episode was "Mumbai Ki Chawl Ka Rahasya – l".
KK Goswami as Dhenchu (2013–2014, 2016–2018) He is an informer introduced by DCP Chitrole in episode "CID Ke Chhote Fans" of CID Chhote Heroes.
Ankur Sharma Kabir as Sub-Inspector Karan (2014–2015). His first episode as a cop was "Mumbai Ki Chawl Ka Rahasya – l".
Vikas Salgotra as Sub-Inspector Mayur (2014–2016). His first episode was "Mumbai Ki Chawl Ka Rahasya – l".
Pooja Khatri as Sub-Inspector Ishita (2014–2016). Her first episode was "Mumbai Ki Chawl Ka Rahasya – l". She was last seen in "Karo Ya Maro – III".
Amaani Satrala as Sub-Inspector Divya (2014–2015). Her first episode was "Mumbai Ki Chawl Ka Rahasya – l". She was last seen in "Badle Ki Aag"
Abid Shaikh as Sub-Inspector Vikram (2014). His first episode was "Mumbai Ki Chawl Ka Rahasya – l".
Kuldeep Singh as Dr. Vaibhav (2014). He appeared as junior forensic doctor. His first episode was "Mumbaicha Dabbawala".
Vivana Singh as Cyber Inspector Ritu (2017–2018)
Yagya Bhasin as Arjun (2018) Nakul's son, ACP Pradyuman's grandson
Manoj Ramola as Ashok (2018)
Shweta Salve as Supervisor Sheetal (2018). She appeared as a supervisor who monitors the CID team in episodes "Rahasyamai Gavah". She died in episode 1544 to save lives of many people against a mysterious weapon.
Guest
Sahil Chadha as Ajay Sethia (1998)
Milind Gawali as Sailesh (1998), Alok (1999), Devdhar (1999), Anupam (2002), Kuber (2003), Shyaman (2004)
Girish Sonar as Tipnis (1998), Reporter Raghu (1999)
Mohan Gokhale as Suvarna (1998), Kavi (1999)
Achyut Potdar as Kundan Seth (1998)
Anant Jog as Adv. Jagtap, Shashank (1998), Chandresh (2006)
Madan Jain as Naveen Kumar (1999)
Pavan Malhotra as Jeevan (1999)
Rajesh Khera as Jagdish (1999), Mangal (2000), Dushyant (2000), Dr Alok (2001), Badshah (2001), Johnny (2002), Kedar (2002), Rajiv (2004), Film Director (2004), Dance Choreographer (2004), Jaan (2006), Vishwajeet (2006)
Akshay Anand as Bharat Saxena (1999), Rajeev (2004)
Manav Kaul as Neeraj (2000), Vikrant's brother (2000), Kantora (2003), Suraj (2006).
Shrivallabh Vyas as CBI Officer Shamsher (2000), Baldev (2001), Dr. Sahil (2001), DIG Baldev Raj (2002), Retd. Judge Raja Rao (2005), Lalchand (2007), Mr.Trout (2007), Jeevan Das (2007)
Manoj Joshi as Ranjan (2000), Drug lord (2000), Mahesh (2002), Dr Kanu (2002)
Adi Irani as Deepak (2001), Radio Manager Raman (2006), Tejpal (2016)
Nawazuddin Siddiqui as Alex (2001) (episode 157–158)
Prem Chopra as Raj (2001)
Om Puri as Sunder alias ACP Jose Santos in episode "The Case of the Counterfeit Cop".(2001)
Sanjay Mishra as Rajesh (2001)
Kashmera Shah as Kinneri (2001)
Milind Gunaji as Johnny (2001)
Sarita Joshi as Advocate Suhasini (2001)
Sanjay Batra as Vinay (2001)
Mushtaq Khan as Bacchu (2001)
Madhukar Toradmal as Business man Gupta, victim's father
Dinesh Hingoo as Builder Chunnilal (2001)
Gufi Paintal as Chander (2001)
Viju Khote as Judge (2002), Deaf man (2006)
Bhagyashree as Nupur (2001)
Shishir Sharma as Kumar, Arjun (1998), Shailesh (1998)
Arif Zakaria as Chandan (2002)
Deepak Qazir as Taxi Driver (2000)
Kapil Dev as himself in episode "Howzzat?" (2003)
Sudhir as Dr Kailash / Jinjaar/ Mr. Eliott (2003)
Ananya Khare as Shilpa (2002), Sunita (2004)
Rajesh Khattar as Pramod (2000), Rajesh (2006)
Bhairavi Raichura as Reshma (2005)
Abhijeet Sawant as himself (2005)
Sadashiv Amrapurkar as Subbu (2005)
Baba Sehgal as himself (2006)
Mandira Bedi as Reshma (2001), Saagrika (2005)
Bharat Kapoor as Sudhakar (1998) and Intelligence Officer Raman Kapoor (2002)
Kunika as Rakhi (2001)
Rajiv Paul as Jeevan (2000)
Murli Sharma as Giri (2000), Govinda(2005), Contract killer(2006), Dr O (2007)
Shahbaz Khan as Karan (2006), Don (2007)
Paintal as mute man (2006)
Deepshika Nagpal as Lavanya Daneka a Tarot Card Reader Ep: Maut Ka Saudagar, Vyoma, Sudeep's Wife, Ep430:The Invisible Eye Witness (2006)
Shilpa Shinde as Sheetal in "The Case of Mysterious Shadows" (2006)
Vishal Kotian as RJ Sunny (2006)
Melissa Pais as Alice in episode: Murder in FM 97.1 (2006)
Mihir Mishra as KeniRaj in "Body in the Suitcase". (2006)
Dalljeit Kaur as Reshma/Neha E in "Body in the Suitcase" (2006), Sreeja in "The Invisible Eye Witness". (2006)
Narayani Shastri as Sunanda, Abhijeet's Friend Parthav's Wofer in "he Mysterious Gift". (2006)
Salman Khan as himself (2009) in (Episode 583) and (2014) in (Episode ?)
R. Madhavan as himself (2009) in (Episode 556)
Avantika Shetty as Mansi(2009) in Students Mass Murder, as Ruhi(2009) in Bhoola bhutka
Sajid Khan as himself (2009)
Mahek Chahal as herself (2009)
Rituraj Singh as Deven, Hiten (2009)
Inder Kumar as himself (2009)
Sarfaraz Khan as himself (2009)
Yami Gautam as Ananya (2010) (episode 642, "Girl in Coffin")
Lavanya Tripathi as Sakshi in the case 'Maut ka Ashirvad' (Episode 619) (2010)
Nikhil Guharoy as Vijay (2009), Aman (2009), Anuj (2010), Sid (2011), Nitin (2011), Kunal (2012), Rishi (2013), Dr. Harshit (2013), Arun (2013), Hardik (2014), Sarthak, Randhir, Sundar and Vikram. He also appeared in "Maut ka Ashirwad" (2010) and "Aakhri Chunauti" (2010) as Sub-Inspector Kajal's brother Rahul Kumar.
Mahesh Manjrekar as H.D. (Harpez Dongara) (2010) He acted as a dangerous criminal who kidnapped all the CID officers and forensic experts and left India. Later in episode 664 Abhijeet shot him and he died.
Dino Morea as Nitin (2010), himself (2011)
Emraan Hashmi as himself (2010), Director Abraham (2011) and Raghuram "Raghu" Rathore aka Mr. X (2015).
Sonalika Prasad as Sheela in "Jhagdalu Aurat" (2015).
Prachi Desai as herself (2010).
Ronit Roy as K.D Pathak from Adaalat (2010, 2012, 2014)
Rani Mukerji as herself (2011)
Shaji Choudhary as Gangster (2003), Trilok (2008), Heera (2009), Nibo, Goga (2011), Shera, Vikram, Mewaram (2012)
Aamir Khan as Senior Inspector Surjan Singh Shekhawat (2012)
Kareena Kapoor Khan as herself (2012)
Akshay Kumar as Shiva (2012) and as Rowdy Rathore (2012).
Sonakshi Sinha as Paro (2012), herself (2013)
Imran Khan as himself (2013)
Akanksha Puri as Nandita Menon (2015)
Sunny Deol as Saranjeet Singh Talwar aka Singh Saab (2013) and Ajay Mehra (2016)
Chandan Madan as Akhil/Tez/Sumeet/Samrat/Manav/Sameer (2011–2018)
Dilip Joshi as Jethalal Champaklal Gada from Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (2014)
Disha Vakani as Daya Jethalal Gada from Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (2014)
Gurucharan Singh as Roshan Singh Harjeet Singh Sodhi from Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (2014)
Shyam Pathak as Patrakaar Popatlal from Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (2014)
Munmun Dutta as Babita Krishnan Iyer from Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (2014)
Mandar Chandwadkar as Aatmaram Tukaram Bhide from Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah (2014)
Jimmy Sheirgill as Vishnu Sharma (2014)
Anu Malik as himself (2014)
Jas Arora as Sunny / Pathan
Jackky Bhagnani as Abhimanyu Kaul (2014)
Govinda as Armaan (2014)
Saif Ali Khan as Yudi Jaitely (2014)
Tusshar Kapoor as Vikash Singh (2014)
Shraddha Kapoor as herself (Episode 1094) (2014)
Sidharth Malhotra as himself (Episode 1094) (2014)
Sunny Leone as Ragini (2014)
Thakur Anoop Singh as Daya (2014) in episode: Daya v/s Daya
Varun Dhawan as himself (2015) in episode : Varun Dhawan Khatre Mein
Shah Rukh Khan as himself (2015)
Sushant Singh Rajput as Byomkesh Bakshi (2015)
Anand Tiwari as Ajit Kumar Bandhopadhyay (2015)
Diganth as himself (2015)
Rahul Dev as Katori Damta. He played the negative role in Karo Ya Maro story arc. (2016)
Gauri Tonk as Dolly Harpez Dongara, wife of Harpez Dongara taking revenge from Abhijeet for Harpez's death in the Karo Ya Maro story arc. (2016)
Abbas–Mustan as themselves (2017)
Kiara Advani as herself (2017)
Tigmanshu Dhulia as Barbosa, Leader of The Eye Gang (2018)
CID: Special Bureau cast (2004–2006)
Anup Soni as ACP Ajatshatru
Salil Ankola as Sr. Inspector Akshay
Nimai Bali as Sr. Inspector Pratap
Hrishikesh Pandey as Inspector Abhimanyu
Sushmita Daan as Inspector Jasmine Prakash
Manasi Varma as Inspector Tejali Krutia
Sharad Kelkar as Inspector Jehan
Mahi as Inspector Gargi
Mugdha Godbole as Inspector Akanksha
Amita Chandekar as Inspector Ashwini
Sachin Sharma as Inspector Samar
Kushal Punjabi as Inspector Kushal
Ravindra Mankani as Dr. Bharadwaj
Shweta Kawatra as Dr. Niyati Pradhan
Dilip Joshi as Bob
unknown as Ishika, A.C.P. Ajatshatru's adopted daughter
Yash Tonk as Billa, Ishika's biological father
Manav Kaul as Yashwant
CID 111 – The Inheritance
Kay Kay Menon as Vinod Sagar
Rajendranath Zutshi as Johnson
Avinash Wadhawan as Kishore
Kruttika Desai as Ketki
Mukesh Rawal as Vishwanath
Kunal Tavri as Kapil
Seema Pandey as Sharmila
Swati Anand as Susheela
Sharmilee Raj as Reena
Swati Mitra as Loveleen
Jaydutt Vyas as Bhargav
Shahid Khan as Raghu
Tirthesh Thakkar
Mayur Bhavsar
Episode list
Running time of episodes from 1 to 404 is around 20 minutes and from episodes 405 to 1547 is approximately 43 minutes or on an average.
CID 111 – The Inheritance
CID got into both the Limca Book of Records and the Guinness Book of World Records on 7 November 2004 for its record-breaking single shot episode of 111 minutes (1 hour and 51 minutes), entitled "The Inheritance" without a cut which writer – director – producer B. P. Singh feels "every Indian should be proud of because no one has achieved this before".
CID Chhote Heroes Episodes
CID: Special Bureau – Episodes
Production
Filming
CID is primarily shot in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. During the long course of the show, the series has been shot in various locations all over India. The series has also been shot in foreign countries. Some Foreign locations have included places like Uzbekistan, a major shoot in Paris, and Switzerland which included tourist attractions like Interlaken as well as cities such as Berne and Zurich. The major shoot in Paris–Switzerland was for the 2 hourly special episode "Aakhri Chunauti", and a part of the production team's 13th anniversary celebration plan.
Cancellation
The show was decided to end suddenly by the channel and on 27 October 2018, the last episode was aired. Rumours of the show getting cancelled was going rounds while the official statement by the channel stated the show will go off air for three months to give the producers enough time to reboot it. Further it was reported that "CID is not wrapping up. But it is going on a short break and that's only for a creative reason. The makers haven't received any closure letter from the channel that proves that they are still in contract with them. The break has been decided mutually by the makers and channel as they want to reboot the show." But no announcement of it returning was made since then. Actor Dayanand Shetty who played Daya quoted that the show would not return after this break saying, "No, I don't think it's coming back. I doubt it's coming back. There can't be a break. It's just a convenient way of killing the show."
Other initiatives
On 7 July 2006, a nationwide talent hunt show called Operation Talaash was launched in search of a new officer to join the CID team. This concluded on 1 September 2006, with Vivek V. Mashru being chosen to play Sub-Inspector Vivek.
Sony Entertainment Television had launched CID: Gallantry Awards, an initiative to encourage and honour acts of bravery in society on 26 January 2010 Republic Day. The second edition of this initiative was aired on 23 January 2011. The third and fourth editions were aired on 1 April 2012 and 14 April 2013 respectively.
On 10 July 2015; Sony TV announced the Shaatir Lekhak Contest, in which 3 incomplete stories and clues were presented. Contestants were required to complete any one story out of three. The contest ended on 26 July 2015. The winning story appeared in episodes and prizes were also given to the winner. From the total entries, 3 winners were selected, one for each story. The result for the winners were declared during one of the episodes of CID prior to 1 September 2015.
Crossovers
CID had three crossover episodes with the series Aahat, once on 13 & 14 November 2009; second time on 12 & 13 February 2010 and third time on 25 & 26 June 2010.
It also had crossover episodes with Adaalat, once on 3 & 4 December 2010; second time on 14 & 15 July 2012 titled CID Viruddh Adaalat and third time on 20 December 2014 titled CID V/s Adaalat – Karmyudh.
It also had a crossover with Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah titled Mahasangam, it started and ended in July 2014.
Reception
It entered in both Guinness Book of World records and Limca Book of Records for uncut shooting for 111 minutes for the episode named "The Inheritance" during October 2004.
Critical response
Rediff gave the series 4.5 / 5 stars, and stated, "Much of the credit for CID's success should go to Singh, and its cast, especially Shivaji Satam who plays ACP Pradyuman". It stated, "Its actors, or at least the core of the cast who have been a part of the series since its inception are so popular they have become household names." Rahul Hegde of Rediff giving the same ratings stated, "The crime detective series is still going strong".
The Times of India stated, "CID which has constantly entertained its viewers with unique and challenging cases is also known for its different jokes in the world of internet."
Accolades
Adaptations
A spin-off CID – Special Bureau, a series about the special branch of CID which deals with cases that were left unsolved for many years aired from 2004 to 2006. Another spin-off, CID – Chhote Heroes in which kids solve crimes with the help of CID aired in 2013.
A Bengali-language adaptation of CID known as C.I.D. Kolkata Bureau aired on Sony Aath from 2012–2014.
CID - The Game, a mobile video game developed by Vroovy (a joint venture of Hungama and Gameshastra) was developed as a tie-in to the TV series. CID Heroes - Super Agent Run, a running mobile video game has been released by Zapak and features the characters of Abhijeet, Daya and Pradyuman.
See also
List of programs broadcast by Sony Entertainment Television
Midsomer Murders– A British series featuring UK CID
References
External links
CID episodes On Sony LIV
1998 Indian television series debuts
2000s Indian television series
Hindi-language television shows
Television shows set in Mumbai
Indian action television series
Indian crime television series
Detective television series
Sony Entertainment Television original programming
Sony Pictures Networks India franchises
Police procedural television series
Fictional portrayals of police departments in India
2018 Indian television series endings
Television shows adapted into video games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20multilingual%20countries%20and%20regions
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List of multilingual countries and regions
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This is an incomplete list of areas with either multilingualism at the community level or at the personal level.
There is a distinction between social and personal bilingualism. Many countries, such as Belarus, Belgium, Canada, Finland, India, Ireland, South Africa and Switzerland, which are officially multilingual, may have many monolinguals in their population. Officially monolingual countries, on the other hand, such as France, can have sizable multilingual populations. Some countries have official languages but also have regional and local official languages, notably Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, Spain and Taiwan.
Africa
Central Africa
Cameroon: French and English (both official), as well as Cameroonian Pidgin. Many ethnic and tribal languages including Basaa, Duala, Manenguba, Bikya, Bung, Fula, Kanuri, Ngumba, Yeni, Bamum, Bafia, Bakweri language and many others. Some also have fluency in the German, Portuguese and Spanish languages.
Central African Republic: French & Sango (both official) and 50 other African languages.
Chad: French and Arabic (both official) + more than 100 African languages.
Democratic Republic of the Congo: French (official) + Lingala, Kongo, Swahili & Tshiluba (national languages) + 238 other languages.
Equatorial Guinea: Spanish, French and Portuguese are the official languages of the country. Fang, Bube, Igbo, Pidgin English, Annobonese are also spoken.
Republic of the Congo: French (official), Lingala and Kituba national languages plus other dialects, including Kikongo and Kituba.
East Africa
Burundi: Kirundi (national and official), French and English (both official).
Kenya: English (official), Swahili (national and official) and 100+ other languages (Bantu, Nilotes, Cushites, Indians).
Rwanda: French, English, Swahili and Kinyarwanda (co-official; Kinyarwanda is also a national language).
Seychelles: French, English & Seychellois Creole are official.
Tanzania: Swahili is the national language and English and many other indigenous languages. Swahili and English are de facto official languages and Arabic is spoken in Zanzibar.
Uganda: English (official), Swahili (second official), Arabic, Luganda, other Bantu and. Nilo-Saharan languages.
Horn of Africa
Djibouti: French and Arabic (official) plus Somali (official) & Afar.
Eritrea: Tigrinya, Arabic and English are predominantly used in commerce and government affairs. The use and development of nine Eritrean languages (Tigrinya, Bilen, Afar, Saho, Rashaida, Tigre, Kunama, Nara and Hidarib) is encouraged at the local level and children attend primary school through the fifth grade in their mother tongue. Italian is an additional language spoken in commerce.
Ethiopia: The federal working language is Amharic. At a regional level, working languages are Tigrigna in Tigray, Afarigna in Afar, Afaan Oromoo in Oromia, Somali in Somali region, Harari in Harari region
Somalia: Somali (official) and Arabic ("second language" official). plus English and Italian (foreign languages)
North Africa
Algeria: Classic Arabic and Amazigh (both official and national language in the constitution) plus Algerian Arabic and French (in media, education and business).
Egypt: Arabic (official), Coptic, Egyptian Arabic, English and French.
Libya: Arabic (official), Amazigh, Tamahaq, Italian and English.
Mauritania: Arabic (official and national), French, Poular, Soninke, and Wolof (national).
Morocco: Arabic and Amazigh (co-official). Moroccan Arabic, Hassaniya (present in the media), French (its wide use in education is legally established), Spanish.
Western Sahara (under Moroccan control): Hassaniya, Berber, Moroccan Arabic, Spanish and French.
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (in exile): Arabic (official) and Spanish (official) and French.
Sudan: Arabic and English (official working languages) plus indigenous African languages.
South Sudan: Arabic, English and other indigenous languages.
Tunisia: Modern Standard Arabic (official), Tunisian Arabic, French, Berber language, and English language.
Southern Africa
Angola: Portuguese (official language), Cokwe, Kikongo, Oshiwambo, Umbundu, Kimbundu and 32 additional indigenous African languages
Botswana: English, Tswana, Kalanga, Khoi, Herero, Afrikaans, Nama, San, Ndebele, Sign language, and 21 others.
Comoros: Comorian, French (official) and Arabic.
Eswatini (Swaziland): English and Swati.
Lesotho: English and Sotho.
Madagascar: French and Malagasy.
Malawi: Chewa (de facto language of national identity) and English (statutory national working language). Both are official.
Mauritius: English (official, national), French (administrative, national), Mauritian Creole (lingua franca), Hindi, Mandarin, Tamil, Telugu, Hakka, Urdu, Marathi, Bhojpuri and Arabic.
Mozambique: Portuguese (official language) and 43 additional indigenous African languages
Namibia: English (official), German, Afrikaans, and Ovambo (recognised regional languages)
South Africa: Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Sotho, Swazi, Tswana, Tsonga, Venda, Xhosa, Zulu (co-official), sign language, Khoi, Nama and San (the languages, which the government is obliged to promote and to create conditions for their development).
Zambia: English (official), Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga, Lozi, Lunda, Kaonde, Luvale, Ila, Mambwe, Namwanga, Tumbuka, Aushi, Lenje, Lala and Lamba, and 57 others (72 in total).
Zimbabwe: Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa (officially recognised).
West Africa
Benin: French (official) and many indigenous languages including Fon, Yoruba & Songhay (specifically Dendi).
Burkina Faso: French (official), Moore and Jula (regional languages) and indigenous Sudanic languages.
Cape Verde: Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole.
Côte d'Ivoire: French (official), Baule, Jula, and 60 other indigenous languages.
Gambia: English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula and others.
Ghana: English (official), Akan, Dagaare/Wale, Dagbane, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, Nzema and 70 others.
Guinea: French (official), Maninka, Fula and Susu.
Guinea-Bissau: Portuguese (official), Kriol and indigenous languages.
Liberia: English (official) and 20 African languages.
Mali: French (official), Bambara (most widely spoken), Fula and Songhay (specifically Dendi). 11 languages are used as mediums of instruction in primary schools
Niger: French (official) plus ten other languages recognised as national ones, including Hausa (spoken by half the population) and Songhay (specifically Zarma)
Nigeria: English (official), Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are the four languages of the parliament (each of which has over 20 million speakers) plus 529 other African languages (some of which have over a million speakers) and Pidgin.
Senegal: French (official), Wolof (widely spoken), Fula (specifically Pulaar), Diola, Malinké, Sérère, Soninké (national languages) plus other African languages
Sierra Leone: English (official), Krio (most widely spoken), Mende, Temne and other African languages
Togo: French (official), Ewe, Mina and Kabiyé.
Americas
Caribbean
Aruba: Papiamento and Dutch are the official languages, with Spanish and English also widely spoken. All four languages are taught in schools.
Caribbean Netherlands – Dutch (overall), English (Sint Eustatius and Saba) and Papiamentu (Bonaire)
Curaçao – Papiamento, Dutch and English are official languages. Spanish is also widely spoken.
Haiti: Creole and French
Jamaica: English and Jamaican Patois
Puerto Rico's official languages and languages of legislature are Spanish and English, yet 85 percent of its inhabitants reported that they did not speak English "very well."
Saint Lucia: English and Saint Lucian French Creole
Trinidad and Tobago – in the predominantly Trinidadian English Creole-speaking country where Trinidadian English is official, Spanish was introduced as the second language of bilingual traffic signs and is spoken among 5% of the population fluently. and is generally the "first foreign language". Trinidadian Hindustani is rarely used, only spoken among Indo Trinidadian families, mostly the elders who preserve their ancestral language. Sanskrit/Hindi is also used when singing songs of East Indian origins and in the Hindu Temples. Trinidadian French Creole (Patois) is widely spoken in the communities of the northern suburbs of Port of Spain such as Maraval and Paramin, where there are descendants of the early French Immigrants to Trinidad.
Central America
Belize: English, Spanish and Mayan languages have some official usage, although the legacy of British rule emphasised English to be most commonly used for official purposes though the majority are Hispanophone.
Guatemala has one official language which is Spanish, however, there are 23 distinct Mayan languages. Maya, Garifuna and Xincan languages are recognized to be essential elements of the national identity.
Honduras: Spanish is the official language, despite Afro-Caribbean English, Garifuna and indigenous languages can be found in the rural outskirts of the country.
In Nicaragua, even while Spanish is the official language spoken broadwide (almost 95%, according to some sources), there are other de facto languages such as Creole, English, Miskitu, Rama and Mayangna (Sumu) in their own linguistic communities. According to the Constitution, the languages of the Atlantic Coasts should be used officially in cases established by law.
In Panama, Spanish is the official language, and seven indigenous languages have been given official recognition
North America
Canada is officially bilingual under the Official Languages Act and the Constitution of Canada that require the federal government to deliver services in both official languages. As well, minority language rights are guaranteed where numbers warrant. 56.9% of the population speak English as their first language while 22.9% are native speakers of French. The remaining population belong to some of Canada's many immigrant populations or to the indigenous population. See Bilingualism in Canada
Alberta has a specific French policy since 2017.
The Canadian province of British Columbia has a sizable population that speaks Mandarin or Cantonese, particularly in the city of Vancouver and its satellite town of Richmond. There is a provincial law on First Nations languages.
The Canadian province of New Brunswick, with a large Acadian population (33% French-speaking) is officially bilingual.
The Canadian province of Quebec, (7.9% English-speaking) Note: Quebec's largest city, Montreal, is a multilingual city with half the population having French as their mother tongue, and the other half having other languages (including English) as their mother tongue (see Language demographics of Quebec). A majority of Montrealers, whether they call themselves francophone, anglophone or allophone, know both French and English. The city's McGill University, an English-language institution, allows students to submit essays or tests in either English or French. Although there is a sizable English-speaking population in Quebec, French is the only official language of the provincial government. At the same time, many services are provided in English, such as health services, education, legislative activities and judiciary services. Many government services are available in English and French. In Kahnawake reserve, Mohawk is the official language.
Manitoba has a particular French Language Services Policy and bilingual in capital city Winnipeg, as well as a special law on recognition of seven indigenous languages.
Nova Scotia has a governmental agency for Scots Gaelic language and culture affairs. French is regionally spoken, with a special law on French-language services.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, in the autonomous area of Nunatsiavut, English and Inuttut are co-official There is also a particular provincial French Language Services Policy In Port au Port Peninsula French language is used as well.
Nunavut is a Canadian territory with a population that is 85% Inuit. According to Official Languages Act, its official languages are Inuit, English and French.
Northwest Territories have Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì as the official languages.
Ontario delivers services under the French Language Services Act.
In Prince Edward Island there is a Francophone region.
Saskatchewan has a particular French-language Services Policy.
Yukon allows the use of Yukon languages in its legislative assembly, along with French and English.
In the 2006 Canadian census, information and questions are available in sixty-two languages, including eighteen First Nations languages.
The city of Toronto is one of the most multilingual cities in the world. It is the home to over a dozen daily media outlets of different languages, including the Italian daily Corriere Canadese and the Chinese daily Sing Tao.
Greenland: Greenlandic is the official language. Danish and English are spoken and taught; and all Greenlanders are Danish-Greenlandic bilinguals.
Mexico: The government recognizes 62 indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, spoken by more than 1.5 million people and Aguacatec spoken by 27 people, along with Spanish. Indigenous languages are recognised as national languages in areas where they are spoken. There is no official language at the federal level, although Spanish is the de facto state language.
In Guerrero, state constitution provides for use of indigenous languages in education and translating of main provincial laws to these languages.
In Yucatán, Yucatec Maya language is recognised in the state constitution.
In Oaxaca state constitution, 15 indigenous communities are listed. Certain use of their languages in education and court proceedings is provided for.
In Puebla state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for
In Campeche state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and teaching them in schools are provided for.
In Quintana Roo state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for; also, the laws are to be published in Maya language.
In Chihuahua state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts, education, health care and government-disseminated information is provided for.
In Chiapas state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for.
In the United States, at the federal level, there is no official language, although there have been efforts to make English the official language. Use of several languages in electoral process under certain circumstances is provided for by federal law, including Spanish in the whole states of Florida, California and Texas. There are federal statutes promoting Native American languages: Native American Languages Act of 1990 and Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act.
The US state of California has the Dymally-Alatorre Bilingual Services Act. requiring state and local agencies serving a "substantial number of non-English speaking people" to employ a "qualified bilingual staff" and to translate certain documents into clients' languages.
The US state of New Mexico provides certain guarantees for the use of Spanish, alongside English, in its constitution and electoral laws. Its state laws also provide for using Spanish and Native American languages in education
The US state of New York provides translation of vital documents and interpretation into six languages alongside English.
The US state of South Dakota recognises the Sioux language as the official indigenous language of the state.
The US state of Texas provides in its law for translating to Spanish certain information on agency websites.
The US state of Louisiana has mandated the Louisiana French Language Services Program and the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism to work on providing state government services in French, to the extent practicable It also expressly allows the use of French in legal process and publishing official documents. Spanish is also spoken.
The Saint John River valley in the US state of Maine and some areas in Vermont are unofficially bilingual (de facto) in English and French.
The US state of Hawaii is officially bilingual in English and Hawaiian.
The US state of Alaska officially recognizes English and the following twenty Alaska Native languages: Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unanga, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian languages. Russian is spoken.
Three US territories are also bilingual: American Samoa (Samoan and English), and Puerto Rico (Spanish and English). Guam Code provides for bilingual education (English and Chamorro). One US territory is trilingual: Northern Marianas Islands (English, Chamorro, and Carolinian).
In US, states with a large historic (New Spain and First Mexican Empire) and recently arrived Spanish-speaking population such as California, Nevada, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas and Florida will often provide government services at the municipal level in Spanish as well as English. For example, in Florida, Hialeah recognizes both English and Spanish while Miami recognizes English and Spanish as official government languages.
Hopi Tribe constitution (Arizona) provides for specific requirements for Hopi language skills for officials
German is spoken due to Amish, German, Austrian and Swiss people. In Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect is spoken.
South America
Argentina has several ethnic communities of European, Asian and indigenous origins (the Andean and northeast regions), who speak their own languages, but uses de facto Spanish as the official language of the country. In most of the country, there is a sizable but bilingual Italian-speaking population.
Chaco Province recognises Qom, Moqoit y Wichi as official languages of the province along with Spanish
Corrientes Province Guarani is recognised as the second official language
Santiago del Estero Province gives official recognition to Quechua in its constitution
Bolivia is officially multilingual, supporting Spanish and 36 native languages.
Brazil, Portuguese (official) and upwards to 100 languages spoken mainly in the urban areas (European and Asian) and indigenous languages in the Amazon. The use of indigenous languages in primary education is enshrined in the constitution.
Espírito Santo – German and East Pomeranian are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
Rio de Janeiro – Yoruba, Bantu and Jeje (African Languages) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
Rio Grande do Sul – Talian (Italian dialect) and Riograndense Hünsrick (German dialect) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
Santa Catarina – Talian are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
Chile uses de facto Spanish as official language, but there are not an act that declares officiality. The Indigenous Act ratified in 1992 permites the official usage of four indigenous languages: Aimara, Mapudungun, Quechua and Rapa Nui (Easter Island in Polynesia) inside the indigenous communities and areas with high native population density. In the southern portion, there is a sizable but bilingual German-speaking population.
Colombia The official language is Spanish. Languages of ethnic groups are official in their territories. English is co-official in San Andres and Providencia.
Ecuador defines Spanish as its official language, but Spanish, Quechua and Shuar – as official languages of intercultural relations in the Article 2 of the 2008 Constitution.
Falkland Islands, English is the official & dominant language. Spanish is spoken by a minority of the population who comes from Chile and Argentina.
Guyana, English (official), Guyanese Hindustani (now mostly used among elders only from Indo-Guyanese community), Chinese, indigenous languages, and a small Portuguese-speaking community. The Amerindian Act orders the National Toshaos Council to promote the recognition and use of Amerindian languages.
Paraguay, More than 46% of its population is bilingual in Guaraní and Spanish (both official languages of the Republic), of whom 37% speak only Guaraní and 8% only Spanish but the latter increases with the use of Jopará. There is a large Mennonite German colony in the Gran Chaco region as well.
Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in the zones where they are predominant, Quechua, Aymara, and other aboriginal languages. In addition to that, in Peru there is a large community of immigrants, of which few keep their languages. Within those, there are the Japanese and the Chinese (Cantonese dialect), for example and in smaller numbers, the Germans (central Andes), Italian, the Arabic speakers, and the Urdu speakers retain their native languages in Peru. The last two are products of the recent wave of immigrants from Palestine and Pakistan. Lately English has been used by American and British residents.
In Suriname, Dutch, Sranan, and English are spoken by almost everyone. In addition, Chinese, Javanese, and various Indian languages are spoken.
Uruguay has a large Italian-speaking minority also proficient in Spanish. Its border with Brazil has a mixed Portuguese-speaking presence.
Venezuela has declared Spanish the official language, while there are some European and Arabic languages spoken in urban areas, Caribbean English dialects in the Caribbean and indigenous languages spoken in the Guayana department. The prominent additional European languages spoken are Italian and German. The use of native languages also has official status for native peoples.
Asia
Central Asia
Kazakhstan
Kazakh and Russian both have official status—Kazakh as the "state" language and Russian as "officially used on equal grounds along with the Kazak language". Kazakhstan is taking its huge step into multilingualism by accepting the trilingualism policy and making changes in law. Former president Nursultan Nazarbaev noted that "The multinationality and multilingualism are one of the values and the main feature of our state. "Dariga Nazarbayeva, then deputy prime minister and daughter of the then president, said in February 2016 that Kazakh children should learn Chinese in addition to Kazakh, Russian and English. “China is our friend, our trading partner and the biggest investor in the economy of our country", she said. "In the near future, we all need to know Chinese.”
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyz is the state language and Russian "used in the capacity of an official language".
Tajikistan
Tajik as the state language and Russian, designated as language of interethnic communication in the constitution, are widely spoken.
Uzbekistan
In Uzbekistan, Uzbek (official), Tajik, and Russian are all widely spoken. Use of Russian (alongside Uzbek) is foreseen for notarized documents and civic records
Karakalpakstan
In the autonomous Karakalpakstan, Karakalpak language is an official one, alongside Uzbek.
East Asia
In Mainland China, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is the official language and is spoken in all regions. It is used for official and formal purposes, by the media, and in education as the language of instruction. However, on money notes, there are texts both in Mandarin (Han) and in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang. In every locality and region, local varieties of Chinese are spoken in daily life. These range from being quite similar to Putonghua, such as Tianjin dialect, to those that are mutually unintelligible with Putonghua such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai dialect (Wu) or Guangzhou dialect (Cantonese). In the autonomous regions, minority languages are used (such as Tibetan in Tibet or Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, Uyghur, Kazakh and others in Xinjiang).
Japan: a special law provides for promotion of Ainu language in Hokkaido
Taiwan: A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language". This includes Formosan languages, Hakka, Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien.
In Hong Kong, English and Chinese are official languages. All road signs are written in both languages. English is the dominant language in the judiciary and in higher education. Hong Kong Cantonese is the first language of the majority of the population, and is the dominant language in many aspects of everyday life. While Cantonese is the widely spoken form of Chinese in Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin is also taught in schools. The degrees of proficiency in English and Mandarin vary from person to person.
In Macau, both Chinese and Portuguese are official languages. While Cantonese is the dominant form of Chinese, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is also spoken. Chinese is taught in all schools, while Portuguese is mainly taught in government schools. In addition, English is also taught in many schools. Macanese Patois, a local Portuguese-based creole generally known as Patuá, is now spoken only by a few older Eurasian population.
North Asia
Russia holds a List of minor indigenous peoples of Russia. This list currently mentions 50 peoples (40 until an amendment in 2015), and the "Law on the guarantees of the rights of the minor indigenous peoples of Russia" guarantees among other Federal programmes for the protection and development of their languages and cultures (article 5). The article 10 of the same law guarantees to people belonging to these peoples the right to preserve and develop their native language, and the right to receive and broadcast information in their native languages and to create media.
Several Republics of Russia make locally official the language of the main people(s) of those Republics:
Buryatia – Russian and Buryat are co-official
Altai Republic – Russian and Altai are co-official
Tuva – Russian and Tuvan are co-official
Khakassia – Russian and Khakas are co-official
Sakha Republic – Russian and Sakha are co-official. The law "about the languages of the Sakha Republic" mentions in its article 6 that Evenk, Even, Yukagir, Dolgan, Chukchi languages are recognized as official in the places where those peoples live and are used as equal as the national languages. The Sakha Republic guarantees protection and care for the preservation and the free development of those languages. It is worth noting, however, that Chukchi has no official status in the neighbouring Chukotka. It is closely related to Koryak which is official in the North of Kamchatka (see below).
Administrative-territorial units with special status (formerly Federal subjects of Russia, downgraded in 2007–2008):
Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug (Irkutsk Oblast) and Agin-Buryat Okrug (Zabaykalsky Krai): Buryat is co-official with Russian.
Koryak Okrug (Kamchatka Krai): Koryak is co-official with Russian.
South Asia
Afghanistan: Pashto and Dari (Afghan Persian) are the official and most widely spoken languages in Afghanistan, with the former serving as a national language and the latter spoken as a lingua franca. Other minor languages include Uzbek and Turkmen, Balochi and Pashayi, Nuristani (Askunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami and Kalasha-ala), Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, Kyrgyz.
Bangladesh: Standard Bengali is the official and most widely spoken language. However, there are many local languages (some of which are considered Bengali dialects) spoken in different regions of Bangladesh, as well as minority languages like Chakma and Urdu. Speakers of these languages are often bilingual in their local language and Standard Bangla. Additionally, the use of English is widespread in education and the judiciary in the country.
India: There are 22 official languages in the states and territories of India (Including Hindi and English, the languages with official use by the Union Government). The largest, Hindi, is spoken by 26% of the population. English is also used, although mainly in some urban parts of the country. A large number of students with a high-school education would generally be trilingual – speaking their own native language, in addition to Hindi and English, with varying fluency—because of the nation's long-standing three language formula that encourages students to learn English and another Indian language as second- and third-languages.
Nepal: The 2011 Nepal census reports 123 Nepalese languages spoken as a mother tongue. Most belong to the Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan language families. These are considered to be national languages, and according to the Constitution of Nepal 2015 they are official in their own regions. Despite this, Nepali was selected as the sole working language for the Nepali government.
Pakistan. The national language is English and Urdu; English was to be replaced by Urdu however this has not occurred despite many attempts in the past to do so. Pakistan is unique in that both English and Urdu are non-native languages and nearly all Pakistani's need to learn them as a second and/or a third language. There are many regional languages and dialects (the latter are often unintelligible from other dialects of the "same language"). Many high-school and college educated Pakistanis are trilingual, being able to speak English and Urdu as well as their own regional language with varying fluency.
Sri Lanka. Sinhala and Tamil are official languages. English is referred to as the link language in the constitution.
Southeast Asia
Brunei: Malay (official) and English
Cambodia: Khmer is the official language, but French is spoken by a minority and sometimes used in government and education. Mandarin is spoken in business and commerce.
East Timor – Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be working languages within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary"
Indonesia is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesians speak about 746 different languages. Javanese has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). However, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is Indonesian which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct regional languages study at schools. Many people in Indonesia are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official Indonesian language is used to communicate with people from other regions and is taught in schools as a compulsory subject.
In Laos, Lao is the official language, but French is understood and used by government.
In Malaysia, nearly all people have a working knowledge of Malay and English. Malay is the official language of the country, along with English in the state of Sarawak. Malay and English are compulsory subjects taught in all public schools. Chinese (Mandarin) and Tamil are spoken by the Chinese and Indian communities respectively, and are the languages of instruction in Chinese and Tamil primary schools respectively. Among the Chinese community, apart from Mandarin, several Chinese languages especially Hakka, Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew and among Indians, Tamil is the most spoken and dominant language. The indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak speak their ancestral languages (Dayak, Iban etc.). However, it is not uncommon for the locals to be fluent in several of the above languages. The Constitution provides for use of Sabah and Sarawak languages in native courts or for any code of native law and custom.
Philippines: The Philippine constitution. designates Filipino as the national language and, along with English, as official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages in the regions which shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic are designated to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis. Some people in native Tagalog areas are bilingual, while in non-Tagalog areas it is common to be multilingual in Filipino, English, and in one or more of the regional languages, or as in other cases in languages such as Spanish, Minnan (Hokkien), and Arabic due to factors such as ancestry and religion. Eleven regional languages are recognised by the government as auxiliary official languages in their respective regions, while 90+ other languages and dialects are spoken by various groups.
Singapore: English, Mandarin Chinese, Malay and Tamil are all official languages. Malay is the national language. English is the main language used in Singapore. As English links the different races and ethnic groups, a group with diverse races and ethnicities communicate using English. Most of the population can speak, read and write in English. In addition to English, many Singaporeans can speak their respective ethnic language like Mandarin Chinese fairly well, as it is a compulsory subject in school. In Chinese communities, the older generation usually speak their own language like Hakka and Hokkien besides Mandarin and/or English.
Thailand: Thai is the main and sole official language in Thailand. There are different dialects such as Phitsanulok, Ayutthaya, Suphan Buri (traditional dialect), Thonburi, but Standard Thai is influenced by Thai Chinese in Bangkok, Isan which is influenced from Lao and widely used in the northeastern area, Southern Thai is spoken in the southern provinces, Northern Thai is spoken in the provinces that were formerly part of the independent kingdom of Lanna. Karen languages are spoken along the border with Burma, Khmer near Cambodia (and previously throughout central Thailand), and Malay in the south near Malaysia. The Thai hill tribes speak numerous small languages. Also, there is a big population of Chinese descent people in Thailand and the old generation often use Teochew as well as Hakka as their first language. The new generation tends to speak them as a second language or some may not know it at all.
Vietnam: Vietnamese is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, French is spoken by a small minority of people and elders as it used to be the most common second language. The right to use own language, also in courts, is foreseen in the constitution.
Western Asia
Bahrain: Arabic is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, Persian and Urdu are widely spoken.
In Iran, Persian is the sole official language, but Azerbaijani (along with related varieties such as Qashqa'i and Kalaj) has upwards of 15 million speakers. Other minority languages include Kurdish, Turkmen, and Balochi. Assyrian is spoken by a Christian minority in the vicinity of Urmia. In the southwestern Iranian province of Khuzestan, most people speak Khuzestani Persian, Khuzestani Arabic, and Standard Persian, sometimes in addition to their own community languages such as Lur, Qashqa'i, Domari or Mandaic where applicable.
In Iraq, Arabic is the official language of the state, Kurdish is the official language of the north where 4 million native speakers live. The use of Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian in education is provided for in the Constitution. Other languages also exist among Christian communities north of and around Baghdad, such as Aramaic. English is used as well.
In Israel, Hebrew has the official status of the state's language and Arabic – a special status with protection of its pre-2018 functions (see Languages of Israel). Jewish immigrants to Israel (especially from Europe) have a different mother tongue, such as Arabic, Amharic, Yiddish, Ladino, Russian, Romanian, Polish, Ukrainian, English, or French and many Jewish immigrants from Latin America speak Spanish and Portuguese. The Arab population of Israel speaks Arabic. Functionally, almost all Arabs in Israel also speak Hebrew. English is widely spoken and understood as a second language by both Arabs and Jews. Officially, road signs must be in Arabic, Hebrew, and a romanized Hebrew transliteration.
In Lebanon, Arabic is the official and national language; the Constitution provides for the conditions of using French to be provided by law. Many Lebanese are fluent in French and in English. Armenian is also a language mainly used in the Armenian community.
In Qatar, Arabic is the official language, and English is common language.
Syria:
Arabic is the official language, English is taught as a second language in schools starting from first grade, and in middle school you get to choose between French and Russian as a third language.
Rojava: the constitution of the de facto autonomous region designates Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac as official languages.
United Arab Emirates: Arabic is the official language of the country, although English is an unofficial language it is widely accepted as the lingua franca as over 89% of the population is migrant. Almost everyone has a working knowledge of English. All road signs are written in both Arabic and English. English is dominant in higher education and is a required ability for most local jobs. English is a compulsory subject in all public schools and is the language of instruction for mathematics and science.
Europe
Central Europe
Austria has one official language, German. However, it also has Croatian and Slovenian minorities, all of whose languages are protected under federal laws. Certain functions are also guaranteed for Romany, Hungarian, Czech and Slovak in Vienna and Burgenland, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
In the Czech Republic, several municipalities of Trans-Olza area have official bilingualism (Czech and Polish). Bilingual signs are permitted if a minority constitutes at least a 10% of the population of the municipality. German is recognized as a minority language because of the previous visible German presence in Bohemia.
Germany has German as its official national language.
Low German is recognized as a regional language in at least five north German states. Lower Sorbian is an official minority language in Brandenburg, Upper Sorbian in Saxony, Sater Frisian in a part of Lower Saxony, and North Frisian varieties and Danish in Schleswig-Holstein. A language without its own territory, Romany (including the language of the Sinte people) is an official minority language as well. Germany is home to large numbers of people from other regions, and some of their languages, such as Turkish, Russian, and Polish, are widely used throughout the country. However, those languages are considered foreign and thus are given no official status.
Hungary, the official language is Hungarian. The country recognizes Beás, Croatian, German, Romani, Romanian, Bosnian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene languages. Use of those languages for certain functions is provided for by law, applying to localities where the share of a relevant minority exceeds 10% or, for wider functions, 20%.
Poland – 20 bilingual communes in Poland (mostly Polish-German) speak forms of the German language. Belarusian, Czech, Hebrew, Yiddish, Lithuanian, German, Armenian, Russian, Slovak, and Ukrainian are recognised as national minorities languages while Karaim, Lemko, Romani, and Tatar as ethnic minorities languages.
Slovakia has a Hungarian minority of 520,000 (9.7%). Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Bosnian, Serbian, Hungarian, Polish, Roma, Russian, Ruthenian, and Ukrainian languages are recognized as regional or minority languages, with guarantees of their use in municipalities where Slovak citizens belonging to the national minorities form at least 20% of the population.
Switzerland has four national languages; German, French, Italian, and Romansh. The cantons Valais, Fribourg and Bern are bilingual (French and German), while canton Graubünden is trilingual (German, Romansh, and Italian). Most Swiss nowadays learn English to communicate to Swiss speaking other native languages, as English is neutral among speakers of different national languages, making it a lingua franca, with no one national language dominating the other.
Eastern Europe
Ex-Soviet republics and Warsaw Pact countries: Many people speak Russian fluently, especially in Slavic countries within the area of the former USSR (typically in Belarus and Ukraine), along with Moldova, which has a Slavic minority. However, few Polish, Slovak or Czech people speak Russian, despite huge expenditures in the past.
Abkhazia. According to Georgian law, Georgian and Abkhazian are co-official; according to Abkhazian law – Abkhazian and Russian. The elder generation of Abkhazis spoke Georgian, Russian and Abkhazi.
Belarus has two official languages: Belarusian and Russian.
Estonia has one official language, Estonian, but there is also a sizeable Russian-speaking community (around 30% in 2000) who speak Russian. Russian and other minority languages can theoretically be used in communication with local government and state institutions within the borders of certain constituencies where most permanent residents belong to a respective national minority (Article 51 of the Constitution). Only citizens of Estonia are considered to belong to national minorities; thus, the provision is only applicable in three parishes and two towns. Many Estonians can speak Russian, but many Russians are not fluent in Estonian including those who are Estonian citizens, however fluency varies considerably between age groups.
Latvia has one official language, Latvian. Liv language is recognized as an autochthonous (in the Livonian coast, it is allowed to form toponyms in Liv alongside Latvian); the others are defined as "foreign" in the Official Language Law, but there is also a sizeable minority with Russian as their native language – 37.3% of those answering the question on language used at home named Russian in the 2011 census.
Lithuania has one official language, Lithuanian. The largest minorities in Lithuania are both Slavic-speaking: Russian and Polish. The latter are a majority in Šalčininkai district municipality.
Republics of Russia (see also North Asia for other languages of Russia):
Adygea – Russian and Adyghe are co-official
Bashkortostan – Russian and Bashkir are co-official
Dagestan – Russian and 13 languages are co-official. The Constitution does not state the list of the languages but instead mentions that the languages of the peoples of Dagestan are official. The commonly used list of 13 languages can be derived for example from the languages in which the regional public Radio and Television company broadcasts programmes: Since 2017, The Atlas of multilingualism of Dagestan has become available online.
Ingushetia – Russian and Ingush are co-official
Kabardino-Balkaria – Russian, Kabardian, Balkar are co-official
Tatarstan – Russian and Tatar are co-official
Kalmykia – Russian and Kalmyk are co-official
Karachay-Cherkessia – Russian (also as a language of interethnic communication), Abaza, Cherkess, Karachay and Nogai are co-official
Mari El – Russian and Mari are co-official
Mordovia – Russian and Mordvin are co-official
Komi Republic – Russian and Komi are co-official
Karelia – Russian is official, but Karelian is spoken by the ethnic Karelian minority.
North Ossetia–Alania – Russian and Ossetian are co-official
Udmurtia – Russian and Udmurt are co-official
Chechnya – Russian and Chechen are co-official
Chuvashia – Russian and Chuvash are co-official
Komi-Permyak Okrug: Komi-Permyak language is official (along with Russian) in this administrative-territorial unit with special status of Perm Krai.
In Ukraine, Russian, Hungarian and Romanian were granted status of a regional language in certain areas in 2012–18 (Language policy in Ukraine). Carpathian Ruthenia, Ukraine, Slovaks living near Uzhhorod speak Ukrainian and Hungarian in addition to their mother tongue, Slovakian. In villages near Mukachevo Germans (Swabian dialect speakers) also speak Hungarian and Ukrainian.
Northern Europe
Denmark has one official language, Danish, but in South Jutland, use of German for certain functions is provided for. In Greenland, Greenlandic is the principal language, while Danish must be thoroughly taught, and all Greenlanders are Danish-Greenlandic bilinguals.
Faroe Islands has two official languages: Faroese and Danish. The other Scandinavian languages, Norwegian and Swedish, are understood by most without much difficulty. English is taught in schools, often as a third language.
Finland is constitutionally bilingual and has therefore two equally national languages, Finnish and Swedish, and the minority languages Sami (Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami), Romani and Finnish Sign Language are recognized by the constitution. The Swedish-speaking population of Finland comprises about 5.5% of the population, mostly in Svenskfinland. Municipalities are bilingual if the Swedish or Finnish minority is at least 6–8%. Åland is monolingually Swedish by law. Sami is an official language (besides Finnish) in the municipalities of northern Finland.
In Norway six municipalities of Troms and Finnmark county, Sami is used officially along Norwegian
Sweden has Swedish as its official language. Finnish, Meänkieli, Romani, Sami and Yiddish are recognized as minority languages. Meänkieli, a variant of Finnish, is spoken in Tornedalen and Haparanda in North Bothnia. Meänkieli, Finnish and Sami have a special status in the areas where speakers are significant minorities.
Southern Europe
Italy. The official language overall is Italian. However, the Italian law n. 482/1999 recognizes and protects twelve minority languages, like Sardinian, Friulian, Occitan, Greek, Albanian and other linguistic minorities. Bilingualism is also applied in some territories:
In the province of South Tyrol German is co-official.
In the Aosta Valley region French is co-official,
as is Slovene in some municipalities of the provinces of Trieste and Gorizia.
Ladin municipalities of South Tyrol are trilingual (Italian, Ladin, and German).
In Veneto, there is a regional law on Venetian linguistic and cultural heritage. In 2016, an additional law has been adopted, providing for the use of Venetian in schools, public institutions and toponymical signs.
In Calabria, there is a regional law on minority languages, with Greek, Albanian and Franco-Provençal specifically named.
In Piedmont, there is a regional law on promoting linguistic heritage, with Occitan, German, French and Franco-Provençal minorities specifically named.
In Sardinia, a 1997 law and a 2018 law establish detailed status for Sardinian, and give official recognition to Catalan in Alghero and to Gallurese, Tabarchino and Sassarese.
Malta has two official languages, Maltese and English. Italian is also spoken by a large percentage of the population.
Southeastern Europe
Albania has one official language, Albanian. In some regions of southern Albania, Greek serves as co-official. Other languages such as Italian and Greek are widely spoken throughout the country, and are considered minority languages. Recognised minority languages include: Aromanian, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, French, Italian and Greek. The majority of Albanians are multilingual, speaking more than 3 languages, which is due to the large number of Albanian immigrants in Europe and elsewhere, as well as political and socio-cultural relations with their neighbours. As a consequence, Albanians are considered one of the most linguistically diverse peoples in Europe. During Albania's Italian occupation and the subsequent communist period, Italian television and radio were a source of education and entertainment for many Albanians; as a result, 60–70% of Albania's population has a command of Italian. Albania's Greek communities, as well as returning migrants from Greece and Greek national arrivals, continue to raise the status of Greek in the country. Albania is also part of the Francophonie, with 320,000 French speakers.
Cyprus has two official languages: Greek and Turkish. Both languages were spoken throughout the island before 1974. After 1974, and the partition of the island, Turkish became the sole official language in the Turkish-Cypriot-controlled north whereas the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus retains both languages as official. English is also widely spoken and understood throughout the island.
Moldova – the Law concerning the rights of persons belonging to the national minorities and the legal status of the organizations thereof provides for the use of Romanian and Russian in tertiary education, communication with authorities and publishing regulatory acts. It also provides for the use of Ukrainian, Gagauz, Bulgarian, Hebrew, Yiddish and other (unnamed) languages in education.
Gagauzia – Romanian, Gagauz, Russian
Transnistria – Moldovan, Russian, Ukrainian
In Romania, the official language is Romanian, but significant minority languages are recognized at a local level, with commitments made in respect of use of Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish and Ukrainian in areas where their share of speakers is at least 20%. The biggest ethnic minority is the Hungarian community of 1.4 million (6.6%).
In Turkey, the Constitution of Turkey defines Turkish as the only official language of the country (art. 3) and explicitly prohibits educational institutions to teach any language other than Turkish as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens (art. 42). Only exception is Greek and Armenian languages, which can be taught in schools as part of non-Muslim minorities rights of Treaty of Lausanne. In 2013, the Ministry of Education introduced Kurdish, Abkhaz, Adyghe and Laz languages into the academic programme of the basic schools as optional classes from the fifth year on.
In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast decided to begin printing water bills, marriage certificates and construction and road signs, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices, in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Friday sermons by imams began to be delivered in the language, and Esnaf provided Kurdish price tags. Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish, prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media. In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to broadcast in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's cartoons, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week. However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.
In successor countries of the former SFR Yugoslavia, official languages of Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin are mutually intelligible by all four groups (see Serbo-Croatian). Other smaller languages in the new republics of Slovenia (Slovene) and North Macedonia (Macedonian) are not. There are other languages that have co-official status in some parts of these countries (e.g. Italian in Istria, Hungarian in Vojvodina).
Croatia – the Constitution of Croatia defines Croatian as the official language of the country while permitting regional or local co-official usage of minority languages of Croatia and Cyrillic or other alphabets. The Istria County is the only bilingual region with Italian language as its second official language. At the level of local self-government units municipalities and towns with second official languages are primarily influenced in their policy by the Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia and other national and international legal norms.
Kosovo has two official languages, Albanian and Serbian. Turkish, Bosnian, and Roma hold official status at a regional level.
Serbia: There are seven officially used languages in the northern autonomous province of Vojvodina (Serbian, Croatian, Romanian, Ruthenian, Hungarian, Slovak and Czech), and four in central Serbia (Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Bulgarian). Vojvodina has a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-lingual identity, with a number of mechanisms for the promotion of minority rights; there are more than 26 ethnic groups in the province. The province has six official languages. Some Serbs are recognised as fluent multilinguals; many of them can speak German, French and English, due to the huge number of Serbian immigrants in Europe, especially in Austria, Germany and France, whilst English is quite popular due to the large Serbian immigrant communities in Australia and Canada.
North Macedonia – in 2019, Albanian was made co-official, while Macedonian remains the primary official language.
Southwestern Europe
Andorra has one official language, Catalan. Other languages (mainly Spanish, French and Portuguese) are also spoken without official recognition.
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory whose sole official language is English. Given Gibraltar's size, most of the population is also fluent in Spanish due to its vicinity with Spain. Gibraltarians also use Llanito as a local vernacular.
Portugal – although Portuguese is practically universal, Mirandese, a related Leonese language, is spoken in Miranda do Douro, northeastern Portugal and is officially recognized (see: Languages of Portugal), and there is some familiarity with the Spanish language in towns bordering Spain.
Spain, where several autonomous communities have their own official language, additional to Spanish (also known as Castilian), official all over Spain (see: languages of Spain):
Basque Country and Northern Navarre: Basque, a language isolate.
Balearic Islands and Valencian Community: Catalan (officially called Valencian in Valencia).
Catalonia: Catalan and Aranese (Occitan).
Galicia: Galician, has a common origin with the Portuguese.
There are a number of languages which have official recognition of some kind but which are not fully official:
Aragonese and Catalan in certain areas of Aragon.
Asturian and, in some areas, Galician in Asturias.
Leonese and, to a smaller degree, Galician in Castile and León.
Western Europe
Belgium has three official languages: Dutch (59%) in the north, French (40%) in the south and a small minority speaks German (1%). Its bilingual capital, Brussels is mainly French-speaking, with Dutch speakers as a minority. These languages have the status of 'official language' only in specified language areas as defined by the constitution. In Flanders, 59% and 53% of the Flemings know French and English respectively; in Wallonia, only 19% and 17% know Dutch or English. In each region, Belgium's third official language, German, is notably less known than Dutch, French or English. Wallonia recognises all of its vernacular dialect groups as regional languages, Flanders does not.
France has a monolingual policy for the republic to conduct government business only in French. There are, however, levels of fluency in regional languages: Alsatian, Basque (the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques), Breton (the regional government of Brittany has adopted some policies to promote the teaching of Breton), Catalan (the department of Pyrénées-Orientales has a particular charter for supporting Catalan), Corsican (Corsican teaching in the island's schools is provided for by law), Flemish, Franco-Provençal, Lorraine Franconian and Occitan (sometimes called Provençal). The country as whole is linguistically dominated by French.
Ireland, the first official language of Ireland is Irish, with the second being English. English is the first language of the vast majority of the population.
Luxembourg is a rare example of a truly trilingual society, in that it not only has three official languages – Luxembourgish, French and German – but has a trilingual education system. For the first four years of school, Luxembourgish is the medium of instruction, before giving way to German, which in turn gives way to French. (In addition, children learn English and sometimes another European language, usually Spanish or Italian.) Similarly in the country's parliament, debates are conducted in Luxembourgish, draft legislation is drafted in German, while the statute laws are in French. Due to the large population of Portuguese descent, the Portuguese language is fairly prevalent in Luxembourg, though it remains limited to the relationships inside this community. Portuguese has no official status, but the administration sometimes makes certain informative documents available in Portuguese.
The Netherlands has four official languages. Dutch is the primary language, and West Frisian is recognized as a minority language and spoken by between 300,000 and 700,000 people. West Frisian is mostly spoken in the province of Friesland, where it is the official first language. Low Saxon is recognized as a regional language in the northeast of the country, and Limburgish is an official regional language in Netherlands Limburg. In Amsterdam, certain services are provided in English; English is official in the Dutch municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. The fourth official language is Papiamento, spoken on Bonaire.
The only national language of the United Kingdom is English, however, there are several regional languages recognised to varying degrees in the UK or the Crown dependencies:
England: Cornish is currently recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. 557 people, mainly living in Cornwall, reported as speaking Cornish in 2011.
Wales: 611,000 Welsh speakers (but no monoglots), including the majority of the population in parts of north and west Wales. English is widely used. English and Welsh have equal official status in law. On road signs and branding of devolved organisations, Welsh is usually placed first above English. Prior to 2016, local authorities could decide whether Welsh or English should be first on road signage, leading to different orders of the languages between English-speaking and Welsh-speaking authorities, since 2016, new signage must be Welsh-first, remaining English-first signage and road paintings would become Welsh-first when they would've otherwise been replaced.
Northern Ireland: Ulster Scots, a variety of Scots, is spoken by some in Northern Ireland, but again English is far more commonly used and Ulster Scots is less actively used in media. Irish and Ulster Scots now both have official status in Northern Ireland as part of the 1998 Belfast Agreement; certain functions are granted to those two languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
Scotland: 58,652 Gaelic speakers, mostly concentrated in the Highlands and the Hebrides, the traditional heartland of Gaelic culture. The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 provides for the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language. Also Scots with approximately 2 to 3 million speakers – a Germanic language closely related to English.
Jersey: along with English, the use of French for petitioning the parliament is provided for by its Standing Orders. Jèrriais is official as well.
Isle of Man: the main language is English, but a small percentage of the population have some knowledge of Manx Gaelic, which is used officially to a limited extent, e.g. in bilingual street signs, some official documents and for ceremonial purposes.
Guernsey: the main language is English. French is spoken as well.
Oceania
Australia – English is the de facto official language of Australia. Auslan is recognised by the Australian Government and is spoken by many Australian deaf people. Australian Aboriginal languages, of which there are approximately 290–363, have recognition – though only a few are popularly spoken by Australian Indigenous people, including: Wiradjuri, Pitjantjatjara, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Ngaanyatjarra, Warlpiri and Australian Kriol. Some government departments and agencies provide translations of documents in multiple languages for non-English speakers.
Fiji – Fijian, English and Fiji Hindi (All official) Tongan and Tuvaluan are also spoken.
Kiribati – Gilbertese and English (official); Gilbertese is the majority language, English language is the prevailing language for constitutional text
Marshall Islands – Marshallese and English (both official)
Micronesia – English (official) but each state has its own regional language: Chuukese (Chuuk), Kosraean (Kosrae), Pohnpeian (Pohnpei), and Yapese (Yap). In addition other language such as Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, Mokilese, Ulithian, Woleaian, Nukuoro, and Kapingamarangi are recognized.
Nauru – Nauruan is the official language. English is also spoken along with it.
New Caledonia, a special collectivity of France – French and Kanak languages (primarily Drehu, Nengone, Paicî, Ajië and Xârâcùù)
New Zealand – a small percentage of the population has some reasonable degree of bilingualism in English and Māori, mostly among the Māori themselves; few are fully fluent in Māori. New Zealand Sign Language has also an official status. English is the main language, with over 96% of the population speaking it fluently. Maori has been recognized as official since 1987.
Cook Islands – Cook Islands Maori and English.
Niue – Niuean and English.
Palau – Palauan traditional languages are the national languages. Palauan and English are the official languages.
Papua New Guinea – Tok Pisin (official), English (official), Hiri Motu (official), Papua New Guinea Sign Language (official) and some 836 indigenous languages spoken are spoken
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) – Rapa Nui along with Chilean Spanish are the 2 co-official languages of the island.
Samoa – Samoan and English
Tonga – Tongan and English (both official)
Tuvalu – Tuvaluan and English (both official)
Vanuatu – the national language is Bislama, a creole language or pidgin English and French, which is also an official language alongside English and French. There are also over 110 local vernacular languages distinct to this island archipelago.
References
Language policy
Countries and territories by official language
Lists by region
Countries And Regions
Multilingual
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Women%27s%20Amateur%20Championship
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The Women's Amateur Championship
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The Women's Amateur Championship, previously known as the Ladies' British Open Amateur Championship, was founded in 1893 by the Ladies' Golf Union. It is organised by The R&A, which merged with the Ladies' Golf Union in 2017. Until the dawn of the professional era in 1976, it was the most important golf tournament for women in Great Britain, and attracted players from continental Europe, North America, and the rest of the world. Along with the U.S. Women's Amateur, it is considered the highest honour in women's amateur golf.
The first tournament was played at the Lytham & St Annes Golf Club in Lytham St Annes in Lancashire, England and was won by Lady Margaret Scott, who also won the following two years; her feat of three straight titles remains the record, matched by Cecil Leitch and Enid Wilson. In 1927, Simone de la Chaume of France, who had won the 1924 British Girls Amateur Golf Championship, became the first golfer from outside the British Isles to win the Ladies Championship. The first competitor from the United States to win the title was Babe Zaharias in 1947.
Format
The championship is contested in two phases. It begins with a 36-hole stroke play competition, played over two days. The leading 64 competitors progress to the knock-out match play competition, ties for 64th place being decided by countback. From 1966 up to 2020, all matches in the knock-out phase were played over 18 holes, but from 2021 the final has been played over 36 holes.
Prizes
The "Pam Barton Memorial Salver" is awarded to the winner to be held for one year, as the actual Championship Cup is held by the Ladies' Golf Union. The runner-up receives The Diana Fishwick Cup. The leading qualifier receives the Doris Chambers Trophy. If two or more players are tied, the result is decided on countback, the player with the lowest second round score being the winner.
History
In late 1892 several members of Wimbledon Ladies Golf Club contacted other ladies' clubs, in hopes of forming a ladies' golf union and holding a ladies' championship. The men's Amateur Championship had been held since 1885. Independently the Lytham & St Annes Golf Club, who had not been sent the circular, also decided to organise a ladies' championship.
The two clubs combined their efforts in the Ladies' Golf Union, holding their first championship from Tuesday 13 to Thursday 15 June 1893 on the ladies' links of the Lytham & St Annes Golf Club, a 9-hole course, then at Mayfield Road. There were 38 entries, requiring 6 knock-out rounds. Two rounds were played per day with the semi-finals and final played on the Thursday. All matches were over 18 holes, with extra holes played to ensure a result. The winner received a championship cup valued at 50 guineas, and a gold medal. The runner-up received a silver medal, and the other semi-finalists received bronze medals. Lady Margaret Scott beat Issette Pearson in the final by a score of 7&5.
The 1894 championship was held in May at Littlestone-on-Sea in Kent. May became the regular month for the championship to be held, although sometimes it was held in early June. The event was extended to the Friday, with the quarter-finals and semi-finals played on the Thursday. The finalists were the same as in 1893, with Lady Margaret Scott winning again, but by a closer margin of 3&2.
In 1895 the event was played at Royal Portrush. The semi-finals and final were played on the Friday, a format that was retained until the introduction of a 36-hole final in 1913. Margaret Scott won for the third time, beating Emma Lythgoe 5&4 in the final. The 1896 event at Hoylake produced a new winner, Amy Pascoe. In 1897 the championship was held in Scotland for the first time, at Gullane. It produced the first Scottish winner, with the final between two sisters, Edith Orr beating Theodora 4&3. The 1898 event at Great Yarmouth & Caister was won by Lena Thomson, the losing finalist in 1896. She beat Elinor Nevile 6&5 in the final.
From 1899 to 1907 the championship was dominated by Irish women. May Hezlet won in 1899, 1902 and 1907 with Rhona Adair winning in 1900 and 1903. Four other Irish golfers were losing finalists, Jessie Magill in 1899, Florence Walker-Leigh in 1903, Maud Stuart in 1905 and Florence Hezlet, May's sister, in 1907. The 1899 event was held at County Down. May Hezlet met Magill in the final. Magill had previously defeated Hezlet during the 1898 final of the Irish Women's Amateur Close Championship, but on this occasion May Hezlet had won the close championship the previous week and she repeated her success, winning 2&1. She was less than two weeks past her 17th birthday.
Rhona Adair won the following year at Westward Ho!, beating Isabel Nevile 6&5 in the final.
The 1901 championship was held in Aberdovey in Wales, and was won by Molly Graham who beat Adair in the final. May Hezlet won for the second time in 1902, beating Elinor Nevile at the 20th hole. Nevile was the sister of the 1900 runner-up Isabel Nevile. Grace Park, the wife of Mungo Park Jr. was one of the semi-finalists. There were three Irish semi-finalists for the 1903 championship at County Down. Adair won for the second time.
May Hezlet reached the final again in 1904 at Troon and met Lottie Dod. Dod was better known as a tennis player, having won the Wimbledon ladies' singles championship five times between 1887 and 1893. She had reached the semi-finals in 1898 and 1899 but this was her first final. In a close match Dod won by one hole.
In 1905, at Royal Cromer, another Irish golfer, Maud Stuart, reached the final but lost 3&2 to Bertha Thompson. 1906 was the first final since 1898 without an Irish lady. Thompson reached the final again but lost 4&3 to Alice Kennion, the first married woman to win the championship. The 1907 championship was played at County Down and three Irish women reached the semi-finals. May Hezlet won for the third time, beating her sister Florence Hezlet 2&1 in the final.
The 1908 championship was played on the Old Course at St Andrews. Maud Titterton met Dorothy Campbell in the final. It was the first final for both players, although both players had previously reached the semi-finals, Titterton in 1897 and Campbell in 1904, 1905 and 1906. Titterton won a close match at the 19th hole. The start of the final was delayed because Campbell had not won her semi-final until the 22nd hole.
Campbell won her first championship in 1909, beating Florence Hezlet 4&3 in the final at Birkdale. None of the four semi-finalists at Westward Ho! in 1910 had reached that stage before. Elsie Grant Suttie won the title. Campbell reached the final again in 1911 at Royal Portrush, meeting Violet Hezlet, the third of the Hezlet sisters to reach the final. Campbell won the match 3&2, winning her second championship. The 1912 championship at Turnberry was won by Gladys Ravenscroft who beat Stella Temple 3&2 in the final.
In 1913 the final at Lytham & St Annes was extended to 36-holes. It was played on a Friday, with the quarter and semi-finals played on the previous day. Canadian Violet Pooley was one of the semi-finalists. Muriel Dodd beat Evelyn Chubb in the final. Dodd won five holes in a row from the 4th to the 8th holes of the morning round and eventually won 8&6. Dodd was beaten in the semi-finals of the 1914 championship at Hunstanton. The final was between Cecil Leitch and Gladys Ravenscroft. Ravenscroft had beaten Leitch in the semi-finals in 1912, but on this occasion Leitch won a close match 2&1, the morning round having finished all-square.
A championship was planned for October 1919 at Burnham & Berrow but was cancelled because of a railway strike. The first post World War I championship was played at Royal County Down in May 1920. Cecil Leitch, the defending champion from 1914, met Molly Griffiths in the final. Leitch was 6 holes up after the morning round and won 7&6.
Joyce Wethered made her first appearance at Turnberry in 1921. She and Leitch would dominate the event in the 1920s, meeting in the final in 1921, 1922 and 1925. They had also met in the final of the 1920 English Women's Amateur Championship, with Wethered winning. In the 1921 Women's Amateur Championship, the result was reversed. Leitch was 8 up with 9 holes to play and, although Wethered then won four holes in a row, Leitch won the match 4&3.
When the pair met again in 1922 at Prince's, the morning round was close, with Wethered a hole ahead. However she dominated in the afternoon, eventually winning 9&7. In 1923 Leitch was injured and Wethered was beaten in the semi-finals, leaving a final between Doris Chambers and Muriel Macbeth. In the final, Macbeth was 3 up after the morning round but Chambers won the match at the 36th hole.
In 1924, at Royal Portrush, Wethered and Leitch met in quarter-finals. Wethered won 6&4 and went on to win her second title. At Troon in 1925, Wethered and Leitch met in the final for the third time. The match was level after 18 holes and still level after 27. Wethered then took a two-hole lead before Leitch won the last holes to level the match. The match ended at the 37th hole with Wethered winning her third championship.
The 1926 championship was due to be played in Harlech in May, but was postponed because of the general strike. The event was rearranged to June, although the Women's Home Internationals, which generally preceded the championship, were cancelled. Joyce Wethered did not enter and Cecil Leitch won, the first woman to win the event four times. A large number of the original entrants scratched, and the final was played a day earlier than usual, on a Thursday.
Simone de la Chaume won the championship in 1927, the first French woman to do so. She had been a semi-finalist in 1926 and was also the first French winner of the Girls Amateur Championship, in 1924. There was another French winner in 1928 when Manette le Blan won the title.
The 1929 championship was played on the Old Course at St Andrews. Wethered came out of retirement to play and met the American, Glenna Collett, in the final. Collett had already won the U.S. Women's Amateur three times. The final created great public interest. After 9 holes Collett led by 5 but her lead was reduced to 2 after the morning round. Wethered then won 7 of the first 9 holes in the afternoon to be 4 up and eventually won 3&1, her fourth win in the championship.
Collett reached the final again at Formby in 1930 and met Diana Fishwick in the final. Fishwick was competing in the event for the first time, although she had won the Girls Amateur Championship in 1927 and 1928. Fishwick led by 5 after the first round and eventually won 4&3.
The format was changed at Portmarnock in 1931, with the introduction of stroke-play qualifying. Two rounds were played, on Saturday and Monday, with the leading 64 advancing to the match-play stage, which took place from Tuesday to Friday. Enid Wilson led the qualifying by 8 strokes, after rounds of 75 and 83, with Wanda Morgan in second place. The two met in the final with Wilson winning 7&6. Wilson had been a semi-finalist three times previously and had won the English title in 1928 and 1930.
In 1932 at Saunton the qualifying days were changed to Friday and Saturday with the match-play played from Monday to Thursday. An American Maureen Orcutt led the qualifying with Wilson three strokes behind. Orcutt was beaten in the first round: Wilson defeated another American Leona Cheney in the semi-finals and retained the championship, winning by a score of 7&6. In 1933 at Gleneagles, Wilson won the title for the third year in succession, having beaten Doris Park, in the semi-finals.
The 1934 championship at Royal Porthcawl produced two new finalists with Helen Holm beating Pam Barton in the final. Enid Wilson had been excluded from the event as she was deemed to have lost her amateur status.
In 1935, Pam Barton reached the final again, beating her sister Mervyn in the semi-finals, but lost, this time to Wanda Morgan. In 1936 Bridget Newell led the qualifying and reached the final where she met Pam Barton. Barton won the final 7&5 to win her first championship. The 1937 championship was played at Turnberry. Bridget Newell had died just before the event, causing the Home Internationals to be cancelled. However, the championship continued as normal. There had been a reduction in the number of entries and qualifying was dropped, the event returning to the earlier Monday to Friday dates. There was all-Scottish final, Jessie Anderson beating Doris Park 6&4. Another Scot, Helen Holm, won for the second time in 1938. Pam Barton won her second title in 1939 beating Jean Marks in the final at Royal Portrush.
The championship resumed at Hunstanton in 1946 but was not played until late in the year, finishing in early October. It was won by Jean Hetherington who beat Philomena Garvey in a close final. The 1947 event was held in June and was won by Babe Zaharias, the first American winner. There was an all-American semi-final in 1948 with Louise Suggs beating Dorothy Kielty and winning the title the following day.
Frances Stephens won in 1949, beating Garvey in the semi-finals and another Irish woman, Clarrie Reddan, in the final. Stephens reached four finals in six years from 1949 to 1954, winning again in 1954 but losing in 1951 and 1952. The Vicomtesse de St Sauveur, Lally Segard, won in 1950 beating Jessie Valentine, the 1937 champion, in the final. 1950 also saw the first Australian semi-finalist, Judith Percy.
The 1951 championship was won by Kitty MacCann, the first Irish winner since 1907, while Moira Paterson won in 1952. Garvey reached the final again in 1953 but lost to the Canadian Marlene Stewart. Stewart reached the semi-finals the following year, 1954, but lost to Stephens at the 22nd hole. Stephens went on to win the title.
Jessie Valentine won for the second time in 1955, 18 years after her first success, beating Barbara Romack in the final. There were three American semi-finalists in 1956, and all-American final, with Wiffi Smith beating Mary Patton Janssen. Philomena Garvey beat Valentine in the 1957 final, having twice lost in the final previously. Valentine reached the final again in 1958, her third appearance in four years, and won the title for the third time. Elizabeth Price won in 1959, having previously lost two finals.
As in 1956, there were three American semi-finalists in 1960. Barbara McIntire beat Garvey in the final. Marley Spearman won in 1961 and repeated her success in 1962, becoming the first woman to successfully defend the title since Enid Wilson in 1933. From 1962 to 1966 the championship was played in late September or early October, returning to June from 1967.
French women had considerable success in the 1960s. Brigitte Varangot won in 1963, 1965 and 1968 while Catherine Lacoste won in 1969. In addition Claudine Cros-Rubin reached the final in 1968 and was a losing semi-finalist three times, in 1961, 1963 and 1965. The American Carol Sorenson won in 1964, beating Bridget Jackson at the 37th hole. Liz Chadwick won successive titles in 1966 and 1967, matching Marley Spearman's achievement in 1961 and 1962. In 1965 the championship finished in early October. The final was reduced from 36 to 18 holes. It was the first 18-hole final since 1912.
Qualifying was reintroduced in 1966, for the first time since the 1930s. 36 holes were played on the Tuesday and Wednesday with the match-play on Thursday to Saturday. Originally it was intended that 64 players would qualify, but with the prospect of early morning fog, this was reduced to 32. The match-play draw was seeded.
There were also 32 qualifiers in 1967, the final remaining at 18 holes even though it was the only match on the final day. In 1968, bad weather reduced the qualifying to one round and, as a result, the number of qualifiers was increased to 64. Lacoste led the qualifying in three of the first four years, 1966, 1967 and 1969, and went on to win the championship in 1969.
In 1970, Dinah Oxley repeated Catherine Lacoste's achievement in 1969, leading the qualifying and then winning the championship, beating Belle Robertson in the final, Robertson's third loss in a final. Beverly Huke nearly repeated the feat in 1971 but lost in the final to Mickey Walker. At Hunstanton in 1972 the number of qualifiers was increased to 64, with the semi-final and final played on the same day. Walker retained her title beating Claudine Cros-Rubin in the final. The number of qualifiers returned to 32 in 1973. Walker
reached the final for the third successive year but lost to Ann Irvin. The 1974 and 1975 championships were won by Americans, Carol Semple and Nancy Roth Syms. There were 64 qualifiers in 1975 but the number again returned to 32, from 1976. In 1976, Alison Sheard was the first South African to reached the final, but she lost to Cathy Panton, the first Scottish winner for 18 years. Angela Uzielli won in 1977 while Edwina Kennedy was the first Australian winner in 1978. Kennedy led the qualifying in 1979 but lost to another Australian, Jane Lock in the semi-finals. Lock was beaten by Maureen Madill in the final.
Anne Quast Sander won in 1980 beating Liv Wollin in the final. In 1981 Belle Robertson led the qualifying and went on to win the championship, beating another Scot, Wilma Aitken, in the final. Robertson, aged 45, became the oldest champion. Kitrina Douglas won in 1982 and she was followed by Jill Thornhill in 1983.
An American,Jody Rosenthal, won in 1984 despite having taken 90 in the first qualifying round and only just qualifying. Lillian Behan, from Ireland, won in 1985 while 17-year-old New Zealander Marnie McGuire won in 1986. McGuire beat Australian Louise Briers in the final, and became the youngest winner since May Hezlet in 1899. Linda Bayman led the qualifying and was top seed in 1987, 1988 and 1989, but failed to get past the second round. Janet Collingham, Joanne Furby and Helen Dobson won in those three years.
Julie Hall won the championship in 1990, while Valerie Michaud won in 1991, beating Wendy Doolan in the final. Pernille Carlson Pedersen was the first Danish winner in 1992 while Catriona Lambert won in 1993. Emma Duggleby won in 1994 beating Cécilia Mourgue d'Algue in the final, while Hall won for the second time in 1995, beating Kristel Mourgue d'Algue, Cécilia's daughter, in the final.
An American, Kelli Kuehne won in 1996, while there was another Scottish winner, Alison Rose in 1997. Kim Rostron won in 1998, beating Gwladys Nocera in the final, the third losing finalist from France in five years. However, Marine Monnet, from France, won in 1999 beating Rebecca Hudson in the final.
In 2000, Rebecca Hudson led the qualifying, was top seed and won the championship, beating Emma Duggleby in the final. She was top seed again in 2001 but lost in the second round. She had her second win in 2002, her third final in four years.
Continental European golfers dominated from 2001 to 2009. Five Spanish women won the championship in this period: Marta Prieto in 2001, Elisa Serramià in 2003, Belén Mozo in 2006, Carlota Ciganda in 2007 and Azahara Muñoz in 2009. Ciganda led the qualifying in 2007, completing the double of being top seed and winning the event. In 2009 Muñoz was joint leader in the qualifying but seeded second on countback. Swedish women also had successes with Louise Stahle winning in 2004 and 2005, with Anna Nordqvist winning in 2008 after being runner-up in 2006 and 2007. Stahle was the top seed when she won in 2005.
British women won the championship from 2010 to 2013. Kelly Tidy won in 2010 while Lauren Taylor beat Tidy in the 2011 semi-finals and went on to win in the championship and, at 16, becoming the youngest winner of the event. Stephanie Meadow won in 2012 while 17-year-old Georgia Hall won in 2013. Hall had been a semi-finalist in 2012. Golfers from continental Europe won from 2014 to 2016. Emily Kristine Pedersen won in 2014 beating Leslie Cloots in the final, while Céline Boutier won in 2015 beating Linnea Ström. 15-year-old Julia Engström won in 2016, replacing Taylor as the youngest winner of the event.
At the start of 2017, the Ladies' Golf Union merged with The R&A, which took over the organisation of the championship. Leona Maguire won in 2017, beating Ainhoa Olarra in the final. Leonie Harm beat Stephanie Lau in the 2018 final. In 2019 the name of the event was changed from the "Ladies' British Open Amateur Championship" to "The Women's Amateur Championship". Emily Toy beat New Zealander Amelia Garvey in the final. The 2020 championship was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and was not played until late August. Qualifying was reduced to a single round. Aline Krauter beat Annabell Fuller in the final. The format was revised in 2021 with the final extended from 18 to 36 holes. Louise Duncan beat Jóhanna Lea Lúðvíksdóttir 9&8 in the final, the first 36-hole final since 1964.
Winners
Source:
Multiple winners
Eighteen players have won more than one Women's Amateur Championship, through 2022:
4 wins: Cecil Leitch, Joyce Wethered
3 wins: Margaret Scott, May Hezlet, Enid Wilson, Jessie Valentine, Brigitte Varangot
2 wins: Rhona Adair, Dorothy Campbell, Helen Holm, Pam Barton, Frances Stephens, Marley Spearman, Liz Chadwick, Mickey Walker, Julie Hall, Rebecca Hudson, Louise Stahle
Eleven players have won both the Women's Amateur and U.S. Women's Amateur Championships, through 2022:
Dorothy Campbell:^ 1909, 1911 British; 1909, 1910, 1924 U.S.
Gladys Ravenscroft: 1912 British; 1913 U.S.
Pam Barton:^ 1936, 1939 British; 1936 U.S.
Babe Zaharias: 1947 British; 1946 U.S.
Louise Suggs: 1948 British; 1947 U.S.
Marlene Stewart Streit: 1953 British; 1956 U.S.
Barbara McIntire: 1960 British; 1959, 1964 U.S.
Catherine Lacoste:^ 1969 British; 1969 U.S.
Carol Semple Thompson: 1974 British; 1973 U.S.
Anne Quast: 1980 British; 1958, 1961, 1963 U.S.
Kelli Kuehne:^ 1996 British; 1996 U.S.
^ Won both in same year.
Stroke-play qualifying
Stroke-play qualifying was first used from 1931 to 1936. 36 holes were played with the leading 64 advancing to the match-play stage. There was no seeding. In 1931 qualifying was on Saturday and Monday but was then moved to Friday and Saturday. The leading qualifiers in this period were:
1931 Enid Wilson (158)
1932 Maureen Orcutt (151)
1933 Doris Park (153)
1934 Molly Gourlay (152)
1935 Ina Clarke (158)
1936 Bridget Newell (152)
Qualifying was reintroduced in 1966. Originally it was intended that 64 players would qualify but because of weather conditions, this was reduced to 32. The match-play draw was seeded. The number of qualifiers remained at 32 in 1967. In 1968, bad weather reduced the qualifying to one round and, as a result, the number of qualifiers was increased to 64, returning to 32 in 1969. The number of qualifiers was generally 32, although in 1972, 1975, 1982 and 1988 it was increased to 64. In 1990 the number of qualifiers was increased to 64 where it has remained.
1966 Catherine Lacoste (148)
1967 Catherine Lacoste (150)
1968 Peggy Conley (77)
1969 Catherine Lacoste (150)
1970 Dinah Oxley (149)
1971 Beverly Huke (148)
1972 Belle Robertson (155)
1973 Anne Sander (143)
1974 Ann Irvin, Anne Sander+ (150)
1975 Carol Semple (144)
1976 Debbie Massey (148)
1977 Julia Greenhalgh (150)
1978 Beth Daniel (145)
1979 Edwina Kennedy (144)
1980 Brenda Goldsmith (150)
1981 Belle Robertson (145)
1982 Marie-Laure de Taya+, Marta Figueras-Dotti (145)
1983 Mary Gallagher, Beverley New+ (153)
1984 Wilma Aitken (152)
1985 Marie-Laure de Taya (152)
1986 Jill Thornhill (145)
1987 Linda Bayman+, Karen Davies (147)
1988 Linda Bayman (145)
1989 Linda Bayman (147)
1990 Lisa Hackney, Kathryn Imrie+, Martina Koch (142)
1991 Jane Shearwood, Aline Van der Haegen+ (147)
1992 Alison Rose (148)
1993 Janice Moodie (145)
1994 Julie Hall (142)
1995 Julie Hall (144)
1996 Eileen Rose Power (144)
1997 Janice Moodie (137)
1998 Karine Icher (145)
1999 Kim Andrew+, Rebecca Hudson, Gwladys Nocera (151)
2000 Rebecca Hudson+, Jessica Lindbergh (141)
2001 Rebecca Hudson (137)
2002 Alison Coffey (143)
2003 Danielle Masters (145)
2004 Christine Boucher (69)
2005 Louise Stahle (145)
2006 Azahara Muñoz (142)
2007 Carlota Ciganda (138)
2008 Caroline Hedwall (140)
2009 Carlota Ciganda+, Azahara Muñoz (138)
2010 Caroline Hedwall (143)
2011 Camilla Hedberg (140)
2012 Céline Boutier, Sally Watson+ (141)
2013 Nanna Madsen, Su-Hyun Oh+ (141)
2014 Laetitia Beck (141)
2015 Leona Maguire (135)
2016 Leslie Cloots (142)
2017 Paula Grant (138)
2018 Elodie Chapelet, Elin Esborn+, Esther Henseleit (143)
2019 Hannah Screen (139)
2020 Rosie Belsham, Amalie Leth-Nissen+, Carolina Melgrati, Emily Price, Isabelle Simpson (71)
2021 Ragnhildur Kristinsdóttir (140)
2022 Emilie Alba Paltrinieri, Ami Yamashita+ (138)
2023 Beth Coulter (139)
+ Number one seed. If two or more players are tied, the seeding is decided on countback, the player with the lowest second round score being seeded higher. If players are still tied, the last 9 holes of the second round are used.
Host courses
The Women's Amateur Championship has been played at the following courses, listed in order of number of tournaments hosted (as of 2022):
9 Royal County Down Golf Club, Royal Portrush Golf Club
6 Hunstanton Golf Club, Royal St David's Golf Club
5 Royal Troon Golf Club
4 Ganton Golf Club, Gullane Golf Club, Royal Lytham & St Annes Golf Club, St Andrews Links
3 Burnham & Berrow Golf Club, Carnoustie Golf Links, Royal Birkdale Golf Club, Royal Liverpool Golf Club, Royal Porthcawl Golf Club, Turnberry Golf Club
2 Alwoodley Golf Club, Hillside Golf Club, Gleneagles, Littlestone Golf Club, Prince's Golf Club, Royal Cinque Ports Golf Club, Royal North Devon Golf Club, Saunton Golf Club, Silloth-on-Solway Golf Club, Walton Heath Golf Club
1 Aberdovey Golf Club, Ashburnham Golf Club, The Berkshire Golf Club, Broadstone Golf Club, Conwy Golf Club, Cruden Bay Golf Club, Dunbar Golf Club, Dundonald Links, Formby Golf Club, Great Yarmouth & Caister Golf Club, Kilmarnock (Barassie) Golf Club, Ladybank Golf Club, Lindrick Golf Club, Little Aston Golf Club, Nairn Golf Club, Newport Golf Club, North Berwick West Links, Notts (Hollinwell) Golf Club, Portmarnock Golf Club, Pannal Golf Club, Portmarnock Golf Club, Portstewart Golf Club, Prestwick Golf Club, Pyle & Kenfig Golf Club, Royal Cromer Golf Club, Royal St George's Golf Club, Southport and Ainsdale Golf Club, Sunningdale Golf Club, West Lancashire Golf Club, West Sussex Golf Club, Woodhall Spa Golf Club
Future sites
2023 – Prince's Golf Club
2024 – Portmarnock Golf Club
References
External links
Women's major golf championships
R&A championships
Amateur golf tournaments in the United Kingdom
1893 establishments in England
Recurring sporting events established in 1893
Women's golf in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding%20%28memory%29
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Encoding (memory)
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Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation, which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.
History
Encoding is still relatively new and unexplored but origins of encoding date back to age old philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato. A major figure in the history of encoding is Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909). Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in the field of memory research. Using himself as a subject he studied how we learn and forget information by repeating a list of nonsense syllables to the rhythm of a metronome until they were committed to his memory. These experiments led him to suggest the learning curve. He used these relatively meaningless words so that prior associations between meaningful words would not influence learning. He found that lists that allowed associations to be made and semantic meaning was apparent were easier to recall. Ebbinghaus' results paved the way for experimental psychology in memory and other mental processes.
During the 1900s, further progress in memory research was made. Ivan Pavlov began research pertaining to classical conditioning. His research demonstrated the ability to create a semantic relationship between two unrelated items.
In 1932, Frederic Bartlett proposed the idea of mental schemas. This model proposed that whether new information would be encoded was dependent on its consistency with prior knowledge (mental schemas). This model also suggested that information not present at the time of encoding would be added to memory if it was based on schematic knowledge of the world. In this way, encoding was found to be influenced by prior knowledge.
With the advance of Gestalt theory came the realization that memory for encoded information was often perceived as different from the stimuli that triggered it. It was also influenced by the context that the stimuli were embedded in.
With advances in technology, the field of neuropsychology emerged and with it a biological basis for theories of encoding. In 1949, Donald Hebb looked at the neuroscience aspect of encoding and stated that "neurons that fire together wire together," implying that encoding occurred as connections between neurons were established through repeated use.
The 1950s and 60's saw a shift to the information processing approach to memory based on the invention of computers, followed by the initial suggestion that encoding was the process by which information is entered into memory. In 1956, George Armitage Miller wrote his paper on how short-term memory is limited to seven items, plus-or-minus two, called The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. This number was appended when studies done on chunking revealed that seven, plus or minus two could also refer to seven "packets of information".
In 1974, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed their model of working memory, which consists of the central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological loop as a method of encoding. In 2000, Baddeley added the episodic buffer. Simultaneously Endel Tulving (1983) proposed the idea of encoding specificity whereby context was again noted as an influence on encoding.
Types
There are two main approaches to coding information: the physiological approach, and the mental approach. The physiological approach looks at how a stimulus is represented by neurons firing in the brain, while the mental approach looks at how the stimulus is represented in the mind.
There are many types of mental encoding that are used, such as visual, elaborative, organizational, acoustic, and semantic. However, this is not an extensive list
Visual encoding
Visual encoding is the process of converting images and visual sensory information to memory stored in the brain. This means that people can convert the new information that they stored into mental pictures (Harrison, C., Semin, A.,(2009). Psychology. New York p. 222) Visual sensory information is temporarily stored within our iconic memory and working memory before being encoded into permanent long-term storage. Baddeley's model of working memory suggests that visual information is stored in the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
The visuo-spatial sketchpad is connected to the central executive, which is a key area of working memory. The amygdala is another complex structure that has an important role in visual encoding. It accepts visual input in addition to input, from other systems, and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli.
Elaborative encoding
Elaborative encoding is the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory. Memories are a combination of old and new information, so the nature of any particular memory depends as much on the old information already in our memories as it does on the new information coming in through our senses. In other words, how we remember something depends on how we think about it at the time. Many studies have shown that long-term retention is greatly enhanced by elaborative encoding.
Semantic encoding
Semantic encoding is the processing and encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a context. Various strategies can be applied such as chunking and mnemonics to aid in encoding, and in some cases, allow deep processing, and optimizing retrieval.
Words studied in semantic or deep encoding conditions are better recalled as compared to both easy and hard groupings of nonsemantic or shallow encoding conditions with response time being the deciding variable. Brodmann's areas 45, 46, and 47 (the left inferior prefrontal cortex or LIPC) showed significantly more activation during semantic encoding conditions compared to nonsemantic encoding conditions regardless of the difficulty of the nonsemantic encoding task presented. The same area showing increased activation during initial semantic encoding will also display decreasing activation with repetitive semantic encoding of the same words. This suggests the decrease in activation with repetition is process specific occurring when words are semantically reprocessed but not when they are nonsemantically reprocessed. Lesion and neuroimaging studies suggest that the orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for initial encoding and that activity in the left lateral prefrontal cortex correlates with the semantic organization of encoded information.
Acoustic encoding
Acoustic encoding is the encoding of auditory impulses. According to Baddeley, processing of auditory information is aided by the concept of the phonological loop, which allows input within our echoic memory to be sub vocally rehearsed in order to facilitate remembering.
When we hear any word, we do so by hearing individual sounds, one at a time. Hence the memory of the beginning of a new word is stored in our echoic memory until the whole sound has been perceived and recognized as a word.
Studies indicate that lexical, semantic and phonological factors interact in verbal working memory. The phonological similarity effect (PSE), is modified by word concreteness. This emphasizes that verbal working memory performance cannot exclusively be attributed to phonological or acoustic representation but also includes an interaction of linguistic representation. What remains to be seen is whether linguistic representation is expressed at the time of recall or whether the representational methods used (such as recordings, videos, symbols, etc.) participate in a more fundamental role in encoding and preservation of information in memory. The brain relies primarily on acoustic (aka phonological) encoding for use in short-term storage and primarily semantic encoding for use in long-term storage.
Other senses
Tactile encoding is the processing and encoding of how something feels, normally through touch. Neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) react to vibrotactile stimuli by activating in synchronization with each series of vibrations. Odors and tastes may also lead to encode.
Organizational encoding is the course of classifying information permitting to the associations amid a sequence of terms.
Long-Term Potentiation
Encoding is a biological event that begins with perception. All perceived and striking sensations travel to the brain's thalamus where all these sensations are combined into one single experience. The hippocampus is responsible for analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long-term memory; these various threads of information are stored in various parts of the brain. However, the exact way in which these pieces are identified and recalled later remains unknown.
Encoding is achieved using a combination of chemicals and electricity. Neurotransmitters are released when an electrical pulse crosses the synapse which serves as a connection from nerve cells to other cells. The dendrites receive these impulses with their feathery extensions. A phenomenon called long-term potentiation allows a synapse to increase strength with increasing numbers of transmitted signals between the two neurons. For that to happen, NMDA receptor, which influences the flow of information between neurons by controlling the initiation of long-term potentiation in most hippocampal pathways, need to come to the play. For these NMDA receptors to be activated, there must be two conditions. Firstly, glutamate has to be released and bound to the NMDA receptor site on postsynaptic neurons. Secondly, excitation has to take place in postsynaptic neurons. These cells also organize themselves into groups specializing in different kinds of information processing. Thus, with new experiences the brain creates more connections and may 'rewire'. The brain organizes and reorganizes itself in response to one's experiences, creating new memories prompted by experience, education, or training. Therefore, the use of a brain reflects how it is organised. This ability to re-organize is especially important if ever a part of the brain becomes damaged. Scientists are unsure of whether the stimuli of what we do not recall are filtered out at the sensory phase or if they are filtered out after the brain examines their significance.
Mapping Activity
Positron emission tomography (PET) demonstrates a consistent functional anatomical blueprint of hippocampal activation during episodic encoding and retrieval. Activation in the hippocampal region associated with episodic memory encoding has been shown to occur in the rostral portion of the region whereas activation associated with episodic memory retrieval occurs in the caudal portions. This is referred to as the Hippocampal memory encoding and retrieval model or HIPER model.
One study used PET to measure cerebral blood flow during encoding and recognition of faces in both young and older participants. Young people displayed increased cerebral blood flow in the right hippocampus and the left prefrontal and temporal cortices during encoding and in the right prefrontal and parietal cortex during recognition. Elderly people showed no significant activation in areas activated in young people during encoding, however they did show right prefrontal activation during recognition. Thus it may be concluded that as we grow old, failing memories may be the consequence of a failure to adequately encode stimuli as demonstrated in the lack of cortical and hippocampal activation during the encoding process.
Recent findings in studies focusing on patients with post traumatic stress disorder demonstrate that amino acid transmitters, glutamate and GABA, are intimately implicated in the process of factual memory registration, and suggest that amine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine-epinephrine and serotonin, are involved in encoding emotional memory.
Molecular Perspective
The process of encoding is not yet well understood, however key advances have shed light on the nature of these mechanisms. Encoding begins with any novel situation, as the brain will interact and draw conclusions from the results of this interaction. These learning experiences have been known to trigger a cascade of molecular events leading to the formation of memories. These changes include the modification of neural synapses, modification of proteins, creation of new synapses, activation of gene expression and new protein synthesis. One study found that high central nervous system levels of acetylcholine during wakefulness aided in new memory encoding, while low levels of acetylcholine during slow-wave sleep aided in consolidation of memories. However, encoding can occur on different levels. The first step is short-term memory formation, followed by the conversion to a long-term memory, and then a long-term memory consolidation process.
Synaptic Plasticity
Synaptic plasticity is the ability of the brain to strengthen, weaken, destroy and create neural synapses and is the basis for learning. These molecular distinctions will identify and indicate the strength of each neural connection. The effect of a learning experience depends on the content of such an experience. Reactions that are favored will be reinforced and those that are deemed unfavorable will be weakened. This shows that the synaptic modifications that occur can operate either way, in order to be able to make changes over time depending on the current situation of the organism. In the short term, synaptic changes may include the strengthening or weakening of a connection by modifying the preexisting proteins leading to a modification in synapse connection strength. In the long term, entirely new connections may form or the number of synapses at a connection may be increased, or reduced.
The Encoding Process
A significant short-term biochemical change is the covalent modification of pre-existing proteins in order to modify synaptic connections that are already active. This allows data to be conveyed in the short term, without consolidating anything for permanent storage. From here a memory or an association may be chosen to become a long-term memory, or forgotten as the synaptic connections eventually weaken. The switch from short to long-term is the same concerning both implicit memory and explicit memory. This process is regulated by a number of inhibitory constraints, primarily the balance between protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Finally, long term changes occur that allow consolidation of the target memory. These changes include new protein synthesis, the formation of new synaptic connections, and finally the activation of gene expression in accordance with the new neural configuration.
The encoding process has been found to be partially mediated by serotonergic interneurons, specifically in regard to sensitization as blocking these interneurons prevented sensitization entirely. However, the ultimate consequences of these discoveries have yet to be identified.
Furthermore, the learning process has been known to recruit a variety of modulatory transmitters in order to create and consolidate memories. These transmitters cause the nucleus to initiate processes required for neuronal growth and long-term memory, mark specific synapses for the capture of long-term processes, regulate local protein synthesis, and even appear to mediate attentional processes required for the formation and recall of memories.
Encoding and Genetics
Human memory, including the process of encoding, is known to be a heritable trait that is controlled by more than one gene. In fact, twin studies suggest that genetic differences are responsible for as much as 50% of the variance seen in memory tasks.
Proteins identified in animal studies have been linked directly to a molecular cascade of reactions leading to memory formation, and a sizable number of these proteins are encoded by genes that are expressed in humans as well. In fact, variations within these genes appear to be associated with memory capacity and have been identified in recent human genetic studies.
Complementary Processes
The idea that the brain is separated into two complementary processing networks (task positive and task negative) has recently become an area of increasing interest. The task positive network deals with externally oriented processing whereas the task negative network deals with internally oriented processing. Research indicates that these networks are not exclusive and some tasks overlap in their activation. A study done in 2009 shows encoding success and novelty detection activity within the task-positive network have significant overlap and have thus been concluded to reflect common association of externally oriented processing. It also demonstrates how encoding failure and retrieval success share significant overlap within the task negative network indicating common association of internally oriented processing. Finally, a low level of overlap between encoding success and retrieval success activity and between encoding failure and novelty detection activity respectively indicate opposing modes or processing. In sum task positive and task negative networks can have common associations during the performance of different tasks.
Depth of Processing
Different levels of processing influence how well information is remembered. This idea was first introduced by Craik and Lockhart (1972). They claimed that the level of processing information was dependent upon the depth at which the information was being processed; mainly, shallow processing and deep processing. According to Craik and Lockhart, the encoding of sensory information would be considered shallow processing, as it is highly automatic and requires very little focus. Deeper level processing requires more attention being given to the stimulus and engages more cognitive systems to encode the information. An exception to deep processing is if the individual has been exposed to the stimulus frequently and it has become common in the individual’s life, such as the person’s name. These levels of processing can be illustrated by maintenance and elaborate rehearsal.
Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal is a shallow form of processing information which involves focusing on an object without thought to its meaning or its association with other objects. For example, the repetition of a series of numbers is a form of maintenance rehearsal. In contrast, elaborative or relational rehearsal is a process in which you relate new material to information already stored in Long-term memory. It's a deep form of processing information and involves thought of the object's meaning as well as making connections between the object, past experiences and the other objects of focus. Using the example of numbers, one might associate them with dates that are personally significant such as your parents' birthdays (past experiences) or perhaps you might see a pattern in the numbers that helps you to remember them.
Due to the deeper level of processing that occurs with elaborative rehearsal it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal in creating new memories. This has been demonstrated in people's lack of knowledge of the details in everyday objects. For example, in one study where Americans were asked about the orientation of the face on their country's penny few recalled this with any degree of certainty. Despite the fact that it is a detail that is often seen, it is not remembered as there is no need to because the color discriminates the penny from other coins. The ineffectiveness of maintenance rehearsal, simply being repeatedly exposed to an item, in creating memories has also been found in people's lack of memory for the layout of the digits 0-9 on calculators and telephones.
Maintenance rehearsal has been demonstrated to be important in learning but its effects can only be demonstrated using indirect methods such as lexical decision tasks, and word stem completion which are used to assess implicit learning. In general, however previous learning by maintenance rehearsal is not apparent when memory is being tested directly or explicitly with questions like " Is this the word you were shown earlier?"
Intention to Learn
Studies have shown that the intention to learn has no direct effect on memory encoding. Instead, memory encoding is dependent on how deeply each item is encoded, which could be affected by intention to learn, but not exclusively. That is, intention to learn can lead to more effective learning strategies, and consequently, better memory encoding, but if you learn something incidentally (i.e. without intention to learn) but still process and learn the information effectively, it will get encoded just as well as something learnt with intention.
The effects of elaborative rehearsal or deep processing can be attributed to the number of connections made while encoding that increase the number of pathways available for retrieval.
Optimal Encoding
Organization
Organization is key to memory encoding. Researchers have discovered that our minds naturally organize information if the information received is not organized. One natural way information can be organized is through hierarchies. For example, the grouping mammals, reptiles, and amphibians is a hierarchy of the animal kingdom.
Depth of processing is also related to the organization of information. For example, the connections that are made between the to-be-remembered item, other to-be-remembered items, previous experiences, and context generate retrieval paths for the to-be-remembered item and can act as retrieval cues. These connections create organization on the to-be-remembered item, making it more memorable.
Visual Images
Another method used to enhance encoding is to associate images with words. Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) demonstrated the use of imagery and encoding in their research while using paired-associate learning. Researchers gave participants a list of 15-word-pairs, showing each participant the word pair for 5 seconds for each pair. One group was told to create a mental image of the two words in each pair in which the two items were interacting. The other group was told to use maintenance rehearsal to remember the information. When participants were later tested and asked to recall the second word in each word pairing, researchers found that those who had created visual images of the items interacting remembered over twice as many of the word pairings than those who used maintenance rehearsal.
Mnemonics
When memorizing simple material such as lists of words, mnemonics may be the best strategy, while "material already in long-term store [will be] unaffected". Mnemonic Strategies are an example of how finding organization within a set of items helps these items to be remembered. In the absence of any apparent organization within a group, organization can be imposed with the same memory enhancing results. An example of a mnemonic strategy that imposes organization is the peg-word system which associates the to-be-remembered items with a list of easily remembered items. Another example of a mnemonic device commonly used is the first letter of every word system or acronyms. When learning the colours in a rainbow most students learn the first letter of every color and impose their own meaning by associating it with a name such as Roy. G. Biv which stands for red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. In this way mnemonic devices not only help the encoding of specific items but also their sequence. For more complex concepts, understanding is the key to remembering. In a study done by Wiseman and Neisser in 1974 they presented participants with a picture (the picture was of a Dalmatian in the style of pointillism making it difficult to see the image). They found that memory for the picture was better if the participants understood what was depicted.
Chunking
Chunking is a memory strategy used to maximize the amount of information stored in short term memory in order to combine it into small, meaningful sections. By organizing objects into meaningful sections, these sections are then remembered as a unit rather than separate objects. As larger sections are analyzed and connections are made, information is weaved into meaningful associations and combined into fewer, but larger and more significant pieces of information. By doing so, the ability to hold more information in short-term memory increases. To be more specific, the use of chunking would increase recall from 5 to 8 items to 20 items or more as associations are made between these items.
Words are an example of chunking, where instead of simply perceiving letters we perceive and remember their meaningful wholes: words. The use of chunking increases the number of items we are able to remember by creating meaningful "packets" in which many related items are stored as one. The use of chunking is also seen in numbers. One of the most common forms of chunking seen on a daily basis is that of phone numbers. Generally speaking, phone numbers are separated into sections. An example of this would be 909 200 5890, in which numbers are grouped together to make up one whole. Grouping numbers in this manner, allows them to be recalled with more facility because of their comprehensible acquaintanceship.
State-Dependent Learning
For optimal encoding, connections are not only formed between the items themselves and past experiences, but also between the internal state or mood of the encoder and the situation they are in. The connections that are formed between the encoders internal state or the situation and the items to be remembered are State-dependent. In a 1975 study by Godden and Baddeley the effects of State-dependent learning were shown. They asked deep sea divers to learn various materials while either under water or on the side of the pool. They found that those who were tested in the same condition that they had learned the information in were better able to recall that information, i.e. those who learned the material under water did better when tested on that material under water than when tested on land. Context had become associated with the material they were trying to recall and therefore was serving as a retrieval cue. Results similar to these have also been found when certain smells are present at encoding.
However, although the external environment is important at the time of encoding in creating multiple pathways for retrieval, other studies have shown that simply creating the same internal state that was present at the time of encoding is sufficient to serve as a retrieval cue. Therefore, being in the same mindset as in at the time of encoding will help with recalling in the same way that being in the same situation helps recall. This effect called context reinstatement was demonstrated by Fisher and Craik 1977 when they matched retrieval cues with the way information was memorized.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing
Transfer-appropriate processing is a strategy for encoding that leads to successful retrieval. An experiment conducted by Morris and coworkers in 1977 proved that successful retrieval was a result of matching the type of processing used during encoding. During their experiment, their main findings were that an individual's ability to retrieve information was heavily influenced on whether the task at encoding matched the task during retrieval. In the first task, which consisted of the rhyming group, subjects were given a target word and then asked to review a different set of words. During this process, they were asked whether the new words rhymed with the target word. They were solely focusing on the rhyming rather than the actual meaning of the words. In the second task, individuals were also given a target word, followed by a series of new words. Rather than identify the ones that rhymed, the individual was to focus more on the meaning. As it turns out, the rhyming group, who identified the words that rhymed, was able to recall more words than those in the meaning group, who focused solely on their meaning. This study suggests that those who were focusing on rhyming in the first part of the task and on the second, were able to encode more efficiently. In transfer-appropriate processing, encoding occurs in two different stages. This helps demonstrate how stimuli were processed. In the first phase, the exposure to stimuli is manipulated in a way that matches the stimuli. The second phase then pulls heavily from what occurred in the first phase and how the stimuli was presented; it will match the task during encoding.
Encoding Specificity
The context of learning shapes how information is encoded. For instance, Kanizsa in 1979 showed a picture that could be interpreted as either a white vase on a black background or 2 faces facing each other on a white background. The participants were primed to see the vase. Later they were shown the picture again but this time they were primed to see the black faces on the white background. Although this was the same picture as they had seen before, when asked if they had seen this picture before, they said no. The reason for this was that they had been primed to see the vase the first time the picture was presented, and it was therefore unrecognizable the second time as two faces. This demonstrates that the stimulus is understood within the context it is learned in as well the general rule that what really constitutes good learning are tests that test what has been learned in the same way that it was learned. Therefore, to truly be efficient at remembering information, one must consider the demands that future recall will place on this information and study in a way that will match those demands.
Generation Effect
Another principle that may have the potential to aid encoding is the generation effect. The generation effect implies that learning is enhanced when individuals generate information or items themselves rather than reading the content. The key to properly apply the generation effect is to generate information, rather than passively selecting from information already available like in selecting an answer from a multiple-choice question In 1978, researchers Slameka and Graf conducted an experiment to better understand this effect. In this experiment, the participants were assigned to one of two groups, the read group or the generate group. The participants assigned to the read group were asked to simply read a list of paired words that were related, for example, horse-saddle. The participants assigned to the generate group were asked to fill in the blank letters of one of the related words in the pair. In other words, if the participant was given the word horse, they would need to fill in the last four letters of the word saddle.The researchers discovered that the group that was asked to fill in the blanks had better recall for these word pairs than the group that was asked to simply remember the word pairs.
Self-Reference Effect
Research illustrates that the self-reference effect aids encoding. The self-reference effect is the idea that individuals will encode information more effectively if they can personally relate to the information. For example, some people may claim that some birth dates of family members and friends are easier to remember than others. Some researchers claim this may be due to the self-reference effect. For example, some birth dates are easier for individuals to recall if the date is close to their own birth date or any other dates they deem important, such as anniversary dates.
Research has shown that after being encoded, self-reference effect is more effective when it comes to recalling memory than semantic encoding. Researchers have found that the self-reference effect goes more hand and hand with elaborative rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is more often than not, found to have a positive correlation with the improvement of retrieving information from memories. Self-reference effect has shown to be more effective when retrieving information after it has been encoded when being compared to other methods such as semantic encoding. Also, it is important to know that studies have concluded that self-reference effect can be used to encode information among all ages. However, they have determined that older adults are more limited in their use of the self-reference effect when being tested with younger adults.
Salience
When an item or idea is considered "salient", it means the item or idea appears to noticeably stand out. When information is salient, it may be encoded in memory more efficiently than if the information did not stand out to the learner. In reference to encoding, any event involving survival may be considered salient. Research has shown that survival may be related to the self-reference effect due to evolutionary mechanisms. Researchers have discovered that even words that are high in survival value are encoded better than words that are ranked lower in survival value. Some research supports evolution, claiming that the human species remembers content associated with survival. Some researchers wanted to see for themselves whether or not the findings of other research was accurate. The researchers decided to replicate an experiment with results that supported the idea that survival content is encoded better than other content. The findings of the experiment further suggested that survival content has a higher advantage of being encoded than other content.
Retrieval Practice
Studies have shown that an effective tool to increase encoding during the process of learning is to create and take practice tests. Using retrieval in order to enhance performance is called the testing effect, as it actively involves creating and recreating the material that one is intending to learn and increases one’s exposure to it. It is also a useful tool in connecting new information to information already stored in memory, as there is a close association between encoding and retrieval. Thus, creating practice tests allows the individual to process the information at a deeper level than simply reading over the material again or using a pre-made test. The benefits of using retrieval practice have been demonstrated in a study done where college students were asked to read a passage for seven minutes and were then given a two-minute break, during which they completed math problems. One group of participants was given seven minutes to write down as much of the passage as they could remember while the other group was given another seven minutes to reread the material. Later all participants were given a recall test at various increments (five minutes, 2 days, and one week) after the initial learning had taken place. The results of these tests showed that those who had been assigned to the group that had been given a recall test during their first day of the experiment were more likely to retain more information than those that had simply reread the text. This demonstrates that retrieval practice is a useful tool in encoding information into long term memory.
Computational Models of Memory Encoding
Computational models of memory encoding have been developed in order to better understand and simulate the mostly expected, yet sometimes wildly unpredictable, behaviors of human memory. Different models have been developed for different memory tasks, which include item recognition, cued recall, free recall, and sequence memory, in an attempt to accurately explain experimentally observed behaviors.
Item recognition
In item recognition, one is asked whether or not a given probe item has been seen before. It is important to note that the recognition of an item can include context. That is, one can be asked whether an item has been seen in a study list. So even though one may have seen the word "apple" sometime during their life, if it was not on the study list, it should not be recalled.
Item recognition can be modeled using Multiple trace theory and the attribute-similarity model. In brief, every item that one sees can be represented as a vector of the item's attributes, which is extended by a vector representing the context at the time of encoding, and is stored in a memory matrix of all items ever seen. When a probe item is presented, the sum of the similarities to each item in the matrix (which is inversely proportional to the sum of the distances between the probe vector and each item in the memory matrix) is computed. If the similarity is above a threshold value, one would respond, "Yes, I recognize that item." Given that context continually drifts by nature of a random walk, more recently seen items, which each share a similar context vector to the context vector at the time of the recognition task, are more likely to be recognized than items seen longer ago.
Cued Recall
In cued recall, an individual is presented with a stimulus, such as a list of words and then asked to remember as many of those words as possible. They are then given cues, such as categories, to help them remember what the stimuli were. An example of this would be to give a subject words such as meteor, star, space ship, and alien to memorize. Then providing them with the cue of "outer space" to remind them of the list of words given. Giving the subject cues, even when never originally mentioned, helped them recall the stimulus much better. These cues help guide the subjects to recall the stimuli they could not remember for themselves prior to being given a cue. Cues can essentially be anything that will help a memory that is deemed forgotten to resurface. An experiment conducted by Tulvig suggests that when subjects were given cues, they were able to recall the previously presented stimuli.
Cued recall can be explained by extending the attribute-similarity model used for item recognition. Because in cued recall, a wrong response can be given for a probe item, the model has to be extended accordingly to account for that. This can be achieved by adding noise to the item vectors when they are stored in the memory matrix. Furthermore, cued recall can be modeled in a probabilistic manner such that for every item stored in the memory matrix, the more similar it is to the probe item, the more likely it is to be recalled. Because the items in the memory matrix contain noise in their values, this model can account for incorrect recalls, such as mistakenly calling a person by the wrong name.
Free Recall
In free recall, one is allowed to recall items that were learned in any order. For example, you could be asked to name as many countries in Europe as you can. Free recall can be modeled using SAM (Search of Associative Memory) which is based on the dual-store model, first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. SAM consists of two main components: short-term store (STS) and long-term store (LTS). In brief, when an item is seen, it is pushed into STS where it resides with other items also in STS, until it displaced and put into LTS. The longer the item has been in STS, the more likely it is to be displaced by a new item. When items co-reside in STS, the links between those items are strengthened. Furthermore, SAM assumes that items in STS are always available for immediate recall.
SAM explains both primacy and recency effects. Probabilistically, items at the beginning of the list are more likely to remain in STS, and thus have more opportunities to strengthen their links to other items. As a result, items at the beginning of the list are made more likely to be recalled in a free-recall task (primacy effect). Because of the assumption that items in STS are always available for immediate recall, given that there were no significant distractors between learning and recall, items at the end of the list can be recalled excellently (recency effect).
Studies have shown that free recall is one of the most effective methods of studying and transferring information from short term memory to long term memory compared to item recognition and cued recall as greater relational processing is involved.
Incidentally, the idea of STS and LTS was motivated by the architecture of computers, which contain short-term and long-term storage.
Sequence Memory
Sequence memory is responsible for how we remember lists of things, in which ordering matters. For example, telephone numbers are an ordered list of one digit numbers. There are currently two main computational memory models that can be applied to sequence encoding: associative chaining and positional coding.
Associative chaining theory states that every item in a list is linked to its forward and backward neighbors, with forward links being stronger than backward links, and links to closer neighbors being stronger than links to farther neighbors. For example, associative chaining predicts the tendencies of transposition errors, which occur most often with items in nearby positions. An example of a transposition error would be recalling the sequence "apple, orange, banana" instead of "apple, banana, orange."
Positional coding theory suggests that every item in a list is associated to its position in the list. For example, if the list is "apple, banana, orange, mango" apple will be associated to list position 1, banana to 2, orange to 3, and mango to 4. Furthermore, each item is also, albeit more weakly, associated to its index +/- 1, even more weakly to +/- 2, and so forth. So banana is associated not only to its actual index 2, but also to 1, 3, and 4, with varying degrees of strength. For example, positional coding can be used to explain the effects of recency and primacy. Because items at the beginning and end of a list have fewer close neighbors compared to items in the middle of the list, they have less competition for correct recall.
Although the models of associative chaining and positional coding are able to explain a great amount of behavior seen for sequence memory, they are far from perfect. For example, neither chaining nor positional coding is able to properly illustrate the details of the Ranschburg effect, which reports that sequences of items that contain repeated items are harder to reproduce than sequences of unrepeated items. Associative chaining predicts that recall of lists containing repeated items is impaired because recall of any repeated item would cue not only its true successor but also the successors of all other instances of the item. However, experimental data have shown that spaced repetition of items resulted in impaired recall of the second occurrence of the repeated item. Furthermore, it had no measurable effect on the recall of the items that followed the repeated items, contradicting the prediction of associative chaining. Positional coding predicts that repeated items will have no effect on recall, since the positions for each item in the list act as independent cues for the items, including the repeated items. That is, there is no difference between the similarity between any two items and repeated items. This, again, is not consistent with the data.
Because no comprehensive model has been defined for sequence memory to this day, it makes for an interesting area of research.
References
Memory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baashha
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Baashha
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Baashha is a 1995 Indian Tamil-language gangster action film written and directed by Suresh Krissna. The film stars Rajinikanth, Nagma and Raghuvaran, with Janagaraj, Devan, Shashi Kumar, Vijayakumar, Anandaraj, Charan Raj, Kitty, Sathyapriya, Shenbaga and Yuvarani in supporting roles. It revolves around an auto-driver who maintains a humble exterior and stays away from violence, but has a dark past which he conceals from his family.
During the making of Annaamalai (1992), Rajinikanth and Krissna discussed a scene from the former's Hindi film Hum (1991), which was not filmed. The story of Baashha was adapted from that scene along with that film's core plot and key elements. Principal photography began in August 1994 and was completed in less than five months. P. S. Prakash was the cinematographer, and it was edited by Ganesh Kumar. The dialogues were written by Balakumaran. The music was composed by Deva and lyrics were written by Vairamuthu.
Baashha was released on 12 January 1995 with positive feedback and became one of the most successful films and in the career of Rajinikanth, running for nearly 15 months in theatres. Rajinikanth won the Filmfans Association Award and the Cinema Express Award for Best Actor for his performance. The film was remade in Kannada as Kotigobba (2001), in Bengali Bangladesh as Sultan (2001), in Bengali as Guru (2003) and in Sinhala as One Shot (2005). A digitally restored version of the film was released on 3 March 2017.
Plot
Manikam is a humble auto-driver who lives in Madras with his mother Vijayalakshmi, brother Shiva, and sisters Geetha and Kavitha, and would go to any extent for their well-being. He gets Kavitha married to her boyfriend, who is from an affluent family. Shiva manages to become an SI. On seeing Manikam's photo, DIG Dinakar, who interviewed Shiva, wants to meet Manikam. Manikam hesitatingly comes to meet Dinakar in his office, where Dinakar suspects Manikam's identity. Geetha gets admission in a medical college, but the chairman asks for her carnal company in return for a seat. Manikam interferes and tells the chairman something behind closed doors that Geetha cannot hear, after which the chairman unconditionally gives a seat to Geetha.
Meanwhile, Priya travels in Manikam's auto frequently and develops a liking towards him seeing his good character. Priya discovers that her father is a smuggler and decides to maintain a distance from him. Priya proposes her love to Manikam but Manikam does not initially accept as he learns she is the daughter of Kesavan (with whom Manikam has a past history) but eventually does so. Indiran is a gangster who uses his henchmen to collect "commission" from all business owners. When Shiva beats two of Indiran's henchmen who attacked a man for not being able to pay commission, Indiran tells Shiva that he runs that area and his laws apply.
Shiva and Indiran's fight is stopped by Manikam, who requests Indiran to beat him and spare Shiva. Manikam is tied to a pole and severely beaten by Indiran, but bears it for the sake of his brother without retaliating. Later, Shiva again takes action against Indiran by submitting an arrest warrant which makes him furious again. This time after his release from jail, Indiran kidnaps Geetha and tries to molest her in front of the public. To everyone's surprise, Manikam hits back Indiran and his men, thereby saving his sister. The beating of Indiran and his henchmen is so severe that it shocks Shiva. He confronts Manikam about his activities in Bombay where he lived previously years ago, but Manikam does not respond and recollects his past.
Past: Manikam lives with his parents in Bombay while his siblings are studying in Madras. Manikam's father Rangasamy is an honest man, but is employed with gangster Mark Antony as Antony helped Rangasamy during the initial days, which made him to stay loyal to Antony for life. Manikam and his friend Anwar Baasha are protesting against the ridiculous behaviors of Antony's men, which prompts Antony to kill Anwar; Manikam is spared as he is Rangasamy's son. Enraged, Manikam decides to take the same path to destroy Antony and kills Antony's hitmen to avenge Anwar's death.
Manikam receives the support of local people in Bombay who fears for Antony, where he transforms himself into a gangster named Manick Baashha and frequently interferes in Antony's illegal activities which creates enmity between the two. Baashha's command over the city has increased, where Antony decides to kill Baashha, but Baashha escapes from Antony's plan. Enraged, Antony kills Rangasamy, prompting Baashha to help the police arrest Antony while Kesavan (who is Antony's henchman) kills Antony's family and inherites his business and wealth. Before dying, Rangasamy requests Baashha to return to Madras and start a peaceful life. Baashha accepts, where he fakes his death and secretly leaves to Madras along with Vijayalakshmi.
Present: Manikam learns that Kesavan has arranged Priya's wedding against her wishes, where he arrives to the wedding hall to stop him. Kesavan is shocked to see Baashha alive in the form of Manikam. Frightened, Kesavan permits Priya to go along with Manikam. On learning that Baashha is alive, Antony escapes from prison, kills Kesavan for betraying him, and also kidnaps Manikam's family members, where he threatens Manikam to surrender failing which his family members will be killed. Manikam rushes to the spot, fights Antony and his gang and also saves his family. He nearly kills Antony, but is stopped by Dinakar. Antony then steals Dinakar's gun and tries to shoot Manikam, but is shot dead by Shiva. Manikam and Priya reunite.
Cast
Rajinikanth as Manikam / Manick Baashha
Nagma as Priya
Raghuvaran as Mark Antony
Janagaraj as Gurumurthy
Devan as Kesavan
Shashi Kumar as Shiva
Vijayakumar as Rangasamy
Anandaraj as Indiran
Charan Raj as Anwar Baashha
Kitty as DIG Dinakar
Sathyapriya as Vijayalakshmi
Shenbaga as Kavitha
Yuvarani as Geetha
Sethu Vinayagam as the college chairman
Alphonsa (special appearance in the song "Ra Ra Ramaiah")
Hemalatha as Mark Antony's daughter
Production
Development
During the making of the Hindi film Hum (1991), its director Mukul S. Anand had considered and discussed with Rajinikanth a potential scene, where Shekhar (Amitabh Bachchan) would help his younger brother Vijay (Govinda) get a seat in the Police Academy. Anand discarded the scene because he did not find it suitable, but Rajinikanth felt it had the potential to develop into a script for a feature film. On the sets of Annaamalai (1992), Rajinikanth and its director Suresh Krissna discussed the scene, which Krissna also found to be interesting. The title Baashha was suggested by Rajinikanth to Krissna, who suggested to Rajinikanth that a Muslim connection to the script was needed.
Krissna brought up the subject again to Rajinikanth during the making of Veera (1994), but Rajinikanth wanted to discuss the script only after completing Veera. The discarded scene from Hum became the foundation for Baashha where Rajinikanth's character in the film, Manikkam, helps his sister Geetha (Yuvarani) get admission to the medical college she had applied for. Krissna planned to weave the rest of the film's story around the scene. Though Manikkam was initially considered to be written as a bus conductor, the "auto driver was the commonest man around. And Rajini liked the idea".
R. M. Veerappan, who had earlier collaborated with Rajinikanth in Ranuva Veeran (1981), Moondru Mugam (1982), Thanga Magan (1983), Oorkavalan (1987) and Panakkaran (1990), was the film's co-producer, along with V. Rajammal and V. Thamilazhagan. Development regarding the film's script commenced in the Taj Banjara hotel in Hyderabad. Eighty percent of the script, including the flashback portions of Rajinikanth as Baashha, were ready in ten days. Balakumaran was selected to write the film's dialogues. The entire team of technicians who had worked with Krissna in Annaamalai, including music composer Deva, returned to work with him for Baashha.
Casting and filming
Nagma was the first and only choice for the role of the heroine Priya after Krissna was impressed with her performance in Kadhalan (1994). Krissna considered some Bollywood names for the role of the antagonist Mark Antony, but nothing worked out. He then thought Raghuvaran would be a good fit, considering his tall height and deep voice. Rajinikanth also readily agreed to this proposal. Krissna met Raghuvaran at his residence and explained the role. Raghuvaran was excited and agreed to play Antony. According to Charan Raj, who played Anwar Baashha, Mammootty was the original choice for that role. Anandaraj was approached for an undisclosed role, later revealed to be Indiran; Rajinikanth told him the role required him to beat Manikkam who is tied to a pole, and Anandaraj agreed. According to Anandaraj, he was approached 10 days before filming ended.
Principal photography began in August 1994, and was completed in less than five months. The muhurat shot took place at AVM Studios at the venue which later came to be known as the Rajni Pillaiyar Temple. Fans of Rajinikanth were invited for the shot. Choreography for the song "Naan Autokaaran" was done by Tarun Kumar, whose father Hiralal was also a dance choreographer. Rajinikanth recommended Tarun to Krissna, who had initially wanted Raghuram to choreograph the song. Tarun completed the choreography in five days and the entire sequence was rehearsed at AVM Studios with fifty back-up dancers. As in the song "Vandhenda Paalakaaran" from Annamalai, the sequence was shot with Rajinikanth looking into the lens with a smile, which was intended to make the audience feel that he was looking directly at them and then putting his hands together to greet them. The gesture, which was already effective in Annamalai, prompted Krissna to extend the screen time of the shot. Krissna wanted Rajinikanth to sport a dress that would make him look slightly unkempt in appearance, but Rajinikanth finished the sequence in a smartly-tailored uniform and told Krissna that the audience would not find it odd. The filming of the song took place at the open space at Vijaya Vauhini Studios in Madras, the same area where Hotel Green Park is present; the song was completed with a hundred back-up dancers used for it in four days. Choreographers Kalyan and Ashok Raj were part of the back-up dancers for the song.
In one of the action sequences involving the protagonist in a face-off against the antagonist's henchmen, the dialogue Naan oru thadava sonna, nooru thadava sonna madhiri (Saying it once is equal to my saying it a hundred times) is spoken. The first half of the film was shot for twenty-three days at a stretch. Regarding the dialogue's development, Rajinikanth told Balakumaran that the dialogue had to be simple yet effective, as it would be used in a sequence where another side of the protagonist was revealed. On the day when the sequence which featured the dialogue was to be shot, Rajinikanth came up with the dialogue, which was originally spoken by him as Naan oru vaatti sonna, nooru vaatti sonna madhiri, which impressed Balakumaran and Krissna. Before the take, Rajinikanth, who repeatedly rehearsed the dialogue, told Krissna that the word "thadava" sounded more effective than "vaatti", and suggested Krissna use "thadava" instead of "vaatti". Balakumaran initially disagreed with Rajinikanth and Krissna as he felt that "vaatti" was fine and did not need changing. Rajinikanth then spoke both the versions of the dialogue and convinced Balakumaran to change "vaatti" to "thadava". The dialogue had such an impact on everyone present at the set that, in the break that followed, everyone started using it one way or another. The dialogues occur only five times in the film. The scene where Manikkam gets beaten up to protect his sibling and the following sequence where he beats up the antagonist in turn, was suggested to Krissna by Raju, the choreographer for both the stunt sequences.
Ramalingam, the son of R. M. Veerappan, informed Krissna that Veerappan wanted to meet him. Krissna had finished shooting the sequence where Manikkam gets beaten up by Indiran after trying to protect his younger brother Shiva (Shashi Kumar). When Veerappan enquired Krissna about how the film was shaping up, Krissna spoke about the scene which he had shot before his meeting with Veerappan. Veerappan wanted the scene to be deleted as he felt that people would not want to see an actor like Rajinikanth getting beaten up. Rajinikanth offered to show a sneak preview of the film to Veerappan on 15 December 1994, and if Veerappan did not want the scene to be in the film, the scene would be re-shot, and Rajinikanth offered to bear the costs for re-shooting the scene himself. The shooting was stalled for five days after Krissna's meeting with Veerappan. Later, Krissna, Raju, the choreographer for the stunt sequence, and cameraman Prakash concluded that the scene would be tweaked in such a way that it would be as if Mother Nature is angry at the treatment being meted out to a peace-loving person like Manikkam; it was also planned that backlighting and a poignant background music would be used as well. Twenty-five scenes, including those which show Manikkam's house and neighborhood were shot at Vijaya Vauhini Studios. The set at the studio was designed by Magie, the film's art director. The set also consisted of a tea stall, a cycle stand, and a theatre. The scenes featuring the comedy sequences, interludes featuring Nagma, and some of the action sequences featuring Anandaraj were also filmed at Vijaya Vauhini Studios. Krissna wanted to complete the scenes scheduled to be filmed there before dismantling the sets. According to Magie, the set cost around .
Music
The film's soundtrack was composed by Deva, with lyrics by Vairamuthu. Due to the popularity of the rap genre at that time, Deva and Krissna wanted the introduction song to be in the Boney M. group style of music, but the method was not successful. Deva then tried the gaana genre and sang a few lines to Krissna: "Kappal paaru, kappal paaru, Kappal meledora paaru, Dora kezhey aaya paaru, Aaya kayila kozhandahai paaru" (See the ship sailing, See the Englishman on it, also see the poor native woman on board, with a baby in her arms). This tune, originally done by Deva, laid the foundation for the song, "Naan Autokaaran". After Rajinikanth and Vairamuthu heard Deva's rendition, Vairamuthu wrote the lyrics for the song in ten minutes. Recording for the song was done by Deva in collaboration with Sabesh–Murali. Vairamuthu completed the lyrics of the song "Ra Ra Ramaiya" in eight minutes.
The song "Style Style Thaan" is partly based on the James Bond Theme. The song "Azhagu" is based on the Hindi song "Dilbar Dil Se Pyaare", composed by R. D. Burman for Caravan (1971). The theme music of Baashha is based on the theme of Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), while a sample of Enigma's "Carly's Song" was used as the theme of Mark Anthony. The music rights were acquired by AVM Audio for , at a time when most soundtracks by Deva were sold for or . The soundtrack was a large success, and all the numbers were chartbusters. A special function was held at Hotel Chola Sheraton to celebrate the success of the film's soundtrack. Rajinikanth was presented a platinum disc on the occasion.
Release
Baashha was released theatrically on 12 January 1995, two days before Pongal. It was released with 18 prints in North Arcot, South Arcot and Chengalpet areas. The film was a major success, and took nearly 15 months to complete its entire theatrical run. For his performance, Rajinikanth won the Filmfans Association Award and the Cinema Express Award for Best Actor.
Reception
On 13 January 1995, a review from The Hindu said, "Rajini blossoms fully to portray two different characters, a former dada of Bombay and a docile peace-loving auto driver in Tamil Nadu, trying not to fall back on his old ways and finding it difficult to do so when force of circumstances pressure him" and that Suresh Krishna "has fashioned his screenplay to suit the image of Rajini and the taste of his fans and the songs and sequences are fashioned to boost the image of the hero". On 23 January, K. Vijiyan of the New Straits Times said "If you are not a Rajini fan, go without expecting too much and you may not be disappointed". On 29 January, Ananda Vikatan said the director had intelligently created scenes to present Rajinikanth with full honour, also noting that Rajinikanth had taken the majestic form in the film through his acting and action sequences, and that made the film a treat to watch. R. P. R. of Kalki wrote that fans had come to a stage where they enjoy whatever Rajinikanth does, and encouraged the director to try something different next time.
Legacy
Baashha attained cult status in Tamil cinema, and was remade in Kannada as Kotigobba (2001). In May 2007, K. Balamurugan of Rediff.com ranked the film tenth in his list of "Rajni's Tamil Top 10" films. In October 2008, Outlook included Rajinikanth's dialogue "" in its list, "13 Cheesiest, Chalkiest Lines in Indian Cinema". The line was also used in "The Punch Song", a song from the film, Aaha Kalyanam (2014). When stand-up comedian and television anchor Bosskey launched a play titled Dada (Don) in October 2005, he named the cast after famous characters in Tamil films. Accordingly, Anniyan (one of Vikram's characters in the film), Baasha (Rajinikanth's character in the film) and Velu Nayakkar (Kamal Haasan's role in Nayakan) play the central characters of a family of brothers.
A dialogue from the film, "Enakku Innoru Per Irukku" (I have another name) was used as the title of a 2016 film, while other films titled Antony (2018), Maanik (2019) and Mark Antony (2023) inspired by the lead characters were also released. In 2002, the Telugu film Khadgam was dubbed and released in Tamil as Thiru Manick Baasha. In 2008, the Malayalam film Big B was dubbed and released in Tamil as Maanik Baasha. The rivalry between Manik Baasha and Mark Antony became iconic, and was referenced in the song "Engadi Porandha" from Vanakkam Chennai (2013). After the release of Padayappa (1999), Rajinikanth and Suresh Krissna discussed the possibility of making a sequel to Baashha. Ultimately, they felt that Baashha was inimitablenot even a sequel could equal it.
Re-releases
The Hindi-dubbed version of Baashha was released on 25 May 2012, after being digitally restored. A digitally restored version of the Tamil original was released on 3 March 2017.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1990s Tamil-language films
1995 action films
1995 films
Films about father–son relationships
Films about organised crime in India
Films directed by Suresh Krissna
Films scored by Deva (composer)
Films set in Mumbai
Films shot in Mumbai
Indian action films
Indian gangster films
Indian nonlinear narrative films
Tamil films remade in other languages
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1999 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1999 in the United Kingdom. This year is noted for the first meetings of the new Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Tony Blair (Labour)
Parliament – 52nd
Events
January
January – Vauxhall launches a facelifted Vectra to improve its disappointing ride and build quality.
1 January – The Euro currency is launched, but Britain's Labour government reportedly has no plans to introduce the currency here, preferring to stick to pound sterling instead.
13 January – Unemployment has fallen to just over 1,300,000 – the lowest for 20 years.
30 January – England national football team manager Glenn Hoddle gives an interview to The Times newspaper in which he suggests that people born with disabilities are paying for sins in a previous life.
February
2 February – The Football Association dismisses Glenn Hoddle as England manager due to the controversy sparked by his comments about disabled people.
12 February – Scientists at the Rowett Research Institute in Aberdeen reinforce warnings that genetically modified food may be damaging to the human body.
22 February – Harold Shipman, the Hyde GP accused of murdering eight female patients last September, is charged with a further seven murders.
24 February – The report of the murder of black London teenager Stephen Lawrence, who was stabbed to death in 1993, condemns London's police force as "institutionally racist", as well as condemning its officers for "fundamental errors".
March
2 March – Singer Dusty Springfield, who received an OBE last month, dies aged 59 at Henley-on-Thames after a five-year battle against breast cancer.
7 March – American-born film director Stanley Kubrick dies at his home in St Albans, Hertfordshire, of a heart attack aged 70, five days after completing his final film Eyes Wide Shut, which is released in July.
16 March – The NSPCC launches its new 'full stop' advertising campaign which shows different objects of childhood heroes shielding their eyes as voices were heard being abused they want everyone to prevent cruelty, it was broadcast after the 9.00pm watershed behind its disturbing problem as shock tactics needed to break people's complacency. This advertisement is part of the largest campaign ever undertaken by a charity and the beginning of a long-term strategy to end violence against children.
17 March – Comedian and entertainer Rod Hull is accidentally killed in a fall aged 63 outside his home in Winchelsea, Sussex, after trying to adjust his television aerial.
21 March – Comedian Ernie Wise, who formed one-half of the Morecambe and Wise comedy double from 1941 to 1984, dies of a heart attack aged 73 at Wexham, Buckinghamshire.
24 March – Ross Kemp, who has achieved TV stardom with his role as Grant Mitchell in EastEnders, signs a £1million deal with ITV, meaning that he will leave EastEnders this autumn after nearly 10 years.
26 March – A total £2 billion in compensation is paid to 100,000 former miners who are suffering from lung disease after years of working in British coalfields.
29 March – The family of James Hanratty, one of the last men to be executed in Britain (for the A6 murder 37 years ago), are given the right to appeal against his conviction by the Criminal Cases Review Commission.
April
April – Vauxhall launches its Zafira, a compact MPV which makes use of the Astra hatchback's chassis.
1 April
A minimum wage is introduced throughout the UK – set at £3.60 an hour for workers over 21, and £3 for workers under 21.
Anthony Sawoniuk, 78, becomes the first person convicted of Second World War crimes in a British court when he is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of 18 Jews in his native Belarus. He has lived in Britain since 1947.
14 April – Edgar Pearce, the so-called "Mardi Gra bomber", convicted for a series of bombings and sentenced to 21 years in jail.
17 April – A bomb explodes in Brixton, South West London, and injures 45 people.
24 April – A second bomb explosion in Brick Lane, east London injures 13 people.
26 April – TV presenter Jill Dando, 37, dies after being shot on the doorstep of her Fulham home.
30 April – A third bomb in London explodes in the Admiral Duncan pub, in Old Compton Street, Soho, London – the centre of the London gay scene – killing two people (including a pregnant woman) and injuring over thirty. David Copeland, a 23-year-old Farnborough man, is arrested hours later in connection with the three explosions.
May
1 May – Andrew Motion's appointment as Poet Laureate in succession to Ted Hughes is announced.
3 May – David Copeland appears in court charged with the recent bombings in London.
6 May
1999 Scottish Parliament election – The first elections to the Scottish Parliament.
1999 National Assembly for Wales election – The first elections to the Welsh Assembly.
7 May – The Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats form a coalition government in Scotland, with Donald Dewar as the First Minister of Scotland.
12 May – The Scottish Parliament meets in Edinburgh for its first session.
19 May – Probably the last colliery horse to work underground in a British coal mine is retired, 'Robbie' at Pant y Gasseg drift mine, near Pontypool.
21 May – Jill Dando is buried in her hometown of Weston-super-Mare.
26 May – Manchester United come from behind to beat Bayern Munich, with two late goals in the UEFA Champions League final in Camp Nou, Barcelona. They are the first English club in history to win the Treble of Premier League, FA Cup and European Cup.
26 May – The National Assembly for Wales meets in Cardiff for its first session.
31 May – The Princess Royal opens the new Midland Metro tram service in the West Midlands, which runs on a 15-mile route mostly consisting of former railway lines between Birmingham and Wolverhampton.
June
8 June – Former cabinet minister Jonathan Aitken is sentenced to 18 months prison for perjury.
10 June – The European parliament elections are held. The Conservatives enjoy their best performance in any election since the 1992 general election by gaining 36 seats compared to Labour's 29 – a stark contrast to the previous European elections five years ago where they had a mere 18 MEP's compared to Labour's 62.
10 June – At the Leeds Central by-election, Hilary Benn holds the seat for the Labour Party.#
12 June – The Queen's Birthday Honours are announced. They include a knighthood for the Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson and the ITV newsreader Trevor McDonald.
14 June – Conservative leader William Hague hails his party's strong European election results as vindication of his party's opposition to the single European currency.
16 June – David Sutch, the founder of the Official Monster Raving Loony Party, is found hanged at his home in Harrow. He was 58.
17 June – Cardinal Basil Hume, leader of the Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales, dies of cancer aged 76 barely two months after the illness was diagnosed.
18 June – Police clash with protesters at a demonstration against capitalism in London.
19 June – The wedding of Prince Edward and Sophie Rhys-Jones takes place at St George's Chapel, Windsor. Prior to the marriage, the Queen creates Prince Edward, her third and youngest son, Earl of Wessex and Viscount Severn.
22 June – Patrick Magee is released from prison under the Good Friday Agreement, 14 years into his life sentence for the Provisional Irish Republican Army bombing at the Grand Hotel in Brighton, which killed five people during the Conservative Party conference on 12 October 1984.
23 June
Fears about the future of the Rover Group's Longbridge plant in Birmingham are calmed by the news that owner BMW is to invest £2.5billion in the plant.
Construction of the Millennium Dome is finished.
26 June – The Millennium Stadium, national sports stadium for Wales, is opened in Cardiff.
30 June – Manchester United announce that they will not compete in the FA Cup in the forthcoming football season so they can concentrate on their participation in the FIFA World Club Championship in Brazil at the start of the next year. Their decision is seen as a major boost to England's hopes of hosting the 2006 World Cup.
July
1 July
The Scottish Parliament is officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the day that devolved powers are officially transferred from the Scottish Office in London to the new devolved Scottish Executive in Edinburgh.
William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw, deputy prime minister under Margaret Thatcher, dies at the age of 81 in Penrith.
4 July – Rogue trader Nick Leeson returns home to England from Singapore, nearly four years after he was jailed there after his illegal dealings led to the collapse of Barings Bank with losses of £850million.
5 July – Chelsea pay a club record of £10million (one of the highest fees paid by any English club) for the Blackburn Rovers striker Chris Sutton.
9 July – Neil Kinnock, who was Labour Party leader from 1983 to 1992 while they were in opposition, is appointed vice-president of the European Commission.
22 July – At the Eddisbury by-election, Stephen O'Brien holds the seat for the Conservative Party.
25 July – 1999 British cabinet reshuffle.
August
4 August
George Robertson appointed as Secretary General of NATO.
The JJB Stadium opens in Wigan, to serve the town's football and rugby teams.
9 August – Charles Kennedy elected as Leader of the Liberal Democrats.
11 August – The solar eclipse attracts the attention of 350,000,000 people across Europe, with Cornwall being the only region of Britain to experience totality.
20 August – A MORI poll shows Labour support at 49%, giving them a 22-point lead over the Conservatives. However, it is the first time since their election win over two years ago that they have polled at less than 50% in the poll by the leading market research company.
22 August – Norfolk farmer Tony Martin, 54, is charged with the murder of a sixteen-year-old burglar who was shot dead at his home two days ago. He is also charged with wounding a 29-year-old man who was also present at the time of the burglary.
September
September
Rover launches the 25 and 45. Nissan launches a facelifted Primera to be built by Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK.
Meningococcal vaccine against meningitis for young people begins rollout.
5 September – Bobby Robson, the 66-year-old former England manager, is appointed as Newcastle United's new manager. He is nearly 30 years older than his predecessor Ruud Gullit.
9 September – Chris Patten's report recommends reform of Royal Ulster Constabulary.
23 September – At the Hamilton South by-election, Bill Tynan holds the seat for the Labour Party.
23 September – At the Wigan by-election, Neil Turner holds the seat for the Labour Party.
24 September – The Royal Bank of Scotland launches a hostile takeover bid for the NatWest Bank.
27 September – The Midland Bank adopts the name of its owner HSBC, marking an end of the Midland Bank name after 163 years.
27 September – The Kosovo Train for Life aid train arrives in Kosovo after 4,500-kilometre journey from the United Kingdom
October
October – The government distributes to all household a booklet concerning the Year 2000 problem, What everyone should know about the Millennium Bug.
1 October – The Rugby World Cup begins in the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff.
5 October
The Ladbroke Grove rail crash claims the lives of 31 people when two trains collide at Ladbroke Grove Junction, 2 miles west of Paddington station, London. Many more people are being treated in hospital for injuries.
Harold Shipman goes on trial at Preston Crown Court accused of murdering 15 female patients who died in the Greater Manchester area between 1995 and 1998.
10 October – The London Eye begins to be lifted into position on the South Bank in London.
16 October – 26 players are sent off in Premier League and Football League matches on the same day – the most dismissals on the same day in 111 years of league football in England.
19 October – Tracey Emin exhibits My Bed at the Tate Gallery as one of the shortlisted works for the Turner Prize.
20 October – Sales of Rover cars are reported to have fallen by 30% this year.
November
2 November – Ford Motor Company takes over Jaguar in a £1.6billion deal.
11 November – House of Lords Act 1999 removes most hereditary peers from the House of Lords. Those no longer sitting in the Lords are now eligible to vote in elections for the House of Commons.
12 November – Former glam rock singer Gary Glitter, 54, is jailed for four months at Bristol Crown Court for downloading child pornography. He is cleared at this hearing of having unlawful sex with a teenage fan 20 years ago, but will subsequently be charged in several countries for sexual offences involving minors, culminating in 2015 with a 16-year sentence imposed in the UK.
17 November – England qualify for the UEFA Euro 2000 football championship with a 2–1 aggregate win over Scotland in the qualifying playoff round.
25 November – At the Kensington and Chelsea by-election, Michael Portillo holds the seat for the Conservative Party.
30 November – BAE Systems formed by merger of British Aerospace and Marconi Electronic Systems.
December
10 December – Launch of the European Space Agency's XMM-Newton satellite. Information from the satellite is processed at the University of Leicester.
30 December – Former Beatle George Harrison, 56, suffers stab wounds after being attacked by an intruder at Friar Park, his mansion near Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire.
31 December – Millennium celebrations are held across the country including the official opening of the Millennium Dome and the unveiling of the London Eye in London.
Undated
Main construction work on Cardiff Bay Barrage completed.
More than 20% of the UK population (over 12 million people) now have internet access.
Publications
Iain Banks' novel The Business.
Lauren Child's children's book Clarice Bean, That's Me, first in the Clarice Bean series.
Julia Donaldson's children's book The Gruffalo.
Jamie Oliver's television tie-in cookbook The Naked Chef.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novel The Fifth Elephant.
J. K. Rowling's children's fantasy novel Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.
Births
2 January
Dennis Adeniran, footballer
Aidan Wilson, footballer
10 January – Mason Mount, footballer
14 January – Declan Rice, English footballer
20 January – Flynn Downes, footballer
24 January – Jamie Barjonas, footballer
31 January – Alice Tai, swimmer
2 February – Marcus McGuane, footballer
5 February – Arthur Chatto, son of Lady Sarah Chatto and Daniel Chatto
8 February
Morgan Feeney, footballer
Alessia Russo, footballer
9 February – Adrianna Bertola, actress
15 February – George Hirst, footballer
19 February – Georgia Coates, swimmer
22 February – Harry Brook, cricketer
1 March – Ryan Porteous, footballer
4 March – Brooklyn Beckham, footballer
14 March – Olivia Dean, singer
22 March – Marcus Tavernier, footballer
4 April – Sheku Kanneh-Mason, cellist
12 April – Akai Osei, street dancer
18 April
Ben Brereton, footballer
Liam Trevaskis, cricketer
19 April – Bethany Shriever, BMX racer
24 April – Jonathan Leko, footballer
2 May – Andre Dozzell, footballer
6 May – Sophie Ecclestone, cricketer
7 May
Tommy Fury, boxer and TV personality
Fraser Murray, footballer
22 May – Josh Tymon, footballer
26 May
Molly-Mae Hague, social media personality
Kerry Ingram, actress
30 May – Eddie Nketiah, footballer
2 June – Felix Organ, Australian-born English cricketer
3 June – Liam Banks, cricketer
23 June – Noah Marullo, actor
1 July – Charles Armstrong-Jones, son of Viscount Linley and Viscountess Linley
14 July – Scott Twine, footballer
20 July – Ellie Downie, gymnast
20 August – Joe Willock, footballer
21 August – Henry Brookes, cricketer
24 August – Lewis Ferguson, footballer
27 August – Jack Plom, cricketer
28 August – Kyle Taylor, footballer
4 September – Ellie Darcey-Alden, actress
13 September – Fraser Hornby, footballer
14 October – Daniel Roche, actor
15 October – Ben Woodburn, footballer
20 October – Connor Marsh, actor
24 October – Dujon Sterling, footballer
4 November – Ben Wilmot, footballer
6 November – Tristan Nydam, footballer
13 November – Lando Norris, racing driver
14 November
Ellis Hollins, actor
Jude Wright, actor
8 December – Reece James, footballer
10 December – Reiss Nelson, footballer
Undated – Freya Wilson, actress
Deaths
January
4 January – Charles Manners, 10th Duke of Rutland, peer (born 1919)
6 January – Henrietta Moraes, artists' model and memoirist (born 1931)
9 January – Jim Peters, long-distance runner (born 1918)
10 January – John Hervey, 7th Marquess of Bristol, peer and businessman (born 1954)
11 January – Naomi Mitchison, Scottish novelist and poet (born 1897)
14 January
Robin Bailey, actor (born 1919)
Muslimgauze, electronic musician (born 1961)
15 January
Betty Box, film producer (born 1915)
Marion Ryan, singer (born 1931)
16 January – Dadie Rylands, literary scholar and theatre director (born 1902)
20 January – John Golding, politician (born 1931)
21 January – Leslie French, actor (born 1904)
22 January – Steven Sykes, artist (born 1914)
23 January – Terence Lewin, Baron Lewin, Royal Navy admiral, Chief of the Defence Staff in the Falklands War (born 1920)
25 January – Philip Mason, civil servant and writer (born 1906)
February
3 February
Arthur Mann, footballer and coach (born 1945)
Alfred Janes, artist (born 1911)
7 February – Andrew Keller, scientist (born 1925)
8 February
Meredith Edwards, actor (born 1917)
Iris Murdoch, novelist and philosopher (born 1919)
9 February
Bryan Mosley, actor (born 1931)
Ann West, media campaigner (born 1929)
Inga-Stina Robson, Baroness Robson of Kiddington, political activist (born 1919, Sweden)
10 February – Joan Curran, Welsh physicist (born 1916)
11 February – Brian Parsons, cricketer (Surrey) (born 1933)
16 February – James Hill, politician (born 1926)
17 February – Thomas Carr, Northern Irish artist (born 1909)
19 February – Lady Pansy Lamb, writer (born 1904)
20 February – Sarah Kane, playwright (born 1971); suicide
23 February
Stanley Dance, jazz writer and record producer (born 1910)
David Chilton Phillips, biologist (born 1924)
24 February
David Eccles, 1st Viscount Eccles, politician (born 1904)
Derek Nimmo, actor (born 1930); accidentally killed
28 February
Dave Bedwell, racing cyclist (born 1928)
Lionel Berry, 2nd Viscount Kemsley, peer and newspaper editor (born 1909)
March
1 March – Christine Glanville, puppeteer (born 1924)
2 March – Dusty Springfield, singer (born 1939)
5 March – Tom Denning, Baron Denning, judge (born 1899)
6 March
Graham Armitage, actor (born 1936)
Dennis Viollet, footballer (born 1933); died in the United States
7 March – Stanley Kubrick, film director (born 1928 in the United States)
9 March – Arnold Machin, artist, coin and stamp designer (born 1911)
10 March – Adrian Love, radio presenter (born 1944)
13 March – Emmy Bridgwater, artist and poet (born 1906)
15 March – Rosemary Nelson, Northern Irish human rights solicitor (born 1958); murdered
17 March – Rod Hull, entertainer (born 1935); accidentally killed
20 March – Patrick Heron, artist, critic, writer and polemicist (born 1920)
21 March – Ernie Wise, comedian (born 1925)
24 March – Henry Brandon, Baron Brandon of Oakbrook, judge (born 1920)
27 March – Michael Aris, historian (born 1946)
April
2 April – Andrew Gardner, television journalist (born 1932)
3 April – Lionel Bart, composer (born 1930)
4 April – Bob Peck, actor (born 1945)
6 April – William Pleeth, cellist (born 1910)
7 April – Angus Paton, civil engineer (born 1905)
9 April
Bert Firman, musician and band leader (born 1906)
Mary Lutyens, author (born 1908)
12 April – Alan Evans, darts player (born 1949)
14 April – Anthony Newley, actor, singer and songwriter (born 1931)
16 April – Margaret Tait, filmmaker and poet (born 1918)
17 April – Richard Negri, theatre director and designer (born 1927)
21 April – Liz Tilberis, fashion magazine editor (born 1947)
25 April – William McCrea, astronomer and mathematician (born 1904)
26 April
Adrian Borland, singer (The Sound) (born 1957); suicide
Jill Dando, journalist and television presenter (born 1961); murdered
28 April
Sir Alf Ramsey, footballer and manager (born 1920)
John Stears, special effects artist (born 1934)
29 April – Elspeth March, actress (born 1911)
May
1 May – Brian Shawe-Taylor, racing driver (born 1915)
2 May – Oliver Reed, actor (born 1938)
5 May – John Howard, Army officer and D-Day veteran (born 1912)
6 May – Johnny Morris, television presenter (born 1916)
7 May – Elliot Pinhey, entomologist (born 1910, Belgium)
8 May
Dirk Bogarde, actor and author (born 1921)
Michael Nightingale, actor (born 1922)
9 May – Derek Fatchett, politician (born 1945)
11 May
George Hunter, motorcycle speedway rider (born 1939)
Robert Thomas, sculptor (born 1926)
13 May – Roy Crowson, biologist (born 1914)
18 May – Freddy Randall, jazz trumpeter (born 1921)
19 May
James Blades, orchestral percussionist (born 1901)
Alister Williamson, actor (born 1918)
21 May – Norman Rossington, actor (born 1928)
30 May – Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, archaeologist (born 1933)
June
1 June – Christopher Cockerell, inventor (born 1910)
7 June
Lady June, painter, poet and musician (born 1931)
Joseph Vandernoot, orchestral conductor (born 1914)
8 June – Christina Foyle, bookshop owner (born 1911)
13 June – Douglas Seale, actor (born 1913)
15 June – Alan Cathcart, 6th Earl Cathcart, Army major-general (born 1919)
16 June
James Ottaway, actor (born 1908)
Lawrence Stone, historian (born 1919)
David Sutch ("Screaming Lord Sutch"), musician and founder of the Official Monster Raving Loony Party (born 1940); suicide
17 June – Cardinal Basil Hume, Archbishop of Westminster (since 1976) (born 1923)
18 June – Ross Baillie, athlete (born 1977)
23 June – Buster Merryfield, actor (born 1920)
24 June – Geoff Lawson, car designer (born 1944)
25 June – Fred Feast, actor (born 1929)
27 June – Alfred Robens, Baron Robens of Woldingham, trade unionist and politician (born 1910)
29 June – Declan Mulholland, Northern Irish actor (born 1932)
30 June – Sir Clifford Charles Butler, physicist, discoverer of the hyperon and meson types of particles (born 1922)
July
1 July – William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw, politician (born 1918)
4 July – Jack Watson, actor (born 1915)
5 July – Joan Kemp-Welch, actress (born 1906)
9 July – Esme Mackinnon, Alpine skier (born 1913)
10 July – John Scott-Ellis, 9th Baron Howard de Walden, peer (born 1912)
12 July
Alex Gordon, architect (born 1917)
Bill Owen, actor (born 1914)
15 July – Simon Ramsay, 16th Earl of Dalhousie, Scottish peer (born 1914)
19 July – Jerold Wells, actor (born 1908)
21 July
Peter Carter, author of children's books (born 1929)
David Ogilvy, businessman (born 1911)
22 July – Mary Kerridge, actress and theatre director (born 1914)
26 July
Philippa Gail, actress (born 1942)
John W. N. Watkins, philosopher (born 1924)
27 July – Amaryllis Fleming, cellist (born 1925)
August
4 August – Carl Toms, set and costume designer (born 1927)
5 August – David Munro, documentary filmmaker (born 1944)
9 August
Bob Herbert, original manager of the Spice Girls (born 1942); car accident
Helen Rollason, television sports presenter (born 1956)
10 August – Jennifer Paterson, television chef, one half of the Two Fat Ladies (born 1928)
12 August
Albert E. Green, applied mathematician (born 1912)
John Rigby Hale, historian (born 1923)
13 August – John Geering, cartoonist (born 1941)
15 August
Patricia Beer, poet and critic (born 1919)
Hugh Casson, architect, writer and artist (born 1910)
19 August – Ian Orr-Ewing, Baron Orr-Ewing, politician (born 1912)
20 August – Arthur Cain, biologist and ecologist (born 1921)
23 August – James White, science-fiction writer (born 1928)
25 August
Rob Fisher, songwriter and musician (Naked Eyes, Climie Fisher) (born 1956)
George Petty-Fitzmaurice, 8th Marquess of Lansdowne, peer and politician (born 1912)
September
3 September – Paul Lucien Dessau, artist (born 1909)
5 September
Alan Clark, Conservative Member of Parliament and former government minister (born 1928)
Ivor Roberts, actor (born 1925)
9 September – Chili Bouchier, actress (born 1909)
11 September – Janet Adam Smith, writer and editor (born 1905)
14 September – Charles Crichton, film director and film editor (born 1910)
15 September
Hardiman Scott, journalist (born 1925)
Bill Westwood, Anglican prelate, Bishop of Peterborough (1984–1995) (born 1925)
17 September
Liane Collot d'Herbois, painter (born 1909)
Joan Gardner, actress (born 1914)
Frankie Vaughan, singer and actor (born 1928)
24 September – Rowena Mary Bruce, chess player (born 1919)
27 September – Sir Philip Haddon-Cave, colonial administrator (born 1925)
30 September – Thomas Holland, Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Salford (1964–1983) (born 1908)
October
1 October – Noel Johnson, actor (born 1916)
3 October – Alastair Hetherington, journalist, editor of The Guardian (1953–1975) (born 1919)
6 October – Patrick Reilly, diplomat (born 1909)
7 October – Deryck Guyler, actor (born 1914)
11 October – John Foot, Baron Foot, politician (born 1909)
15 October
Eddie Jones, artist (born 1935)
Josef Locke, tenor (born 1917 in Northern Ireland); died in Ireland
18 October – Tony Crombie, jazz musician (born 1925)
19 October
Sir Robert Black, colonial administrator, Governor of Hong Kong (1958–1964) (born 1906)
Penelope Mortimer, journalist, biographer and novelist (born 1918)
E. J. Scovell, poet and translator (born 1907)
23 October – Bobby Willis, songwriter and husband of Cilla Black (born 1942)
27 October – Johnny Byrne, footballer (born 1939)
29 October – Colin Matthew, historian and academic (born 1941)
31 October – Immanuel Jakobovits, Baron Jakobovits, rabbi (born 1921)
November
1 November – Edmund Dell, businessman (born 1921)
3 November – Ian Bannen, Scottish actor (born 1928); car accident
4 November – Charles Wintour, newspaper editor (born 1917)
8 November – Jerry Kerr, Scottish footballer (born 1912)
10 November – Eric Langton, motorcycle speedway rider (born 1907)
11 November
Sir Vivian Fuchs, explorer (born 1908)
Thomas Pitfield, composer (born 1903)
14 November – Minna Keal, composer (born 1909)
15 November – Sir Harry Llewellyn, 3rd Baronet, equestrian, Olympic champion (1952) (born 1911)
17 November – Edmund Fryde, historian (born 1923, Poland)
21 November – Quentin Crisp, writer and raconteur (born 1908)
24 November
Sarah Gainham, journalist and author (born 1915)
David Kessler, publisher and author (born 1906)
Hilary Minster, actor (born 1944)
26 November – John Skelton, letter-cutter and sculptor (born 1923)
December
4 December – Alick Walker, palaeontologist (born 1925)
5 December – Kendall Taylor, pianist (born 1905)
6 December
Alexander Baron, author and screenwriter (born 1917)
Gwyn Jones, author (born 1907)
7 December – Kenny Baker, jazz trumpeter (born 1921)
8 December – Rupert Hart-Davis, publisher (born 1907)
9 December – Cecil Williamson, screenwriter, editor and film director (born 1909)
10 December – Mike Randall, journalist (born 1919)
12 December – John W. R. Taylor, aviation expert (born 1922)
13 December
Jill Craigie, filmmaker and screenwriter (born 1911)
Ian Watt, literary critic (born 1917)
Lady Mary Whitley, noblewoman (born 1924)
14 December – Sven Berlin, painter, writer and sculptor (born 1911)
18 December
Dennis W. Sciama, physicist (born 1926)
Bertha Swirles, physicist (born 1903)
19 December – Desmond Llewelyn, actor (born 1914)
21 December – John Arnatt, actor (born 1917)
23 December
Martin Charteris, Baron Charteris of Amisfield, Army officer and courtier of Queen Elizabeth II (born 1913)
Eirene White, Baroness White, politician and journalist (born 1909)
25 December – Peter Jeffrey, actor (born 1929)
26 December – Prunella Clough, artist (born 1919)
31 December – William Hughes, Baron Hughes, politician (born 1911)
See also
1999 in British music
1999 in British television
List of British films of 1999
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock%20Star%3A%20Supernova
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Rock Star: Supernova
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Rock Star: Supernova is the second season of the reality television show Rock Star. The show, hosted by Dave Navarro and Brooke Burke, featured 15 contestants competing to become the lead vocalist for a newly formed supergroup featuring Mötley Crüe drummer Tommy Lee, former Metallica bassist Jason Newsted, and former Guns N' Roses guitarist Gilby Clarke.
On September 13, 2006, Lukas Rossi was crowned the winner and became the frontman of the band Rock Star Supernova.
Controversy
As the show's name implies, the new group was to be called Supernova; however, another band named Supernova was granted an injunction against the television supergroup stating that they cannot use the name "Supernova" for any promotion or perform under that name. With this judicial ruling, the band announced their official name would be "Rock Star Supernova".
Background
The show began online on the Rock Star web site on MSN on Monday, July 3 with an Internet exclusive weekly episode and premiered on 5 July 2006 on CBS in the United States and Global in Canada. Votes could be cast on the Rock Star website or by text message on Verizon Wireless. it was one of two prominent programs in the "Rock Reality Show" mini movement of the summer of 2006, the other being VH1's Supergroup.
Unlike in the first season, the behind-the-scenes episodes were not televised in the U.S.; instead, they were available online at the official MSN sponsored website, to subscribers of Verizon, and through the Rock Star tab on Windows Live Messenger. However, these "In the Mansion" reality episodes did air on television in Canada on Global, in Australia on Foxtel channel FOX8, and in Asia on STAR World.
Top 15 finalists
The following is a list of songs performed by each finalist during the competition. They are listed in elimination order, so the first one mentioned was in first place in the competition and the number represents the week in which the song was performed. Each week one finalist is asked to perform an encore performance of the song they performed the night before which is noted below as an "Encore Performance". The three finalists who have the lowest total votes for the week are also asked to perform another song of their choice, and this song is noted as a "Bottom Three Performance". Additionally, beginning in Week Seven, one finalist is chosen to debut a new Supernova song with the members of Supernova. This is noted below as a "Special Performance".
Lukas Rossi's victory makes him the second Canadian to win the Rock Star competition.
Episodes
Week one
Performance episode All 15 contestants performed cover songs. Most of the rockers were praised for their performances (especially Dilana's version of Lithium and Lukas' version of "Rebel Yell"), but there was one notable bad performance in Chris Pierson's performance of "Roxanne" by The Police. They were judged by Dave Navarro, Tommy Lee, Jason Newsted, Gilby Clarke, and the album's producer Butch Walker.
Elimination episode At the beginning of the episode, Supernova wanted to see an encore of one rocker, which was Dilana. Phil, Chris and Matt were placed in the bottom three based on votes from around the world. Magni, Ryan and Zayra were also in the bottom three at some time during voting. They each performed one cover song of their choosing. Elimination was based on this additional performance and their previous performance. Subsequently, Matt was chosen by the band to be eliminated. Despite praising his previous nights performance of "Yellow" by Coldplay, Supernova claimed that Matt's elimination was based on his song choice; Jason, in particular, had exhorted Matt to "bring the rock" with his selection, and Matt's choice of "Planet Earth" by Duran Duran was seen as not being nearly "rock" enough.
Week two
Performance episode The 14 contestants again performed cover songs. Their judges were the same, with the exception of the album's producer Butch Walker, who was absent. Jill, who performed Violet by Hole was accused by Dave of imitating Courtney Love by wearing a wedding dress as she did for the song's video.
Elimination episode This week, due to his strong performance, Toby was awarded the encore. Zayra, Jill, and Chris found themselves in the bottom three based on the worldwide vote, while Jenny was singled out as the only other contestant to have at some point been in the bottom three during the voting period. Each one performed the cover song of their choice and based on that performance as well as their previous performances the band chose Chris to be eliminated. Supernova pointed out the fact that Chris was in the bottom three two weeks in row and cited that as a reason as to why he was eliminated. The next week, both Gilby and Dave said they at first felt they had made a mistake by not eliminating Zayra (they both told her they had changed their opinions of her).
Week three
In The Mansion episode The 13 remaining contestants received lessons from vocal coach Lis Lewis (who has worked with stars, Steve Perry, Rihanna, and Emii). During song selection, an argument arose between Jill and Patrice over the song "Helter Skelter". Josh also frustrated others by taking Nirvana's "Come as You Are" without checking to see if it was all right with the other members.
Performance episode The 13 contestants each performed a cover song. An accompanying note said that on one of the songs, the contestant would be backed by a member of Supernova. This song turned out to be Phil's choice, "White Rabbit" by Jefferson Airplane, and Jason Newsted played bass on his performance. Phil was praised for his performance, Dave especially pointing out how he finally added some intensity. Lukas, Magni, Dilana, Zayra, Patrice, and Jill all earned praise from the judges that night. All the judges said they stood corrected about Zayra, as they all liked her performance.
Elimination episode This week, after Tommy noted the great performances from Dilana and Jill, Magni was awarded this week's encore. Based on the worldwide vote, the three rockers with the fewest votes were Dana, Jenny, and Josh. Zayra and Ryan were also noted as having been in the bottom three at some point during the voting period. These three rockers all performed the cover song of their choice, and in the end, Jenny was eliminated. Supernova said that while her performance was much more rock-oriented than before, they were not sure about her vocals.
Week four
In The Mansion episode The 12 remaining contestants met with Gilby Clarke. He explained to them that for their next clinic they would form into three groups and write lyrics and melodies to go with a song that the Supernova band had already recorded. The team captains were the three who got the encores (Dilana Toby and Magni.) Dilana's team consisted of her, Lukas, Ryan, and Storm. Toby's team consisted of himself, Phil, Patrice, and Zayra. Magni's team consisted of him, Josh, Jill, and Dana. The contestants did so and Supernova, upon hearing all three new songs, were very impressed and declared all three groups winners. Song selection this week was much more civilized than the previous week.
Performance episode The 12 contestants each performed a cover song. An accompanying note said that the contestant that chooses the song "Brown Sugar" will be backed by Gilby Clarke on guitar. Storm Large was highly praised for her performance of Dramarama's "Anything Anything" and did a stage dive after the climax of the song.
There was a standing ovation for her and she made rockstar history as the only person to do a Stagedive.
Jill Gioya Chose to do Brown Sugar backed by Gilby Clarke. Though she was praised by Dave for her performance, Gilby stated that he was annoyed when she started to "GRIND" against him.
Elimination episode The show started with Storm receiving the encore for her performance of Dramarama's "Anything, Anything". Of course, as per the show's format, Brooke immediately soured the mood and announced the three rockers with the fewest votes, who were Patrice, Phil, and Zayra. Josh and Jill were also in the bottom three at some point during the voting period. All three performed the cover songs of their choice. Patrice sang "My Iron Lung" by Radiohead, Zayra sang "Not An Addict" by K's Choice, and Phil sang "Smoking Umbrellas" by Failure. Patrice and Zayra notably got a standing ovation from Supernova. Supernova deliberated and they stated all three of the contestants gave great performances. Despite being complimented by Dave Navarro for his song selection of "Smoking Umbrellas" and Gilby stating it was his best performance, Phil was chosen to be the one sent home due to Supernova being unsure of whether he really wanted to be in the band. Essentially his elimination was due to statements that Phil had made to the press that he was primarily in the competition to get free publicity for himself and his band, and was not "stoked" about the music Supernova was creating; while it was cut from the aired show, live attendees at the taping reported that Dave Navarro read from Phil's hometown newspaper of The Daily Times. On the following days Dave Navarro confirmed the reason's for Phil's exit on his MySpace and personal website's blogs as a "question of his commitment", rehashing the words read aloud from the article. He also commented on Phil's overall performance and the rumors of scandal from this results show. Dave commented that Phil's weekly performances were too similar and he did not seem to heed the advice to change it up, as opposed to Zayra. Dave also referred to the clip of this actual moment in question viewable on the YouTube website, which also confirms the interactions between Phil, the band, and him on this night.
Week five
In The Mansion episode Many of the remaining contestants were stunned that Phil was sent home as many of them, especially the guys, believed that Zayra should have been sent home. The eleven remaining contestants met with Jason Newsted. He walked the contestants through the art of stage performances, stating Supernova was aware that they could all sing, but wanted to know if they could actually lead the band. Song selection this week was done in a different way, with Lukas bringing all the songs outside and laying them on the table. The contestants liked the idea of not being confined and having the long march to the room where the songs are posted. Patrice received the most stress from this when she chose the song "Higher Ground", knowing that Tommy Lee would be playing on the drums.
Performance Episode The 11 remaining contestants performed their cover songs. Patrice's worries were gone when she was highly praised for the performance of "Higher Ground". Other highly praised performances by the judges were by Dilana, Magni, Ryan, Storm, Dana, Toby and Josh. Zayra received a middle level of praise after the band took more time than usual to collect their thoughts on her performance. The only two contestants to receive negative comments were Jill for over singing "Don't You Forget About Me" and Lukas for forgetting much of the lyrics to "Celebrity Skin".
Elimination Episode At the beginning of the show, Supernova asked the eleven remaining contestants if they deserved the encore. Only four of the rockers raised their hands, among them Zayra, Storm, Patrice, and a hesitant Ryan. Supernova commented that at this point in the game everyone should have raised their hands for the encore. Supernova noted that it was close in the competition this week with some solid performances, one of them edging the rest out slightly. This night the encore would belong to Ryan, who reprised his performance of the REM classic "Losing My Religion" on piano. The three rockers that were in the bottom three were Jill, Dana and Patrice. Toby and Zayra were also in the bottom three at some point during the voting period. Dave noted surprise that Toby was standing up and that Lukas wasn't standing up for his performance. Jill was the first to sing for her survival in a performance that not only saved her from elimination, but garnered her a standing ovation with her version of Heart's "Alone". Supernova also commented to Patrice that it really is saying something to them if she was in the bottom three even with Tommy playing drums behind her. Before Dana was sent to the bottom three brooke asked who missed their house band rehearsals and it turned out to be Toby and Dana. It turns out that Dana missed the rehearsal because she was at a spa. After Supernova deliberated, Dana was sent home, with the band claiming that she was too young and had a long way to go
Week six
In The Mansion episode As the ten finalists celebrated their survival in the competition, Gilby arrived on his motorcycle and presented them with new electric guitars from Gibson. Each of the contestants was instructed to write lyrics and perform to one of Supernova's new tracks. All the contestants left Supernova impressed with their presentations. The next day Dilana presented the songs to the other contestants in the dining room. She immediately picked up the song with the opportunity to perform with Gilby Clarke. She asked if anyone else wanted to go for it, however the rockers did not jump at this occasion to shine.
Performance Episode Dilana and Gilby started the show on this night. After their performance, Dave Navarro commented on the fact that no one fought for the chance to perform with Gilby. He went on to proclaim that if it had been up to him, Dilana would have won there and then. Dilana's performance was followed by a stream of great performances by everyone else, such as Magni singing to his family who was flown in for the show, per Supernova's promise. Another noteworthy performance was Zayra performing in a gold unitard and top hat. Magni was again onstage playing guitar for her song selection. This included ending the show with the long anticipated opening up of Lukas' throat, to Jason's delight.
Elimination Episode starting the episode, Supernova announced that all the performances from the night before were outstanding, so instead of just one encore, there would be two. Winning the first encore by a nose, Lukas performed, with his newfound voice, Radiohead's "Creep". The second encore of the night went to Magni, with "The Dolphin's Cry" by Live. Supernova surprised the rockers, announcing the remaining rockers at the end of the show would be going to Las Vegas to see the stage the winner will perform on with Supernova for their New Year's Eve show at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino. Following the show's format, Brooke announced the rockers who landed in the bottom three at some point during the voting. Those rockers were Jill, Josh, Zayra, Ryan, and Patrice. Dave commented that he was not surprised to see the familiar faces standing as the results were read. Zayra was immediately safe.
The first rocker to end in the final bottom three was Jill who has saved herself in every previous bottom three performance. She performed Aretha Franklin's "Respect" for her elimination review. The second rocker to be in the final three was Josh. Tommy was concerned with Josh being in the bottom three as a result of standing behind his guitar during his performances. In a bold move, Josh announced that he would again be playing his guitar, performing "Shooting Star" by Bad Company. The final rocker to be in the bottom three who would fight for their survival was Ryan, over Patrice, who had never been in the bottom three and had the encore in the previous week. Jason commented he was surprised to see this and maybe the audience was confused with his diversity in performances. For this night, the crowd cheered to his selection of Depeche Mode's "Enjoy the Silence", in which he said he arranged especially for what he thought fit Supernova's taste. Impressed with the changing of his performances and growing momentum, Supernova let Ryan off the hook for this week. In a surprising move, Tommy dropped his axe twice eliminating both Josh and Jill. Both eliminated rockers showed great poise in their final moments and self-proclaimed dork Josh asked if he could still go to Vegas with the rest of the guys (as a joke).
Week seven
In The Mansion Episode Supernova took the remaining contestants to Las Vegas so they could look at the venue where the eventual winner will debut with the band. Then Supernova threw a party where many of the contestants, most notably Toby and Lukas, get smashed. Once they returned to the mansion to pick songs, Zayra and Ryan discussed who would get the opportunity to perform the "Original Song". Ryan resolved to let Zayra take the opportunity. Meanwhile, Toby literally jumped at the chance to play with Gilby Clarke, after Dilana concedes the song choice to him. She proposed he run around the pool naked for ownership of the Gilby song, which he did without hesitation.
Performance Episode Zayra started the show with her original song. Supernova thought she did amazing and that it was a great performance, but still felt like it was not for Supernova. Most of the rockers received praise from Supernova, however there was one notable bad performance - Storm Large's rendition of Gloria Gaynor's "I Will Survive". It was not well received by the members of Supernova or Dave Navarro. Dave even said he hated the performance, and Tommy Lee remarked that it was "sautéed in 'wrong sauce.'" Patrice also received moderately negative comments, and was told to "bring the rock”. At the end of the show, Dave felt that he spoke too soon, when he told Ryan that his was the best performance and favored Dilana's performance as the best of the night.
Elimination Episode This show introduced the new segment "Special Supernova Performance". Each week, in addition to the "Encore", Supernova will choose a person to sing one of their new songs, with the members of the band. For this first week, they chose Dilana. After the original song, Ryan was awarded the encore, with Jason claiming it as the super dynamic performance for the previous night. The first rocker in the bottom this week was Zayra. She performed an energetic "Razorblade", which was originally performed by Blue October. Supernova noted they had never heard the song before and that both of her performances this week were risky. However, they applauded her for taking these risks. The next rocker in the bottom three was Patrice, singing "Celebrity Skin" by Hole. Patrice attempted to appeal to the band, as Dilana had done in prior weeks, by walking to where Supernova was sitting and sang directly to them. Magni was the last of the bottom three; he chose "Creep" by Radiohead. His song selection was his self-said anthem, as he laid down on the stage and looked toward the "safe" rockers with the line, "I don't belong here". The songs that Patrice and Magni performed were both performed by Lukas Rossi previously. When Supernova was ready to reveal their decision, they sent Magni to the rocker's pod first, exclaiming he was "so far from going home". Ultimately, the choice was to send Zayra home. Zayra explained to the audience, how much of a roller coaster ride this was for her and that we would see her again soon.
Week eight
In The Mansion Episode The seven remaining contestants were thrown into the grinder when the media came in to interview them. During one of Dilana's interviews, when asked who she hates the most amongst the remaining contestants, she answered Lukas. When Lukas was told how Dilana felt, he responded that he did not need anyone to look after him. Back in the song room, Toby was the one to break the news that two original songs would be performed this week. Ryan felt that since he had to forgo his chance last week, he deserved one. The second original was given to Patrice after Magni said she deserved it for being in the bottom three, for the third time. Notably, Toby allowed Dilana to sing the song he wanted if she would run around the pool naked, like he had to last week. She did, after which Toby stated that he did not even want the song.
Performance Episode Patrice opened the show with her original song, "Beautiful Thing". The song choice prompted an echo of Dave's advice to Zayra a few weeks back: seek a solo career. Magni's rendition of "Smells Like Teen Spirit" met with positive review, as well as Ryan's performance of his original song, "Back of Your Car". Ryan threw his guitar, which was an expensive move, but he was praised for it. Storm's performance of "Cryin'" was also well received, as well as Dilana's performance of "Every Breath You Take", a song that she readily stripped down (at the mansion) to perform. Toby's rendition of "Layla" was heightened when he took off his shirt, a move that Tommy Lee said made the ladies happy. Lukas capped off the night with his performance of "All These Things That I've Done", his only negative comments being centered on facing away from the audience too much. He also received an ambiguous comment from Tommy Lee. Lee said, "Check please", and proceeded to throw down the microphone. This comment has been interpreted by Lukas fans as being a positive, while to others as negative (Check please, being a statement generally signaling one's desire to leave).
Elimination Episode The show began with a recap of some controversial statements made by Dilana, one of which centered on Ryan's performance. Dilana and Ryan were able to voice their opinions on the situation. It was then announced that Toby was Supernova's choice to sing a Supernova song with them this week, and his performance was well received. After that, there was a recap of "Media Day" at the mansion and, again, some of Dilana's responses to the press were perceived as harsh. The band called her on it, and Dilana explained herself, and then apologized. She dismissed it as a mistake, and she said she would learn from it. It was then announced that the Bottom Three was composed of Patrice, Magni, and Toby. Also in the Bottom Three at some point in the voting process was Storm. Magni performed "Fire" by Jimi Hendrix, his second consecutive performance in the Bottom Three. Patrice performed "Middle of the Road" by The Pretenders, her fourth performance in the Bottom Three. Toby performed "Plush" by Stone Temple Pilots, which convinced the band to send him back first. Supernova chose Patrice to be eliminated, explaining that they had to listen to the fans (who had placed her in the Bottom Three for the 4th time). Patrice took the elimination well, stating that this was one of the most amazing experiences in her life. There was no encore this week due to the time taken on the media day discussion.
Week nine
In The Mansion Episode
When the rockers arrived in the mansion, Dilana was still upset by Dave Navarro's words. The next day while she was talking to Lukas and Magni, Dilana became aggravated with herself and her recent performance. In a fit of rage Dilana flipped off the camera, voiced a profanity, and smashed a wine glass to the floor, a piece of glass hit Magni in the head cutting him. The following day was to be a photo shoot with InStyle magazine for the rockers. Storm was a natural in front of the camera, but Magni had the most difficult time posing. Later it was revealed to the rockers that the songs they would be performing this week would be chosen by the fans, some of the rockers saw the fan's selections as fitting while others were troubled by the choices.
Performance Episode
Lukas started the show by singing "Lithium" by Nirvana and was praised by Supernova for his arrangement. Next up was Magni, who has been in the bottom three twice now. He sang "I Alone" by Live and was also praised for his performance, especially by Dave Navarro commenting that "the boy can sing". The fans chose Ryan to sing "Clocks" by Coldplay. He changed the song by rocking it out and also received praise, earning the nickname Ryan "the Darkhorse" Star from Dave Navarro. Storm sang "Bring Me to Life" by Evanescence, with Toby helping on the back-up vocals. However, Gilby thought that her performance was not memorable and cited Jill's version as more memorable. Toby performed "Rebel Yell" by Billy Idol, singing it well, and incorporating crowd interaction by inviting girls from the audience onto the stage. Last up was Dilana with "Mother Mother" by Tracy Bonham. Dave Navarro said it was the best performance of Rock Star: INXS and Rock Star: Supernova.
Elimination Episode
Supernova started the show with a recap of the performances. Lukas received the special performance and rocked the house. Next up was the encore sung by Toby. Then, the bottom three performances were Ryan who sang "Baba O'Riley" by The Who, Storm who sang "Helter Skelter" by The Beatles, and Dilana who sang "Psycho Killer" by Talking Heads. With Storm and Dilana in the bottom three for the first time, Lukas remained as the only person not to make a Bottom Three Performance. Notably, Dilana forgot the lyrics to her song. Supernova decided it was Ryan who was eliminated, citing the reason that they feel that he may not be the perfect fit for the band. Supernova, however noted the tremendous progress and improvement that Ryan has made during the duration of his stay in the show and predicted that big things may still happen for his career. In turn, Ryan informed Supernova that they could have made twenty years of great music together and that he would see them on the record charts.
Week ten
In The Mansion Episode
On returning to the mansion, the rockers saluted the departure of Ryan before engaging in a food fight. Afterwards, they listened to the new Supernova track, for which they were all to create melodies and lyrics. The rockers brought their creations and worked with Gilby Clark in a songwriting clinic where everybody received criticism except for Storm and Toby. When they returned to the mansion, they found out that in addition to performing a cover song at the next performance night, they also had to play an original song.
Performance Episode
Dilana (despite having torn a calf muscle during rehearsals) started the show by singing "Behind Blue Eyes" by The Who followed by her original performance, in which Dave and Tommy had conflicting opinions on. Magni went next and sung the classic "Back in the U.S.S.R." by The Beatles and then went on to sing his original song, which Supernova enjoyed, except Tommy Lee who seemed to think both performances sounded too similar. Storm continued the show with "Suffragette City" by David Bowie with a surprise guest Dave Navarro on guitar, along with a memorable original song "Ladylike," which Supernova loved - especially Tommy. Lukas took to the stage next and performed a stripped down version of Bon Jovi's "Livin' on a Prayer" as well as performing his original. Supernova applauded his performances of both songs on showing his softer side. To finish the show, Aussie Toby sang the famous hit "Mr. Brightside" by The Killers and an original song that Supernova enjoyed, leading Gilby to mention that Toby brought the fun to rock n' roll. Overall, the performances were good from all the rockers, as the band had very few criticisms in comparison to other shows. Before the show went off air, the first votes showed Storm, Dilana and Magni in the initial bottom three.
Elimination Episode
The show began by Supernova announcing that Magni would be performing with Supernova this week. Later, Brooke Burke surprised the contenders by saying that this week's encore performer would win one of the brand new Honda Ridgelines the contestants were transported in to the gig. The band announced Toby Rand as the winner by singing his catch phrase "Oh Oh Oh Oh Oh Oh" from his original song "Throw It Away". Toby carried an Australian flag on the way to the stage and told everyone that he is dedicating his encore performance to fellow Aussie the "Crocodile Hunter", Steve Irwin, who had died only days before. Later on in the night Storm, Dilana, and Lukas were this week's bottom three. Storm sung a rendition of Pink Floyd's "Wish You Were Here," which she dedicated to her mother; during the performance Jason Newsted could be seen wiping a tear drop from his eye (He was crying because of the recent death of his bandmate from VoiVod). Next was Dilana who sang Cheap Trick's "I Want You to Want Me". Lukas closed with his original song "Headspin," which he dedicated, just like Storm, to his mother. After deliberation, the band chose to send Storm home, but on air, Dave Navarro proclaimed that he would like to play with Storm on future projects, Tommy and Jason also volunteered with implication that Gilby would play too. Dave Navarro lived up to his promise by playing on Storm Large's album Ladylike Side One on the song "Ladylike", which is the same original song she had performed on the show.
Finale week
In The Mansion Episode
During their last few days at the mansion, the four remaining rockers reflected on their time spent at their home away from home. For song selection, the rockers were presented with over 150 songs to choose from (all but four of them had been performed at some time or the other during the course of the series); three out of four songs selected for performance night were songs that had not been performed, the exception being "Roxanne". The fourth song was "Comfortably Numb" by Pink Floyd. Lukas and Dilana both wanted the song, but in the end, neither actually kept it. The rockers were instructed by Supernova to perform a song from the list, as well as their original songs.
Performance Episode
As per fans' choice, Ryan Star returned to the show just to perform his hit original song "Back of Your Car" as an opening act. Toby started off with a good performance of "Karma Police" by Radiohead, as well as getting the audience excited with his catchy original, "Throw It Away". Supernova applauded his performance. Next up was Lukas, who sang "Fix You" by Coldplay and a stripped down version of his original, "Headspin". Dilana went next with the song "Roxanne" by The Police. Like all the rest, she then sang her original, "Supersoul", which Supernova enjoyed. Magni finished the show with the Deep Purple song "Hush" followed by his original, "When the Time Comes". However, unlike the other rockers, Tommy Lee and Jason Newsted had criticisms for Magni's performances, particularly how his original is not as "memorable" as some of the others. Nevertheless, Gilby Clark stated that he enjoyed both songs.
Elimination Episode
At the beginning of the show, Magni and Toby were revealed to be in the bottom two. Both of them performed songs that they had done prior. Magni performed 'Fire' and Toby performed 'White Wedding'. Based on these performances, Supernova sent Magni home saying he was more like someone part of a band instead of a frontman. The three remaining rockers then each performed a song they felt best represented themselves. Lukas sang 'Bittersweet Symphony', Dilana performed 'Zombie' and Toby performed 'Somebody Told Me'. Based on these performances, the band sent Toby home. After further deliberation, Lukas won and became the frontman for Supernova, which meant that for the second straight season, the winner of Rock Star is a Canadian. Dilana was offered to have her album written and produced by Gilby Clarke. Dave Navarro offered to play on the album.
After the announcement that Lukas had been chosen to front the band, the newly formed Supernova closed the show with a performance of "'Be Yourself (And Five Other Clichés)" and "It's All Love" (originally performed with Supernova by Toby and Magni, respectively).
Elimination chart
Album
Following the series Rock Star Supernova recorded and released their self-titled debut album Rock Star Supernova with the first single being released in September 2006. The album charted at #101 on the Billboard 200 and #4 on the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified Platinum in Canada (over 100,000 units sold). Supernova's first concert performance took place on New Year's Eve at The Joint at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A world tour followed in early 2007.
House band
Five musicians made up the house band that backed the 15 contestants during the show. The house band was made up of Paul Mirkovich, Jim McGorman, Nate Morton, Sasha Krivtsov, and Rafael Moreira. Several of these musicians currently perform as the house band for the NBC show The Voice.
References
External links
Contestant List
Rock Star: Supernova on Reality Thumbnails
2000s American reality television series
2006 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
CBS original programming
Singing talent shows
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20home%20front%20during%20World%20War%20II
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United States home front during World War II
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The United States home front during World War II supported the war effort in many ways, including a wide range of volunteer efforts and submitting to government-managed rationing and price controls. There was a general feeling of agreement that the sacrifices were for the national good during the war.
The labor market changed radically. Peacetime conflicts concerning race and labor took on a special dimension because of the pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film industry was important for propaganda. Every aspect of life from politics to personal savings changed when put on a wartime footing. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low to high productivity jobs in industrial centers. Millions of students, retirees, housewives, and unemployed moved into the active labor force. The hours they had to work increased dramatically as the time for leisure activities declined sharply.
Gasoline, meat, clothing, and footwear were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated of gasoline a week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war.
Controls and taxes
Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt opposing a conservative coalition in Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the war: top marginal tax rates ranged from 81–94% for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the highest rate was lowered from $5,000,000 to $200,000. Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully, by executive order 9250, to impose a 100% surtax on after-tax incomes over $25,000 (equal to roughly $ today). However, Roosevelt did manage to impose this cap on executive pay in corporations with government contracts. Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944 nearly every employed person was paying federal income taxes (compared to 10% in 1940).
Many controls were put on the economy. The most important was price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production.
In 1942 a rationing system was begun to guarantee minimum amounts of necessities to everyone (especially poor people) and prevent inflation. Tires were the first item to be rationed in January 1942 because supplies of natural rubber were interrupted. Gasoline rationing proved an even better way to allocate scarce rubber. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. By 1943, government-issued ration coupons were required to purchase coffee, sugar, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, gasoline, bicycles, fuel oil, clothing, silk or nylon stockings, shoes, and many other items. Some items, like automobiles and home appliances, were no longer made. The rationing system did not apply to used goods like clothes or cars, but they became more expensive since they were not subject to price controls.
To get a classification and a book of rationing stamps, people had to appear before a local rationing board. Each person in a household received a ration book, including babies and children. When purchasing gasoline, a driver had to present a gas card along with a ration book and cash. Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding. All forms of automobile racing were banned, including the Indianapolis 500 which was canceled from 1942 to 1945. Sightseeing driving was banned.
Personal savings
Personal income was at an all-time high, and more dollars were chasing fewer goods to purchase. This was a recipe for economic disaster that was largely avoided because Americans—persuaded daily by their government to do so—were also saving money at an all-time high rate, mostly in War Bonds but also in private savings accounts and insurance policies. Consumer saving was strongly encouraged through investment in war bonds that would mature after the war. Most workers had an automatic payroll deduction; children collected savings stamps until they had enough to buy a bond. Bond rallies were held throughout the U.S. with celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Several stars were responsible for personal appearance tours that netted multiple millions of dollars in bond pledges—an astonishing amount in 1943. The public paid ¾ of the face value of a war bond and received the full face value back after a set number of years. This shifted their consumption from the war to postwar and allowed over 40% of GDP to go to military spending, with moderate inflation. Americans were challenged to put "at least 10% of every paycheck into Bonds". Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman" flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club". There were seven major War Loan drives, all of which exceeded their goals.
Labor
The unemployment problems of the Great Depression largely ended with the mobilization for war. Out of a labor force of 54 million, unemployment fell by half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million by fall of 1941 and fell by half again to 1.5 million by fall of 1942, hitting an all-time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. There was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs.
Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at the counter to self-service. With new shorter women clerks replacing taller men, some stores lowered shelves to . Before the war, most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service. The labor shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales.
Women
Women also joined the workforce to replace men who had joined the forces, though in fewer numbers. Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home to support the war through personal sacrifice was as critical to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. "Rosie the Riveter" became the symbol of women laboring in manufacturing. Women worked in defense plants and volunteered for war-related organizations. Women even learned to fix cars and became "conductorettes" for the train. The war effort brought about significant changes in the role of women in society as a whole. When the male breadwinner returned, wives could stop working.
Alice Throckmorton McLean founded the American Women's Voluntary Services (AWVS) in January 1940, 23 months before the United States entered the war. When Pearl Harbor was bombed, the AWVS had more than 18,000 members who were ready to drive ambulances, fight fires, lead evacuations, operate mobile kitchens, deliver first aid, and perform other emergency services. By war's end the AWVS counted 325,000 women at work and selling an estimated $1 billion in war bonds and stamps.
At the end of the war, most of the munitions-making jobs ended. Many factories were closed; others retooled for civilian production. In some jobs, women were replaced by returning veterans who did not lose seniority because they were in service. However, the number of women at work in 1946 was 87% of the number in 1944, leaving 13% who lost or quit their jobs. Many women working in machinery factories and more were taken out of the workforce. Many of these former factory workers found other work at kitchens, being teachers, etc.
The table shows the development of the United States labor force by sex during the war years.
Women also took on new roles in sport and entertainment, which opened to them as more and more men were drafted. The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League was the creation of Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley, who sought alternative ways to expand his baseball franchise as top male players left for military service. In 1943, he created an eight-team league in small industrial cities around the Great Lakes. Night games offered affordable, patriotic entertainment to working Americans who had flocked to wartime jobs in the Midwest hubs of Chicago and Detroit. The league provided a novel entertainment of women playing baseball well while wearing short, feminine uniform skirts. Players as young as fifteen were recruited from white farm families and urban industrial teams. Fans supported the League to the extent that it continued well past the conclusion of the war, lasting through 1953.
Farming
Labor shortages were felt in agriculture, even though most farmers were given an exemption and few were drafted. Large numbers volunteered or moved to cities for factory jobs. At the same time, many agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies. Production was encouraged and prices and markets were under tight federal control. Between December 1941 and December 1942 it was estimated 1.6 million men & women left agricultural work for military service or to get higher paying jobs in war industries. Civilians were encouraged to create "victory gardens", farms that were often started in backyards and lots. Children were encouraged to help with these farms, too.
The Bracero Program, a bi-national labor agreement between Mexico and the U.S., started in 1942. Some 290,000 braceros ("strong arms", in Spanish) were recruited and contracted to work in the agriculture fields. Half went to Texas, and 20% to the Pacific Northwest.
Between 1942 and 1946 some 425,000 Italian and German prisoners of war were used as farm laborers, loggers, and cannery workers. In Michigan, for example, the POWs accounted for more than one-third of the state's agricultural production and food processing in 1944.
Children
To help with the need for a larger source of food, the nation looked to school-aged children to help on farms. Schools often had a victory garden in vacant parking lots and on roofs. Children would help on these farms to help with the war effort. The slogan, "Grow your own, can your own", also influenced children to help at home.
Teenagers
With the war's ever-increasing need for able-bodied men consuming America's labor force in the early 1940s, industry turned to teen-aged boys and girls to fill in as replacements. Consequently, many states had to change their child-labor laws to allow these teenagers to work. The lures of patriotism, adulthood, and money led many youths to drop out of school and take a defense job. Between 1940 and 1944, the number of teenage workers tripled from 870,000 in 1940 to 2.8 million in 1944, while the number of students in public high schools dropped from 6.6 million in 1940 to 5.6 million in 1944, about a million students—and many teachers—took jobs. Policymakers did not want high school students to drop out. Government agencies, parents, school administrations and employers would cooperate in local "Go-to-School Drives" to encourage high school students to stay whether this be part or full-time.
The Victory Farm Volunteers under the US Crop Corps accepted teenagers from 14–18 to work in agricultural jobs. However some states did lower their age limit with the youngest being 9. At the program's peak in 1944 there would be 903,794 volunteers which made it larger than the amount in the Women's Land Army, foreign migrant workers and the amount of prisoners of war who were laborers. These volunteers were mainly from the cities and urban areas. Volunteers mostly worked for three months in the summer and for a fourth if high schools decided to push starting dates back. To join, a volunteer needed the consent of their parent(s)/guardian(s). There were three types of work environments for the volunteers. The most common (80% of volunteers) involved them being transported to a worksite daily via buses or farming trucks and returned home at night. Another program involved where volunteers lived with farming families and worked alongside them with about 1 in 5 doing this. There was also camps set up which were not very common as only 4% of all VFV volunteers lived there between 1943 & 1945.
Labor unions
The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years.
Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However, the United Mine Workers, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt's reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The major unions supported a wartime no-strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. In return for labor's no-strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war but not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery.
Even though the complaints from union members about the no-strike pledge became louder and more bitter, the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve-day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much-hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions.
All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. Employers gave workers new untaxed benefits (such as vacation time, pensions, and health insurance), which increased real incomes even when wage rates were frozen. The wage differential between higher-skilled and less-skilled workers narrowed, and with the enormous increase in overtime for blue-collar wage workers (at time and a half pay), incomes in working-class households shot up, while the salaried middle class lost ground.
The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at the top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in further left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the AFL.
The CIO unions were progressive in dealing with gender discrimination in the wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Unions that had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE (electrical workers) and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women. Most union leaders saw women as temporary wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. The wages of these women needed to be kept high so that the veterans would get high wages.
The South in wartime
The war marked a time of dramatic change in the poor, heavily rural South as new industries and military bases were developed by the Federal government, providing badly needed capital and infrastructure in many regions. People from all parts of the US came to the South for military training and work in the region's many bases and new industries. During and after the war millions of hard-scrabble farmers, both white and black, left agriculture for urban jobs.
The United States began mobilizing for war in a major way in the spring of 1940. The warm sunny weather of the South proved ideal for building 60 percent of the Army's new training camps and nearly half the new airfields, In all 40 percent of spending on new military installations went to the South. For example, sleepy Starke, Florida, a town of 1,500 people in 1940, became the base of Camp Blanding. By March 1941, 20,000 men were constructing a permanent camp for 60,000 soldiers. Money flowed freely for the war effort, as over $4 billion went into military facilities in the South, and another $5 billion into defense plants. Major shipyards were built in Virginia, Charleston, and along the Gulf Coast. Huge warplane plants were opened in Dallas-Fort Worth and Georgia. The most secret and expensive operation was at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where unlimited amounts of locally generated electricity were used to prepare uranium for the atom bomb. The number of production workers doubled during the war. Most training centers, factories and shipyards were closed in 1945 and the families that left hardscrabble farms often remained to find jobs in the urban South. The region had finally reached the take off stage into industrial and commercial growth, although its income and wage levels lagged well behind the national average. Nevertheless, as George B. Tindall notes, the transformation was, "The demonstration of industrial potential, new habits of mind, and a recognition that industrialization demanded community services."
Civilian support for war effort
Early in the war, it became apparent that German U-boats were using the backlighting of coastal cities in the Eastern Seaboard and the South to destroy ships exiting harbors. It became the first duty of civilians recruited for the local civilian defense to ensure that lights were either off or thick curtains drawn over all windows at night.
State Guards were reformed for internal security duties to replace the National Guardsmen who were federalized and sent overseas. The Civil Air Patrol was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in air reconnaissance, search-and-rescue, and transport. Its Coast Guard counterpart, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, used civilian boats and crews in similar rescue roles. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast. All exterior lighting had to be extinguished, and black-out curtains placed over windows. The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could hope to reach.
The United Service Organizations (USO) was founded in 1941 in response to a request from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel. The USO brought together six civilian agencies: the Salvation Army, YMCA, Young Women's Christian Association, National Catholic Community Service, National Travelers Aid Association, and the National Jewish Welfare Board.
Women volunteered to work for the Red Cross, the USO, and other agencies. Other women previously employed only in the home, or in traditionally female work, took jobs in factories that directly supported the war effort or filled jobs vacated by men who had entered military service. Enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs.
Various items, previously discarded, were saved after use for what was called "recycling" years later. Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making. Neighborhood "scrap drives" collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells. Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets.
Draft
In 1940, Congress passed the first peace-time draft legislation. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as to who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance.
The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. The industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940–43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for the draft took second jobs.
In the figure below an overview of the development of the United States labor force, the armed forces and unemployment during the war years.
One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18-year-olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Racial minorities were drafted at the same rate as Whites and were paid the same. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory—too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates (there is a possibly apocryphal story of a banker assigned as a baker due to a clerical error, noted by historian Lee Kennett in his book "G.I.") Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, but those who stayed at home lost postwar veteran's benefits.)
Later in the war, in light of the tremendous amount of manpower that would be necessary for the invasion of France in 1944, many earlier deferment categories became draft eligible.
Religion
In the 1930s, pacifism was a very strong force in most of the Protestant churches. Only a minority of religious leaders, typified by Reinhold Niebuhr, paid serious attention to the threats to peace posed by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, or militaristic Japan. After Pearl Harbor in December 1941, practically all the religious denominations gave some support to the war effort, such as providing chaplains. Typically, church members sent their sons into the military without protest, accepted shortages and rationing as a war necessity, purchased war bonds, working munitions industries, and prayed intensely for safe return and for victory. Church leaders, however, were much more cautious while holding fast to the ideals of peace, justice and humanitarianism, and sometimes criticizing military policies such as the bombing of enemy cities. They sponsored 10,000 military chaplains, and set up special ministries in and around military bases, focused not only on soldiers but their young wives who often followed them. The mainstream Protestant churches supported the "Double V" campaign of the black churches to achieve victory against the enemies abroad, and victory against racism on the home front. However, there was little religious protest against the incarceration of Japanese on the West Coast or against segregation of Blacks in the services. The intense moral outrage regarding the Holocaust largely appeared after the war ended, especially after 1960. Many church leaders supported studies of postwar peace proposals, typified by John Foster Dulles, a leading Protestant layman and a leading adviser to top-level Republicans. The churches promoted strong support for European relief programs, especially through the United Nations.
Pacifism
The major churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914. The pacifist churches such as the Quakers and Mennonites were small but maintained their opposition to military service, though many young members, such as Richard Nixon voluntarily joined the military. Unlike in 1917–1918, the positions were generally respected by the government, which set up non-combat civilian roles for conscientious objectors. The Church of God had a strong pacifist element reaching a high point in the late 1930s. This small Fundamentalist Protestant denomination regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked. Likewise, the Quakers generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90% served, although there were some conscientious objectors. The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism, but the federal government was much less hostile than in the previous war. These churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation. Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs. Although young women pacifists were not eligible for the draft, they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism; many worked in mental hospitals. The Jehovah's Witness denomination, however, refused to participate in any forms of service, and thousands of its young men refused to register and went to prison.
As part of the 1940 Selective Service and Training Act, the Civilian Public Service would be formed for conscientious objectors to do work considered to be of "national importance". What type of work varied based on the location of the camps and what was needed. Overall, about 43,000 conscientious objectors (COs) refused to take up arms. About 6,000 COs went to prison, especially the Jehovah's Witnesses. About 12,000 served in Civilian Public Service (CPS)—but never received any veterans benefits. About 25,000 or more performed noncombatant jobs in the military, and did receive postwar veterans benefits.
A rare but notable example of pacifism from within the government came from Jeannette Rankin's opposition to the war. Rankin voted against the war particularly because she saw women and peace to be 'inseparable', and even actively encouraged women to do more to prevent the war in America.
Suspected disloyalty
Civilian support for the war was widespread, with isolated cases of draft resistance. The F.B.I. was already tracking elements that were suspected of loyalty to Germany, Japan, or Italy, and many were arrested in the weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 7,000 German and Italian aliens (who were not U.S. citizens) were moved back from the West Coast, along with some 100,000 of Japanese descent. Some enemy aliens were held without trial during the entire war. The U.S. citizens accused of supporting Germany were given public trials, and often were freed.
Population movements
There was large-scale migration to industrial centers, especially the West Coast. Millions of wives followed their husbands to military camps; for many families, especially from farms, the moves were permanent. One 1944 survey of migrants in Portland, Oregon and San Diego found that three quarters wanted to stay after the war. Many new military training bases were established or enlarged, especially in the South. Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for the cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction.
Transportation
During the war, the Office of Defense Transportation (ODT) would be created to help regulate transportation. During the war people would reduce travelling for personal reasons. Those that drove cars would do less and carpool. People would end up walking and bicycling more often while bus and rail usages would increase to levels that were never seen until that point.
When the United States entered World War II, it was a vastly motorized country as about 85% of all passenger travel came from private cars while all other forms of mass transit made up about 14% of passenger travel. Commuting by car would be limited by the ODT through car, tire and gasoline rationing, banning pleasure driving, regulating the movement of commercial vehicles, establishing a national speed limit along with public campaigns and carpooling programs. What was defined as pleasure driving was ambiguous and the policy banning it was unpopular. The newly established speed limit was enforced by state and local level officials. Exemptions were made to the national speed limit for military and emergencies vehicles that were on duties that required speedier travel times. During the war, taxis were also regulated by the ODT.
Railroads previously saw a decline in travel during the 1920s and 30s with World War 2 reversing this decline as the amount of passenger travel dramatically increased. This gain in railroad travel largely came from soldiers who were travelling. During the war 43 million soldiers were transported at an average of 1 million per month.
In 1941 prior to the United States entering the war, 3.4 million passengers were transported both across the Atlantic Ocean and throughout the United States. Many airlines ended up cancelling their regular flights and turned over the 200 out of 360 airlines to the military, which would be placed under the Air Transport Command. During the war "casual" air travel would practically disappear in the United States.
Racial tensions
The large-scale movement of black Americans from the rural South to urban and defense centers in the North and the West (and some in the South) during the Second Great Migration led to local confrontations over jobs and housing shortages. The cities were relatively peaceful; much-feared large-scale race riots did not happen, but there was nevertheless violence on both sides, as in the 1943 race riot in Detroit and the anti-Mexican Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles in 1943. The "zoot suit" was a highly conspicuous costume worn by Mexican American teenagers in Los Angeles. As historian Roger Bruns notes, "the Zoot suit also represented a stark visual expression of culture for Mexican Americans, about making a statement—a mark of defiance against the place in society in which they found themselves." They gained admiration from within their in-group, and "disgust and ridicule from others, especially the Anglos."
Role of women
Standlee (2010) argues that during the war the traditional gender division of labor changed somewhat, as the "home" or domestic female sphere expanded to include the "home front". Meanwhile, the public sphere—the male domain—was redefined as the international stage of military action.
Employment
Wartime mobilization drastically changed the sexual divisions of labor for women, as young able-bodied men were sent overseas and wartime manufacturing production increased. Throughout the war, according to Susan Hartmann (1982), an estimated 6.5 million women entered the labor force. Women, many of whom were married, took a variety of paid jobs in a multitude of vocational jobs, many of which were previously exclusive to men. The greatest wartime gain in female employment was in the manufacturing industry, where more than 2.5 million additional women represented an increase of 140 percent by 1944. This was catalyzed by the "Rosie the Riveter" phenomenon.
The composition of the marital status of women who went to work changed considerably throughout the war. One in every ten married women entered the labor force during the war, and they represented more than three million of the new female workers, while 2.89 million were single and the rest widowed or divorced. For the first time in the nation's history, there were more married women than single women in the female labor force. In 1944, thirty-seven percent of all adult women were reported in the labor force, but nearly fifty percent of all women were employed at some time during that year at the height of wartime production. In the same year the unemployment rate hit an all-time historical low of 1.2%.
According to Hartmann (1982), the women who sought employment, based on various surveys and public opinion reports at the time suggests that financial reasoning was the justification for entering the labor force; however, patriotic motives made up another large portion of women's desires to enter. Women whose husbands were at war were more than twice as likely to seek jobs.
Fundamentally, women were thought to be taking work defined as "men's work;" however, the work women did was typically catered to specific skill sets management thought women could handle. Management would also advertise women's work as an extension of domesticity. For example, in a Sperry Corporation recruitment pamphlet the company stated, "Note the similarity between squeezing orange juice and the operation of a small drill press." A Ford Motor Company at Willow Run bomber plant publication proclaimed, "The ladies have shown they can operate drill presses as well as egg beaters." One manager was even stated saying, "Why should men, who from childhood on never so much as sewed on buttons be expected to handle delicate instruments better than women who have plied embroidery needles, knitting needles, and darning needles all their lives?" In these instances, women were thought of and hired to do jobs management thought they could perform based on sex-typing.
Following the war, many women left their jobs voluntarily. One Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant (formally Twin Cities Ordnance Plant) worker in New Brighton, Minnesota confessed, "I will gladly get back into the apron. I did not go into war work with the idea of working all my life. It was just to help out during the war." Other women were laid off by employers to make way for returning veterans who did not lose their seniority due to the war.
There are a few examples of reluctance of women to take on wartime jobs. For example, due to labour shortages the American government had to actively promote the war to civilians and the War Manpower Commission used propaganda to sell the war to American women. There was a change in attitudes regarding women in employment in wartime America, and the government started to promote women in work as part of nature, and those that resisted or were reluctant to find work were slackers.
By the end of the war, many men who entered into the service did not return. This left women to take up the sole responsibility of the household and provide economically for the family.
Nursing
Nursing became a highly prestigious occupation for young women. A majority of female civilian nurses volunteered for the Army Nurse Corps or the Navy Nurse Corps. These women automatically became officers. Teenaged girls enlisted in the Cadet Nurse Corps. To cope with the growing shortage on the homefront, thousands of retired nurses volunteered to help out in local hospitals.
Volunteer activities
Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles, such as nursing, the USO, and the Red Cross. Unorganized women were encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the war effort. Women collected fats rendered during cooking, children formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum wrappers and also created rubber band balls, which they contributed to the war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men joined civil defense units to prepare for disasters, such as enemy bombing.
The Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) mobilized 1,000 civilian women to fly new warplanes from the factories to airfields located on the east coast of the U.S. This was historically significant because flying a warplane had always been a male role. No American women flew warplanes in combat.
Baby boom
Marriage and motherhood came back as prosperity empowered couples who had postponed marriage. The birth rate started shooting up in 1941, paused in 1944–45 as 12 million men were in uniform, then continued to soar until reaching a peak in the late 1950s. This was the "Baby Boom".
In a New Deal-like move, the federal government set up the "EMIC" program that provided free prenatal and natal care for the wives of servicemen below the rank of sergeant.
Housing shortages, especially in the munitions centers, forced millions of couples to live with parents or in makeshift facilities. Little housing had been built in the Depression years, so the shortages grew steadily worse until about 1949 when a massive housing boom finally caught up with demand. (After 1944 much of the new housing was supported by the G.I. Bill.)
Federal law made it difficult to divorce absent servicemen, so the number of divorces peaked when they returned in 1946. In long-range terms, divorce rates changed little.
Housewives
Juggling their roles as mothers due to the Baby Boom and the jobs they filled while the men were at war, women strained to complete all tasks set before them. The war caused cutbacks in automobile and bus service and migration from farms and towns to munitions centers. Those housewives who worked found the dual role difficult to handle.
Stress came when sons, husbands, fathers, brothers, and fiancés were drafted and sent to faraway training camps, preparing for a war in which nobody knew how many would be killed. Millions of wives tried to relocate near their husbands' training camps.
Racial politics of the war
Immigration policies during and after World War II
During World War II the trend in immigration policies was both more and less restrictive. The United States immigration policies focused more on national security and were driven by foreign policy imperatives. Legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was finally repealed. This Act was the first law in the United States that excluded a specific group—the Chinese—from migrating to the United States. But during World War II, with the Chinese as allies, the United States passed the Magnuson Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. There was also the Nationality Act of 1940, which clarified how to become and remain a citizen. Specifically, it allowed immigrants who were not citizens, like the Filipinos or those in the outside territories to gain citizenship by enlisting in the army. In contrast, the Japanese and Japanese-Americans were subject to internment in the U.S. There was also legislation like the Smith Act, also known as the Alien Registration Act of 1940, which required indicted communists, anarchists, and fascists. Another program was the Bracero Program, which allowed over two decades, nearly 5 million Mexican workers to come and work in the United States.
When World War II broke out in 1939, a common belief spread that Germany was planting spies and saboteurs in the US under the guise of immigrants. American consuls under the encouragement of US Assistant Secretary of State Breckinridge Long who was the head of visa related affairs in the US State Department to screen visa applicants so much to the point that few could ever pass "the endless criteria to prove they were not 'likely to become a public charge.'" Long was described as being anti-Semitic and is credited with making it harder for Jewish refugees to come to the United States.
After World War II, there was also the Truman Directive of 1945, which did not allow more people to migrate but did use the immigration quotas to let in more displaced people after the war. There was also the War Brides Act of 1945, which allowed spouses of US soldiers to get an expedited path towards citizenship. In contrast, the 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the McCarran-Walter Act, turned away migrants based not on their country of origin but rather whether they are moral or diseased.
Repatriation of Americans abroad
When World War II began in Europe during 1939, the United States would attempt to repatriate approximately 100,000 Americans who were in Europe. The Special Division was created within the US State Department to handle matters involving the war and giving assistance to Americans who were abroad and being repatriated with Breckinridge Long being given responsibility of the Special Division. The US government would end up chartering 6 ships from United States Lines to repatriate Americans. On November 4, 1939 the Neutrality Act was signed into law which banned American ships from traveling to "'states engaged in armed conflict.'" and by early November 75,000 Americans had been repatriated from Europe.
Internment
In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living on the Pacific Coast of the continental United States. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code-breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor. These MAGIC cables were kept a secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded." The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S. and Japanese citizenship.
In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team—a unit composed mostly of American-born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii—Roosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry." In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the Korematsu v. United States case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan.
Fascist Italy was an official enemy, and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic" coastal areas in California. Altogether, 58,000 Italians were forced to relocate. They relocated on their own and were not put in camps. Known spokesmen for Benito Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy became a co-belligerent of the Allies in 1943. In the east, however, the large Italian populations of the northeast, especially in munitions-producing centers such as Bridgeport and New Haven, faced no restrictions and contributed just as much to the war effort as other Americans.
FEPC
The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was a federal executive order requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate based on race or religion. It assisted African Americans in obtaining defense industry jobs during the second wave of the Great Migration of southern blacks to Northern and Western war production and urban centers. Under pressure from A. Philip Randolph's growing March on Washington Movement, on June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) by signing Executive Order 8802. It said, "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin". In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, #9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war, the federal government operated airfields, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants, and other facilities that employed millions. FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. These facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector, the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North and West but did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region, its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers.
African Americans and the Double V campaign
The African American community in the United States resolved on a Double V campaign: victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. During the second phase of the Great Migration, five million African-Americans relocated from rural and poor Southern farms to urban and munitions centers in Northern and Western states in search of racial, economic, social, and political opportunities. Racial tensions remained high in these cities, particularly in overcrowding in housing as well as competition for jobs. As a result, cities such as Detroit, New York, and Los Angeles experienced race riots in 1943, leading to dozens of deaths. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build black morale and head off radical action.
Most black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP, and CIO unions, these Black women fought a "Double V campaign"—fighting against the Axis abroad and restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens. In the South, black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North, they were integrated. However, wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville, Indiana where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside black women.
Racism in propaganda
Pro-American media during the war tended to portray the Axis powers in a negative light.
Germans were portrayed as weak, barbaric, or stupid, and were heavily associated with Nazism and Nazi imagery. For example, the comic book Captain America No. 1 features the titular superhero punching Hitler. Similar anti-German sentiments existed in cartoons as well. The Popeye cartoon, Seein' Red, White, 'N' Blue (aired on February 19, 1943), ends with Uncle Sam punching a sickly-looking Hitler. In the Donald Duck cartoon Der Fuehrer's Face, Donald Duck is portrayed as a Nazi living in Germany, where the Nazi war effort is heavily satirized and caricatured.
American media portrayed the Japanese negatively as well. While attacks on Germans were generally focused on high-level Nazi officials such as Hitler, Himmler, Goebbels, and Göring, the Japanese were targeted more broadly. Portrayals of the Japanese ranged from showing them being vicious and feral, as on the cover of Marvel Comics' Mystery Comics no. 32, to mocking their physical appearance and speech patterns. In the Looney Tunes cartoon Tokio Jokio (aired May 13, 1943), the Japanese people are all shown to be dim-witted, obsessed with being polite, cowardly, and physically short with buckteeth, big lips, squinty eyes, and glasses. The entire cartoon is also narrated in broken English, with the letter "R" often replacing "L" in pronunciation of words, a common stereotype. Japanese slurs were commonly used, such as "Jap", "monkey face", and "slanty eyes". These stereotypes are also seen in Theodor Geisel's comics created during the Second World War.
Wartime politics
Prewar background
When World War 2 began, the United States was initially neutral until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Polling done immediately after the war found over 90% opposed entering the war. However, as time went on public opinion began to shift toward joining the war. The most notable non-interventionist group was the America First Committee which was formed in September 1940. Another smaller non-interventionist group was Keep America Out of War Congress (originally known as the Keep America Out of War Committee) or KAOWC which was a socialist-pacifist organization formed in March 1938 lasting until the Attack on Pearl Harbor. With regards for pro-interventionist forces, one organization was the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies (CDAAA) which was formed in May 1940. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States joined the war and this practically ended any debate about entering the war.
Roosevelt easily won the bitterly contested 1940 election, but the Conservative coalition maintained a tight grip on Congress regarding taxes and domestic issues. Wendell Willkie, the defeated GOP candidate in 1940, became a roving ambassador for Roosevelt. After Vice President Henry A. Wallace became enmeshed in a series of squabbles with other high officials, Roosevelt stripped him of his administrative responsibilities and dropped him from the 1944 ticket. Roosevelt in cooperation with big-city party leaders replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman. Truman was best known for investigating waste, fraud, and inefficiency in wartime programs.
Wartime events
Despite conspiracy theories saying FDR would cancel the 1942 elections, they went ahead as they previously had prior to the war. Among the 80 million men and women eligible to vote, only 28 million did so. The election would not go well for FDR and his party as they lost 7 seats in the Senate and 47 in the House of Representatives; with a Conservative coalition of Republicans and Southern Democrats taking control of both houses on domestic issues. Reducing the draft age to 18, regulations & restrictions from the war along with rationing and a drift away from the New Deal are credited with hurting the Democrats that year.
In the 1944 presidential election, Roosevelt would end up defeating Thomas Dewey who came from the conservative wing of the Republican Party in a close election. Several Republicans would run for the presidential nomination which were: Wendell Willkie, New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey and Ohio Governor John W. Bricker. Dewey would win the nomination selecting Bricker as his running mate. Willkie would mobilize liberal Republicans while Dewey and Bricker attracted Republicans from the conservative bloc of the party. Campaigning would carry out during the 1944 presidential election just like in previous ones.
Voting
During World War II, traditional means of voting were unavailable to soldiers drafted into the military along with women serving in auxiliary corps or volunteer organizations like the Red Cross; so instead those working/serving away from home had to cast absentee ballots if they chose to vote. Many states during the war did not have absentee voting laws and those that did, did not take into account the circumstance generated by the war. To solve this issue with absentee voting, US Congress would pass the 1942 and later 1944 Soldier Voting Acts.
The Soldier Voting Act of 1942 would be enacted on September 16, 1942 allowing for men and women serving the country to cast an absentee ballot if they still lived in the United States. It would disregard any state voting registration requirement and prohibited the use of poll taxes for those covered by the act. However, turnout was low in the 1942 elections and of the 4 million men serving in the military along with "tens of thousands of women" 28,000 absentee ballots were cast making this a less than 1% turnout rate for those in the armed forces. Also because of the timing of the act, states did not have much time to prepare ballots. The Soldier Voting Act of 1944 would pass in April 1944. As part of the act a federal ballot was created that allowed for states that did not have adequate voting mechanisms and the act encouraged states to amend absentee voting laws. The 1944 elections did see a significant increase in the amount of absentee ballots cast by soldiers with an estimated 3.4 million absentee votes being cast or about 25% of those in the armed forces casting an absentee ballot.
Propaganda and culture
Patriotism became the central theme of advertising throughout the war, as large scale campaigns were launched to sell war bonds, promote efficiency in factories, reduce ugly rumors, and maintain civilian morale. The war consolidated the advertising industry's role in American society, deflecting earlier criticism. The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved. For example, there were widespread rumors in the Army to the effect that people on the homefront were slacking off. A Private SNAFU film cartoon (released to soldiers only) belied that rumor. Tin Pan Alley produced patriotic songs to rally the people.
Posters
Posters helped to mobilize the nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever-present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front—calling upon every American to boost production at work and home. Some resorted to extreme racial and ethnic caricatures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half-human creatures.
Bond drives
A strong aspect of American culture then as now was a fascination with celebrities, and the government used them in its eight war bond campaigns that called on people to save now (and redeem the bonds after the war, when houses, cars, and appliances would again be available). The War Bond drives helped finance the war. Americans were challenged to put at least 10% of every paycheck into bonds. Compliance was high, with entire workplaces earning a special "Minuteman" flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club".
Hollywood
Hollywood studios also went all-out for the war effort, as studios encouraged their stars (such as Clark Gable and James Stewart) to enlist. Hollywood had military units that made training films—Ronald Reagan narrated many of them. Nearly all of Hollywood made hundreds of war movies that, in coordination with the Office of War Information (OWI), taught Americans what was happening and who the heroes and the villains were. Ninety million people went to the movies every week. Some of the most highly regarded films during this period included Casablanca, Mrs. Miniver, Going My Way, and Yankee Doodle Dandy. Even before active American involvement in the war, the popular Three Stooges comic trio were lampooning the Nazi German leadership, and Nazis in general, with a number of short subject films, starting with You Nazty Spy! released in January 1940 - the very first Hollywood film of any length to satirize Hitler and the Nazis - nearly two years before the United States was drawn into World War II.
Cartoons and short subjects were a major sign of the times, as Warner Brothers Studios and Disney Studios gave unprecedented aid to the war effort by creating cartoons that were both patriotic and humorous, and also contributed to remind movie-goers of wartime activities such as rationing and scrap drives, war bond purchases, and the creation of victory gardens. Warner shorts such as Daffy - The Commando, Draftee Daffy, Herr Meets Hare, and Russian Rhapsody are particularly remembered for their biting wit and unflinching mockery of the enemy (particularly Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tōjō, and Hermann Göring). Their cartoons of Private Snafu, produced for the military as "training films", served to remind many military men of the importance of following proper procedure during wartime, for their safety. MGM also contributed to the war effort with slyly pro-US short cartoon The Yankee Doodle Mouse with "Lt." Jerry Mouse as the hero and Tom Cat as the "enemy".
To heighten the suspense, Hollywood needed to feature attacks on American soil and obtained inspirations for dramatic stories from the Philippines. Indeed, the Philippines became a "homefront" that showed the American way of life threatened by the Japanese enemy. Especially popular were the films Texas to Bataan (1942), Corregidor (1943), Bataan (1943), They Were Expendable (1945), and Back to Bataan (1945).
The OWI had to approve every film before they could be exported. To facilitate the process the OWI's Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with producers, directors, and writers before the shooting started to make sure that the themes reflected patriotic values. While Hollywood had been generally nonpolitical before the war, the liberals who controlled OWI encouraged the expression of New Deal liberalism, bearing in mind the huge domestic audience, as well as an international audience that was equally large.
Censorship
Prior to entering the war, the US government had already done two years of planning in terms of how to conduct censorship. Censorship would officially begin one hour after the Attack on Pearl Harbor which took place on December 7, 1941 censoring all cable, radiotelephone and telegraphic messages between the rest of the United States and Hawaii. Control of censorship was temporarily placed under FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover from December 8 to the 19th when the Office of Censorship was created via a presidential executive order with Byron Price leading the office for the duration of the war. Censorship was both practiced mandatorily and voluntarily depending on the circumstance. International communication was subjected to mandatory censorship while the domestic press participated on a voluntary basis as the federal government decided mandatory censorship would not be needed as long as patriotic broadcasters and publishers withheld any information that was deemed to harm the Allied war effort.
The war would be covered by over 2,000 correspondents supplying their reports to newsreels, radios, magazines, newspapers and television which was an emerging technology. In the 1930s and 40s most Americans relied on print journalist to get their news. The news was prohibited from covering the travels of the president, the location of the newly moved National Archives or any diplomatic or military missions.
Local activism
One way to enlist everyone in the war effort was scrap collection (called "recycling" decades later). Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (raw material for explosives), newspaper, lumber, steel, and many others. Popular phrases promoted by the government at the time were "Get into the scrap!" and "Get some cash for your trash" (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and Thomas "Fats" Waller even wrote and recorded a song with the latter title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first. War propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives. Nebraska had perhaps the most extensive and well-organized drives; it was mobilized by the Omaha World Herald newspaper.
Sports
Auto racing
In July 1942, the Office of Defense Transportation ordered an indefinite ban on auto racing in an effort to conserve rubber and gasoline.
Baseball
Baseball was at a peak in its popularity as the national pastime at the outset of the war. In January 1942, however, Commissioner of Baseball and former federal judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis handwrote a letter to President Roosevelt asking whether the President felt "professional baseball should continue to operate" given that "these are not ordinary times." Roosevelt wrote back the following day in what became known as the "Green Light Letter" that it would be "thoroughly worthwhile" and "best for the country to keep baseball going." He reasoned that the public would be working longer and harder hours than ever before and therefore had a greater need for recreation than ever before.
In 1943 and 1944, Commissioner Landis, with input from Joseph Bartlett Eastman of the Office of Defense Transportation, ordered that all spring training take place north of the Potomac River and east of the Mississippi River in order to cut down on travel. Major League Baseball (MLB) teams regularly played exhibition games to raise money and morale for the war effort, often against military teams; Ford Frick testified in 1951 before the House Judiciary Committee that MLB teams played 61 games on military bases between 1942 and 1944. The league raised more than $2.1 million (equivalent to $ million in ).
Because many of the able-bodied young men of the United States enlisted or were drafted into service, many MLB roster spots went to players deemed physically unfit for service. They ranged from players such as Tommy Holmes, who had a chronic sinus condition, to Pete Gray, who had only one arm. Older stars such as Jimmie Foxx, Lloyd Waner, Ben Chapman, Babe Herman and Hal Trosky also found new playing opportunities and came out of retirement.
Basketball
After the United States entered the war, the country's two professional basketball leagues, the American Basketball League and National Basketball League, both shrunk to four teams. Much of the country's best basketball was played on military bases.
Football
More than 1,000 players left or postponed their professional football careers due to the war. Due to the depletion of rosters, the Pittsburgh Steelers merged with the Philadelphia Eagles in 1943 to become the Steagles and with the Chicago Cardinals in 1944 to become Card-Pitt. In 1943, the Cleveland Rams suspended operations altogether. During this time, due to the lack of well-rounded athletes available, the National Football League also began allowing free substitutions, which revolutionized the game.
Golf
The U.S. Open was not held between 1942 and 1945 because of the scarcity of the rubber essential to the manufacture of golf balls. Many of the nation's golf courses were also converted to more practical use. For example, Augusta National Golf Club was used to raise cows for beef for Camp Gordon and Congressional Country Club was used as a special ops training ground while several others were converted to farmland.
Attacks on U.S. soil
Although the Axis powers never launched a full-scale invasion of the United States, there were attacks and acts of sabotage on U.S. soil.
December 7, 1941 – Attack on Pearl Harbor, a surprise attack that killed almost 2,500 people in the then incorporated territory of Hawaii which caused the U.S. to enter the war the next day.
January–August 1942 – Second Happy Time, German U-boats engaged American ships off the U.S. East Coast.
February 23, 1942 – Bombardment of Ellwood, a Japanese submarine attack on California.
Attacks on California ships by Japanese submarines
March 4, 1942 – Operation K, a Japanese reconnaissance over Pearl Harbor following the attack on December 7, 1941.
June 3, 1942 – August 15, 1943 – Aleutian Islands Campaign, the battle for the then incorporated territory of Alaska.
June 21–22, 1942 – Bombardment of Fort Stevens, the second attack on a U.S. military base in the continental U.S. in World War II.
September 9, 1942, and September 29, 1942 – Lookout Air Raids, the only attack by enemy aircraft on the contiguous U.S. and the second enemy aircraft attack on the U.S. continent in World War II.
November 1944–April 1945 – Fu-Go balloon bombs, over 9,300 of them were launched by Japan across the Pacific Ocean towards the U.S. to start forest fires. On May 5, 1945, six U.S. civilians were killed in Oregon when they stumbled upon a bomb and it exploded, the only deaths to occur in the U.S. as a result of an enemy balloon attack during World War II.
See also
Ethnic minorities in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II
American music during World War II
G.I. Generation
Home front during World War II, for rest of world
Japanese occupation of the Philippines
Military history of the United States during World War II
United States home front during World War I
Woman's Land Army of America
California during World War II
US Government films:
Why We Fight
Black Marketing
Campus on the March
Henry Browne, Farmer
Manpower
Negro Colleges in War Time
The Arm Behind the Army
Notes
References
Brinkley, David. Washington Goes to War Knopf, 1988; memoir
Campbell, D'Ann (1984), Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era Harvard University Press.
Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds.; Public Opinion, 1935-1946 (1951), a massive compilation of many public opinion polls from the USA
Ferguson, Robert G. 'One Thousand Planes a Day: Ford, Grumman, General Motors and the Arsenal of Democracy.' History and Technology 2005 21(2): 149-175. Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta, and Ebsco
Flynn, George Q. The Draft, 1940-1973 (1993) ()
Gallup, George Horace, ed. The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935-1971 3 vol (1972) esp vol 1. summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers
Garfinkel, Herbert. When Negroes March: The March on Washington and the Organizational Politics for FEPC (1959).
Koistinen, Paul A. C. Arsenal of World War II: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1940–1945 (2004)
Miller, Sally M., and Daniel A. Cornford eds. American Labor in the Era of World War II (1995), essays by historians, mostly on California
Lichtenstein, Nelson. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (2003)
Wynn, Neil A. The Afro-American and the Second World War (1977)
Vatter, Howard. The U.S. Economy in World War II Columbia University Press, 1985. General survey
Hinshaw, David. The Home Front (1943)
Hoehling, A. A. Home Front, the U.S.A. (1966)
Further reading
Surveys
Adams, Michael C.C. The Best War Ever: America and World War II (1993); contains detailed bibliography
Blum, John Morton. V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II (1995); original edition (1976)
Casdorph, Paul D. Let the Good Times Roll: Life at Home in America During World War II (1989)
Jeffries, John W. Wartime America: The World War II Home Front (1996) online.
Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. (2001) excerpt and text search; a major scholarly survey of the era
Kennett, Lee. For the Duration: The United States Goes to War, Pearl Harbor—1942 (1985), covers the first six months.
Lingeman, Richard R. Don’t You Know There’s a War On? The American Home Front, 1941–1945 (1970), popular history
Perrett, Geoffrey. Days of Sadness, Years of Triumph: The American People, 1939–1945 (1973), popular history.
Polenberg, Richard. War and Society: The United States, 1941-1945 (1980)
Smith, Gaddis. American Diplomacy During the Second World War, 1941-1945 (1965) online
Sparrow, James T. Warfare state: World War II Americans and the age of big government (Oxford UP, 2011).
Tindall, George B. The emergence of the new South, 1913-1945 (1967) online free to borrow pp 687=732.
Titus, James, ed. The Home Front and War in the Twentieth Century: The American Experience in Comparative Perspective (1984) essays by scholars. online free
Winkler, Allan M. Home Front U.S.A.: America During World War II (3rd ed. 2012). short survey
Encyclopedias
Ciment, James D. and Thaddeus Russell, eds. The Home Front Encyclopedia: United States, Britain, and Canada in World Wars I and II (3 vol 2006)
Frank, Lisa Tendrich. An Encyclopedia of American Women at War: From the Home Front to the Battlefields (2013)
Resch, John Phillips, and D'Ann Campbell eds. Americans at War: Society, Culture, and the Homefront (vol 3 2004)
Shearer, Benjamin F. ed. Home Front Heroes: A Biographical Dictionary of Americans during Wartime (3 vol. 2006)
10 Eventful Years: 1937-1946 4 vol. Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947. Highly detailed encyclopedia of events online free
Economy and labor
Aruga, Natsuki. " 'An' Finish School': Child Labor during World War II" Labor History 29 (1988): 498-530. DOI: 10.1080/00236568800890331.
Campbell, D'Ann. 'Sisterhood versus the Brotherhoods: Women in Unions' in Campbell, Women at War with America (1984) pp. 139–62
Dubofsky, Melvyn and Warren Van Time John L. Lewis (1986). Biography of the head of coal miners' union
Campbell, W. Glenn, ed. Economics of mobilization and war (1952) online
Evans Paul. 'The Effects of General Price Controls in the United States during World War II.' Journal of Political Economy 90 (1983): 944-66. a statistical study in JSTOR
Feagin, Joe R., and Kelly Riddell. 'The State, Capitalism and World War II: The U.S. Case.' Armed Forces and Society (1990) 17#1 pp. 53–79.
Flynn, George Q. The Mess in Washington: Manpower Mobilization in World War II (1979) * Fraser, Steve. Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (1993). leader of CIO
Hall, Martha L. et al., "American Women's Wartime Dress: Sociocultural Ambiguity Regarding Women's Roles During World War II," Journal of American Culture 38 (Sept. 2015), 234–42.
Harrison, Mark. 'Resource Mobilization for World War II: The U.S.A., UK, U.S.S.R. and Germany, 1938-1945.' Economic History Review 41 (1988): 171-92. in JSTOR
Herman, Arthur. Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II (Random House, 2012) 413 pp.
Hyde, Charles K. Arsenal of Democracy: The American Automobile Industry in World War II (Wayne State University Press; 2013) 264 pages
Jacobs, Meg. '"How About Some Meat?": The Office of Price Administration, Consumption Politics, and State Building from the Bottom Up, 1941-1946,' Journal of American History 84#3 (1997), pp. 910–941 in JSTOR
Jensen, Richard J. "The causes and cures of unemployment in the Great Depression." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 19.4 (1989): 553-583. online
Kersten, Andrew E. Labor's home front: the American Federation of Labor during World War II (NYU Press, 2006).
Klein, Maury. A Call to Arms: Mobilizing America for World War II (2013).
Lichtenstein, Nelson. Labor's war at home: The CIO in World War II (Temple University Press, 2003).
Lipsitz, George. Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (1994) excerpt
Maines, Rachel. 'Wartime Allocation of Textiles and Apparel Resources: Emergency Policy in the Twentieth Century.' Public Historian (1985) 7#1 pp. 29–51.
Mills, Geoffrey, and Hugh Rockoff. "Compliance with Price Controls in the United States and the United Kingdom during World War II," Journal of Economic History 47#1 (1987): 197-213. in JSTOR
Myers, Margaret G. Financial History of the United States (1970). pp 343–64. online
Reagan, Patrick D. 'The Withholding Tax, Beardsley Ruml, and Modern American Public Policy.' Prologue 24 (1992): 19-31.
Rockoff, Hugh. "The Response of the Giant Corporations to Wage and Price Controls in World War II." Journal of Economic History (1981) 41#1 pp. 123–28. in JSTOR
Romer, Christina D. 'What Ended the Great Depression?' Journal of Economic History 52 (1992): 757-84. in JSTOR
Seidman , Joel. American Labor from Defense to Reconversion (1953)
Simmons, Dean. Swords into plowshares: Minnesota's POW camps during World War II. (2000). .
Sosna, Morton, and James C. Cobb, Remaking Dixie: The Impact of World War II on the American South (UP of Mississippi, 1997).
Tuttle, William M. Jr. 'The Birth of an Industry: The Synthetic Rubber 'Mess' in World War II.' Technology and Culture 22 (1981): 35-67. in JSTOR
Wilcox, Walter W. The Farmer in the Second World War. (1947) online
Wilson, Mark R. Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II (2016) online review.
Draft
Bennett, Scott H., ed. Army GI, Pacifist CO: The World War II Letters of Frank and Albert Dietrich (New York: Fordham Univ. Press, 2005).
Blum, Albert A. Drafted Or Deferred: Practices Past and Present Ann Arbor: Bureau of Industrial Relations, Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Michigan, 1967.
Flynn George Q. 'American Medicine and Selective Service in World War II.' Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 42 (1987): 305-26.
Flynn George Q. The Draft, 1940-1973 (1993) excerpt and text search
Family, gender and minorities
Bailey, Beth, and David Farber; 'The "Double-V" Campaign in World War II Hawaii: African Americans, Racial Ideology, and Federal Power,' Journal of Social History Volume: 26. Issue: 4. 1993. pp. 817+.
Campbell, D'Ann. Women at War with America (1984)
Daniel, Clete. Chicano Workers and the Politics of Fairness: The FEPC in the Southwest, 1941-1945 University of Texas Press, 1991
Collins, William J. 'Race, Roosevelt, and Wartime Production: Fair Employment in World War II Labor Markets,' American Economic Review 91:1 (March 2001), pp. 272–286. in JSTOR
Costello, John. Virtue Under Fire: How World War II Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes (1986), US and Britain
Escobedo, Elizabeth. From Coveralls to Zoot Suits: The Lives of Mexican American Women on the World War II Home Front (2013)
Finkle, Lee. 'The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest during World War II,' Journal of American History (1973) 60#3 pp. 692–713 in JSTOR
Hall, Martha L. et al., "American Women's Wartime Dress: Sociocultural Ambiguity Regarding Women's Roles During World War II," Journal of American Culture 38 (Sept. 2015), 234–42.
Hartmann, Susan M. Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 40s (1982)
Kryder, Daniel. Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II (2001)
Kuhn, Clifford M., "'It Was a Long Way from Perfect, but It Was Working': The Canning and Home Production Initiatives in Green County, Georgia, 1940–1942," Agricultural History (2012) 86#1 pp. 68–90. on Victory gardens
Lees, Lorraine M. 'National Security and Ethnicity: Contrasting Views during World War II.' Diplomatic History 11 (1987): 113-25.
Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), famous classic
Ossian, Lisa L. The Forgotten Generation: American Children and World War II (University of Missouri Press; 2011) 192 pages; children's experiences at school, at play, at work, and in the home.
Tuttle Jr. William M.; Daddy's Gone to War: The Second World War in the Lives of America's Children Oxford University Press, 1995; online review
Records of the Women's Bureau (1997), short essay on women at work
Ward, Barbara McLean, ed., Produce and Conserve, Share and Play Square: The Grocer and the Consumer on the Home-Front Battlefield during World War II, Portsmouth, NH: Strawbery Banke Museum
Pfau, Ann Elizabeth. Miss Yourlovin: GIs, Gender, and Domesticity during World War II (Columbia UP. 2008) online
Politics
Burns, James MacGregor. Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom (1970), vol 2 covers the war years.
Goodwin, Doris Kearns. No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (1995)
Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985). encyclopedia
Hooks Gregory. The Military-Industrial Complex: World War II's Battle of the Potomac University of Illinois Press, 1991.
Jeffries John W. 'The "New" New Deal: FDR and American Liberalism, 1937-1945.' Political Science Quarterly (1990): 397-418. in JSTOR
Leff Mark H. 'The Politics of Sacrifice on the American Home Front in World War II,' Journal of American History 77 (1991): 1296-1318. in JSTOR
Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft (1972)
Steele Richard W. 'The Great Debate: Roosevelt, the Media, and the Coming of the War, 1940-1941.' Journal of American History 71 (1994): 69-92. in JSTOR
Young, Nancy Beck. Why We Fight: Congress and the Politics of World War II (University Press of Kansas; 2013) 366 pages; a comprehensive survey
Primary sources and teaching materials
Dorn, Charles, and Connie Chiang. "Lesson Plan – National Unity and National Discord: The Western Homefront during World War II," Journal of the West (Summer 2010) 49#3 pp. 41–60. It contains a detailed lesson plan for 11th grade, focused on the social history of the Homefront in the West (especially California).
Nicholas, H. G. Washington despatches, 1941-1945: weekly political reports from the British Embassy (1985) 718 pages; unusually rich secret reports from British diplomats (especially Isaiah Berlin) analyzing American government and politics
Piehler, G. Kurt, ed, The United States in World War II: A Documentary Reader (2012) excerpt and text search
Propaganda, advertising, media, public opinion
Blanchard, Margaret A. 'Freedom of the Press in World War II.' American Journalism. Volume 12, Issue 3, 1995. p. 342-358. Published online on 24 July 2013. DOI: 10.1080/08821127.1995.10731748.
Bredhoff, Stacey (1994), Powers of Persuasion: Poster Art from World War II, National Archives Trust Fund Board.
, summaries of thousands of polls in US, Canada, Europe
Fauser, Annegret. Sounds of War: Music in the United States During World War II (Oxford University Press; 2013) 366 pages; focuses on classical music in the 1940s, including work by both American composers and Europeans in exile.
Fox, Frank W (1975), Madison Avenue Goes to War: The Strange Military Career of American Advertising, 1941–45, Brigham Young University Press.
Fyne, Robert (1994), The Hollywood Propaganda of World War II, Scarecrow Press.
Gregory, G.H. (1993), Posters of World War II, Gramercy Books.
Gallup, George H. (1972), The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1935- 1971, Vol. 1, 1935–1948, summary of every poll
Holsinger, M. Paul, and Mary Anne Schofield; Visions of War: World War II in Popular Literature and Culture (1992)
Witkowski, Terrence H. 'World War II Poster Campaigns: Preaching Frugality to American Consumers' Journal of Advertising, Vol. 32, 2003
Social, state and local history
Brown DeSoto. Hawaii Goes to War. Life in Hawaii from Pearl Harbor to Peace. 1989.
, on Indiana
Chandonnet, Fern. Alaska at War, 1941-1945: The Forgotten War Remembered (2007)
Clive Alan. State of War: Michigan in World War II University of Michigan Press, 1979.
Daniel Pete. 'Going among Strangers: Southern Reactions to World War II.' Journal of American History 77 (1990): 886-911. in JSTOR
Davis, Anita Price. North Carolina and World War II: A Documentary Portrait (McFarland, 2014) ISBN 978-0-7864-7984-9. See also online review
Escobedo, Elizabeth. From Coveralls to Zoot Suits: The Lives of Mexican American Women on the World War II Home Front (2013)
Gleason Philip. 'Pluralism, Democracy, and Catholicism in the Era of World War II.' Review of Politics 49 (1987): 208-30. in JSTOR
Hartzel, Karl Drew. The Empire State At War (1949), on upstate New York
Hiltner, Aaron. Friendly Invasions: Civilians and Servicemen on the World War II American Home Front (2017).
Jaworski, Taylor. World War II and the Industrialization of the American South (Paper. No. w23477. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2017) online.
Johnson, Charles. 'V for Virginia: The Commonwealth Goes to War,' Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1992): 365–398 in JSTOR
Johnson Marilynn S. 'War as Watershed: The East Bay and World War II.' Pacific Historical Review 63 (1994): 315-41, on Northern California in JSTOR
in Northern California
LaRossa, Ralph. Of War and Men: World War II in the Lives of Fathers and Their Families (2011)
Larson, Thomas A. Wyoming's war years, 1941-1945 (1993)
Lichtenstein Nelson. 'The Making of the Postwar Working Class: Cultural Pluralism and Social Structure in World War II.' Historian 51 (1988): 42-63.
Lee James Ward, Carolyn N. Barnes, and Kent A. Bowman, eds. 1941: Texas Goes to War University of North Texas Press, 1991.
Lotchin, Roger W. 'The Historians' War or The Home Front's War?: Some Thoughts for Western Historians,' Western Historical Quarterly (1995) 26#2 pp. 185–196 in JSTOR
Marcello, Ronald E. Small Town America in World War II: War Stories from Wrightsville, Pennsylvania (University of North Texas Press, 2014) 452 pp.
Miller Marc. The Irony of Victory. World War II and Lowell, Massachusetts (U of Illinois Press, 1988).
Nash Gerald D. The American West Transformed. The Impact of the Second World War (Indiana UP, 1985).
Newton, Wesley Phillips. Montgomery in the Good War: Portrait of a Southern City, 1939–1946 (U of Alabama Press, 2000), Montgomery, Alabama.
Pleasants, Julian M. Home Front: North Carolina During World War II (UP of Florida, 2017), 366 pp. online review
Scranton, Philip. ed. The Second Wave: Southern Industrialization from the 1940s to the 1970s (U of Georgia Press, 2001).
Smith C. Calvin. War and Wartime Changes: The Transformation of Arkansas, 1940–1945 (U of Arkansas Press, 1986).
O'Brien, Kenneth Paul and Lynn Hudson Parsons, eds. The Home-Front War: World War II and American Society essays by scholars
Spinney, Robert G. World War II in Nashville: Transformation of the Homefront (1998)
Verge, Arthur C. 'The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles,' Pacific Historical Review (1994) 63#3 pp. 289–314 in JSTOR
Watters, Mary. Illinois in the Second World War. 2 vol (1951)
External links
Regional Oral History Office / Rosie the Riveter / World War II American Homefront Project
American Anti-Axis Propaganda from World War II
FDR Cartoon Archive
National Museum of the Civil Air Patrol (online, World War II section)
Powers of Persuasion: Poster Art from World War II, National Archives
Northwestern U Library World War II Poster Collection
War Ration Book Records and Related Information
Library of Congress: 1000 Digitized Photos of World War II Occupations on the Homefront
A Visual History of Victory Gardens curated by Michigan State University
Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s Robert Higgs, 1 March 1992
Dick Dorrance papers, which document the rise of FM broadcasting and the role that broadcasters and radio could play in the war effort, at the University of Maryland libraries
Cultural history of World War II
Home front
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1998 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1998 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Tony Blair (Labour)
Parliament – 52nd
Events
January
5 January – The UK takes over the Presidency of the EC's Council of Ministers until 30 June.
8 January – The notable composer Sir Michael Tippett dies in London following a stroke shortly after his 93rd birthday.
February
3 February – Stamps commemorating the late Diana, Princess of Wales, go on sale across the UK.
7–22 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, and win one bronze medal.
8 February – Right-wing politician Enoch Powell dies in hospital in London aged 85.
12 February – Mohamed Al Fayed, the father of Dodi Fayed, says that he is "99.9% certain" that his son's death in the car crash that also claimed the life of Diana, Princess of Wales on 31 August 1997 was a conspiracy to kill rather than an accident. He also claims that his son had purchased an engagement ring just before the crash and had been preparing to propose marriage to Diana. A lawyer in Mr Al Fayed's native Egypt was planning to sue the Queen and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair on the grounds that they had conspired to kill Diana because her love for a Muslim would embarrass the country.
24 February – The conviction of Somali sailor Mahmood Mattan, hanged in 1952 at Cardiff Prison for the murder of pawnbroker Lily Volpert, is overturned by the Court of Appeal, with Mr Justice Rose describing the original conviction as "demonstrably flawed". The Mattan case is the first to be referred by the Criminal Cases Review Commission.
28 February – Lancet MMR autism fraud: A study by Andrew Wakefield published in The Lancet suggests a link between MMR vaccine and autism; although subsequently discredited and retracted, it is widely influential on vaccination rates.
March
6 March – Closure of South Crofty, the last working tin mine in Cornwall.
31 March – The Rolls-Royce Motors brand is acquired by German car manufacturer BMW.
April
April – Vauxhall launches its fourth generation Astra small family car range. The initial range consists of hatchbacks, saloons and estates, with coupe and cabriolet models arriving in two years.
1 April – The historic counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire are reestablished, 24 years after they merged to form Hereford and Worcester. Berkshire County Council is abolished and replaced by unitary authorities.
10 April – The Good Friday Agreement, an agreement between the UK and Irish governments and the main political parties in Northern Ireland is signed.
27 April – Kevin Lloyd, who played Tosh Lines in The Bill since 1988, is dismissed from the role by ITV due to his alcoholism. He dies, the following week, aged 49.
May
2 May – Police in Maryland, United States, reveal that they have arrested and bailed former English footballer Justin Fashanu over an allegation of sexual assault against a seventeen-year-old male, and they believe he has now breached his bail conditions and fled the country; he commits suicide in London.
9 May – The Eurovision Song Contest held in Birmingham at the National Indoor Arena.
15 May – 24th G8 summit held in Birmingham.
20 May – Nurses Deborah Parry and Lucille McLauchlan, who had been convicted in Saudi Arabia for the murder of Yvonne Gilford the previous year, have their sentences commuted by the order of King Fahd and are returned to the UK.
23 May – Referendums on the Good Friday Agreement are held in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland with 95% and 71% support respectively.
June
June – The DVD format is released onto the UK market for the first time. Among the first set of titles released on the new format is Jumanji. The format will sell just over 6,000 discs by the end of the year.
15 June – First general-circulation issue of a two pound coin, with a bi-metallic design (dated 1997).
23 June – The Heathrow Express rail link begins operation.
27 June – The Diana, Princess of Wales Tribute Concert is held at Althorp Park in Northamptonshire, and attended by 15,000 people.
July
12 July – Drumcree conflict: Three young children are killed in a loyalist Ulster Volunteer Force arson attack in Ballymoney, Northern Ireland.
31 July
Crime and Disorder Act receives Royal Assent. It introduces Anti-Social Behaviour Orders, Sex Offender Orders, Parenting Orders, and 'racially aggravated' offences. It makes it possible for a young person between ten and fourteen to be presumed capable of committing an offence and formally abolishes capital punishment for treason and piracy, the last civilian offences for which the death penalty remained theoretically available.
The Government of Wales Act 1998, which will establish a devolved Welsh Assembly, receives Royal Assent.
The government announces a total ban on the use of landmines by the British military.
August
10 August – Manchester United TV begins broadcasting, making Manchester United F.C. the world's second football team to have its own television channel, the first being Middlesbrough (Boro TV) in 1997.
15 August – Omagh bombing: A car bomb explodes in the Northern Irish market town of Omagh, County Tyrone, killing 29 people – the worst terrorist atrocity in the history of The Troubles in Northern Ireland. It has been planted by the Real Irish Republican Army.
18 August – Mathematicians Richard Borcherds and Timothy Gowers are awarded Fields Medals.
22 August – Reading F.C. move into their new Madejski Stadium, named after chairman John Madejski, near junction 11 of the M4 motorway in the south of Reading. It seats more than 24,000 spectators.
24 August
The Netherlands is selected as the venue for the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial of two Libyans who are charged with causing the explosion of an aircraft at Lockerbie that killed 270 people in December 1988.
First RFID human implantation tested in the United Kingdom by Kevin Warwick at the University of Reading.
September
8 September – The Real IRA announces a ceasefire.
10 September – In Northern Ireland, David Trimble of the Ulster Unionist Party meets Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin – the first such meeting between Republicans and Loyalists since 1922.
16 September – The Union Jack dress worn by the Spice Girl Geri Halliwell is sold at Sotheby's for £41,320
October
October – Ford launches its new Focus range of small family hatchbacks, saloons and estates which will eventually replace the long-running Escort although that model would continue until the year 2000 and the van model lasting until 2002.
16 October – Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet: Police place General Augusto Pinochet, the 83-year-old former dictator of Chile, into house arrest during his medical treatment in Britain at the request of Spain.
17 October – Actress Joan Hickson dies aged 92 of a stroke in a hospital at Colchester, Essex, six years after her final television appearance as Miss Marple.
27 October – Ron Davies resigns as Secretary of State for Wales, citing "an error of judgement" in agreeing to go for what he said was a meal with a man he had met while walking on Clapham Common in London, which is a well known gay meeting place, and subsequently being mugged.
28 October – The Poet Laureate Ted Hughes dies of cancer in a hospital in London, aged 68.
November
November – Peugeot launches the 206 supermini which is being built at the Ryton plant near Coventry.
9 November – Human Rights Act receives Royal Assent.
24 November – The Queen's Speech announces the government plan to abolish the rights of 700 hereditary peers to sit and vote in the House of Lords; unprecedentedly this is met with audible "hear hears".
25 November – Appointed Regional development agencies and Regional chambers ("Regional assemblies") in England are created under the Regional Development Agencies Act.
26 November – Tony Blair becomes the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to address the Oireachtas (Irish parliament).
December
December – The Ford Focus is voted European Car of the Year.
10 December
John Hume and David Trimble win the Nobel Peace Prize.
John Pople wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry".
26 December – Great Boxing Day Storm: severe gale-force winds hits Ireland, southern Scotland and northern England. Roads, railways and electricity are disrupted.
29 December – Three British tourists are among those shot during a gun battle to free them from kidnappers in Yemen.
Date unknown
The Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems Association is created.
Publications
Beryl Bainbridge's novel Master Georgie.
Iain M. Banks' novel Inversions.
Julian Barnes's novel :England, England.
Ted Hughes's poetry collection Birthday Letters.
Nigella Lawson's guide How to Eat: the pleasures and principles of good food.
Ian McEwan's novel Amsterdam.
John O'Farrell's political memoir Things Can Only Get Better.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels The Last Continent and Carpe Jugulum.
J. K. Rowling's novel Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets.
Births
2 January
George Miller, footballer
Ollie Pope, cricketer
4 January – Tia Rigg, murder victim (died 2010)
7 January – Ben Earl, rugby union player
18 January – Alfie McIlwain, actor
2 February – Chris Smith, footballer
3 February – Zak Crawley, cricketer
4 February – Scott Jones, athlete
15 February – George Russell, racing driver
27 February
Sam Smith, footballer
Theo Stevenson, actor
13 March – Oliver Stokes, actor
14 March – George Bartlett, cricketer
24 March – Isabel Suckling, singer
11 April – Oliver Dillon, actor
12 April – Tom Pearce, footballer
14 April – Arthur Bowen, actor
22 April – Jay Dasilva, footballer
8 May – Sam Field, footballer
14 May – Aaron Ramsdale, footballer
3 June – Sam Curran, cricketer.
4 June – Jack Blatherwick, cricketer
7 June – Graham Newberry, American-English figure skater
10 June – Johnny Bennett, actor
14 June – Julia Joyce, actress
21 June – Isabel Atkin, freestyle skier
30 June – Tom Davies, footballer
1 July – Hollie Steel, classical crossover singer
19 July
Ronaldo Vieira, footballer
Amar Virdi, cricketer
Lil Woods, actress
20 July – Sinead Michael, actress
28 July – Sam Surridge, footballer
2 August – Giarnni Regini-Moran, artistic gymnast
6 August – Jack Scanlon, actor
8 August – Ronan Parke, pop singer
14 August – Amy Marren, swimmer
5 September – Helena Barlow, actress
9 September – Shannon Matthews, kidnapping victim
21 September – Prem Sisodiya, cricketer
2 October – Zack Morris, actor
7 October – Trent Alexander-Arnold, footballer
17 October – Erin Kellyman, actress
18 October – Jack Carroll, comic actor
20 October – Jordan Allan, footballer
22 October
Georgina Anderson, pop singer (died 2013)
Harry Souttar, footballer
29 October – Matthew Potts, cricketer
11 November – Tom Banton, cricketer
21 November – Will Jacks, cricketer
28 November – Ronan McKenzie, kart racing driver
1 December – Ollie Robinson, cricketer
3 December – Marcus Edwards, footballer
11 December – Gabz (Gabrielle Gardiner), singer-songwriter
14 December – Lukas Nmecha, footballer
17 December – Jasmine Armfield, actress
24 December – Declan McKenna, pop singer
Deaths
January
2 January – Frank Muir, actor, comedy writer and raconteur (born 1920)
4 January – Sally Purcell, poet and translator (born 1944)
5 January – David Bairstow, English cricketer (born 1951); suicide
6 January – Richard Clutterbuck, Army major-general and historian (born 1917)
7 January – Frank Roberts, diplomat (born 1907)
8 January – Sir Michael Tippett, composer (born 1905)
11 January – John Wells, writer and satirist (born 1936)
12 January
Roger Clark, rally driver (born 1939)
Ian Moores, former footballer (born 1954)
15 January
James Ashley, suspected heroin dealer (born 1958); murdered
George Pottinger, convicted fraudster (born 1916)
18 January – Monica Edwards, children's writer (born 1912)
21 January – Edward Carrick, art designer, writer and illustrator (born 1905)
23 January – Victor Pasmore, artist (born 1908)
24 January – Xenia Field, councillor, horticulturalist and author (born 1894)
25 January – Attia Hosain, novelist, journalist and actress (born 1913, India)
26 January – Lord Nicholas Hervey, aristocrat and political activist (born 1961); suicide
27 January – Geoffrey Trease, writer (born 1909)
30 January – Lesslie Newbigin, theologian and missionary (born 1909)
February
2 February – Robert McIntyre, Scottish politician (born 1913)
3 February – Davy Kaye, actor (born 1916)
5 February – Nick Webb, musician (born 1954)
8 February – Enoch Powell, politician (born 1912)
10 February – Peter Longbottom, cyclist (born 1959); road accident
14 February – Edgar Granville, Baron Granville of Eye, politician (born 1898)
15 February – Samuel Curran, physicist (born 1912)
16 February – Harry Hinsley, historian and cryptanalyst (born 1918)
17 February – Sheila Raynor, actress (born 1906)
18 February – Robbie James, Welsh footballer (born 1957)
20 February
Francis Coulson, cook and hotelier (born 1919)
Henry Livings, playwright and screenwriter (born 1929)
David McClure, artist (born 1926)
24 February – Geoffrey Bush, composer and music scholar (born 1920)
27 February – Martin Hollis, philosopher (born 1938)
March
3 March – Hedley Mattingly, actor (born 1915)
6 March – Benjamin Bowden, designer (born 1906)
7 March – Bernarr Rainbow, historian of music education, organist, and choir master (born 1941)
8 March – Jack Donaldson, Baron Donaldson of Kingsbridge, politician and public servant (born 1907)
9 March – Colin Patterson, biologist (born 1933)
10 March
Ian Dunn, gay and paedophile rights activist, founder of the Scottish Minorities Group (born 1943)
Alberto Morrocco, artist (born 1917)
13 March – Judge Dread, reggae musician (born 1945)
16 March
Sir Derek Barton, chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1918)
Noel Stephen Paynter, Royal Air Force commodore (born 1898)
20 March
Beverley Cross, playwright, librettist and screenwriter (born 1931)
Laddie Lucas, RAF officer and politician (born 1915)
25 March – Daniel Massey, actor (born 1933)
27 March – Joan Lestor, Baroness Lestor of Eccles, politician (born 1931)
29 March – David Hicks, interior designer (born 1929)
April
1 April – Mary Wynne Warner, mathematician (born 1902)
2 April – Joan Austin, tennis player (born 1903)
3 April – Dame Mary Cartwright, mathematician (born 1900)
4 April – Ian Percival, politician (born 1921)
5 April
Sir Frederick Charles Frank, physicist (born 1911, South Africa)
Cozy Powell, rock musician (born 1947)
7 April
Ronald William John Keay, botanist (born 1920)
James McIntosh Patrick, painter (born 1907)
11 April
Francis Durbridge, playwright and author (born 1912)
Tex Geddes, author and adventurer (born 1919)
14 April
Harry Lee, tennis player (born 1907)
Dorothy Squires, Welsh singer (born 1915)
16 April
Fred Davis, snooker and billiards player (born 1913)
Ronald Millar, actor and scriptwriter (born 1919)
17 April – Linda McCartney, American-born, British-based photographer and musician (born 1941)
19 April – Denis Howell, Baron Howell, politician (born 1923)
20 April
Joan Mary Wayne Brown, British author (b. 1906)
Trevor Huddleston, Anglican bishop and anti-apartheid activist (born 1913)
21 April – Frank Wootton, aviation artist (born 1911)
27 April – Ralph Raphael, organic chemist (born 1921)
May
1 May – J. S. Roskell, historian (born 1913)
2 May
Justin Fashanu, footballer (born 1961); suicide
Kevin Lloyd, actor (born 1949)
3 May – Erika Cheetham, writer (born 1939)
4 May – Gordon Beningfield, wildlife artist and naturalist (born 1936)
7 May – Jack Heslop-Harrison, soldier and botanist (born 1920)
8 May – D. S. L. Cardwell, science historian (born 1919)
9 May
Bob Mellish, Baron Mellish, politician (born 1913)
R. J. G. Savage, palaeontologist (born 1927)
14 May
Mabel Esther Allan, children's author (born 1915)
Geoffrey Kendal, actor (born 1909)
15 May – Patrick Wall, World War II marine commando and politician (born 1916)
17 May – Hugh Cudlipp, journalist (Daily Mirror) (born 1913)
18 May – Enid Marx, artist and designer (born 1902)
19 May – Edwin Astley, composer (born 1922)
20 May – Wolf Mankowitz, playwright and screenwriter (born 1924)
24 May – Charles Rycroft, psychoanalyst (born 1914)
28 May – Lana Morris, actress (born 1930)
29 May – Marion Milner, psychoanalyst (born 1900)
30 May – Walter Carr, actor (born 1925)
June
5 June – Viola Keats, actress (born 1911)
10 June
Sir David English, journalist and newspaper editor (born 1931)
Hammond Innes, author (born 1914)
11 June – Catherine Cookson, author (born 1906)
13 June
Alfred Horace Gerrard, sculptor (born 1899)
Kadamba Simmons, actress and model (born 1974); murdered
Reg Smythe, cartoonist (Andy Capp) (born 1917)
15 June – Morris Kestelman, artist (born 1905)
19 June – John Camkin, journalist and sports commentator (born 1922)
20 June – Bruno Barnabe, actor (born 1905)
21 June – Harry Cranbrook Allen, historian of the United States (born 1917)
22 June – Benny Green, writer, radio broadcaster and saxophonist (born 1927)
26 June – Derek Rayner, Baron Rayner, businessman, chief executive of Marks & Spencer (1984–1991) (born 1926)
28 June – Jack Rowley, English footballer (Manchester United) (born 1918)
July
1 July – Martin Seymour-Smith, poet, literary critic and biographer (born 1928)
2 July – Tony De Vit, DJ and music producer (born 1957)
3 July – George Lloyd, composer (born 1913)
4 July – Gladys Ambrose, actress (born 1930)
5 July
Johnny Speight, television scriptwriter (born 1920)
Stevie Hyper D, drum and bass MC (born 1966)
8 July – Constance Cox, scriptwriter and playwright (born 1912)
9 July
David Fulker, geneticist (born 1937)
Katherine Russell, social worker and university teacher (born 1909)
11 July – John Boyd-Carpenter, Baron Boyd-Carpenter, politician (born 1908)
14 July
Beryl Bryden, jazz singer (born 1920)
Angus John Mackintosh Stewart, writer (born 1936)
17 July – James Lighthill, mathematician (born 1924)
18 July – Betty Marsden, comedy actress (born 1919)
21 July – Kenneth Watson, actor (born 1931)
22 July – Michael Denison, actor (born 1915)
23 July – John Hopkins, screenwriter (born 1931); accidentally killed in the United States
25 July – Tiny Rowland, businessman (born 1917)
27 July – Binnie Barnes, actress (born 1903)
28 July – Lenny McLean, boxer and actor (born 1949)
August
1 August – Eva Bartok, actress (born 1927, Hungary)
3 August – Alan Walsh, physicist, developer of atomic absorption spectroscopy (born 1913)
4 August – Richard Dunn, CEO of Thames Television (born 1943)
6 August – Nat Gonella, jazz trumpeter, bandleader and vocalist (born 1908)
7 August – Sir Harry Tuzo, Army general (born 1917)
9 August – George Child Villiers, 9th Earl of Jersey, peer (born 1910)
11 August – Derek Newark, actor (born 1933)
14 August – Rosemary Martin, actress (born 1936)
19 August – Anne Asquith, Countess of Oxford and Asquith, code breaker in World War II (born 1916, France)
22 August
Evelyn Denington, Baroness Denington, politician (born 1907)
Jimmy Skidmore, jazz saxophonist (born 1916)
25 August
Allan Macartney, Scottish politician (born 1941)
Barbara Mandell, journalist, broadcaster, newsreader and travel writer (born 1920)
26 August – Margaret Potter, writer (born 1926)
September
1 September – Vere Harmsworth, 3rd Viscount Rothermere, peer and newspaper proprietor (born 1925)
2 September
Roy Bradford, politician (born 1921)
Jackie Blanchflower, footballer (born 1933)
4 September
Charles Kemball, chemist (born 1923)
Lal Waterson, folk singer-songwriter (born 1943)
7 September – Sir John Osler Chattock Hayes, Royal Navy admiral (born 1913)
10 September
Carl Forgione, actor (born 1944)
Sir Frederick Rosier, Royal Air Force commander (born 1915)
13 September – Sir Denys Buckley, lawyer and judge (born 1906)
17 September
April FitzLyon, translator, biographer and historian (born 1920)
Celia Rooke, artist (born 1902)
19 September
Patricia Hayes, character actress (born 1909)
Ran Laurie, physician and Olympic rowing champion, father of Hugh Laurie (born 1915)
21 September – Margaret Allan, racing driver (born 1909)
22 September – Doug Smith, rugby union player (born 1924)
23 September – Ray Bowden, footballer (born 1909)
28 September – Joan Maude, actress (born 1908)
30 September – Marius Goring, actor (born 1912)
October
2 October
Raymond Raikes, theatre producer, director and broadcaster (born 1910)
Sir Richard Way, civil servant, chief executive of London Transport (1970–1974) (born 1914)
3 October – Roddy McDowall, actor (born 1928)
5 October – Megs Jenkins, character actress (born 1917)
6 October – Joseph J. Sandler, psychoanalyst (born 1927)
8 October – Curtis Cassell, rabbi (born 1912, German Empire)
10 October – Jackie Forster, journalist and lesbian rights activist (born 1926)
11 October – Michael Wynn, 7th Baron Newborough, peer and World War II naval veteran (born 1917)
15 October – Iain Crichton Smith, Scottish poet and novelist (born 1928)
17 October – Joan Hickson, actress (born 1906)
20 October – Frank Gillard, radio broadcaster (born 1909)
21 October
Sir Alexander Cairncross, economist (born 1911)
Alan Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury, businessman (born 1902)
22 October – Eric Ambler, novelist and playwright (born 1909)
23 October – Christopher Gable, ballet dancer, choreographer and actor (born 1940)
24 October – Dennis Ayling, cinematographer (born 1917)
25 October – Susan Strange, political scientist (born 1923)
27 October – Rosamund John, actress (born 1913)
28 October
Cuthbert Alport, Baron Alport, politician (born 1912)
Tommy Flowers, electrical engineer (born 1905)
Ted Hughes, poet laureate and children's writer (born 1930)
November
2 November
Janet Arnold, costume designer (born 1932)
Vincent Winter, child film actor (born 1947)
7 November
Margaret Gowing, historian (born 1921)
John Hunt, Baron Hunt, World War II army officer and leader of the 1953 British Mount Everest Expedition (born 1910)
8 November – Rumer Godden, writer (born 1907)
10 November
Peter Cotes, actor, writer and director (born 1912)
Mary Millar, actress (born 1936)
12 November – Roy Hollis, footballer (born 1925)
13 November – Doug Wright, English cricketer (b. 1914)
14 November
Eli Cashdan, rabbi (born 1905)
Quentin Crewe, journalist, author and adventurer (born 1926)
18 November – Robin Hall, folk singer (born 1926)
19 November – Ken Gatward, RAF pilot of World War II (born 1914)
24 November – John Chadwick, linguist (born 1920)
26 November – Mike Calvert, Army officer (born 1913)
29 November
Robin Ray, broadcaster, actor and musician (born 1934)
Martin Ruane, British professional wrestler (b. 1947)
December
1 December – Freddie Young, cinematographer (born 1902)
2 December – Brian Stonehouse, painter and World War II secret agent (born 1918)
3 December – George Murcell, character actor (born 1925)
7 December – John Addison, composer (born 1920)
8 December – Michael Craze, actor (born 1942)
13 December
Lew Grade, showbusiness impresario and television company executive (born 1906 in Ukraine)
Sir Richard Thomas, Royal Navy admiral and Black Rod (1992–1995) (born 1932)
17 December – John Burns Brooksby, veterinarian (born 1914)
20 December – Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (born 1914)
21 December
Roger Avon, actor (b. 1914)
Avril Coleridge-Taylor, pianist, conductor, composer and daughter of Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (born 1903)
Karl Denver, singer (born 1931)
Richard Turnbull, British colonial governor (b. 1909)
22 December – Donald Soper, Methodist minister and pacifist (born 1903)
25 December – John Pulman, snooker player (born 1923); accidentally killed
26 December – Michael Sherard, fashion designer (born 1910)
27 December – Ralegh Radford, historian (born 1900)
30 December – George Webb, actor (born 1911)
31 December – Alan Morris, English footballer (born 1954); murdered
See also
List of British films of 1998
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1997 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1997 in the United Kingdom. This year is noted for a landslide general election victory for the Labour Party under Tony Blair; the transfer of Hong Kong, the largest remaining British colony, to China; and the death of Diana, Princess of Wales.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister
John Major (Conservative) (until 2 May)
Tony Blair (Labour) (starting 2 May)
Parliament
51st (until 8 April)
52nd (starting 7 May)
Events
January
6 January – Allegations of a Conservative MP's extramarital affair appear in the News of the World newspaper a week after Conservative Prime Minister John Major put "the family" at the heart of his campaign. Jerry Hayes – married with two children – denies the allegations.
7 January – 2.5 million people take part in a phone-in vote as part of an ITV debate on the British monarchy. A 2-1 majority vote in favour of retaining the institution.
9 January – British yachtsman Tony Bullimore is rescued in the Southern Ocean five days after his boat capsized in freezing waters.
15 January
Diana, Princess of Wales, calls for an international ban on landmines.
The strengthening economy is reflected in a national unemployment total of 1,884,700 for last December – the lowest level since January 1991. The Conservative government who are mired in allegations of sleaze are still behind Labour in the opinion polls as the general election looms.
16 January
The Conservative Party government loses its majority in the House of Commons after the death of Iain Mills, MP for Meriden.
Chris Evans resigns from BBC Radio 1 after his request for a four-day week is refused. Since joining the station as a breakfast-time DJ in 1995 Evans had boosted audience numbers by 700,000.
17 January
A jury at the Old Bailey rules that 86-year-old Szymon Serafinowicz is unfit to stand trial on charges of murdering Jews during The Holocaust.
East 17 singer Brian Harvey is dismissed from the band after publicly commenting that the drug Ecstasy is safe.
20 January – Death of Labour Party MP Martin Redmond ends the government's minority. On the same day, the party vows not to raise income tax if, as seems likely, it wins the forthcoming general election.
30 January – An underground anti-road protest ended as the last protester known as "Swampy" (Daniel Hooper) emerged from the network of tunnels beneath the A30 extension site in Devon.
February
4 February – Moors Murderer Myra Hindley is informed by Home Secretary Michael Howard that she will never be released from prison. Hindley, who has now been in prison for more than 30 years, was originally issued with a whole life tariff by the then Home Secretary David Waddington in 1990, but not informed of the ruling until just over two years ago.
6 February – The Court of Appeal rules that Mrs Diane Blood of Leeds can be inseminated with her dead husband's sperm. Mrs Blood has been challenging for the right to use the sperm of her husband Stephen since just after his death two years ago.
12 February – A 23 year old British soldier is shot dead in Northern Ireland. Lance Bombardier Stephen Restorick is shot by a sniper while manning a checkpoint in Bessbrook (County Armagh); he is the last British soldier to be killed by the Provisional IRA.
14 February – The Daily Mail newspaper accuses five young men of the murder of Stephen Lawrence on its front page the day after a coroner's inquest finds that the teenager had been unlawfully killed in an unprovoked racist attack by five white youths in April 1993.
15 February – Murder of 13 year old Billie Jo Jenkins in Hastings, East Sussex who is beaten to death at the family home. Her stepfather Siôn Jenkins is convicted of her murder in 1998 but acquitted at a second retrial in 2006.
22 February – Scientists at the Roslin Institute announce the birth of a cloned sheep named Dolly seven months after the fact.
24 February – At the Brit Awards 1997, Geri Halliwell wears her iconic Union Jack dress.
27 February – The government loses its Commons majority again after a Labour victory at the Wirral South by-election.
March
10 March – 160 vehicles are involved in a motorway pile up on the M42 motorway at Bromsgrove, Worcestershire. Three people are killed and 60 injured.
17 March – John Major announces that the general election will be held on 1 May. Despite the opinion polls having shown a double-digit Labour lead continuously since late 1992, Major is hoping for a unique fifth successive term of Conservative government by pinning his hopes on a strong economy and low unemployment – no incoming government since before the First World War has inherited economic statistics as strong as the ones that Labour will should they win the election.
18 March – The Sun newspaper, a traditional supporter of the Conservative Party, declares its support for Tony Blair and Labour, condemning the Conservatives as "tired, divided and rudderless" – a stark contrast to its support for them in the run-up to the 1992 election where it waged a high-profile campaign against the then Labour leader Neil Kinnock and, after the Conservative victory, claimed responsibility for the result.
23 March – Unemployed continues to fall and now stands at just over 1,800,000 – its lowest level since December 1990.
30 March – Channel 5, Britain's fifth terrestrial television channel and its first new one since the launch of Channel 4 in November 1982, is launched.
31 March – BBC pre-school children's television series Teletubbies first airs.
April
April – Nursery Education Voucher Scheme introduced, guaranteeing a government-funded contribution to the cost of preschool education for 4-year-olds.
1 April – Following the handover of ScotRail to National Express, the final British Rail passenger service, the Caledonian Sleeper to Fort William, reaches its destination, ending the process of privatisation of passenger services brought about by the Railways Act 1993.
8 April
BBC journalist Martin Bell announces that he is to stand as a candidate against Neil Hamilton in the Tatton constituency on an anti-corruption platform.
A MORI opinion poll shows Conservative support at a four-year high of 34%, but Labour still look set to win next month's general election as they have a 15-point lead.
29 April – The last MORI poll before the election tips Labour for a landslide victory as they gain 48% of the vote and a 20-point lead over the Conservatives.
May
1 May – General election:
The Labour Party under Tony Blair defeat the incumbent Conservative government under Prime Minister John Major in a landslide result, winning 418 seats.
Several high-profile Conservative MPs, including seven Cabinet ministers lose their seats, as do all Conservative MPs in Scotland and Wales. Michael Portillo, who was tipped by many to be the next leader of the Conservatives, is among those who lose their seats.
The Conservatives fail to make any gains.
A record 120 women enter parliament, including 101 female Labour MPs.
Mohammad Sarwar, elected for Labour in Glasgow Govan, becomes the first ever Muslim MP.
2 May – Labour being the largest party holding a majority after the general election, Conservative John Major resigns and Tony Blair is appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom by The Queen.
3 May – Katrina and the Waves win the Eurovision Song Contest with the song Love Shine a Light, the first time the UK has won the competition since 1981.
6 May – New Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown announces that the Bank of England, central bank of the UK, is to assume independent responsibility for UK monetary policy.
19 May – The new Labour government announces that it will ban tobacco sponsorship of sporting events.
June
June – Ford enters the growing compact coupe market with its Puma, which uses the same chassis as the Ka and Fiesta.
2 June – The Halifax Building Society floats on the London Stock Exchange. Over 7.5 million customers of the Society become shareholders of the new bank, the largest extension of shareholders in UK history.
12 June – Law Lords declare that former Home Secretary, Michael Howard, acted illegally in raising the minimum sentence of the two juveniles who committed the murder of James Bulger, Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, to 15 years. They also strip the government of setting minimum terms for prisoners aged under 18 who had received life or indefinite prison sentences.
19 June
The High Court of Justice delivers judgement, largely in favour of McDonald's, in the libel case of McDonald's Corporation v Steel & Morris ("the McLibel case"), the longest trial in English legal history, against two environmental campaigners.
William Hague is elected as the leader of the Conservative Party.
23 June – Construction begins on the Millennium Dome.
25 June – An auction of dresses owned by Diana, Princess of Wales, in Manhattan raises more than £2 million for charity.
27 June – Publication of J. K. Rowling's first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone.
July
1 July – The UK transfers sovereignty over Hong Kong, the largest remaining British colony, to the People's Republic of China as the 99 years lease on the territory formally ends. This event is widely considered by historians and commentators to mark the end of the British Empire, the largest imperial endeavour in the history of mankind.
2 July – Chancellor Gordon Brown launches the first Labour budget for nearly 20 years, which includes a further £3billion for education and healthcare, as well as a £3.5billion scheme to get single mothers, under 25's and long term unemployed people back into work.
4 July – Russian carmaker Lada announces the end of imports to the United Kingdom after 23 years and some 350,000 sales of its low-priced, low-specification cars, which at their peak sold more than 30,000 cars a year but managed just over 6,000 sales last year.
6–11 July – 1997 nationalist riots in Northern Ireland: there is violence in nationalist areas after an Orange Order parade is allowed down the Garvaghy Road in Portadown by the Royal Ulster Constabulary as part of the Drumcree conflict.
19 July – The IRA declares a ceasefire.
30 July – Sunderland's Stadium of Light, the largest football club stadium to be built in England since the 1920s, is opened by the Duke of York.
31 July
Education (Schools) Act abolishes the Assisted Places Scheme (free or state-subsidised places for qualifying children attending fee-paying independent schools).
At the Uxbridge by-election, John Randall holds the seat for the Conservatives.
August
2 August –
John Major's Prime Minister's Resignation Honours are announced.
The comedy film Bean is released in movie theaters.
14 August – Derby County F.C. move into their new Pride Park stadium, but their inaugural match against Wimbledon in the FA Premier League is abandoned in the second half due to floodlight failure.
21 August – The new Oasis album, Be Here Now, is released – selling a record of more than 350,000 copies on its first day.
27 August –
An international survey shows that British rail fares are the most expensive in the world and have risen by 12% since privatisation.
Stoke City F.C. move into their new Britannia Stadium, which is officially opened by football legend Sir Stanley Matthews.
31 August – Reports emerge in the early hours of the morning that Diana, Princess of Wales, has been injured in a car crash in Paris which has claimed the life of Dodi Fayed, the Harrods heir. Within four hours, it is confirmed that Diana has died in hospital as a result of her injuries. The United Kingdom and much of the rest of the world is plunged into widespread mourning.
September
1 September
French investigators reveal that Diana's driver, Henri Paul, was over the drink-driving limit and had been travelling at speeds in excess of 100 mph before the crash that killed her. Lawyers for Mohamed Al-Fayed, father of Dodi Al-Fayed, lay the blame on the paparazzi who were pursuing the vehicle.
A new style of fifty pence coin is introduced.
Reebok Stadium, the new home of Bolton Wanderers F.C., is opened by deputy Prime Minister John Prescott.
2 September - 18 year old West Ham United footballer Rio Ferdinand is dropped from the England squad after being convicted of a drink-driving offence.
5 September – The Queen makes a nationwide broadcast in tribute to Diana, Princess of Wales, following widespread criticism of the Royal Family's response to her death.
6 September – The funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales takes place at Westminster Abbey, London followed by a private burial at the estate of the Earls Spencer in Althorp, Northamptonshire. The Earl Spencer, brother of Diana, attacks the Royal Family's and the media's treatment of Diana in his funeral eulogy. TV coverage of the funeral is hosted by both BBC 1 and ITV, attracting an audience of more than 32,000,000 which falls just short of the national TV audience record set by the England national football team's victorious World Cup final in 1966.
7 September – Clyde Auditorium in Glasgow (the "armadillo"), designed by Foster and Partners, is completed.
9 September - A 40-year-old woman from Bradford in West Yorkshire wins £14,000 damages after suing her ex-husband for rape in what was the first civil action of its kind in Britain.
11 September – Referendum in Scotland on the creation of a national Parliament with devolved powers takes place. On two separate questions, voters back the plans both for a national Parliament and for it to have limited tax raising powers.
12 September - Newspapers report that an operation carried out in February by neurosurgeon Steve Gill during which a woman's head was temporarily detached from her spine has been a success
13 September – Release of Elton John's Candle in the Wind remade as a tribute to Diana, Princess of Wales. This will be the second best-selling single worldwide of all time.
14 September - Conservative Party leader William Hague receives criticism for accusing Prime Minister Tony Blair of exploiting the recent death of Diana, Princess of Wales for political advantage.
15 September - The ITV detective drama series Prime Suspect which stars actress Helen Mirren wins the Emmy award in the US for best mini-series.
16 September - A bomb explodes outside an RUC station in Markethill, County Armagh a day after the start of Northern Ireland peace talks. The IRA deny responsibility.
17 September
Police investigating the death of Diana, Princess of Wales reveal that the car in which she was travelling may have collided with a Fiat Uno seconds before hitting a concrete pillar.
The Ulster Unionists (the largest loyalist party in Northern Ireland) agree to take part in peace talks that involve Sinn Féin.
18 September
Welsh devolution referendum on the creation of a national Assembly takes place. Voters in Wales narrowly back the plans.
Opening of Sensation exhibition of Young British Artists from the collection of Charles Saatchi at the Royal Academy in London. A portrait of Moors murderer Myra Hindley created from children's handprints by artist Marcus Harvey is removed from display after vandal attacks.
19 September - Seven die and 139 are injured in the Southall rail crash when a Passenger train passes a Danger signal and collides with a Freight train.
25 September
A Saudi court sentences British nurse Lucille McLauchlan to eight years in prison and 500 lashes for being an accessory to the murder of Australian nurse Yvonne Gilford in December the previous year. Fellow British nurse Deborah Parry is charged with murder and could face the death penalty if found guilty. Ms Gilford's brother Frank, is reported to be willing to accept £750,000 in "blood money" for Ms Parry's life to be spared if she is found guilty. Foreign Secretary Robin Cook condemns the sentence of flogging against Ms McLauchlan as "wholly unacceptable in the modern world".
RAF pilot Andy Green breaks the land speed record at Black Rock in the Nevada desert. His Thrust SSC jet car set an average speed of 714 MPH, 81 MPH faster than the previous record.
29 September – British scientists state that they have found a link between Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and eating of BSE-infected meat.
October
1 October – The final LTI FX4 London cab is produced after 39 years.
4 October – The BBC introduces its new corporate logo across the corporation, as well as new idents for BBC1.
15 October – Andy Green driving the ThrustSSC sets a new land speed record of 763.035 mph (1227.99 km/h), the first time the sound barrier is broken on land.
24 October – WPC Nina Mackay, 25, is stabbed to death in Stratford, London, when entering a flat to arrest a Somali asylum seeker who was due to be deported.
November
4 November – BBC News launches a full-time online news service, having already created special websites for the 1995 budget as well as this year's general election and the death of Diana, Princess of Wales.
6 November – Labour hold the Paisley South by-election despite a swing of 11.3% to the SNP.
12 November – Brazil's Supreme Court refuses to extradite the Great Train Robber Ronnie Biggs to Britain.
17 November – Six Britons are among the 58 people killed by terrorists in the Valley of the Kings, Egypt.
20 November
The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh celebrate their 50th wedding anniversary.
At the Winchester by-election, Mark Oaten holds the seat for the Liberal Democrats.
24 November – The British Library opens its first public reading room at its new London site on the Euston Road.
December
3 December – Andrew Evans, who was convicted of the 1972 murder of 14-year-old Judith Roberts in Tamworth, Staffordshire, has his conviction overturned by the Court of Appeal after the hearing is told he was being treated for depression when he confessed to the crime, and there is no other evidence against him.
10 December – John E. Walker wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly with Paul D. Boyer "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)".
11 December – The Royal Yacht Britannia is decommissioned after 44 years in service.
18 December – The bill to establish the Scottish Parliament unveiled by Secretary of State for Scotland Donald Dewar.
19 December
William Hague marries Ffion Jenkins.
Moors murderer Myra Hindley loses a High Court appeal against the whole life tariff which was imposed on her by Home Secretary David Waddington in 1990 and later confirmed by Waddington's successor Michael Howard.
22 December
The government announces an independent inquiry into the BSE crisis.
Twelve people are arrested during protests by disabled people outside Downing Street.
23 December – Rover Group produces the final Rover 100 after 17 years.
24 December – Will Straw, son of Cabinet minister Jack Straw, is arrested on suspicion of supplying cannabis.
27 December – Ulster Loyalist leader Billy Wright is shot dead in the Maze Prison. Prisoners of the Irish National Liberation Army are believed to have been responsible for Wright's murder.
31 December – Singer Elton John and football legend Tom Finney are among the men receiving knighthoods in the New Year's Honours List.
Undated
The Weare prison ship is berthed in Portland Harbour as a temporary overflow facility.
The WOW! Awards organization is founded.
The Tenants' and Residents' Organisations of England organization is officially recognised.
Publications
Iain Banks' novel A Song of Stone.
Ted Hughes' poetry Tales from Ovid.
Ian McEwan's novel Enduring Love.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novel Jingo.
Philip Pullman's novel The Subtle Knife.
J. K. Rowling's novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone.
Births
3 January
Joe Morrell, footballer
Jordan Thompson, footballer
7 January
Izzy Brown, footballer
Kyle Stanger, actor
8 January - Jack Simpson, footballer
11 January – Demetri Mitchell, footballer
23 January
Sophie Hahn, athlete
Shaheen Jafargholi, actor and singer
Giorgio Rasulo, footballer
29 January - Olivia Morris, actress
2 February
Ellie Bamber, actress
Cameron Borthwick-Jackson, footballer
Gabby George, footballer
3 February – Lewis Cook, footballer
5 February – Patrick Roberts, footballer
8 February
Venus Angelic, singer and vlogger
Dalton Smith, boxer
Anton Walkes, footballer (died 2023)
10 February
Adam Armstrong, footballer
Lauren Mote, actress
12 February - Connor Mahoney, footballer
16 February – Charlie Green, singer
17 February – Josef Craig, Paralympic swimmer
18 February
Bradley Collins, footballer
Jonathan Haggerty, Muay Thai kickboxer and former ONE Flyweight Muay Thai and current ONE Bantamweight Muay Thai World Champion
Jack Rowan, actor
21 February – Arwel Robson, rugby union player
23 February – Luke Amos, footballer
4 March – Freddie Woodman, footballer
8 March – Kevin Nisbet, footballer
12 March – Dean Henderson, footballer
14 March – Brad Taylor, cricketer
15 March – Jonjoe Kenny, footballer
21 March – Nat Phillips, footballer
22 March – Harry Wilson, footballer
23 March – Aidan Davis, dancer
24 March – George Thomas, footballer
29 March – Leah Williamson, footballer
1 April
Asa Butterfield, actor
Cian Harries, footballer
Olivia Smart, ice dancer
3 April – Mitchell Rao, cricketer
7 April – Laura van der Heijden, cellist
8 April – Keira Walsh, footballer
11 April
Max Clegg, speedway racer
Tully Kearney, swimmer
13 April – Kyle Walker-Peters, footballer
15 April – Maisie Williams, actress
6 May – Duncan Scott, swimmer
16 May – Cloe and Holly Mackie, actresses
19 May - Olivia Arben, model
23 May – Joe Gomez, footballer
25 May - Sophie Walsh, Kodak baby of the year, 1997
11 June – Jorja Smith, singer
12 June – Gabrielle Jupp, artistic gymnast
19 June
Sheyi Ojo, footballer
Molly Windsor, actress
28 June – Connor Edwards, rugby union player
3 July – Mia McKenna-Bruce, actress
7 July – Viddal Riley, boxer
8 July
David Brooks, footballer
Lauran Hibberd, singer-songwriter
13 July – Shayon Harrison, footballer
18 July – Fionn Whitehead, actor
4 August – Mollie Green, footballer
5 August – Clara van Wel, singer-songwriter
8 August – Scott Wright, footballer
16 August – Tilly Keeper, actress
24 August – Alan Walker, English-Norwegian music producer and DJ
25 August – Holly Gibbs, actor
26 August – Mae Muller, singer-songwriter
29 August – Ainsley Maitland-Niles, footballer
30 August – Dael Fry, footballer
10 September – Paul Smyth, footballer
14 September – Dominic Solanke, footballer
16 September
Amy-Leigh Hickman, actress
Oscar Lloyd, actor
22 September – Jake Clarke-Salter, footballer
23 September
Callum Connolly, footballer
George Panayi, cricketer
24 September – Tosin Adarabioyo, footballer
28 September – Ben Green, cricketer
1 October
Aimee Challenor, politician and transgender activist
Hamza Choudhury, footballer
2 October – Tammy Abraham, footballer
8 October – Ben White, footballer
10 October – Kieran Dowell, footballer
20 October – John Bell, Scottish actor
22 October – Joe Rodon, footballer
23 October
Tallulah Greive, Australian-born Scottish actress
Ezri Konsa, footballer
24 October – Claudia Fragapane, gymnast
26 October – Ryan Patel, cricketer
27 October
Jessica Carter, footballer
Eden Taylor-Draper, actor
30 October – Sean Longstaff, footballer
31 October – Marcus Rashford, footballer
5 November
Chris Mepham, footballer
Greg Taylor, footballer
6 November – Hero Fiennes-Tiffin, actor
9 November – Matthew Fisher, cricketer
10 November – Daniel James, footballer
14 November – Axel Tuanzebe, footballer
15 November
Catie Munnings, rally driver
Josh Tongue, cricketer
17 November – James Whitley, paralympic skier
18 November – Ovie Ejaria, footballer
3 December – Hayley Okines, activist
5 December – Sophie Simnett, actress
9 December – Harvey Barnes, footballer
18 December – Max Holden, cricketer
Full date unknown
Michael-Joel David Stuart, actor
Deaths
January
1 January
Graham Kersey, cricketer (born 1971); died in a car crash
Joan Rice, actress (born 1930)
5 January – V. C. Wynne-Edwards, zoologist (born 1906)
7 January
Patricia McLaughlin, Northern Irish politician (born 1916)
Christopher Mayhew, politician (born 1915)
8 January – Sir James Fraser, 2nd Baronet, Scottish surgeon (born 1924)
10 January
Elspeth Huxley, author, journalist, broadcaster and government advisor (born 1907)
Alexander R. Todd, Baron Todd, Scottish biochemist (born 1907)
11 January
Rosalind Hill, historian (born 1908)
Jill Summers, music hall performer and comic actress (born 1910)
16 January
Iain Mills, politician (born 1940)
Martin Redmond, politician (born 1937)
Willie Yeadon, railway historian (born 1907)
18 January – Myfanwy Piper, art critic, opera librettist, and wife of John Piper (born 1911)
19 January – Richard E. Jennings, comic book artist (born 1921)
20 January – Dennis Main Wilson, broadcast producer (born 1924)
21 January – John Glyn-Jones, actor (born 1908)
23 January – David Waller, actor (born 1920)
27 January – Cecil Arthur Lewis, author and last surviving air ace of World War I (born 1898)
28 January – Geoffrey Rippon, Baron Rippon of Hexham, politician (born 1924)
31 January – Raymond Coxon, artist (born 1896)
February
2 February – Godfrey Baseley, radio executive, creator of The Archers (born 1904)
7 February – John Baker, musician and composer (born 1937)
9 February
Brian Connolly, Scottish singer-songwriter (born 1945)
Barry Evans, actor (born 1943)
12 February
Nora Beloff, journalist and political writer (born 1919)
James Cossins, actor (born 1923)
16 February – Jack Wilson, rower (born 1914)
17 February – Kenny Graham, jazz saxophonist and composer (born 1924)
18 February – Eric Fenby, pianist, organist, conductor, composer and music teacher, aide to Frederick Delius (born 1906)
21 February – Kenneth Rowntree, artist (born 1915)
23 February – Frank Launder, film director and producer (born 1906)
24 February
Wolfgang Heinrich Johannes Fuchs, mathematician (born 1915, German Empire)
Ernest C. Pollard, professor of physics and astrophysics (born 1908)
25 February
Scott Forbes, actor and screenwriter (born 1920)
Arthur Hewlett, actor (born 1907)
27 February – William Gear, Scottish painter (born 1915)
March
2 March
Douglas Blackwood, publisher and World War II pilot (born 1909)
Sir Horace Cutler, politician, Leader of the Greater London Council (1977–1981) (born 1912)
3 March – Eric Edwards, Baron Chelmer, solicitor (born 1914)
4 March – Joe Baker-Cresswell, Royal Navy officer and aide-de-camp to King George VI (born 1901)
6 March
Rosalyn Boulter, actress (born 1917)
Ursula Torday, novelist (born 1912)
9 March
Terry Nation, Welsh screenwriter (born 1930)
Dame Veronica Wedgwood, historian (born 1910)
11 March – Robert Browning, Byzantine historian (born 1914)
12 March – William Hare, 5th Earl of Listowel, peer and politician (born 1906)
13 March – Ronald Fraser, actor (born 1930)
16 March – John Montague Stow, colonial official (born 1911)
18 March – Erik de Mauny, journalist and author (born 1920)
20 March – V. S. Pritchett, writer and literary critic (born 1900)
21 March – Rev. W. V. Awdry, children's writer (born 1911)
25 March – C. J. F. Williams, philosopher (born 1930)
27 March – George Malcolm Brown, geologist (born 1925)
29 March
George William Gregory Bird, physician (born 1916)
Norman Pirie, biochemist (born 1907)
Ellen Pollock, actress (born 1902)
April
1 April – Norman Carr, English environmentalist and author (born 1912)
2 April – Reg Lewis, English footballer (born 1920)
4 April – Mike Raven, radio disc jockey, writer and sculptor (born 1924)
5 April – Richard Clifton-Dey, artist (born 1930)
6 April – David Keith-Lucas, aeronautical engineer (born 1911)
9 April – Sir Geoffrey Hardy-Roberts, Army officer, politician and courtier (born 1907)
10 April
Alan Gibson, journalist, writer and broadcaster (born 1923)
Glanville Williams, Welsh legal scholar (born 1911)
12 April – James Ross, Scottish surgeon (born 1911)
18 April – Edward Barker, cartoonist (born 1950)
22 April – Reg Gammon, English painter and illustrator (born 1894)
23 April
Denis Compton, footballer and cricketer (born 1918)
Nancy Seear, Baroness Seear, English politician (born 1913)
25 April – Dudley Pope, author (born 1925)
27 April
Bunny Roger, couturier and socialite (born 1911)
Peter Winch, philosopher (born 1926)
28 April – Peter Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gosforth, lawyer and judge, Lord Chief Justice of England (1992–1996) (born 1930)
29 April – Isabel Graham Bryce, public servant (born 1902)
May
3 May
Hughie Green, radio and television presenter and actor (born 1920)
Sir John Junor, journalist (born 1919)
5 May – George Burns, Army officer (born 1911)
6 May – John Edwards Hill, mammologist (born 1928)
8 May
Pat Hughes, tennis player (born 1902)
Michael Shersby, politician (born 1933)
11 May – Genine Graham, actress (born 1926)
13 May – Laurie Lee, poet and author (born 1914)
17 May – Chris Julian, motorcycle racer (born 1937); gyrocopter accident
20 May – Don Parker, racing driver (born 1908)
23 May – Alison Adburgham, fashion journalist and author (born 1912)
June
2 June – Eddie Thomas, Welsh boxer (born 1925)
4 June – Ronnie Lane, musician and songwriter (born 1946)
6 June – Richard Neilson, diplomat (born 1937)
7 June – Paul Reade, composer (born 1943)
14 June – Helena Sanders, cultural activist, politician and poet (born 1911)
15 June
Nicholas Danby, organist (born 1935)
George Denholm, World War II air ace (born 1908)
19 June – Julia Smith, television producer (born 1927)
22 June – Don Henderson, actor (born 1931)
24 June – Leonard B. Strang, professor of paediatric sciences (born 1925)
26 June – Charlie Chester, radio and television presenter, comedian and writer (born 1914)
27 June
W. O. G. Lofts, researcher and author (born 1923)
Harrison Marks, glamour photographer (born 1926)
28 June – Hubert Lamb, climatologist (born 1913)
29 June – Marjorie Linklater, Scottish arts and environment campaigner (born 1909)
30 June – Dame Sylvia Crowe, landscape architect (born 1901)
July
4 July
William Cadogan, 7th Earl Cadogan, peer and soldier (born 1914)
Bevis Reid, Olympic athlete (born 1919)
John Zachary Young, biologist (born 1907)
7 July – Royston Tickner, English actor (born 1922)
9 July – Sir David Pitblado, Private Secretary to the Prime Minister (1951–1956) (born 1912)
10 July – Ivor Allchurch, former footballer (born 1929)
11 July
Felix Barker, drama critic and historian (born 1917)
Alfred Mellows, rower (born 1922)
15 July
Alan J. Charig, palaeontologist (born 1927)
Rosamund Greenwood, actress (born 1907)
16 July – Ron Berry, Welsh novelist (born 1920)
17 July – Arthur Jepson, English cricketer and footballer (born 1915)
18 July – Sir James Goldsmith, financier and politician, founder of the Referendum Party (born 1933)
19 July – Frank Farrell, rock bassist (born 1947)
22 July
Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (born 1939)
Kevin Howley, football referee (born 1924)
24 July
Brian Glover, actor (born 1934)
Bill Shine, actor (born 1911)
25 July – Peter Carmichael, fighter pilot (born 1923)
27 July – Isabel Dean, actress (born 1918)
28 July – Rosalie Crutchley, actress (born 1920)
29 July – Jack Archer, former sprinter (born 1921)
August
2 August
John Churcher, Army major-general (born 1905)
Rhydwen Williams, novelist, poet and Baptist minister (born 1916)
4 August
Dick Bush, cinematographer (born 1931)
Tom Eckersley, poster artist and design teacher (born 1914)
Alexander Young, Scottish musician (born 1938)
13 August
Marjorie Lynette Sigley, artist, writer, actress, choreographer and theatre director (born 1928)
Carel Weight, English painter (born 1908)
14 August
John Elliot, author, screenwriter and television producer (born 1918)
Charlie Fleming, Scottish footballer (born 1927)
18 August – Don Knight, actor (born 1933)
19 August – Robson Lowe, philatelist and stamp dealer (born 1905)
21 August – William Jopling, leprologist (born 1911, Italy)
22 August – Robin Skelton, academic, writer, poet and anthologist (born 1925)
23 August – John Kendrew, molecular biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (born 1917)
24 August – Louis Essen, physicist (born 1908)
31 August
Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer and heir to Harrods department store (born 1955); died in Paris car crash
Diana, Princess of Wales (born 1961); died in hospital after being seriously injured in the same crash
September
4 September
Jeffrey Bernard, journalist (born 1932)
Belle Stewart, Scottish singer (born 1906)
6 September – P. H. Newby, novelist (born 1918)
7 September – Edwin Brock, poet (born 1927)
8 September – Derek Taylor, journalist and record producer (born 1932)
9 September – Rowland George, Olympic rower (born 1905)
12 September – Leonard Maguire, actor (born 1924)
14 September – Andrew Fountaine, far-right activist (born 1918)
16 September
Terence Cooper, actor (born 1933)
Gerry Turpin, cinematographer (born 1925)
17 September – Brian Hall, actor (born 1937)
19 September – Jack May, actor (born 1922)
21 September – Maurice Kaufmann, actor (born 1927)
22 September
Ruth Picardie, journalist and editor (born 1964)
George Thomas, 1st Viscount Tonypandy, politician, Speaker of the House of Commons (1976–1983) (born 1909)
28 September – David Gill, film historian (born 1928)
30 September – Graeme MacDonald, television producer and executive (born 1930)
October
3 October – A. L. Rowse, historian (born 1903)
4 October – Anne Strachan Robertson, Scottish archaeologist, numismatist and writer (born 1910)
5 October
Andrew Keir, Scottish actor (born 1926)
Debbie Linden, glamour model and actress (born 1961); heroin overdose
6 October – Adrienne Hill, actress (born 1937)
9 October – Michael Cummings, newspaper cartoonist (born 1919)
10 October – George Malcolm, pianist, organist, harpsichordist, composer and conductor (born 1917)
13 October
Ian Stuart Black, novelist, playwright and screenwriter (born 1915)
Richard Mason, British novelist (born 1919)
William Staveley, Royal Navy officer (born 1928)
14 October
George Forrest, classicist and academic (born 1925)
Henry Pelling, historian (born 1920)
15 October – Macdonald Critchley, neurologist (born 1900)
19 October
Harold French, actor, film director and screenwriter (born 1897)
Arthur Ibbetson, cinematographer (born 1922)
20 October – Ron Tarr, actor (born 1936)
23 October – Kim Lim, sculptor and printmaker (born 1936, Singapore)
24 October – Michael Balfour, actor (born 1918)
29 October – Len Beurton, communist and Soviet spy (born 1914)
31 October – Wilfrid Oulton, Royal Air Force officer (born 1911)
November
2 November – Harold Plenderleith, Scottish art conservator and archaeologist (born 1898)
5 November
Sir Isaiah Berlin, philosopher and sociologist (born 1909, Russian Empire)
Philip Roberts, Army major-general (born 1906)
6 November
Annie Llewelyn-Davies, Baroness Llewelyn-Davies of Hastoe, politician (born 1915)
Epic Soundtracks, musician (born 1959); drug overdose
8 November – Michael Ward, actor (born 1909)
9 November – Leonard Matthews, publisher and editor (born 1914)
16 November – Roy Sheffield, English cricketer (born 1906)
17 November – Wilfred Josephs, composer (born 1927)
18 November
Jean Conan Doyle, Women's Royal Air Force officer (born 1912)
Joyce Wethered, Lady Heathcoat-Amory, golfer (born 1901)
19 November
Mary Bernheim, biochemist (born 1902)
Alfred Roome, film editor (born 1908)
21 November
Jack Purvis, actor (born 1937)
Robert Simpson, composer (born 1921)
25 November
James H. Ellis, engineer and cryptographer (born 1924)
Jon Silkin, poet (born 1930)
27 November – Eric Laithwaite, electrical engineer (born 1921)
30 November – Glyn Dearman, actor (born 1939); accident
December
2 December – Shirley Crabtree, "Big Daddy", wrestler (born 1930)
4 December – Richard Vernon, actor (born 1925)
5 December – Frederick Dainton, Baron Dainton, academic chemist (born 1914)
6 December
George Chisholm, jazz trombonist (born 1915)
Eddie Myers, World War II Army officer (born 1906)
7 December
Billy Bremner, footballer and football manager (born 1942)
Woodrow Wyatt, Baron Wyatt of Weeford, politician, author and journalist (born 1918)
8 December – Stephen Tredre, actor and writer (born 1963)
11 December
Eddie Chapman, World War II spy (born 1914)
Simon Jeffes, classical guitarist (born 1949)
13 December – Alexander Oppenheim, mathematician (born 1903)
14 December
Owen Barfield, author, poet, philosopher and critic (born 1898)
Gerald Legge, 9th Earl of Dartmouth, peer (born 1924)
16 December – Richard Warwick, actor (born 1945)
17 December – Peter Taylor, film editor (born 1922)
21 December – Bruce Woodcock, boxer (born 1920)
25 December – Yvonne Cormeau, World War II spy (born 1909)
26 December – Tommy Price, speedway rider (born 1911)
27 December
Buxton Orr, composer (born 1924)
Billy Wright, Northern Irish loyalist leader (born 1960); murdered in prison
28 December – James Lees-Milne, writer and architectural historian (born 1908)
See also
List of British films of 1997
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pease%20Air%20National%20Guard%20Base
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Pease Air National Guard Base
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Pease Air National Guard Base is a New Hampshire Air National Guard base located at Portsmouth International Airport at Pease in New Hampshire. It occupies a portion of what was once Pease Air Force Base, a former Strategic Air Command facility with a base-related population of 10,000 and which was home to the 509th Bomb Wing (509 BW) flying the General Dynamics FB-111A. Pease AFB was closed pursuant to 1991 Base Realignment and Closure Commission action, with the 509 BW transferring to Whiteman AFB, Missouri. In 1983, investigations had shown soil and water contamination with degreasers and JP-4 jet fuel, and in 1990 the base was put on the National Priorities List of superfund sites. As of 2015, after 25 years of the Pease Development Authority's work, Pease International Tradeport has 275 businesses employing close to 10,000 civilian workers.
Pease continues to be home to the New Hampshire Air National Guard's 157th Air Refueling Wing (157 ARW), an Air Mobility Command gained Air National Guard unit, and since 2009 the 64th Air Refueling Squadron, an active duty United States Air Force "associate" unit to the 157th. The 157 ARW was a former tenant activity at Pease AFB and remained at the installation following the BRAC-directed closure of its regular Air Force activities. As of 2011, the base population is 380 full-time military personnel, with a monthly surge of up to 950 when part-time military personnel are included.
Location
Pease Air Force Base occupied of land in total, with roughly 40 percent in the city of Portsmouth and 60 percent in the town of Newington, plus a small amount of golf course acreage in Greenland, all within Rockingham County in the Seacoast Region of New Hampshire. Pease Air National Guard Base is approximately in size, and as of September 2014 included 46 structures. It is located approximately from Manchester, Portland, and Boston — major cities of New Hampshire, Maine, and Massachusetts, respectively.
History
What would become Pease Air Force Base started as the Portsmouth Municipal Airport in the 1930s. With the onset of World War II, improvements to the airport were announced in December 1941. The airport was closed to civilian traffic effective August 1942, as part of defense measures along the east coast. Civil Air Patrol usage started in February 1944, and in August the airport was leased to the U.S. Navy, who already had a nearby presence at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard.
The U.S. Air Force assumed control of the airport in 1951, when the installation was selected for development as a Strategic Air Command (SAC) base. Purchase of additional land for expansion of the base started in 1952 and was completed in 1956. Ground breaking for the new SAC facilities took place in 1954, and the first B-47 Stratojet bombers arrived in 1956. Renamed Portsmouth Air Force Base, the installation formally opened on 30 June 1956. On 7 September 1957, it was renamed Pease Air Force Base in honor of New Hampshire native Captain Harl Pease, Jr., USAAC, who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism during World War II.
Pease AFB was the home of the 100th Bombardment Wing and from 1958 onward the 509th Bombardment Wing, the latter arriving from Walker AFB, New Mexico, as successor to the famed 509th Composite Group of World War II that had executed the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and had transitioned to the B-47 and KC-97 in the mid-1950s. Their mission was strategic warfare in the event of war. From 1956 until its closure in 1991, Pease Air Force Base maintained a combat-ready force for long-range bombardment and nuclear strikes. B-47 Stratojet, B-52 Stratofortress, and FB-111 Aardvark bomber aircraft, as well as KC-97 Stratofreighter and KC-135 Stratotanker air refueling aircraft and C-97 Stratofreighter, C-124 Globemaster and C-130 Hercules cargo aircraft, were all based at Pease AFB at varying times. In 1961 and 1962, the base received consideration as a potential site for Minuteman missile deployments.
The 100th Bombardment Wing was converted in June 1966 to a strategic reconnaissance wing and transferred to Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. This left the 509th Bombardment Wing as the principal host wing for Pease AFB. The 509th was phased down for inactivation in 1965, but, cognizant of the historical significance of the 509th in SAC, the wing converted to the B-52D and KC-135A and was redesignated as the 509th Bombardment Wing, Heavy, in 1966. From 1 April to 1 October 1968 and from 26 March to 20 September 1969, more than one-half of the wing was deployed in Southeast Asia. The 509th supported SAC combat and contingency operations in Southeast Asia with KC–135A aircraft and crews from 1966 to 1975, and with B–52D aircraft and crews from 1966 to 1970. By 1 December 1969, the wing had transferred all its B-52D aircraft to other SAC units in preparation for transition to the General Dynamics FB-111A. Redesignated as the 509th Bombardment Wing, Medium, the 509th had no bomber aircraft from November 1969 until 1970, but continued KC-135 refueling and alert operations and performed FB-111 ground training. The wing resumed flying training with the FB-111 in December 1970 and assumed FB–111 alert commitments from 1 July 1971 until September 1990. During this time, the 509th won the SAC Bombing and Navigation Competition and the Fairchild Trophy in 1979, 1981, 1982, and 1983, and the Sanders Trophy for best air refueling unit in 1982.
In 1966, the New Hampshire Air National Guard relocated the 157th Military Airlift Group (157 MAG) from the deactivating Grenier AFB in nearby Manchester, New Hampshire, to Pease AFB. Operating the C-97 Stratofreighter, the group transitioned to the C-124 Globemaster in 1968 and to the C-130 Hercules in 1971. The mission of the group was changed in 1975 when it was designated as the 157th Air Refueling Group (157 ARG) and transitioned to the KC-135A in 1975. The 157th later transitioned to the KC-135E in 1984, the KC-135R in 1993, and to the KC-46A in 2019.
Pease AFB served as a base conducting summer field training for U.S. Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC) cadets during the 1960s and '70s.
Air Force Base closure
In December 1988, Pease AFB was one of 86 military installations to be closed as part of the Secretary of Defense's Base Realignment and Closure process. In 1989, 3,461 active-duty military, 741 civil service workers and 347 non-appropriated fund employees were employed at Pease AFB. Of the total active duty personnel, 49 were assigned to the Air National Guard. It is estimated that the base created a total of 2,466 secondary jobs within the local communities. Military personnel began leaving the base in June 1990, and Pease AFB officially closed on 31 March 1991. The 509th BW transferred its FB-111 aircraft to Tactical Air Command and its KC-135s to other SAC units. The wing was then administratively moved to Whiteman AFB, Missouri, on 30 September 1990, but not manned until April 1993.
Four historical aircraft on static display near the main gate were disassembled and moved to other locations; Ellsworth AFB in South Dakota received a B-47, and Whiteman AFB received a B-29, KC-97, and B-52. The B-29, serial number 44-61671, is on display at Whiteman as a representation of The Great Artiste.
Air National Guard Base
The majority of Pease AFB was transferred to the Pease Development Authority, who now operate Pease International Tradeport including Portsmouth International Airport at Pease. The remaining part of the former Pease AFB that remained under military control was transferred to the New Hampshire Air National Guard and renamed Pease Air National Guard Base with the 157 ARG designated as the host unit.
With the introduction of the USAF "objective wing" concept into the Air National Guard in the early 1990s, the 157 ARG was redesignated to its current title as the 157th Air Refueling Wing (157 ARW) on October 16, 1995.
On October 2, 2009, the 64th Air Refueling Squadron (64 ARS) was activated at Pease as the 157th's active-guard associate. This was the first time that an active duty Air Force unit had returned to Pease since 1991.
In August 2014, the Air Force announced that the 157 ARW would become the first Air National Guard unit to equip with the new Boeing KC-46 Pegasus aerial refueling aircraft. The KC-46A was scheduled to enter the Air Force inventory during fiscal year 2016, with Pease ANGB to receive its first Pegasus after October 2017. By the end of 2018, a Weapons System Trainer, Boom Operator Trainer, and Fuselage Trainer for the KC-46A were installed at Pease. In early February 2019, it was announced that the 157 ARW would receive the new aircraft by the fall of 2019.
The final KC-135 at Pease, serial number 57-1419, departed on March 24, 2019, for Goldwater Air National Guard Base in Phoenix, Arizona. The first KC-46A arrived at Pease on August 8, 2019. The 12th and final KC-46A was delivered on February 5, 2021.
Incidents/accidents
All noted aircraft were based at Pease AFB, unless stated otherwise.
On November 20, 1957, a KC-97 from Dow Air Force Base in Maine made an emergency landing at Pease after its refueling boom could not be retracted; there were no injuries.
On April 15, 1958, a B-47 (serial number 52-0562) from Walker Air Force Base in New Mexico crashed on takeoff at Pease; all four crewmen were killed.
On July 22, 1959, a KC-97 (serial number 52-2703) crashed near Andover, New Hampshire, while on a nighttime training mission; all seven crewmen were killed.
On January 4, 1961, a B-47 (serial number 53-4244) crashed on takeoff at Pease; all four crewmen were killed.
On August 3, 1962, a B-47 (serial number 52-0526) crashed on takeoff at Pease; all three crewmen were killed.
On November 5, 1964, a KC-97 crashed on takeoff at Pease; all five crewmen were killed. Some of the wreckage was scattered across nearby New Hampshire Route 101, which is now New Hampshire Route 33.
On December 8, 1964, a B-47 (serial number 52-0339) crashed in Newington shortly after takeoff; all four crewmen were killed.
On February 26, 1965, a B-47 (serial number 52-0171) returning to Pease from Spain was involved in a mid-air collision while refueling over the Atlantic Ocean with a KC-135 from Dow Air Force Base; the four crewmen on each plane were killed.
On July 21, 1965, a B-47 (serial number 52-0160) was forced to make a belly landing at Pease due to inoperative landing gear; there were no injuries.
On January 30, 1981, an FB-111A (serial number 68-0263) crashed in Portsmouth. Both crewmen successfully ejected, and there were no fatalities on the ground; however, the resulting fires in a housing complex caused $385,000 in damages and left 13 families homeless. The accident was ultimately attributed to "incorrect" actions of the pilot during a stall spin.
On January 11, 1990, a KC-135 (serial number 59-1494) caught fire on the tarmac at Pease during maintenance work; there were no injuries, however the aircraft was destroyed.
Events
Prior its closure as an active base in 1991, frequent air shows were held at Pease, typically featuring either the United States Air Force Thunderbirds or the Blue Angels of the United States Navy. The 1977 show was promoted as being the "21st annual Open House". Air shows held at Pease AFB include those held in September 1960 with the Thunderbirds, August 1972 with the Thunderbirds, July 1977 with the Thunderbirds, July 1987 with the Thunderbirds, May 1988 with the Blue Angels, September 1989 with the Thunderbirds, and May 1990 with the Blue Angels.
Subsequent air shows have been held infrequently. These include August 2010 with the Blue Angels, August 2011 with the Thunderbirds, June 2012 with the Blue Angels, September 2021 with the Thunderbirds, and September 2023 with the F-16 Viper Demonstration Team.
Environmental issues
Aircraft maintenance operations at Pease AFB generated hazardous waste, including spent degreasers, solvents, paint strippers, jet fuels, and others, which contaminated soils and groundwater. Environmental investigations began in 1983 under the Air Force "Restoration Installation Program". In 1990, Pease AFB was placed on the National Priorities List of Superfund sites. The site's contamination is addressed in twelve long-term remedial phases, mainly soil excavation and disposal, vertical containment walls installed in the subsurface and groundwater extraction wells, soil vapor extraction and air sparging to treat petroleum and solvent contamination, and where groundwater extraction and treatment efforts are uncertain (zone 3) improvement thereof and wellhead preparing treatment capability for the Haven water supply well. At two sites a permeable reactive barrier was installed to intercept and destroy the groundwater contamination (sites 49 and 73). The groundwater is monitored long term and its use is restricted.
In June 2014, Portsmouth shut down Haven Well, a water well serving Pease International Tradeport, after Air Force tests showed perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) 12.5 times higher than the EPA's Provisional Health Advisory. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was also found, but below the health advisory level. The Air Force had tested the well in advance of an EPA requirement beginning in 2015. In 2015, the CDC announced blood testing of 500 people exposed to this contaminant from the Haven Well, thought to stem from the Air Force using firefighting foam.
In July 2015, the preliminary average of the first 98 blood tests was higher than the national average. The EPA ordered the Air Force to "design, install and operate a groundwater treatment system for the Haven well" that will "at a minimum restore contaminated groundwater in the Pease aquifer to levels less than the PHA for PFOA and PFOS" within 420 days or about 14 months. The EPA predicted the contamination to continue to migrate toward the Harrison, Smith, Collins and Portsmouth No. 1 wells, which are known as the "southern well field" at the tradeport. The Air Force used the firefighting foam in 19 other areas, which have not been tested yet. In mid July, the New Hampshire State Department of Health and Human Services announced it was "exploring all measures to reopen testing for anyone exposed to contaminated water" at Haven Well. Exposed firefighters began filing workers compensation claims with the city, and mothers whose children were exposed to contaminated water at a daycare center and who developed elevated PFOA levels have spoken out. The city of Portsmouth requested the two other wells be treated; in September, the Air Force announced they are “pursuing options” to treat all three city-owned wells. In early 2016, a Community Assistance Panel was formed to help address the contaminated water issues.
Pease Development Authority
In 1990, a majority of the former Pease AFB, other than property retained by the Air National Guard, was transferred to the Pease Development Authority (PDA) for reuse as a civilian airport and commercial center. The PDA was created in response to local economic impact from the base closure; many area residents believe that the recession of the early 1990s affected the region more than the Great Recession of the late 2000s.
The airport opened for civilian use in July 1991, and became an FAA-certified airport for commercial air carrier operation under FAR Part 139 in October 1992.
Pease has a Foreign Trade Zone with access to the East Coast and international trade corridors by land (Interstate 95), by direct air cargo from Pease, or by sea via the Port of New Hampshire in Portsmouth. An international/domestic passenger terminal has Federal Inspection Services including U.S. Customs and Border Protection, agriculture and immigration.
As of 2015, just shy of its 25-year anniversary, nearly 300 economically diverse businesses employing just under 10,000 workers have settled in the Tradeport, and another 4,000 people outside the tradeport support those businesses.
Wildlife refuge
In 1992, a former weapons storage area in Newington, approximately with frontage on Great Bay, was turned into a wildlife refuge.
Pease Greeters
The Pease Greeters are a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt, non-profit organization whose members greet troops landing at Pease en route to, or returning from, overseas deployment. Since meeting a flight in 2005, the group has met over 1,500 flights through mid-2018. Staffed primarily with retired veterans and local residents, the group was joined by former President George H. W. Bush in greeting a flight in October 2010.
References
Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units Of World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ).
Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History 1984. .
Mueller, Robert, Air Force Bases Volume I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, Office of Air Force History, 1989
George Adams, former Sgt 509 FMS, Pease AFB (1987–1990)
Jim Rusch, CMSgt USAF (Ret), 509 MMS, Pease AFB (1981–1989)
Further reading
External links
157th Air Refueling Wing homepage
Boston-Portsmouth Air Show 2010
Boston-Portsmouth Air Show 2011
Installations of the United States Air National Guard
Installations of the United States Air Force in New Hampshire
Military installations in New Hampshire
Military Superfund sites
Buildings and structures in Rockingham County, New Hampshire
Superfund sites in New Hampshire
Newington, New Hampshire
Military installations established in 1991
Space Shuttle Emergency Landing Sites
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciopoli
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Calciopoli
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Calciopoli () was a sports scandal in Italy's top professional association football league Serie A and to a lesser extent Serie B. Involving various clubs and numerous executives, both from the same clubs and from the main Italian football bodies (, FIGC, and LNP), as well as some referees and referee assistants, the scandal was uncovered in May 2006, when a number of telephone tappings showed relations between clubs' executives and referee organizations during the football seasons of 2004–05 and 2005–06, being accused of selecting favourable referees. This implicated league champions Juventus and several other clubs, including Fiorentina, Lazio, AC Milan, and Reggina. In July 2006, Juventus was stripped of the 2004–05 Serie A title, which was left unassigned, and was downgraded to last place in the 2005–06 Serie A, as the title was subsequently awarded to Inter Milan, and relegated to Serie B. In July 2006, the Italy national football team won the 2006 FIFA World Cup, beating the France national football team 5–3 in a penalty shoot-out following a 1–1 draw at the conclusion of extra time; eight Juventus players were on the football pitch in the 2006 FIFA World Cup final, five for Italy and three for France. Many prison sentences were handed out to sporting directors and referees but all were acquitted in 2015, after almost a decade of investigation, due to the expiration of the statute of limitations (at the time, it was about 4 years for the sports trial and 7.5 years for the ordinary trial), except for a one-year sentence confirmed to referee Massimo De Santis.
A subsequent investigation, dubbed Calciopoli bis, implicated many other clubs, including Brescia, Cagliari, ChievoVerona, Empoli, Inter Milan, Palermo, Udinese, and Vicenza; they were not put on trial due the statute of limitations. Although popularly known as a match-fixing scandal and focused on Juventus, no match-fixing violations were found within the intercepted calls for Juventus, there were no requests for specific referees, no demands for favours, no conversations between Juventus directors and referees were found, and the season was deemed fair and legitimate. The club was absolved from any wrongdoings in the first verdict, while its sporting executives Luciano Moggi and Antonio Giraudo were found guilty and banned for life six months before their previous five-year ban expired; they were absolved on charges related to sporting fraud, and appealed to the European Court of Human Rights, once they exhausted their appeals in Italy's courts. Other club executives were found guilty but did not receive lifetime bans and returned to their previous or new positions, among them Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani and Lazio president Claudio Lotito, both of whom retained or gained important positions in Lega Serie A. Most refeeres and their assistants were either found not guilty or had their sentences annulled due to the statute of limitations; only Massimo De Santis and Salvatore Racalbuto were convicted.
Italy's Court of Appeal rejected damage claims from Atalanta, Bologna, Brescia, and Lecce due to the fact that no match in the 2004–05 championship was altered by non-football episodes. This led Juventus to request €444 million in damage claims, later updated to €551 million, to both Inter Milan and the FIGC, restoration of the 2005 scudetto, and the officialization of the 2006 scudetto; all its appeals were either rejected due to the courts declaring themselves not competent or due to technical issues rather than juridical issues. Attempts for peace talks between Juventus, the FIGC, and other clubs did not improve relations, and the case remains much debated and controversial. Juventus returned to Serie A after winning the 2006–07 Serie B championship and in the UEFA Champions League the following two years but then struggled with two consecutive seventh places, before starting a record nine-consecutive league titles run, two Champions League finals, and four consecutive domestic doubles. Milan won the 2006–07 UEFA Champions League but only won the 2010–11 Serie A championship and struggled throughout the 2010s until winning the 2021–22 Serie A. Inter Milan started a cycle of five-consecutive league titles, culminating in the treble with the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League win but then struggled throughout the 2010s, with Napoli and Roma as Juventus' main rivals, until winning the 2020–21 Serie A during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. In April 2021, all three clubs found themselves united in the European Super League project. The most recent league winner outside the three of them is Napoli in 2023.
Etymology and origins
The name Calciopoli, which could be adapted in English as "Footballgate", by analogy with the Watergate scandal, and would be literally translated as "Footballville", was made up by the media by analogy with Tangentopoli (literally "Bribesville"), which is the name that was given to some corruption-based clientelism in Italy during the Mani pulite investigation in the early 1990s; in that case, the neologism was formed by combining the Italian word tangente ("bribe", from the Latin word tangens, which means "to touch" and in a wider sense "to be due to") and the Greek word polis ("city"), originally referring to Milan as "the city of bribes".
The scandal first came to light as a consequence of investigations of prosecutors on the Italian football agency GEA World. The leak of news that triggered Calciopoli in May 2006 did not start from the major sports or investigative press but rather came from Il Romanista, a newspaper entirely dedicated to Roma supporters, and whose founder Riccardo Luna continued to boast of being "the first to reveal the intrigues of Calciopoli". The first major sport newspaper to anticipate and report the scandal was Milan-based La Gazzetta dello Sport, which also anticipated the subsequent court rulings. Transcripts of recorded telephone conversations soon thereafter published in major Italian newspapers suggested that Juventus general director Luciano Moggi and Juventus CEO Antonio Giraudo had conversations with several Italian football officials to influence referee designations during the 2004–05 Serie A season.{{sfnm|1a1=La Repubblica, 12 May 2006a|2a1=The Observer, 30 July 2006a|3a1=The Observer, 30 July 2006b}} Notable referees, such as Pierluigi Collina and Roberto Rosetti, were among the few referees to emerge unscathed from the scandal.
Investigation and sporting sentences
On 8 May 2006, Franco Carraro resigned from the presidency of the FIGC, the body responsible for selecting Italy's FIFA World Cup national team; he remained a member of the UEFA's executive committee and as a FIFA official. Juventus' entire board of directors resigned on 11 May, while Moggi resigned shortly after Juventus won the 2005–06 Serie A championship on 14 May, saying: "They killed my soul." Giraudo stated: "We take our leave, but you will see that bandits will come after us." On the Borsa Italiana, Italy's stock market, Juventus shares had lost about half their 9 May value by the 19 May. Massimo De Santis was due to be Italy's refereeing representative at the 2006 World Cup; he was barred by the FIGC after coming under investigation. Roberto Rosetti remained untainted by the scandal, and was chosen as one of the twenty-one 2006 FIFA World Cup officials.
The scandal drew attention to many potential conflicts of interest within Italian football. Inter Milan provided sponsorship to the Serie A through Gruppo TIM, as Inter Milan vice-president Marco Tronchetti Provera was TIM director. Silvio Berlusconi, Milan's president and owner, was Prime Minister of Italy and owner of TV channel Mediaset through Fininvest, while Adriano Galliani, as the vice president and CEO of Milan, also served as the president of Serie A. Juventus has been historically owned by the Agnelli family since the 1930s, which controls, alongside the Elkann family, holding company Exor and automobile malnufacture FIAT but had no further involvement or conflict of interest in football other than the club. In addition to allegations of corruption and sporting fraud by owners, executives, players, referees, and league officials, Aldo Biscardi, the host of Italy's most popular football show, resigned amid allegations that he collaborated with Moggi to boost the club's image on television, compared to the Milanese side. Then-FIGC president Carraro was a former president of Milan and politically close to Berlusconi, while its successor Guido Rossi was a former member of Inter Milan's board of directors and minority Inter Milan shareholder. Journalist Christian Rocca commented: "I wonder why the Italian media say every possible abomination on the potential conflict of interest of Adriano Galliani, president of Lega [Calcio] and executive of Milan, but don't use the same criterion towards Guido Rossi, extraordinary commissioner of the Italian Football Federation and former executive of Moratti's Inter Milan from 1995 to 1999, and of Gigi Agnolin, appointed commissioner of referees but still former executive of Roma from 1995 to 2000 (instead of Moggi, look what a combination)." Federal prosecutor Carlo Porceddu, a critic of the trial, especially for its decision of revoking Juventus' title by assigning it to Inter Milan, stated in 2017 that Rossi appointed friends, one of whom was on Inter Milan's board of directors.
In all, magistrates in Naples formally investigated 41 people, and looked into 19 Serie A matches from the 2004–05 season and 14 Serie A matches from the 2005–06 season. Prosecutors in Turin examined the Juventus chairman Antonio Giraudo over transfers, suspected falsified accounts, and tax evasion. Prosecutors in Parma investigated Gianluigi Buffon, the national team goalkeeper, as well as Antonio Chimenti, Enzo Maresca, and Mark Iuliano, for suspected gambling on Serie A matches; all were cleared in the same year. After the first penalties were handed out, more clubs were looked at for possible links to the scandal. Lecce, Messina, and Siena were also investigated as prosecutors continued to analyze transcripts of telephone calls.
Matches under investigation
The standings of the 2005–06 Serie A championship, which was won by Juventus, were remade to retroactively punish implicated clubs the year prior. This controversially resulted in third-classified Inter Milan being awarded the scudetto by then-FIGC commissioner Guido Rossi after a vote, on whether the title should be assigned by the tre saggi ("Three Sages") Gerhard Aigner, Massimo Coccia, and Roberto Pardolesi, as well as Juventus' relegation, and four other clubs (Fiorentina, Lazio, Milan, and Reggina) received penalty points. Only Aigner voted in favour of the assignation, with Rossi's ultimate decisive push for the assignation, even though UEFA only needed the final standings, and the cited precedent of the unassigned 1926–27 Divisione Nazionale title, which was revoked from Torino and not assigned to Bologna as the second-classified club. The 2005–06 championship was never investigated, and only the 2004–05 Serie A championship, also won by Juventus, was revoked.
The nineteen matches of the 2004–05 championship under investigation by the Naples prosecutor were the following:
Reggina–Juventus 2–1 (6 November 2004)Referee: Gianluca Paparesta
Lecce–Juventus 0–1 (14 November 2004)Referee: Massimo De Santis
Juventus–Lazio 2–1 (5 December 2004)Referee: Paolo Dondarini
Fiorentina–Bologna 1–0 (5 December 2004)Referee: Massimo De Santis
Bologna–Juventus 0–1 (12 December 2004)Referee: Tiziano Pieri
Juventus–Udinese 2–1 (13 February 2005)Referee: Pasquale Rodomonti
ChievoVerona–Lazio 0–1 (20 February 2005)Referee: Gianluca Rocchi
Lazio–Parma 2–0 (27 February 2005)Referee: Domenico Messina
Roma–Juventus 1–2 (5 March 2005)Referee: Salvatore Racalbuto
Inter Milan–Fiorentina 3–2 (20 March 2005)Referee: Paolo Bertini
Fiorentina–Juventus 3–3 (9 April 2005)Referee: Pierluigi Collina
Milan–Brescia 1–1 (10 April 2005)Referee: Pasquale Rodomonti
Bologna–Lazio 1–2 (17 April 2005)Referee: Paolo Tagliavento
Siena–Milan 2–1 (17 April 2005)Referee: Pierluigi Collina
Milan–ChievoVerona 1–0 (20 April 2005)Referee: Gianluca Paparesta
ChievoVerona–Fiorentina 1–2 (8 May 2005)Referee: Paolo Dondarini
Livorno–Siena 3–6 (8 May 2005)Referee: Massimo De Santis
Lazio–Fiorentina 1–1 (22 May 2005)Referee: Roberto Rosetti
Lecce–Parma 3–3 (29 May 2005)Referee: Massimo De Santis
Walter Distato and Leo Leonida from the University of London and Dario Maimone and Pietro Navarra from the University of Messina conducted a study on the 2004–05 Serie A championship. According to the study, Juventus averaged less points per game with investigated referees (De Santis, Rodomonti, Bertini, Dondarini, Rocchi, Messina, Gabriele, Racalbuto, and Tagliavento) than those who were not; Juventus averaged 2.63 points per game with the latter, and 1.89 points per game with the former. Fiorentina and Milan, two other clubs involved in the scandal, averaged 1.22 points per game with the latter, and 0.93 points per game with the former, and 2.19 points per game with the latter, and 2.0 points per game with the former, respectively. The only exception was Lazio, another club implicated in the scandal, which averaged 2.0 points per game with the former, and 0.81 points with the latter.
About their study, the authors wrote: "Ours is a purely statistical study. We are not interested, nor are we able to establish, if Moggi and the other executives under investigation could influence the matches, but from our point of view we can highlight three hypotheses more than valid: either there was no referee conditioning in the 2004–05 championship, or it existed but did not produce relevant results, or it's possible to think of a clash between executives for the acquisition of the football system that gave rise to winning and losing clubs in that which we can define as a 'parallel championship.'" Navarra, one of the authors, wrote: "In addition, in the study we also took into account the strength of the opponents faced by the teams involved. Juventus, for example, met stronger teams in matches directed by the referees under investigation. This could explain, at least in part, the considerable difference in the overall point average."
Club punishments and Juventus' controversy
On 4 July 2006, the FIGC prosecutor Stefano Palazzi called for all four clubs at the centre of the scandal to be thrown out of Serie A. Palazzi called for Juventus "being excluded from the Serie A Championship and assigned to a lower category to Serie B with 6 points deducted", while Fiorentina, Lazio, and Milan were to be also downgraded to last place in the 2005–06 Serie A and relegated to the 2006–07 Serie B. He also asked for point deductions to be imposed for the following season for the clubs (three for Milan and 15 for both Fiorentina and Lazio). The prosecutor also called for Juventus to be stripped of its 2005 title and downgraded to the last place in the 2006 league.
In the case against Reggina on 13 August, the prosecutor called for Reggina to be demoted to Serie B with a 15-point penalty. On 17 August, Reggina was handed down a 15-point penalty but no relegation from Serie A. Furthermore, the club was fined the equivalent of €100,000, while the club president Pasquale Foti was fined €30,000 and banned from all football-related activities for two-and-a-half years.
In the ruling, the Federal Commission of Appeal (CAF), a FIGC judicial court, stated that Juventus was not responsible for Fiorentina avoiding relegation, and that Moggi and Giraudo operated independently of Juventus and its owners. In addition, the court ruled that there was no evidence of match fixing, and there was no cupola or "Moggi system", as was reported by La Gazzetta dello Sport. Finally, referee selections were done in accordance with the rules of the FIGC, phone calls made by Moggi to referee designator Paolo Bergamo did not constitute in itself a sporting illicit, and there was no organization of yellow cards to give. Nonetheless, the sentence stated that "though Moggi didn't exercise his ability to condition matches, he still possessed the ability", and even though there were no Article 6 violations against Juventus, it introduced the much-disputed illecito associativo ("associative illicit") violation; the given motivation was that "Juventus' advantage was evidenced by their position in the standings at the end of the season."
On 28 July 2006, CAF judge Piero Sandulli said there were no illicits and the championship was regular. He commented: "The 2004/2005 championship wasn't falsified. The only doubt we could have was about that strange match between Lecce and Parma, a match that we have seen and reviewed. However, it can't be said that the championship has been falsified. There may have been an attempt to fix it, but it would have needed four or five combinations." In an interview with la Repubblica the day prior, Mario Serio, the then-director of the private law department at the Palermo Faculty of Law and one of the five members of the CAF who signed the verdict, stated: "It wasn't a unanimous decision, it wasn't shared." Despite a lack of evidence regarding match fixing and no Article 6 violation, only Juventus was sentenced to be relegated to Serie B and stripped of their titles after taking into consideration the collective interests of the parties involved in the investigation. Serio added: "We tried to interpret a collective sentiment. We listened to ordinary people and tried to put ourselves on the wavelength." According to Serio, while Juventus was relegated, the other clubs "were saved"; this happened "because people wanted it that way", referencing sentimento popolare ("people's feelings"). Serio said he wanted to convict then-FIGC president Franco Carraro and remove Milan from European competitions but Sandulli, Salvatore Catalano, and Mario Sanino put him into minority. Milan was saved because then-Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani stated that he was not aware of Milan referee clerk Leonardo Meani's behavior; this was proved to be false in later wiretaps and developments. Serio added: "We recognized everything about the CAF ruling, apart from two episodes: the falsified championship, the repeated offences of Juventus, [and] the existence of a system." Corrado De Biase, 1980 Totonero chief investigator, commented on the sentence of Francesco Saverio Borrelli, who spoke of a structured illicit as a crime committed by Moggi and his associates. He said: "We're talking about a structured illicit. But what is it? It doesn't exist. They want to make it clear that there's something different, anomalous. But structured illicit, not at all. There's no sporting illicit. We can't talk about things that don't exist in the sports judicial system. I still haven't seen any proof of sporting illicit. Until now, what I see is the violation of Article 1 of the Sports Justice Code, which requires members to behave according to the principles of loyalty, correctness, and probity. But of what we have read to date, it doesn't prove to me that there was an attempt to alter a match."
The CAF ruling was long disputed because of the severity of the punishment meted out to Juventus compared to the other clubs involved. The verdict remains controversial, as Juventus was charged with Article 1 violations, like the other involved clubs, and did not violate Article 6, but it was the sole club to be relegated. Juventus was charged of Article 6 violations through structured illicit, which was not part of the Code of Sports Justice, and was added to the new Code of Sports Justice after the scandal; accordingly, Juventus was charged with Article 6 violations through repeated Article 1 violations. As summarized by Carlo Garganese for Goal, "[the FIGC sentence] stated perfectly clearly that no Article 6 violations (match-fixing/attempted match-fixing breaks the sixth article of the sporting code) were found within the intercepted calls and the season was fair and legitimate, but that the ex-Juventus directors nonetheless demonstrated they could potentially benefit from their exclusive relationship with referee designators Gianluigi Pairetto and Paolo Bergamo. There were, however, no requests for specific referees, no demands for favours and no conversations between Juventus directors and referees themselves." Calciopoli bis and the Naples trial showed that many other clubs were involved, which weakened the prosecutor's argument of Juventus' exclusivity, the main reason for the club's harsher punishment; according to Garganese, "their mere existence meant that the theory of Juventus' 'exclusivity' could no longer hold", and "for the first time credibility shifted in favour of those who had claimed that Moggi, Giraudo and Juventus had been the victims of a witch-hunt."
Another controversy was that related to Juventus' defence lawyer Cesare Zaccone, who stated that "a punitive relegation to the second division would be acceptable." In later years, Zaccone would clarify that he made the statement because Juventus was the only club risking more than one-division relegation (Serie C), as at that time only a few clubs were implicated and Juventus appeared to be the main culprit, and he meant for Juventus to have equal treatment with the other clubs, which were also risking to be relegated; only Juventus would be relegated, resulting in the club's appeal for damage claims in the subsequent years against the FIGC due to unequal treatment. Some critics and observers, including as judge De Biase, journalist and former Tuttosport director Giancarlo Padovan, Ju29ro, and journalists, such as Oliviero Beha and Angelo Furgione, alleged that Calciopoli and its aftermath were also a dispute within Juventus and between the club's owners, who wanted to get rid of Moggi and Giraudo, both of whom assumed an increased role in the club. Whatever their intentions, it is argued they condemned Juventus, firstly when Zaccone asked for relegation and point-deduction, and secondly when Montezemolo retired Juventus' appeal to the Lazio Regional Administrative Court (TAR), which amounted, as recounted by Corriere della Sera journalist Mario Sconcerti, to "a sort of public plea bargain" and guilty admission. In a 2020 interview with la Repubblica, Zaccone said he is a supporter of Torino, Juventus' derby rival, and revealed to have defended Juventus for money.
Effect on Serie A and club appeals
Initially, with Juventus, Fiorentina, and Lazio all relegated, Messina, Lecce, and Treviso would have remained in Serie A, despite finishing in the bottom three in the 2005–06 season. After the appeals, only Messina remained in Serie A. Clubs promoted from Serie B (Atalanta, Catania, and Torino) were unaffected and promoted to Serie A as normal. Based on the preliminary final league positions, Juventus and Milan would have earned a direct entry into the UEFA Champions League, Inter Milan and Fiorentina would have entered the third qualifying round of the Champions League, while Roma, Lazio, and ChievoVerona would have been eligible for the UEFA Cup. On 6 June 2006, the FIGC officially withdrew from the 2006 UEFA Intertoto Cup, costing Palermo a place in the third round of the competition, citing the fact that the 2005–06 Serie A standings could not be confirmed by the 5 June deadline. UEFA gave the FIGC a 25 July deadline to confirm the standings or face sanctions in the two larger European competitions, which was then extended to 26 July. After the appeals, Inter Milan, Roma, ChievoVerona, and Milan occupied Italy's four places for the 2006–07 UEFA Champions League. Inter Milan and Roma received a direct entry into the Champions League, while ChievoVerona and Milan started at the third qualifying round. Milan's entry was confirmed by UEFA shortly after the appeals process, and Milan went on to win the competition. Palermo, Livorno, and Parma took the 2006–07 UEFA Cup first-round slots originally given to Roma, Lazio, and ChievoVerona.
The clubs sent down to Serie B were initially expected to have a difficult road back to the top flight, as they would have had to finish in the top two of Serie B to be assured of promotion, and also had to avoid finishing in the bottom four to avoid being relegated to Serie C1. Juventus was initially docked 30 points, the equivalent of having ten wins nullified; the point penalty was later reduced to nine points, and went on to win Serie B in the 2006–07 season to make a swift return to Serie A. Fiorentina was docked fifteen points, was expected to struggle in Serie A, and faced an outside chance of relegation the following season but finished the 2006–07 Serie A season in sixth place, earning a place in the 2007–08 UEFA Cup. The relegation of Juventus also prompted a mass exodus of important players, such as Fabio Cannavaro, Emerson, Zlatan Ibrahimović, Lilian Thuram, Patrick Vieira, and Gianluca Zambrotta; some thirty other Serie A players who participated at the 2006 FIFA World Cup opted to move to other European leagues in the wake of the scandal. Notably, Juventus captain Alessandro Del Piero and fellow stars Gianluigi Buffon, Mauro Camoranesi, Pavel Nedved, and David Trezeguet, including future defence's cornerstone Giorgio Chiellini and young stars like Claudio Marchisio, stayed through "the purgatory of Serie B". Notably, Del Piero defended his decision to remain at Juventus, referencing the club's nickname, "The Old Lady", and said that "a true gentleman never leaves his lady." Juventus rebuilt from the ground up, restructured their management team, built a new stadium, and renegotiated a number of key sponsorship contracts for the future. By the 2020s, the club had won a record-breaking nine-consecutive Serie A championships with three different coaches (former Juventus player Antonio Conte, Massimiliano Allegri, and Maurizio Sarri), along with four Coppa Italia and consecutive domestic doubles, four Supercoppa Italiana, and reached two UEFA Champions League finals, in 2015 and 2017, respectively. In a twist of fate, Calciopoli nemesis Inter Milan and former coach Conte ended Juventus' unprecedented Serie A run in 2021.
On 26 October, the second appeal reduced Lazio's penalty to three points, Juventus' reduced to nine points, and Fiorentina's reduced to fifteen points, while Milan was unsuccessful and still faced with an eight-point deduction. Juventus previously announced that they planned to appeal the punishment in the Italian civil courts, an action that would have brought further punishment to the clubs and the FIGC by FIFA, as FIFA has historically taken a dim view to government involvement in football administration. FIFA and UEFA announced that they had the option to suspend the FIGC, barring all Italian clubs from international play, if Juventus went to court; some analysts, such as ESPN, described them as "FIFA threats". After the FIGC threatened to freeze all Italian competition, which could have resulted Italy's national team not taking part at the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying, Juventus dropped its appeal before the TAR on 31 August, the day before it was due to be heard; Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI) president Gianni Petrucci thanked John Elkann and Luca Cordero di Montezemolo, and FIFA president Sepp Blatter thanked Juventus, particularly Montezemolo, for dropping the appeal. Juventus officials cited the "willingness shown by sportive institutions [the FIGC and CONI] to review its case during [CONI's] arbitration." In retrospect, this decision in particular is criticized because it could have cleared Juventus' name and avoided relegation. In addition, some critics alleged that the decision could also be partially explained by Montezemolo's relations with then-Inter Milan vice-president Marco Tronchetti Provera, who was also owner of Inter Milan's sponsor Telecom Italia, which would go on in 2007 to sponsor Scuderia Ferrari, of which Montezemolo was president; Montezemolo was also Confindustria president, while Tronchetti Provera was Confindustria vice-president. Both Montezemolo and Tronchetti Provera were implicated in the SISMI-Telecom scandal, but they were not processually involved. In a la Repubblica interview, Telecom's old security guided by Giuliano Tavaroli dismissed the theory that the Telecom management was unaware of those spying operations, saying that they were worried about protecting Montezemolo, its favourite candidate for the Confindustria presidency.
Inter Milan's controversial 2006 scudetto assignation
On 26 July, the FIGC declared Inter Milan as the Italian football champion for the 2005–06 season. Regarding this decision, Carlo Porceddu, federal prosecutor from 1998 to 2001 and vice-president of the Federal Court of Appeal, stated in an interview with Unione Sarda: "Revoking the 2005/2006 scudetto from Juventus and assigning to Inter Milan was a serious mistake. The Calciopoli investigation should have been more thorough, so much so that we, as the Federal Court, had limited the penalty to Juventus not withdrawing the championship title due to insufficient evidence. In fact, that aspect had been neglected. Then, the special commissioner of the [Italian Football] Federation of that period had appointed a group of his friends, one of whom was also on the board of directors of Inter Milan, and that title was revoked from Juventus and given to Inter Milan. That was a grave error in my view." Purceddu also highlighted how several aspects of the investigation needed to be clarified.
Franco Carraro, Rossi's predecessor, was another critic of Rossi's decision, especially because, as Carraro recalled years later, "a month later Rossi goes to be president of Telecom for the second time, whose largest shareholder is Marco Tronchetti Provera, vice-president of Inter Milan." Piero Sandulli, president of the FIGC National Court of Appeal, was against giving the scudetto to Inter Milan, and stated to have been criticized at that time for it; in later years, Sandulli reiterated that the title should not have been assigned to Inter Milan. The decision was further condemned because of Inter Milan's involvement, among other clubs not originally implicated, which could not be put on trial due to the statute of limitations. This caused a dispute between the FIGC, Inter Milan, and Juventus. Although it was deemed likely, or almost certain, that the FIGC would revoke Inter Milan's scudetto, and despite Juventus' appeals to have it revoked even without giving it back to Juventus, it did not happen; the FIGC's Federal Council voted to declare itself not competent.
Later developments and trials
SIM cards and wiretaps
By April 2007, some new details about the Calciopoli affair were disclosed, as Naples prosecutors were able to find out a series of telephone calls through foreign SIM cards between Moggi, Bergamo, Pairetto, and several referees. Since the conversations were through foreign SIM cards, the Italian police could not tap them, so they could only try to match together phone numbers, numbers called, and places; nonetheless, it were those SIM cards that ultimately proved, not without controversy, to be the reason for Moggi's conviction, whose charges had been reduced to be close enough to "the limit of the existence of the crime of attempt". The SIM cards had been purchased in a store in Chiasso (Switzerland); some SIM cards were Swiss and registered to the store owner's family, while the others came from an anonymous person in Liechtenstein. The prosecutors also discovered the use of a Slovenian SIM card. In this investigation they involved Moggi, Pairetto, Bergamo, Fabiani (Messina sporting director), the referees De Santis, Racalbuto, Paparesta, Pieri, Cassarà, Dattilo, Bertini, and Gabriele, and the referee assistant Ambrosino. According to this investigation, Paparesta also used the Swiss SIM card for personal use and this helped the prosecutors to discover this secret communication channel. Apparently, Moggi had five foreign SIM cards, two of which had been used to communicate with Bergamo and Pairetto, whereas the others had supposed to have been used to communicate with the referees and Fabiani. Moreover, another wiretap was unveiled by the Italian daily La Stampa. Although containing nothing truly compromising, it recorded Moggi and Marcello Lippi (former coach of Juventus and coach of Italy national football team at that time) insulting Inter Milan president Massimo Moratti and Inter Milan coach Roberto Mancini. Lippi stated that Mancini deserved a lesson, while Moggi answered that Mancini would have such a lesson.
On 26 April 2007, about two hundred audio files of the wiretaps, some published one year before in the written form and some never published, were released; this allowed readers to perceive tones and forms of the conversations. Milan, originally ejected from the 2006–07 Champions League due to the scandal, went on to win the competition on 23 May. On 17 June, on the Italian show Qui studio a voi stadio, a popular football show broadcast by the local TV Telelombardia based in Milan, Bergamo said that Moggi gave two Swiss SIM cards to Pairetto, who then gave one of those SIM cards to him. Bergamo stated that, on suspicion of being tapped, he used that SIM card only to communicate with Pairetto and that, after the exhaustion of the credit, he did not use the SIM card anymore. In June 2008, Juventus was fined a further €300,000 in three installments, while Messina were fined €60,000. On 14 December 2009, Giraudo was sentenced to three years in prison.
In October 2008, chief prosecutor Giuseppe Narducci was quoted in court as saying: "Like it or not, no other calls exist between the designators and other directors." During the Calciopoli trial in Naples, the legal team of Moggi released a number of wiretaps showing that Inter Milan, as well as Milan, had been involved in the Serie A scandal during 2004 and 2005. Such wiretaps involved Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani, Milan employee Leonardo Meani, Inter Milan owner Massimo Moratti, then-Inter Milan president Giacinto Facchetti, and former referee designators Paolo Bergamo and Pierluigi Pairetto, as well as many other Italian clubs not previously mentioned in the scandal.
During the October 2010 industrial espionage case against Telecom Italia (SISMI-Telecom scandal), Tronchetti Provera (Pirelli president and former CEO, Inter Milan shareholder and former vice-president, and former Telecom president), confirmed the statements delivered by Caterina Plateo (former Telecom employee) in her testimony that the company was spying on members of the football realm on behalf of Inter Milan; these revelations were brought to the Naples trial. When Calciopolis chief investigator Colonnel Attilio Auricchio was cross-examined by Moggi's lawyer, it was revealed that he had tampered evidence prior to handing it over to the sporting tribunal in 2006. According to Carlo Garganese, Auricchio did this "by pulling out the thousands upon thousands of calls made by directors and coaches to referee designators that would have shown no one had an exclusive relationship." Inter Milan's implicating calls, among other clubs', which were not ordered to be transcribed, were signed with three moustache-like red lines to indicate the grade of gravity.
In September 2011, Salvatore Racalbuto's lawyer Giacomo Mungiello stated: "No probative value can be attributed to the Swiss SIM cards themselves. According to the prosecutor, the cell phone would have hooked up the cell near Racalbuto's house in Gallarate on the evening of the match. Today we produce a document which shows that on both occasions the referee slept in the hotel the same evening and didn't return home. Among the texts heard, there was Coppola, who told us that he had presented himself to the Carabinieri, invited by Borrelli's appeal, and that he had told them to tell them something about Inter Milan, but the Carabinieri didn't want to know and they were interested only in Juventus, which tells us all about the way the investigation went."
Palazzi's 2011 report and Naples developments
On 15 June 2011, six months prior to their initial five-year ban's expiration, the FIGC announced that Moggi, Giraudo, and Mazzini would be banned for life from any football-related roles in Italy. Despite popular perception of a match-fixing scandal and Calciopoli being referred to as match-fixing in association football, especially in the beginnings and its first phase, the sentence stated that no Article 6 (about match fixing or attempted match-fixing) violations were found within the intercepted calls, and the season was fair and legitimate. Furthermore, no requests for specific referees, no demands for favours, and no conversations between Juventus directors and referees themselves were found; their lifetime ban was because they could potentially benefit from their exclusive relations with referee designators.
In July 2011, the FIGC chief investigator Stefano Palazzi alleged in his report that, in addition to Moggi, other club officials violated the Code of Sporting Justice by contacting referee designators in illegal manners, which contradicted Moggi and Giraudo's exclusivity; they included Article 1 violations by Nello Governato (Brescia), Massimo Cellino (Cagliari), Luca Campedelli (ChievoVerona), Fabrizio Corsi (Empoli), Massimo Moratti (Inter Milan), Leonardo Meani (Milan), Rino Foschi (Palermo), Pasquale Foti (Reggina), Luciano Spalletti (Udinese), and Sergio Gasparin (Vicenza), and Article 6 violations by Giacinto Facchetti (Inter Milan), Leonardo Meani (Milan), and Aldo Spinelli (Livorno). According to Palazzi's findings, these clubs had to be punished during the Calciopoli trial, but no court could confirm these allegations since all facts are covered by the statute of limitation. In regard to Inter Milan's 2006 scudetto, Palazzi wrote: "Inter Milan appears to be the only club against which, in hypothesis, concrete consequences can arise on the sporting level, even if indirectly with respect to the outcome of the disciplinary procedure." In response to Palazzi's report, Giancarlo Abete, then-president of the FIGC, stated that there were no legal ground to revoke the title from Inter Milan; he hinted that Inter Milan should give away the title and leave it unassigned on the basis of ethics.
During the Naples trial, Moggi's lawyer Maurilio Prioreschi asked the court to take in consideration that between 2006 (the year of the first sentences) and 2011 (the year of the sentence on Moggi's lifetime ban) numerous hearings were held during the criminal trial in Naples, from which wiretaps involving other club executives that, according to Moggi's legal defence, would drop the basic assumption of the 2006 sports conviction, namely that relating to the conditioning of the referees thanks to the preferential treatment by the referee designators towards Moggi and Juventus, which in turn led to the sporting offence. Many of those wiretaps formed the body of Palazzi's report, with which the FIGC chief prosecutor intended to refer many executives and clubs for violations of the Code of Sports Justice, a circumstance that was prevented only by the statute of limitation. The court's Disciplinary Commission purposely ignored this defensive argument, and arguing that it was a reassessment of the facts not permitted at that time, no importance was given to the conduct of those other executives and clubs which had just emerged during the criminal trial. According to the FIGC's Federal Court of Justice, as explained in its judgment of appeal in regards to the term attualizzare ("actualize"), the court was there not to expand the evidence on which the first judgment was based but rather to ascertain whether at that time those established facts were still serious enough to justify a lifetime ban; it concluded that this ruling must be expressed exclusively "on the basis of the sentences rendered" against Moggi, and cannot take into consideration any comparative judgment with conducts possibly attributable to other subjects of the FIGC law. The court stated that to have a reassessment of the facts of Calciopoli, it would be necessary to request and open a revocation of judgment pursuant to Article 39 of the Code of Sports Justice.
On 8 November 2011, the Naples court issued the first conclusion of the criminal case against Moggi and the other football personalities involved, sentencing him to jail for five years and four months for criminal association. In December 2013, Moggi's sentence was reduced to two years and four months for being found guilty of conspiring to commit a crime; the earlier charge of sporting fraud passed the statute of limitations. On 17 March 2014, the Naples court confirmed Moggi, Pairetto, and Mazzini's conviction for the same charge. In its ruling's motivation, the court wrote of "a proven system already operating in the years 1999/2000 between the subjects, who along the lines of weaving 'friendly relations' were carrying out conduct aimed at phasing the real scope and potential of some football teams", to which Paolo Ziliani, a journalist who is known for his anti-Juventus claims, commented for Il Fatto Quotidiano that, even though three of them were won by clubs other than Juventus, they should be also revoked; no evidence was provided for the claim, and none of the previous leagues were investigated. Of the indicated allegedly altered championships, Juventus won four of them (2001–02, 2002–03, 2004–05, and 2005–06), one of which (2001–02) was won in the last match and became known as "the scudetto of 5 May", and two of which (2004–05 and 2005–06) were the only ones to be revoked from Juventus, while Lazio (1999–2000), Roma (2000–01), and Milan (2003–04) each won one scudetto, respectively. The first alleged altered championship was one year after the Inter Milan–Juventus' second leg match, and the first year with Pairetto and Bergamo as referee designators. Moggi's charge, as written in the Naples sentence, was not that he fixed matches or leagues but that his behavior was close enough to "the limit of the existence of the crime of attempt", hence the conviction; none of the allegations were proven but the holding of Swiss sim cards was deemed to be enough to justify the crime of attempt and conviction.
Supreme Court sentence and Juventus' appeals
On 23 March 2015, the Supreme Court of Cassation, Italy's highest court of appeal, ruled in its final resolution, which came after six hours of deliberation, that Moggi was acquitted of "some individual charges for sporting fraud, but not from being the 'promoter' of the 'criminal conspiracy' that culminated in Calciopoli." The remaining charges of Moggi were cancelled without a new trial due to the statute of limitations; Giraudo's sentence also expired in March 2015. Appeals by Fiorentina owners Andrea and Diego Della Valle and Lazio president Claudio Lotito against their sentences were rejected on the same ground, as their cases passed the statute of limitations. The court accepted the prosecutor's request to clear charges of former referees Paolo Bertini, Antonio Dattilo, and Gennaro Mazzei but rejected the appeals for Massimo De Santis and Savaltore Racabulto. Shortly after the court's decision, the then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio remarked in an interview with ANSA that "while the motivations may be pending, the sentence confirms the thesis of the prosecution", and "the crimes were real and so was the criminal conspiracy." In response to the final verdict, Moggi said: "We mucked about for nine years and that's not nice because this abnormal trial has come to nothing. Just a lot of expense. In nine years, it has been established that the championship was by the book, the draws were by the book and there were no conversations about designations." He added that it let the courts off the hook, not him, and vowed to turn to the European courts to have his ban from football world lifted.
On 9 September 2015, the Supreme Court released a 150-page document that explained its final ruling of the case. As reported by Milan-based La Gazzetta dello Sport, although Moggi's remaining charges being cancelled without a new trial due to statute of limitations, the court made clear that Moggi's unwarranted activities incurred significant damage to Italian football not only in sporting, but also in economic terms. In the document, the court confirmed that Moggi was actively involved in the sporting fraud which was intended to favour Juventus and increase his own personal benefits; according to Gazzetta World, the document also stated that Moggi had "unjustified and excessive power within Italian football", which he used to exert influence over referees, other club officials, and the media, thereby creating "an illegal system to condition matches of the 2004/05 championship (and not just those)." Turin-based Tuttosport reported: "Justice decided that Moggi and Giraudo actually 'polluted' the system, it decided so in 2006 and didn't want to know or understand other truths. Indeed, it had already decided it during the investigations, when all the phone calls that could exonerate or alleviate the position of Juventus' executives had not been taken into consideration, to the point of dismantling the very concept of the Cupola. Moggi and Giraudo, therefore, 'polluted' the system: a term that serves to dodge the fact that no judge has ever returned enough evidence to affirm that championship (the subject of investigation was only 2004–05) has actually been altered. Indeed, in the first instance sentence we basically read the opposite." The Supreme Court commented that "the system of the arrangement of the [referee] grids was rather widespread", and the developments in the behavior of Inter Milan's Giacinto Facchetti and Milan's Leonardo Meani were not "deepened by the investigations". On 15 March 2017, Moggi's lifetime ban was definitively confirmed on final appeal.
Having been cleared of wrongdoings and not being liable by other clubs because the 2004–05 season was deemed regular, Juventus appealed to have the two league titles back and damage claims due to disparity of treatment in the sporting trial. In September 2016, the District Court rejected the claim from Juventus because it had no jurisdiction over CONI arbitration chamber's decision made in October 2006. In December 2018, the Supreme Court upheld this District Court's decision on tehnical grounds. In January 2019, Juventus handed another appeal to sports tribunal under CONI to have the 2005–06 Serie A title removed from Inter Milan. The appeal was rejected on 6 May 2019. Further appeals were rejected in 2022 as not admissible.
Verdicts
Initial verdicts (bans July 2006, sentences November 2011) handed out to the following individuals:
Luciano Moggi: five-year ban from football and five years and four months' imprisonment; acquitted in 2015
Antonio Giraudo: five-year ban from football and three years' imprisonment; acquitted in 2015
Tullio Lanese: thirty-month ban from football
Innocenzo Mazzini: five-year ban from football and 26 months' imprisonment
Massimo De Santis: four-year ban from football and 23 months' imprisonment
Diego Della Valle: forty-five-month ban from football and fifteen months' imprisonment
Andrea Della Valle: three-year ban from football and fifteen months' imprisonment
Pierluigi Pairetto: forty-two-month ban from football and sixteen months' imprisonment
Pasquale Foti: thirty-month ban from football and fined €30,000
Claudio Lotito: thirty-month ban from football and seventeen months' imprisonment
Leonardo Meani: thirty-month ban from football and one year's imprisonment
Sandro Mencucci: thirty-month ban from football and fifteen months' imprisonment
Fabrizio Babini: three-month ban from football
Gennaro Mazzei: six-month ban from football
Adriano Galliani: nine-month ban from football
Gianluca Paparesta: three-month ban from football
Claudio Puglisi: three-month ban from football and one year's imprisonment and fined €20,000
Franco Carraro: fined €80,000
Salvatore Racalbuto: one year and eight months' imprisonment
Paolo Bertini: seventeen months' imprisonment
Antonio Dattilo: seventeen months' imprisonment
Stefano Titomanlio: one year's imprisonment and fined €20,000
Impact and reception
The scandal hit hard on Italian football, with its top league (Serie A) being considered the top European league, one of the best, and the golden age of football throughout the 1980s and the 1990s. The case remains controversial and divisive, especially between the FIGC, Inter Milan, and Juventus, mainly due to Juventus' harsh punishment, as well as the FIGC's decision to have the 2005–06 scudetto assigned to Inter Milan, both of which are criticized, and resulted in Italian football decline and supporters' exodus. It also did not stop the development of further scandals, such as the 2011–12 Italian football match-fixing scandal (Scomessopoli). In September 2011, the polling company Demos & Pi published in la Repubblica found that of those in the population who defined themselves as tifosi dropped from 52% to 45%; in addition, the poll showed that 55% of tifosi were suspicious whenever a referee makes a mistake. The poll found that 56.5% of the sample examined was sceptical of the regularity of the decisions taken by sports justice, while 24.9% judged the Calciopoli scandal "as a case of sports justice that led to the right decisions." 43.5% of the same sample said that the 2005–06 title "[should] not be awarded to anyone", compared to 33.7% who believed that the title should remain at Inter Milan, or be given to other clubs. In addition, the poll revealed that Juventus remained the most supported club at 30%, followed by Inter Milan at 19%, and Milan at 16%, while Inter Milan became the most hated, surpassing Juventus; polarization increased, with 10% more supporters expressing hatred towards at least one club, for a total of 50%, and with militant, ultras groups holding a bigger share of tifo. When Juventus returned to win in an unprecedented nine-year consecutive championship run, even as the club was absolved and no match involving Juventus was altered, discussions and accusations without evidence, as no other championship other than that of 2004–05 has been investigated, "a new Calciopoli" emerged.
Supporters of the trials, such as prosecutor Giuseppe Narducci, journalist Marco Travaglio, and coach Zdeněk Zeman cite Moggi's guilty verdict, and the court's view that he was the promoter of the criminal conspiracy that culminated in Calciopoli as evidence that the scandal was real. Critics respond that the first investigation was conducted too hastily, question why wiretaps implicated many other clubs were not revealed earlier, and state that it was not legal, as wiretaps were obtained through illegal means, or that too much weight was given to them, and many of Moggi's wiretaps were decontextualized. In addition, they argue that convictions, such as Moggi's, did not give weight to later developments, such as several points of the prosecution being contradicted, other clubs' involvement which was not considered due to the fact they came to light after the statute of limitation, that the season was deemed fair and legitimate, as no match result was altered, and Juventus did not violate Article 6 (sporting illicit, which warrants relegation), and was only charged through a newly made-up rule in the Code of Sports Justice after the events, while other clubs (Inter Milan, Livorno, and Milan) were found to have directly violated Article 6 according to the FIGC chief investigator Stefano Palazzi, whose earlier charges in the first phase were mostly confirmed. Moggi's legal defence asked the Naples court to take this in consideration but the court denied it, arguing that it was a reassessment of the facts not permitted at that time.
Juventus' harsh punishment was subjected to criticism, even more so due to later developments and investigations, and several critics argue that only Juventus was truly punished, while other clubs or executives were not punished as harshly, or got away from it, and Italian football is in no better shape than it was then. Juventus' owners and legal defence, especially in the first phase when they renounced their appeal to the TAR and did not defend the club effectively, is also criticized; some critics alleged that several Juventus' then-owners and board of directors took their personal interests and relations above that of the club, or that they wanted to get rid of Moggi and Giraudo, both of whom were becoming major Juventus shareholders. Il processo illecito and Juventus il processo farsa: inchiesta verità su Calciopoli took a critical look at the case, citing several inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and still unclear aspects; several observers, including some supporters of the trials, said there were inconsistencies and there remains some unclear aspects, for instance how the 2015 final ruling, as commented by Giovanni Capuano for Panorama, "further reduce[d] the perimeter of Moggi's cupola, the system that led to the sports verdict of the summer of 2006: could the [sports] directors (Moggi and Giraudo), [the referee designators] Pairetto, Mazzini, and only [the referees] De Santis with Racalbuto be enough?" Moggi's legal defence commented: "This trial starts with about fifty suspects including referees and [referee] assistants plus the leaders of the [Italian Football] Federation, today this mega criminal association is reduced to two referees and three matches. Once all the skimmings have been made, [with] the referees and [their] assistants acquitted, Moggi would have done all sports fraud alone. He would sit down and say, 'I will change the match score in the morning.'" Some of Italian media's reaction and behavior, including sensationalism, was also subjected to criticism.
Reactions
During the sports trial in July 2006, some political forces, such as Forza Italia and Popolari UDEUR, tried to promote the idea of an amnesty, as it was done after the 1980 Totonero scandal for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, in the event of the victory of Italy national football team at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, which ended up occurring. Giovanna Melandri, then-Minister of Youth Policies and Sport from the Democrats of the Left, firmly rejected the amnesty hypothesis, calling it "an idiocy".
Francesco Cossiga, former President of Italy and Prime Minister of Italy, criticized the scandal's effect on individuals, such as then-Juventus player Gianluca Pessotto attempting suicide, and compared it to the Mani pulite scandal's aftermath. Cossiga also expressed strong words and criticism for the FIGC's Federal Court of Appeal. Silvio Berlusconi, former Prime Minister of Italy and then-Milan owner and president, rejected an amnesty but added: "Any sanctions must not hit the players, many of whom, among other things, have just shown on the pitch that they are the best in the world, and don't deserve to go to [Serie] B or [Serie] C. And then the fans, who have no responsibility." About the trial, Berlusconi stated: "This is a trial without the indispensable characteristics of certainty, which any trial should have, for at least three reasons. First: not all the telephone calls from the judges were heard. Second: not all the witnesses were heard. Third: the reality of the pitch has highlighted situations different from those that should have occurred. They all seem to me sufficient reasons to affirm that there is no guarantee of reaching conclusions based on the facts, by the judges." About relegations, of which all involved clubs at that time were sanctioned for, Berlusconi said: "I'm against every club's relegations and I don't speak as the president of Milan. I'm against it because relegating a club like Juventus would also damage the interests of third parties. In fact, how many clubs without any fault of their own would be forced to give up the proceeds of a match against Juventus? And then we must also think about the damage that is created to sponsors and television companies that had already signed onerous contracts." With only Juventus relegated, the 2006–07 Serie B championship had better TV ratings than the 2006–07 Serie A championship. Juventus' matches were the most watched, the stadiums had better revenues, and were sold-out whenever Juventus played; Serie A returned to be competitive only when Juventus came back to Serie A for the 2007–08 Serie A championship.
In December 2007, before its own club was found in the 2011 Palazzi report to have violated both Article 1 and Article 6, Berlusconi stated: "Calciopoli was all a hoax, did you understand it or not? Some clubs had influence and claimed it, and we have lost a few scudetti." In response, Gavino Angius, then-senator from the Democratic Left and a Roma supporter, commented: "A hoax? I doubt that Siena and Empoli had the strength to plot against Milan. Berlusconi should speak out and call into question the Nerazzurri cousins [Inter Milan] because they are those who he should be referring to." Maurizio Paniz, then-deputy from Forza Italia and president of the Juventus Club of Montecitorio, rejoiced: "I agree. Calciopoli was a frame with which Italy got hurt in front of the world. And Juve as a club, players, fans, and shareholders had unduly paid."
Sporting trial
Writing for Il Foglio, Christian Rocca stated: "For a week, Italians have had media proof that Juventus is buying referees. But this 'proof' comes from a request for dismissal which, on the contrary and without any doubt, proves how Juventus didn't buy the referees." Italian magistrate Marcello Maddalena justified the dismissal because it is "an investigation undoubtedly destined to last for years and to fill the pages of newspapers and radio and television broadcasts forever, but for the start of which, it is repeated, it hasn't remained at the state (after all the investigations that have been carried out), not even a shred of 'news' that allows it." About Juventus' punishment, Rocca wrote: "In a normal country there would have been a public apology to Juventus and only, I repeat only, a severe ethical and disciplinary judgment against the designator of the referees and the director of a sports club caught having too close relations. Rome and Naples [trials] concern something else, as far as we know: the management of players, not referees."
Writing for Il Tirreno, Enzo Biagi stated: "[This was a] crazy ruling, and not because football is a clean environment. A crazy ruling because it's built on nothing, on wiretaps that are difficult to interpret and can't be proposed in a [trial] procedure worthy of the name, a crazy sentence because it punishes those who were guilty only of living in a certain environment, all seasoned with a process that was a re-edition of the Holy Inquisition in a modern key." Biagi wondered whether Moggi has been identified as "the villain to be fed to the populace" amid numerous other scandals in the country at that time, including the SISMI-Telecom scandal. Biagi's words would be later revoked due to the Calciopoli bis developments. Among others, former Milan and Italy national football team coach Arrigo Sacchi opined that Moggi was a scapegoat for "an environment with connivance and collusion", and of a sporting culture that "did not allow us to know how to lose." About the court's rulings, Sacchi stated: "We had three judicial bodies and all three expressed themselves in a different way from the other: either the first sentence was wrong, or the second or the third."
Corrado De Biase, the head of the investigation office at the time of the 1980 Totonero betting scandal, stated: "First of all, we must have the courage to affirm a reality: this summer's procedure gave birth to an authentic legal abort. When I speak of 'legal abort' I take full responsibility for what I say. When you want to complete a procedure in two weeks that would take at least 6 months just for a correct investigative process, it can only result in a legal abort. When, for reasons of time, a degree of judgment is received, when the defendants are prevented from bringing witnesses, dossiers and films in their defence, but only 15 minutes are allowed for a defence, one can only speak of legal abort. When the defence lawyers of the accused are not granted the full texts of the wiretaps, alleging that they are not pertinent, we can only speak of legal abort. Finally, when a title is disassigned to a club, Juventus, to assign it to another, Inter Milan, before the verdict of the first preliminary iter is pronounced, then we are well beyond legal abort. It's not a problem of ordinary or sporting justice: in any country that defines itself as civil, any penalties and sanctions must be imposed after a guilty verdict has been recorded, never before. And don't talk to me about UEFA regulations or lists to be given to the same for the European cups: the rights of the accused, including that of being able to defend themselves with the means that the law makes available to them, come before a football match." About punishments, De Biase stated: "I, on my own, can only reiterate the concept already expressed: a penalty of 8/10 points, a fine, and a ban of Moggi and Giraudo for 10/12 months, this was the appropriate penalty in my opinion. Any parallel with the story of 1980 is unthinkable: here there're no traces of offence, nor of money or checks. The environmental offence isn't a crime covered by any code, unless we're talking about air pollution."
Citing numerous quotes, Emanuele Boffi for Tempi wondered whether the real scandal was the way it was told, and how through "[p]ages and pages of poison reports" the defendants "Moggi & co were already convicted before the sentences." Boffi wrote that "the Turin Public Prosecutor's Office, which had first viewed all the wiretaps, had dismissed the case as 'the accusatory hypotheses are without confirmation' and for 'the absence of any useful information on any corruption.' Marcello Maddalena, prosecutor of the Turin Republic, also reiterates this in a letter to the newspaper La Repubblica, which the day before had accused him of 'investigative shyness.' Maddalena writes that no evidence emerged from the interceptions that would confirm the original investigative hypothesis (corruption of a public official) for which they had been authorized.' And on the other hand, as Borrelli declares, on the day of the interrogations of the referees, 'there're no pentiti (June 8). But the culprits were already there."
As recounted by Boffi, magistrates Antonio Di Pietro and Nello Rossi had "some professional qualms about reading verbal or wiretapping all the holy days, maybe even the right and left justicialists should ask some questions." Il Corriere della Sera reported: "We're facing a demonization. Ours is a country of civil guarantees. For now we only know the press reports, however, emphasized with this system of advertising wiretapping, a barbaric system. The laws on the violation of the secret of investigation never find condemnation for those who have violated them. We thought that wiretapping was a prerogative of the fascist regime and instead, obviously, this isn't the case." Article 114 of the Code of Criminal Procedure stated that "the publication, even partial or summarized, by means of the press or other means of dissemination, of the documents covered by secrecy or even their content alone is prohibited." Former Italy national football team coach Giovanni Trapattoni stated: "Anyone who is indignant is a hypocrite, speaking of a dome is an exaggeration." In writing about the press' comparisons to Mafia and criminal association, Boffi stated that it was "[a] system ... meticulously tried in the press and somewhat hastily in the courtroom", quoting the defendant Massimo De Santis as saying: "In seven thousand pages there's no trace of a phone call from me with Moggi. I was judged in the newspapers and on TV. I got to know the developments of the investigations by going to newsstands."La Repubblica, which took a colpevolisti stance, expressed some doubts. The paper reported: "No witnesses were admitted to the trial. Even the worst of criminals has the right to a testimony in favour. The sprint start of the public prosecutor Palazzi was a rash step. The approach of the trial is singular. Strange that no one asks questions ... , we go into little on the merits. The speed is understandable, but in the 1980s [Italian football betting scandal] and in many other cases the judging committees went late at night." De Biase stated: "I have only read detached sentences in the newspapers, I don't think I have read about a sporting offence to alter the result. I don't seem to have seen matches bought or sold. When I hear from Commissioner Rossi that he will do everything himself and that can come to judgment even without questioning, there is something that does not add up." Lawyer Gaetano Scalise commented: "The special commissioner of the FIGC has given us only three days to study thousands and thousands of papers and present briefs. Do you understand what I'm talking about?" About one wiretap in which Giraudo stated of a referee that "if he's smart, he halves Udinese", De Santis commented: "'I enjoyed downloading the call times from the internet. And if you check them too, you will understand everything.' Was the phone call after the offending match? 'That's right.'" About Francesco Saverio Borrelli, journalist Giorgio Bocca stated: "The appointment of Borrelli to direct the investigation into the great football scandal is the litmus test, the chemical reagent, the proof of truth, the fall of lies, the naked king of the Berlusconi people who 'don't give up', who don't tolerate returns to justice, who conceive democracy only as an alliance of the strongest and richest clans."
Naples trial and Supreme Court
Upon hearing one new wiretap and other wiretaps implicating Inter Milan, journalist Elio Corno stated: "Only for this phone call [referring to a 26 November 2004 wiretap between Carraro, former president of the FIGC, and Bergamo, former referee designator, who was asked to not favour Juventus against Inter Milan], the Calciopoli trial had to be annulled, it had to be immediately annulled." In another TV broadcast, Corno stated: "May we say, with great honesty, that this Calciopoli sporting trial was a farce?" Journalist Giuseppe Cruciani stated: "I'm not a Juventus fan. I sympathize with the Bianconeri from 2006 onwards because I believe that what happened to Juventus with Calciopoli was a great injustice and I'm on the side of those who are against injustices." Journalist Oliviero Beha saw Moggi as a scapegoat; in 2011, he wrote that "Moggi, branded as the Al Capone of football, served perfectly as a stopper for a bottle of bad liqueur for public drunkenness, ending up in a trap." In November 2021, Italy's Supreme Court confirmed the sentence against RAI to compensate the relatives of Beha, who had died in 2017, with €180,000 for having subjected him to demotion between 2008 and 2010 due to his critical positions on the Calciopoli trials.
During the Naples trial in 2010, lawyer Flavia Tortorella of the Italian Footballers' Association, said: "Rather than asking myself why it happened, I would ask myself questions about what will happen in the future, when the investigation of the fact in criminal proceedings arrives. Calciopoli, at least legally speaking, was this: the sporting trial had to be managed in a different way, in the sense that the proceedings had to necessarily wait for the investigation of the fact in a criminal case, first of all because the sporting legislation at that historical moment was not ripe for contain a case of this kind. The legislation, the Sports Justice Code, which is the current one with some changes that have occurred from 2006 to today, was by no means a code that could contain a sporting proceeding of that magnitude and provide for sanctions regulations for that type of offence, and in fact they invented, so to speak, the structured offence because for the types of offence codified and typified within the code of sporting justice absolutely could neither be initiated nor terminated in that way a procedure of that type." In an interview with Tuttosport, lawyer Paolo Rodella stated: "Compared to the summer of 2006, new facts are emerging. Wanting to be flexible, we can even think of a revision on the basis of the interceptions presented in Naples. They clearly constitute elements that, if they were already known by the sports justice bodies, they would have influenced the sentence, which would have been of a different nature, at least on the plurality of the subjects sanctioned."
After the Naples trial, Carlo Rossini reported that "Juventus has been acquitted, the offending championships (2004/2005 and 2005/2006) have been declared regular, and the reasons for the conviction of Luciano Moggi are vague; mostly, they condemn his position, that he was in a position to commit a crime. In short, be careful to enter a shop without surveillance because even if you don't steal, you would have had the opportunity. And go on to explain to your friends that you're honest people after the morbid and pro-sales campaign of the newspapers." Rossini criticized some in the media, writing that "a club has been acquitted, and no one has heard of it, and whoever has heard of it, they don't accept it. The verdict of 2006, made in a hurry, was acceptable, that of Naples was not. The problem then lies not so much in vulgar journalism as in readers who accept the truths that are convenient. Juventus was, rightly or wrongly, the best justification for the failures of others, and it was in popular sentiment, as evidenced by the new controversies concerning 'The System.' But how? Wasn't the rotten erased?" About the latter, Rossini said that, according to Moratti, referees have been wrong in good faith since 2006, and stated that "it isn't a question of tifo, but of a critical spirit, of the desire to deepen and not be satisfied with the headlines (as did Oliviero Beha, a well-known Viola [Fiorentina] fan, who, however, drew conclusions outside the chorus because, despite enjoying it as a tifoso, he suffered as a journalist. He wasn't satisfied and went into depth. He was one of the few)."
In 2015, journalist Giuliano Vaciago wrote: "The first instance ruling of Casoria and the famous Palazzi report (the one in which the public prosecutor of the FIGC considers Inter Milan liable to sporting offences in light of the new interceptions) would be enough to appear in front of the FIGC and reopen the 2006 folders. There's no need to reopen the sentences of the Supreme Court to rewrite history, just read well the first instance one and listen to the trial that produced it. And nothing remains of the sporting trial." In response to former Juventus' player Alessandro Del Piero, who dubbed Calciopoli as "[a] bit crazy and unusual, strange from many points of view", journalist Marcello Chirico stated that "Del Piero is right to be amazed again, even 14 years later. Something anomalous happened that summer, and the anomaly was also perpetrated in the years to come with the ordinary process and subsequent appeals. The most compromising phone calls with the [referee] designators (authorized by the system of the time, it's always good to remember) were made by other clubs, and not by Juve. It's all documented. However, Juventus was sent to Serie B all the same and someone else, who explicitly asked to be able to win a match and pilot the referee draw, received a scudetto as a gift. All this is also documented through very explicit phone call records." Journalist Roberto Renga, who was also active as a journalist during the Totonero scandal in the 1980s, sees Calciopoli as an injustice, in regards to Juventus' treatment. In 2018, he commented: "As you know, I'm not a Juventus fan, but I'm a football fan, of teams that work and do well. And I get attached to those who have suffered abuse."
Defendants and referees
Moggi always declared himself innocent, and in his appeals to the European courts stated that "if they give me a pardon, I renounce it. Pardon is for those who are guilty, I'm not guilty [of the 'criminal association' charge], I didn't do anything [criminal]. They weren't angry at me, they were angry at Juventus because it won too much." About those who said his declarations of innocence were based on the view that everyone was guilty, he clarified: "I have never said that everyone is guilty and therefore there is no one to blame. There is a practice, you have to ban Carraro when he says in wiretaps that you have to save Fiorentina and Lazio." About his actions, Moggi stated that they were criticizable, and he was wrong from an ethical standpoint but did not commit any illicit; Moggi said that "[t]he sports court, at the end of the trial, ruled as follows: 'Regular championship, no match altered.' Therefore Juventus [is] exempt from crimes referred to in Art. 6. The final ruling of the ordinary justice instead spoke of 'early consummation' crimes, which are nothing more than the fruit of hypotheses and inferences of that prosecutor who in the courtroom had asserted 'there were no other phone calls, if not those of the suspects in the trial', while the [Italian Football] Federation Prosecutor asserted that 'Inter Milan was the club that risked most of all for the illegal behavior of its President Facchetti." About the Swiss sim cards, Moggi stated that he used them to circumvent "those [such as Inter Milan and Inter Milan's Telecom] who intercepted us", with reference to transfer operations. He commented: "We had bought Stanković and we also had the contract ready to be presented to the [Italian Football] Federation. After two months the player and his agent disappeared, we found them at Inter Milan." About the wiretaps, Moggi said that he never intruded on the designation of referees, and spoke of incomplete wiretaps for the prosecution. Moggi also reiterated that "[t]hey accused me of going to the referees' locker room but that's not true; others did. Paparesta's kidnapping never happened, it was just a joke." In 2014, Agnelli stated: "Moggi represents a beautiful and important part of our history. We are the country of Catholicism and forgiveness. We can also forgive people, can't we?" Moggi responded: "Nice words. I thank Andrea Agnelli, but I don't need forgiveness. If anything, I deserve praise for [the 16 trophies won on the pitch for the club]. ... There were twenty clubs and they behaved in the same way but only Juve paid because it bothered."
The defendants implicated with Moggi were stunned by the charges and conviction of criminal association. Of the alleged seven-consecutive falsified championship, they mentioned that Juventus controversially lost out two, both of which were consecutively won for the first time in Italian football history by two Southern clubs (the first by Lazio in 2000 during the Jubilee in the Catholic Church, and the second by Roma during the Passaportopoli scandal, which did not involve Juventus, upset that rules were changed and not respected), and only won another championship (that of 5 May 2002) due to what was called "Inter Milan's [football] suicide". Bergamo, one of the referee designators implicated, stated: "But I talked to everyone, that's what [then-FIGC president] Carraro wanted. And I dined with everyone: with the late Franco Sensi, with Tanzi and Sacchi, with Spalletti, Spinelli, [and] Aliberti. Then I invite home Facchetti, Galliani, and those of Juve, when the championship is now over but only with the Bianconeri do I find myself at home surrounded by the Carabinieri, the photo stalking, [and] the wiretapping. Yet the invitation to Facchetti and Galliani I did by phone! Nothing, nothing comes back to me in this investigation and its shortcomings; my wife used the Swiss [phone] card. With Nucini's fabrication of history: he meets Moggi, he becomes a partner, and we no longer put him in Serie A. There was no [criminal] affiliation: he was [simply] mediocre!" Like fellow referees Pierluigi Collina and Roberto Rosetti, Paolo Tagliavento stated to have never received any pressure, and testified: "I was never pressured by the [referee] designator or De Santis. For a referee it's easier to reff a derby than being in a courtroom, I'm not at ease here."
Former referee and defendant De Santis, convicted of criminal association as a simple associate with Moggi, was also upset by the rulings, and feel that Italian football is no better today than it was at that time. De Santis recalled that he was called a juventino for disallowing Fabio Cannavaro's regular goal in a Juventus–Parma match of the 1999–00 Serie A that was won by the former 1–0, for which he made mea culpa and stated it was one of many honest, good-faith mistakes in his career, which he realized upon re-watching the events, but that he was never a Juventus supporter, and he was not favoured by Moggi. De Santis felt that he was the sole referee to pay, as he was the only convicted referee, and stated: "The 2004–2005 championship was regular. The sentences are clear: no match [was] altered. All the referees were acquitted. The only three matches that ended up as 'fixed' have never been tried but only theorized. There were flaws that neither the Court of Appeal nor that of Cassation wanted to discover, [only] following the initial theory [of Moggi's criminal association] instead of seeking the truth. I have never had any [Swiss SIM], I have proved it in the documentation presented to the trials. Am I the only referee who has not freed myself from the shoals of the prosecution? At first, I was seen as a promoter of the association, then only as a simple associate. It was necessary to ascertain the truth, not to frame people in a theorem that is the child of the Pirelli files."
About Berlusconi, Moggi said: "I thanked him and I thank him for his esteem for me, maybe I reserve him a criticism for what he didn't do to the Calciopoli explosion: he knew that innocent people would be penalized, obviously for him too it was a priority to demolish Juventus' domain." Moggi also said that Berlusconi wanted him at Milan, and during a private meeting to discuss the matter revealed to him that "the FIGC possessed some of [Moggi's] wiretaps without any criminal value, of which Galliani (then-vice-president of Milan and president of Lega Calcio), Carraro (then-president of the FIGC), [and] General Pappa, head of the investigations office of the FIGC, were also aware." Moggi stated that those same wiretaps were made public just a few days after. Moggi had earlier said that Galliani made Calciopoli come out because Berlusconi wanted him at Milan. In regard to the dispute between the FIGC and Juventus, Moggi responded to then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio: "From the trials, it turns out that there has been no alteration of the championship, there has been no alteration of the referee grids, even 30 referees were acquitted of the charges. I've helped some of these acquitted referees, I've helped many financially. Poor boys, I felt sorry for them, they didn't know how to pay the lawyer. They were ruined by Calciopoli." About the Supreme Court's sentence, Moggi reiterated his innocence of the criminal association charge, and added: "The Supreme Court speaks of power. But power isn't a crime. I had power because I worked well, it was power because of the quality of the work [as general director] I did." Apart from Milan, Moggi stated that he was also sought by Inter Milan. Citing Gianni Agnelli's quote that "the king's groom must have known all the horse thieves", Moggi discussed how "Agnelli said that because during my time it was full of sons of bitches. And he wanted an expert, one who could stand up to these here. For me it's a compliment."
In 2017, Moggi said that "VAR was supposed to be the end of the controversy, [but] nothing has changed. Calciopoli would have broken out anyway. Five referees were acquitted, Racalbuto had the statute of limitation, and only De Santis was convicted; as the rulings say, the matches and the leagues have not been altered. What happened on the pitch was just a pretext used to take out those who at that moment had the most skills and obtained the most successes." When Agnelli, among others, was investigated by the public prosecutor's office of Turin on the management of tickets at the Juventus Stadium about the alleged infiltration of the 'Ndrangheta in the commercial management of the club's tickets, Moggi stated: "For those who know Andrea, it's an accusation that would make people laugh rather than cry, [which was] bounced on all the newspapers despite the denials of the Federal Prosecutor, Giuseppe Pecoraro. Juve is again under attack from those who can't beat them on the pitch. What happened in 2006 wasn't enough." By March 2020, both Moggi and Giraudo appealed to the European Court of Human Rights for the conduct of the trials and the few time given to legal defences; Giraudo's appeal was accepted in September 2021, and he is being represented by Amedeo Rosboch, the same lawyer who defended Jean-Marc Bosman in the revolutionary Bosman ruling in association football.
FIGC–Inter Milan–Juventus controversy
Inter Milan and Juventus
Before later developments and investigation implicated Inter Milan, among other clubs, Inter Milan felt vindicated by the trial's first phase, as in their view that was the reason why the club did not win in Italy, having at that time most recently won the 1988–89 Serie A championship. Upon being assigned the 2006 scudetto, Inter Milan and their supporters called it scudetto degli onesti ("scudetto of the honests"). With Juventus' relegation, Inter Milan boasted of becoming the only Serie A club to have never been relegated. Then-Inter Milan owner Massimo Moratti would later state that he did not disdain the 2006 scudetto, as he thought it was just; of the five consecutive championship won by Inter Milan between 2006 and 2010, Moratti stated that the 2006 title was "the most beautiful", and he was proud of it. In response to Moratti's statements, Juventus president Andrea Agnelli stated: "It must be recognized he has a great love for Inter Milan, a great love that led him to accept some follies such as accepting a scudetto that he didn't win." In spite of the diatribe, when expressing satisfaction at the 2015 Supreme Court ruling, Moratti also stated that he was always friend with Agnelli. Despite more cordiality outside football between the Agnelli family and the Moratti family, relations remain damaged by Calciopoli, and the football rivalry increased. Dating back to the 1960s, it represented the battle of oil manufacturer Pirelli and automobile manufacturer FIAT, Milan versus Turin as the battle of the Italian triangle industrial north, and an intra-capitalist conflict. Calciopoli only strengthened the rivalry, and the Derby d'Italia became even bigger than Milan's Derby della Madonnina, or the Juventus–Milan rivalry in the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2013, Moratti was succeeded as president by Indonesian businessman Erick Thohir, to whom he sold all his stakes. Relations did not improve, as Juventus continued to appeal and ask for the revision of the proceedings, all the while former Inter Milan board of director and then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio's declared sympathy for Inter Milan surfaced, amid photos with Inter Milan's executives and future Chinese ownership. Relations between the two clubs only improved in 2018, as Zhang Kangyang, the son of new Chinese owner Zhang Jindong through the Suning Holdings Group, became Inter Milan president. In 2021, Juventus and Inter Milan were two of three Italian clubs (the other was Milan) to take part to the European Super League project.
Some Inter Milan players, such as Julio Cruz, Ronaldo, and long-time captain Javier Zanetti, felt vindicated by the rulings but said that Juventus was among the best teams. Alvaro Recoba and Christian Vieri were one of the few Inter Milan players who did not feel the 2006 scudetto as theirs, stating that Juventus was the better team, and the 2006 scudetto belonged to Juventus. In a 2012 interview, Recoba stated: "For my part, I think that Juventus won that scudetto because they had great players and ... [w]hen it turned out that the scudetto was awarded to Inter Milan, I thought the players didn't feel it was theirs." Then-Juventus captain Alessandro Del Piero, who testified that "referee De Santis didn't penalize Ibra[himovic] but was later disqualified with the TV proof for a foul on Cordoba and missed the championship match with Milan", and there was general agreement to play the contested Lecce–Juventus match, stated to have won 17 titles, not 15. He commented: "All the scudetti won since I have played football have been deserved, be it those of our club or others. At the time, Juve was a very strong team built to win." In 2019, Fabio Capello, Juventus coach from 2004 to 2006, stated: "It seems right to me [that Juventus appealed to the 2006 decision], it's funny that it was assigned to Inter Milan, which finished third and was also under investigation. Guido Rossi decided very hastily because we needed a team that would play in the Champions League. It was unfair, the rules weren't respected, and sports justice couldn't investigate thoroughly."
About the scandal and subsequent trials, Agnelli said: "In 2006, the problem was equal treatment. In a circle of twenty clubs there was a way of behaving that emerged from the proceedings, but now the Juventus fan thinks he was the only one to pay because the others did the same things. And those [like Inter Milan] who have behaved in the same way can't go out with a scudetto in their pocket. We can't forget about all this. In Naples there're two criminal proceedings that are coming to an end, then there will be other degrees of judgment, but the court papers give an idea of what happened. When the whole process is completed, we will make a decision. Certainly, however, it makes no sense to speak of a statute of limitation if new facts emerge in the meantime." In 2018, Giovanni Cobolli Gigli, who became Juventus president after the scandal, stated that Inter Milan "deserved to be punished" for Calciopoli, and expressed regrets for the sporting trials, about which he said: "We were demoted to play the 2006–07 season in Serie B and accepted the ruling. The regret remains for a sporting trial that was, in my view, not conducted in the best way. Certain pieces of evidence were ignored, actually it's more accurate to say hidden, and the existence of other telephone wiretaps regarding different clubs wasn't made known at the time. Inter [Milan] too deserved to be punished for what emerged in the various conversations. The FIGC Prosecutor Palazzi said so. It all emerged when the matter missed the statute of limitations and it ended like that."
The diatribe between Moratti and Moggi never ended, and continues to this day. In 2020, Moratti said: "Everything served to create the conditions to triumph, even the misadventures due to having to face a Juve who behaved as they did and fight against a wall that seemed unshakable. Then we managed to break through it, and thus find those satisfactions in which I had always believed but which at a certain point seemed impossible." Moggi recalled a sentence of the Court of Appeal stating that Inter Milan's Facchetti lobbied with the referees, and Palazzi, the federal prosecutor of the time, wrote that Inter Milan was the club that risked most of all, adding: "Moratti has lost another opportunity to shut up. He could celebrate in another way, and maybe those who asked him could ask him if one ruling counts more than another or if the law is really the same for everyone." Appealing to the code, Moggi stated: "Inter Milan was liable for Article 6, which is a sporting offence, Juventus was never liable for Article 6. It's good to remind the gentleman because nobody ever speaks for Juventus, so I do it. There're wiretaps in which Facchetti and Moratti ask a referee to let them win the match, I have never done these things."
Juventus' appeals and damage claims
After Calciopoli bis implicated almost every Serie A club and the Court of Appeal confirmed the extraneousness of Juventus, the club asked the two championships back in 2011 and sued the FIGC over €443 million in damage claims, updated to €581 million by 2016, due to being unable to participate UEFA competitions, major money loss from TV rights, as the club was relegated to Serie B, and had to sell major players at cheap prices. Observers, such as Fulvio Bianchi, said that at that time "Juventus was ... stronger than all those that came after, and had €250 million in revenue, being at the top of Europe, and 100 sponsors. It took ten years to recover and return to the top Italians, not yet Europeans: now the club makes over €300 million, but in the meantime Real, Bayern, and the others have taken off."
In 2015, Carlo Tavecchio, a former Inter Milan's board of director member for four years and former FIGC president from 2014 to 2017, admitted, "as a good, old interista", that "Juventus was clearly the strongest team on the pitch, they won 32 championships: the team didn't steal anything." He expressed frustration at the club's repeated appeals and damage claims to the FIGC, which he described as absurd, and added that "Juve's cause is reckless and, you will see, the FIGC will ask for damages." Tavecchio, who in later years stated to be in good relations with Agnelli and Juventus despite the multimillion-dollar lawsuit, offered to discuss reinstatement of the lost scudetti, as well as reforms in Italian football, in exchange for Juventus dropping the lawsuit. The diatribe between the FIGC and Juventus intensified when Juventus won the club's first championship since the scandal, and continued to add, on both its website and stadium, the two championships from 2005 and 2006 during the club's record streak of nine-consecutive league titles; this caused some skirmishes between the FIGC and Juventus when Italy football team had to play at the Juventus Stadium, and the club's number of scudetti had to be covered. About the incident, Tavecchio stated that "the Calciopoli ruling, which sanctioned the club's behavior off the pitch, is law and we are here to enforce it."
In popular culture
The vicissitudes of Calciopoli have found ample space in the national and international mass media, influencing the popular imagination and acting as the subject for various types of audiovisual productions. In summer 2006, comedian Checco Zalone released the song "Siamo una squadra fortissimi" ("We are a very strong team"), a tribute to the Italy national team in the FIFA World Cup in Germany. In the same year, Zalone recorded the song "I juventini" about Juventus' relegation to Serie B. In 2009, the documentary film Operation Off Side was released about the investigations by the Carabinieri between 2004 and 2005, while the documentary Nel paese di Giralaruota: il grande inganno di Calciopoli and the comic series Forza Italia recount the various part of the scandal. In 2013, the Rai 3 criminological program Un giorno in pretura showed the depositions provided by prosecution witnesses in the Naples criminal trial and explored the various strands of the investigations that then led to the proceedings. In 2021, a chapter of the Netflix series Il lato oscuro dello sport is focused on the Calciopoli investigation from the prosecutor's side. The following year, the documentary Calciopoli – Anatomia di un processo, where the stages of the investigations and the criminal trial in Naples are recalled, was available through Italy's History channel from the prosecutor's side and focused in the sporting trials.
The scandal was instrumental in coining and popularize several neologisms, such as Farsopoli (by critics of the trials), scudetto degli onesti (by Inter Milan supporters upon being assigned the 2006 scudetto), scudetto di cartone (by critics of the title assignment's to Inter Milan), Rubentus, and prescritti. The former was coined by supporters of the trials in reference to Juventus' involvement in the scandal, while the latter is used by critics of the trials in reference to Inter Milan's involvement in the scandal, and the club's other scandals resulting, like Calciopoli and accounting fraud investigations, in the statute of limitation. Antijuventino and antijuventinità, terms used to describe Juventus' hatred, which intensified during those years, were also popularized. Both of those terms are included in Treccanis website as neologisms; in addition, the period after Calciopoli is termed post-Calciopoli.
See also
SISMI-Telecom scandal
Tangentopoli
Explanatory notes, quotes, and wiretaps
References
Bibliography
English
2000s
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2010s
2020s
Italian
2000s
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2010s
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2020s
Previous scandals and controversies
Previous and subsequent controversies
Further reading
External links
Complete rulings
Complete record of the FIGC decision, July 2006 (in Italian) – via La Gazzetta dello Sport Complete record of the FIGC decision, June 2011 (in Italian) – via the FIGC website
Complete sentence for the November 2011 trial written by the Naples court (in Italian) – via La Gazzetta dello Sport Complete sentence for the March 2015 trial written by the Supreme Court (in Italian) – via Rivista di Diritto ed Economia dello Sport''
Reports
BBC Sport article on the history of similar scandals (in English)
Calcio Blog summary (in Italian)
The Guardian report (in English)
Sprint e Sport article on the history of similar scandals (in Italian)
The Sunday Business Post report (in English)
Websites
Analysis on the controversies surrounding the scandal (in English)
Daily-Calcio.com May 2006 news (in English)
Italian website analyzing the scandal (in Italian)
Juventus' minority shareholders website with documents and analysis on the scandal (in Italian)
Penalties and point-deductions in Italian football history (in Italian)
2005–06 in Italian football
2006–07 in Italian football
2006 scandals
Association football controversies
History of football in Italy
Match fixing
Sports scandals in Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s%20Most%20Endangered%20Places
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America's Most Endangered Places
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America's 11 Most Endangered Places or America's 11 Most Endangered Historic Places is a list of places in the United States that the National Trust for Historic Preservation considers the most endangered. It aims to inspire Americans to preserve examples of architectural and cultural heritage that could be "relegated to the dustbins of history" without intervention.
Many of the locations listed by the Trust have been preserved. However, there have been notable losses, such as 2 Columbus Circle, which underwent significant renovations, and the original Guthrie Theater, demolition of which was completed in early 2007.
First released in 1988, the number of sites included on the list has varied, with the most recent lists settling on 11.
2023 Places
On May 9, 2023, the National Trust announced its annual list of 11 most endangered historic places:
Osterman Gas Station, Peach Springs, Arizona
Little Santo Domingo, Miami, Florida
Pierce Chapel African Cemetery, Midland, Georgia
Century and Consumers Buildings, Chicago, Illinois
West Bank of St. John the Baptist Parish, Louisiana
Holy Aid and Comfort Spiritual Church (aka Perseverance Benevolent and Mutual Aid Society Hall), New Orleans, Louisiana
L.V. Hull Home and Studio, Kosciusko, Mississippi
Henry Ossawa Tanner House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia Chinatown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Charleston’s Historic Neighborhoods, Charleston, South Carolina
Seattle Chinatown-International District, Seattle, Washington
2022 Places
On May 4, 2022, the National Trust announced its annual list of 11 most endangered historic places:
Brooks-Park Home and Studios, East Hampton, New York
Brown Chapel AME Church, Selma, Alabama
Camp Naco, Naco, Arizona
Chicano/a/x Community Murals of Colorado
The Deborah Chapel, Hartford, Connecticut
Francisco Q. Sanchez Elementary School, Humåtak, Guam
Jamestown, Virginia
Minidoka National Historic Site, Jerome, Idaho
Olivewood Cemetery, Houston, Texas
Palmer Memorial Institute, Sedalia, North Carolina
Picture Cave, Warren County, Missouri
2021 Places
On June 3, 2021, the National Trust announced its annual list of 11 most endangered places:
Selma to Montgomery March Camp Sites, Selma, Alabama
Trujillo Adobe, Riverside, California
Summit Tunnels 6 & 7 and Summit Camp Site, Truckee, California
Georgia B. Williams Nursing Home, Camilla, Georgia
Morningstar Tabernacle No.88 Order of Moses Cemetery and Hall, Cabin John, Maryland
Boston Harbor Islands, Boston, Massachusetts
Sarah E. Ray House, Detroit, Michigan
The Riverside Hotel, Clarksdale, Mississippi
Threatt Filling Station and Family Farm, Luther, Oklahoma
Oljato Trading Post, San Juan County, Utah
Pine Grove Elementary School, Cumberland, Virginia
2020 places
On September 24, 2020, the National Trust announced its annual list of 11 most endangered places:
Alazan-Apache Courts, San Antonio, Texas
Hall of Waters, Excelsior Springs, Missouri
Harada House, Riverside, California
National Negro Opera Company House, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Ponce Historic Zone, Ponce, Puerto Rico
Rassawek, Columbia, Virginia
Roberts Temple Church of God in Christ, Chicago, Illinois
Sun-n-Sand Motor Hotel, Jackson, Mississippi
Terrace Plaza Hotel, Cincinnati, Ohio
West Berkeley Shellmound and Village Site, Berkeley, California
Yates Memorial Hospital, Ketchikan, Alaska
2019 places
On May 30, 2019, the National Trust announced its annual list of 11 most endangered places:
Ancestral Places of Southeast Utah
Bismarck-Mandan Rail Bridge in Bismarck, North Dakota
The Excelsior Club in Charlotte, North Carolina
Hacienda Los Torres in Lares, Puerto Rico, NRHP-listed
Industrial Trust Company Building (aka "Superman Building") in Providence, Rhode Island
James R. Thompson Center in Chicago
Mount Vernon Arsenal and Searcy Hospital in Mount Vernon, Alabama, NRHP-listed
Nashville's Music Row in Nashville, Tennessee
National Mall Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C.
Tenth Street Historic District in Dallas, Texas
Willert Park Courts in Buffalo, New York
2018 places
In June 2018, the National Trust announced its list of 11 most endangered places, along with 1 extra site on 'watch status':
Annapolis City Dock Area in Annapolis, Maryland
Ashley River Historic District in Charleston County, South Carolina
Dr. Susan LaFlesche Picotte Memorial Hospital in Walthill, Nebraska
Hurricane-Damaged Historic Resources of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands
Isaiah T. Montgomery House in Mound Bayou, Mississippi
Larimer Square in Denver, Colorado
Mary and Eliza Freeman Houses in Bridgeport, Connecticut
Mount Vernon and Piscataway National Park in Mount Vernon, Virginia and Accokeek, Maryland
Route 66
Wallace E. Pratt House (Ship on the Desert) in Salt Flat, Texas
Walkout Schools of Los Angeles, California (including James A. Garfield High School, Theodore Roosevelt High School, Abraham Lincoln High School, Belmont High School, and El Sereno Middle School)
Four Towns of Vermont's Upper Valley -- Royalton, Sharon, Strafford and Tunbridge, Vermont
2017 places
For 2017, the National Trust for Historic Preservation marked the 30th anniversary of the "America's Most Endangered Places" program by releasing a list of 11 "Success Stories"—sites that were named to the "Most Endangered" list that were the focus of successful preservation efforts:
Antietam National Battlefield in Sharpsburg, Maryland (listed 1988)
Penn School (now Penn Center) in Frogmore, South Carolina (listed 1990)
"Historic Boston Theaters" in Boston, Massachusetts (collectively referring to the Boston Opera House, the Paramount Theatre, and Modern Theatre) (listed 1995)
Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas (listed 1996)
Cathedral of St. Vibiana in Los Angeles, California (listed 1997)
Governors Island National Monument in New York, New York (listed 1998)
Angel Island Immigration Station in San Francisco, California (listed 1999)
Traveler's Rest in Lolo, Montana (listed 1999)
President Lincoln's Cottage at the Soldiers' Home in Washington, D.C. (listed 2000)
Nine Mile Canyon in Utah (listed 2004)
Statler Hilton Hotel in Dallas, Texas (listed 2008)
2016 places
In June 2016, the National Trust announced its list of 11 most endangered places:
Lions Municipal Golf Course in Austin, Texas
Azikiwe–Nkrumah Hall at Lincoln University in Lincoln University, Pennsylvania
Bears Ears in southeastern Utah
Charleston Naval Hospital District in North Charleston, South Carolina
Delta Queen in Houma, Louisiana.
Chihuahuita and El Segundo Barrio neighborhoods in El Paso, Texas
Historic Downtown Flemington, New Jersey
James River in James City County, Virginia
Mitchell Park Domes in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
San Francisco Embarcadero in San Francisco, California
Sunshine Mile in Tucson, Arizona
2015 places
The June 2015 announced places are:
A.G. Gaston Motel, in Birmingham, Alabama, once "served as a 'war room' for leaders of the Civil Rights Movement"
Carrollton Courthouse in Carrollton, New Orleans
The Factory in West Hollywood, California
Chautauqua Amphitheater, Chautauqua, New York
East Point Historic Civic Block, East Point, Georgia
Fort Worth Stockyards, Fort Worth, Texas
Grand Canyon, Arizona
Little Havana, Miami
Oak Flat, Superior, Arizona
Old U.S. Mint, San Francisco
South Street Seaport, New York
2014 places
In June 2014, the National Trust announced its list of 11 most endangered places to be:
Battle Mountain Sanitarium, Hot Springs, South Dakota
Bay Harbor's East Island, Dade County, Florida
Chattanooga State Office Building, Chattanooga, Tennessee
Frank Lloyd Wright's Spring House, Tallahassee, Florida
Historic Wintersburg, Huntington Beach, California
Mokuaikaua, Kailua Village in Kona, Hawaii
Music Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio (subsequently saved)
Palladium Building, St. Louis, Missouri
Shockoe Bottom, Richmond, Virginia
The Palisades, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
Union Terminal, Cincinnati, Ohio (subsequently saved)
2013 places
In June 2013, the National Trust announced its list of 11 most endangered places to be:
Abyssinian Meeting House, Portland, Maine
Astrodome, Houston, Texas (added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2014)
Chinatown House, Rancho Cucamonga, California
Gay Head Lighthouse, Aquinnah, Massachusetts
Historic Rural Schoolhouses of Montana (statewide)
James River, James City County, Virginia
Kake Cannery, Kake, Alaska
Mountain View Black Officers' Club, Fort Huachuca, Arizona
San Jose Church, Old San Juan, San Juan, Puerto Rico
Village of Mariemont, Cincinnati, Ohio
Worldport Terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport, Jamaica, Queens, New York (subsequently demolished)
2012 places
In June 2012, the National Trust announced its list of 11 most endangered places to be:
Bridges of Yosemite Valley, Yosemite Village, California
Ellis Island hospital complex, New York Harbor, New York and New Jersey
Historic U.S. post office buildings (nationwide)
Joe Frazier's Gym, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2013)
Malcolm X—Ella Little-Collins House, Roxbury, Boston, Massachusetts
Princeton Battlefield, Princeton, New Jersey
Sweet Auburn Historic District, Atlanta, Georgia
Terminal Island, Port of Los Angeles, California
Texas courthouses, Texas (statewide)
Elkhorn Ranch, Billings County, North Dakota
Village of Zoar, Ohio
2011 places
Bear Butte, Meade County, South Dakota
Belmead-on-the-James, Powhatan County, Virginia
China Alley, Hanford, California
Fort Gaines, Dauphin Island, Alabama
Greater Chaco Landscape, San Juan County and McKinley County, New Mexico, U.S.
Isaac Manchester Farm, Avella, Pennsylvania
John Coltrane Home, Dix Hills, New York
National Soldiers Home, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Pillsbury A-Mill, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Prentice Women's Hospital, Chicago, Illinois (demolished in 2014)
Sites Imperiled by State Actions, Nationwide
2010 places
America's State Parks & State-Owned Historic Sites
Black Mountain, Kentucky
Hinchliffe Stadium, Paterson, New Jersey
Industrial Arts Building, Lincoln, Nebraska
Juana Briones House, Palo Alto, California (demolished in 2011)
Merritt Parkway, Fairfield County, Connecticut
Metropolitan AME Church, Washington, D.C.
Pågat, Guam
Saugatuck Dunes, Laketown Township, Allegan County, Michigan
Threefoot Building, Meridian, Mississippi
Wilderness Battlefield, Spotsylvania County and Orange County, Virginia
2009 places
Ames Shovel Shops, Easton, Massachusetts
Cast-Iron Architecture of Galveston, Texas
Century Plaza Hotel, Los Angeles, California
Dorchester Academy, Midway, Georgia
Human Services Center, Yankton, South Dakota
Lana'i City, Maui, Hawaii
Memorial Bridge, Portsmouth, New Hampshire & Kittery, Maine (original closed and demolished in 2012; new bridge opened on same site in 2013)
Miami Marine Stadium, Miami, Florida
Mount Taylor, Grants, New Mexico
The Manhattan Project's Enola Gay Hangar at Wendover Air Force Base, Utah
Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois
2008 places
Bonnet House, Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Boyd Theatre, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (demolished in 2015)
California State Parks, California
Charity Hospital and the surrounding neighborhood, New Orleans, Louisiana
Great Falls Portage, Great Falls, Montana
Hangar One, Moffett Federal Airfield, Santa Clara County, California
Michigan Avenue Streetwall, Chicago, Illinois
Neighborhood of the Lower East Side, New York, New York
Neighborhood of Peace Bridge, Buffalo, New York
The Statler Hilton Hotel, Dallas, Texas
Sumner Elementary School, Topeka, Kansas
Vizcaya Museum and Gardens, Miami, Florida
2007 places
The 2007 places named to the list were:
Brooklyn's Industrial Waterfront, New York, New York (from the Brooklyn Army Terminal in Sunset Park to Greenpoint Terminal Market site)
El Camino Real Historic Trail, New Mexico
H.H. Richardson House, Brookline, Massachusetts
Hialeah Park Race Course, Hialeah, Florida
Historic Places in Transmission Line Corridors
Historic Route 66 Motels, Illinois to California
Historic Structures in Mark Twain National Forest, 29 counties in Missouri
Minidoka Internment Camp, Hunt, Idaho
Philip Simmons Workshop and Home, Charleston, South Carolina
Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site, Colorado
Stewart's Point Rancheria, Sonoma County, California
2006 places
Arts and Industries Building of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Blair Mountain Battlefield, Logan County, West Virginia
Doo Wop Motels of Wildwood, New Jersey
Fort Snelling Upper Post, Hennepin County, Minnesota
Historic Communities and Landmarks of the Mississippi Coast
Historic Neighborhoods of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana
Kenilworth, Illinois
Kootenai Lodge, Bigfork, Montana
Mission San Miguel Arcángel, San Miguel, California
Over-the-Rhine Neighborhood, Cincinnati, Ohio
World Trade Center Vesey Street Staircase, New York, New York
2005 places
Daniel Webster Farm, Franklin, New Hampshire
The Journey Through Hallowed Ground Corridor, Maryland, Pennsylvania and Virginia
Belleview Biltmore Hotel, Belleair, Florida (largely demolished in 2015)
Camp Security, York County, Pennsylvania
Eleutherian College, Madison, Indiana
Ennis-Brown House, Los Angeles, California
Finca Vigía: Ernest Hemingway House, San Francisco de Paula, Cuba
Historic Buildings of Downtown Detroit, Detroit, Michigan
Historic Catholic Churches of Greater Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
King Island, Alaska
National Landscape Conservation System, Western States
2004 places
2 Columbus Circle, New York, New York
Bethlehem Steel Plant, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
Elkmont Historic District, Elkmont, Tennessee
George Kraigher House, Brownsville, Texas
Gullah/Geechee Coast, South Carolina and Georgia
Historic Cook County Hospital, Chicago, Illinois
Madison-Lenox Hotel, Detroit, Michigan (demolished in 2005)
Nine Mile Canyon, Utah
Ridgewood Ranch, Home of Seabiscuit, Willits, California
State of Vermont, Vermont
Tobacco Barns of Southern Maryland, Maryland
2003 places
Amelia Earhart Bridge, Atchison, Kansas
Bathhouse Row, at Hot Springs National Park, Arkansas
East Side School and Middle School, Decorah, Iowa
Little Manila, Stockton, California
Michigan Boulevard Garden Apartments, Chicago, Illinois
Minute Man National Historical Park and Environs, Concord, Lincoln and Lexington, Massachusetts
Ocmulgee Old Fields Traditional Cultural Property, Macon, Georgia
TWA Terminal at John F. Kennedy International Airport, Jamaica, Queens, New York
United States Marine Hospital, Louisville, Kentucky
Urban Houses of Worship (nationwide)
Zuñi Salt Lake and Sanctuary Zone, New Mexico
2002 places
Chesapeake Bay Skipjacks, Statewide Maryland
Gold Dome Bank, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Guthrie Theater, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Hackensack Water Works, Oradell, New Jersey
Historic Bridges of Indiana, Statewide, Indiana
Kw'st'an Sacred Sites at Indian Pass, Indian Pass, California
Missouri River Cultural and Sacred Sites, Midwestern States, MO, MT, KS, NE, ND, SD
Pompey's Pillar, Billings, Montana
Rosenwald Schools, Southern and Southwestern States, MD, VA, WV, NC, SC, GA, FL, LA, AL, MS, TX, AR, NM, OK
St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D.C.
Teardowns in Historic Neighborhoods, Nationwide
2001 places
Bok Kai Temple, Marysville, California
Carter G. Woodson House, Washington, D.C.
CIGNA Campus, Bloomfield, Connecticut
Ford Island at Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, Hawaii
Historic American Movie Theaters, Nationwide
Jackson Ward, Richmond, Virginia
Los Caminos del Rio Heritage Corridor, Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas
Miller-Purdue Barn, Upland, Indiana
Prairie Churches of North Dakota, Statewide North Dakota
Stevens Creek Settlements, Lincoln, Nebraska
Telluride Valley Floor, Telluride, Colorado
2000 places
Eisenhower VA Medical Center, Leavenworth, Kansas
Fifth & Forbes Historic Retail Area, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Historic Neighborhood Schools, Nationwide
Hudson River Valley, Statewide, New York
Lincoln cottage, Washington, D.C.
Nantucket, Nantucket, Massachusetts
Okeechobee Battlefield, Okeechobee, Florida
Red Mountain Mining District, Colorado
Santa Anita Racetrack, Arcadia, California
Valley Forge National Historical Park, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania
Wheelock Academy, Millerton, Oklahoma
1999 places
The 1999 list was:
"The Corner of Main and Main" (nationwide)
Angel Island Immigration Station, San Francisco, California
Country Estates of River Road, Louisville, Kentucky
"Four National Historic Landmark Hospitals" in New York (statewide) — specifically, the Utica State Hospital, Hudson River State Hospital, former Buffalo State Hospital, and New York State Inebriate Asylum
Hulett Ore Unloaders, Whiskey Island, Cleveland, Ohio
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Pullman Historic District, Chicago, Illinois
Richard H. Allen Memorial Auditorium at Sheldon Jackson College, Sitka, Alaska
San Diego Arts & Warehouse District, San Diego, California
Traveler's Rest, Missoula County, Montana
West Side of Downtown Baltimore, Baltimore, Maryland
1998 places
The 1998 list was:
Black Hawk and Central City, Colorado
Cannery Row, Monterey, California
Chancellorsville Battlefield, Fredericksburg, Virginia
Governors Island, New York, New York
Great Bowdoin Mill, Topsham, Maine
Historic Courthouses of Texas, Texas (statewide)
Historically Black Colleges & Universities (Southern states: Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi)
Mapes Hotel, Reno, Nevada (subsequently demolished)
Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
Michigan's Historic Lighthouses, exemplified by DeTour Reef Light, Michigan (statewide)
Monocacy Aqueduct, Frederick County, Maryland
1997 places
The 1997 list was:
Bridge of Lions, St. Augustine, Florida
Cathedral of St. Vibiana, Los Angeles, California
Congressional Cemetery, Washington, D.C.
Cranston Street Armory, Providence, Rhode Island
Flathead Indian Reservation, Lake, Sanders, Missoula, and Flathead, Montana
Historic Buildings Infested with Formosan Termites, Gulf Coast states (Louisiana, Florida, Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia)
Montezuma Castle, Montezuma, New Mexico
Stillwater Bridge, Stillwater, Minnesota
Vicksburg Campaign Trail, Missouri and Louisiana
Wa'ahila Ridge, Honolulu, Hawaii
1996 places
The 1996 list was:
Adobe Churches of New Mexico, Statewide New Mexico
East Broad Top Railroad, Rockhill Furnace, Pennsylvania
East End Historic District, Newburgh, New York
Harry S. Truman Historic District, Independence, Missouri
Historic Black Churches of the South, Southern States, MD, VA, WV, NC, SC, GA, FL, LA, AL, MS
Historic Structures in Glacier National Park, Glacier National Park, Montana
Knight Foundry, Sutter Creek, California
Little Rock Central High School, Little Rock, Arkansas
Petoskey, Petoskey, Michigan
Sotterley Plantation, Hollywood, Maryland
Uptown Theatre, Chicago, Illinois
Wentworth-by-the-Sea Hotel, New Castle, New Hampshire
1995 places
The 1995 list was:
Archaeological Treasures of the Colorado Plateau, Statewide Colorado
Ashley River Historic District, Ashley River (South Carolina)
Bronx River Parkway, Bronx, New York
Fair Park's Texas Centennial Buildings, Dallas, Texas
Farish Street Neighborhood Historic District, Jackson, Mississippi
Historic Boston Theaters, Boston, Massachusetts
Ossabaw Island, Ossabaw Island, Georgia
South Pass, South Pass, Wyoming
Tugboat Hoga, Oakland, California
Village of East Aurora, East Aurora, New York
Waikiki Natatorium War Memorial, Honolulu, Hawaii
1994 places
The 1994 list was:
Cape Cod, Massachusetts
Cornices (and Buildings of Harlem), Harlem, New York
Fair Park's Texas Centennial Buildings, Dallas, Texas
Frank Lloyd Wright's Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin
Historic Northern Virginia Piedmont, Virginia Piemont, Virginia
Manuelito Archaeological Complex, Gallup vicinity, New Mexico
Natchez, Natchez, Mississippi
Oldest Surviving McDonald's, Downey, California
Old San Francisco Mint, San Francisco, California
U.S.S. Constellation, Baltimore, Maryland
Virginia City, Montana
1993 places
The 1993 list was:
Brandy Station Battlefield, Fredericksburg, Virginia
Downtown New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana
Eight Historic Dallas Neighborhoods, Dallas, Texas
Schooner C.A. Thayer, San Francisco, California
Prehistoric Serpent Mound, Locust Grove, Adams County, Ohio
South Pasadena, California
State of Vermont
Sweetgrass Hills, Montana
Thomas Edison's Invention Factory, West Orange, New Jersey
Town of Ste. Genevieve, Missouri
Virginia City, Montana
1992 places
The 1992 list was:
Virginia City, Montana
Eight Historic Dallas Neighborhoods, Dallas, Texas
Ellis Island National Monument, New York Harbor, New York, Harlem New York
Gettysburg National Military Park, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
Louisiana's Historic River Road, Louisiana
Sweet Auburn, Atlanta, Georgia
West Baden Springs Hotel, West Baden Springs, Indiana
Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Montpelier, Orange, Virginia
Tiger Stadium, Detroit, Michigan (demolished 2008–09)
1991 places
The 1991 list was:
Antietam National Battlefield Park, Sharpsburg, Maryland
Fort Frederica, St. Simons Island, Georgia
Franklin Post Office, Franklin, Tennessee
Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Kennecott Mines, Kennecott, Alaska
Montpelier, Orange, Virginia
Penn School, Frogmore, South Carolina
South Pasadena, California
Southeast Light, Block Island, Rhode Island
Tiger Stadium, Detroit, Michigan
Walden Pond and Woods, Concord and Lincoln, Massachusetts
1990 places
The 1990 list was:
Antietam National Battlefield Park, Sharpsburg, Maryland
Columbus Landing Site, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Deadwood Historic District, Deadwood, South Dakota
Fort Frederica, St. Simons Island, Georgia
Kennecott Mines, Kennecott, Alaska
Penn School, Frogmore, South Carolina
Roycroft Inn and Campus, East Aurora, New York
South Pasadena, California
Southeast Light, Block Island, Rhode Island
Walden Pond and Woods, Concord and Lincoln, Massachusetts
West Mesa Petroglyphs, Albuquerque, New Mexico
1989 places
The 1989 list was:
Antietam National Battlefield Park, Sharpsburg, Maryland
Cedar Creek Battlefield and Belle Grove Plantation, Middletown, Virginia
Columbus Landing Site, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Deadwood Historic District, Deadwood, South Dakota
Fort Frederica, St. Simons Island, Georgia
Old Deerfield Historic District, Deerfield, Massachusetts
Old Kaskaskia Village, Kaskaskia, Illinois
Roycroft Inn and Campus, East Aurora, New York
South Pasadena, California
Vieux Carre Historic District, New Orleans, Louisiana
West Mesa Petroglyphs, Albuquerque, New Mexico
1988 places
The 1988 list was:
Antietam National Battlefield Park, Sharpsburg, Maryland
Cedar Creek Battlefield and Belle Grove Plantation, Middletown, Virginia
Columbus Landing Site, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands
Custer Battlefield National Monument & Reno-Benteen Battlefield Memorial, Montana
Manassas National Battlefield Historic District, Manassas, Virginia
Old Deerfield Historic District, Deerfield, Massachusetts
Old Kaskaskia Village, Kaskaskia, Illinois
Snee Farm, Mt. Pleasant, South Carolina
Vieux Carre Historic District, New Orleans, Louisiana
Waterford Historic District, Waterford, Virginia
West Mesa Petroglyphs, Albuquerque, New Mexico
See also
List of threatened historic sites in the United States
References
External links
America's 11 Most Endangered Historic Places: Archive
Historic preservation in the United States
Nature conservation in the United States
National Trust for Historic Preservation
Lists of buildings and structures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Ahmedabad
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History of Ahmedabad
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Ahmedabad is the largest city in the state of Gujarat. It is located in western India on the banks of the River Sabarmati. The city served as political as well as economical capital of the region since its establishment. The earliest settlement can be recorded around the 12th century under Chaulukya dynasty rule. The present city was founded on 26 February 1411 and announced as the capital on 4 March 1411 by Ahmed Shah I of Gujarat Sultanate as a new capital. Under the rule of sultanate (1411–1511) the city prospered followed by decline (1511–1572) when the capital was transferred to Champaner. For next 135 years (1572–1707), the city renewed greatness under the early rulers of Mughal Empire. The city suffered due to political instability (1707–1817) under late Mughal rulers followed by joint rule between Maratha and Mughal. The city further suffered following joint Maratha rule. The city again progressed when politically stabilized when British East India Company established the rule in the city (1818–1857). The city further renewed growth when it gain political freedom by establishment of municipality and opening of railway under British crown rule (1857–1947). Following arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in 1915, the city became centre stage of Indian independence movement. Many activists like Sardar Patel served the municipality of the city before taking part in the movement. After independence, the city was a part of Bombay state. When Gujarat was carved out in 1960, it again became the capital of the state until establishment of Gandhinagar in 1965. Ahmedabad is also the cultural and economical centre of Gujarat and the seventh largest city of India.
Early history
Chaulukya dynasty
Al-Bīrūnī mentions Asāval as a trading town on the route from Anhilvada Patan to Cambay. In the eleventh century, Karṇa of Caulukya dynasty ruling from Anhilwad Patan (1072–1094) defeated and killed Āśā, the Bhil chieftain of Āśāpallī, near modern Ahmedabad. He then established a temple to the goddess Kocharabā and a temple to the goddess Jayantī at Āśāpallī. He also founded the nearby city of Karṇavatī where he reigned, erected a temple to Karṇeśvara, and excavated a tank called Karṇasāgara. None of these temples have survived to the present-day.
In 1053, the Kaach Masjid mosque was erected in the Tajpur quarter of modern Ahmedabad, only about twenty years after Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion of Gujarat.
Delhi Sultanate rule
According to Jinaprabhā Sūri, there was a battle near Āśāpalli in 1299 between Karṇa of the Vaghela dynasty and Ullu Khāna (Ulugh Khān), general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler 'Alā ud-Dīn, which resulted in Karṇa's defeat and the end of his reign.
Gujarat Sultanate rule (1411–1572)
Zafar Khan Muzaffar (later Muzaffar Shah I) of Muzaffarid dynasty was appointed as governor of Gujarat by Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad bin Tughluq IV in 1391. Zafar Khan's father Sadharan, were Tāṅks converted to Islam, adopted the name Wajih-ul-Mulk, and had given his sister in marriage to Firuz Shah Tughlaq. Zafar Khan defeated Farhat-ul-Mulk near Anhilwad Patan and made the city his capital. When the Sultanate was weakened by the sacking of Delhi by Timur in 1398, and Zafar Khan took the opportunity to establish himself as sultan of an independent Gujarat. He declared himself independent in 1407 and founded the Gujarat Sultanate.
The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I defeated a Bhil or Koli chief of Ashaval, and founded the new city.
Foundation
Date
Ahmad Shah I laid the foundation of the city on 26 February 1411 (at 1.20 pm, Thursday, the second day of Dhu al-Qi'dah, Hijri year 813) at Manek Burj. He chose it as the new capital on 4 March 1411.
Legend
Ahmed Shah I, while camping on the banks of the Sabarmati river, saw a hare chasing a dog. The sultan was intrigued by this and asked his spiritual adviser for explanation. The sage pointed out unique characteristics in the land which nurtured such rare qualities which turned a timid hare to chase a ferocious dog. Impressed by this, the sultan, who had been looking for a place to build his new capital, decided to found the capital here.
Origin of name
Ahmad Shah I, in honour of four Ahmads, himself, his religious teacher Shaikh Ahmad Khattu, and two others, Kazi Ahmad and Malik Ahmad, named it Ahmedabad.
The story is that the king, by the aid of the saint Shaikh Ahmad Khattu, called up the prophet Elijah or Khidr, and from him got leave to build a city if he could find four Ahmads who had never missed the afternoon prayer. A search over Gujarat yielded two, the saint was the third, and the king the fourth. The four Ahmads are said to have been helped by twelve Babas; these were Baba Khoju, Baba Laru, and Baba Karamal, buried at Dholka; Baba Ali Sher and Baba Mahmud buried at Sarkhej; a second Baba Ali Sher who used to sit stark naked; Baba Tavakkul buried in the Nasirabad suburb, Baba Lului buried in Manjhuri, Baba Ahmad Nagori buried near the Nalband mosque, Baba Ladha buried near the Halim ni Khidki, Baba Dhokal buried between the Shahpur and Delhi gates, Baba Sayyid buried in Viramgam. There is a thirteenth Baba Kamil Kirmini about whom authorities are not agreed.
1411–1511
Ahmed Shah I laid the foundation of Bhadra Fort starting from Manek Burj, the first bastion of the city in 1411 which was completed in 1413. He also established the first square of the city, Manek Chowk, both associated with the legend of Hindu saint Maneknath. Square in form, enclosing an area of about forty-three acres, and containing 162 houses, the Bhadra fort had eight gates, three large, two in the east and one in the south-west corner; three middle-sized, two in the north and one in the south; and two small, in the west. The construction of Jama Masjid, Ahmedabad completed in 1423. As the city expanded, the city wall was expanded. Ahmed Shah I died in 1443 and was succeeded by his eldest son Muizz-ud-Din Muhammad Shah (Muhammad Shah I) who expanded the kingdom to Idar and Dungarpur. He died in 1451 and was succeeded by his son Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah II who ruled for short span of seven years. After the death of Qutbuddin Ahmad Shah II in 1458, the nobles raised his uncle Daud Khan to the throne. But within a short period of seven or twenty-seven days, the nobles deposed him and set on the throne Fath Khan, son of Muhammad Shah II. Fath Khan, on his accession, adopted the title Abu-al Fath Mahmud Shah but he was popularly known as Mahmud Begada. He received the sobriquet Begada, which literally means conqueror of two forts, probably after conquering Girnar and Champaner forts. So the second fortification was carried out by Mahmud Begada in 1486, the grandson of Ahmed Shah, with an outer wall 10 km (6.2 mi) in circumference and consisting of 12 gates, 189 bastions and over 6,000 battlements as described in Mirat-i-Ahmadi. He planted its streets with trees, adorned the city and suburbs with splendid buildings, and with much care fostered its traders and craftsmen. Though Champaner became capital of the sultanate in 1484, Ahmedabad was still greater, very rich and well supplied with many orchards and gardens, walled, and embellished with good streets, squares, and houses. So closely did he look after its welfare that if he heard of an empty house or shop he ordered it to be filled. In 1509, Ahmedabad trade started to affect by entry of Portuguese. Mahmud died on 23 November 1511.
In the early years of the sultanate, the city reached from Bhadra Fort until Jama Mosque. Between the two buildings settled many merchants, especially arms dealers and luxury goods manufacturers. Eventually various amirs (nobles) set up their own suburban settlements around the city called Puras, of which eventually numbered over a hundred throughout the city's history.
1511–1572
Mahmud was succeeded by Muzaffar Shah II who ruled until 1526. He was succeeded by Bahadur Shah. During his reign, Gujarat was under pressure from the expanding Mughal Empire under emperors Babur (died 1530) and Humayun (1530–1540), and from the Portuguese, who were establishing fortified settlements on the Gujarat coast to expand their power in India from their base in Goa. He preferred Champaner to Ahmedabad and expanded his reign to central India and to South Gujarat. Bahadur Shah repelled Siege of Diu by Portuguese in 1531 with help of Ottoman Empire and signed Treaty of Bassein. For short period of 1535, Mughal emperor Humayun conquered Gujarat and appointed his brother Aaskari, the governor of Ahmedabad. Bahadur Shah allied with Portuguese and regained power in 1535 but was killed by Portuguese in February 1537. In the disorders that followed his death, the power of the Gujarat Sultans waned, their revenues fell, and the capital, its trade crippled by Portuguese competition, was impoverished and harassed by the constant quarrels of unruly nobles. The capital was shifted back to Ahmedabad in 1537. Following Siege of Diu in 1538, the Portuguese secured the greater part of the profits that formerly enriched the merchants of Ahmedabad. In 1554 the partition of Gujarat among the nobles, leaving to the nominal king Ahmad Shah II (1554–1561), only the city and neighbourhood of Ahmedabad further affected the city. It was captured by Chingiz Khan in 1571 and later by Alaf Khan. In 1571, the city had twelve wards within the walls and others outside. Its chief industries were the manufacture of silk, gold and silver thread, and lac. It yielded a yearly revenue of £155,000 (Rs. 15,50,000) as of 1860.
Social institutions to safeguard various economic interests included the mahajans, guilds of merchants, and panches, guilds for artisans. The leader of the community, who came from the Jain business elites, was known as the nagarsheth, who would resolve disputes between mahajans and individuals and who interceded with royal officials. Under the nagarsheth, the city remained free from interference from the state or other powers.
Mughal rule (1572–1707)
Mughal emperor Akbar entered Gujarat and won Anhilwad Patan in 1572. In November 1572, after receiving the submission of its nobles, he made Gujarat a province of his empire, and appointed a governor. When Akbar was gone, the rebel Mirzas connected to Timurid dynasty, backed by some of the Gujarat nobles, came against Ahmedabad in 1573. Two years later in 1575, at a second siege Muzaffar Husain Mirza all but took the city. In 1583 Muzaffar Shah III, the last ruler of Gujarat sultanate, recaptured Ahmedabad and spoiled it of gold, jewels, and fine cloth. Akbar sent Mirza Khan, one of his chief nobles, leading the Mughal army against Ahmedabad. The armies clashed on 22 January 1584 at Sarkhej, after a hard-fought battle, routed Muzzafar's army and forced him to flee to Kathiawar. Raised to be Khan Khanan or head of the nobles, Mirza Khan turned the Sarkhej battlefield into a garden, Fateh Bagh (later Fateh vadi), the garden of victory, for long one of the chief sights of Ahmedabad. Khan Khanan governed the city from 1583 to 1590. In the early years of the seventeenth century Ahmedabad increased in size. Its governor Shaikh Farid Bukhari, or Syed Murtaza, who ruled from 1606 to 1609 founded a new ward Bukhari Mohalla and built Wajihuddin's Tomb. In 1613, a company of thirty-two Englishmen under Mr. Aldworth, the first representatives of British East India Company, came to Ahmedabad. On 15 December 1617, Sir Thomas Roe came to Ahmedabad. About three weeks later on 6 January 1618, Mughal emperor Jahangir gave an audience to him. The Dutch traders also visited him. Jahangir stayed in the city for nine months but was unimpressed by its environment calling it Gardabad, the city of dust. His wife Nur Jahan governed the city during this period.
In 1616 Prince Khurram, afterwards, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, was made governor. During his government from 1616 to 1622, he built Moti Shahi Mahal in 1621 and royal baths in the Bhadra fort. Jain merchant Shantidas Jhaveri started building Chintamani Parshwanath temple in Saraspur in 1622. Shortly after (1626), the English traveller Sir Thomas Herbert describes Ahmedabad as "the megapolis of Gujarat, circled by a strong wall with many large and comely streets, shops full of aromatic gums, perfumes and spices, silks, cottons, calicoes and choice Indian and China rarities, owned and sold by the abstemious Banians who here surpass for number the other inhabitants." In 1629 and 1630 Ahmedabad passed through two years of famine known as Satyashiyo Dukal so severe that its streets were blocked by the dying, and those who could move, wandered to other countries. For the poor and destitute soup kitchens, langar-khanas, were established. The famine over, the city soon regained its prosperity. In 1636, Azam Khan started construction of Azam Khan Sarai in Bhadra.
During the next thirty years (1640–1670), the fortunes of Ahmedabad were at their best. The most distinguished governors were Azam Khan (1635–1642), Aurangzeb (1644–1646), and Murad Bakhsh (1654–1657). In 1638, Johan Albrecht de Mandelslo visited the city. During this time the only disorder was in 1644 a riot between Hindus and Muslims in which under Aurangzeb's orders the temple of Chintamani Parswanath near Saraspur was mutilated. Aurangzeb ascended the throne at Delhi 1658. In 1664, the revenue concessions were offered to Europeans and Tavernier came to the city. English Ambassador Sir Thomas Roe visited the city in 1672 again. The jizya tax was imposed on non-Muslims in 1681 and the riots broke out due to famine in the city. The city was flooded up to Teen Darwaza in 1683. Though for several years (1683–1689) affected by attacks of pestilence, Ahmedabad seems to have lost little in wealth. In 1695 it was the headquarters of manufactures, 'the greatest city in India, nothing inferior to Venice for rich silks and gold stuffs curiously wrought with birds and flowers.' With the close of Aurangzeb's (1707) reign began a period of disorder.
During Mughal rule, with the rise of Surat as a rival commercial center, Ahmedabad lost some of its lustre, but it remained the chief city of Gujarat.
Economy
At the close of the sixteenth century the city was large, well formed, and remarkably healthy; most of its houses were built of brick and mortar with tiled roofs; the streets were broad, the chief of them with room enough for ten ox-carriages to drive abreast; and among its public buildings were large number of stone mosques, each with two large minarets and many wonderful inscriptions. Rich in the produce of every part of the globe, its painters, carvers, in layers, and workers in silver gold and iron, were famous, its mint was one of four allowed to coin gold, and from its Imperial workshops came masterpieces in cotton, silk, velvet and brocade with astonishing figures and patterns, knots and fashions.
Mandelslo, in 1638, describes,
Mughal–Maratha rule (1707–1753)
With the close of Aurangzeb's (1707) reign began a period of disorder. The Marathas, who had incursions in south Gujarat for about half a century sent an expedition against Ahmedabad upon hearing death of Mughal emperor. Under the command of Balaji Vishwanath, the Marathas won over Mughal army in the Panch Mahals, plundered as far as Vatva within five miles of the city, and were only bought off by the payment of £21,000 (Rs. 2,10,000). In the city the next years were marked by riots and disturbance. In 1709 an order came from the new Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712), that in the public prayers, among the attributes of the Khalif Ali, the Shia epithet wasi or heir should be introduced. This order caused great discontent among the Ahmedabad Sunnis. They warned the reader not to use the word wasi again, and, as he persisted in obeying orders, on the next occasion they dragged him from the pulpit and stabbed him to death. Three or four years later (1713–1714) another disturbance broke out, this time between the Hindus and Muslims. A Hindu insisting on burning the Holi near some Muslim houses, the Muslims retaliated by killing a cow. On this the Hindus seized a lad the son of a butcher and killed him. Then the Muslims especially the Afghans rose, sacked, and burned shops. They attacked a rich jeweller, Kapurchand, who defended his ward, pol, with matchlock men and killed several of the rioters. For three or four days work was at a standstill. Next year (1715) in the city the riots were renewed, shops were plundered and much mischief done, and outside (1716), the Kolis and Kathis grew so bold and presumptuous as to put a stop to trade.
During the next ten years (1720–1730), the rivalries of the Imperial nobles were the cause of much misery at Ahmedabad. In 1720 Anopsingh Bhandari the deputy viceroy, committed many oppressive acts murdering Kapurchand Bhansali, one of the leading merchants. So unpopular was he that when news reached the city that Shujat Khan had been chosen to succeed him, the people of the town attacked the Bhadra and killed Anopsingh. In 1723 Mubariz-ul-Mulk, Viceroy, chose Shujat Khan his deputy, and Hamid Khan, then holding Ahmedabad for the Nizam the former Viceroy, retired; Shujat Khan took his place, and went to collect tribute, then Hamid returned, defeated and killed Shujat and held all the land about Ahmedabad. Rustam Khan, Shujat's brother, came against Hamid. Hamid won over the Marathas to his side, defeated and killed Rustam, and seized and pillaged Ahmedabad. Then the Viceroy Mubariz-ul-Mulk came and took Ahmedabad (1725). For his services in stopping the pillage of the city Khushalchand, an ancestor of the present Lalbhai family of Ahmedabad, Nagarsheth or chief of the merchants, was raised to that honour.
Then there followed a struggle between Hamid Khan, the Nizam's deputy helped by the Marathas, and Sarbuland Khan the Viceroy and his deputy. During this contest Ahmedabad was pillaged by the Marathas, the city more than once taken and retaken, and even when the Viceroy's power was established in name, he was practically besieged in the city by the crowds of Maratha horse who ravaged the country up to the gates. The revenues cut off, to pay their troops the Mughal officers granting orders on bankers, seized them, put them in prison, and tortured them till they paid. Reduced to wretchedness many merchants, traders, and artisans left the city and wandered into foreign parts. Though successful against the Marathas the Viceroy had to agree to give them a share of the revenue, and badly off for money had, in 1726, and again in 1730, so greatly to increase taxation that the city rose in revolt. In the same year (1730) Mubariz-ul-Mulk the Viceroy, superseded by the king Abhai Singh of Jodhpur, refused to give up the city and outside of the walls fought a most closely contested battle. Under the management of Abhai Singh, Ahmedabad remained unmolested, till in 1733 a Maratha army coming against the city had to be bought off by the payment of a large sum of money.
In 1737 a fresh dispute arose among the Mughal officers. Momin Khan the Viceroy had his appointment cancelled in favour of Abhesingh's deputy Ratansingh Bhandari. Refusing to obey the second order, Momin Khan by the promise of half of the revenues of Gujarat and half of Ahmedabad, won Damaji Rao Gaekwad to his side, and bombarding the city, after a siege of some months, captured it in 1738.
According to agreement the city was divided between Khan and the Gaekwad's agent Rangoji. The Maratha share was the south of the city including the command of the Khan Jahan, Jamalpur, Band or closed, also called Mahudha, Astodiya, and Raipur gates. This joint rule lasted for fifteen years (1738–1753).
The fifteen years of Mughal–Maratha joint rule was a time of almost unceasing disturbance. Within the city Momin Khan, till his death in 1743, held without dispute the chief place among the Muslims. For a short time after Momin Khan's death, power (1743) passed into the hands of Fida-ud-din Khan. It was then usurped by Jawan Mard Khan, and he, in spite of the attempts of Muftakhir Khan, afterwards Momin Khan II. (1743), and Fakhrud-daulah (1744–48) the nominal Viceroys, held it during the ten remaining years. Meanwhile, the cunning and greed of the Marathas caused unceasing trouble and disorder. Driven out in 1738, before a year was over they forced themselves back. Again in 1742 the Muslims rose against them, kept them out of power for about two years, and for a time held their leader Rangoji a prisoner. Escaping from confinement, Rangoji next year (1744) returned and forced Jawan to give him his share of power. Acknowledging their claims for some years, Jawan, in 1750, when Damaji Gaekwad was in the Deccan, again drove the Marathas out of the city. For two years Jawan remained in sole power, till in 1752 the Peshwa, owning now the one-half of the Gaekwad's revenues, sent Pandurang Pandit to collect his dues. Shutting the gates Jawan succeeded in keeping the Marathas at bay. But knowing his weakness he admitted their claim to share the revenue and allowed their deputies to stay in his town. Next year (1753) when Jawan was in Palanpur collecting revenue, the Peshwa and Gaekwad with from 30,000 to 40,000 horse, suddenly appearing in Gujarat, pressed north to Ahmedabad. The people, leaving the suburbs, fled within the walls. And the Marathas unopposed invested the city with their 30,000 horse, the Gaekwad blockading the north, Gopal Hari the east, and the Peshwa's deputy Raghunath Rao watching the south and west. Message after message sent to Jawan as he moved about the country, failed to reach him. One at last found him and starting with 200 picked horsemen he passed during the night through the Maratha lines and safely entered the city. Cheering the garrison they defended the city with vigour, foiling an attempt to surprise and driving back an open attack. Their deputies turned out of the city and Jawan's garrison gradually strengthened from outside, the Maratha chances of success seemed small. But Jawan was badly off for money, and, in spite of levies on the townspeople, he could not find enough to pay his troops. Terms were agreed on, and, giving Jawan a sum of £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000), the Marathas in April 1753 entered Ahmedabad.
The siege had done the city lasting harm. The suburbs, deserted at the approach of the Marathas, were never re-peopled. The excessive greed of the Marathas as sole rulers of Ahmedabad caused great discontent. Knowing this, and learning that heavy rain had made great breaches in the city walls, Momin Khan II advanced from Cambay. Some of his men, finding a passage through one of the breaches, opened the gates, and his troops rushing in drove out the Marathas December 1755. Calling on Momin Khan to surrender, the Marathas at once invested the town. For more than a year the siege lasted, Momin Khan and his minister Shambhuram a Nagar Brahman, driving back all assaults, and at times dashing out in the most brilliant and destructive sallies. But the besieged were badly off for money, the pay of the troops was behind, and the people already impoverished were leaving the city in numbers. Tho copper pots of the runaways kept the garrison in pay for a time. But at last this too was at an end, and after holding out for a year and a quarter Momin Khan, receiving £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000), gave up the city (April 1757).
Maratha rule (1758–1817)
The Peshwa and Gaekwad divided the revenues, the Peshwa, except that the Gaekwad held one gate and that his deputy remained in the city to see that his share of the revenue was fairly set apart, undertaking the whole management of the city. For nearly twenty-three years the city remained in Maratha hands. During the First Anglo–Maratha War (1775–1782), General Thomas Wyndham Goddard, acting in alliance with Fateh Singh Gaekwad against the Pune, with 6,000 troops stormed Bhadra Fort on 12 February 1779. His army made breach at Khan Jahan gate and captured Ahmedabad on 15 February 1779. There was a garrison of 6,000 Arab and Sindhi infantry and 2,000 cavalry. Losses in the fight totalled 108, including two Britons. After the war, the city was later handed to Fateh Singh Gaekwad who held it for two years. The city was severely damaged and depopulated and the economy was destroyed. Under the terms of the under the Treaty of Salbai (24 February 1783) Ahmedabad was restored to the Peshwa, the Gaekwad's interest being as before, limited to one-half of the revenue and the command of one of the gates. For some years tho city improved, its manufactures in 1789 being incomparably better than those of Surat. Then the 1790 famine caused fresh distress, and a few years later only a quarter of the space within the walls was inhabited. At this time (1798–1800) Aba Salukar, tho Peshwa's Governor, indebted and oppressive, ill-used the people, and embezzled the Gaekwad's revenues. Advancing against Salukar, Govind Rao Gaekwad defeated him near Shah e Alam and, pursuing him into the citadel, made him prisoner. On this the Peshwa, who from private dislike to Aba was secretly pleased, granted the Gaekwad, for a yearly payment of £50,000 (Rs. 5,00,000), a five-year lease of his share of the Gujarat revenues. This arrangement, renewed for ten years in 1804, continued in force till 1814. Though the city was considerably recovered, the famine in 1812 devastated its people. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the British East India Company had gained considerable political power and territories. When Peshwa appointed Trimbak Dengle as governor on 23 October 1814, the relationship between Gaekwad and Peshwa deteriorated. Gaekwad sent an envoy to the Peshwa in Pune to negotiate a dispute regarding revenue collection. The envoy, Gangadhar Shastri, was under British protection. He was murdered, and the Peshwa's minister Trimbak Dengle was suspected of the crime. The British seized the opportunity to force Baji Rao II sign the Treaty of Poona (13 June 1817). Under the terms of the treaty, the Peshwa agreed, for a yearly payment of £45,000 (Rs. 4,50,000), to let in perpetuity to the Gaekwar the farm of Ahmedabad. Under the same treaty the Peshwa agreed, that this revenue from the Ahmedabad farm, should be paid by the Gaekwar to the British as part of the British claims on the Peshwa's revenues. A few months later (6 November 1817), it was arranged with the Gaekwad that he should, in payment of a subsidiary force, cede to the British the rights he had obtained under the Peshwa's farm, and, in exchange for territory near Baroda, give up his own share in the city of Ahmedabad. The only exception to this transfer was that the Gaekwad was allowed to keep his fort, Gaekwad Haveli, in the south-west corner of the city. In 1753, the armies of the Maratha generals Raghunath Rao and Damaji Gaekwad captured the city and ended Mughal rule in Ahmedabad. A famine in 1630 and the constant power struggle between the Peshwa and the Gaekwad virtually destroyed the city. Many suburbs of the city were deserted and many mansions lay in ruins.
British company rule (1817–1857)
Dunlop, British Collector of Kaira took over administration of the city in 1818. In June 1819, Rann of Kutch earthquake hit the city damaging several monuments and houses in the city. The political stability, establishment of order and the lowering of the taxes, gave a great impetus to trade and the city was for a time busy and prosperous. The population rose from 80,000 in 1817 to about 88,000 in 1824. During the eight following years a special cess was levied on ghee and other products and at a cost of £25,000 (Rs. 2,50,000) the city walls were repaired. About the same time a cantonment was established on a site to the north of the city, chosen in 1830 by Sir John Malcolm. These (1825–1832), though some of them years of agricultural depression and dull trade, brought a further increase of population to 90,000. In the next ten years the state of the city improved. The population rose (1816) to about 95,000. The Hutheesing Jain Temple, completed in 1848, and other buildings of that time (1844–1846) show that some of the city merchants were possessed of very great wealth. The public funds available after the walls were finished were made use of for municipal purposes. Streets were widened and thoroughfares watered. During the following years the improvement continued. Ahmedabad's gold, silk, and carved-wood work again (1855) became famous, and its merchants and brokers enjoyed a name for liberality, wealth and enlightenment.
During the rebellion of 1857, the government quickly contained the mutineers of the Gujarat Irregular Horse and of the 2nd Grenadier Regiment. On the arrival of the 86th Regiment in January 1858, the city was disarmed, when 25,000 arms chiefly matchlocks and swords were surrendered.
British crown rule (1857–1947)
From 1857 to 1865, it was a time of great prosperity. The municipal government was established in 1858. The American Civil War (1863–1865) helped the economy of the city. The railway connecting Ahmedabad with Bombay was opened in 1864. Ahmedabad grew rapidly, becoming an important center of trade and textile manufacturing. The city was greatly damaged by floods in 1868 and in 1875.
In 1877, the city suffered from fire. On 27 January 1877, there was an explosion of gunpowder in a Bohora's shop. This shop, in which were more than 500 pounds of gunpowder, was about ten at night found to be on fire. The gunpowder exploded burning five shops and killing eighty-eight people. Two months later, on the night of 24 March 1877, a fire broke out in the chief enclosure, pol, of the Sarangpur area. The street was very narrow and lined with four-story high houses. It was only with the greatest difficulty that the fire engines could be brought to play on the fire. Military help was called in and by ten next morning the fire was got under, but not until ninety-four houses had been burned and property worth £60,000 (Rs. 6,00,000) destroyed.
In 1878, the lower classes suffered from high prices of food-grains while the upper classes from the dullness of trade and losses in Bombay mills.
The old mercantile and industrial elite, with their relative sophistication in matters of industry, trade, and financing, were well poised to expand under British rule, using their own financing for new technology, represented by British machinery. Instead of just a few merchants introducing new industrial machinery, as elsewhere in India, in Ahmedabad the mercantile class as a whole supported the new techniques, even though hand spinners and handloom weavers, as well as female spinners in the outlying communities had their traditional operations upset as a result. They and others were recruited into the new manufacturing plants. The merchant class tended to support the British, thinking the rule provided more security than under the Marathas, lower taxes (including lower octroi), and more property rights.
Unlike most other areas of India, British rule meant no major upsetting of the community's traditional social system, although the traditional peasant landowning class, the Banias and Patidars, were absorbed into the Jain business community. The British did not have a financing vacuum to fill in the city, so their presence was limited to administrative and military spheres. Unlike other Indian cities, Ahmedabad lacked a comprador class or dominant, Western-educated middle class. Western education was slower to be introduced into the city than in most other Indian cities. There was very little English higher education available in the city and no English-language newspapers there in the 19th century.
Instead of education in English language and culture, technology education was promoted in the late 19th century. Ranchhodlal Chhotalal, the Nagar Brahmin who founded a spinning and weaving company in the city in 1859, ordered the city to withdraw its support for a high school in 1886 and instead finance technical education. Starting in 1889, the city financed scholarships for technical students. With no Western-oriented academic center in the city, there was no opposing political reaction to Western influences, and the city. "The entire discourse of tradition versus modernity, thrown up by exposure to Western literature and culture, was almost non-existent in Ahmedabad," according to literary scholar Svati Joshi.
Schools for girls, primarily for those in the upper classes, were founded in the mid-19th century. Maganbhai Karamchand, a Jain businessman, and Harkor Shethani, a Jain widow. One visitor, Mary Carpenter, wrote in 1856 after visiting the city, "I found how very far behind Ahmedabad these other places [like Calcutta] were in effort to promote female education among the leading Hindus, in emancipation of the ladies from the thraldom imposed by custom; and in self-effort for improvement on their own part."
The struggle for independence from the British soon took roots in the city. In 1915, Mahatma Gandhi came from South Africa and established two ashrams in the city, the Kochrab Ashram near Paldi in 1915 and the Satyagraha Ashram on the banks of Sabarmati in 1917. The latter was later called Harijan Ashram or Sabarmati Ashram. He started the salt satyagraha in 1930. He and many followers marched from his ashram to the coastal village of Dandi, Gujarat, to protest against the British imposing a tax on salt. Before he left the ashram, he vowed not to return to the ashram until India became independent.
Post independence (1947–)
By 1960, Ahmedabad had become a metropolis with a population of slightly under half a million people, with classical and colonial European-style buildings lining the city's thoroughfares. After independence, Ahmedabad became a provincial town of Bombay state. On 1 May 1960, Ahmedabad became a state capital as a result of the bifurcation of the state of Bombay into two states of Maharashtra and Gujarat following Mahagujarat Movement. During this period, a large number of educational and research institutions were founded in the city, making it a centre of higher education, science and technology. Ahmedabad's economic base became more diverse with the establishment of heavy and chemical industry during the same period. At that time the city was seen as an economic role model around the world. Many countries sought to emulate India's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied the city's second "Five-Year Plan" and the World Financial Center in Seoul is designed and modelled after Ahmedabad. Ahmedabad had both a municipal corporation and the Ahmedabad Divisional Council in the 1960s, which developed schools, colleges, roads, municipal gardens, and parks. The Ahmedabad Divisional Council had working committees for education, roads, and residential development and planning.
In the late 1970s, the capital shifted to the newly built, well-planned city of Gandhinagar. This marked the start of a long period of decline in the city, marked by a lack of development. In February 1974, Ahmedabad occupied the centre-stage of national politics with launch of the Navnirman agitation. It started off as an argument over a 20% hike in hostel food bill in the L.D. College of Engineering, but ignited an agitation which later snowballed into the Nav Nirman movement. This movement caused the then chief minister of Gujarat, Chimanbhai Patel, to resign and also gave Indira Gandhi one of the excuses for imposing the Emergency on 25 June 1975.
In the 1980s, a reservation policy was introduced in the country, which led to anti-reservation protests in 1981 and 1985. The protests witnessed violent clashes between people belonging to various castes.
On 26 January 2001, a devastating earthquake centred near Bhuj, measuring 6.9 on the richter scale, struck the city. As many as 50 multistoried buildings collapsed killing 752 people. The following year, a three-day period of violence between Hindus and Muslims in the western Indian state of Gujarat, known as the 2002 Gujarat violence, spread to Ahmedabad; refugee camps were set up around the city and economy was affected. Sabarmati Riverfront project started in 2004. The 2008 Ahmedabad bombings, a series of seventeen bomb blasts, killed and injured several people. Militant group Harkat-ul-Jihad claimed responsibility for the attacks. Ahmedabad BRTS was inaugurated in 2009. The construction of Ahmedabad Metro began in 2015 and the operation began in March 2019.
References
Notes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1996 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1996 in the United Kingdom.
This year is noted for the Dunblane Massacre, the divorces of the Duke and Duchess of York (Andrew and Sarah) and of the Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) and the birth of Dolly the sheep.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – John Major (Conservative)
Parliament – 51st
Events
January
10 January – Terry Venables announces that he will resign as manager of the England national football team after this summer's European Championships, which will be hosted in England.
13 January – NUM leader Arthur Scargill announces that he is defecting from the Labour Party to set up his own Socialist Labour Party.
19 January
The first MORI poll of 1996 shows Labour still comfortably ahead of the Conservatives with a showing of 55% and a lead of 26 points.
Ian and Kevin Maxwell, sons of the late media mogul Robert Maxwell, are cleared of fraud at the Old Bailey after a trial lasting eleven days.
23–26 January – Much of Britain is struck with sub-zero temperatures and snowstorms. Schools and transport are disrupted.
February
4 February – First two passenger train operating companies begin operation of their service franchises as part of the privatisation of British Rail: South West Trains (part of the Stagecoach Group) and Great Western Trains (management buyout).
5 February – The first genetically modified food products go on sale in the UK.
9 February
The Provisional Irish Republican Army carry out the Docklands bombing in London, a truck bomb which kills two men (whose bodies are discovered the following day) and injures 39 people. This incident ends the 17-month ceasefire in Northern Ireland.
The Parole Board announces that Moors Murderer Myra Hindley could soon be transferred to an open prison. Hindley, 53 and in her thirtieth year of imprisonment, is currently being held at Durham Prison, but if Home Secretary Michael Howard backs the Parole Board's recommendation, Hindley could soon be transferred to a prison with a more relaxed regime.
13 February – Take That, the most successful British band of the 1990s, announce that they are splitting up.
15 February – A report on the Arms-to-Iraq affair is critical of government ministers.
18 February – An IRA bomb explodes on a bus in Central London, killing the transporter, Edward O'Brien, and injuring eight other people, including the driver.
19–20 February – Approximately 1,000 passengers are trapped in the Channel Tunnel when two Eurostar trains break down due to electronic failures caused by snow and ice.
22 February – Conservative MP Peter Thurnham announces his resignation from the House of Commons, reducing the Conservative Government's majority to just two seats. Resignations and by-election defeats have cost the Conservatives nineteen seats since the general election just under four years ago.
28 February
The Princess of Wales (Diana) agrees to give the Prince of Wales (now Charles III) a divorce, more than three years after separating.
Sandra Gregory, a British teacher, is sentenced to 25 years in prison in Thailand for drug smuggling, three years after her arrest at Bangkok Airport. Her co-accused, Robert Lock, is cleared of the same charge and returns home.
March
13 March – A gunman kills sixteen children, a teacher and himself in the Dunblane massacre. The killer is quickly identified as 43-year-old former scout leader Thomas Hamilton. It is the worst killing spree in the United Kingdom since the Hungerford massacre in 1987.
20 March
Home Secretary Michael Howard unveils plans to give courts the power to hand down heavier prison sentences, including sending burglars to prison for at least three years after a third offence and all drug dealers to prison for at least six years. The plans spark controversy, with some critics pointing out that it will increase the prison population by at least 20%.
United Kingdom BSE outbreak: Secretary of State for Health Stephen Dorrell announces a link between the potentially-fatal variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and the eating of beef infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy.
22 March – The European Union prohibits exports of British beef because of the BSE crisis.
29 March – Three British soldiers are sentenced to life imprisonment in Cyprus for the abduction, attempted rape and manslaughter of Danish woman Louise Jensen. The three soldiers are Allan Ford from Birmingham, Justin Fowler from Falmouth and Jeffrey Pernell from Oldbury.
April
1 April – The Local Government etc. (Scotland) and Local Government (Wales) Acts of 1994 come into effect, creating new unitary authorities.
8 April – Opera singer Donald Adams dies of a brain tumour in Norwich, aged 67.
16 April – South East Staffordshire by-election: In a 22-point swing, Labour wins the Staffordshire South East seat from the Conservative Party at a by-election, cutting the Conservative Government's majority to just three seats almost exactly four years after they began the current term of Parliament with a 21-seat majority.
17 April – The Duke and Duchess of York are divorced after ten years of marriage and four years after their separation.
May
2 May
The Conservatives lose 578 seats in local council elections, while Labour increases its total number of councillors nationally to almost 11,000.
The Football Association announces that Glenn Hoddle, the current Chelsea manager, will succeed Terry Venables as manager of the England national football team after next month's European Championships, which England is hosting for the first time.
5 May – Manchester United win the FA Premier League title for the third time in four seasons.
11 May – Manchester United win the FA Cup for a record ninth time by beating Liverpool 1–0 and become the first team to win the double of the league title and FA Cup twice.
17 May – Timothy Morss and Brett Tyler are found guilty of the murder of Daniel Handley, who disappeared near his London home in October 1994 and whose body was found near Bristol five months later. The Old Bailey trial judge sentences them to life imprisonment and recommends that neither of them is ever released.
20 May – Actor and comedian Jon Pertwee dies aged 76 of a heart attack in Connecticut, United States, shortly after the release of the Doctor Who television film.
30 May
the Duke and Duchess of York complete their divorce proceedings. The former Duchess loses the title HRH and becomes Sarah, Duchess of York.
Sara Thornton, a Warwickshire woman who was jailed for life in 1990 for the murder of her abusive husband Malcolm the previous year, is released from prison after the Court of Appeal reduces her conviction to manslaughter.
June
8 June – The European Football Championships begin in England, with the host nation drawing 1–1 with Switzerland in the opening game.
13 June – The parliament of Guernsey, Channel Islands, votes to legalise abortion 86 years after it was outlawed.
15 June – A bombing takes place in Manchester.
England and Scotland meet for the first time in a major football tournament when they play their group match at Euro '96. England win the match 2–0.
16 June – Launch of The Planet on Sunday, a new Sunday tabloid focusing on environmental issues. Publication of the newspaper ceases after one edition because the owner is unhappy with its content.
19 June – The government selects the Greenwich Peninsula site on the banks of the River Thames as the location for the Millennium Dome exhibition which is set to open for the year 2000.
21 June – The latest MORI poll shows the Conservatives on 31%, their best showing for three years, but they are still 21 points behind Labour with just under a year to go before the next general election is due to be held.
26 June – England's hopes of being European champions of football for the first time are ended with a penalty shootout defeat to Germany after a 1–1 draw in the semi-final.
30 June – Germany wins the European Championship final with a 2–1 victory over the Czech Republic at Wembley.
July
5 July – Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell, is born at the Roslin Institute.
8 July – The Spice Girls' debut single Wannabe is released.
12 July – South African President Nelson Mandela visits the UK.
15 July – A Provisional Irish Republican Army unit plotting to disrupt the London electricity supply is arrested in Operation AIRLINES.
18 July – Howard Hughes, 31, is found guilty of the murder of Sophie Hook in Llandudno, North Wales, twelve months ago. He is sentenced to life imprisonment at Chester Crown Court and the trial judge Mr Justice Curtis recommends that he is never released.
19 July–9 August – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, and win 1 Gold, 8 Silver and 6 Bronze medals. The only gold medal is won by Matthew Pinsent and Steve Redgrave in rowing (men's coxless pair).
30 July – Alan Shearer becomes the most expensive footballer in the world in a £15,000,000 transfer from Blackburn Rovers to Newcastle United F.C.
August
9 August – Sir Frank Whittle, inventor of the turbojet engine, dies of cancer at his home in Columbia, Maryland, United States, aged 89.
14 August – Unemployment has fallen to 2,126,200 – its lowest level since the summer of 1991.
28 August – The Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) complete their divorce proceedings after fifteen years of marriage. Their separation was first announced nearly four years ago. The former Princess of Wales loses her style of Royal Highness and assumes the style Diana, Princess of Wales.
September
September
Ford launches its new Ka city car, which makes use of a shortened Fiesta chassis. A revamped Mondeo goes on sale next month.
Launch of the second generation Nissan Primera, built at Nissan's Sunderland factory.
BBC Two shows the first episode of lifestyle reality television show Changing Rooms.
5 September – Matthew Harding, vice-chairman of Chelsea FC, makes a £1,000,000 donation to the Labour Party – the largest donation made to the party by any individual.
20 September – Jockey Willie Carson is injured by a horse at Newbury, Berkshire.
October
2 October – Lawyer and politician John Taylor is made a Life Peer as Baron Taylor of Warwick, the first black Conservative peer.
7 October – The Thiepval barracks bombing in Lisburn (Northern Ireland) injures many people, including a soldier who later dies from his injuries.
12 October – The Conservative government's majority has dwindled to a single seat following the defection of Peter Thurnham to the Liberal Democrats.
13 October
Racing driver Damon Hill wins the Japanese Grand Prix thus, clinching the Drivers' World Championship.
The Queen opens Durham's new Riverside Ground in Chester-le-Street, the first new purpose-built first-class county cricket ground in the UK for over 100 years.
16 October – The government announces plans to make possession of handguns illegal in the UK, following the Dunblane massacre.
November
3 November – Barry Porter, Conservative MP for Wirral South, dies of cancer aged 57.
8 November – With the next general election, no more than six months away, Labour still look set for a return to power after eighteen years in opposition, but the Conservatives have cut their lead to seventeen points in the latest MORI opinion poll – one of the narrowest gaps seen between the two leading parties in any opinion poll over the last three years.
13 November – The Stone of Scone is taken away from King Edward's Chair in Westminster Abbey, its location since 1296, and returned to Scotland.
18 November – Channel Tunnel fire – The Channel Tunnel is closed when a truck on a transporter wagon catches fire, disrupting Eurotunnel Shuttle and Eurostar services.
24 November – BBC One airs The Simpsons for the first time with There's No Disgrace Like Home being the first episode.
30 November – The Stone of Scone is installed in Edinburgh Castle 700 years after it was removed from Scotland by King Edward I of England.
December
7 December – Sir John Gorst, 68-year-old Conservative MP for Hendon North in London, resigns the party whip, leaving the Conservative Party without a majority in the House of Commons.
10 December
James Mirrlees wins the Nobel Prize in Economics jointly with William Vickrey "for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information".
Harold Kroto wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley "for their discovery of fullerenes".
11 December – Comedian Willie Rushton dies aged 59 in hospital in Kensington, London, of a heart attack, ten years after jokingly predicting it.
18 December – Unemployment has fallen below 2,000,000 for the first time in almost six years, four years since it peaked at nearly 3,000,000 during the recession. Despite the strong economic recovery and falling unemployment, the Conservatives are still trailing behind Labour in the opinion polls, a stark contrast to their performance at the last election, where they retained power despite Britain being in recession.
Undated
Remaining provincial branches of the Bank of England, at Leeds, Newcastle, Manchester, Birmingham and Bristol, are closed.
More than 4% of the UK population (some 2,500,000 people) now have internet access.
New car sales in the United Kingdom are above 2,000,000 for this year, a level last seen in 1990.
Panathlon Foundation is formed by Ashley Iceton.
Publications
Iain M. Banks's novel Excession.
Seamus Deane's novel Reading in the Dark.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Feet of Clay and Hogfather; and his Johnny Maxwell novel Johnny and the Bomb.
Graham Swift's novel Last Orders.
Meera Syal's semi-autobiographical novel Anita and Me.
Births
January
3 January – Florence Pugh, actress
4 January – Jade Jones, athlete
5 January – Maxim Baldry, English actor
8 January – Hiram Boateng, footballer
10 January – Lauren McCrostie, actress
11 January – Charlie Coulson, footballer
17 January – Kirsty Hickey, actor, singer and dancer
21 January – Kyle Lander, footballer
23 January – Ruben Loftus-Cheek, footballer
26 January – Tyger Drew-Honey, actor
29 January – Megan Jossa, actress
February
1 February
Josh Bates, motorcycle speedway rider
Dionne Bromfield, singer-songwriter and television presenter
7 February – Nathan Curtis, footballer
14 February – Bethany Firth, swimmer
20 February – Patrick Brough, footballer
21 February – Sophie Turner, actress
March
11 March – William Lenney, YouTuber
12 March – Byron Lawrence, footballer
16 March – Ivan Toney, footballer
17 March – Lydia Lloyd-Henry, actress
19 March – Kaiya Jones, Scottish-born Australian actress
20 March – Charley Hull, golfer
21 March – Adam Ellis, French-born grasstrack and speedway rider
22 March
Jonathan Mason, actor
Izzy Meikle-Small, actress
31 March – Barney Gibson, cricketer
April
3 April – Anna Jobarteh, actress
5 April – Lowri Shone, ballerina
8 April – Lorna Fitzgerald, actress
11 April – Dele Alli, footballer
12 April – Georgia Hall, golfer
17 April – Lorna Fitzgerald, actress
23 April – Charlie Rowe, actor
25 April
Bryn Morris, footballer
Brad Walker, footballer
May
3 May – Danielle Alakija, athlete
15 May – Birdy, musician
16 May – Jermaine Anderson, footballer
31 May – Martha Thomas, footballer
June
1 June – Tom Holland, actor and dancer
4 June – Ruby Harrold, gymnast
11 June – Hakeeb Adelakun, footballer
23 June – Charlie Jones, actor
24 June – Harris Dickinson, actor, writer, and director
27 June – James Forde, actor
28 June – William Miller, actor
30 June – Gregor Ramsay, racing driver
July
9 July – Scott McMann, footballer
11 July – Ross Stewart, footballer
13 July – Ché Adams, footballer
15 July – Mason Bennett, footballer
16 July – Daniel Pearson, actor and presenter
20 July – Martin James Bartlett, pianist
24 July – Jordan McGhee, footballer
26 July
Olivia Breen, athlete
CDawgVA, youtuber
28 July
Anya Chalotra, actress
Samuel Chatto, son of Lady Sarah Chatto and Daniel Chatto
August
2 August – Robert Madge, actor
5 August – Hannah Russell, paralympic swimmer
9 August – Céline Buckens, Belgian-born actress
20 August – Sophie Kamlish, paralympic
22 August
Jessica-Jane Applegate, swimmer
Shannon Flynn, actress
26 August – Tom Harwood, journalist
September
2 September – Hannah Jones, snooker player
11 September – Swarmz, rapper
17 September – Ella Purnell, actress
20 September – Jerome Sinclair, footballer
25 September
Jake Pratt, actor
John Souttar, footballer
28 September – Aiden Moffat, racing driver
October
4 October – Ella Balinska, actress
7 October – Lewis Capaldi, Scottish singer-songwriter
11 October – Hollie Doyle, flat racing jockey
16 October – Sam Thornton, diver
17 October – Princess Marie-Caroline of Liechtenstein
19 October
Daniel Goodfellow, diver
Samuel Honywood, actor
21 October – Alicia Blagg, diver
22 October – Mason Holgate, footballer
25 October – Georgia Lock, actress and presenter
26 October – Rebecca Tunney, gymnast
31 October – Connor Wilkinson, actor
November
11 November – Ryan Kent, footballer
12 November – Alexander Ogilvy, son of James Ogilvy
23 November – James Maddison, footballer
24 November – Harry Lewis, youtuber
28 November – Peter Moore, trombonist
December
9 December – Deji Olatunji, youtuber and brother of KSI
18 December – Devaanshi Mehta, started the Asian Donor Campaign (ADC) (died 2012)
21 December – Ben Chilwell, footballer
26 December – Cassius Taylor, son of Lady Helen Taylor
Full date unknown
Maz Totterdell, singer and songwriter
Nadia Whittome, Labour Member of Parliament
Deaths
January
3 January – Terence Cuneo, artist (born 1907)
6 January
Henry Hopkinson, 1st Baron Colyton, politician and diplomat (born 1902)
John Philipps Kenyon, historian (born 1927)
7 January – Seton Lloyd, archaeologist (born 1902)
8 January
Joyce McCartan, Northern Irish community worker and peace activist (born 1929)
Norrie McCathie, Scottish footballer (born 1961); poisoning
9 January – Ronnie Bell, physical chemist (born 1907)
11 January
Harold Walter Bailey, linguist (born 1899)
Eric Hebborn, painter and author (born 1934)
15 January – Richard Cobb, historian and professor (born 1917)
16 January – Harry Potts, footballer and manager (born 1920)
17 January
Charles Madge, poet, journalist and sociologist (born 1912)
Harry Robertson, musician and composer (born 1932)
18 January – John Hope, 1st Baron Glendevon, peer and politician (born 1912)
21 January – Peter Stadlen, pianist (born 1910 in Austria-Hungary)
23 January – Norman MacCaig, poet and teacher (born 1910)
27 January – Barbara Skelton, socialite (born 1916)
29 January – Terence Reese, bridge player and writer (born 1913)
February
6 February
Renee Roberts, actress (born 1908)
Patsy Smart, actress (born 1918)
9 February
Sir George Trevelyan, 4th Baronet, educational pioneer (born 1906)
Sir Stephen Hope Carlill, Royal Navy admiral (born 1902)
Gerald Savory, playwright and screenwriter (born 1909)
10 February – Giovanni Pontiero, scholar (born 1932)
11 February
Cyril Poole, cricketer (born 1921)
Bob Shaw, Northern Irish science fiction writer (born 1931)
14 February
Lady Caroline Blackwood, writer (born 1931)
Eva Hart, fifth-last survivor of the sinking of RMS Titanic (born 1905)
Čeněk Kottnauer, chess player, International Master (1950) (born 1910 in Austria-Hungary)
Bob Paisley, footballer and manager (born 1919)
15 February – Margaret Courtenay, actress (born 1923)
16 February – Kenneth Robinson, politician (born 1911)
17 February – Evelyn Laye, actress (born 1900)
19 February – Brenda Bruce, actress (born 1919)
20 February
Walter Marshall, Baron Marshall of Goring, physicist (born 1932)
Jeffrey Quill, RAF test pilot (born 1913)
22 February – George Christopher Archibald, economist (born 1926)
26 February – John Dalrymple, 13th Earl of Stair, Scottish peer (born 1906)
27 February
Iain Murray, 10th Duke of Atholl, Scottish peer (born 1931)
Pat Smythe, show jumper (born 1928)
March
5 March – Joshua Compston, art curator (born 1970); drug overdose
6 March
Simon Cadell, actor (born 1950)
Douglas Jay, Baron Jay, politician (born 1907)
7 March – Willie Fraser, Scottish footballer (born 1929)
8 March – Jack Churchill, British Army officer (born 1906 in Hong Kong)
11 March
Sir Granville Beynon, physicist (born 1914)
Paul Crossley, English footballer (born 1948)
Sir Charles Oatley, physicist (born 1904)
15 March – Helen Chadwick, sculptor (born 1953)
16 March – Dennis Jennings, English footballer (born 1910)
18 March – Jacquetta Hawkes, prehistoric archaeologist (born 1910)
19 March
W. H. Murray, mountaineer and writer (born 1913)
Alan Ridout, composer (born 1934)
22 March – Ron Hayward, politician (born 1917)
25 March – John Snagge, radio personality (born 1904)
29 March – Gordon Pask, psychologist (born 1928)
30 March – Frederick Miller, paediatrician (born 1911)
April
4 April
Brian Abel-Smith, economist (born 1926)
Winifred Shotter, actress (born 1904)
6 April – Greer Garson, actress (born 1904)
7 April – Berkely Mather, writer (born 1909)
8 April – Donald Adams, actor and opera singer (born 1928)
13 April
George Mackay Brown, Scottish poet and dramatist (born 1921)
Denis Sargan, econometrician (born 1924)
14 April – Mervyn Levy, artist and writer on art (born 1914)
18 April – Mike Leander, songwriter and record producer (born 1941)
19 April – John Martin, spree killer (born 1959); executed in Singapore
20 April – Christopher Robin Milne, author and bookseller (born 1920)
23 April – P. L. Travers, novelist (Mary Poppins) (born 1899 in Australia)
24 April
Donald Cammell, Scottish screenwriter and film director (born 1934); suicide
Preston Lockwood, actor (born 1912)
25 April – John Lorne Campbell, Scottish historian (born 1906)
27 April – Joan Sterndale-Bennett, actress (born 1914)
May
1 May – Eric Houghton, English footballer and manager (born 1910)
2 May
Douglas Houghton, Baron Houghton of Sowerby, politician, last Cabinet minister born in the 19th century (born 1898)
Peter Swales, businessman and football chairman (born 1932)
5 May – Beryl Burton, racing cyclist (born 1937)
6 May – Wally Nightingale, guitarist (born 1956)
7 May
Albert Meltzer, anarchist writer (born 1920)
Howard Smith, diplomat (born 1919)
14 May – Vera Chapman, writer (born 1898)
19 May – Margaret Rawlings, actress (born 1906)
20 May – Jon Pertwee, actor (born 1919)
23 May – Patrick Cargill, actor (born 1918)
24 May
John Abbott, actor (born 1905)
Sir Harry Campion, statistician (born 1905)
25 May – John Morrison, 1st Baron Margadale, peer and politician (born 1906)
29 May – Jeremy Sinden, actor (born 1950)
30 May
John Cameron, Lord Cameron, Scottish judge (born 1900)
Heather Canning, actress (born 1933)
June
2 June – Leon Garfield, children's author (born 1921)
3 June – Peter Glenville, actor and director (born 1913)
7 June – Percy Edwards, animal impersonator (born 1908)
8 June – Phyllis Stedman, Baroness Stedman, politician (born 1916)
15 June
Allenby Chilton, former footballer and football manager (born 1918)
Sir Fitzroy Maclean, 1st Baronet, Scottish soldier, writer and politician (born 1911)
17 June – James Hamilton, disc jockey and journalist (born 1942)
19 June – Vivian Ellis, composer and lyricist (born 1903)
20 June – John Buchan, 2nd Baron Tweedsmuir, peer (born 1911)
21 June – Cyril Holmes, Olympic sprinter (1936) (born 1915)
25 June – Ray Howard-Jones, painter (born 1903)
29 June – Pamela Mason, actress and screenwriter (born 1916)
July
1 July – Alfred Marks, actor and comedian (born 1921)
7 July – Michael McGoldrick, Northern Irish taxi driver (born 1965); murdered
8 July – Ernest Armstrong, politician (born 1915)
9 July – Christopher Casson, actor (born 1912)
12 July – Walter Hassan, automotive engineer (born 1907)
14 July – Richard Ripley, athlete (born 1901)
17 July
Chas Chandler, musician and record producer (born 1938)
Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe, landscape architect (born 1900)
19 July – Mervyn Cowie, conservationist (born 1909)
20 July – Colin Mitchell, Army soldier and politician (born 1925)
21 July – Wolfe Morris, actor (born 1925)
22 July – Rob Collins, musician (born 1963); died in a car accident
23 July – Jessica Mitford, author, one of the Mitford sisters (born 1917)
24 July – Jock Wallace, Scottish footballer and manager (born 1935)
27 July – Jane Drew, writer, architect and academic (born 1911)
29 July – Hilary Pritchard, actress (born 1942)
August
4 August – Geoff Hamilton, television presenter (born 1936)
5 August – Frank Marcus, playwright (born 1928)
6 August
Ossie Clark, fashion designer (born 1942); murdered
Charles Hadfield, historian (born 1909)
7 August – Anne Kristen, actress (born 1937)
8 August – Sir Neville Francis Mott, physicist (born 1905)
9 August – Sir Frank Whittle, RAF officer and inventor (born 1907)
10 August – Rex Tucker, television director (born 1913)
12 August – Anthony Parsons, diplomat (born 1922)
14 August – Albert Neuberger, biochemist (born 1908, German Empire)
18 August
Geoffrey Dearmer, poet (born 1893)
Hugo Gryn, rabbi (born 1930)
24 August – Eric Heaton, priest and scholar (born 1920)
27 August – Abram Games, graphic designer (born 1914)
29 August – Phyllis Pearsall, cartographer and creator of the A–Z (born 1906)
September
3 September – Julian Amery, Baron Amery of Lustleigh, politician (born 1919)
4 September – Joan Clarke, cryptanalyst and numismatist (born 1917)
10 September
Ray Coleman, journalist and author (born 1937)
Plantagenet Somerset Fry, historian (born 1931); suicide
11 September – Brenda Forbes, actress (born 1909)
13 September – Jane Baxter, actress (born 1909)
19 September
George Hunt, English footballer (born 1910)
Douglas Hyde, journalist and writer (born 1911)
22 September – Brook Bernacchi, lawyer (born 1922)
23 September – Stuart Piggott, archaeologist (born 1910)
24 September
I. E. S. Edwards, Egyptologist (born 1909)
Mark Frankel, actor (born 1962); accidentally killed
26 September – Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson, chemist (born 1921)
29 September – Leslie Crowther, comedian and TV presenter (born 1933)
30 September – Kenneth Muir, literary scholar (born 1907)
October
3 October – Eustace Roskill, Baron Roskill, lawyer and judge (born 1911)
6 October – Winifred Drinkwater, aviator and aeroplane engineer (born 1913)
8 October – Geoffrey Finsberg, politician (born 1926)
9 October
Nigel Fisher, politician (born 1913)
George F. Kerr, screenwriter (born 1918)
Roy Lewis, writer and small press printer (born 1913)
11 October – Terry Patchett, politician (born 1940)
13 October – Beryl Reid, actress (born 1919)
14 October – William John Hooper, cartoonist (born 1916)
16 October
Sir Anthony Griffin, Royal Navy admiral (born 1920)
Eric Malpass, novelist (born 1910)
17 October
Chris Acland, rock drummer and songwriter (born 1966); suicide
Berthold Goldschmidt, composer (born 1903, German Empire)
Bert Hopwood, motorcycle designer (born 1908)
19 October – John Hillaby, travel writer and explorer (born 1917)
21 October – Eric Halsall, author and television presenter (born 1920)
22 October
John Bauldie, journalist (born 1949); helicopter crash
Matthew Harding, businessman (born 1953); same helicopter crash
24 October
Sir Roderick Barclay, diplomat (born 1909)
Gladwyn Jebb, diplomat and politician (born 1900)
26 October – Derek Tangye, author (born 1912)
28 October – Robert Hankey, 2nd Baron Hankey, peer and diplomat (born 1905)
November
3 November – Barry Porter, politician (born 1939)
6 November – Tommy Lawton, footballer (born 1919)
8 November
Laurence Baxter, statistician (born 1954)
Peter Fowler, physicist (born 1923)
Sydney Selwyn, physician (born 1934)
9 November – Roger Makins, 1st Baron Sherfield, diplomat (born 1904)
10 November – Marjorie Proops, journalist (born 1911)
11 November – Janice Adair, film actress (born 1905)
14 November – Derek Marlowe, playwright, novelist and painter (born 1938)
16 November
Reginald Bevins, politician (born 1908)
Jack Popplewell, playwright (born 1909)
18 November
Douglas Guest, organist and conductor (born 1916)
Charles Hare, tennis player (born 1915)
John Vassall, Soviet spy (born 1924)
21 November – Bernard Rose, organist, soldier and academic (born 1916)
24 November – Sorley MacLean, Scottish Gaelic poet (born 1911)
26 November – Michael Bentine, comedian and comic actor (born 1922)
28 November – Anna Pollak, opera singer (born 1912)
29 November – Denis Jenkinson, motorsports journalist (born 1920)
December
9 December
Mary Leakey, archaeologist (born 1913)
Diana Morgan, playwright and screenwriter (born 1908)
Ivor Roberts-Jones, sculptor (born 1913)
Raphael Samuel, Marxist historian (born 1934)
11 December
Willie Rushton, comedian, actor and cartoonist (born 1937)
W. G. G. Duncan Smith, World War II air ace (born 1914)
13 December
Edward Blishen, author and broadcaster (born 1920)
Sir James Cassels, Army field marshal (born 1907)
Arthur Jacobs, musicologist (born 1922)
15 December – Dave Kaye, pianist (born 1906)
16 December – Quentin Bell, biographer and art historian (born 1910)
17 December – Ruby Murray, Northern Irish singer (born 1925)
18 December – Gwilym Hugh Lewis, World War I air ace (born 1897)
19 December – Ronald Howard, actor and writer (born 1908)
23 December
Ronnie Scott, jazz musician and club owner (born 1927)
Emrys Thomas, Welsh politician (born 1900)
29 December – Alma Birk, Baroness Birk, politician and journalist (born 1917)
30 December – Michael Roberts, historian (born 1908)
See also
List of British films of 1996
References
United Kingdom
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yannis%20Makriyannis
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Yannis Makriyannis
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Yiannis Makriyiannis (, Giánnēs Makrygiánnīs; 1797–1864), born Ioannis Triantaphyllou (, Iōánnēs Triantafýllou), was a Greek merchant, military officer, politician and author, best known today for his Memoirs. Starting from humble origins, he joined the Greek struggle for independence, achieving the rank of general and leading his men to notable victories, most notably the successful defense of Nafplio in the Battle of the Lerna Mills. Following Greek independence, he had a tumultuous public career, playing a prominent part in the granting of the first Constitution of the Kingdom of Greece and later being sentenced to death and pardoned.
Despite his important contributions to the political life of the early Greek state, general Makriyiannis is mostly remembered for his Memoirs. Aside from being a source of historical and cultural information about the period, this work has also been called a "monument of Modern Greek literature", as it is written in pure Demotic Greek. Indeed, its literary quality led Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis to call Makriyiannis one of the greatest masters of Modern Greek prose.
Biography
Early life
Yiannis Makriyiannis was born to a poor family at the village of Avoriti, in Phocis. "Makriyiannis" (Long Yiannis) was a nickname he acquired because of his height. His father, Dimitris Triantaphyllou, was killed in a clash with the forces of Ali Pasha. His family was forced to flee to Levadeia, where Makriyiannis spent his childhood up to 1811. At age seven, he was given as a foster son to a wealthy man from Levadeia, but the menial labour and beatings he endured were, in his own words, "his death". Thus, in 1811 he left for Arta to stay with an acquaintance who maintained close relations with Ali Pasha. There, still a teenager, he was involved in trade and, according to his memoirs, became a wealthy man. His property amounted to 40,000 piastres. According to Sphyroeras, he probably joined the Filiki Etaireia, a secret anti-Ottoman society, in 1820. In March 1821 he left for Patras, in the Peloponnese, supposedly on business. His actual assignment, however, was to inform local members of the Filiki Etaireia of the state of affairs in his native Roumeli. Having met with Odysseas Androutsos, he returned to Arta two days before the revolution broke out in Patras and was promptly arrested by the Ottoman authorities and placed under arrest in the local fortress. He was held captive for 90 days but managed to escape and, in August 1821, first took up arms against the Ottomans under chieftain Gogos Bakolas.
Activity during the War of Independence
Under the command of Gogos Bakolas, in September 1821 he took part in the battle of Stavros, near Tzoumerka, and in the battle of Peta, where he sustained a light leg injury. A few days later he took part in the siege of Arta that temporarily brought the city under Greek control. In late 1821, he left for Mesolonghi, but there, according to his memoirs, he fell seriously ill, only recovering in March 1822. Having spent his recovery in the village of Sernikaki, near Salona, he resumed military action, assuming the leadership of a band of warriors from four villages in the vicinity. He fought alongside several other chieftains during the successful siege of Patratziki, which had been fortified with considerable Ottoman forces.
After the Acropolis of Athens was surrendered by the Ottomans in June 1822, Makriyiannis was appointed Supervisor of Public Order in the city by the executive authority of Roumeli on 1 January 1823. In that office, he took severe measures aimed at stopping arbitrary oppression of the populace and thievery. In the summer of 1823, he fought alongside Nikitaras in the eastern part of Central Greece. In October 1823, he led a force of Roumeliots in the Peloponnese, and fought alongside the government of Georgios Kountouriotis against the rebels in the civil war. For his actions during that conflict, he was rewarded with the rank of brigadier, promoted to lieutenant general in August 1824 and full general in late 1824.
In March 1825, after the Peloponnese had been invaded by Egyptian forces, he was appointed politarch (head of public order) of Kyparissia and took part in the defence of Neokastro. After the fortress fell on 11 May 1825, he hurried to Myloi, near Nafplio, arriving with one hundred men on 10 June. He ordered the construction of makeshift fortifications, as well as the gathering of provisions. More chieftains soon arrived in Myloi and Ibrahim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian forces, was unable to take the position, despite numerical superiority and the launching of fierce attacks on 12 and 14 June. Makriyiannis was injured during the battle and was carried to Nafplio.
Soon after the battle, he married the daughter of a prominent Athenian, and his activities were thereafter inextricably linked with that city until his death. After Athens was captured by Ibrahim Pasha in June 1826, Makriyiannis helped organise the defence of the Acropolis, and became the provisional commander of the garrison after the death of the commander, Yiannis Gouras. He managed to repel a fierce assault against the Odeon of Herodes Atticus on 7 October, and during the defence of the Acropolis, he sustained heavy injures three times, to the head and to the neck. These wounds troubled him for the remainder of his life, but they did not dissuade him from taking part in the last phase of the war: in the spring of 1827 he took part in the battles of Piraeus and the battle of Phaleron.
Activity after Greek Independence
Governorship of Kapodistrias
Makriyiannis's activity did not cease with the achievement of Greek independence. After Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias arrived in Greece, he appointed Makriyiannis "General Leader of the Executive Authority of the Peloponnese", based in Argos, in 1828. It was during this period, and more specifically on 26 February 1829, that he started writing his Memoirs. After Kapodistrias restructured the military in 1830, Makriyiannis was given the rank of brigadier. However, he slowly came to oppose the Governor's policies and eventually broke with him. He opposed what he considered Kapodistrias's personal authoritarianism and, on a more personal level, was concerned about whether his home region would be included or not in the liberated Greek state. Influenced by Ioannis Kolettis, he even tried to force the Governor into accepting a constitutional form of government, using the troops under his command, but had no success. Finally, in August 1831, the government forced all civil servants and military personnel to sign an oath stating they were not part of secret organizations and that they were loyal servants of the government's commands. Makriyiannis considered this to be degrading, and tried to author his own version of an oath instead. This, however, was not accepted by the government, and he was consequently stripped of his positions. His opposition to the existing regime did not cease with the Governor's assassination on 9 October 1831. He took the side of the "Constitutionalists" and fought against the governor's brother and successor Augustinos Kapodistrias. He did, however, condemn the assassination itself in the strongest terms.
Reign of King Otto
Otto, Prince of Bavaria, was chosen as the first King of Greece in 1832, under the name Othon. His arrival in Nafplio, then the Greek capital, was hailed enthusiastically by Makriyiannis. This attitude is exemplified in his Memoirs: The hopes he had for the new regime, however, were soon to be dispelled. King Otto was underage and Bavarian regents were named to rule on his behalf during the first months of his rule. During the regency, Makriyiannis came into conflict with the War Minister, the Bavarian Heideck, due to the latter's attitude towards the veterans of the War of Independence. In the newly restructured Hellenic Army, there was little place left for the irregular bands of klephts. These guerilla-styled fighters had formed the backbone of the Greek forces during the war, and Makriyiannis considered their exclusion from the newly formed army disrespectful. Furthermore, most of these men had been left with no resources after their exclusion from the military, and found themselves in a dire financial situation. Makriyiannis also believed that the Prime Minister, the Bavarian von Armansperg, was personally responsible for the serious problems faced by the newly formed state. As a consequence, Makriyiannis briefly retired from active politics.
After municipalities were first instituted by Royal decree on 27 December 1833, Makriyiannis was elected to the city council of Athens (the city becoming the new capital in 1834). In that capacity he harshly criticised, to the extent that it was possible, what he perceived as omissions and authoritarianism by the royal administration and Palace Cabinet. He often voiced his demand for constitutional rule, even though the royal administration had initially held him in high esteem and given him the rank of colonel. During the King's absence from Greece on the occasion of his marriage to Queen Amalia (late 1836 – early 1837), public discontent with von Armansperg was at its peak. The newspapers Athena and Elpis criticized him severely, and some politicians called for his removal. Makriyiannis, in his capacity as President of the Athens city council, proposed, in January 1837, the adoption of a resolution to be handed to the King upon his return requesting the granting of a Constitution. Not long before that, at a banquet attended by former fighters of the War of Independence, such as Kountouriotis, Kolokotronis and others, Makriyiannis had toasted the health of the royal couple, adding "may God enlighten them to rule us through constitutional laws, in accordance with the fatherland's sacrifices". Von Armansperg immediately dissolved the city council, fired Mayor Petrakis and had Makriyiannis placed under house arrest. Sometime during this period, Makriyiannis commissioned 25 engravings from the painter and veteran of the War of Independence, Panaghiotis Zographos. The profits from the sales were used to the benefit of veterans of the war.
Meanwhile, the demand for constitutional liberties was becoming widespread, as was discontent with King Otto's Bavarian administration. The situation escalated in the 3 September 1843 Revolution that led to the granting of the first Constitution. Makriyiannis was one of the three leaders of the movement. He played a crucial part in paving the way for this, having started as early as 1840. After its granting, he also played an important part in the forming of the new cabinet. He was elected as a representative of Athens to the National (Constitutional) Assembly, and headed an informal group of 63 representatives loyal to him. He personally proposed various recommendations during the course of the proceedings. Soon after the conclusion of the Assembly's work, however, he retired from politics. For his leading role in the creation of the first Greek Constitution, Makriyiannis was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 50 drachmas commemorative coin issued in 1994 for the 150th anniversary of this historic document. There are three versions of the coin, each featuring one of the three leaders of the 3 September movement: one features Makriyiannis, one colonel Dimitrios Kallergis, and one minister (and later prime minister) Andreas Metaxas.
Makriyiannis stopped working on his memoirs in 1850, so information about the rest of his life, including his trial, comes from other sources. He was always outspoken about his views, and as a result he stirred negative reactions among his opponents. He opposed what he perceived as a continued degradation of the veterans of the War of Independence, and had repeatedly been considered suspect of plotting against King Otho. Furthermore, the King never quite forgave him for his part in the 3 September movement. When summoned to the palace and asked to denounce all the conspirators of 1843, Makriyiannis refused, saying "I am not a slave". Eventually, in 1852, he was accused of planning to "overthrow the establishments and assassinate the King". On 13 April 1852 he was placed under house arrest, heavily guarded and with an officer posted in the room next to his own. On 16 March 1853 he was sentenced to death, in what has been called a "pre-fabricated trial". According to Vidal-Naquet, the prosecution brought up false testimonies and false evidence. Furthermore, the president of the tribunal, Kitsos Tzavelas, was a personal enemy of Makriyiannis. Five out of the six judges voted for the death sentence, and requested the King to extend royal clemency. His sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the King, but he only spent 18 months in prison. King Otho reduced the sentence first to twenty, and later to ten years. He was finally pardoned and released on 2 September 1854, thanks to the Crimean War. The blockade of Peiraeus by the French and British fleets also led to the imposition of Kallergis as Minister of War, despite his previous attempts at overthrowing the King. Thus, Kallergis used his newly acquired influence to have Makriyiannis released. Makriyiannis suffered greatly in prison, and after his release suffered from hallucinations. His condition did not improve with the death of one of his younger sons in the cholera epidemic that struck Athens.
On 10 October 1862 a revolution broke out, which led to the eviction of King Otto from the country. Makriyiannis's son, the future general Othon Makriyiannis, reportedly presented his father with the King's golden crown. Makriyiannis was restored to the ranks he had been stripped of as a result of his trial, and was re-elected as a representative of Athens to the new National (Constitutional) Assembly of 1864. He was promoted to the rank of general on 20 April 1864, and died on 27 April.
Literary work
Assessment and significance
Makriyiannis concluded work on his Memoirs in the years before his imprisonment; the last entries seem to be from September or October 1850, as evinced by his references to the events of that period. In the text of the Memoirs, one can see not only the personal adventures and disappointments of his long public career, but, more significantly, his views on people, situations and events, phrased clearly and quite often passionately. They were first published in 1907 by Yiannis Vlahogiannis, while some fragments of them had earlier been published in the newspaper Acropolis in 1904. Spyridon Lambros, in 1908, noted his straightforwardness and slight egotism, along with his holding firm to his own opinion (as quoted by Sphyroeras). Kostis Palamas, in 1911, called his work "incomparable in its kind, a masterpiece of his illiterate, but strong and autonomous mind" (ibid). Makriyiannis had received only the most basic and fragmentary education, and, according to his own testimony, mastered writing shortly before he started writing his Memoirs, while he was stationed in Argos.
Makriyiannis, having been ignored by history, and hardly mentioned by chroniclers of the War of Independence, had renewed interest in the revolution by offering a significant personal testimony to historical research. Despite this, after the initial interest in the newly published Memoirs, they were hardly cited for almost 40 years. One could say that Makriyiannis was forgotten, not only as a fighter, but also as the author of a text written in Demotic Greek; a text that, besides reproducing the heroic atmosphere of the War of Independence, is also a treasure-house of linguistic knowledge concerning the common Greek tongue of the time.
Makriyiannis's reputation was revived during the German occupation of Greece. In 1941, Yorgos Theotokas published an article on the general, calling his Memoirs "a monument of Modern Greek literature" because they were written in pure Demotic Greek. Two years later, in 1943, the Greek Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis gave a lecture on him, saying:
According to the National Book Centre of Greece, Seferis also stated that Makriyiannis, along with Alexandros Papadiamantis, is one of the two greatest masters of modern Greek prose.
Since then hundreds of essays have been written on the subject of his Memoirs, and it would be fair to say that the chronicler has overshadowed the fighter, and with good reason, according to Sphyroeras. Spyros Asdrachas has noted that:
The general's objectivity, however, has often been questioned. Vlahogiannis, in his preface to the Memoirs, praises his honesty and contrasts it to his lack of objectivity and impartiality. While always straightforward, Makriyiannis clearly holds a grudge against people he had come into conflict with. He often uses disparaging language against people like Kolokotronis, while staying silent about the more questionable deeds of people he had a favourable opinion of. According to Sphyroeras, however, his judgements do not stem from selfishness, but rather from his severity against those he considered were defaming the cause of Greece.
A few months after completing his Memoirs, on New Year's Eve in 1851, Makriyiannis started to write another "history", as he called it, which he interrupted rather abruptly in late March 1852, when he was under house arrest. This text was acquired in 1936 or 1937 by Vlahogiannis, and was finally published in 1983 by Angelos Papakostas, aptly titled Visions and Wonders. It has, according to Papakostas, far less historical significance than the Memoirs. The events described therein are given briefly, and are used only as an excuse for his meditations and the interpretation of his Visions, on which he particularly insists. Vlahogiannis, according to Sphyroeras, considered the manuscript to be an overzealous work of a deranged mind, and that is the reason he did not publish it. The work, however, is also the product of a physically and mentally tormented soul, who, being isolated at the age of 54, instead converses with God, the Panagia, and the saints. It also shows Makriyiannis's deep religious feeling; he turns away from guns, instead seeking the nation's salvation through divine intervention. Furthermore, as Sphyroeras points out, the work is unique in Modern Greek literature in its subject matter, and is, as the Memoirs, a significant source of linguistic and cultural information.
Works
Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs) first published: Athens: 1907
Ὁράματα καὶ Θάματα (Visions and Wonders) first published: Athens: 1983
Notes
References
Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios (in Greek).
Général MacriYiannis, Mémoires, (preface by Pierre Vidal-Naquet), Albin Michel (in French).
George Seferis, Dokimes (Essays) in 3 vols. (vols 1–2, 3rd ed. (ed. G.P. Savidis) 1974; vol 3 (ed. Dimitri Daskalopoulos) 1992) (work first published 1944) (in Greek).
National Book Centre of Greece's biography of Makriyiannis (affiliated with Ministry of Culture; in Greek).
General Makriyiannis, Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs), Athens: 1907 (preface by Yiannis Vlahogiannis; in Greek).
General Makriyiannis, Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs), Athens: 1957 (first published 1907; preface by Spyros Asdrachas; in Greek).
General Makriyiannis, Ἀπομνημονεύματα (Memoirs), Athens: Papyros, 1996 (first published 1907; preface by V. Sphyroeras; in Greek).
General Makriyiannis, Makriyiannis: The Memoirs of General Makriyiannis 1797–1864 (ed. & trans. H.A. Lidderdale), Oxford: OUP, 1966 (in English).
General Makriyiannis, Ὁράματα καὶ Θάματα (Visions and Wonders; ed. Angelos Papakostas), Athens: 1983 (in Greek).
Yorgos Theotokas, General Makriyiannis, Nea Estia 1941 (in Greek).
External links
Significant parts of the "Memoirs" (in Greek) and a painting of the general.
The text of the "Memoirs" on the Greek Wikisource in monotonic.
The Ἀπομνημονεύματα in polytonic.
"Miracles of the Divine Providence", commonly known as "Visions and Miracles".
An image of the 50 drachma coin featuring General Makriyiannis.
1797 births
1864 deaths
Greeks from the Ottoman Empire
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Greece
Greek generals
Greek writers
Greek revolutionaries
Greek military leaders of the Greek War of Independence
Burials at the First Cemetery of Athens
French Party politicians
People from Phocis
Members of the Royal Phalanx
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20Directorate%20for%20Reconnaissance
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Main Directorate for Reconnaissance
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The Main Directorate for Reconnaissance (; , ) was the foreign intelligence service of the Ministry of State Security (Stasi), the main security agency of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), from 1955 to 1990.
The HVA was an integral part of the Stasi, responsible for operations outside of East Germany such as espionage, active measures, foreign intelligence gathering, and counterintelligence against NATO-aligned countries and their intelligence agencies.
The Stasi was disbanded in January 1990 and the HVA's mode of operation was revealed to the public, including its internal structure, methods, and employees. The HVA became the subject of broad interest and intensive research under the responsibilities of the Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records. The HVA is regarded by some as the most effective foreign intelligence service during the Cold War and the second largest after Soviet Union's intelligence forces. It provided up to 80 percent of all information about NATO countries before the Warsaw Pact, according to the CIA.
Predecessors
In 1951, the Außenpolitischer Nachrichtendienst (Foreign Intelligence Service) (APN) was founded, under the leadership of Anton Ackermann, disguised as the Institut für wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Forschung (IPW) (Institute for Economic Research). According to Markus Wolf, eight Germans and four Soviet "advisers" were present at the founding on 1 September 1951 in Bohnsdorf in the borough of Treptow-Köpenick. The APN was subordinated to the GDR Foreign Ministry. The first leader was Ackermann, his deputy was Richard Stahlmann. The head of the "advisers" was the KGB officer Andrei Grauer, who, according to Wolf, had been personally assigned by Stalin to this "reconstruction aid."
In 1952, the APN College (the later HVA College) came into being, where agents known as "scouts for peace" (Kundschafter des Friedens) in Stasi jargon were prepared for operations in Western countries. Toward the end of the year, Ackermann petitioned the ruling party's Politburo to replace him, and Walter Ulbricht assumed direct control of the APN.
Duties
Focus
The primary mandate of the HVA was foreign reconnaissance (espionage), which included political, military, economic and technological intelligence-gathering. Among its other duties were activities against western intelligence agencies (by means of infiltrating their operations), preparing acts of sabotage, as well as the so-called "Active Measures" (distributing false intelligence) in the "Operational Sector Federal Republic of Germany", including West Berlin.
In the early 1980s, military espionage began to gain significance. The Soviet Union, the SED-led administration of the German Democratic Republic, and secretary of national security Erich Mielke expected paramount information in regard to the early discovery of Western war preparations from the HVA, in light of the rising tensions between the two Cold War superpowers.
Cooperation with the KGB
Optimal conditions allowed the HVA to provide its eastern "sister services", especially the KGB, the greatest amount of intelligence flowing out of the Federal Republic of Germany. The KGB was headquartered in Berlin-Karlshorst, the Soviet Union's secret service was located in Potsdam-Babelsberg, and in addition, liaisons were present to each district administration. Successful operations against NATO headquarters in Brussels, as well as some other Western European states, such as the United Kingdom, also contributed to the HVA's significance. In the United States, on the contrary, the HVA was never able to break any ground, as the KGB operated there almost exclusively (the significant inroads in the GDR's reconnaissance on, for example, the NSA originated from personnel stationed in West Berlin).
Organisation and structure
Sections
In 1989 the HVA had 21 sections (Abteilungen) and five task forces (Arbeitsgruppen). In addition, there was the Headquarters of the HVA (Stab der HVA) and the Sector for Science and Technology (Sektor Wissenschaft und Technik) (SWT), responsible for technological espionage, whose responsibilities were spread across sections. In a sense the Main Directorate was a secret service within the secret service with an autonomy within the Stasi similar to that enjoyed by the First Chief Directorate within the KGB or the Directorate of Operations within the CIA. The HVA had its own budget and its own enterprises, which not only provided cover employment for its operatives, but also contributed finances from their business activities to the upkeep of the service. The Main Directorate also handled its own counterintelligence. This was an exclusive prerogative of the Stasi within the German Democratic Republic, but while the Main Division I handled this mission within the National People's Army and the Border Troops, the Main Division VII handled the Ministry of the Interior and the People's Police, the Main Division XX handled espionage penetration attempts within the GDR's state apparatus and the Main Division II handled counterintelligence among the East German public in general, counterespionage within the HVA was handled exclusively by its organic Division A IX.
Werner Großmann – Deputy Minister and Chief of the HVA (since 1986), Generaloberst (since 1989)
Work Group S (Arbeitsgruppe S) – internal security within the HVA
Division A X (Abteilung A X) – Active measures in the Federal Republic of Germany (including West Berlin)
Division A VII (Abteilung A VII) – analysis and Information
Division A IX (Abteilung A IX) – penetration of enemy intelligence services in the Federal Republic of Germany and counterintelligence within the HVA
Horst Vogel – First Deputy Chief of the HVA (since 1989) and Chief of the Science and Technology Sector (since 1975), Generalmajor (since 1987)
Department 5 (Referat 5 / SWT) – the work group of the Deputy Chief of the STS Matthias Warnig
Work Group 1 / STS (Arbeitsgruppe 1 / SWT) – officer-residents abroad working in line of the STS
Work Group 3 / STS (Arbeitsgruppe 3 / SWT) – operational acquisition of defence materiel
Work Group 5 / STS (Arbeitsgruppe 5 / SWT) – exploitation of official channels
Division A V (STS) (Abteilung A V (SWT)) – analysis for the STS
Division A VIII (STS) (Abteilung A VIII (SWT)) – operational technology, signals equipment
Division A XIII (STS) (Abteilung A XIII (SWT)) – fundamental studies
Division A XIV (STS) (Abteilung A XIV (SWT)) – electronic, optics, digital data processing
Division A XV (STS) (Abteilung A XV (SWT)) – military technology, mechanical engineering
Division A XX (STS) (Abteilung A XX (SWT)) – data processing and computing center
Heinz Geyer – Deputy Chief of the HVA (since 1977) and Chief of Staff (since 1982), Generalmajor (since 1985)
Staff of the HVA (Stab der HVA)
Work Group XV / BV (Arbeitsgruppe XV / BV) – coordination center for the Divisions XV (the district departments (BezirksVerwaltungen, hence BV) of the Stasi also fielded intelligence departments. They carried the designation Division XV and were coordinated by this work group). Before expanding to the status of an autonomous super-department (the HVA as a whole) the external intelligence department of the Stasi was called Division XV, so the territorial units have retained this designation.
Division A XVII (Abteilung A XVII) – border closure
Division A XXI (Abteilung A XXI) – rear services, administration and finances
Division A VI (Abteilung A VI) – operational travel movement (movement of intelligence officers under the guise of tourism)
Werner Prosetzky – Deputy Chief of the HVA (since 1983), Generalmajor (since 1984)
Division A III (Abteilung A III) – legal officer-residents in Western countries other than the Federal Republic of Germany
Division A XIX (Abteilung A XIX) – training and personnel care
Heinrich Tauchert – Deputy Chief of the HVA (since 1987), Generalmajor (since 1989)
Division A IV (Abteilung A IV) – military intelligence in the Federal Republic of Germany. The Ministry of National Defence had its own intelligence service, which changed its name several times. In its final reiteration before the end of East Germany its official name was the Intelligence Sector (Bereich Aufklärung). The Ministry for State Security also had its own division for military intelligence. Naturally both had West Germany as their main focus. In order to avoid mutual interference they have introduced a separation of their areas of operations. The Intelligence Sector concentrated on the operational side of intel – data about operational plans, manpower and day-to-day operational readiness of the weapons and equipment of the Bundeswehr. The Stasi's (and more precisely the HVA's) Division A IV concentrated on the political and longer term side of intelligence gathering. It operated on military matters in the West German political parties, the Federal Ministry of Defence, the Weaponry Technical Administration (WTD), the administrative departments of the various armed services, research and development establishments, weapons and equipment manufacturers and future weapon acquisitions. Nevertheless, overlapping between the two was not uncommon.
Division A XI (Abteilung A XI) – Intelligence in North America and US military installations in the Federal Republic of Germany
Division A XII (Abteilung A XII) – penetration of NATO and the EEC institutions
Ralf-Peter Devaux – Deputy Chief of the HVA (since 1987), Oberst (since 1987)
Division A I (Abteilung A I) – penetration of the West German state institutions
Division A II (Abteilung A II) – penetration of the West German political parties and public organisations
Division A XVI (Abteilung A XVI) – exploitation of official channels, coordination of HVA business enterprises
Division A XVI (Abteilung A XVIII) – sabotage preparations
Horst Felber – First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party organs in the Stasi (since 1979), Generalmajor (since 1979)
Leadership
Sections VII, IX, X and task force S were directly subordinated to the head of the HVA, Colonel General Werner Großmann.
His predecessor was Colonel General Markus Wolf, who led the HVA over 34 years until 1986 and was held in high professional regard in the intelligence community.
The head of the HVA had five deputies. In the last case, these were Major Generals Horst Vogel (1. Deputy), Heinz Geyer (Chief of Staff), Heinrich Tauchert and Werner Prosetzky as well as Colonel Ralf-Peter Devaux.
Recruitment and training
Initially, the "HVA College", disguised as the Zentralschule der Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik Edkar André ("Edkar André Main College of the Society for Sports and Vocational Training"), was headquartered in Belzig. Starting in 1965, it was incrementally absorbed into the Juristische Hochschule des MfS (JHS) ("Graduate Law School of the Ministry of State Security"), located in Golm (Potsdam), initially as a vocational training school. From 1968 on, it was called "Fachrichtung für Aufklärung der JHS" ("College of Reconnaissance of the JHS"), and was later renamed to "Sektion A" ("Section A"). The "Fremdsprachenschule des MfS" ("College of Foreign Languages of the Ministry for State Security"), also referred to as "Educational Department F", was attached to it. In 1988, the HVA College, including the College of Foreign Languages, previously located in Dammsmühle bei Mühlenbeck, moved to Lake Seddin in Gosen near the Berlin city limits, approximately south of the city of Erkner. The backup bunker for the headquarters of the HVA was also located there.
In 1989 the college had approximately 300 employees and was headed by Lieutenant Bernd Kaufmann. It worked in close cooperation with "Dept. A XIX", and was structured into three Educational Departments:
Educational Dept. A: Training for political operatives. Dean: Lieutenant Helmut Eck. 4 courses including Marxist–Leninist training, politics, and history.
Educational Dept. B: "Special Operations" and methodology of service work. Dean: Lieutenant Horst Klugow. 5 courses, including Operative Psychology, Security and Law, as well as foreign residency training.
Educational Dept. F: College of Foreign Languages. Dean: Lieutenant Manfred Fröhlich. Responsible for the language training for missions abroad, as well as interpreter-training.
Personnel
Full time
The HVA had more than 3,800 full-time employees in 1989. Among them were, according to the agency's directory, approximately 2,400 professional agents and 700 deputies, 700 unofficial employees, and 670 special agents (Offiziere im besonderen Einsatz). In the course of the HVA's self-disestablishment, the number of employees rose at times above 4,200.
In the autumn of 1989, seven supervisors had a ranking of "general": highest-ranking associate was manager of the HVA, Werner Großmann, as lieutenant general. Four of his deputies, as well as Harry Schütt (chief of counter-espionage) and Otto Ledermann (manager of the SED foundation of the HVA) were Major Generals.
The HVA associates regarded themselves to be the elite of the Ministry of State Security. A high degree of personal engagement, flexibility, performance, and primarily absolute loyalty to the SED was expected of them. Qualified employees of other Stasi departments, such as those with secondary educational degrees, knowledge of foreign languages, etc., could, as a reward for "remarkable achievements", be transferred to the HVA as needed, which was akin to a decoration. On the other hand, HVA personnel could, due to inadequate performance or following an investigation, be transferred to other departments of the Stasi, practically constituting a demotion.
Unofficial and other employees
The full-time staff of the HVA were complemented by more than 10,000 "unofficial collaborators" or "unofficial employees", the so-called IMs (Inoffizieller Mitarbeiter). These were primarily GDR citizens with permission to travel to the West (the Reisekader; conversely, only a fraction of those with travel permission were IMs), residents of East Germany who were related to "functionally interesting" target persons in the West, couriers and instructors, but also thousands of residents of West Germany and West Berlin, partly in exposed positions in society.
The HVA was particularly interested in recruiting Western students who were visiting the GDR. These were young academics who were suitable for leadership roles and therefore particularly predestined for confidential information; they were developed over decades at a high financial and personnel cost, with the goal of placing them in high positions in the state and the economy, through which they gained access to secret information.
A famous example of such a recruitment operation was Gabriele Gast, who committed herself in 1968 as a student and rose to the rank of Regierungsdirektorin (Government Director) in the Bundesnachrichtendienst (Federal Intelligence Service), the foreign intelligence agency of West Germany. As a high-level source, she was led by Markus Wolf personally.
The actual sources of espionage operations in the West were not necessarily registered as IMs with the HVA (or the Ministry of State Security). In many cases, they were noted as Kontaktpersonen (KP) (contact persons), which reveals little about the degree of cooperation with the intelligence service.
Headquarters
The HVA's predecessor, the APN (Außenpolitischer Nachrichtendienst: Foreign Intelligence Service) resided in the early 1950s first in Pankow, then at the Rolandufer in Mitte, both in Berlin.
The headquarters of the HVA was situated since the mid- to late 1950s in the building complex of the Stasi's headquarters in the Berlin borough of Lichtenberg. After completion of the new office buildings at the corner of Ruschestraße and Frankfurter Allee, the HVA established its base of operations there. (After 1990 an employment agency moved into a building on the site. The building on the Frankfurter Allee is used by Deutsche Bahn. A Deutsche Bahn company logo has been affixed and is easily noticeable.) The Operativ-Technische Sektor (OTS) was located in the Roedernstraße in Hohenschönhausen.
Budget
Former HVA director Markus Wolf asserted in front of a Bundestag committee investigating the activities of the Division of Commercial Coordination (Bereich Kommerzielle Koordinierung or KoKo) that at the end of his tenure (1986) the yearly financial resources of the HVA for operational purposes stood at 17 million East German mark and 13.5 million Deutsche Mark. It was not possible to conclusively refute or verify this statement. In individual HVA sections, there existed "black cash boxes" under the responsibility of the section or department head. Considerably greater amounts were made available for the secret procurement of equipment for section A VIII ("Operational Technology and Radio Communications") and for other recipients in the Stasi, the National People's Army or the East German economy; this money generally came from the Division of Commercial Coordination.
See also
Rosenholz files
Susanne Schädlich about BBC radio show "Briefe ohne Unterschrift"
References
External links
Daniel und Jürgen Ast. Inside HVA. 2 part documentary, (German) 2019
Stasi
1955 establishments in East Germany
1990 disestablishments in East Germany
East German intelligence agencies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon%20law%20of%20the%20Catholic%20Church
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Canon law of the Catholic Church
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The canon law of the Catholic Church () is "how the Church organizes and governs herself". It is the system of laws and ecclesiastical legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the Church. It was the first modern Western legal system and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West, while the unique traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches .
Positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law, derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from promulgation by the supreme legislator—the supreme pontiff, who possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person, or by the College of Bishops acting in communion with the pope. In contrast, particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition.
The canon law of the Catholic Church has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system: laws, courts, lawyers, judges. The canon law of the Catholic Church is articulated in the legal code for the Latin Church as well as a code for the Eastern Catholic Churches. This canon law has principles of legal interpretation, and coercive penalties. It lacks civilly-binding force in most secular jurisdictions. Those who are versed and skilled in canon law, and professors of canon law, are called canonists (or colloquially, canon lawyers). Canon law as a sacred science is called canonistics.
The jurisprudence of canon law is the complex of legal principles and traditions within which canon law operates, while the philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law are the areas of philosophical, theological, and legal scholarship dedicated to providing a theoretical basis for canon law as a legal system and as true law.
Definitions
The term "canon law" (ius canonicum) was only regularly used from the twelfth century onwards. The term ius ecclesiasticum, by contrast, referred to the secular law, whether imperial, royal, or feudal, that dealt with relations between the state and the Catholic Church. The term corpus iuris canonici was used to denote canon law as legal system beginning in the thirteenth century.
Other terms sometimes used synonymously with ius canonicum include ius sacrum, ius ecclesiasticum, ius divinum, and ius pontificium, as well as sacri canones (sacred canons).
is the positive law that emanates from the legislative power of the Catholic Church in its effort to govern its members in accordance with the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Fernando della Rocca used the term "ecclesiastical-positive law" in contradistinction to civil-positive law, in order to differentiate between the human legislators of church and state, all of which issue "positive law" in the normal sense.
Examples of ecclesiastical positive law are fasting during the liturgical season of Lent, and religious workers (monks, nuns, etc.) requiring permission from their superiors to publish a book.
Etymology of "canon"
The word "canon" comes from the Greek kanon, which in its original usage denoted a straight rod, was later used for a measuring stick, and eventually came to mean a rule or norm. In 325, when the first ecumenical council, Nicaea I, was held, kanon started to obtain the restricted juridical denotation of a law promulgated by a synod or ecumenical council, as well as that of an individual bishop.
Sources of canon law
The term source or fountain of canon law (fons iuris canonici) may be taken in a twofold sense: a) as the formal cause of the existence of a law, and in this sense of the fontes essendi (Latin: "sources of being") of canon law or lawgivers; b) as the material channel through which laws are handed down and made known, and in this sense the sources are styled fontes cognoscendi (Latin: "sources of knowing"), or depositaries, like sources of history.
Legal history and codification
The Catholic Church has the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West, much later than Roman law but predating the evolution of modern European civil law traditions. What began with rules ("canons") said to have been adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the first century has developed into a highly complex legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew (Old Testament), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions. As many as 36 collections of canon law are known to have been brought into existence before 1150.
The history of Latin canon law can be divided into four periods: the ius antiquum, the ius novum, the ius novissimum and the Codex Iuris Canonici. In relation to the Code, history can be divided into the ius vetus (all law before the 1917 Code) and the ius novum (the law of the code, or ius codicis).
The Eastern Catholic canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II.
St. Raymond of Penyafort (1175–1275), a Spanish Dominican priest, is the patron saint of canonists, due to his important contributions to canon law in codifying the Decretales Gregorii IX. Other saintly patrons include St. Ivo of Chartres and the Jesuit St. Robert Bellarmine.
Ius antiquum
The period of canonical history known as the ius antiquum ("ancient law") extends from the foundation of the Church to the time of Gratian (mid-12th century). This period can be further divided into three periods: the time of the apostles to the death of Pope Gelasius I (A.D. 496), the end of the 5th century to the spurious collection of the 9th century, and the last up to the time of Gratian (mid-12th century).
In the Early Church, the first canons were decreed by bishops united in "Ecumenical" councils (the Emperor summoning all of the known world's bishops to attend with at least the acknowledgement of the Bishop of Rome) or "local" councils (bishops of a region or territory). Over time, these canons were supplemented with decretals of the Bishops of Rome, which were responses to doubts or problems according to the maxim, "Roma locuta est, causa finita est" ("Rome has spoken, the case is closed"). A common misconception, the Catholic Encyclopedia links this saying to St Augustine who actually said something quite different: "jam enim de hac causa duo concilia missa sunt ad sedem apostolicam; inde etiam rescripta venerunt; causa finita est" (which roughly translate to: "there are two councils, for now, this matter as brought to the Apostolic See, whence also letters are come to pass, the case was finished") in response to the heretical Pelagianism of the time.
In the first millennium of the Latin Church, the canons of various ecumenical and local councils were supplemented with decretals of the popes; these were gathered together into collections.
Ius novum
The period of canonical history known as the Ius novum ("new law") or middle period covers the time from Gratian to the Council of Trent (mid-12th century–16th century).
The spurious conciliar canons and papal decrees were gathered together into collections, both unofficial and official. In the year 1000, there was no book that had attempted to summarize the whole body of canon law, to systematize it in whole or in part. The first truly systematic collection was assembled by the Camaldolese monk Gratian in the 11th century, commonly known as the ("Gratian's Decree") but originally called The Concordance of Discordant Canons (Concordantia Discordantium Canonum). Before Gratian there was no "jurisprudence of canon law" (system of legal interpretation and principles). Gratian is the founder of canonical jurisprudence, which merits him the title "Father of Canon Law". Gratian also had an enormous influence on the history of natural law in his transmission of the ancient doctrines of natural law to Scholasticism.
Canon law greatly increased from 1140 to 1234. After that, it slowed down, except for the laws of local councils (an area of canon law in need of scholarship), and secular laws supplemented. In 1234 Pope Gregory IX promulgated the first official collection of canons, called the Decretalia Gregorii Noni or Liber Extra. This was followed by the Liber Sextus (1298) of Boniface VIII, the Clementines (1317) of Clement V, the Extravagantes Joannis XXII and the Extravagantes Communes, all of which followed the same structure as the Liber Extra. All these collections, with the , are together referred to as the Corpus Iuris Canonici. After the completion of the Corpus Iuris Canonici, subsequent papal legislation was published in periodic volumes called Bullaria.
In the thirteenth century, the Roman Church began to collect and organize its canon law, which after a millennium of development had become a complex and difficult system of interpretation and cross-referencing. The official collections were the Liber Extra (1234) of Pope Gregory IX, the Liber Sextus (1298) of Boniface VIII and the Clementines (1317), prepared for Clement V but published by John XXII. These were addressed to the universities by papal letters at the beginning of each collection, and these texts became textbooks for aspiring canon lawyers. In 1582 a compilation was made of the Decretum, Extra, the Sext, the Clementines, and the Extravagantes (that is, the decretals of the popes from Pope John XXII to Pope Sixtus IV).
Ius novissimum
The third canonical period, known as the ius novissimum ("newest law"), stretches from the Council of Trent to the promulgation of the 1917 Code of Canon Law which took legal effect in 1918. The start of the ius novissimum is not universally agreed upon, however. Edward N. Peters argues that the ius novissimum actually started with the Liber Extra of Gregory IX in 1234.
Ius codicis
The fourth period of canonical history is that of the present day, initiated by the promulgation of the 1917 Code of Canon Law on 27 May 1917.
Benedict XV, in his bull of promulgation, refers to the motu proprio Arduum sane, which was issued by Pius X, March 17, 1904, and gave rise to the 1917 Code. In that memorable pronouncement the late Pontiff stated the reasons which prompted him as the supreme Pastor of souls, who has the care of all the churches, to provide for a new codification of ecclesiastic laws, with a view " to put together with order and clearness all the laws of the Church thus far issued, removing all those that would be recognized as abrogated or obsolete, adapting others to the necessities of the times, and enacting new ones in conformity with the present needs."
It is sometimes referred to as the ius codicis ("law of the code") or, in comparison with all law before it, the ius novum ("new law"). From time to time, the Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts issues authentic interpretations regarding the code. The pope occasionally amends the text of the codes.
Pio-Benedictine law
By the 19th century, the body of canonical legislation included some 10,000 norms. Many of these were difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and practice. The situation impelled Pope Pius X to order the creation of the first Code of Canon Law, a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of the Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under Benedict XV, who promulgated the Code on 27 May 1917, effective on 29 May 1918. The work having been begun by Pius X, it was sometimes called the "Pio-Benedictine Code" but more often the 1917 Code to distinguish it from the later 1983 Code which replaced it. In its preparation, centuries of material was examined, scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much as possible with opposing canons and even other codes, from the Code of Justinian to the Napoleonic Code.
Johanno-Pauline law
In the succeeding decades, some parts of the 1917 Code were retouched, especially under Pope Pius XII. In 1959, Pope John XXIII announced, together with his intention to call the Second Vatican Council, that the 1917 Code would be completely revised. In 1963, the commission appointed to undertake the task decided to delay the project until the council had been concluded. After Vatican II closed in 1965, it became apparent that the 1917 Code would need to be revised in light of the documents and theology of Vatican II. When work finally began, almost two decades of study and discussion on drafts of the various sections were needed before Pope John Paul II could promulgate the revised edition, which came into force on 27 November 1983, having been promulgated via the apostolic constitution Sacrae Disciplinae Leges of 25 January 1983. Containing 1752 canons, it is the law currently binding on the Latin Church.
This codification is referred to as the 1983 Code of Canon Law to distinguish it from the 1917 Code. Like the preceding codification, it applies to Roman Catholics of the Latin Church.
As the currently-in-force law for the Latin Church, it constitutes a major part of the Ius vigens (Latin: "active law").
Eastern Catholic canon law
Eastern Catholic canon law is the law of the 23 Catholic sui iuris particular churches of the Eastern Catholic tradition. Oriental canon law includes both the common tradition among all Eastern Catholic Churches, now chiefly contained in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, as well as the particular law proper to each individual sui iuris particular Eastern Catholic Church. Originating with the canons of particular councils and the writings of the Eastern Church Fathers, oriental canon law developed in concert with Byzantine Roman laws, leading to the compilation of nomocanons. Oriental canon law is distinguished from Latin canon law, which developed along a separate line in the remnants of the Western Roman Empire under the direct influence of the Roman Pontiff, and is now chiefly codified in the 1983 Code of Canon Law.
Nomocanons
A nomocanon (nomokanon) is a collection of ecclesiastical law, consisting of the elements from both the civil law (nomoi) and the canon law (kanones). Collections of this kind were found only in Eastern law. The Greek Church has two principal nomocanonical collections, the "Nomocanon of John Scholasticus" of the sixth century and the "Nomocanon in 14 titles", which dates from the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius (), made by fusion of the Collectio tripartita (collection of Justinian's imperial law) and "Canonic syntagma" (ecclesiastical canons). The latter was long held in esteem and passed into the Russian Church, but it was by degrees supplanted by the "Nomocanon of Photios" in 883. Photius compiled systematically the canons of the East which amount to a counterpart of Gratian in the West. His 2-part collection, a chronological collection of synodal canons and his nomocanon revision with updated civil laws, became a classical source of ancient canon law for the Greek Church.
Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches
For Eastern Catholics, two sections of Eastern Catholic canon law had already, under Pope Pius XII, been put in the form of short canons. These parts were revised as part of the application of Pope John XXIII's decision to carry out a general revision of the Church's canon law; as a result, a distinct Code for members of the Eastern Catholic Churches came into effect for the first time on 1 October 1991 (Apostolic Constitution Sacri Canones of 18 October 1990). The Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, as it is called, differs from the Latin 1983 Code of Canon Law in matters where Eastern and Latin traditions diverge, such as terminology, discipline concerning hierarchical offices, and administration of the sacraments.
Jurisprudence of canon law
The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently both modern civil law and common law bear the influences of canon law.
Much of the legislative style was adapted from that of Roman Law especially the Justinianic Corpus Iuris Civilis. After the 'fall' of the Roman Empire and up until the revival of Roman Law in the 11th century canon law served as the most important unifying force among the local systems in the Civil Law tradition. The Catholic Church developed the inquisitorial system in the Middle Ages. The canonists introduced into post-Roman Europe the concept of a higher law of ultimate justice, over and above the momentary law of the state.
The primary canonical sources of law are the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, and Pastor Bonus. Other sources include apostolic constitutions, motibus propriis, particular law, and—with the approbation of the competent legislator—custom. A law must be promulgated for it to have legal effect. A later and contrary law obrogates an earlier law.
Canonists have formulated interpretive rules of law for the magisterial (non-legislatorial) interpretation of canon laws. An authentic interpretation is an official interpretation of a law issued by the law's legislator, and has the force of law.
Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law
Although canonical jurisprudential theory generally follows the principles of Aristotelian-Thomistic legal philosophy, Thomas Aquinas never explicitly discusses the place of canon law in his Treatise on Law However, Aquinas himself was influenced by canon law. While many canonists apply the Thomistic definition of law (lex) to canon law without objection, some authors dispute the applicability of the Thomistic definition to canon law, arguing that its application would impoverish ecclesiology and corrupt the very supernatural end of canon law.
In the decades following the Second Vatican Council, many canonists called for a more theological, rather than philosophical, conception of canon law, acknowledging the "triple relationship between theology, philosophy, and canon law". Some authors conceive of canon law as essentially theological and the discipline of canon law as a theological subdiscipline, but Msgr. Carlos José Errázuriz contends that "in a certain sense, all postconciliar canonical scholarship has shown a theological concern in the widest sense, that is, a tendency to determine more clearly the place of the juridical in the mystery of the Church."
The fundamental theory of canon law is a discipline covering the basis of canon law in the very nature of the church. Fundamental theory is a newer discipline that takes as is object "the existence and nature of what is juridical in the Church of Jesus Christ." The discipline seeks to better explain the nature of law in the church and engages in theological discussions in post-conciliar Catholicism and seeks to combat "postconciliar antijuridicism".
Canonistics, faculties, and institutes
The academic degrees in canon law are the J.C.B. (Iuris Canonici Baccalaureatus, Bachelor of Canon Law, normally taken as a graduate degree), J.C.L. (Iuris Canonici Licentiatus, Licentiate of Canon Law) and the J.C.D. (Iuris Canonici Doctor, Doctor of Canon Law), and those with a J.C.L. or higher are usually called "canonists" or "canon lawyers". Because of its specialized nature, advanced degrees in civil law or theology are normal prerequisites for the study of canon law. Canon law as a field is called canonistics.
Canon law and Church office
Under the 1983 Code of Canon Law, all seminary students are required to take courses in canon law. Some ecclesiastical officials are required to have the doctorate (JCD) or at least the licentiate (JCL) in canon law in order to fulfill their functions: judicial vicars; judges; promoters of justice; defenders of the bond; canonical advocates. In addition, vicars general and episcopal vicars are to be doctors, or at least licensed in canon law or theology. Ordinarily, bishops are to have an advanced degree (doctorate or at least licentiate) in scripture, theology, or canon law.
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Arranged alphabetically by author:
Aquinas, Thomas. "St. Thomas Aquinas: Summa Theologiæ, Volume 28: Law and Political Theory (Ia2æ. 90–97); Latin text. English translation, Introduction, Notes, Appendices & Glossary [by] Thomas Gilby O.P.", Blackfriars (Cambridge: Eyre and Spottiswoode Limited, 1966).
Berman, Harold J., Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983).
Benedict XVI, Pope. Address of His Holiness Benedict XVI for the Inauguration of the Judicial Year of the Tribunal of the Roman Rota, Clementine Hall, 21 January 2012. https://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/speeches/2012/january/documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20120121_rota-romana.html Accessed 29 March 2016.
Caparros, Ernest. Exegetical Commentary on the Code of Canon Law, Volume I: Prepared under the Responsibility of the Martín de Azpilcueta Institute, Faculty of Canon Law, University of Navarre (Chicago, Illinois: Midwest Theological Forum, 2004) Edited by Ángel Marzoa, Jorge Miras and Rafael Rodríguez-Ocaña (English language edition General editor: Ernest Caparros; Review coordinator: Patrick Lagges).
Della Rocca, Fernando, Manual of Canon Law (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1959) translated by Rev. Anselm Thatcher, O.S.B.
De Meester, A., D.J.C., Iuris Canonici et Iuris Canonico-Civilis Compendium: Nova Editio ad normam Codicis Iuris Canonici Tomus Primus (Brugis: Societatis Sancti Augustini, 1921).
Epstein, David G., Bruce A. Markell, & Lawrence Panoroff, Cases and Materials on Contracts: Making and Doing Deals: Third Edition (St. Paul, MN: West/Thomson Reuters, 2011).
Errázuriz M., Carlos José. Justice in the Church: A Fundamental Theory of Canon Law (Montreal: Wilson & Lefleur Ltée, 2009) trans. Jean Gray in collaboration with Michael Dunnigan.
Friedman, Lawrence M. American Law: An Introduction (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1984).
Glendon, Mary Anne, Michael Wallace Gordon, Christopher Osakwe, Comparative Legal Traditions: Text, Materials and Cases (American Casebook Series) (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1985).
Howe, William Wirt. Studies in the Civil Law, and its Relation to the Law of England and America. (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1896).
Jordan, William Chester. The Penguin History of Europe: Europe in the High Middle Ages (London: Penguin Books, 2002).
McCormick, Anne O'Hare. Vatican Journal: 1921–1954 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1957).
Mylne, Robert Scott. The Canon Law (Published by Forgotten Books 2013; originally published 1912). PIBN 1000197046.
Orsy, Ladislas. Towards a Theological Conception of Canon Law (essay published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., Readings, Cases, Materials in Canon Law: A Textbook for Ministerial Students, Revised Edition (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1990).
Peters, Edward N., translator, The 1917 or Pio-Benedictine Code of Canon Law: in English Translation with Extensive Scholarly Apparatus (Ignatius Press, 2001)
Peters, Edward N., JD, JCD, Ref. Sig. Ap., CanonLaw.info
Rommen, Heinrich A. The Natural Law: A Study in Legal and Social History and Philosophy (St Louis: B. Herder Book Co., 1947 [1959]) translated by Thomas R. Hanley, O.S.B.
Suzzallo, Henry, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D., Editor in Chief, The National Encyclopedia: Volume 2 (New York, P. F. Collier & Son Corporation, 1935).
Vere, Pete, & Michael Trueman, Surprised by Canon Law: 150 Questions Catholics Ask About Canon Law (Cincinnati, Ohio: St. Anthony Messenger Press, 2004).
Wigmore, John Henry, A Panorama of the World's Legal Systems Library Edition (Washington, D.C.: Washington Law Book Company, 1936).
Wormser, René A., The Story of the LAW and the Men Who Made ItFrom the Earliest Times to the Present: Revised and Updated Edition of The Law (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962).
Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co., 1979).
Catechism of the Catholic Church at Vatican.va
1983 Code of Canon Law (1983 CIC) at Vatican.va. Publication details: Latin-English Edition, New English Translation; Prepared under the auspices of the Canon Law Society of America, Washington, DC.
Further reading
External links
Sacrea Disciplinae Leges
Norms of current canon law
Canon Law Wiki
Texts and translations of post-1917 canonical codifications
With referenced concordances
Codex Iuris Canonici (1983)
Code of Canon Law (1983)
Code of Canon Law (1983)
Codex canonum ecclesiarum orientalium (1990)
Code of canons of Oriental Churchs (1990)
Codex Iuris Canonici (1917)
Without concordances
1983 Code of Canon Law
1983 Codex Iuris Canonici
Historical canon law texts
The Medieval Canon Law Virtual Library
Decretum Gratiani (Friedbourg edition)
Corpus Iuris Canonici (1582)
Code de 1917
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das%20Mirakel
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Das Mirakel
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Das Mirakel is a black-and white silent German film made and released in 1912, directed by Mime Misu for the Berlin film production company Continental-Kunstfilm GmbH. It was based (without permission) on Karl Vollmoeller's 1911 play, The Miracle. The film was originally advertised as The Miracle in Britain and the US, but after copyright litigation in both countries it was shown as Sister Beatrix and Sister Beatrice respectively. In Germany it was known as Das Marienwunder: eine alte Legende.
The film stars Lore Giesen, Mime Misu, and Anton Ernst Rückert. The screenplay was by Mime Misu, and the cinematographer was Emil Schünemann, who was also behind the camera for Misu's film about the disaster, In Nacht und Eis (Shipwrecked in Icebergs).
Plot
The film opens in the nave of a cathedral. People cry out in awe as a blind woman's lost sight is restored. A procession forms, including many pilgrims and nuns. They pass through the cloisters, chanting.
Among the nuns there is one younger and more beautiful than the rest, named Beatrix. Among the pilgrims is a handsome knight. The two are attracted to each other during the service in the cathedral. Disturbed by her weakness, Beatrix struggles to control her emotions.
Gradually the knight overcomes Beatrix's resistance, aided by the Spirit of Evil, a sinister apparition that makes its appearance several times throughout the story. It in turn is countered by a second apparition that appears as a beautiful nun, the Spirit of Good.
When worshippers leave the cathedral after vespers, Beatrix throws down her robe and keys and flees with her handsome knight. The building is now empty and silent, with light falling on the motionless statue of the Virgin. Then the miracle happens. The statue of the Madonna comes to life, and steps down from her throne. She picks up the garment discarded by the infatuated nun, and takes up her place before the barren altar.
The other nuns return notice that the statue of the Virgin has vanished. Assuming it has been stolen, they turn upon the woman they think to be Beatrix, and are about to lead her with execrations when the Madonna rises slowly from her feet into the air, and stands before them.
In the second half of the drama deals with the adventures of the nun in the world. We see her gradual degradation physically and spiritually as she goes from one lover to another. The Spirit of Evil urges on her degradation and uses her as a pawn to destroy the souls of others she encounters.
At last, the Spirit of Good appears and leads a worn out Beatrix back to the gates of the cathedral. She sneaks inside afraid and ashamed. She finds the cathedral empty except for a single figure, which stands motionless before the empty altar. Beatrix goes forward to throw herself upon the mercy of the solitary watcher—and then the figure turns, and the Madonna reveals herself to the nun whose place she has taken.
Beatrix is about to run in fright when the sanctuary gates close miraculously, and she finds herself imprisoned in the cathedral. She prostrates herself upon the ground. A smile of pity comes over the face of the Virgin Mother. She stretches out her hand and raises Beatrix up. She then returns to her throne, leaving the pardoned penitent Beatrix to take up the pure life once again. Beatrix is now tranquil. A shaft of sunlight breaks through the cathedral windows and illuminates the scene.
Background
At least two films with the title The Miracle were made and released in 1912: the Continental-Kunstfilm version directed by Mime Misu, and the 'authorised' version directed by Michel Carré with most of the principal cast, costumes, and music coming from the original 1911 London production by Max Reinhardt of the play, The Miracle.
Das Mirakel (1912 film) produced by Continental-Kunstfilm GmbH (UK and US working title: The Miracle)
The Miracle (1912 film) produced by Joseph Menchen (German title: Das Mirakel)
From December 1911 to March 1912 London's Olympia Exhibition Hall was turned into an enormous stage set for one of the biggest theatrical shows London had ever experienced. This was Max Reinhardt's production of The Miracle, a wordless mime play (US:Pantomime) by Karl Vollmoeller with music by Engelbert Humperdinck. The production involved (apart from the 15 or so principal players) a cast of around 1,000 minor players plus girl dancers and miscellaneous boys and girls, with an orchestra of 200 players, a chorus of 500 and a specially-installed organ. This spectacular mediaeval pageant was performed before a nightly audience of 8,000, with two matinees a week.
Although Vollmoeller's play had been copyrighted, it was largely based on the well-known legend of 'Sister Beatrice', originally collected in the 13th century by Caesarius of Heisterbach in his Dialogus miraculorum (1219-1223). The tale was revived by Maurice Maeterlinck in 1901 in a minor play named Soeur Beatrice (Sister Beatrice), drawing on versions by Villiers de l'Isle-Adam and on the 14th-century Dutch poem Beatrijs.
The legitimate worldwide film rights to the Reinhardt production, and to the play and the music, were acquired by Joseph Menchen, an inventor who had built up his own electrical theatre lighting business in New York. He had been previously involved in the earliest days of the cinema, projecting early Edison and Vitascope films with his Kineoptikon at Tony Pastor's vaudeville theatre in New York from 1896-1899.
From the outset the advertising for the Continental version played heavily on the play's success at Olympia, hinting (without explicitly claiming) that it was a film of the actual production. It was heavily publicised in the German trade press, with double-page advertisements from September 1912 detailing the ongoing battles with Menchen.
Continental's film was completed and copyrighted by October 1912, while Joseph Menchen's authorised production of The Miracle started production near Vienna, Austria in early October and was finished by December 1912.
Production
Some of the film was shot on location at Chorin Abbey (Kloster Chorin) near the German-Polish border.
According to evidence given in a copyright court case involving the two 'Miracle' films, production of Das Mirakel began in Germany in March 1912, and was finished by July 1912. However, from after April until July Misu was engaged in filming In Nacht und Eis, which was passed by the Berlin censors on 6 July. It seems possible, therefore, that Das Mirakel was already in production when the Titanic sank, and that Misu immediately made In Nacht und Eis before completing Mirakel. At any rate, the Berlin police censor's decision to ban the film (possibly for its pro-catholic stance) was dated 19 October 1912.
Timeline
"Battle of the Miracles"
Although Das Mirakel (under the title "The Miracle") was well-received by the critics in the USA, it seems to have been made in a deliberate attempt to compete with the 'authorised' film of Max Reinhardt's production, The Miracle produced and co-directed by Joseph Menchen and Michel Carré. The release of two visually similar films in 1912 (one authorized, one not) with the same title and dealing with the same subject has inevitably led to confusion, including the false notion that a film named The Miracle went down with the . See The Miracle (1912 film)#US performances.
The film's history is inextricably intertwined with that of Menchen's.
The Miracle US: Sinking of the Titanic, death of Henry Harris (Menchen's US distributor), April 1912. Al. Woods buys US rights after this date and before May announcement on return to US. Woods acquired the rights in April, according to
The Miracle US: Woods prints a warning that he owns the motion picture rights in the US
Das Mirakel US: A trade magazine advertisement reads "Coming Soon!! The Miracle. A sensational Cathedral play that aroused discussion throughout the world. New York Film Co, 12 Union Square, New York.2"
The Miracle UK: In June 1912 Menchen announced in the British cinema trade press that a colour film (with voice effects) of The Miracle was going to be made in Vienna, the next venue for Reinhardt's production.
Das Mirakel US: Continental-Kunstfilm appointed the New York Film Company as their US distributors as from 1 July 1912, and announced the future release of four films including In Nacht und Eis (At Night Through Icebergs) and The Miracle (Das Mirakel)
Das Mirakel UK: Elite Sales Agency formed on 3 October 1912.
The Miracle AT: Shooting started Monday 7 October 1912 in Perchtoldsdorf, Vienna.
Das Mirakel US: Imported the film (as negatives?) into US 9 October. Al Woods attempted to have the film confiscated by the US Customs on the grounds that he owned the rights to the film. The chief customs officer declined to intervene, and decided it was a matter for a judge. The matter eventually came to court on 3 March 1913.
Das Mirakel US: Das Mirakel first shown in the US to Al Woods' lawyers and the press at 9 a.m. on Friday 18 October 1912 at the Fourteenth Street Theatre, New York City Strangely enough, the former manager of the Fourteenth Street theatre when it was the Théâtre Français was the opera impresario Jacob Grau, who also produced the inaugural season at Crosby's Opera House, Chicago, with his 'Grand Italian Opera Company'. Jacob Grau was the uncle of
Maurice Grau, whose opéra-bouffe companies with Marie Aimée and Tostée played at the Theatre Francais and other New York venues from 1868 until he became the manager of the "old" Metropolitan Opera House from 1891-1903. Maurice was also the manager of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London, from 1897-1900.
Robert Grau, Maurice's detested younger brother, who managed vaudeville acts including Loie Fuller; one of Robert's protégés was Joseph Menchen, whose film of the Miracle premiered at Covent Garden in December 1912.
Das Mirakel DE: Misu's film banned by the Berlin police censor on 19 October 1912
Das Mirakel US: Film copyrighted in the USA as The Miracle: a legend of mediaeval times on 24 October 1912.
Das Mirakel UK: Trade press ad, 5 November 1912 : "The Elite Sales Agency of Gloucester Mansions, Cambridge Circus, have secured a remarkably fine film of The Miracle, which runs to a length of some 4,000 feet [...] The drawing power of The Miracle when it was at Olympia was unlimited and, as with the play, so it will be with the film ; for The Miracle is a spectacle of which one can never tire."
Das Mirakel US: New York Film Co. took out a full-page advertisement "10 Facts about the Miracle, and one Don't", 16 November 1912
The Miracle UK: Announced film was completed, being coloured in Paris 9 December 1912
Das Mirakel UK: Announced private screening of Das Mirakel as The Miracle at the Shaftesbury Pavilion (prop. Isaac Davis and his Electric Pavilions inc. Ritzy Cinema and Hammersmith Apollo), week of 9 December.
Das Mirakel UK: On 12 December 1912, the Shaftesbury Feature Film Company Ltd, 55-59 Shaftesbury Avenue, was formed with capital of £1,125 (£1 shares) to take over the UK distribution of 10 films by Continental Kunstfilm from Elite Sales Agency Ltd. (SFFC ceased trading 13 July 1914.) David Beck was a director of both firms.
Das Mirakel US: The film received its US general public première at the Hyperion Theatre, New Haven, Conn. on 15 December 1912.
The Miracle UK: Seeks court injunction to prevent Conti/SFFCo from showing their film. Court case 16–17 December 1912, Menchen v. Elite Sales Agency. The judge couldn't rule on the copyright, but allowed the film to be shown under another name. He suggested that Das Mirakel be shown under the name 'Sister Beatrice'. The Shaftesbury Feature Film Co. released it that day as Sister Beatrix, a few days before Menchen's film.
UK showings
Das Mirakel UK: Première of the Continental film as the 3-reeler Sister Beatrix at the Shaftesbury Pavilion to a "storm of applause" on 17 December 1912, the same day as the injunction was granted.
The Miracle UK: Première of The Miracle in full colour, with orchestra, chorus and live actors at Covent Garden, 21 December 1912.
Das Mirakel UK: The Shaftesbury Feature Film Co arranged a number of single showings of Sister Beatrix around the UK, but these were one-offs, not regular scheduled performances, typically being shown at 11 a. m.
The Office of the Cinematograph Trading Co., Ltd., Metropole Buildings, The Hayes, Cardiff, 11 a.m., Monday, 13 January
The Office of Messrs. The Walturdaw Co., Ltd., 192, Corporation Street, Birmingham, 11 a.m., Wednesday, 15 January
The Office of The New Century Film Service, 2-4, Quebec Street, Leeds. 11 a.m., Friday, 17 January
Manchester. Monday, 20 January Please communicate for time and place.
By arrangement with Films, Ltd., of Manchester Road, Liverpool: The Electra Theatre, London Road, Liverpool, 11 a.m., Tuesday, 21 January.
By arrangement with Henderson's film Bureau, Irving House, Newcastle-on-Tyne: The Royal Electric Theatre, Great Market, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Thursday, 12 noon, 23 January.
The Miracle UK: The Miracle transferred to the Picture House, Oxford Street, (junc. Poland St) on Friday 24 January 1913 after a month at the Royal Opera House, where it had still been showing three times daily (3, 6.30 and 9pm) with chorus and orchestra of 200 singers for as little as sixpence.
The Miracle UK: The Miracle was booked for 72 towns in the United Kingdom. "When the history of cinematography comes to be written it seems to me that "The Miracle" will have to be recorded as the record film." "The Miracle has broken all records at Kings's Hall, Leyton, Curzon Hall, Birmingham, Royal Electric Theatre, Coventry and the Popular Picture Palace, Gravesend."
Das Mirakel UK: The Shaftesbury Feature Film Co.'s Sister Beatrix advertisement for Easter week (23 March) read: "We have two copies vacant for Easter week. Bookings allocated in strict rotation". Easter Sunday 1913 was 23 March. By contrast there were 90 copies of Menchen's film being exhibited throughout the UK to capacity audiences.
The Miracle UK: Menchen's full-page advertisement after Easter (23 March) read: "The Easter Triumph. Max Reinhardt's wordless Lyricscope play / The Miracle. Nothing like it ever presented. Re-booked everywhere. A marvellous box office magnet."
Das Mirakel in the US
The following news item shows how the New York Film Company (the US distributors) positioned The Miracle, mentioning Reinhardt and simultaneously praising and damning Menchen's own film (which wasn't released until 21 December).
New York Film Co.'s production of The Miracle opens in New Haven, Conn. On 16 December, at the Hyperion Theatre, New Haven, Conn., a grand opening presentation of The Miracle, as produced by the Kunst Film Company, of Berlin, Germany, and which splendid production is being handled in America by the New York Film Company, will be given, accompanied by a lecture and specially prepared music, which will be interpreted by a full orchestra.
Later the production will also be presented in Cleveland at the Alhambra Theatre, in the same dignified manner, and on 30 December at Baltimore. No greater compliment could be paid the theme of 'The Miracle' than that a similar production of the same thing has been the first moving picture production to invade the famous centre of music and art in London, namely, Covent Garden. A clipping from a recent issue of the New York American mentions the remarkable occurrence in the following manner: "The movies have invaded that sedate institution and stronghold of classic music, the Covent Garden Theatre. This famous house has been leased for the production of the Cinematograph version of Reinhardt's wordless spectacle, 'The Miracle'. It is true that the fashionable opera season does not begin until May, but the idea obtains among the conservative patrons of the house that the new departure comes shiveringly near being a desecration."
To those who have been fortunate enough to witness a presentation of the N. Y. Film Company's production of this famous play it is not alone a revelation of finished photography and dramatic action, but is as well a wonderful spectacle of architectural beauty, the majority of its scenes having a background chosen from the splendid ancient architecture of Europe.
In the USA the film faced legal opposition from Albert H. Woods, the owner of rights to and distributor of the 'official' film of Max Reinhardt's The Miracle: the battle ended in a temporary injunction against its distributors, the New York Film Company, from leasing the Continental film under the title of The Miracle.
After a court case in London involving the rival version made by Joseph Menchen, the Continental version distributed by the New York Film Co. was known (after 22 March 1913 at the latest) as Sister Beatrice in the USA. The name change to Sister Beatrice was suggested by a judge during a similar copyright court case in London.
The film's UK distributor, Elite Sales Co., ceased trading in October 1913, citing heavy losses.
Critical reaction
A review by an anonymous critic in Billboard of Misu's 4-reel film, after a press showing at 9 a.m., Friday 18 October 1912:
"Like most European productions so much emphasis ls placed on the ensemble numbers and on the settings that the whole play is staged at a distance from the camera. Facial expressions are therefore not vivid or intense, although discernable and good considering the conditions."
The critic W. Stephen Bush thought the film good enough to use in a lecture about the use of film in teaching history.In the lecture room of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, before a distinguished audience of educators headed by Professor Franklin Hooper, one of the best known pedagogues of the country, a special exhibition of the films known as "The Miracle" was given a few days ago. The picture was shown primarily to demonstrate the high and unique teaching power of the cinematograph and its special fitness as an illustrator of history. Before the exhibition, Mr. W. Steven Bush, of The Moving Picture World, delivered an interesting lecture on the cinematograph as a most valuable teaching agent in history.
The Miracle was shown in Baltimore and in Washington D. C. at Tom Moore's Garden Theater to positive notices:
"The Miracle the well-known four-reel production of the German Art Film Society, was exhibited in Baltimore at Albaugh's Theater in the week ending January 6th 1913. The attendance was good and the presentation of the films very creditable. An orchestra of twelve pieces rendered the special musical score, which had been prepared by Mr. E[rnst] Luz. Mr. Louis Bache, formerly assistant manager of the Electric Theater Supply Company and recently connected in a prominent way with the General Film Company of Philadelphia, had charge of the projection and his skilful work elicited praise from the press and the public. Prices ranged from 25 cents to one dollar."
"The Miracle, the four-reel feature of the German Art Film Company, had a sensational run at Tom Moore's Garden Theater at Washington, D. C. The reels had been hired for three days, but the crowds came so fast that the engagement was extended to a whole week."
German premières
On 13 May 1914 Max Reinhardt's original spectacular stage production of Karl Vollmoeller's pantomime The Miracle ended its Europe-wide run in Berlin at the Circus Busch, a purpose-built indoor circus arena.
Das Marienwunder: eine alte legende remained banned in Germany until some time in May 1914, when the film was re-classified as over 18 only (jugendverbot) by the Berlin police censor and released with cuts.
Menchen's film of The Miracle (as Das Mirakel) received its German première on Monday, 15 May 1914 at the Palast am Zoo cinema (later Ufa-Palast am Zoo), Charlottenburg, Berlin, with full score by Engelbert Humperdinck, full orchestra and chorus, church bells and processions of actors.
See also
The Miracle (1911 play)
The Miracle, (1912 film)
The Miracle, (1959 film)
List of films made by Continental-Kunstfilm
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
(See also Volume I)
External links
German black-and-white films
Films of the German Empire
German silent feature films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukedom%20of%20Bronte
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Dukedom of Bronte
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The Dukedom of Bronte ( ("Duchy of Bronte")) was a dukedom with the title Duke of Bronte (), referring to the town of Bronte in the province of Catania, Sicily. It was granted on 10 October 1799 at Palermo to the British Royal Navy officer Horatio Nelson by King Ferdinand III of Sicily, in gratitude for Nelson having saved the kingdom of Sicily from conquest by Revolutionary French forces under Napoleon. This was largely achieved by Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile (1798), which extinguished French naval power in the Mediterranean, but also by his having evacuated the royal family from their palace in Naples to the safety of Palermo in Sicily. It carried the right to sit in parliament within the military branch. The dukedom does not descend according to fixed rules but is transferable by the holder to whomsoever he or she desires, strangers included. Accompanying it was a grant of a 15,000 hectare estate, centered on the ancient monastery of Maniace, five miles north of Bronte, which Nelson ordered to be restored and embellished as his residence – thenceforth called Castello di Maniace. He appointed as his resident administrator (or governor) Johann Andreas Graeffer (d. 1802), an English-trained German landscape gardener who had recently created the English Garden at the Royal Palace of Caserta in Naples. Nelson never set foot on his estate, as he was killed in action six years later at the Battle of Trafalgar.
Choice of title
The Admiral was offered by King Ferdinand a choice of one of three dukedoms with an accompanying estate – Bisacquino, Partinico or Bronte.
The king wrote in a note to his minister: The estate of Bronte is the most suitable for the purpose, but the revenue is insufficient, and must be not less than 6,000 ounces, not more than 8,000, thus if there are other adjoining estates to make up the difference these must be annexed, giving the equivalent sums to the proprietors, and creating the feudal form and character with title of duke which in England sounds better than the others.
It is suggested that Nelson chose Bronte for several reasons, including the Greek origin of the name (meaning "thunder", an allusion to Mount Etna, the main crater of which is a mere 15 km to the east), the majesty of the volcano itself, the healthiness and fertility of the soil, the verses of the Palermo poet Giovanni Meli, and the ease of pronunciation of the word for an Englishman. But most likely because having lost an eye in battle in 1794, he was able to identify himself with the Cyclops (mythical giant one-eyed creatures, makers of the thunderbolts of Zeus, god of war, and assistants of the smith-god Hephaestus), whose forge was supposed to be underneath Mount Etna. He signed his will as "Nelson Bronte", and the initials "NB" appear on the wrought-iron entrance gates at Castello di Maniace (which are also the initials of his foe Napoleon Bonaparte).
Ducal powers
The grant, of perpetual duration and comprising about 15,000 hectares (62,000 acres) of land, included extensive feudal rights, the same as had been held from the 15th century by the previous overlord, the Ospedale Grande e Nuovo in Palermo, including: "the City of Bronte" (population 9,500) "with all its tenures and districts, together with its fiefdoms, marches, fortifications, vassal citizens, revenues of the vassals, censuses, services, bondage and gabelles". The dukedom also included the power of mero et mixto imperio, the sole power of the exercise of justice, both civil and criminal, including capital punishment. The title later became part of the nobility of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
Local opposition
Aside from having been granted by a king from the Spanish royal family considered foreign and abhorrent by many Sicilians, the new dukedom was not popular with a powerful faction of the local population who had felt oppressed for centuries by the feudal power of the Hospital of Palermo, the previous overlord of Bronte, from which they believed they had just recently obtained freedom, after finally winning a legal battle lasting many centuries. The king compensated the Hospital of Palermo (with an annuity of 71,500 lire) but ignored the free status claimed by the Brontese, who thus felt themselves subjected once again to a harsh feudal government, this time by a foreigner. Two parties thus arose in the local population, the ducale, supportive of the duchy, and the comunista, supportive of an independent Commune of Bronte. Many indeed were highly sympathetic to the ideals of the French Revolution, and felt that Nelson had "smothered with bloodshed the Neapolitan Republic" and confounded their dream to live in a new society where feudalism would be extinguished. The Brontese historian Benedetto Radice wrote in 1928: "Thus Bronte, due to the fairytale of its name, got the honour of a duchy and was confirmed in the misfortune of vaselage, just like a dog on which its master places around its neck a fine collar of silver or gold", and "The evils which afflict Bronte are twofold: Etna and the Duchy"
Much to the approval of his mistress Lady Hamilton (wife of the English Ambassador to Naples) and of the king, Nelson had executed Admiral Prince Francesco Caracciolo (1752–1799), hero of the Neapolitan revolution, by hanging him from the rigging of his ship after a summary trial. This act was never forgotten by this Brontese faction, which after 1940 when the Hood family had been expelled from Sicily during World War II, and their duchy confiscated by Mussolini, built with state assistance a model "peasants' village" in the park of Castello di Maniace, at a cost of over 4 million lire, which they called "Borgo Francesco Caracciolo". It was never completed due to the Allied landing in 1943, and in 1964 was razed to the ground by the 6th Duke after a special UK-Italy war damages commission in 1956 adjudged the Duke the legitimate owner of the duchy and of the Borgo.
Although the dukes brought considerable improvements to the area, including in irrigation and agriculture, this opposed faction never accepted the English presence at Bronte, and the protracted and costly legal dispute continued unabated until 1981 when the Hood family, ultimate heirs of Admiral Lord Nelson, sold the entire estate and the house with all its contents, excepting the small ducal cemetery, to the Council of Bronte. The former ducal residence is now a museum open to the public, known locally as Castello dei Nelson, "Castle of the Nelsons" (sic), containing memorabilia of the Admiral and portraits of the Hood family.
Palazzo Ducale, Bronte
Until 1935, the dukes had a town house in Bronte, five miles south of the Castello, for use when on business in that town. Known as the Palazzo Ducale, it had 35 rooms with a walled garden to the rear, and was situated on Corso Umberto, the facade being opposite Piazza Cappuccini, site of the Cappuccine Convent, the rear being bounded by the via Madonna Riparo (now via Roma) and the via Nelson (now via A. Spedalieri). It was built by Bryant Barret (d.1818), one of the dukedom's land agents during the early period when the Castello was uninhabitable and the dukes were absentee landlords. Most has since been demolished but a few sections, including that of the main entrance, survive, namely the residence of the late Professor Paparo, the former Santangelo printing works, the houses Mineo, Parisi etc, as far as the former Cinema Roma. The large and imposing cellar today houses the Deluchiana municipal library. The 5th Duke considered it a white elephant and stayed there only once, namely on the first night of his first visit to the dukedom aged 14 in 1868.
There was also a small summer residence built by the estate's land agent William Thovez (1819–1871), now known as Casa Otaiti (so named because it was surrounded by "wigwams" of peasants' straw-thatched huts, reminding the 5th Duke of Tahiti in the Pacific), situated 3 1/2 km (2 miles) to the north-east of the Castello at higher altitude to escape malaria, on the way up to the Nebrodi Mountains and about half-way to the (later) Obelisco di Nelson. This was done on the order of the 2nd Duke, who was concerned about his health and had urged him to drain and canalize the swampy areas around the Castello.
Descent
Horatio Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805)
Horatio Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805) had obtained from the king the unusual right that the dukedom could be transferred "at the holder's pleasure, not only to his relatives but also to strangers". The 1st Duke never set foot on the estate, although having spent extensively on refurbishing the monastic buildings he was clearly planning to make it his home with his mistress Lady Hamilton, and had become much enamoured with the island of Sicily. Although the royal grant allowed him to do so, he did not specifically bequeath the duchy to his illegitimate daughter (by Lady Emma Hamilton), Horatia Nelson Thompson (whom he otherwise provided for in the will), possibly the intricacies having escaped his mind whilst writing his last will whilst mortally injured aboard HMS Victory.
William Nelson, 2nd Duke of Bronte, 1st Earl Nelson (1757–1835)
Thus the duchy passed to the Admiral's elder brother and heir William Nelson, 2nd Duke of Bronte, 1st Earl Nelson (1757–1835), who lived at Standlynch House in Wiltshire, and likewise never visited.
Charlotte Nelson, 3rd Duchess of Bronte (1787–1873)
The first to visit was the 1st Earl's daughter Charlotte Mary Nelson, 3rd Duchess of Bronte (1787–1873) (who lived with her husband Samuel Hood, 2nd Baron Bridport at Cricket St Thomas in Somerset) who visited once very briefly in 1830s or 1840s but was appalled by the primitive state of the countryside and the entire absence of roads, which necessitated her travelling from Bronte to Maniace by mule litter. During the politically unsettled time of the Risorgimento and following the 1860 uprising in Bronte (Fatti di Bronte) by the Communista faction, which resulted in the slaughter of 16 supporters of the ducal party, including the duchy's notary and his son, the Duchess in 1861, in an effort to calm the situation, ceded about half of the 15,000 hectare estate to the Commune of Bronte.
Alexander Nelson Hood, 4th Duke of Bronte, 1st Viscount Bridport (1814–1904)
The 3rd Duchess's son Alexander Nelson Hood, 4th Duke of Bronte, 1st Viscount Bridport (1814–1904) visited twice, during his mother's lifetime, in 1864 and 1868, accompanied by his wife and some of his children.
Sir Alexander Nelson Hood, 5th Duke of Bronte (1854–1937)
The 4th Duke bequeathed the duchy to his 4th son Sir Alexander Nelson Hood, 5th Duke of Bronte (1854–1937) ("Alec"), who aged 14 had been on the 1868 visit. He was sent by his father to Maniace in 1873 aged 19 to manage the estate, being known there during his father's lifetime as the Duchino ("little duke"). On his father's death he was bequeathed the dukedom, becoming the 5th Duke. "Discreetly homosexual" and a "great admirer of Mussolini and the Fascist regime", he was well-respected and liked by the inhabitants, and spent six months of each year resident in Maniace until his old age. He was thus the first of his family to make the Castello di Maniace his home. He built himself a palatial villa named La Falconara at Taormina on the coast, 40 km to the east on the other side of Etna, already well-populated with fellow British expatriates and visitors, and with his close friend and frequent guest the writer Robert Hichens he helped to establish Taormina as a "holiday resort for wealthy homosexuals from Northern Europe". His English career was as a courtier to King George V, whom he entertained at La Falconara in April 1925. He died unmarried, and was ultimately buried at Maniace in the ducal cemetery, created by him.
Rowland Nelson Hood, 6th Duke of Bronte, 3rd Viscount Bridport (1911–1969)
Rowland Arthur Herbert Nelson Hood, 6th Duke of Bronte, 3rd Viscount Bridport (1911–1969) was the great-nephew and heir of the 5th Duke, and he also made Maniace his home, the family's English seat at Cricket St Thomas in Somerset having been sold in 1889 by his grandfather the 1st Viscount. In 1940 as an enemy alien he was expelled from Italy by Mussolini and the duchy (recorded as 6,540 hectares) was confiscated, the lands being allotted to the local peasantry. The estate was recovered after the 1943 landings by the Allies in Sicily. The long-standing unrest of the comunista faction continued and by 1956, although his own tenants and peasantry still insisted (to his embarrassment) on kissing his hand in the traditional manner, he was not so beloved by the "comunista" faction of the townsfolk and was employing armed guards around his estate, to counter for example the 1,500 strong demonstration of red-flag bearing townsfolk who attempted to march into the estate in that year, blocked by a chain across the road and the police. Violent civil unrest had been seen before in Bronte between the two parties, most notably during the Risorgimento in the 1860 massacre (I Fatti di Bronte) (the Dukes being then non-resident) when 16 of the ducal faction had been killed during rioting and looting, including the 3rd Duchess's notary Ignazio Cannata and his son, executed by the mob. It was the subject of a 1972 film by Florestano Vancini, Bronte – Cronaca di un massacro che i libri di storia non hanno raccontato ("Bronte – chronicle of a massacre which the history books have not recounted"). During the 1960s agrarian reform, disputes and expropriations resulted in most of the estate, namely 6,593 hectares (16,291 acres), being allocated piecemeal to the resident tenants, leaving a ducal demesne of 240 hectares He died in 1969 and was buried in the ducal cemetery.
Alexander Nelson Hood, 7th Duke of Bronte, 4th Viscount Bridport (b. 1948)
Alexander Nelson Hood, 7th Duke of Bronte, 4th Viscount Bridport (b. 1948), son of the 6th Duke, who having been brought up at Maniace inherited the dukedom aged 21 on his father's death in 1969. The estate had by then dwindled to 240 hectares (593 acres), mainly fruit orchards. Educated at Eton and the Sorbonne he had already embarked on a promising career at Kleinwort Benson merchant bank in the City of London, where he had been offered a job by his godfather David Robertson, one of the directors. "He struggled with the property for 10 years before deciding it could never pay for itself" and decided to sell. Although by then very successful and the youngest senior manager at the firm, he "realized that he would have to leave Kleinwort and go to live in Sicily until the sale was completed", and obtained employment in a bank in Rome. In 1976 he first advertised the estate for sale by tender (i.e. to the highest bidder, without specifying a price), and in 1980 sold the agricultural land to a business based in Catania for 3 billion lire (£1.3 million). On 4 September 1981 he sold the remaining parkland and the Castello for further proceeds of Lire 1.75 billion (about £800,000). The sum was allocated as follows: 1,187 for real estate (950 for castle and grounds, 237 for other buildings) and 570 for the furniture, relics, pictures and other chattels. It was then considered "the last fiefdom in Sicily", and the purchaser was the Commune of Bronte, for whom the centuries-old struggle against its perceived "feudal masters" was thus brought to an end. 90% was financed by the Assessorato ai Beni Culturali della Regione Siciliana. The website "bronte insieme" (bronte together), established in 2001 by several prominent citizens states: "Today the "hated" English Dukedom of the "boia di Caracciolo" (executioner of Caracciolo) became property of the brontese citizens".
He retained as a proprietor only the small ducal cemetery next to the Castello, where his father was buried, and which "landholding qualification", no matter how tiny and symbolic, preserves to some extent his legal and moral right to the feudal title (i.e. one dependent on land ownership) of "Duke of Bronte", as certainly the letters patent granted by the king in 1799 were interpreted by the 5th Duke to have a feudal nature, signifying (in his words) that "the proprietors of this land would have the title of 'Duke of Bronte', in consequence all the proprietors of the duchy would become ipso facto Dukes of Bronte". The title, as with all ancient Italian titles of nobility (excepting Papal titles), has no legal status in republican Italy, and the issue has not been challenged in any court of law or heraldry. He has never returned and commented many years later in 1999: "I will go back one day, but it was a painful experience to sell somewhere you've been brought up and loved, but it was just hopeless". Having moved on successively to senior roles in Chase Manhattan and Shearson Lehman Brothers, in 1992 he established his own asset management business, "Bridport Investment Services", with offices in Geneva and London. He has twice been married and twice divorced, with a son from each marriage. In November 2003 he agreed to lease the ducal cemetery to the Comune di Maniace for a period of 10 years, for the promotion of tourism, and for the signing ceremony a delegation from Bronte comprising Emilio Conti (the mayor (sindaco)) and Riccardo Bontempo Scavo (the cultural assessor (l’Assessore alla Cultura)), travelled to the Italian Consulate in Geneva, where the 7th Duke was presented with a relief portrait of Admiral Lord Nelson sculpted on a sandstone tablet by the artist Maria Concetta Lazzaro.
Commune of Bronte
In the first few years of the tenure of Commune of Bronte "the buildings and gardens fell into disrepair", but were restored before 2013. Ironically, having finally won their centuries-old struggle to recover the ancient estate, the Commune of Bronte promptly changed the name of the house to Castello dei Nelson ("House of the Nelsons"), and as the Duchy historian Lucy Riall remarked at the close of her epilogue (2013): Not everyone, it seems, shares the present Duke of Bronte's desire to move on. In January 1984 there occurred a major robbery in which about 20 important items of furniture, paintings (including Victory with Admiral Hood near Bastia by Lieutenant William Elliott) and Nelson memorabilia were stolen from the Castello, which remain unrecovered. To the consternation of many locals still harbouring the old anti-ducal outlook, the town of Bronte was recently twinned with the Norfolk village of Burnham Thorpe, birthplace of Admiral Nelson. In 2016 the Commune of Bronte entered into a contract for restoration of the Castello for the sum of 1.213 million Euros, which was incomplete by December 2019, meaning that it has been closed to visitors. The average annual number of visitors has been in excess of 30,000.
List of dukes
See also Viscount Nelson, Earl Nelson, Viscount Bridport
The holders of this title have been:
Horatio Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805)
William Nelson, 2nd Duke of Bronte, 1st Earl Nelson (1757–1835) (elder brother)
Charlotte Mary Nelson, 3rd Duchess of Bronte (1787–1873) (daughter)
Alexander Nelson Hood, 4th Duke of Bronte, 1st Viscount Bridport (1814–1904) (son) (previously created Viscount Bridport; see above)
Sir Alexander Nelson Hood, 5th Duke of Bronte (1904–1937) "Alec" (younger son, by bequest)
Rowland Arthur Herbert Nelson Hood, 6th Duke of Bronte, 3rd Viscount Bridport (1911–1969) (great-nephew)
Alexander Nelson Hood, 7th Duke of Bronte, 4th Viscount Bridport (b. 1948) (son)
The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Peregrine Alexander Nelson Hood (b. 1974). The heir apparent's heir presumptive is his eldest daughter, Honor Linda Nelson Hood (b. 2016).
List of governors
The governors (procurators, land agents or administrators) (procuratori dei duchi/governatori/agenti generali) of the estate wielded great local power, especially before the time of the 5th Duke (1873), whose predecessors had all been non-resident and had rarely, if ever, visited the estate. Some played important roles during the political disturbances at Bronte during the Risorgimento. When the 5th Duke took up residency in 1873 he found an administrator in situ who was reluctant to give up his power and future plans for the estate, whom he promptly fired. The Governors were as follows:
1799–1802: Johann Andreas Graeffer (d.1802), appointed by Admiral Nelson, 1st Duke. An English-trained German landscape gardener who had recently created the English Garden at the Royal Palace of Caserta in Naples for Nelson's benefactor the King of Sicily. He reconstructed the dilapidated monastic buildings at Maniace to create a suitable residence for the new Duke, and created an English garden. He was buried without monument in the Monastic Church of St Mary, within the Castello. On 2 June 1800 Nelson wrote from Palermo to Sir John Acton, Prime Minister of the King of Sicily: "My object at Bronte is to make the people happy by not suffering them to be oppressed, to enrich the country by the improvement in agriculture, for these reasons I selected Mr Graffner as a proper person for Governor as his character for honesty is unimpeachable ... and yet it would appear there are persons who wish for certain reasons to lessen the king's most magnificent gift to me and also to make the inhabitants of that country more miserable than they were before the estate came into my possession".
Abraham Gibbs (1758–1816). Graeffer was assisted by the Admiral's Devon-born friend Abraham Gibbs (1758–1816), a Palermo-based British banker of Gibbs & Co Bank, banker to the Court of the Two Sicilies at Naples, Consul at Palermo for the U.S.A. and Paymaster to the British Forces in the Mediterranean. He committed suicide in 1816 and his firm was liquidated by his nephew and partner William H. Gibbs.
1802–1816: Marchese (Marquis) Antonio Forcella (1740–1828), recommended to Gibbs by Sir John Acton (Prime Minister of the King of Sicily) as a replacement for the deceased Graeffer. Forcella was a nobleman at the royal court of Palermo, created a marquis in 1815, a son of the Barone di Castel Forcella (a district of Naples), himself the son of a notary at Buccino near Naples, of obscure origin. He was assisted by Mr Gibbs. The 2nd Duke "frequently lamented at the manner in which his affairs were cared for by these two men". Forcella's local representative was Mrs Elisa Graeffer, widow of the first agent. The 2nd Duke remarked "Mrs. Grafer's death removes a very troublesome person". The 2nd Duke ordered Barret to fire her son-in-law Gioacchino Spedalieri, Secretary to the Duchy, and son of Don Nicolò Spedalieri, nominated in 1803 Mayor (sindaco) of Bronte by Marchese Forcella.
1817–1818: (Joseph) Bryant Barrett (1773–1818), who "seemed to have been well-intentioned with many ideas and projects for the improvement of the estate", but died suddenly after one year of service, succeeded briefly by his widow Martha. He was the second son of Bryant Barrett (1714–90), the son of a London wax chandler and a Roman Catholic, who became lacemaker to King George III and purchased Milton Manor near Abingdon in Berkshire, where he built a new house designed by Inigo Jones. (Joseph) Bryant Barrett was probably a solicitor at Gray's Inn, possibly in partnership with his younger brother James William Barrett (1776–1864), the first Roman Catholic to have been be admitted a solicitor following the relaxation of the penal laws. On 18 September 1804 at the fashionable St George's Church, Hanover Square in London, he married Martha Spence, a daughter of Thomas Richard Spence, by whom he had two daughters.
1818–1819: Mrs. Martha Barrett, divided the local population.
1819–1839: Phillip Thovez (d.1840), a Commissioner of the Royal Navy (as is stated on his monument), who remained for 20 years until his death, nominated by the 2nd Duke and the 3rd Duchess. Philip Thovez, aged 20, "Italian", was a midshipman on HMS Victory, at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Buried in the Monastic Church of St Mary, within the Castello, where survives his elaborate monument erected by his son and successor William.
1839–1872: William Thovez ("son" of William Thovez) incontrastato padrone ("undisputed boss"), who effectively ruled the duchy for 33 years and due to his office was "one of the most powerful and wealthy men in the whole Province of Catania" and was the head of the ducal faction during politically turbulent times, most notably during the uprisings of 1848 and 1860. He features in the 1972 film by Vancini, meeting with General Nino Bixio, sent by Garibaldi to quell the 1860 uprising and massacre. He married twice, firstly to Rosaria Fragalà (1808–1856) whose elaborate monument survives in the Monastic Church of St Mary, within the Castello, and secondly he married (in the 5th Duke's words) "An unpleasant English woman, governess of his daughter, who played her role in the origin of the big disagreement". His daughter Clorinda married the lawyer Mariano Fiorini, in 1860 Commander of the Guardia Nazionale at Maletto, later mayor (sindaco) of that town. Fired by the 5th Duke ("My family for too long allowed him autonomous decision-making and in the end he considered himself a true boss, not supporting outside interference ... he showed himself reluctant to conform to the wishes of my father concerning the management of the estate and was fired with a pension"). He refused to hand over the duchy accounts to his successor. Died in 1879 and was buried in the Protestant Cemetery in Messina.
1872–1874: Samuel Grisley (1808–1874), who many years prior as a young man from the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, had started work in the duchy during the time of Phillip Thovez (d.1840), and had subsequently worked "with true devotion" as a factor. In his memory the 4th Duke erected a tablet in the Monastic Church of St Mary, within the Castello, inscribed: Per 54 anni impiegato fedele della Ducea di Bronte .... il Visconte Bridport Duca di Bronte a segno imperituro di gratitudine di stima addolorato questa pietra poneva ("for 54 years a faithful employee ... Viscount Bridport, Duke of Bronte, as an eternal mark of gratitude and esteem, in grief placed this stone")
1872–?: Il Ducino (future 5th Duke), who at the age of 19 had been sent out the previous year, thenceforth took full and sole control of the estate as resident administrator for several years. He remarked: "My task: to administer a large territory, young as I was, devoid of experience, ignorant of people and of their ways, with an uncertain knowledge of the language, was not of the simplest. However I pledged entirely and by working sometimes till one in the morning or later, I kept the accounts, supervised the outdoor labour, took care of the correspondence and the administration, for a fair few years, practically without help". Eventually he hired to assist him Monsieur Louis Fabre "whose collaboration was worthy of note".
?-1908: Monsieur Louis Fabre, who served for 34 years, but was ultimately fired.
1908–1917: Cavaliere Charles Beek, formerly the assistant to Louis Fabre. The 5th Duke remarked: "He had my gratitude and total trust right until his lamented death" and called him: "Our devoted friend who gave the benefit of his advice and assistance". He was a son of Col. William George Beek (1804–1873), the explorer in the Middle East, especially of the Dead Sea, who spent time in Sicily as a manager in mining. Being unmarried he got bored and lonely, as his correspondence records, and he considered the locals as "a silent underhand mafia which pretend(s) to obey orders but always manage(s) to mis-understand or not to do as they are told". He thought the castle cook was deliberately spoiling his meals and emigration of the locals was making it hard to find labour. Following the 1908 Messina earthquake which killed over 100,000 people, he did much to help destitute survivors, for which he was made a cavaliere (knight). Beek died at Maniace of malaria in 1917 and was buried in the ducal cemetery, leaving no children.
1917–1922: Edwin Hughes, buried in the ducal cemetery. Former assistant to Beek, but in the opinion of the 5th Duke "his bad health prevented him from providing an adequate service".
1922–? Hon. Victor Albert Nelson Hood (1862–1929), younger brother of the 5th Duke, who having lived for 25 years in Australia where he served in high government office, moved to Maniace to assist his brother, himself assisted by Major Richard Forsyth Gray as "ADC". Buried at Maniace.
?-1928: Major (Richard) Forsyth Gray, buried in the Ducal Cemetery.
1928–1938: George Dubois Woods
1938–1940: George Niblett, promoted on the death of Woods.
1940: Dr. Antonino Baiardi, a lawyer appointed by the wartime Italian authorities to oversee enemy property.
1940–1943: Dr. Giulio Leone, another Italian lawyer, on behalf of the Ente di Colonizzazione del Latifondo Siciliano.
1943–1945: Cav. (Sir) Luigi Modica (Allied Military Government)
1945–1960: Charles Lawrence Hughes, formerly forestry manager in 1938 under George Woods.
1960–1981: Frank Edward King MBE (1922–2003), known as "Mr Frank", the last ducal administrator, who on 4 September 1981 confirmed the sale of the Castello and its park to the Commune of Bronte, excluding the Monastic Church which had earlier become state property. A soldier who had landed and fought in Sicily in 1943 during the Allied Invasion, he "fell in love with Sicily on first sight" and 3 years later married a local girl. In his obituary in La Sicilia newspaper, he was praised as an Inglese-Siculo ("Anglo-Sicilian") who had returned the Castello and park to their ancient splendour. "The barren lands of the Duchy he transformed into luxuriant orchards amongst the most admired, becoming a cultural treasure of Sicily and of the Sicilians". He restored the ancient monastic church and "for almost a half-century became the reference-point for the Embassy, the Anglican Church, a protagonist for humanitarian intervention, a gentleman known and appreciated in Italy, Europe and Overseas". In 1992 (?) he was created by the Queen an MBE for his professional and religious merits.
Further reading
Alexander Nelson Hood, 5th Duke of Bronte, Tales of Old Sicily, 1906;
Bronte, Alexander Nelson Hood, 5th Duke of, The Duchy of Bronte: a memorandum written for his family in 1924
Alexander Nelson Hood, 5th Duke of Bronte, Sicilian Studies, 1915
Archives of the Dukes of Bronte, Palermo State Archives
Antonio Petronaci, Luoghi della Ducea dei Nelson attraverso foto e cartoline d’epoca, 2002,
William Sharp, Through Nelson's Duchy, Pall Mall Magazine, June 1903, pp. 225–36 & in Selected Writings of William Sharp, Vol. IV, Travel Sketches
Salvo Nibali, Il Castello Nelson, 1985
Nunzio Galati, Maniace, The ex Nelson Duchy, Catania, 1988
Lucy Riall, Under the Volcano: Revolution in a Sicilian Town, Oxford, 2013
Lucy Riall, Nelson versus Bronte: Land, Litigation and Local Politics in Sicily, 1799–1860, European History Review, vol.29, 1999
Mario Catastro, La ducea inglesa ai piedi dell’ Etna
Sources
Website of Associazione Bronte Insieme ONLUS (www.bronteinsieme.it), founded 2001 by Franco Cimbali, Salvatore Di Bella, Giuliana Russo & Nino Liuzzo
Benedetto Radice, Memorie storiche di Bronte (Historical memories of Bronte), Vols 1&2, Bronte 1928, 1936; background see digital text see
Benedetto Radice, Il casale e l'abbazia di S. M. di Maniace, Palermo, 1909 Bronte Insieme/Personalities – Benedetto Radice
References
External links
Florestano Vancini, Bronte – Cronaca di un massacro che i libri di storia non hanno raccontato ("Bronte – chronicle of a massacre which the history books have not recounted"), 1972 film dramatising the events of 1860, filmed in Yugoslavia, see youtube
Nebrodi – Obelisco Di Nelson, youtube video of a bike ride up to the monument erected by the 5th Duke to his father
Video of Castello di Maniace
wikisource:Letters patent: Duchy of Bronté (1799)
Horatio Nelson
Dukes in Italy
Bronté
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathwidth
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Pathwidth
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In graph theory, a path decomposition of a graph is, informally, a representation of as a "thickened" path graph, and the pathwidth of is a number that measures how much the path was thickened to form . More formally, a path-decomposition is a sequence of subsets of vertices of such that the endpoints of each edge appear in one of the subsets and such that each vertex appears in a contiguous subsequence of the subsets, and the pathwidth is one less than the size of the largest set in such a decomposition.
Pathwidth is also known as interval thickness (one less than the maximum clique size in an interval supergraph of ), vertex separation number, or node searching number.
Pathwidth and path-decompositions are closely analogous to treewidth and tree decompositions. They play a key role in the theory of graph minors: the families of graphs that are closed under graph minors and do not include all forests may be characterized as having bounded pathwidth, and the "vortices" appearing in the general structure theory for minor-closed graph families have bounded pathwidth. Pathwidth, and graphs of bounded pathwidth, also have applications in VLSI design, graph drawing, and computational linguistics.
It is NP-hard to find the pathwidth of arbitrary graphs, or even to approximate it accurately. However, the problem is fixed-parameter tractable: testing whether a graph has pathwidth can be solved in an amount of time that depends linearly on the size of the graph but superexponentially on . Additionally, for several special classes of graphs, such as trees, the pathwidth may be computed in polynomial time without dependence on .
Many problems in graph algorithms may be solved efficiently on graphs of bounded pathwidth, by using dynamic programming on a path-decomposition of the graph. Path decomposition may also be used to measure the space complexity of dynamic programming algorithms on graphs of bounded treewidth.
Definition
In the first of their famous series of papers on graph minors, define a path-decomposition of a graph to be a sequence of subsets of vertices of , with two properties:
For each edge of , there exists an such that both endpoints of the edge belong to subset , and
For every three indices ,
The second of these two properties is equivalent to requiring that the subsets containing any particular vertex form a contiguous subsequence of the whole sequence. In the language of the later papers in Robertson and Seymour's graph minor series, a path-decomposition is a tree decomposition in which the underlying tree of the decomposition is a path graph.
The width of a path-decomposition is defined in the same way as for tree-decompositions, as , and the pathwidth of is the minimum width of any path-decomposition of . The subtraction of one from the size of in this definition makes little difference in most applications of pathwidth, but is used to make the pathwidth of a path graph be equal to one.
Alternative characterizations
As describes, pathwidth can be characterized in many equivalent ways.
Gluing sequences
A path decomposition can be described as a sequence of graphs that are glued together by identifying pairs of vertices from consecutive graphs in the sequence, such that the result of performing all of these gluings is . The graphs may be taken as the induced subgraphs of the sets in the first definition of path decompositions, with two vertices in successive induced subgraphs being glued together when they are induced by the same vertex in , and in the other direction one may recover the sets as the vertex sets of the graphs . The width of the path decomposition is then one less than the maximum number of vertices in one of the graphs .
Interval thickness
The pathwidth of any graph is equal to one less than the smallest clique number of an interval graph that contains as a subgraph. That is, for every path decomposition of one can find an interval supergraph of , and for every interval supergraph of one can find a path decomposition of , such that the width of the decomposition is one less than the clique number of the interval graph.
In one direction, suppose a path decomposition of is given. Then one may represent the nodes of the decomposition as points on a line (in path order) and represent each vertex as a closed interval having these points as endpoints. In this way, the path decomposition nodes containing correspond to the representative points in the interval for . The intersection graph of the intervals formed from the vertices of is an interval graph that contains as a subgraph. Its maximal cliques are given by the sets of intervals containing the representative points, and its maximum clique size is one plus the pathwidth of .
In the other direction, if is a subgraph of an interval graph with clique number , then has a path decomposition of width whose nodes are given by the maximal cliques of the interval graph. For instance, the interval graph shown with its interval representation in the figure has a path decomposition with five nodes, corresponding to its five maximal cliques , , , , and ; the maximum clique size is three and the width of this path decomposition is two.
This equivalence between pathwidth and interval thickness is closely analogous to the equivalence between treewidth and the minimum clique number (minus one) of a chordal graph of which the given graph is a subgraph. Interval graphs are a special case of chordal graphs, and chordal graphs can be represented as intersection graphs of subtrees of a common tree generalizing the way that interval graphs are intersection graphs of subpaths of a path.
Vertex separation number
Suppose that the vertices of a graph are linearly ordered. Then the vertex separation number of is the smallest number such that, for each vertex , at most vertices are earlier than in the ordering but that have or a later vertex as a neighbor.
The vertex separation number of is the minimum vertex separation number of any linear ordering of . The vertex separation number was defined by , and is equal to the pathwidth of .
This follows from the earlier equivalence with interval graph clique numbers: if is a subgraph of an interval graph , represented (as in the figure) in such a way that all interval endpoints are distinct, then the ordering of the left endpoints of the intervals of has vertex separation number one less than the clique number of . And in the other direction, from a linear ordering of one may derive an interval representation in which the left endpoint of the interval for a vertex is its position in the ordering and the right endpoint is the position of the neighbor of that comes last in the ordering.
Node searching number
The node searching game on a graph is a form of pursuit–evasion in which a set of searchers collaborate to track down a fugitive hiding in a graph. The searchers are placed on vertices of the graph while the fugitive may be in any edge of the graph, and the fugitive's location and moves are hidden from the searchers. In each turn, some or all of the searchers may move (arbitrarily, not necessarily along edges) from one vertex to another, and then the fugitive may move along any path in the graph that does not pass through a searcher-occupied vertex. The fugitive is caught when both endpoints of his edge are occupied by searchers. The node searching number of a graph is the minimum number of searchers needed to ensure that the fugitive can be guaranteed to be caught, no matter how he moves. As show, the node searching number of a graph equals its interval thickness. The optimal strategy for the searchers is to move the searchers so that in successive turns they form the separating sets of a linear ordering with minimal vertex separation number.
Bounds
Every -vertex graph with pathwidth has at most edges, and the maximal pathwidth- graphs (graphs to which no more edges can be added without increasing the pathwidth) have exactly this many edges. A maximal pathwidth- graph must be either a -path or a -caterpillar, two special kinds of -tree. A -tree is a chordal graph with exactly maximal cliques, each containing vertices; in a -tree that is not itself a -clique, each maximal clique either separates the graph into two or more components, or it contains a single leaf vertex, a vertex that belongs to only a single maximal clique. A -path is a -tree with at most two leaves, and a -caterpillar is a -tree that can be partitioned into a -path and a set of -leaves each adjacent to a separator -clique of the -path. In particular the maximal graphs of pathwidth one are exactly the caterpillar trees.
Since path-decompositions are a special case of tree-decompositions, the pathwidth of any graph is greater than or equal to its treewidth. The pathwidth is also less than or equal to the cutwidth, the minimum number of edges that cross any cut between lower-numbered and higher-numbered vertices in an optimal linear arrangement of the vertices of a graph; this follows because the vertex separation number, the number of lower-numbered vertices with higher-numbered neighbors, can at most equal the number of cut edges. For similar reasons, the cutwidth is at most the pathwidth times the maximum degree of the vertices in a given graph.
Any -vertex forest has pathwidth . For, in a forest, one can always find a constant number of vertices the removal of which leaves a forest that can be partitioned into two smaller subforests with at most vertices each. A linear arrangement formed by recursively partitioning each of these two subforests, placing the separating vertices between them, has logarithmic vertex searching number. The same technique, applied to a tree-decomposition of a graph, shows that, if the treewidth of an -vertex graph is , then the pathwidth of is . Since outerplanar graphs, series–parallel graphs, and Halin graphs all have bounded treewidth, they all also have at most logarithmic pathwidth.
As well as its relations to treewidth, pathwidth is also related to clique-width and cutwidth, via line graphs; the line graph of a graph has a vertex for each edge of and two vertices in are adjacent when the corresponding two edges of share an endpoint. Any family of graphs has bounded pathwidth if and only if its line graphs have bounded linear clique-width, where linear clique-width replaces the disjoint union operation from clique-width with the operation of adjoining a single new vertex. If a connected graph with three or more vertices has maximum degree three, then its cutwidth equals the vertex separation number of its line graph.
In any planar graph, the pathwidth is at most proportional to the square root of the number of vertices. One way to find a path-decomposition with this width is (similarly to the logarithmic-width path-decomposition of forests described above) to use the planar separator theorem to find a set of vertices the removal of which separates the graph into two subgraphs of at most vertices each, and concatenate recursively-constructed path decompositions for each of these two subgraphs. The same technique applies to any class of graphs for which a similar separator theorem holds. Since, like planar graphs, the graphs in any fixed minor-closed graph family have separators of size , it follows that the pathwidth of the graphs in any fixed minor-closed family is again . For some classes of planar graphs, the pathwidth of the graph and the pathwidth of its dual graph must be within a constant factor of each other: bounds of this form are known for biconnected outerplanar graphs and for polyhedral graphs. For 2-connected planar graphs, the pathwidth of the dual graph is less than the pathwidth of the line graph. It remains open whether the pathwidth of a planar graph and its dual are always within a constant factor of each other in the remaining cases.
In some classes of graphs, it has been proven that the pathwidth and treewidth are always equal to each other: this is true for cographs, permutation graphs, the complements of comparability graphs, and the comparability graphs of interval orders.
In any cubic graph, or more generally any graph with maximum vertex degree three, the pathwidth is at most , where is the number of vertices in the graph. There exist cubic graphs with pathwidth , but it is not known how to reduce this gap between this lower bound and the upper bound.
Computing path-decompositions
It is NP-complete to determine whether the pathwidth of a given graph is at most , when is a variable given as part of the input. The best known worst-case time bounds for computing the pathwidth of arbitrary -vertex graphs are of the form for some constant . Nevertheless, several algorithms are known to compute path-decompositions more efficiently when the pathwidth is small, when the class of input graphs is limited, or approximately.
Fixed-parameter tractability
Pathwidth is fixed-parameter tractable: for any constant , it is possible to test whether the pathwidth is at most , and if so to find a path-decomposition of width , in linear time. In general, these algorithms operate in two phases. In the first phase, the assumption that the graph has pathwidth is used to find a path-decomposition or tree-decomposition that is not optimal, but whose width can be bounded as a function of . In the second phase, a dynamic programming algorithm is applied to this decomposition in order to find the optimal decomposition.
However, the time bounds for known algorithms of this type are exponential in , impractical except for the smallest values of . For the case an explicit linear-time algorithm based on a structural decomposition of pathwidth-2 graphs is given by .
Special classes of graphs
surveys the complexity of computing the pathwidth on various special classes of graphs. Determining whether the pathwidth of a graph is at most remains NP-complete when is restricted to bounded-degree graphs, planar graphs, planar graphs of bounded degree, chordal graphs, chordal dominoes, the complements of comparability graphs,
and bipartite distance-hereditary graphs. It follows immediately that it is also NP-complete for the graph families that contain the bipartite distance-hereditary graphs, including the bipartite graphs, chordal bipartite graphs, distance-hereditary graphs, and circle graphs.
However, the pathwidth may be computed in linear time for trees and forests,. It may also be computed in polynomial time for graphs of bounded treewidth including series–parallel graphs, outerplanar graphs, and Halin graphs, as well as for split graphs, for the complements of chordal graphs, for permutation graphs, for cographs, for circular-arc graphs, for the comparability graphs of interval orders, and of course for interval graphs themselves, since in that case the pathwidth is just one less than the maximum number of intervals covering any point in an interval representation of the graph.
Approximation algorithms
It is NP-hard to approximate the pathwidth of a graph to within an additive constant.
The best known approximation ratio of a polynomial time approximation algorithm for pathwidth is .
For earlier approximation algorithms for pathwidth, see and . For approximations on restricted classes of graphs, see .
Graph minors
A minor of a graph is another graph formed from by contracting edges, removing edges, and removing vertices. Graph minors have a deep theory in which several important results involve pathwidth.
Excluding a forest
If a family of graphs is closed under taking minors (every minor of a member of is also in ), then by the Robertson–Seymour theorem can be characterized as the graphs that do not have any minor in , where is a finite set of forbidden minors. For instance, Wagner's theorem states that the planar graphs are the graphs that have neither the complete graph nor the complete bipartite graph as minors. In many cases, the properties of and the properties of are closely related, and the first such result of this type was by , and relates bounded pathwidth with the existence of a forest in the family of forbidden minors. Specifically, define a family of graphs to have bounded pathwidth if there exists a constant such that every graph in has pathwidth at most . Then, a minor-closed family has bounded pathwidth if and only if the set of forbidden minors for includes at least one forest.
In one direction, this result is straightforward to prove: if does not include at least one forest, then the -minor-free graphs do not have bounded pathwidth. For, in this case, the -minor-free graphs include all forests, and in particular they include the perfect binary trees. But a perfect binary tree with levels has pathwidth , so in this case the -minor-free-graphs have unbounded pathwidth. In the other direction, if contains an -vertex forest, then the -minor-free graphs have pathwidth at most .
Obstructions to bounded pathwidth
The property of having pathwidth at most is, itself, closed under taking minors: if has a path-decomposition with width at most , then the same path-decomposition remains valid if any edge is removed from , and any vertex can be removed from and from its path-decomposition without increasing the width. Contraction of an edge, also, can be accomplished without increasing the width of the decomposition, by merging the sub-paths representing the two endpoints of the contracted edge. Therefore, the graphs of pathwidth at most can be characterized by a set of excluded minors.
Although necessarily includes at least one forest, it is not true that all graphs in are forests: for instance, consists of two graphs, a seven-vertex tree and the triangle . However, the set of trees in may be precisely characterized: these trees are exactly the trees that can be formed from three trees in by connecting a new root vertex by an edge to an arbitrarily chosen vertex in each of the three smaller trees. For instance, the seven-vertex tree in is formed in this way from the two-vertex tree (a single edge) in . Based on this construction, the number of forbidden minors in can be shown to be at least . The complete set of forbidden minors for pathwidth-2 graphs has been computed; it contains 110 different graphs.
Structure theory
The graph structure theorem for minor-closed graph families states that, for any such family , the graphs in can be decomposed into clique-sums of graphs that can be embedded onto surfaces of bounded genus, together with a bounded number of apexes and vortices for each component of the clique-sum. An apex is a vertex that may be adjacent to any other vertex in its component, while a vortex is a graph of bounded pathwidth that is glued into one of the faces of the bounded-genus embedding of a component. The cyclic ordering of the vertices around the face into which a vortex is embedded must be compatible with the path decomposition of the vortex, in the sense that breaking the cycle to form a linear ordering must lead to an ordering with bounded vertex separation number. This theory, in which pathwidth is intimately connected to arbitrary minor-closed graph families, has important algorithmic applications.
Applications
VLSI
In VLSI design, the vertex separation problem was originally studied as a way to partition circuits into smaller subsystems, with a small number of components on the boundary between the subsystems.
use interval thickness to model the number of tracks needed in a one-dimensional layout of a VLSI circuit, formed by a set of modules that need to be interconnected by a system of nets. In their model, one forms a graph in which the vertices represent nets, and in which two vertices are connected by an edge if their nets both connect to the same module; that is, if the modules and nets are interpreted as forming the nodes and hyperedges of a hypergraph then the graph formed from them is its line graph. An interval representation of a supergraph of this line graph, together with a coloring of the supergraph, describes an arrangement of the nets along a system of horizontal tracks (one track per color) in such a way that the modules can be placed along the tracks in a linear order and connect to the appropriate nets. The fact that interval graphs are perfect graphs implies that the number of colors needed, in an optimal arrangement of this type, is the same as the clique number of the interval completion of the net graph.
Gate matrix layout is a specific style of CMOS VLSI layout for Boolean logic circuits. In gate matrix layouts, signals are propagated along "lines" (vertical line segments) while each gate of the circuit is formed by a sequence of device features that lie along a horizontal line segment. Thus, the horizontal line segment for each gate must cross the vertical segments for each of the lines that form inputs or outputs of the gate. As in the layouts of , a layout of this type that minimizes the number of vertical tracks on which the lines are to be arranged can be found by computing the pathwidth of a graph that has the lines as its vertices and pairs of lines sharing a gate as its edges. The same algorithmic approach can also be used to model folding problems in programmable logic arrays.
Graph drawing
Pathwidth has several applications to graph drawing:
The minimal graphs that have a given crossing number have pathwidth that is bounded by a function of their crossing number.
The number of parallel lines on which the vertices of a tree can be drawn with no edge crossings (under various natural restrictions on the ways that adjacent vertices can be placed with respect to the sequence of lines) is proportional to the pathwidth of the tree.
A k-crossing h-layer drawing of a graph G is a placement of the vertices of G onto h distinct horizontal lines, with edges routed as monotonic polygonal paths between these lines, in such a way that there are at most k crossings. The graphs with such drawings have pathwidth that is bounded by a function of h and k. Therefore, when h and k are both constant, it is possible in linear time to determine whether a graph has a k-crossing h-layer drawing.
A graph with n vertices and pathwidth p can be embedded into a three-dimensional grid of size in such a way that no two edges (represented as straight line segments between grid points) intersect each other. Thus, graphs of bounded pathwidth have embeddings of this type with linear volume.
Compiler design
In the compilation of high-level programming languages, pathwidth arises in the problem of reordering sequences of straight-line code (that is, code with no control flow branches or loops) in such a way that all the values computed in the code can be placed in machine registers instead of having to be spilled into main memory. In this application, one represents the code to be compiled as a directed acyclic graph in which the nodes represent the input values to the code and the values computed by the operations within the code. An edge from node x to node y in this DAG represents the fact that value x is one of the inputs to operation y. A topological ordering of the vertices of this DAG represents a valid reordering of the code, and the number of registers needed to evaluate the code in a given ordering is given by the vertex separation number of the ordering.
For any fixed number w of machine registers, it is possible to determine in linear time whether a piece of straight-line code can be reordered in such a way that it can be evaluated with at most w registers. For, if the vertex separation number of a topological ordering is at most w, the minimum vertex separation among all orderings can be no larger, so the undirected graph formed by ignoring the orientations of the DAG described above must have pathwidth at most w. It is possible to test whether this is the case, using the known fixed-parameter-tractable algorithms for pathwidth, and if so to find a path-decomposition for the undirected graph, in linear time given the assumption that w is a constant. Once a path decomposition has been found, a topological ordering of width w (if one exists) can be found using dynamic programming, again in linear time.
Linguistics
describe an application of path-width in natural language processing. In this application, sentences are modeled as graphs, in which the vertices represent words and the edges represent relationships between words; for instance if an adjective modifies a noun in the sentence then the graph would have an edge between those two words. Due to the limited capacity of human short-term memory, Kornai and Tuza argue that this graph must have bounded pathwidth (more specifically, they argue, pathwidth at most six), for otherwise humans would not be able to parse speech correctly.
Exponential algorithms
Many problems in graph algorithms may be solved efficiently on graphs of low pathwidth, by using dynamic programming on a path-decomposition of the graph. For instance, if a linear ordering of the vertices of an n-vertex graph G is given, with vertex separation number w, then it is possible to find the maximum independent set of G in time On graphs of bounded pathwidth, this approach leads to fixed-parameter tractable algorithms, parametrized by the pathwidth. Such results are not frequently found in the literature because they are subsumed by similar algorithms parametrized by the treewidth; however, pathwidth arises even in treewidth-based dynamic programming algorithms in measuring the space complexity of these algorithms.
The same dynamic programming method also can be applied to graphs with unbounded pathwidth, leading to algorithms that solve unparametrized graph problems in exponential time. For instance, combining this dynamic programming approach with the fact that cubic graphs have pathwidth n/6 + o(n) shows that, in a cubic graph, the maximum independent set can be constructed in time O(2n/6 + o(n)), faster than previous known methods. A similar approach leads to improved exponential-time algorithms for the maximum cut and minimum dominating set problems in cubic graphs, and for several other NP-hard optimization problems.
See also
Boxicity, a different way of measuring the complexity of an arbitrary graph in terms of interval graphs
Cutwidth, the minimum possible width of a linear ordering of the vertices of a graph
Tree-depth, a number that is bounded for a minor-closed graph family if and only if the family excludes a path
Degeneracy, a measure of the sparsity of a graph that is at most equal to its path width
Graph bandwidth, a different NP-complete optimization problem involving linear layouts of graphs
Strahler number, a measure of the complexity of rooted trees defined similarly to pathwidth of unrooted trees
Notes
References
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Graph invariants
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embraer%20EMB%20314%20Super%20Tucano
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Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano
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The Embraer EMB 314 Super Tucano (English: Super Toucan), also named ALX or A-29, is a Brazilian turboprop light attack aircraft designed and built by Embraer as a development of the Embraer EMB 312 Tucano. The A-29 Super Tucano carries a wide variety of weapons, including precision-guided munitions, and was designed to be a low-cost system operated in low-threat environments.
In addition to its manufacture in Brazil, Embraer has set up a production line in the United States in conjunction with Sierra Nevada Corporation for the manufacture of A-29s to export customers.
Design and development
During the mid-1980s, Embraer was working on the Short Tucano alongside a new version designated the EMB-312G1, carrying the same Garrett engine. The EMB-312G1 prototype flew for the first time in July 1986. However, the project was dropped because the Brazilian Air Force was not interested in it. Nonetheless, the lessons from recent combat use of the aircraft in Peru and Venezuela led Embraer to keep up the studies. Besides a trainer, it researched a helicopter attack version designated "helicopter killer" or EMB-312H. The study was stimulated by the unsuccessful bid for the US military Joint Primary Aircraft Training System program. A proof-of-concept prototype flew for the first time in September 1991. The aircraft features a fuselage extension with the addition of sections before and after of the cockpit to restore its center of gravity and stability, a strengthened airframe, cockpit pressurization, and stretched nose to house the more powerful PT6A-67R () engine. Two new prototypes with the PT6A-68A () engine were built in 1993. The second prototype flew for the first time in May 1993 and the third prototype flew in October 1993.
The request for a light attack aircraft was part of the Brazilian government's Amazon Surveillance System project. This aircraft would fly with the R-99A and R-99B aircraft then in service and be used to intercept illegal aircraft flights and patrol Brazil's borders. The ALX project was then created by the Brazilian Air Force, which was also in need of a military trainer to replace the Embraer EMB 326GB Xavante. The new aircraft was to be suited to the Amazon region (high temperature, moisture, and precipitation; low military threat). The ALX was then specified as a turboprop engine plane with a long range and autonomy, able to operate night and day, in any meteorological conditions, and able to land on short airfields lacking infrastructure.
In August 1995, the Brazilian Ministry of Aeronautics awarded Embraer a $50 million contract for ALX development. Two EMB-312Hs were updated to serve as ALX prototypes. These made their initial flights in their new configuration in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The initial flight of a production-configured ALX, further modified from one of the prototypes, occurred on 2 June 1999. The second prototype was brought up to two-seater configuration and performed its first flight on 22 October 1999. The changes had been so considerable that the type was given a new designation, the EMB-314 Super Tucano. The total cost of the aircraft development was quoted to be between US$200 million and US$300 million.
The aircraft differs from the baseline EMB-312 Tucano trainer aircraft in several respects. It is powered by a more powerful Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-68C engine (compared to the EMB-312's powerplant); has a strengthened airframe to sustain higher g loads and increase fatigue life to 8,000–12,000 hours in operational environments; a reinforced landing gear to handle greater takeoff weights and heavier stores load, up to ; Kevlar armour protection; two internal, wing-mounted .50 cal. machine guns (with 200 rounds of ammunition each); capacity to carry various ordnance on five weapon hardpoints including Giat NC621 20 mm cannon pods, Mk 81/82 bombs, MAA-1 Piranha air-to-air missiles (AAMs), BLG-252 cluster bombs, and SBAT-70/19 or LAU-68A/G rocket pods on its underwing stations; and has a night-vision goggle-compatible "glass cockpit" with hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS) controls; provision for a datalink; a video camera and recorder; an embedded mission-planning capability; forward-looking infrared; chaff/flare dispensers; missile approach warning receiver systems and radar warning receivers; and zero-zero ejection seats. The structure is corrosion-protected and the side-hinged canopy has a windshield able to withstand bird strike impacts up to .
In 1996, Embraer selected the Israeli firm Elbit Systems to supply the mission avionics for the ALX. For this contract, Elbit was chosen over GEC-Marconi and Sextant Avionique. The Israeli company supplies such equipment as the mission computer, head-up displays, and navigation and stores management systems.
On 13 October 2010, the Super Tucano A-29B had passed the mark of 48,000 hours since 21 July 2005 on full-scale wing-fuselage structural fatigue tests, conducted by the Aeronautical Systems Division, part of the Aeronautics and Space Institute at the Structural Testing Laboratory. The tests involve a complex system of hydraulics and tabs that apply pressure to the aircraft structure, simulating air pressure from flying at varying altitudes. The simulation continued for another year to complete the engine-fatigue life test and crack-propagation studies for a damage-tolerance analysis program of conducted by Embraer and the Aeronautics and Space Institute.
Embraer developed an advanced training and support system suite called Training Operational Support System (TOSS) an integrated computational tool composed of four systems: computer-based training enabling the student to rehearse the next sortie on a computer simulation; an aviation mission planning station, which uses the three-dimensional (3D) visuals to practice planned missions and to check intervisibility between aircraft and from aircraft and other entities; a mission debriefing station employing real aircraft data to play back missions for review and analysis; and a flight simulator. MPS and MDS was enhanced with MAK's 3D visualization solution to support airforces pre-existing data, including GIS, Web-based servers and a plug-in for custom terrain formats.
In 2012, Boeing Defense, Space & Security was selected to integrate the Joint Direct Attack Munition and Small Diameter Bomb to the Super Tucano. In 2013, Embraer Defense and Security disclosed that its subsidiary, OrbiSat, was developing a new radar for the Super Tucano. A Colombian general disclosed that the side-looking airborne radar will be able to locate ground targets smaller than a car with digital precision.
In April 2023, the manufacturer announced the A-29N, a variant intended for NATO nations. The A-29N will include NATO-required equipment, data link communications and be fitted for single-pilot operation. Available simulators used for training will incorporate virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality technology.
Operational history
Afghanistan
In 2011, the Super Tucano was declared the winner of the US Light Air Support contract competition over the Hawker Beechcraft AT-6B Texan II. The contract was cancelled in 2012 citing Hawker Beechcraft's appeal when its proposal was disqualified during the procurement process, but rewon in 2013. Twenty of these light attack aircraft were purchased for the Afghan Air Force (AAF). The first four aircraft arrived in Afghanistan in January 2016, with a further four due before the end of 2016. Combat-ready Afghan A-29 pilots graduated from training at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia, and returned to Afghanistan to represent the first of 30 pilots trained by the 81st Fighter Squadron at Moody AFB. A fleet of 20 A-29s would be in place by 2018, according to a senior U.S. defense official. The Pentagon purchased the Super Tucanos in a $427 million contract with Sierra Nevada Corp. and Embraer, with the aircraft produced at Embraer's facility on the grounds of Jacksonville International Airport in Jacksonville, Florida.
The first four aircraft arrived at Hamid Karzai International Airport on 15 January 2016. Prior to the A-29's delivery, the Afghan Air Force lacked close air support aircraft other than attack helicopters. In 2017, the AAF conducted roughly 2,000 airstrike sorties, about 40 a week. The AAF had a record high in October with more than 80 missions in a single week. By March 2018, the AAF had 12 A-29s in service. On 22 March 2018, the AAF deployed a GBU-58 Paveway II 250 lb (113.4 kg) bomb from an A-29 in combat, marking the first time the service had dropped a laser-guided weapon against the Taliban.
Fall of Kabul
In August 2021, during the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul, some Afghan pilots fled the country, taking an unknown number of aircraft, including A-29s, with them.
An Afghan Air Force A-29 crashed in Uzbekistan's Surxondaryo Region; two pilots ejected and landed with parachutes. Initially it was reported shot down by Uzbekistan air defenses, then the Prosecutor General's office in Uzbekistan issued a statement saying that an Afghan military plane had collided mid-air with an Uzbekistan Air Force MiG-29, finally it retracted the statement about the mid-air collision. At least one Super Tucano was captured by the Taliban in the Mazar-i-Sharif International Airport.
Brazil
In August 2001, the Brazilian Air Force awarded Embraer a contract for 76 Super Tucano / ALX aircraft with options for a further 23. A total of 99 aircraft were acquired from a contract estimated to be worth U$214.1 million; 66 of these aircraft are two-seater versions, designated A-29B. The remaining 33 aircraft are the single-seat A-29 ALX version. The first aircraft was delivered in December 2003. By September 2007, 50 aircraft had entered service. The 99th, and last, aircraft was delivered in June 2012.
Sivam programme
One of the aircraft's main missions is border patrol under the Sivam programme, particularly to act against drug trafficking activities. On 3 June 2009, two Brazilian Air Force A-29s, guided by an Embraer E-99, intercepted a Cessna U206G inbound from Bolivia in the region of Alta Floresta d'Oeste; after exhausting all procedures, one of the A-29s fired a warning shot from its 12.7 mm machine guns, after which the Cessna followed the A-29s to Cacoal airport. This incident was the first use of powers granted under the Shoot-Down Act, which was enacted in October 2004 to legislate for the downing of illegal flights. A total of 176 kg of pure cocaine base paste, enough to produce almost a ton of cocaine, was discovered on board the Cessna; the two occupants attempted a ground escape but were arrested by federal police in Pimenta Bueno.
Operation Ágata
On 5 August 2011, Brazil started Operation Ágata, part of a major "Frontiers Strategic Plan" launched in June, with almost 30 continuous days of rigorous military activity in the region of Brazil's border with Colombia; it mobilized 35 aircraft and more than 3,000 military personnel of the Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy, and Brazilian Air Force surveillance against drug trafficking, illegal mining and logging, and trafficking of wild animals. A-29s of 1 / 3º Aviation Group (GAV), Squadron Scorpion, launched a strike upon an illicit airstrip, deploying eight 230 kg (500 lb) computer-guided Mk 82 bombs to render the airstrip unusable.
Multiple RQ-450 UAVs and several E-99s were assigned for night operations to locate remote jungle airstrips used by drug smuggling gangs along the border. The RQ-450s located targets for the A-29s, allowing them to bomb the airstrips with a high level of accuracy using night vision systems and computer systems calculating the impact points of munitions.
Operation Ágata 2
On 15 September 2011, Brazil launched the Operation Ágata 2 on the borders with Uruguay, Argentina, and Paraguay. Part of this border is the infamous Triple Frontier. A-29s from Maringá, Dourados, and Campo Grande, and Brazilian upgraded Northrop F-5 Tiger II/F-5EMs from Canoas, intercepted a total of 33 aircraft during Operation Ágata 2 in this area. Brazilian forces seized 62 tons of narcotics, made 3,000 arrests, and destroyed three illicit airstrips, while over 650 tons of weapons and explosives have been seized.
Operation Ágata 3
On 22 November 2011, Brazil launched the Operation Ágata 3 on the borders with Bolivia, Peru, and Paraguay. It involved 6,500 personnel, backed by 10 ships and 200 land patrol vehicles, in addition to 70 aircraft, including fighter, transport, and reconnaissance aircraft; it was the largest Brazilian coordinated action involving the Army, Navy, and Air Force against illegal trafficking and organized crime, along a border strip of almost 7,000 km. A-1 (AMX), Northrop F-5 Tiger II/ F-5EM and A-29s from Tabatinga, Campo Grande, Cuiabá, Vilhena, and Porto Velho were employed in defending air space, supported by airborne early warning and control E-99, equipped with a 450-km-range radar capable of detecting low-flying aircraft, and R-99, remote sensing and surveillance. On 7 December 2011, Brazilian Ministry of Defence informed that drug seizures were up by 1,319% over the last six months, compared to prior six months.
Chile
In August 2008, the Chilean Air Force signed a contract valued at $120 million for 12 A-29Bs. The contract includes a broad integrated logistic support package and an advanced training and operation support system (TOSS), covering not only the aircraft, but also an integrated suite for ground support stations. The FACH's TOSS consists of three systems: a mission planning station in which instructor and student program all phases of flight, setting the various parameters of each phase along with navigation, communications, goals, and simulations; a mission debriefing station empowering students with the ability to review all and each flight aspects and phases, enabling to look at the errors and correct them for their next mission; and a flight simulator.
The first four A-29Bs arrived in December 2009 while further deliveries took place in the following year. They are based at Los Cóndores Air Base (45 km from Iquique) and are used for tactical instruction at the 1st Air Brigade for the Aviation Group #1, the fully digital cockpit allows students to do a smooth transition between the T-35 Pillán (basic trainer) and the F-16. In 2018, six additional A-29B, along with ground support equipment, arrived; four more units were received two years later.
Colombia
A total of 25 Super Tucanos (variant AT-29B) were purchased by the Colombian Air Force in a US$234 million deal, purchased directly from Embraer. On 14 December 2006, the first three aircraft arrived to the military airfield of CATAM in Bogotá; two more were delivered later that month, ten more in the first half of 2007, and the rest in June 2008.
On 18 January 2007, a squadron of Colombian Air Force Super Tucanos launched the first-ever combat mission of its type, attacking FARC positions in the jungle with Mark 82 bombs. This attack made use of the Super Tucano's constantly computed impact point capability; the aircraft's performance in action was a reported success.
On 11 July 2012, the first Super Tucano was lost near Jambalo during an anti-FARC operation; rebels claimed they shot it down with a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine gun, but the Colombian Air Force challenged the rebel group's claim after inspecting the wreckage.
Anti-FARC operation Phoenix
In 2008, during "Operation Phoenix", a Colombian Air Force Super Tucano used Griffin laser-guided bombs to destroy a guerrilla cell inside Ecuador and kill the second-in-command chief of FARC, Raúl Reyes. This event led to a diplomatic break between the two countries.
Anti-FARC operation Sodoma
On 21 September 2010, Operation Sodoma in the Meta department began, 120 miles south of the capital Bogotá. FARC commander Mono Jojoy was killed in a massive military operation on 22 September, after 25 EMB-314s launched seven tonnes of explosives on the camp, while some 600 special forces troops descended by rope from helicopters, opposed by 700 guerrillas; 20 guerrillas died in the attack.
On 2 October 2010, during Operation Darién, Super Tucanos used infrared cameras to spot and bombard the FARC 57th front in the Chocó Department, just a kilometer away from the Panama border. Five rebels, including several commanders, were killed.
Anti-FARC operation Odiseo
On 15 October 2011, Operation Odiseo started with a total of 969 members of the Colombian armed forces. A total of 18 aircraft participated in Operation Odiseo. On 4 November 2011, five Super Tucanos dropped 1000 lb (450 kg) and 250 lb (135 kg) bombs, plus high-precision smart bombs. This operation ended with the death of the leader of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, FARC), Alfonso Cano. It was biggest blow in the history of the guerrilla organization.
Anti-FARC operation Frontera
At dawn of 22 February 2012, EMB-314s identified the camp of FARC's 57th Front, north of Bojayá near the border with Panama. In Operation Frontera, Super Tucanos dropped two high-precision bombs, destroying the camp and killing six FARC rebels, including Pedro Alfonso Alvarado (alias "Mapanao"), who was responsible for the Bojayá massacre in 2002, in which 119 civilians were killed.
Espada de Honor War Plan
The Espada de Honor War Plan was an aggressive Colombian counterinsurgency strategy that aimed to dismantle FARC's structure, both militarily and financially. It targeted FARC leadership focusing on eliminating the 15 most powerful economic and military fronts.
During Operacion Faraón, at the dawn of 21 March 2012, five Super Tucanos bombarded the FARC's 10th Front guerrilla camp in Arauca, near the Venezuelan border, killing 33 rebels. Five days later, in Operation Armagedón, nine Super Tucanos from Apiay Air Base attacked the FARC's 27th front camp in Vista Hermosa, Meta, using coordinates received from a guerrilla informant recruited by the police intelligence, launching 40 guided 500-lb bombs within three minutes, destroying the camp and killing 36 rebels. In late May, Super Tucanos bombarded a National Liberation Army camp located in rural Santa Rosa at Bolívar Department. On 31 May 2012, a bombardment over the Western Front of the ELN at an inhospitable area of the Chocó Department killed seven rebels. On 6 June 2012, during a minute and half bombardment over FARC's 37th front located in northern Antioquia Department, five Super Tucanos dropped 250-kg bombs, killing eight rebels.
In September, Super Tucanos provided reconnaissance and close air support during an "Omega" operation, during which seven terrorists were gunned down and four were captured, including "Fredy Cooper", the 7th front's leader of the Public Order Company. On 5 September 2012, "Danilo Garcia", leader of the FARC's 33rd Front, was killed in a bombing raid; Danilo was considered "the right hand of supreme FARC leader alias Timochenko". Intelligence indicated that the bodies of 15 guerrillas may have been buried in the bombing. Eight A-29s carried out an air strike on 27 September during Operación Saturno at the FARC's 37th front camp in the northwest of Antioquia Department, resulting in the death of Efrain Gonzales Ruiz, "Pateñame", leader of the 35th and 37th fronts, and 13 others. In April 2013, two Super Tucanos bombarded the FARC's 59th front fort in Serranía del Perijá municipality Barrancas, La Guajira.
Dominican Republic
In August 2001, Embraer announced the signing of a contract with the Dominican Republic for 10 Super Tucanos, to use for pilot training, internal security, border patrol and counter-narcotics trafficking missions. The order was reduced to eight aircraft in January 2009, for a total amount of US$93 million. The first two aircraft were delivered on 18 December 2009, three arrived in June 2010, and the remaining three in October 2010.
In February 2011, Dominican Republic Air Force Chief of Operations Col. Hilton Cabral stated: "since the introduction of the Super Tucano aircraft and ground-based radars, illicit air tracks into the Dominican Republic had dropped by over 80 percent." In August 2011, the Dominican Air Force said that since taking delivery of the Super Tucanos in 2009, it has driven away drug flights to the point that they no longer enter the country's airspace. In May 2012, the Dominican president Leonel Fernández gave a cooperative order for the armed forces to support a fleet of Super Tucanos for the antidrug fight on Haiti.
Ecuador
The Ecuadorian Air Force operates 18 Super Tucanos; they are established at Manta Air Base in two squadrons: 2313 "Halcones" (used for border surveillance and flight training) and 2311 "Dragones" (used for counterinsurgency). Ecuadorian Super Tucanos use the PT-6A-68A (1,300 shp) engine. On 23 March 2009, Embraer announced that negotiations over a nine-month-old agreement with the Ecuadorian Air Force had been completed. The deal covers the supply of 24 Super Tucanos to replace Ecuador's aging fleet of Vietnam-era Cessna A-37 Dragonfly strike aircraft, and help reassert control over the country's airspace.
In May 2010, after receiving its sixth Super Tucano under a $270 million contract, Ecuador announced a reduction in its order from 24 to 18 Super Tucanos to release funds to buy some used South African Air Force Denel Cheetah C fighters. By cutting its order for the EMB-314, the Defence Ministry says the accrued savings would better allow it to bolster the air force's flagging air defence component.
Honduras
On 3 September 2011, the head of the Honduran Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Hondureña, or FAH), said that Honduras was to procure four Super Tucanos. On 7 February 2012, the Honduran government informed the Brazilian Trade Ministry of its interest in acquiring a large number of Super Tucanos. However, due to the economic situation, the government was forced to repair their aging aircraft inventory, instead of purchasing eight EMB-314s.
On 17 October 2014, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation announced the go-ahead for acquiring two new A-29s by the FAH following approval from the country's National Council for Security and Defence. As part of the deal, six of the FAH's surviving EMB-312A Tucanos, acquired in 1984, will be refurbished and upgraded by Embraer. Originally operated only by the Academia Militar de Aviación at Palmerola for training, they have recently been armed for counter-narcotics missions. Just three were airworthy as the Brazilian deal was signed for the aircraft to be upgraded and the other three be made airworthy again. Together with the two newly acquired Super Tucanos, this will boost efforts to maintain security within the country.
Indonesia
In January 2010, Indonesian Air Force commander Air Marshal Imam Sufaat stated that Indonesia had split the competition, designating the Super Tucano as their preferred OV-10 replacement. Indonesia signed a memorandum of understanding with Embraer at the Indo Defense 2010 exhibition in Jakarta. Indonesia initially ordered eight Super Tucanos, including ground-support stations and a logistics package, with an option for another eight on the same terms; the first were scheduled to arrive in 2012. Defense Minister Purnomo Yusgiantoro added that state aircraft maker PT Dirgantara Indonesia would perform maintenance work, and may also manufacture some components. While Indonesia could have made a unified choice to replace its OV-10 light attack and BAE Hawk Mk.53 trainer fleets with a multirole jet, the demands of forward air control and counterinsurgency wars give slower and more stable platforms an advantage.
On 10 July 2012, Indonesia ordered a second set of eight Super Tucanos, along with a full flight simulator, bringing their order total to 16. In August 2012, Indonesia received the first four planes from the initial batch at a ceremony held in its facility in Gavião Peixoto, São Paulo, Brazil. Deliveries of the second batch of Super Tucanos were delayed by over seven months. In September 2014, the second batch left Brazil on their ferry flight to Malang Abdul Rachman Saleh Air Base in East Java; they will be based at the Malang air base on Indonesia's Java island and operated by Skadron Udara 21 as part of the 2nd Wing. The final four A-29Bs left Brazil on 15 February 2016, passing through Malta-Luqa International Airport on 21 February and ultimately arriving at Indonesia's Malang Abdul Rachman Saleh Air Force Base on 29 February 2016. One aircraft was lost in a crash on 10 February 2016.
Lebanon
The Pentagon first proposed to provide to Lebanon a contract for 10 EMB-314s in 2010. Six Tucanos with 2,000 advanced precision-kill weapon systems went to Lebanon via the US LAS program, but financed by Saudi Arabia at million. The first two were delivered in October 2017, with four more in June 2018.
Mauritania
Negotiations for the acquisitions of Super Tucanos started in December 2011. On 28 March 2012 at Chile's FIDAE defense and air show, Embraer announced sales of undisclosed numbers of aircraft to Mauritania. On 19 October 2012, Embraer delivered the first EMB-314, fitted with a FLIR Safire III infrared turret for border surveillance operations.
Nigeria
In November 2013, Nigeria showed interest in acquiring twelve new Super Tucanos. Three aircraft were bought from the Brazilian Air Force inventory in 2017. In April 2017, the United States indicated that it would be moving forward with a deal to sell up to 12 of the aircraft for up to million, ending delays that had been caused by human-rights concerns. In August 2017, the US Department of State approved of the sale of 12 aircraft and associated supplies and weapons.
In November 2018, Nigeria purchased 12 Super Tucanos from Sierra Nevada for $329 million, all of which can be fitted with forward-looking infrared systems. They were delivered to Nigeria in October 2021.
Philippines
The Philippine Air Force (PAF) considered the acquisition of six Super Tucanos to replace the aging OV-10 Bronco. In late 2017, Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana signed the contract to purchase six for the Close Air Support Aircraft acquisition project as included in the AFP Modernization Program's Horizon 1 phase. On 13 October 2020, six A-29Bs were turned over to the PAF. They were inducted with the 16th Attack Squadron, 15th Strike Wing. Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana was reportedly considering buying six more A-29Bs. By 2024, the PAF intends to operate 24 aircraft across two squadrons. 12 aircraft are to be delivered by 2022, and six by 2024, allowing the PAF to operate close air support, intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, and light attack missions.
On 9 December 2021, PAF A-29Bs conducted airstrikes on terrorist encampments as part of Oplan Stinkweed in Palimbang, Sultan Kudarat.
United States
Civilian
One Super Tucano was purchased by a subsidiary of Blackwater Worldwide, an American private military contractor. It lacked the normal wing-mounted machine guns. In 2012, that aircraft was sold on to Tactical Air Support, Inc., of Reno, Nevada.
Military
Special operations
In 2008, the U.S. Navy began testing the Super Tucano at the behest of the U.S. Special Operations Command for its potential use to support special warfare operations, giving it the official U.S. designation A-29B.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
In 2009, the Super Tucano was offered in a U.S. Air Force competition for 100 counterinsurgency aircraft. On 12 April 2010, Brazil signed an agreement to open negotiations for the acquisition of 200 Super Tucanos by the U.S. On 16 November 2011, the AT-6 was excluded from the LAS program, effectively selecting the Super Tucano. According to GAO: "the Air Force concluded that HBDC had not adequately corrected deficiencies in its proposal… that multiple deficiencies and significant weaknesses found in HBDC's proposal make it technically unacceptable and results in unacceptable mission capability risk". Hawker Beechcraft's protest against its exclusion was dismissed. While the contract award was disputed, a stop-work was issued in January 2012. For this procurement, the avionics were supplied by Elbit Systems of America. Sierra Nevada, the US-based prime contractor built the Super Tucano in Jacksonville, Florida. The 81st Fighter Squadron, based at Moody Air Force Base, was reactivated on 15 January 2015 and received the A-29s and provided training to pilots and maintainers from the Afghan Air Force. They were turned over to the Afghans in batches from December 2018.
Light attack experiment
In August 2017, the US Air Force conducted the "Light Attack Experiment" to evaluate potential light attack aircraft. Following this, it decided to continue experimenting with two non-developmental aircraft, the Textron Aviation AT-6B Wolverine derivative of the T-6 Texan II and the Sierra Nevada/Embraer A-29 Super Tucano. Tests conducted at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona between May and July 2018, examined logistics requirements, weapons and sensor issues, and future interoperability with partner forces. The Air Force expects to have the information it needs to potentially buy light attack aircraft in a future competition, without conducting a combat demonstration, based on data collected during the first round of the experiment and future data anticipated to be collected in the next phase of experimentation. The A-29 had a fatal crash while over the Red Rio Bombing Range, White Sands Missile Range.
Potential operators
Bolivia
Embraer reportedly offered the Super Tucano to the Bolivian Air Force.
Equatorial Guinea
Equatorial Guinea was said to be interested in purchasing the Super Tucano.
Guatemala
In August 2011, the Guatemalan Air Force requested credit approval of $166 million to buy six EMB-314s, control centers, radar, and equipment, in the context of a programme named "C4I". In October 2012, the Guatemalan Congress approved a loan for the C4I programme, including the purchase of six A-29s, to be granted by Brazilian and Spanish banks (BNDES and BBVA). The deal was finalized in April 2013. The first two aircraft were expected to arrive in April 2014, followed by two units in 2015 and two more in 2016. However, the president of Guatemala cancelled the order in November 2013. In January 2015, the Guatemalan defence minister disclosed that his country was looking at purchasing two aircraft from Embraer.
Libya
The Libyan government is interested in buying up to 24 Super Tucanos.
Mozambique
Brazil planned to donate three EMB-312s for Mozambique Air Force, which may also acquire three Super Tucanos. In 2016, the donation deal was canceled by the Brazilian government.
Paraguay
In October 2009, the President of Paraguay was leaning toward buying Super Tucanos. According to Paraguayan newspaper La Nación, the commander of the Paraguayan Air Forces has started to procure six EMB-314 aircraft. In May 2012, the Paraguayan Air Force selected the Super Tucano to reinforce the air force capabilities. However, after the impeachment of Fernando Lugo, all negotiations were temporarily suspended.
Peru
In March 2011, a Brazilian federal representative spoke on the Unasur treaty, stating that it could promote the surveillance integration in the Amazon Basin and facilitate the sale of 12 Super Tucanos and upgrade kits for 20 Peruvian EMB-312s. In November 2011, Peru's defence minister announced the Super Tucano purchase was suspended in favor of the Korean KT-1. On 14 February 2012, Brazil's Ministry of Defence said Peru is considering buying ten Super Tucanos. However, in November 2012, a government-to-government contract was signed for 20 KT-1s. In 2012, the governments of Peru and Brazil restarted negotiations for the acquisition of 12 A-29s to replace A-37 Dragonflys that are due to withdraw in 2017.
Portugal
Portugal has shown interest in acquiring at least 10 aircraft. In 2022, the Portuguese Air Force reportedly proposed to purchase 12 second-hand A-29s from Brazilian Air Force reserves. In August 2022 the Chief of Staff of the Air Force stated the service's interest in acquiring propeller aircraft for combat missions.
Suriname
Suriname is interested in purchasing between two and four Super Tucanos for light attack roles.
Thailand
Embraer has also quoted Thailand as a potential customer for the type.
UAE
In September 2010, it was announced that Brazil and the United Arab Emirates were working a deal that includes sales of Super Tucanos. It was reported in early 2015 that the UAE is negotiating with Embraer the purchase of 24 Super Tucanos, the deal would include six aircraft from Brazilian Air Force inventory for immediately delivery.
Ukraine
In August 2019, a Ukrainian military delegation visited Embraer's military division in São Paulo and flew the Super Tucano. In October 2019, the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelensky, in a meeting with Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro, informed that his country will buy the Super Tucano. In December 2022, the Brazilian media reported a Ukrainian interest in the Super Tucano, to equip its air force for the Russo-Ukrainian War; however, the sale was blocked by the Bolsonaro administration. A diplomatic effort by the United States to persuade the president-elect of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, to unblock the deal has been reported.
Missed contracts
In January 2015 a report in Jane's Defence Weekly said the Iraqi Air Force would receive 24 Super Tucanos, six directly from Brazilian Air Force stocks, and some from an order placed by the United Arab Emirates.
Bolivia
After the U.S. ban on Czech aircraft Aero L-159 Alca export on 7 August 2009, the Bolivian Defense Minister said they were considering six aircraft from Brazil or China with comparable role as the L-159. On 9 October 2009, it was announced that China would manufacture six K-8 for Bolivia, to be used for antidrug operations, at a price of $9.7 million per aircraft.
El Salvador
In November 2010, the President of the Legislative Defense Committee of El Salvador stated they would purchase an estimated 10 EMB-314s. It was postponed in February 2011 by lack of funds. In 2013, the El Salvador Air Force acquired 10 Cessna A-37 retired from Chilean Air Force.
Senegal
In September 2012, Senegal was reportedly in a procurement process with Embraer. In April 2013, the Brazilian minister of Defence disclosed that Senegal was the 4th African nation to order the Super Tucano, in the following day, Embraer confirmed the order, which included a training system for pilots and mechanics (TOSS) in Senegal, bringing autonomy to that country's Air Force in preparing qualified personnel. However, the deal was not finalized and Senegal opted for four Korean KT-1s.
Sweden
Sweden proposed replacing its Saab 105 trainer aircraft with Super Tucanos, if Brazil chose to buy the Gripen NG. In May 2021, the Swedish Armed Forces announced that it chose Grob G 120TP as the new trainer and it will enter service in 2023
United Kingdom
Elbit Systems and Embraer offered the EMB-314 for the United Kingdom's basic trainer contest. However, the Beechcraft T-6C Texan II formed part of the preferred bid for the requirement in October 2014.
Venezuela
In February 2006, a 36-unit sale for Venezuela fell through because it was thought the U.S. would block the transfer of U.S.-built components. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez claimed the U.S. had pressured Brazil not to sign the contract.
Operators
Afghan Air Force – 26 A-29s ordered, deliveries took place from 2016 to late 2020. They were built by Sierra Nevada Corporation and Embraer in Jacksonville, Florida, and supplied to Afghanistan via the U.S. Air Force's Light Air Support (LAS) program. The first was delivered to the U.S. service in September 2014. The first four A-29s arrived at Hamid Karzai International Airport in Kabul on 15 January 2016. After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, it is unclear if A-29s will continue to be operated by Afghans.
National Air Force of Angola – six aircraft ordered. Deliveries were scheduled to begin in early 2012; but the first three were delivered on 31 January 2013.
8th Training Squadron
Brazilian Air Force – 99 aircraft (33 A-29A & 66 A-29B). At least four aircraft have been lost.
1st Squadron of the 3rd Aviation Group (1º/3º GAv) "Esquadrão Escorpião" (Scorpion Squadron)
2nd Squadron of the 3rd Aviation Group (2º/3º GAv) "Esquadrão Grifo" (Griffon Squadron)
3rd Squadron of the 3rd Aviation Group (3º/3º GAv) "Esquadrão Flecha" (Arrow Squadron)
2nd Squadron of the 5th Aviation Group (2º/5º GAv) "Esquadrão Joker" (Joker Squadron)
The Aerial Demonstration Squadron "Esquadrilha da Fumaça" Smoke Squadron (EDA)
Burkina Faso Air Force – 3 aircraft delivered in September 2011 of version A-29B.
Combat Squadron (Escadrille de Chasse) located at Ouagadougou Air Base
Chilean Air Force 22 aircraft (12 received in 2009, 6 in 2018 and 4 in 2020).
Grupo de Aviacion N°1 located at Base aérea "Los Cóndores" in Iquique
Colombian Aerospace Force – 25 aircraft, introduced between 2006 and 2008. At least one aircraft crashed, claimed shot down by FARC.
211 Combat Squadron "Grifos" of the Twenty-first Combat Group at the Captain Luis F. Gómez Niño Air Base
312 Combat Squadron "Drakos" of the Thirty-first Combat Group at the Major General Alberto Pauwels Rodríguez Air Base at Malambo, near Barranquilla
611 Combat Squadron of the Sixty-first Combat Group at the Captain Ernesto Esguerra Cubides Air Base
Dominican Air Force – 8 aircraft
Escuadrón de Combate "Dragones" at the San Isidro Air Base
Ecuadorian Air Force – 18 aircraft, all delivered by 2011. Ala de Combate No.23, "Luchando Vencerás", Base Aérea Eloy Alfaro, Manta
Escuadrón de Combate 2313 "Halcones"
Escuadrón de Combate 2311 "Dragones"
Ghana Air Force – 5 aircraft ordered in 2015. The total value of the contract was $88million with a loan from BNDES, which also includes logistics support and training for pilots and mechanics in Ghana. The first aircraft were expected to arrive in late 2016, and will be used as advanced training, border surveillance and internal security missions. Ghana's Air Force plans to acquire four more A-29s with light attack, reconnaissance and training capabilities; if finalized, the deal will increase Ghana's A-29 fleet to nine.
Honduran Air Force – 2 aircraft ordered in 2014.
Indonesian Air Force – 16 aircraft ordered & delivered, one lost in a crash February 2016. The first four aircraft of the first batch of eight were delivered as of August 2012., the delivery of the second batch of four aircraft was delayed till September 2014. A total of 16 were ordered in 2011 with deliveries taking place in 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2016. In March 2012, Indonesian Ministry of Defense informed the possibility of a future joint production, further modernization and sales in the Asia-Pacific region.
Air Squadron 21 at the Lanud Abdul Rachman Saleh air base
Lebanese Air Force – 6 A-29s ordered, all six delivered by May 2018. Operating in the 7th Squadron.
Mali Air Force – 4 A-29 delivered in July 2018. Six originally ordered but due to financial issues the order was reduced to four aircraft.
Mauritanian Air Force – 4 aircraft ordered, received two aircraft as of December 2012, two more aircraft on order.
Nigerian Air Force – 12 aircraft on order. First batch with 6 aircraft delivered in July 2021.
Philippine Air Force – 6 aircraft delivered on 13 October 2020.
16th Attack Squadron "Eagles"
Turkmen Air Force – Total order quantity not disclosed. 5 aircraft delivered in 2020–21.
EP Aviation – part of Academi (formerly Blackwater) – at least one twin-seater variant for pilot training (delivered in February 2008), possible further orders for counter-insurgency role. Later sold in 2010 to Tactical Air Support in Reno, NV.
United States Navy leased an aircraft for testing, as part of the Imminent Fury program.
United States Air Force - from 3 to 6 aircraft operated by United States Air Force Special Operations Command.
Aircraft on display
EMB 314B Super Tucano
FAB-5900 – Brazilian Air Force – Memorial Aeroespacial Brasileiro, São José dos Campos
Specifications (EMB 314 Super Tucano)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Guevara, Iñigo. "Operation Fenix – Columbian Airstrike at Dawn". Air International, Vol. 74, No. 4, May 2008, pp. 52–55. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634.
Rivas, Santiago and Juan Carlos Cicalesi. "Type Analysis: Embraer EMB-312/314 Tucano and Super Tucano". International Air Power Review, vol. 22, 2007, pp. 60–79. Westport, CT: AIRtime Publishing. . ISSN 1473-9917.
van der Ende, Cees-Jan (February 2011). "Chile – Falcões da Cordilheira" (in Portuguese). Revista Asas ed. 59, pp. 38–49.
External links
Super Tucano EMB 314 (Air recognition)
Super Tucano. Embraer Defense & Security.
Embraer aircraft
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Articles containing video clips
Aircraft first flown in 1999
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurre-Lieder
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Gurre-Lieder
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(Songs of Gurre) is a tripartite oratorio followed by a melodramatic epilogue for five vocal soloists, narrator, three choruses and grand orchestra. The work, which is based on an early song cycle for soprano, tenor and piano, was composed by the then-Austrian composer Arnold Schönberg (later Schoenberg) from 1900 to 1903. Following a break he resumed orchestration in 1910 and completed it in November of 1911. It sets to music the poem cycle Gurresange by the Danish novelist Jens Peter Jacobsen (translated from Danish to German by ).
The Gurre Castle and its surrounding areas in Denmark are the settings of the plot, which involves the mediæval love-tragedy (related in Jacobsen's poems) revolving around a legend of the love of king Valdemar Atterdag (Valdemar IV, 1320–1375, German: Waldemar) for his mistress, Tove, and her subsequent murder by Valdemar's jealous wife, Queen Helvig of Schleswig, (a legend which is historically more likely connected with his ancestor Valdemar I).
It is generally considered the most important tonal work of the composer, alongside Verklärte Nacht.
Composition
In 1900 Schoenberg began composing the work as a song cycle for soprano, tenor and piano for a competition run by the Wiener Tonkünstler-Verein (Vienna Composers' Association). It was written in a lush, late-romantic style heavily influenced by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. According to Schoenberg, however, he "finished them half a week too late for the contest, and this decided the fate of the work." Later that year he radically expanded his original conception, composing links between the first nine songs as well as adding a prelude, the Wood Dove's Song, and the whole of Parts Two and Three. He worked on this version sporadically until around 1903, when he abandoned the mammoth task of orchestrating the work and moved on to other projects.
By the time he returned to the piece in 1910 he had already written his first acknowledged atonal works, such as the Three Pieces for Piano, Op. 11, Five Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 16 and Erwartung, Op. 17. He had also come under the spell of Gustav Mahler, whom he had met in 1903 and whose influence may be discernible in the orchestration of the latter parts of the Gurre-Lieder. Whereas Parts One and Two are clearly Wagnerian in conception and execution, Part Three features the pared-down orchestral textures and kaleidoscopic shifts between small groups of instruments favoured by Mahler in his later symphonies. In Des Sommerwindes wilde Jagd Schoenberg also introduced the first use of Sprechgesang (or Sprechstimme), a technique he would explore more fully in Pierrot Lunaire of 1912. The orchestration was finally completed in November 1911.
Premieres
Franz Schreker conducted the premiere of the work in Vienna on 23 February 1913. By this time, Schoenberg was disenchanted with the style and character of the piece and was even dismissive of its positive reception, saying "I was rather indifferent, if not even a little angry. I foresaw that this success would have no influence on the fate of my later works. I had, during these thirteen years, developed my style in such a manner that to the ordinary concertgoer, it would seem to bear no relation to all preceding music. I had to fight for every new work; I had been offended in the most outrageous manner by criticism; I had lost friends and I had completely lost any belief in the judgement of friends. And I stood alone against a world of enemies." At the premiere, Schoenberg did not even face the members of the audience, many of whom were fierce critics of his who were newly won over by the work; instead, he bowed to the musicians, but kept his back turned to the cheering crowd. Violinist Francis Aranyi called it "the strangest thing that a man in front of that kind of a hysterical, worshipping mob has ever done."
It would be wrong to assume that Schoenberg considered Gurre-Lieder a composition of no merit, however. A few months after the premiere he wrote to Wassily Kandinsky, "I certainly do not look down on this work, as the journalists always suppose. For although I have certainly developed very much since those days, I have not improved, but my style has simply got better ... I consider it important that people give credence to the elements in this work which I retained later."
The first Dutch performance, directed by Schoenberg himself, was in March 1921 in the Amsterdam Concertgebouw. Schoenberg's champion and former pupil, the BBC programme planner Edward Clark, invited the composer to London to conduct the first British performance on 27 January 1928, in a translation by David Millar Craig. Clark had tried to have the premiere the previous year, on 14 April 1927, but these plans fell through. Leopold Stokowski conducted the American premiere on 8 April 1932, with the Philadelphia Orchestra, soloists and chorus.
First recording
Stokowski's performances on 9 and 11 April 1932 were recorded 'live' by RCA Victor (see below). The company issued the 11 April performance on twenty-seven 78rpm sides, and remained the only recording of the work in the catalogue until the advent of the modern Long Play record. RCA Victor eventually reissued the recording on LP and CD. Bell Laboratories had been experimentally recording the Philadelphia Orchestra in high fidelity and stereophonic sound; RCA Victor reportedly used the new technology to record the performances on 33 1/3 rpm masters.
Other performances
A performance of Gurre-Lieder without intermission runs over an hour and a half. Riccardo Chailly's 1990 Decca recording, for example, lasts more than 100 minutes and takes two compact discs. In 2014 the Dutch National Opera in Amsterdam was the first company to perform the Gurre-Lieder as a stage presentation, in a production directed by Pierre Audi.
Structure
The cantata is divided into three parts. Whereas the first two parts are scored for solo voices and orchestra only, the third part introduces a further two soloists, a narrator, three four-part male choruses as well as a full mixed chorus.
Plot
In the first part of the work (approx. 1 hour), the love of Waldemar for Tove and the theme of misfortune and impending death are recounted in nine songs for soprano and tenor with orchestral accompaniment. A long orchestral interlude leads to the Wood Dove's Song, arguably the most famous part of the work, which tells of Tove's death and Waldemar's grief.
The brief second part (5 mins) consists of just one song in which the bereft and distraught Waldemar accuses God of cruelty. As punishment for this, God curses Waldemar and his dead men to ride across Gurre lake each night.
In the third part (approx. 45 mins), Waldemar summons his dead vassals from their graves. The undead's restless roaming and savage hunt around the castle at night is thunderously depicted by the male chorus. During this, a peasant sings of his fear of the eerie army.
Waldemar then proclaims that Tove may be watching his actions from heaven. There is a humorous interlude in the grotesque song of the fool Klaus who is forced to ride with the macabre host when he would rather rest in his grave. As the sun begins to rise, the undead begin to recess back into their graves. A gentle orchestral interlude depicting the light of dawn leads into the melodrama The Summer Wind's Wild Hunt, a narration about the morning wind, which flows into the mixed-choral conclusion Seht die Sonne! ("See the Sun!").
Part one
Orchestral Prelude
Nun dämpft die Dämm'rung (tenor = Waldemar)
O, wenn des Mondes Strahlen (soprano = Tove)
Ross! Mein Ross! (Waldemar)
Sterne jubeln (Tove)
So tanzen die Engel vor Gottes Thron nicht (Waldemar)
Nun sag ich dir zum ersten Mal (Tove)
Es ist Mitternachtszeit (Waldemar)
Du sendest mir einen Liebesblick (Tove)
Du wunderliche Tove! (Waldemar)
Orchestral Interlude
Tauben von Gurre! (mezzo-soprano = Wood Dove)
Part two
Herrgott, weißt du, was du tatest (Waldemar)
Part three
Erwacht, König Waldemars Mannen wert! (Waldemar)
Deckel des Sarges klappert (bass-baritone = Peasant, men's chorus)
Gegrüsst, o König (men's chorus = Waldemar's men)
Mit Toves Stimme flüstert der Wald (Waldemar)
Ein seltsamer Vogel ist so'n Aal (Klaus the Jester)
Du strenger Richter droben (Waldemar)
Der Hahn erhebt den Kopf zur Kraht (men's chorus)
Des Sommerwindes wilde Jagd / The Summer Wind's Wild Hunt
Instrumentation
Gurre-Lieder calls for exceptionally large orchestral and choral forces (approximately 150 instrumentalists and 200 singers):
Woodwinds
4 Piccolos (doubling Fl. 5–8)
4 Flutes
3 Oboes
2 English Horns (doubling Ob. 4, 5)
3 Clarinets in B & A
2 E clarinets (doubling A Cl. 4, 5)
2 Bass clarinets (doubling A Cl. 6, 7)
3 Bassoons
2 Contrabassoons
Brass
10 Horns (Hns. 7-10 doubling Wagner tubas in B and F)
6 Trumpets in F, B & C
Bass trumpet in E
Alto trombone
4 Tenor trombones
Bass trombone
Contrabass trombone
Tuba
Percussion
6 Timpani
Tenor drum
Snare drum
Bass drum
Cymbals
Triangle
Ratchet
Large Iron Chains
Tam-tam
Glockenspiel
Xylophone
Keyboards
Celesta
Voices
Narrator
Soprano (Tove)
Mezzo-soprano (Waldtaube)
2 Tenors (Waldemar & Klaus-Narr)
Bass-baritone (Peasant)
3 4-part male choruses
8-part mixed choir
Strings
4 Harps
Violins I, II (20 for each section)
Viola (16)
Violoncello (16)
Double bass (12)
Recordings
Leopold Stokowski (1932), with soloists Paul Althouse (Waldemar), Jeanette Vreeland (Tove), Rose Bampton (Wood Dove), Robert Betts (Klaus the Jester), Benjamin de Loache (Peasant), Abrasha Robofsky (Narrator) and choirs Princeton Glee Club, Fortnightly Club, Mendelssohn Club, Philadelphia Orchestra Chorus. Recorded live by RCA Victor at the Metropolitan Opera House in Philadelphia, in two distinct versions with the same personnel, on 9 and 11 April 1932.
Stokowski (1949) recorded the Song of the Wood-Dove in Erwin Stein's edition in 1949, with Martha Lipton, mezzo-soprano, and the New York Philharmonic (Columbia Records; reissued on Cala Records).
Stokowski (1961) returned to Gurre-Lieder in 1961 for performances in Philadelphia and again in Scotland, where he and the London Symphony Orchestra opened that year's Edinburgh International Festival with the work. Recordings of the Philadelphia and Edinburgh radio broadcasts have survived, with the 1961 Edinburgh Festival performance having been issued in 2012 on the Guild Historical label. The soloists in that performance were James McCracken (Waldemar), Gré Brouwenstijn (Tove), Nell Rankin (Wood Dove), Forbes Robinson (Peasant), John Lanigan (Klaus the Jester) and Alvar Lidell (Narrator) and chorus was Edinburg Royal Choral Union. (GHCD 2388/89).
René Leibowitz, Chorus and Orchestra of the New Symphony Society, Paris, Richard Lewis (Waldemar), Ethel Semser (Tove), Nell Tangeman (Wood Dove), John Riley (Peasant), Ferry Gruber (Klaus the Jester), Morris Gesell (Narrator). Vox Records 222943-311 (rec. 1953, CD issue 2005, mp3 issue August 2011).
Rafael Kubelík, Symphonie-Orchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Herbert Schachtschneider (Waldemar), Inge Borkh (Tove), Hertha Töpper (Wood Dove), Kieth Engen (Peasant), Lorenz Fehenberger (Klaus the Jester), Hans Herbert Fiedler (narrator), Bavarian Radio Chorus. DGG 431 744-2 (1965).
János Ferencsik, Danish State Radio Symphony and Concert Orchestra, with Alexander Young (Waldemar), Martina Arroyo (Tove), Janet Baker (Wood Dove), Odd Wolstad (Peasant), Niels Møller (Klaus the Jeaster), Julius Patzak (Narrator), Chorus of Danish Radio. EMI 7243 5 74194 2 (1968; CD issue 2000).
Pierre Boulez, BBC Symphony Orchestra, Jess Thomas (Waldemar), Marieta Napier (Tove), Yvonne Minton (Wood Dove), Siegmund Nimsgern (Peasant), Kenneth Bowen (Klaus the Jester), Günter Reich (Narrator), BBC Symphony Chorus. Columbia M2 33303 (1975).
Gunther Schuller, New England Conservatory Orchestra, Henry Grossman (Waldemar), Phyllis Bryn-Julson (Tove), D'Anna Fortunato (Wood Dove), Keith Kibler (Peasant), Kim Scown (Klaus the Jester), Michael Steinberg (Narrator), New England Conservatory Chorus. GM Recordings GM2078 (rec. 1977).
Seiji Ozawa, Boston Symphony Orchestra, James McCracken (Waldemar), Jessye Norman (Tove), Tatiana Troyanos (Wood Dove), David Arnold (Peasant), Kim Scown (Klaus the Jester), Werner Klemperer (Narrator), Tanglewood Festival Chorus. Philips 412 511-2 (1979).
Herbert Kegel, Dresden Philharmonic augmented by members of the Leipzig Radio Symphony, Manfred Jung (Waldemar), Eva-Maria Bundschuh (Tove), Rosemarie Lang (Wood Dove), Ulrik Cold (Peasant), Wolf Appel (Klaus the Jester), Gert Westphal (Narrator), Berlin Radio Chorus, Leipzig Radio Chorus and Prague Male Chorus (rec. Berlin 1986: Berlin Classics 0090172BC, 1986; CD issue 1997).
Eliahu Inbal, Radio-Sinfonie-Orchester Frankfurt am Main, Paul Frey (Waldemar), Elizabeth Connell (Tove), Jard van Nes (Wood Dove), Walton Grönroos (Peasant), Volker Vogel (Klaus the Jester), Hans Franzen (Narrator), NDR Chor, Bavarian Radio Chorus, Frankfurt Opera Chorus. Denon CO 77066-67 (1990).
Riccardo Chailly, Radio Symphonie-Orchester Berlin, Siegfried Jerusalem (Waldemar), Susan Dunn (Tove), Brigitte Fassbaender (Wood Dove), Hermann Becht (Peasant), Peter Haage (Klaus the Jester), Hans Hotter (Narrator), Chor der St. Hedwigs-Kathedrale Berlin, Städtischer Musikverein, Düsseldorf. Decca 473 728-2 (1985).
Zubin Mehta, New York Philharmonic, Gary Lakes (Waldemar), Éva Marton (Tove), Florence Quivar (Wood Dove), John Cheek (Peasant), Jon Garrison (Klaus the Jester), Hans Hotter (Narrator), New York Choral Artists. Sony Classical 48077 (1992).
Claudio Abbado, Vienne Philharmonic, Siegfried Jerusalem (Waldemar), Sharon Sweet (Tove), Marjana Lipovšek (Wood Dove), Hartmut Welker (Peasant), Philip Langridge (Klaus the Jester), Barbara Sukowa (Narrator), Vienna State Opera Chorus, Arnold Schoenberg Chorus, Slovak Philharmonic Choir Bratislava. DG 439 9442 (1995)
Giuseppe Sinopoli, Staatskapelle Dresden, Thomas Moser (Waldemar), Deborah Voigt (Tove), Jennifer Larmore (Wood Dove), Bernd Weikl (Peasant), Kenneth Riegel (Klaus the Jester), Klaus Maria Brandauer (Narrator), Dresden State Opera Chorus, MDR Radio Chorus of Leipzig, Prague Men's Chorus. Teldec 4509-98424-2 (1995).
Robert Craft, Philharmonia Orchestra, Stephen O'Mara (Waldemar), Melanie Diener (Tove), Jennifer Lane (Wood Dove), David Wilson-Johnson (Peasant), Martyn Hill (Klaus the Jester), Ernst Haefliger (Narrator), Simon Joly Chorale. Naxos 8.557518-19 (2001).
Simon Rattle, Berliner Philharmoniker, Thomas Moser (Waldemar), Karita Mattila (Tove), Anne Sofie von Otter (Wood Dove), Thomas Quasthoff (Peasant & Narrator), Philip Langridge (Klaus the Jester), Berlin Radio Chorus, MDR Radio Chorus of Leipzig, Ernst Senff Choir. EMI 5 5730302 (2002)
Michael Gielen, SWR Sinfonieorchester Baden-Baden und Freiburg, Robert Dean Smith (Waldemar), Melanie Diener (Tove), Yvonne Naef (Wood Dove) Ralf Lukas (Peasant), Gerhard Siegel (Klaus the Jester), Andreas Schmidt (Narrator), Bavarian Radio Chorus, MDR Radio Chorus of Leipzig. Hänssler, Art.-Nr.: 093.198.000, 2 SACDs (rec. 2006, released 2007.).
Esa-Pekka Salonen, Philharmonia Orchestra, Stig Andersen (Waldemar), Soile Isokoski (Tove), Monica Groop (Wood Dove), Ralf Lukas (Peasant), Andreas Conrad (Klaus the Jester), Barbara Sukowa (Narrator), Philharmonia Voices-City of Birmingham Symphony Chorus. Sigmund Records SIGCD173, 2 SACDs (Live recording 2009)
Josep Pons, and Spanish National Youth Orchestra, Nikolai Schukoff (Waldemar), Melanie Diener (Tove), Charlotte Hellekant (Wood Dove), José Antonio López (Peasant), (Klaus the Jester), Barbara Sukowa (Narrator), Cor Lieder Càmera, Cor Madrigal de Barcelona, Orfeó Català, Polifònica de Puig-Reig. Deutsche Grammophon 0044007627891, 2 DVDs (rec. 2008, released 2011)
Mariss Jansons, Symphonie-Orchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Stig Andersen (Waldemar), Deborah Voigt (Tove), Mihoko Fujimura (Wood Dove), Michael Volle (Peasant), Herwig Pecoraro (Klaus the Jester), Bavarian Radio Chorus, NDR Chorus, MDR Radio Chorus of Leipzig, BR-KLASSIK DVD 900110 DVD (rec. 2009, released 2010)
Markus Stenz, Gürzenich-Orchester Köln, Brandon Jovanovich (Waldemar), Barbara Haveman (Tove), Claudia Mahnke (Wood Dove), Thomas Bauer (Peasant), Gerhard Siegel (Klaus the Jester), Johannes Martin Kränzle (Narrator), Domkantorei Köln, Männerstimmen des Kölner Domchores, Vokalensemble Kölner Dom, Chor des Bach-Vereins Köln, Kartäuserkantorei Köln. Hyperion Records CDA68081/2 (2015).
Marc Albrecht, Netherlands Philharmonic Orchestra, Burkhard Fritz (Waldemar), Emily Magee (Tove), Anna Larsson (Wood Dove), Markus Marquardt (Peasant), Wolfgang Ablinger-Sperrhacke (Klaus the Jester), Sunnyi Melles (Narrator), Chorus of the Dutch National Opera, Pierre Audi (Director). Opus Arte OA1227D DVD & Blu-ray (2016).
Edward Gardner, Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra and members of the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra, Stuart Skelton (Waldemar), Alwyn Mellor (Tove), Anna Larsson (Wood Dove), James Creswell (Peasant), Wolfgang Ablinger-Sperrhacke (Klaus the Jester), Sir Thomas Allen (Narrator), Bergen Philharmonic Choir, Choir of Collegiûm Mûsicûm Bergen, Edvard Grieg Kor, Orphei Drängar, and Students from the Royal Northern College of Music, Håkon Matti Skrede (Director). Chandos 5172(2) Hybrid SA-CD (2016)
Christian Thielemann, Staatskapelle Dresden and members of the Gustav Mahler Youth Orchestra, Stephen Gould (Waldemar), Camilla Nylund (Tove), Christa Mayer (Wood Dove), Markus Marquardt (Peasant), Wolfgang Ablinger-Sperrhacke (Klaus the Jester), Franz Grundheber (Narrator), MDR Radio Chorus of Leipzig, Dresden State Opera Chorus. Profil PH20052 (2020)
References
External links
German text and translations
, Dresden Philharmonic, Herbert Kegel
Arnold Schönberg: Gurrelieder, Universal Edition Nr. 5275, Vienna (1913), guide by Alban Berg
1913 oratorios
Oratorios
Classical song cycles in German
Compositions by Arnold Schoenberg
Compositions that use extended techniques
Compositions with a narrator
Song cycles by Arnold Schoenberg
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus%20bloodline
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Jesus bloodline
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The Jesus bloodline refers to the proposition that a lineal sequence of descendants of the historical Jesus has persisted, possibly to the present time. The claims frequently describe Jesus as having married, often to Mary Magdalene, and as having descendants living in Europe, especially France but also the UK. Differing and contradictory Jesus progeny scenarios, as well as more limited claims that Jesus married and had children, have been proposed in numerous modern books. Some such claims have suggested that Jesus survived the crucifixion and went to another location such as France, India or Japan.
Though absent from the Gospels or historical records, the concept of Jesus having descendants has gained a presence in the public imagination, as seen with Dan Brown's best-selling novel and movie The Da Vinci Code that used the premise for its plot. It is dismissed generally by scholars. These claimed Jesus' bloodlines are distinct from the biblical genealogy of Jesus, which concerns the alleged ancestors of Jesus, and from the documented Brothers of Jesus and other kin of Jesus, known as the Desposyni.
Jesus as husband and father
Historical precursors
Ideas that Jesus Christ might have been married have a long history in Christian theology, though the historical record says nothing concerning the subject. Bart D. Ehrman, chairperson of the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina, commented that, although there are some historical scholars who claim that it is likely that Jesus was married, the vast majority of New Testament and early Christianity scholars find such a claim to be historically unreliable.
Much of the literature of this type has a more specific emphasis, on a claimed marriage between Jesus and Mary Magdalene. There are indications in Gnosticism of the belief that Jesus and Mary Magdalene shared an amorous, and not just a religious relationship. The Gnostic Gospel of Philip tells that Jesus "kissed her often" and refers to Mary as his "companion". Several sources from the 13th-century claim that an aspect of Catharist theology was the belief that the earthly Jesus had a familial relationship with Mary Magdalene. An Exposure of the Albigensian and Waldensian Heresies, dated to before 1213 and usually attributed to Ermengaud of Béziers, a former Waldensian seeking reconciliation with the Catholic Church, would describe Cathar heretical beliefs including the claim that they taught "in the secret meetings that Mary Magdalen was the wife of Christ". A second work, untitled and anonymous, repeats Ermengaud's claim. The anti-heretic polemic Historia Albigensis, written between 1212 and 1218 by Cistercian monk and chronicler Peter of Vaux de Cernay, gives the most lurid description, attributing to Cathars the belief that Mary Magdalene was the concubine of Jesus. These sources must be considered with caution: the two known authors were not themselves Cathars and were writing of a heresy being actively and violently suppressed. There is no evidence that these beliefs derived from the much earlier Gnostic traditions of Jesus and Mary Magdalene, but the Cathar traditions did find their way into many of the 20th-century popular writings claiming the existence of a progeny of Jesus.
Modern works
Produced during the late 19th-century were the first of several expansions of this theme of marriage between Jesus and Mary Magdalene, providing the couple with a named child. The French socialist politician, Louis Martin (pseudonym of Léon Aubry, died 1900), in his 1886 book Les Evangiles sans Dieu (The Gospels without God), republished the next year in his Essai sur la vie de Jésus (Essay on the life of Jesus), described the historical Jesus as a socialist and atheist. He related that after his crucifixion, Mary Magdalene, along with the family of Lazarus of Bethany, brought the body of Jesus to Provence, and there Mary had a child, Maximin, the fruit of her love for Jesus. The scenario was dismissed as 'certainly strange' by a contemporary reviewer.
During the late 20th century there was a flourishing of a genre of popular books claiming that Jesus married Mary Magdalene and had a family. Donovan Joyce's 1972 best-seller, The Jesus Scroll, presented an alternative timeline for Jesus that purportedly originated from a mysterious document. He claimed that, after being denied access to the Masada archaeological site, he was met at the Tel Aviv airport by an American University professor using the pseudonym "Max Grosset", who held a large scroll he claimed to have smuggled from the site. Relating its contents to Joyce, Grosset offered to pay him to smuggle it out of the country, but then became spooked when his flight was delayed and snuck away; he was never identified and the scroll was not known of again. According to Joyce, the 'Jesus Scroll' was a personal letter by 80-year-old Yeshua ben Ya’akob ben Gennesareth, heir of the Hasmonean dynasty and hence rightful King of Israel, written on the eve of the capture of the city by the Romans after a suicide pact ended Masada's resistance. It was said to have described the man as married, and that he had a son whose crucifixion the letter's author had witnessed. Joyce identified the writer with Jesus of Nazareth, who, he claimed, had survived his own crucifixion to marry and settle at Masada, and suggested a conspiracy to hide the contents of the Dead Sea Scrolls in order to suppress this counter-narrative to Christian orthodoxy.
Barbara Thiering, in her 1992 book Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Unlocking the Secrets of His Life Story, republished as Jesus the Man, and made into a documentary, The Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls, by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, also developed a Jesus and Mary Magdalene familial scenario. Thiering based her historical conclusions on her application of the so-called Pesher technique (interpretation based on ancient commentaries) to the New Testament. In this work of pseudo-scholarship, Thiering would even date the betrothal of Jesus and Mary Magdalene precisely to 30 June, AD 30, at 10:00 p.m. She relocated the events in the life of Jesus from Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to Qumran, and related that Jesus was revived after an incomplete crucifixion and married Mary Magdalene, who was already pregnant by him, that they had a daughter Tamar and a son Jesus Justus born in AD 41, and Jesus then divorced Mary to wed a Jewess named Lydia, going to Rome where he died. The account was dismissed as fanciful by scholar Michael J. McClymond.
In the television documentary, The Lost Tomb of Jesus, and book The Jesus Family Tomb, both from 2007, fringe investigative journalist Simcha Jacobovici and Charles R. Pellegrino proposed that ossuaries in the Talpiot Tomb, discovered in Jerusalem in 1980, belonged to Jesus and his family. Jacobovici and Pellegrino argue that Aramaic inscriptions reading "Judah, son of Jesus", "Jesus, son of Joseph", and "Mariamne", a name they associate with Mary Magdalene, together preserve the record of a family group consisting of Jesus, his wife Mary Magdalene and son Judah. Such theory has been rejected by the overwhelming majority of biblical scholars, archaeologists and theologians, including the archaeologist Amos Kloner, who managed the archeological excavation of the tomb itself.
During the same year a book was published with a similar theme that Jesus and Mary Magdalene produced a family, authored by psychic medium and best-selling author Sylvia Browne, The Two Marys: The Hidden History of the Mother and Wife of Jesus.
The Jesus Seminar, a group of scholars involved in the quest for the historical Jesus from a liberal Christian perspective, were unable to determine whether Jesus and Mary Magdalene had a matrimonial relationship due to the dearth of historical evidence. They concluded that the historical Mary Magdalene was not a repentant prostitute but a prominent disciple of Jesus and authority in the early Christian community. The claims that Jesus and Mary Magdalene fled to France parallel other legends about the flight of disciples to distant lands, such as the one depicting Joseph of Arimathea traveling to England after the death of Jesus, taking with him a piece of thorn from the Crown of Thorns, which he later planted in Glastonbury. Historians generally regard these legends as "pious frauds" produced during the Middle Ages.
Joseph and Aseneth
In 2014, Simcha Jacobovici and fringe religious studies historian Barrie Wilson suggested in The Lost Gospel that the eponymous characters of a 6th-century tale called "Joseph and Aseneth" were in actuality representations of Jesus and Mary Magdalene. The story was reported in an anthology compiled by Pseudo-Zacharias Rhetor, along with covering letters describing the discovery of the original Greek manuscript and its translation into Syriac. In one of these, translator Moses of Ingila explained the story "as an allegory of Christ's marriage to the soul". Jacobovici and Wilson instead interpret it as an allegorical reference to an actual marriage of Jesus, produced by a community believing that he was married and had children.
Israeli Biblical scholar, Rivka Nir termed their work "serious-minded, thought-provoking and interesting", but described the thesis as objectionable, and the book has been dismissed by mainstream Biblical scholarship, for example by Anglican theologian, Richard Bauckham. The Church of England compared The Lost Gospel to a Monty Python sketch, the director of communications for the Archbishop's Council citing the book as an example of religious illiteracy and that ever since the publication of The Da Vinci Code in 2003, "an industry had been constructed in which 'conspiracy theorists, satellite channel documentaries and opportunistic publishers had identified a lucrative income stream'." The Lost Gospel was described as historical nonsense by Markus Bockmuehl.
Early Mormon theology
Early Mormon theology posited not only that Jesus married, but that he did so multiple times. Early Mormon officials Jedediah M. Grant, Orson Hyde, Joseph F. Smith and Orson Pratt stated it was part of their religious belief that Jesus Christ was polygamous, quoting this in their respective sermons. A number of the early church officials claimed to be the lineal descendants of Jesus by such a marriage. The Mormons also used an apocryphal passage attributed to the 2nd-century Greek philosopher Celsus: "The grand reason why the gentiles and philosophers of his school persecuted Jesus Christ was because he had so many wives. There were Elizabeth and Mary and a host of others that followed him". This seems to have been a summary of a garbled or second-hand reference to a quote from Celsus the Platonist preserved in the apologetics work Contra Celsum ("Against Celsus") by the Church Father Origen: "such was the charm of Jesus' words, that not only were men willing to follow Him to the wilderness, but women also, forgetting the weakness of their sex and a regard for outward propriety in thus following their Teacher into desert places."
Jesus as ancestor of a progeny
Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln developed and popularized the idea of a progeny descended from Jesus and Mary Magdalene in their 1982 book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (published as Holy Blood, Holy Grail in the United States), in which they asserted: "... we do not think the Incarnation truly symbolises what it is intended to symbolise unless Jesus were married and sired children". Specifically, they claimed that the sangraal of medieval lore did not represent the San Graal (Holy Grail), the cup drunk from at the Last Supper, but both the vessel of Mary Magdalene's womb and the Sang Real, the blood royal of Jesus represented in a lineage descended from them. In their reconstruction, Mary Magdalene goes to France after the crucifixion, carrying a child by Jesus who would originate a lineage that centuries later would unite with the Merovingian rulers of the early Frankish kingdom, from whom they trace the descent into medieval dynasties that were almost exterminated by the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, leaving a small remnant protected by a secret society, the Priory of Sion. The role of the Priory was inspired by earlier writings primarily by Pierre Plantard, who in the 1960s and 1970s had publicized documents from the secretive Priory that demonstrated its long history and his own descent from the lineage they had protected that traced to the Merovingian kings, and earlier, the biblical Tribe of Benjamin. Plantard would dismiss Holy Blood as fiction in a 1982 radio interview, as did his collaborator Philippe de Cherisey in a magazine article, but a decade later Plantard admitted that, before he incorporated a group of that name in the 1950s, the very existence of the Priory had been an elaborate hoax, and that the documents on which Baigent, Leigh and Lincoln had relied for inspiration had been forgeries planted in French institutions to be later "rediscovered". The actual lineage claimed for the portion of the Plantard and Holy Blood bloodline that passes through the medieval era received very negative reviews in the genealogical literature, being considered as consisting of numerous inaccurate associations that were unsupported, or even directly contradicted, by the authentic historical record.
The Woman with the Alabaster Jar: Mary Magdalen and the Holy Grail, a 1993 book by Margaret Starbird, built on Cathar beliefs and Provencal traditions of Saint Sarah, the black servant of Mary Magdalene, to develop the hypothesis that Sarah was the daughter of Jesus and Mary Magdalene. In her reconstruction, a pregnant Mary Magdalene fled first to Egypt and then France after the crucifixion. She considers this as the source of the legend associated with the cult at Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer. She also noted that the name "Sarah" means "Princess" in Hebrew, thus making her the forgotten child of the "sang réal", the blood royal of the King of the Jews. Starbird also considered Mary Magdalene as identical with Mary of Bethany, sister of Lazarus. Though working with the same claimed relationship between Jesus, Mary Magdalene and Saint Sarah that would have a major role in many of the published progeny scenarios, Starbird considered any question of descent from Sarah to be irrelevant to her thesis, though she accepted that it existed. Her opinion of Mary Magdalene/Mary of Bethany as wife of Jesus is also associated with the concept of the sacred feminine in feminist theology. Mary Ann Beavis stated that unlike others in the genre, Starbird actively courted scholarly engagement concerning her ideas, and that "[a]lthough her methods, arguments and conclusions do not always stand up to scholarly scrutiny, some of her exegetical insights merit attention . . .," while suggesting she is more mythographer than historian.
In his 1996 book Bloodline of the Holy Grail: The Hidden Lineage of Jesus Revealed, Laurence Gardner presented pedigree charts of Jesus and Mary Magdalene as the ancestors of all the European royal families of the Common Era. His 2000 sequel Genesis of the Grail Kings: The Explosive Story of Genetic Cloning and the Ancient Bloodline of Jesus is unique in claiming that not only can the Jesus bloodline truly be traced back to Adam and Eve but that the first man and woman were primate-alien hybrids created by the Anunnaki of his ancient astronaut theory. Gardner followed this book with several additional works in the bloodline genre.
In Rex Deus: The True Mystery of Rennes-Le-Chateau and the Dynasty of Jesus, published in 2000, Marylin Hopkins, Graham Simmans and Tim Wallace-Murphy developed a similar scenario based on 1994 testimony by the pseudonymous "Michael Monkton", that a Jesus and Mary Magdalene progeny was part of a shadow dynasty descended from twenty-four high priests of the Temple in Jerusalem known as Rex Deus – the "Kings of God". The evidence on which the informant based his claim to be a Rex Deus scion, descended from Hugues de Payens, was said to be lost and therefore cannot be verified independently, because 'Michael' claimed that it was kept in his late father's bureau, which was sold by his brother unaware of its contents. Some critics state that the informant's account of his family history seems to be based on the controversial work of Barbara Thiering.
The Da Vinci Code
The best-known work depicting a progeny of Jesus is the 2003 best-selling novel and global phenomenon, The Da Vinci Code, joined by its 2006 major cinematic release of the same name. In these, Dan Brown incorporated many of the earlier progeny themes as the background for his work of conspiracy fiction. The author attested both in the text and public interviews to the veracity of the progeny details that served as the novel's historical context. The work became so well known that the Catholic Church felt compelled to warn its congregates against accepting its pseudo-historical background as fact, which did not stop it from becoming the highest-selling novel in American history, with tens of millions of copies sold worldwide. Brown mixes facts easily verified by the reader, seemingly-authentic details that are not actually factual, and outright conjecture. An indication of the degree to which the work became popular is fiven by the numerous imitations that it inspired, replicating his style and thesis or attempting to refute it.
In Brown's novel, the protagonist discovers that the grail actually referred to Mary Magdalene, and that knowledge of this, as well as of the progeny descended from Jesus and Mary, has been kept hidden to the present time by a secret conspiracy. This is very similar to the thesis by Baigent, Leigh and Lincoln in Holy Blood and the Holy Grail though not associating the hidden knowledge with the Cathars, and Brown also incorporated material from Joyce, Thiering and Starbird, as well as the 1965 The Passover Plot, in which Hugh J. Schonfield claimed that Lazarus and Joseph of Arimathea had faked the resurrection after Jesus was killed by mistake when stabbed by a Roman soldier. Still, Brown relied so much on Holy Blood that two of its authors, Baigent and Leigh, sued the book's publisher, Random House, due to what they considered to be plagiarism. Brown had made no secret that the progeny material in his work drew largely on Holy Blood, directly citing the work in his book and naming the novel's historical expert after Baigent (in anagram form) and Leigh, but Random House argued that since Baigent and Leigh had presented their ideas as non-fiction, consisting of historical facts, however speculative, then Brown was free to reproduce these concepts just as other works of historical fiction treat historical events. Baigent and Leigh argued that Brown had done more, "appropriat[ing] the architecture" of their work, and thus had "hijacked" and "exploited" it. Though one judge questioned whether the supposedly-factual Holy Blood truly represented fact, or instead bordered on fiction due to its highly conjectural nature, courts ruled in favor of Random House and Brown.
Dynasty of the Holy Grail
A presentation of analogous concepts in a Mormon context was published in 2006: Dynasty of the Holy Grail: Mormonism's Sacred Bloodline by art historian Vern Grosvenor Swanson. Formatted as a footnoted scholarly study and claiming to be the culmination of almost three decades of research, the work was produced partly as a response to "a fuzzy gnostic, leftwing, liberal, and adamantly feminist bias" regarding the divine feminine and sacred marriage that pervaded recent literature concerning the subject, and that the author considered as "idiologically corrosive to faith in Jesus Christ". He nonetheless drew from the same pseudohistorical grail legend as Holy Blood, combining it with concepts related to British Israelism, beliefs of the early Mormon fathers, and modern genetic genealogy.
Swanson presents a Jesus who was the son of an English- or Irish-born Mary, and who visited England to study Druidism before wedding Mary Magdalene. After Jesus' death, Swanson portrays his widow as taking her children by Jesus, whom he refers to as the 'Shiloh Dynasty', to England, and that one of these became a male-line ancestor of Joseph Smith, to whom the author also attributes a matrilineal derivation from the same Shiloh Dynasty. He claims that in uniting patrilineal and matrilineal descents from the marriage of Jesus and Mary Magdalene, a marriage that itself, according to Swanson, healed a longstanding breach between the houses of Judah and Ephraim, Joseph Smith was not only a prophet but the 'Davidic king of all Israel', and that all of the Mormon presidents and major officials were members of this lineage either by birth or ritual adoption. Reviewers found aspects of his argument problematic, particularly his utter rejection of the work of Baigent, Leigh and Lincoln as authentic history, while at the same time using their work as a basis for the 'Holy Grail' portion of his own reconstruction.
Bloodline, 2008 documentary
The 2008 documentary Bloodline by Bruce Burgess, a moviemaker with an interest in paranormal claims, expands on the Jesus progeny hypothesis and other elements of The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail. Accepting as valid the testimony of an amateur archaeologist codenamed "Ben Hammott" relating to his discoveries made in the vicinity of Rennes-le-Château since 1999, Burgess claimed Ben had found the treasure of Bérenger Saunière: a mummified corpse, which they believe is Mary Magdalene, in an underground tomb they claim is associated with both the Knights Templar and the Priory of Sion. In the movie, Burgess interviews several people with alleged connections to the Priory of Sion, including a Gino Sandri and Nicolas Haywood. A book by one of the documentary's researchers, Rob Howells, entitled Inside the Priory of Sion: Revelations from the World's Most Secret Society - Guardians of the Bloodline of Jesus presented the version of the Priory of Sion as given in the 2008 documentary, which contained several erroneous assertions, such as the claim that Plantard believed in the Jesus progeny hypothesis. In 2012, however, Ben Hammott, using his real name of Bill Wilkinson, gave a podcast interview in which he apologised and confessed that everything to do with the tomb and related artifacts was a hoax, revealing that the 'tomb' had been part of a now-destroyed full-sized movie set, located in a warehouse in England.
Jesus bloodline claims in South and East Asia
Claims to a Jesus bloodline are not restricted to Europe. An analogous legend claims that the place of Jesus at the crucifixion was taken by a brother, while Jesus fled through what would become Russia and Siberia to Japan, where he became a rice farmer at Aomori, at the north of the island of Honshu. It is claimed he married there and had a large family before his death aged 114, with descendants to the present. A Grave of Jesus (Kristo no Hakka) there attracts tourists. This legend dates from the 1930s, when it was claimed that a document was discovered written in the Hebrew language and describing the marriage and later life of Jesus. The document has since disappeared.
In South Asia, the founder of the reformist Ahmaddiyya religion, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), likewise claimed that Jesus survived the crucifixion and escaped the Levant, but instead placed his subsequent activities in Afghanistan and India. Specifically, he identified Jesus as the holy man, Yuzasaf, buried at the Roza Bal shrine in the Kashmir Valley of Srinagar. Fida M. Hassnain, as part of a 1970s study of this myth that brought it to the attention of western popularizers, found that the guardian of the shrine claimed to be a descendant of Jesus and a woman named 'Marjan'.
Adherence
In reaction to The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, The Da Vinci Code, and other controversial books, websites and movies with the same theme, a significant number of people during the late 20th and early 21st centuries have become intrigued by a Jesus bloodline hypothesis despite its lack of substantiation. While some simply entertain it as a novel intellectual proposition, others consider it as an established belief thought to be authoritative and not to be disputed. Prominent among the latter are those who expect a descendant of Jesus will eventually emerge as a great man and become a messiah, a Great Monarch who rules a Holy European Empire, during an event which they will interpret as a mystical second coming of Christ.
The eclectic spiritual opinions of these adherents are influenced by the writings of iconoclastic authors from a wide range of perspectives. Authors like Margaret Starbird and Jeffrey Bütz often seek to challenge modern beliefs and institutions through a re-interpretation of Christian history and mythology. Some try to advance and understand the equality of men and women spiritually by portraying Mary Magdalene as being the apostle of a Christian feminism, and even the personification of the mother goddess or sacred feminine, usually associating her with the Black Madonna. Some wish the ceremony that celebrated the beginning of the alleged marriage of Jesus and Mary Magdalene to be considered as a "holy wedding"; and Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and their alleged daughter, Sarah, to be considered as a "holy family", in order to question traditional gender roles and family values. Almost all these claims are at odds with scholarly Christian apologetics, and have been dismissed as being New Age Gnostic heresies.
No mainstream Christian denomination has endorsed a Jesus bloodline hypothesis as a dogma or an object of religious devotion since they maintain that Jesus, believed to be God the Son, was perpetually celibate, continent and chaste, and metaphysically married to the Church. He died, was resurrected, ascended to heaven, and will eventually return to earth, thereby making all Jesus bloodline hypotheses and related messianic expectations impossible.
Many fundamentalist Christians believe the Antichrist, prophesied in the Book of Revelation, plans to present himself as descended from the Davidic line to bolster his false claim that he is the Jewish Messiah. The intention of such propaganda would be to influence the opinions, emotions, attitudes, and behavior of Jews and philo-Semites to achieve his Satanic objectives. An increasing number of fringe Christian eschatologists believe the Antichrist may also present himself as descended from the Jesus bloodline to capitalize on growing sympathy with the hypothesis in the general public.
Criticism
The notion of a progeny from Jesus and Mary Magdalene and its supposed relationship to the Merovingians, as well as to their alleged modern descendants, is strongly dismissed as pseudohistorical by a qualified majority of Christian and secular historians such as Darrell Bock and Bart D. Ehrman, along with journalists and investigators such as Jean-Luc Chaumeil, who has an extensive archive on this subject matter.
In 2005, UK television presenter and amateur archaeologist Tony Robinson edited and narrated a detailed rebuttal of the main arguments of Dan Brown and those of Baigent, Leigh, and Lincoln, "The Real Da Vinci Code", shown on Channel 4. The programme featured lengthy interviews with many of the main protagonists, and cast severe doubt on the alleged landing of Mary Magdalene in France, among other related myths, by interviewing on film the inhabitants of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, the centre of the cult of Saint Sarah.
Robert Lockwood, the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh's director for communications, considers the notion of the Church conspiring to cover-up the truth about a Jesus bloodline as a deliberate piece of anti-Catholic propaganda. He considers it as part of a long tradition of anti-Catholic sentiment with deep roots in the American Protestant imagination but going back to the very start of the Reformation of 1517.
Ultimately, the notion that a person living millennia ago has a small number of descendants living presently is statistically improbable. Steve Olson, author of Mapping Human History: Genes, Race, and Our Common Origins, published an article in Nature demonstrating that, as a matter of statistical probability:
Historian Ken Mondschein ridiculed the notion that a distinct bloodline of Jesus and Mary Magdalene could have been preserved:
Chris Lovegrove, who reviewed The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail when first published in 1982, dismissed the significance of a Jesus bloodline, even if it were proven to exist despite all evidence to the contrary:
References
Bloodline
Cultural depictions of Mary Magdalene
Priory of Sion hoax
Fringe theories
Genealogy of Jesus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Bull%20of%20Norroway
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Black Bull of Norroway
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The Black Bull of Norroway is a fairy tale from Scotland. A similar story titled The Red Bull of Norroway first appeared in print in Popular Rhymes of Scotland by Robert Chambers in 1842. A version titled The Black Bull of Norroway in the 1870 edition of Popular Rhymes of Scotland was reprinted in an Anglicised version by Joseph Jacobs in his 1894 book More English Fairy Tales.
It was included within The Blue Fairy Book by Andrew Lang, English Fairy Tales by Flora Annie Steel, Scottish Folk Tales by Ruth Manning-Sanders, and A Book Of British Fairytales by Alan Garner. J. R. R. Tolkien cited it in the essay "On Fairy-Stories" as the example of a "eucatastrophe".
It is Aarne–Thompson–Uther type 425A, "the search for the lost husband". Others of this type include, The Brown Bear of Norway, The Daughter of the Skies, East of the Sun and West of the Moon, The Enchanted Pig, The Tale of the Hoodie, Master Semolina, The Sprig of Rosemary, The Enchanted Snake, and White-Bear-King-Valemon.
Synopsis
A washerwoman's three daughters each in succession ask her to cook them some food to take with them on a journey to seek their fortune. Along their way, they consult a witch on how to seek the fortune. The woman advised them to look out her back door. On the third day, the eldest sees a coach-and-six come for her and leaves with it, delighted; the second daughter finds a coach-and-four and leaves; but the third and youngest finds only a black bull, which the witch tells her she must accompany.
The daughter is terrified but goes off with the bull, who surprises her by being kind and gentle. When she grows hungry, he tells her to eat out of his right ear, and drink out of his left. The first night of their journey, they arrive at a castle, which, the bull tells the girl, belongs to his eldest brother. The daughter is welcomed and treated lavishly. As a parting gift, she is given a beautiful apple and told to never use it until she comes to the first great need of her life, and then it would help her. The second night of the journey, they once more stay at a castle, this one belonging to the bull's second brother. Once more the daughter receives a parting gift: a beautiful pear that she is not to use until the second great need of her life; the third night, they are hosted at the youngest brother's castle, and the daughter is given a final gift of a beautiful plum, not to be used until the third great need of her life. At last, the girl and the bull arrive at a valley of glass.
"You must wait here," the bull tells the girl, "and whatever you do, do not move, even an inch, or I will not be able to find you". He goes on to explain that he is to fight the devil who rules the valley so that they may exit. If the sky turns blue, then she will know that the bull has won; but if the sky turns red, then he has lost. The black bull leaves the girl there, and after some time she sees the sky turn blue. Overjoyed, the girl shifts her position slightly... and so the black bull does not return for her.
Unable to climb out of the valley on her own, the girl wanders alone until she finds a blacksmith. He tells her that if she serves him for seven years, he will repay her by making her a pair of shoes. When seven years have gone by, the blacksmith, true to his word, makes the girl—now a young woman—a pair of iron shoes, and nails them to her feet. With the shoes, the young woman is able to climb out of the glass valley.
The young woman eventually wanders back to the home of the witch, who offers her shelter if she will wash some bloody shirts that both she and her daughter have been unable to clean. Whoever could clean the shirts would marry the gallant young knight staying at the witch's home, whom the shirts belong to. Despite the failure of those before her, no sooner has the young woman touched the soap to the shirts than the bloodstains vanish, and the young woman's feet heal perfectly, as if they had never been bloodied or injured. Delighted, the witch brings the knight his shirts and convinces him that it was her daughter who cleaned them. Thus, the knight and the daughter are to be married.
Desperate, the young woman realizes that she is in the first great need of her life. She breaks open the apple, and finds it full of rich jewelry. She offers the jewelry to the witch's daughter, in exchange for being allowed to sing outside the knight's room at night. But the witch gives her daughter a sleeping-drink to offer the knight, so the young woman cannot wake him, though she sobs and sings:
"Seven long years I served for thee,
The glassy hill I clamb for thee,
Thy bloody clothes I wrang for thee;
And wilt thou not waken and turn to me?"
She is in the second great need of her life, so she tries the pear, and finds it full of jewelry richer than that of the apple, but the second night goes as before. Finally, the young woman is in the third great need of her life, and breaks the plum to find the richest jewelry yet. This time, though the sleeping-drink is brought again, the knight accidentally knocks it over, so, when the young woman buys her third and final chance, the knight is awake to hear her song. In this way he learns the truth.
The young woman marries the knight, who had been her black bull all along. He has the witch and her daughter burned, and the knight and the washerwoman's youngest daughter live happily ever after.
Origins
English scholar James Orchard Halliwell published another story, titled The Bull of Norroway, in his Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales, and commented that it was a modern version of the "very old tale" Black Bull of Norroway, mentioned in The Complaynt of Scotland (1548).
Folklorist Joseph Jacobs also remarked on its mention in The Complaynt of Scotland and in Phillip Sidney's Arcadia.
Analysis
Tale type
The tale is classified in the international Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index as type ATU 425A, "The Animal as Bridegroom". in this tale type, the heroine is a human maiden who marries a prince that is cursed to become an animal of some sort. She betrays his trust and he disappears, prompting a quest for him.
According to Hans-Jörg Uther, the main feature of tale type ATU 425A is "bribing the false bride for three nights with the husband". In fact, when he developed his revision of Aarne-Thompson's system, Uther remarked that an "essential" trait of the tale type ATU 425A was the "wife's quest and gifts" and "nights bought".
Motifs
According to 's study on some 1,100 variants of Cupid and Psyche and related types, he concluded that variants with the enchanted bull husband may originate from Ireland or Britain.
The chivalric romance Generides features a garment where the lady's tears can only be washed out by the lady herself. Despite the commonplace status of magical shirts in folktales, this particular detail is so unusual as to point as a source in a fairy tale such as this or The Feather of Finist the Falcon.
Variants
Europe
Scotland
A variant of the story is the tale The Brown Bull of Ringlewood, from Scotland, collected by Peter Buchan. In this tale, the King of Coil gives alms to an old beggar man, who, in gratitude, grants the king's three daughters a wish each. Each of the princesses wishes for a husband: the eldest for the King of Westmoreland, and so it happens. Seeing her sister's good fortune, the middle one asks for the King of Southland as her husband and he appears to court her. Lastly, the youngest jokingly wishes for "The Brown Bull of Ringlewood", and a bull appears not too long after to take her. The Brown Bull comes to take the princess as his wife and to take her to his castle. Once there, he takes off the bull skin and becomes a man at night. The princess bears him three sons. Instructed by an old woman, the princess burns the bull skin and the husband tells her they must go to his father's castle, beyond the sea and up a crystal mountain named Hill of Forgetfulness.
Ireland
In the tale Tarbh Mór na h-Iorbhaig ("The Great Bull of Irvaig"), three princesses talk about their future husbands, and the third says she wants to marry the Great Bull of Irvaig. The bull himself appears the next week and demands the third princess. He takes his wife to their new home and takes off the cochull or bull cowl, and tells her she must not lay a finger on the cowl, nor must reveal that he is a man under the bull skin. A year passes by and she gives birth to a son, who is taken away from her by a huge hand that come down the chimney. The Bull husband assures their son is safe wherever he is. The same fate befalls their second son. When she gives birth to their third son, she visits her relatives and reveals everything about the bull husband. The third son is also taken by the mysterious hand, as the bull husband enters a frenzied state and takes her back to their island palace. He tells the boys are being kept by three giants, gives her a pair of boots and departs. The princess visits the three giants, receives objects to travel a river of fire, a mountain of glass and a mountain of thorns to reach her husband's kingdom. She then meets a princess by the side of a river who tells her the prince will only marry the one who can wash a stain of blood out of his three white shirts. The tale concludes as the princess spends three nights trying to make her husband remember.
Professor Séamus Ó Duilearga collected a tale from a teller named Seán Ó Conaiill, from County Kerry. In his tale, titled Bull Bhalbhae, three princesses use their father's magical wishing mirror to wish for husbands: the elder for the king of the Western World, the middle one for the king of the Eastern World, and the youngest for the Bull Bhalbhae. Their bridegrooms come to take them to their castles. The titular Bull Bhalbhae takes his bride to his castle and asks the princess which form she prefers: she tells him to be a bull by day and a man by night. Time passes, and the princess is sent by the bull to her father's castle to give birth to their first child (a son). After his birth, a hand comes in from somewhere to take the child. This happens again to the second child (another son). When she is pregnant a third time (to a girl), the bull asks her not to cry over the loss of her child. However, seeing that she is to lose a third child as soon as they are born, she cannot hold back tears and cries on her daughter, which is still taken by the hand. The bull disappears and she goes after him. On the road, she stops to rest by three old women's huts; inside each, she sees each of their children, who gives them a pair of scissors, a comb and a skein of thread. The princess finally reaches the underworld, where he husband is being takes hostage by a hag. The princess bribes the hag with her children's gifts, for three nights with her husband. On the third night, her husband, the bull (now in human form) awakes - since he avoided drinking a sleeping draught. They embrace each other and come up with a plan to defeat the hag. The bull prince pretends to be in love with the hag in order to learn the secret of her external soul: located in an egg, inside a duck, inside an ash-tree. The bull prince destroys the hag's external lifeforce and frees himself to live with the princess.
Author Seumas MacManus published an Irish variant titled The Cally Coo-Coo o' The Woods. In this tale, the king and queen of Donegal have a magic Wishing-Chair stashed behind a certain door. While their parents are away, the princesses open the door to the room and sit on the chair: the elder wishes for the richest man in the world for her husband, the middle one for the handsomest man, and the youngest, named Maeve, for the "Cally Coo-Coo O' the Woods", a being she thinks to be merely a repetitive echo in the forest. Their husbands of choice come to take them as their brides and, to Maeve's surprise, the Cally Coo-Coo, a bull, appears to marry her. He takes the princess to a waterfall and builds a makeshift house for them. The bull explains that he is a Prince of the East cursed by a witch to be a man by night and a bull by day. Two years into their marriage, Maeve gives birth to a boy in the first year and a girl in the second. Each time, the bull husband warns her that the children will be taken from her, but she cannot shed a tear over their disappearance. She obeys the first time, but cries for her daughter and hides her tear in a handkerchief. Eventually, Maeve's parents invite their daughters and their husbands. Back at her family's castle, her bull husband is mocked by her sisters and brothers-in-law, to the Queen's consternation. Later at night, the queen discovers Cally Coo-Coo's discarded bullskin and decides to burn it. To everyone's horror, Cally Coo-Coo wakes up screaming and demands to know who burned his calfskin, since he was on the brink of breaking his curse. HE then turns into a crow and flies away. Maeve goes after him through hilltops and valleys, until the crow perches on a tree and tells her to seek shelter in a nearby hut. The princess is greeted by a woman. A boy is also there, playing caman. When she departs, the woman gives Maeve a "Needle of Beauty", capable of turning any piece of cloth into beautiful silk. She continues her journey until another woman's hut; inside, also a little girl, missing one of her eyes. The second woman gives her a Towel of Loveliness, for her to beautify herself, and asks Maeve for her handkerchief to restore the little girl's eye. Further ahead, a third woman gives Maeve a Comb of Plenty, to hang pearls and jewels. Following the crow, she finally arrives at the foot of the Hill of Harrow Pins, unreachable on foot. She finds work for a nearby blacksmith, who, after seven years, fashions her a pair of shoes to climb up the Hill of Harrow Pins and down the Hill of Glass. She traverses both hills and finds a castle near a river. Along the river, a group of women trying to wash the bloodstains from a shirt. Maeve succeeds, but a "coarse, big girl" named Eiver takes the credit and is set to marry the Prince of the East. The next three days, Maeve bribes Eiver and a scullion maid to nurse the prince, one night for each gift. On the third night, the prince awakes and embraces his wife. He banishes Eiver and celebrates a new marriage to Maeve.
In another Irish tale, The Roarin’ Bull of Orange, a king has a wishing chair that he forbids his three daughters to sit on. One day, while he is away, the three princess sit on the chair and make wishes for husbands: the elder asks for the "Rumblin’ Baker", the middle one for the Man from No Man's Land, and the youngest for "The Roarin’ Bull of Orange". The next day, the three men appear at the castle to fetch their respective wives, but on the Roarin’ Bull of Orange's turn, the king tries to trick him with another girl. The Roarin’ Bull of Orange notices the ruse and gets the true princess. The bull takes her to his castle, but the king follows him with his army. The king enters the castle and finds a human asleep on the bed, with a bull's hide inside it. The king burns the bull's hide and goes back home. The next morning, the human Bull of Orange awakes and, not seeing his bull's hide, tells his wife her father ruined them. He then turns into a bird and flies away, and the princess follows after him. After a while, the bird takes her to a castle, where the princess lives and gives birth to three babies in the following years. Each time, however, a bird flies in and takes the child from her; the third baby loses an eye because the princess held on to her so tight. Later, continuing on her quest, the princess meets three old women in three huts, who are taking care of her children, and each give her a gift (a rack in the first, scissors in the second, and a needle in the third). The princess then uses the rack to cross the Red Sea, the scissors to traverse the Glassy Mountain, and the needle to bypass the Fiery Mountain. Finally, she reaches a castle atop a hill, where an old witch lives. The princess uses the scissors, the rack and the needle to bribe the old witch for three nights with her husband, The Roarin’ Bull of Orange. At his bedside, the princess tries to wake him up (she calls him both "Roarin’ Bull of Orange" and "Green Bull of Orange"), but can only wake him on the third night. The Bull of Orange, now human, wakes up and tells the princess he will find out about the witch's external life, so they break the curse once and for all. Naïvely, the witch tells the human Bull of Orange her life is hidden in an egg, in a bird's nest, atop a tree. The Bull of Orange and a servant find the egg and throw it at the witch's forehead, killing her and undoing her enchantments.
In a variant from County Leitrim, The Glass Mountains, a man enchanted into bull form marries a human wife, and she tells him she prefers for him to be human during the night. He also tells her that, whenever she gives birth, she must not shed a tear to whatever happens to their child. Just as his husband promised, a black dog comes down the chimney and takes the child from her - this happens to her first two sons. When she gives birth to a daughter and the black dog comes, the wife sheds a tear and her husband disappears. She goes in search for him. She finds a cottage with an old couple and a little boy (her son). She spends the night and when she is leaving the boy gives her a comb. This happens again in the next house, and her second son gives her a pair of scissors. The maiden arrives at last at the foot of the titular Glass Mountain, where lies another house with an elderly couple with her daughter. The third old man tells her that her husband is married to another woman and they live at the castle atop the Glass Mountain. Her daughter gives her an egg and she departs to climb the mountain. She asks for shelter at the castle and buys her place at her husband's bed with the gifts her children gave her.
Mabel Peacock wrote down another variant of The Glass Mountain from County Leitrim, which she claimed was "imperfect" and told to her when she was a child. In this version, a woman lived with her three daughters in a cottage. A man comes and asks for night lodgings. The matriarch relents and gives him shelter. The next day, the man asks for the hand of the youngest daughter in marriage. They marry and go to his castle, where he asks her which form she prefers: for him to be a bull or man during each time of the day. She prefers for him to be a man by night. Three children are born, and she wishes to visit her mother. She reveals the strange nature of her husband, he disappears and she seeks him with her children. However, Mabel Peacock noted that the tale, as given to her, was "defective", but she noted down the song the maiden sings to her sleeping husband to jog his memory, referring to him as the "Bare bull of Orange".
Americas
United States
In a variant from New England, The Three Maids who Went to Seek Their Fortunes, three girls went about the world to look for their fortunes. They stop at a crossroads and go their separate ways. After some walking, she looks despondent for having accomplished nothing that day, and a witch gives her an egg, telling her to break it should the need arise. She walks a bit more and reaches a fountain where washerwomen were trying to wash a handkerchief with blood on it, because, should one of them do it, they would marry the prince. The girl tries and accomplishes it. She marries the prince and discovers he becomes a bull by day, human by night. He must suffer the enchantment for seven years. By the end of this period, he regains human form.
In a tale from the Wisconsin Chippewa, collected in 1944 in Lac du Flambeau, from teller Maggie Christensen and titled The Girl Who Married an Ox, an old woman lives with her three daughters. One day, an ox appears in their house and declares he wants to marry one of the woman's daughters. Only the youngest agrees to marry him. He becomes human and tells her that he must suffer his curse for 20 years. They have a son, but his wife eventually betrays his secret. She goes after him and, on her journey, gains a comb. She finally arrives at another kingdom, where her husband, now human, is set to marry a queen. The queen sees the comb and wants to trade it, but the girl asks for a night with the man. The husband drinks a cup of a potion and falls asleep. The next night, the girl wakes her husband and he recognizes her.
American folklorist Leonard W. Roberts collected a tale from a Kentucky teller. In this tale, titled Bully Bornes, a rich man has three daughters, Kate, Sally and Judy. One day, he finds in an antique shop a "Wishing Chair" and brings it home. When their daughters see it, they each sit and make a wish for a husband: Kate asks for the most handsome man, Sally for the ugliest man, and Judy for Bully Bornes, the prize fighter. Their wishes come true and their husbands come to marry them. Bully Bornes appears last and demands Judy. The girls' father sends a kitchen maid, but Bully notices the deception and insists on getting Judy. Judy is given to Bully and they marry. They have three children in the next years and, after each birth, Bully orders her not to cry if anything happens to their baby, otherwise he will abandon her. Each time, a bulldog appears and takes the child away from her. The third time, Judy cries over her lost child, Bully Bornes packs up his things and leaves. Judy goes after him: he visits his each of his sisters for the next three years, and so does Judy. At last, after a round of prize fighting, Bully Bornes soils his shirt with drops of his blood and declares he shall marry the woman that can wash it off. Many women queue up to wash it, his wife Judy included. Judy manages to accomplish it, but another girl steals the credit for it and marries Bully. Judy goes after the couple and asks the girl to see Bully Bornes for one night. The woman allows it, but gives Bully a coffee laced with sleeping powder. For two nights, Judy cannot awake him. On the third day, an old man - Bully's tenant - tells him about someone coming at night to see him. The third night, Bully does not drink the potion and recognizes Judy. They go back home and take their children back.
Roberts collected a tale from Cumberland Gap with the title The Pretty Girl and Her Lost Children. In this tale, three girls live together: a cook, a cleaning lady and Pretty Girl. One day, they go to bathe and comment who they wish to appear when they come home. The cook wishes for the "purtiest" man in the world, the cleaner for the ugliest man and Pretty Girl for Bully Bornes. When the girls come home, the men they wished for come to their house. Pretty Girl's parents, however, refuse to let their daughter go with Bully Bornes, so they replace her for the maidservants. Twice, Bully Bornes discovers the ruse, then goes back a third time for his true intended. Bully Bornes and Pretty Girl live together for three years and have three children (three girls), but he eventually abandons her and leaves her with their children. While living alone, Pretty Girl sees an old black dog come and take her children, one each time. After the third time, she follows the dog and reaches an old woman's house, where she sees her eldest daughter. The old woman gives her a ball of yarn. Next, she reaches another woman's house where her second child is, and is given an egg. Lastly, she reaches a third house with her third child and a third woman, who gives her an apple. Later, Pretty Girl goes to see Bully Bornes fight against an opponent. During the fight, three drops of his blood fall on his shirt, and, after the fight, he announces he will marry the girl who can wash it. Pretty Girl washes it, but another girl steals the credit and shows it to Bully Bornes, who declares he will marry her. Pretty Girl cracks open the women's gifts and finds three pictures: one of a woman carding silk, a second with a woman spinning silk and the third with a woman weaving silk. She uses the pictures to bribe the false bride for three nights with Bully Bornes. After two nights where he was given a spoon of , Pretty Girl wakes him up on the third night and they return home to their children. Roberts sourced the tale from an informant named Fae Chadwell Gibson, in Knox County, Kentucky, who learned it from her grandmother.
Canada
In a tale from Newfoundland from teller Alice Lannon, titled The Big Black Bull of Hollow Tree, three sisters, Dinah, Marie and Kitty, live with their grandmother, who forbids them from entering a certain part of the garden. They disobey her orders and find there a wishing chair and make their wishes for a husband: Dinah and Marie wish for "nice young men", while Kitty wants to marry "The Big Black Bull of Hollow Tree". Some time later, during a celebration, a big black bull appears to take Kitty as his wife. The girl relents and goes with him. He takes off his bull skin and becomes a man, and tells his wife not to tell anyone. After some time into their marriage, Kitty's grandmother sees her granddaughter in the arms of the man, while his bull skin lay strewn in the floor near the bed. The old woman takes the skin and burns it. The husband vanishes and Kitty goes after him. On the way, she finds three houses, each with a young woman inside and some children playing. In each of the houses, Kitty notices a particular child that look like either her daughter or one of her sons. Kitty receives a ball, a table cloth and shears. She later finds her husband, the (now human) Black Bull under the power of an old witch. She uses the table-cloth and shears to trade two nights with her husband, but the old witch gives him a sleeping potion during the first two nights.
Central America
Martha Warren Beckwith collected a Jamaican variant titled Bull-of-all-the-Land, wherein the titular Bull-of-all-the-Land is a man named King Henry, who is a man at night and a bull by day when he wears his bull skin. His wife burns the bull skin and he disappears. She bleeds three drops of blood in a white shirt. She wears three pairs of shoes and goes to a riverside, where she meets a washerwoman. The washerwoman washes the blood-soaked shirt and goes to King Henry. The maiden is taken to King Henry's palace, and tries to talk to her husband. On the last night, she sings in his ear his name, "Bull-of-all-the-Land", since no one in his realm knows that name.
Other publications
Mrs. Caroline Alathea Creevey, in her autobiography, published a version she claimed she heard in her childhood from a Julia Congden, her mother's hired girl. In her tale, The Brown Bull of Orange, once there was a stile that granted wishes. Three sisters pass by it, the oldest wishes for the Prince of Spain and the middle one for the Duke of Algiers as their respective husbands. The youngest, not believing in its powers, mockingly wishes for the brown bull of Orange to appear and take her. The Prince and the Duke appear and make her sisters their wives. At last, a brown bull appears at her father's doorstep. The third daughter tries to dismiss the bull and her silly wishes, but the bull will not yield. She finally agrees to with the animal. The brown bull takes her to his palace and attends her with kindness. She eventually warms up to him and is asked by him if she loves him. She answers positively and the bull becomes a man, the King of Orange and Castile. He explains that a magician turned him into a bull and that he could only turn back into human form if he could find a girl to love him.
Mabel Peacock noted another tale inserted in Mary Hallock Foote's tale, The Last Assembly Ball, published in The Century Magazine. In this version, a king has six daughters and a magical wishing-chair on a dais. Every daughter sits on the chair and makes her wish. When it is the youngest's turn, she wishes to be married to the "Roan Bull of Orange". Some time later, the Roan Bull himself appears at the palace and demands the princess. The king tries to substitute his daughter for the daughter of the hen-wife and the daughter of he swineherd. The Roan Bull discovers the ruse by giving his bride-to-be a white wand. He gets his true bride at last and departs with her.
See also
Cupid and Psyche
Nix Nought Nothing
Pintosmalto
The Feather of Finist the Falcon
The Singing, Springing Lark
The Three Princesses of Whiteland
The Two Kings' Children
Europa (consort of Zeus)
References
Scottish fairy tales
Fiction about shapeshifting
Witchcraft in fairy tales
ATU 400-459
False hero
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Agriculture in Canada
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Canada is one of the largest agricultural producers and exporters in the world. As with other developed nations, the proportion of the population agriculture employed and agricultural GDP as a percentage of the national GDP fell dramatically over the 20th century, but it remains an important element of the Canadian economy.
A wide range of agriculture is practised in Canada, from sprawling wheat fields of the prairies to summer produce of the Okanagan valley. In the federal government, overview of Canadian agriculture is the responsibility of the Department of Agriculture and Agri-Food.
Major agricultural products
Various factors affect the socio-economic characteristics of Canadian agriculture. The 2006 Census of Agriculture listed seven: Quantity and type of farms; Biogeography: crop and land use areas; land management practices; Quantity of livestock and poultry; Agricultural engineering: Farm machinery and equipment; Farm capital; Farm operating expenses and receipts; Farm-related injuries.
Early in the 21st century, Canadian agronomists were aware of 48 "primary grain, vegetable and fruit crops", based on surface area and value. In 2007, the Canadian Federation of Agriculture broke down into five primary "production sectors" Canadian agriculture according to cash receipts:
grains and oilseeds: 34%
red meats – livestock: 24%
dairy: 12%
horticulture: 9%
poultry and eggs: 8%
In 2018, Canada was the world's largest producer of rapeseed (20.3 million tonnes), dry pea (3.5 million tonnes) and lentil (2 million tons), the 2nd largest producer of oats in the world (3.4 million tons), the 6th largest world producer of wheat (31.7 million tons) and barley (8.3 million tons), the 7th largest world producer of soy (7.2 million tons), the 10th largest world producer of maize (13.8 million tons) and the 12th largest world producer of potato (5.7 million tonnes). In the same year, the country also produced 688 thousand tons of flax, 505 thousand tons of sugar beet (which is used to produce sugar), 497 thousand tons of tomato, 424 thousand tons of apple, 354 thousand tons of carrots, 341 thousand tons of beans, 311 thousand tons of chickpeas, 236 thousand tons of rye, 240 thousand tons of onion, 219 thousand tons of cabbage, 195 thousand tons of cranberry, 164 thousand tons of blueberry, 173 thousand tons of mustard seed, 138 thousand tons of mushroom and truffle, 120 thousand tons of grape, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.
Grains and oilseeds
In 1925, Saskatchewan produced over half of the wheat in the Dominion of Canada, threshing more than 240,000,000 bushels (6,500,000 metric tons) of wheat. Rapeseed, alfalfa, barley, canola, flax, rye, and oats are other popularly grown grain crops.
Wheat is a staple crop from Canada. To help homesteaders attain an abundance harvest in a foreshortened growing season, varieties of wheat were developed at the beginning of the 20th century. Red Fife was the first strain; it was a wheat which could be seeded in the fall and sprout in the early spring. Red Fife ripened nearly two weeks sooner and was a harder wheat than other spring wheats. Dr. C. Saunders, experimented further with Red Fife, and developed Mini Wheats, which was resistant to rust and came to maturity within 100 days. Some other types of wheat grown are durum, spelt, and winter wheat. In recent years, Canadian farmers have also begun to grow rice.
The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA) was established in 1935 to provide Federal financial assistance in regard to the global economical crisis. The PFRA provides farmers with land and water resources such as irrigation, soil drifting conservation and small farm water development. The Farm credit program has established the Canadian Farm Loan Act to provide stock bonds and farm improvement loans.
Livestock
115,000 cattle roamed the southern prairies by 1900.
Livestock can include the raising of cows, also commonly called cattle. Recently domestication of the buffalo and elk has initiated a new food industry. Sheep have been raised for both wool and meat. Bovine or pig barns have been a part of livestock culture. Scientists have been making forward steps in swine research giving rise to intensive pig farming. The domestication of various farm animals meant that corresponding industries such as feedlots, animal husbandry and meat processing have also been studied, and developed. Two corporations (Cargill Foods and Brazil-based multinational JBS) control 80 percent of beef processing, and four retailers capture 72 percent of retail sales.
From 1921 to 2011, farming operations have become more intensive and specialized. The total number of animal farms in Canada went from 8.1 per 100 inhabitants to 0.6 per 100 inhabitants. During this period, the number of Canadian pigs rose from 3,324,291 to 12,679,104, while the number of pig farms dropped from 452,935 to 7,371. In 2011, the hog industry was the fourth largest in Canada, after canola, dairy products and cattle, with cash receipts of $3.9 billion. The size of farms had also increased substantially, with the national average rising to 1,720 hogs per operation in 2011.
Dairy farming
Like poultry, dairy farming in Canada is restricted under the system of supply management. In 2016 there were approximately 17,840 dairy cattle and milk production farm operators in Canada.
Horticulture
Horticulture crops, which includes nursery, flowers and fruits, became easier to grow with the development of plant hardiness zones.
Apples, pears, plums and prunes, peaches, apricots, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, loganberries and fruit orchards are numerous and reach commercial size in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Niagara Peninsula and Norfolk County of Ontario and Okanagan Valley of British Columbia.
Hazelnuts are harvested in Eastern Canada and British Columbia. Maple syrup and maple sugar, maple butter, and maple taffy are products of Quebec along the St. Lawrence River. The main market for Canadian maple syrup and sugar is the United States. Potatoes are an abundant harvest of the Maritime provinces. Sugar beets and beet root sugar are harvested in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and Alberta.
Viticulture
Viticulture refers to the growing of grapes for the production of wine. Ontario, and British Columbia are the two largest wine-growing regions in Canada, although grapes are also grown in other regions of Canada, including Quebec, and the Maritimes. In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine. Approximately 62 per cent of all wines produced that year originated from Ontario, while wineries from British Columbia constituted 33 per cent of that years wine production. Canada is the largest producer of ice wine, producing more ice wine than all other countries combined.
In 2015, there were 548 wineries spread across . More than half of Canada's vineyard acreage is situated in Ontario, with 150 vineyards spread across . British Columbia holds 240 wineries, spread throughout . There are 138 wineries in Quebec, which manage of vineyards in the province. Nova Scotia holds 20 wineries, which manages of vineyards in the province.
Poultry and eggs
Fowl, poultry, eggs, chickens, geese, ducks and turkeys are part of a system of supply management. Under supply management, production is limited, prices are raised, and competition is severely curtailed, raising profits for farmers through artificially high prices for poultry and eggs paid by consumers. There are around 3,000 poultry farmers and 1,000 egg farmers in Canada.
Aquaculture
191,259 tonnes of aquatic life were killed in Canadian aquaculture systems in 2018. The total aquaculture production was worth 1.43 billion dollars.
Fur
Mink and foxes are farmed in Canada for their fur. The total value of mink pelts produced in 2018 was 44 million dollars. This value included pelts taken from animals that died and spring peltings.
Other
In recent years farmers have been producing alternative crops which are economically viable, and amongst these are organic farm crops. Hemp and wool from sheep are the main areas of fibre production of Canada. Wool production was on average 16,022,000 pounds (7,267 t) in the 1930s and 9,835,000 pounds (4,461 t) in 1949.. Fibre flax from flaxseed has been exported to the United Kingdom. Crop growers may supplement their income with beeswax and honey and learn beekeeping. Enterprising land owners have had success growing as well as packaging and marketing the sunflower seed. Crops are not only for human consumption but also for animal consumption, which opens a new market such as canary seed. Cuniculture, or rabbit farming, is another livestock enterprise. Cannabis is an important crop in some areas, making up 5% of British Columbia's GDP. According to BC Business Magazine, the crop is worth $7.5 billion to the province annually, and gives employment to 250,000 people.
Number of farms by Province/Territory
Canadian agricultural government departments
The Constitution Act, 1867 states each province has jurisdiction over agriculture, it also vests concurrent jurisdiction in the federal government. Newfoundland agricultural affairs were dealt with by the Agricultural Division of the Department of Natural Resources at Confederation.
The Constitution also states that the federal Government has sole authority in coastal and inland fishery matters. Provinces have rights over non-tidal waters and fishing practices there only.
Agricultural economy
Canadian farms, fisheries and ranches produce a wide variety of crops, livestock, food, feed, fibre, fuel and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals which are dependent upon the geography of the province. In 2001 farms numbered only 246,923 at a size of as the production of food and fibre for human or livestock sustenance has evolved into intensive and industrial practices. As of 2002, wheat constituted the largest crop area at 12.6%. Canadian farmers received a record $36.3 billion in 2001 from livestock, crop sales and program payments. In 2001, the accrued net income of farm operators from farm production amounted to 1,633 million dollars, which amounts to 0.147% of Canada's gross domestic product at market prices which is 1,108,200 million dollars. Fisheries are also playing an important role while forestry plays a secondary role. Canada's evolution has abandoned subsistence techniques and now sees a mere 3% of Canada's population employed as a mechanized industrial farmer who are able feed the rest of the nation's population of 30,689.0 thousand people (2001) as well as export to foreign markets. (Canada's estimated population was 32,777,300 on 1 January 2007).
Trade
The marketing and economic movement of Canada's various agriculture commodities has been a challenge. Domestic trade encompasses providing goods within Canada provincially and inter-provincial. Support agencies and services such as storage, railways, warehouses, stores, banking institutions all affect domestic trade. Trade of wheat from the Canada's prairies was monitored by the Canadian Wheat Board (CWB) prior to the privatization and sale of the CWB to foreign interests in 2015. Canada's depression of 1882–1897 brought a low of 64¼ cents per bushel ($24/t) as of 1893. This era during Laurier's administration saw thousands of homesteads cancelled. Wheat prices soared during World War I. In 1928, Canada exported high quantities of wheat, flour, and goods. The depression took its toll on Canada as exports sunk to approximately 40% of their 1928 amount. European markets stopped needing to import Canadian wheat as they started growing their own varieties, and then World War II events put a blockade on trade to European markets. Canada became more of an industrial entity during the time of this industrial revolution, and less of an agricultural nation. Following World War II the United Kingdom entered into contract for a large amount of agricultural commodities such as bacon, cheese, wheat, oats and barley. After the United Kingdom, the United States is Canada's largest external trade partner. Between 1943 and 1953, the average export of Canadian wheat was 347,200,000 bushels (9,449,000 t). The three-year International Wheat Agreement of 1955, which really lasted 6 years, included exports of wheat or flour to 28 of 44 importing countries including Germany, Japan, Belgium, UK, and the Netherlands.
Agribusiness
Agribusiness are activities of food and fibre production and processing which are not part of the farm operation. This would include the production of farm equipment and fertilizers to aid farm production. Agribusiness also includes the firms that purchase the raw goods from the farm for further processing. The meat packing industry, flour mill, and canning industry would be included in the agribusiness sector processing farm products.
A recent growth area in agribusiness is the advent of organized farmland investment funds operating on the model of direct land ownership with rental back to farmers as operators.
Industry categories
According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, these are the classifications of Canadian Agriculture Industries.
Agricultural science
Agricultural science began developing new styles of farming and strains of wheat and crops so that farming could become a successful venture. Farming methods were developed at places such as Dominion Experimental Farm, Rosthern Experimental Station, and Bell Farm. From 1914 to 1922, the Better Farming Train travelled around rural of Saskatchewan areas educating pioneer farmers.
The 1901 census showed 511,100 farms and the number of farms peaked in 1941 at a record 732,800 farms. The industrial revolution modernised the farming industry as mechanized vehicles replaced the oxen ploughed land or the horse-drawn cart. Farms became much larger, and mechanized evolving towards industrial agriculture.
Production
Farming activities were very labour-intensive before the industrial revolution and the advent of tractors, combines, balers, etc. From the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, a great percentage of the Canadian labour force was engaged in high labour, smaller farming practices. After mechanization, scientific advancement, improved marketing practices farms became more efficient, larger and less labour-intensive. The labour population was freed up and went to industry, government, transportation, trade and finance. Agriculture, stock raising and horticulture employed one-fourth of the Canadian population according to the 1951 census as well as providing products for exports and Canadian manufacturing concerns.
Farm equipment
The Oliver Chilled Plow, which could cut through the prairie sod, was in use by 1896. Binders which could cut and tie grain for the harvest season and grain elevators for storage were introduced in the late 19th century as well. Plows, tractors, spreaders, combines to name a few are some mechanized implements for the grain crop or horticultural farmer which are labour saving devices. Many Canadian museums such as Reynolds-Alberta Museum will showcase the evolution and variety of farm machinery.
Challenges
The Great Depression and drought of the Dirty Thirties was devastating. The drought resulted in a mass exodus of population from the prairies, as well as new agricultural practices such as soil conservation, and crop rotation.
The use of soil conservation practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time. Bow River Irrigation Project, Red Deer River Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems. A current project is soil liming at the Land Resource Research Institute.
Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and stinking smut can be successfully treated with a fungicide.
Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer. Tuberculosis in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as chronic wasting disease or transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease. Mad cow disease in cattle and scrapie of sheep are monitored by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.
Plants whose traits can be modified to survive a disease or insect have made inroads into Canadian agricultural practices. Cereal rusts which can destroy the majority of areas seeded to wheat, was controlled in 1938 by breeding strains which were rust-resistant. This strain was successful until around 1950, when again a new variety of rust broke out, and again a new species of wheat called Selkirk was developed which was rust resistant. Biotechnology is the center of new research and regulations affecting agriculture this century.
Climate change
Developmental and educational institutions
To increase the viability of agriculture as an economic lifestyle several improvements have been made by various nationwide educational facilities. Inroads and innovations have been made in the diverse fields of agricultural science, agricultural engineering, agricultural soil science, Sustainable agriculture, Agricultural productivity, agronomy, biodiversity, bioengineering, irrigation and swine research for example. Canadian universities conducting agricultural research include McGill University, Dalhousie University, Université Laval, Université de Montréal, University of Alberta, University of British Columbia, University of Calgary, University of Guelph, University of Manitoba, University of Saskatchewan and University of Prince Edward Island. The Ontario Agricultural College is located at the University of Guelph and the Western College of Veterinary Medicine is located at the University of Saskatchewan. The Atlantic Veterinary College is located at the University of P.E.I. and there are also faculties of veterinary medicine at the University of Calgary and Université de Montréal. BC Agriculture in the Classroom Foundation operates in the province of British Columbia.
Agricultural Museums
Canada Agriculture Museum
Manitoba Agricultural Museum
Ross Farm Museum
Central Experimental Farm
Ontario Agricultural Museum
Saskatchewan Western Development Museum
See also
History of agriculture in Canada
Canadian Census of Agriculture
Canadian Agricultural Safety Association
Pesticides in Canada
References
Further reading
External links
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada / Agriculture et Agroalimentaire
Agriculture - Province of B.C.
Canada Agriculture Museum
Soil to Sky: Careers in Canadian Agriculture in Food
The Archives of Ontario Celebrates Our Agricultural Past, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korach%20%28parashah%29
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Korach (parashah)
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Korach or Korah ( Qoraḥ—the name "Korah," which in turn means baldness, ice, hail, or frost, the second word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 38th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the fifth in the Book of Numbers. It tells of Korach's failed attempt to overthrow Moses.
It comprises Numbers 16:1–18:32. The parashah is made up of 5,325 Hebrew letters, 1,409 Hebrew words, 95 verses, and 184 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah). Korach is generally read in June or July.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Numbers 16:1–13
In the first reading, the Levite Korah son of Izhar joined with the Reubenites Dathan and Abiram, sons of Eliab, and On, son of Peleth and 250 chieftains of the Israelite community to rise up against Moses. Korah and his band asked Moses and Aaron why they placed themselves above the rest of the community, for the entire congregation is holy. Moses told Korah and his band to take their fire pans and put fire and incense on them before God. Moses sent for Dathan and Abiram, but they refused to come.
Second reading—Numbers 16:14–19
In the second reading, the next day, Korah and his band took their fire pans and gathered the whole community against Moses and Aaron at the entrance of the Tabernacle.
Third reading—Numbers 16:20–17:8
In the third reading, the Presence of the Lord appeared to the whole community, and God told Moses and Aaron to stand back so that God could annihilate the others. Moses and Aaron fell on their faces and implored God not to punish the whole community. God told Moses to instruct the community to move away from the tents of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, and they did so, while Dathan, Abiram, and their families stood at the entrance of their tents. Moses told the Israelites that if these men were to die of natural causes, then God did not send Moses, but if God caused the earth to swallow them up, then these men had spurned God. Just as Moses finished speaking, the earth opened and swallowed them, their households, and all Korah's people, and the Israelites fled in terror. And a fire consumed the 250 men offering the incense. God told Moses to order Eleazar the priest to remove the fire pans—as they had become sacred—and have them made into plating for the altar to remind the Israelites that no one other than Aaron's offspring should presume to offer incense to God. The next day, the whole Israelite community railed against Moses and Aaron for bringing death upon God's people. A cloud covered the Tabernacle and the God's Presence appeared.
Fourth reading—Numbers 17:9–15
In the fourth reading, God told Moses to remove himself and Aaron from the community, so that God might annihilate them, and they fell on their faces. Moses told Aaron to take the fire pan, put fire from the altar and incense on it, and take it to the community to make expiation for them and to stop a plague that had begun, and Aaron did so. Aaron stood between the dead and the living and halted the plague, but not before 14,700 had died.
Fifth reading—Numbers 17:16–24
In the fifth reading, God told Moses to collect a staff from the chieftain of each of the 12 tribes, inscribe each man's name on his staff, inscribe Aaron's name on the staff of Levi, and deposit the staffs in the Tent of Meeting. The next day, Moses entered the Tent and Aaron's staff had sprouted, blossomed, and borne almonds.
Sixth reading—Numbers 17:25–18:20
In the sixth reading, God instructed Moses to put Aaron's staff before the Ark of the Covenant to be kept as a lesson to rebels to end their mutterings against God. But the Israelites cried to Moses, "We are doomed to perish!" God spoke to Aaron and said that he and his dynasty would be responsible for the Tent of Meeting and the priesthood and accountable for anything which went wrong in the performance of their priestly duties. God assigned the Levites to Aaron to aid in the performance of these duties. God prohibited any outsider from intruding on the priests as they discharged the duties connected with the Shrine, on pain of death. And God gave Aaron and the priests all the sacred donations and firstfruits as a perquisite for all time for them and their families to eat. God gave them olive oil, wine, grain. The priestly covenant was described as a "covenant of salt", but God also told Aaron that the priests would have no territorial share among the Israelites, as God was their portion and their share.
Seventh reading—Numbers 18:21–32
In the seventh reading, God gave the Levites all the tithes in Israel as their share in return for the services of the Tent of Meeting, but they too would have no territorial share among the Israelites. God told Moses to instruct the Levites to set aside one-tenth of the tithes they received as a gift to God.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jewish people who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Numbers chapter 16
In Numbers 16:22, Moses interceded on behalf of the community, as Abraham had in Genesis 18:23, when Abraham asked God whether God would "sweep away the righteous with the wicked." Similarly, in Numbers 16:22, Moses raised the question of collective responsibility: If one person sins, will God punish the entire community? And similarly, in 2 Samuel 24:17 and 1 Chronicles 21:17, David asked why God punished all the people with pestilence. Ezekiel 18:4 and 20 answer that God will punish only the individual who sins, and Ezekiel 18:30 affirms that God will judge every person according to that person's acts.
Numbers chapter 18
In Numbers 18:1 and 18:8, God spoke directly to Aaron, whereas more frequently in the Torah, God spoke "to Moses" or "to Moses and Aaron."
1 Samuel 2:12–17 describes how (out of greed) priests who were descended from Eli sent their servants to collect uncooked meat from the people, instead of taking their entitlement in accordance with Numbers 18:8–18.
The description of the Aaronic covenant as a "covenant of salt" in Numbers 18:19 is mirrored by the description in 2 Chronicles 13:5 of God's covenant with the Davidic kings of Israel as a "covenant of salt."
Tithes, which are addressed in Numbers 18:21–24, are also addressed in Leviticus 27:30–33, and Deuteronomy 14:22–29 and 26:12–14.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Numbers chapter 16
The 1st or 2nd century CE author Pseudo-Philo read the commandment to wear blue tassels, or tzitzit, in Numbers 15:37–40 together with the story of Korah's rebellion that follows immediately after in Numbers 16:1–3. Pseudo-Philo reported that God commanded Moses about the tassels, and then Korah and the 200 men with him rebelled, asking why that unbearable law had been imposed on them.
The first-century Roman-Jewish scholar Josephus wrote that Korah was an Israelite of principal account, both by family and wealth, who was able to speak well and could easily persuade the people. Korah envied the great dignity of Moses, as he was of the same tribe as Moses and he thought he better deserved honor on account of his great riches.
Josephus wrote that Moses called on God to punish those who had endeavored to deal unjustly with the people, but to save the multitude who followed God's commandments, for God knew that it would not be just that the whole body of the Israelites should suffer punishment for the wickedness of the unjust.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Numbers chapter 16
Like Pseudo-Philo (see "In early nonrabbinic interpretation" above), the Jerusalem Talmud read the commandment to wear tzitzit in Numbers 15:37–40 together with the story of Korah's rebellion that follows immediately after in Numbers 16:1–3. The Jerusalem Talmud told that after hearing the law of tassels, Korah made some garments that were completely dyed blue, went to Moses, and asked Moses whether a garment that was already completely blue nonetheless had to have a blue corner tassel. When Moses answered that it did, Korah said that the Torah was not of Divine origin, Moses was not a prophet, and Aaron was not a high priest.
A Midrash taught that Numbers 16:1 traces Korah's descent back only to Levi, not to Jacob, because Jacob said of the descendants of Simeon and Levi in Genesis 49:5, “To their assembly let my glory not be united,” referring to when they would assemble against Moses in Korah's band.
A Midrash taught that Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and On all fell in together in their conspiracy, as described in Numbers 16:1, because they lived near each other on the same side of the camp. The Midrash thus taught that the saying, "Woe to the wicked and woe to his neighbor!" applies to Dathan and Abiram. Numbers 3:29 reports that the descendants of Kohath, among whom Korah was numbered, lived on the south side of the Tabernacle. And Numbers 2:10 reports that the descendants of Reuben, among whom Dathan and Abiram were numbered, lived close by, as they also lived on the south side of the Tabernacle. Similarly, a Midrash taught that because Reuben, Simeon, and Gad were close to Korah, they were all quarrelsome men; and the sons of Gad and the sons of Simeon were also contentious people.
Reading the words of Numbers 16:1, "And Korah took," a Midrash asked what caused Korah to oppose Moses. The Midrash answered that Korah took issue with Moses because Moses had (as Numbers 3:30 reports) appointed Elizaphan the son of Uzziel as prince of the Kohathites, and Korah was (as Exodus 6:21 reports) son of Uzziel's older brother Izhar, and thus had a claim to leadership prior to Elizaphan. Because Moses appointed the son of Korah's father's youngest brother, Uzziel, the leader, to be greater than Korah, Korah decided to oppose Moses and nullify everything that he did.
Resh Lakish interpreted the words "Korah . . . took" in Numbers 16:1 to teach that Korah took a bad bargain for himself. As the three Hebrew consonants that spell Korah's name also spell the Hebrew word for "bald" (kereach), the Gemara deduced that he was called Korah because he caused a bald spot to be formed among the Israelites when the earth swallowed his followers. As the name Izhar () in Numbers 16:1 derived from the same Hebrew root as the word "noon" (, tzohorayim), the Gemara deduced from "son of Izhar" that Korah was a son who brought upon himself anger hot as the noon sun. As the name Kohath () in Numbers 16:1 derived from the same Hebrew root as the word for "set on edge" (, kihah), the Gemara deduced from "son of Kohath" that Korah was a son who set his ancestors' teeth on edge. The Gemara deduced from the words "son of Levi" in Numbers 16:1 that Korah was a son who was escorted to Gehenna. The Gemara asked why Numbers 16:1 did not say "the son of Jacob," and Rabbi Samuel bar Isaac answered that Jacob had prayed not to be listed amongst Korah's ancestors in Genesis 49:6, where it is written, "Let my soul not come into their council; unto their assembly let my glory not be united." "Let my soul not come into their council" referred to the spies, and "unto their assembly let my glory not be united" referred to Korah's assembly. As the name Dathan () in Numbers 16:1 derived from the same Hebrew root as the word "law" (, dat), the Gemara deduced from Dathan's name that he violated God's law. The Gemara related the name Abiram () in Numbers 16:1 to the Hebrew word for "strengthened" (iber) and deduced from Abiram's name that he stoutly refused to repent. The Gemara related the name On () in Numbers 16:1 to the Hebrew word for "mourning" (, aninah) and deduced from On's name that he sat in lamentations. The Gemara related the name Peleth () in Numbers 16:1 to the Hebrew word for "miracles" (pelaot) and deduced from Peleth's name that God performed wonders for him. And as the name Reuben () derived from the Hebrew words "see" (reu) and "understand" (, mavin), the Gemara deduced from the reference to On as a "son of Reuben" in Numbers 16:1 that On was a son who saw and understood.
Rabbi Joshua identified Dathan as the Israelite who asked Moses in Exodus 2:14, "Who made you a ruler and a judge over us?"
Numbers 16:1–2 reports that the Reubenite On son of Peleth joined Korah's conspiracy, but the text does not mention On again. Rav explained that On's wife saved him, arguing to him that no matter whether Moses or Korah prevailed, On would remain just a disciple. On replied that he had sworn to participate. So On's wife got him drunk with wine, and laid him down in their tent. Then she sat at the entrance of their tent and loosened her hair, so that whoever came to summon him saw her and retreated at the sight of her immodestly loosened hair. The Gemara taught that Proverbs 14:1 refers to On's wife when it says: "Every wise woman builds her house."
The Mishnah in Pirkei Avot deduced that the controversy of Korah and his followers was not for the sake of Heaven, and thus was destined not to result in permanent change. The Mishnah contrasted Korah's argument to those between Hillel and Shammai, which the Mishnah taught were controversies for the sake of Heaven, destined to result in something permanent.
Reading Numbers 4:18, “Cut not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites,” Rabbi Abba bar Aibu noted that it would have been enough for the text to mention the family of Kohath, and asked why Numbers 4:18 also mentions the whole tribe. Rabbi Abba bar Aibu explained that God (in the words of Isaiah 46:10), "declar[es] the end from the beginning," and provides beforehand for things that have not yet occurred. God foresaw that Korah, who would descend from the families of Kohath, would oppose Moses (as reported in Numbers 16:1–3) and that Moses would beseech God that the earth should swallow them up (as reflected in Numbers 16:28–30). So God told Moses to note that it was (in the words of Numbers 17:5) "to be a memorial to the children of Israel, to the end that no common man . . . draw near to burn incense . . . as the Lord spoke to him by the hand of Moses." The Midrash asked why then Numbers 17:5 adds the potentially superfluous words "to him," and replied that it is to teach that God told Moses that God would listen to his prayer concerning Korah but not concerning the whole tribe. Therefore, Numbers 4:18 says, "Cut not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites."
Rabbi Simeon bar Abba in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan taught that every time Scripture uses the expression "and it was" (vayehi), it intimates the coming of either trouble or joy. If it intimates trouble, there is no trouble to compare with it, and if it intimates joy, there is no joy to compare with it. Rabbi Samuel bar Nahman made a distinction: In every instance where Scripture employs "and it was" (vayehi), it introduces trouble, while when Scripture employs "and it shall be"(ve-hayah), it introduces joy. The Sages raised an objection to Rabbi Samuel's view, noting that to introduce the offerings of the princes, Numbers 7:12 says, "And he that presented his offering . . . was (vayehi)," and surely that was a positive thing. Rabbi Samuel replied that the occasion of the princes' gifts did not indicate joy, because it was manifest to God that the princes would join with Korah in his dispute (as reported in Numbers 16:1–3). Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon said in the name of Rabbi Levi ben Parta that the case could be compared to that of a member of the palace who committed a theft in the bathhouse, and the attendant, while afraid of disclosing his name, nevertheless made him known by describing him as a certain young man dressed in white. Similarly, although Numbers 16:1–3 does not explicitly mention the names of the princes who sided with Korah in his dispute, Numbers 16:2 nevertheless refers to them when it says, "They were princes of the congregation, the elect men of the assembly, men of renown," and this recalls Numbers 1:16, "These were the elect of the congregation, the princes of the tribes of their fathers . . . ," where the text lists their names. They were the "men of renown" whose names were mentioned in connection with the standards; as Numbers 1:5–15 says, "These are the names of the men who shall stand with you, of Reuben, Elizur the son of Shedeur; of Simeon, Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai . . . ."
It was taught in a Baraita that King Ptolemy brought together 72 elders and placed them in 72 separate rooms, without telling them why he had brought them together, and asked each of them to translate the Torah. God then prompted each of them to conceive the same idea and write a number of cases in which the translation did not follow the Masoretic Text, including reading Numbers 16:15 to say, "I have taken not one valuable of theirs" (substituting "valuable" for "donkey" to prevent the impression that Moses may have taken any other items).
Rabbi Levi taught that God told Moses "enough!" in Deuteronomy 3:26 to repay Moses measure for measure for when Moses told Korah "enough!" in Numbers 16:3.
Rava read Numbers 16:12 and 16:16 to teach requirements for judicial procedure. Rava deduced from Numbers 16:12 that a court must send an agent to summon a defendant to appear before the court before the community can ostracize the defendant. And Rava deduced from Numbers 16:16 that the court summons the defendant, the summons must set a date for the appearance, and the defendant must personally appear before the court.
Noting Moses' displeasure in Numbers 16:15 with Dathan and Abiram for their failure to meet with him, the Midrash Tanḥuma compared this to a person who argues with a companion and reasons with the companion. When the companion answers, the person has peace of mind; but if the companion does not answer, then this causes the person great annoyance.
Reading Numbers 16:20, a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the Amidah.
Rav Adda bar Abahah taught that a person praying alone does not say the Sanctification (Kedushah) prayer (which includes the words from Isaiah 6:3: (, Kadosh, Kadosh, Kadosh, Adonai Tz'vaot melo kol haaretz kevodo, "Holy, Holy, Holy, the Lord of Hosts, the entire world is filled with God's Glory"), because Leviticus 22:32 says: "I will be hallowed among the children of Israel," and thus sanctification requires ten people (a minyan). Rabinai the brother of Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba taught that we derive this by drawing an analogy between the two occurrences of the word "among" (, toch) in Leviticus 22:32 ("I will be hallowed among the children of Israel") and in Numbers 16:21, in which God tells Moses and Aaron: "Separate yourselves from among this congregation," referring to Korah and his followers. Just as Numbers 16:21, which refers to a congregation, implies a number of at least ten, so Leviticus 22:32 implies at least ten.
Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai compared the words of Numbers 16:22, "Shall one man sin, and will You be wrathful with all the congregation?" to the case of men on a ship, one of whom took a borer and began boring beneath his own place. His shipmates asked him what he was doing. He replied that what he was doing would not matter to them, as he was boring under his own place. And they replied that the water would come up and flood the ship for them all.
Reading Song of Songs 6:11, "I went down into the garden of nuts," to apply to Israel, a Midrash taught that just as when one takes a nut from a stack of nuts, all the rest come toppling over, so if a single Jewish person is smitten, all Jewish people feel it, as Numbers 16:22 says, "Shall one man sin, and will You be angry with all the congregation?"
A Midrash expanded on the plea of Moses and Aaron to God in Numbers 16:22 and God's reply in Numbers 16:24. The Midrash taught that Moses told God that a mortal king who is confronted with an uprising in a province of his kingdom would send his legions to kill all the inhabitants of the province—both innocent and the guilty—because the king would not know who rebelled and who did not. But God knows the hearts and thoughts of each and every person, knows who sinned and who did not, and knows who rebelled and who did not. That is why Moses and Aaron asked God in Numbers 16:22, "Shall one man sin, and will You be wrath with all the congregation?" The Midrash taught that God replied that they had spoken well, and God would make known who had sinned and who had not.
Rabbi Berekiah read Numbers 16:27 to teach how inexorably destructive dispute is. For the Heavenly Court usually does not impose a penalty until a sinner reaches the age of 20. But in Korah's dispute, even one-day-old babies were consumed by the fire and swallowed up by the earth. For Numbers 16:27 says, "with their wives, and their sons, and their little ones."
The Mishnah in Pirkei Avot taught that the opening of the earth's mouth in Numbers 16:32 was one of ten miracles that God created at the end of the first week of creation at the eve of the first Sabbath at twilight.
Rabbi Akiva interpreted Numbers 16:33 to teach that Korah's assembly will have no portion in the World To Come, as the words "the earth closed upon them" reported that they died in this world, and the words "they perished from among the assembly" implied that they died in the next world, as well. But Rabbi Eliezer disagreed, reading 1 Samuel 2:6 to speak of Korah's assembly when it said: "The Lord kills, and makes alive; He brings down to the grave, and brings up." The Gemara cited a Tanna who concurred with Rabbi Eliezer's position: Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra likened Korah's assembly to a lost article, which one seeks, as Psalm 119:176 said: "I have gone astray like a lost sheep; seek Your servant."
The Avot of Rabbi Natan read the listing of places in Deuteronomy 1:1 to allude to how God tested the Israelites with ten trials in the Wilderness—including Koraḥ's rebellion—and they failed them all. The words "In the wilderness" alludes to the Golden Calf, as Exodus 32:8}HE}} reports. "On the plain" alludes to how they complained about not having water, as Exodus 17:3 reports. "Facing Suf" alludes to how they rebelled at the Sea of Reeds (or some say to the idol that Micah made). Rabbi Judah cited Psalm 106:7, "They rebelled at the Sea of Reeds." "Between Paran" alludes to the Twelve Spies, as Numbers 13:3 says, "Moses sent them from the wilderness of Paran." "And Tophel" alludes to the frivolous words (, tiphlot) they said about the manna. "Lavan" alludes to Koraḥ's mutiny. "Ḥatzerot" alludes to the quails. And in Deuteronomy 9:22, it says, "At Tav'erah, and at Masah, and at Kivrot HaTa'avah." And "Di-zahav" alludes to when Aaron said to them: "Enough (, dai) of this golden (, zahav) sin that you have committed with the Calf!" But Rabbi Eliezer ben Ya'akov said it means "Terrible enough (, dai) is this sin that Israel was punished to last from now until the resurrection of the dead."
A Tanna in the name of Rabbi deduced from the words "the sons of Korah did not die" in Numbers 26:11 that Providence set up a special place for them to stand on high in Gehinnom. There, Korah's sons sat and sang praises to God. Rabbah bar bar Hana told that once when he was travelling, an Arab showed him where the earth swallowed Korah's congregation. Rabbah bar bar Hana saw two cracks in the ground from which smoke issued. He took a piece of wool, soaked it in water, attached it to the point of his spear, and passed it over the cracks, and the wool was singed. The Arab told Rabbah bar bar Hana to listen, and he heard them saying, "Moses and his Torah are true, but Korah's company are liars." The Arab told Rabbah bar bar Hana that every 30 days Gehinnom caused them to return for judgment, as if they were being stirred like meat in a pot, and every 30 days they said those same words.
Rabbi Judah taught that the same fire that descended from heaven settled on the earth, and did not again return to its former place in heaven, but it entered the Tabernacle. That fire came forth and devoured all the offerings that the Israelites brought in the wilderness, as Leviticus 9:24 does not say, "And there descended fire from heaven," but "And there came forth fire from before the Lord." This was the same fire that came forth and consumed the sons of Aaron, as Leviticus 10:2 says, "And there came forth fire from before the Lord." And that same fire came forth and consumed the company of Korah, as Numbers 16:35 says, "And fire came forth from the Lord." And the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that no person departs from this world until some of that fire, which rested among humanity, passes over that person, as Numbers 11:2 says, "And the fire rested."
Numbers chapter 17
Rabbi Aḥa bar Yaakov read Numbers 17:3 to teach that in matters of sanctity, one always elevates to a higher level. Numbers 17:3 states with regard to the coal pans that the men of Korah's assembly used to burn incense: "The coal pans of these men who have sinned at the cost of their lives, and let them be made beaten plates for a covering of the altar, for they have become sacred because they were brought before the Lord, that they may be a sign to the children of Israel." At first, the coal pans had the status of articles used in the service of the altar, as they contained the incense, but when they were made into a covering for the altar, their status was elevated to that of the altar itself.
Rav taught that anyone who persists in a quarrel transgresses the commandment of Numbers 17:5 that one be not as Korah and his company.
Rabbi Joshua ben Levi explained how, as Numbers 17:11–13 reports, Moses knew what to tell Aaron what to do to make atonement for the people, to stand between the dead and the living, and to check the plague. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that when Moses ascended on high (as Exodus 19:20 reports), the ministering angels asked God what business one born of woman had among them. God told them that Moses had come to receive the Torah. The angels questioned why God was giving to flesh and blood the secret treasure that God had hidden for 974 generations before God created the world. The angels asked, in the words of Psalm 8:8, "What is man, that You are mindful of him, and the son of man, that You think of him?" God told Moses to answer the angels. Moses asked God what was written in the Torah. In Exodus 20:2, God said, "I am the Lord your God, Who brought you out of the Land of Egypt." So Moses asked the angels whether the angels had gone down to Egypt or were enslaved to Pharaoh. As the angels had not, Moses asked them why then God should give them the Torah. Again, Exodus 20:3 says, "You shall have no other gods," so Moses asked the angels whether they lived among peoples that engage in idol worship. Again, Exodus 20:8 says, "Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy," so Moses asked the angels whether they performed work from which they needed to rest. Again, Exodus 20:7 says, "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain," so Moses asked the angels whether there were any business dealings among them in which they might swear oaths. Again, Exodus 20:12 says, "Honor your father and your mother," so Moses asked the angels whether they had fathers and mothers. Again, Exodus 20:13 says, "You shall not murder; you shall not commit adultery; you shall not steal," so Moses asked the angels whether there was jealousy among them and whether the Evil Tempter was among them. Immediately, the angels conceded that God's plan was correct, and each angel felt moved to love Moses and give him gifts. Even the Angel of Death confided his secret to Moses, and that is how Moses knew what to do when, as Numbers 17:11–13 reports, Moses told Aaron what to do to make atonement for the people, to stand between the dead and the living, and to check the plague.
A Baraita taught that Josiah hid away Aaron's rod with its almonds and blossoms referred to in Numbers 17:23, the Ark referred to in Exodus 37:1–5, the jar of manna referred to in Exodus 16:33, the anointing oil referred to in Exodus 30:22–33, and the coffer that the Philistines sent the Israelites as a gift along with the Ark and concerning which the priests said in 1 Samuel 6:8, "And put the jewels of gold, which you returned Him for a guilt offering, in a coffer by the side thereof [of the Ark]; and send it away that it may go." Having observed that Deuteronomy 28:36 predicted, "The Lord will bring you and your king . . . to a nation that you have not known," Josiah ordered the Ark hidden away, as 2 Chronicles 35:3 reports, "And he [Josiah] said to the Levites who taught all Israel, that were holy to the Lord, 'Put the Holy Ark into the house that Solomon the son of David, King of Israel, built; there shall no more be a burden upon your shoulders; now serve the Lord your God and his people Israel.' Rabbi Eleazar deduced that Josiah hid the anointing oil and the other objects at the same time as the Ark from the common use of the expressions "there" in Exodus 16:33 with regard to the manna and "there" in Exodus 30:6 with regard to the Ark, "to be kept" in Exodus 16:33 with regard to the manna and "to be kept" in Numbers 17:25 with regard to Aaron's rod, and "generations" in Exodus 16:33 with regard to the manna and "generations" in Exodus 30:31 with regard to the anointing oil.
Numbers chapter 18
The Rabbis derived from the words of Numbers 18:2, "That they [the Levites] may be joined to you [Aaron] and minister to you," that the priests watched from upper chambers in the Temple and the Levites from lower chambers. The Gemara taught that in the north of the Temple was the Chamber of the Spark, built like a veranda (open on one or more sides) with a doorway to the non-sacred part, and there the priests kept watch in a chamber above and the Levites below. The Rabbis noted that Numbers 18:2 speaks of "your [Aaron's] service" (and watching was primarily a priestly function). The Gemara rejected the possibility that Numbers 18:2 might have referred to the Levites' service (of carrying the sacred vessels), noting that Numbers 18:4 addresses the Levites' service when it says, "And they shall be joined to you and keep the charge of the Tent of Meeting." The Gemara reasoned that the words of Numbers 18:2, "That they [the Levites] may be joined to you [Aaron] and minister to you," must therefore have addressed the priests' service, and this was to be carried out with the priests watching above and the Levites below.
Rav Ashi read the repetitive language of Leviticus 22:9, "And they shall have charge of My charge"—which referred especially to priests and Levites, whom Numbers 18:3–5 repeatedly charged with warnings—to require safeguards to God's commandments.
Rabbi Jonathan found evidence for the Levites' singing role at Temple services from the warning of Numbers 18:3: "That they [the Levites] do not die, neither they, nor you [Aaron, the priest]." Just as Numbers 18:3 warned about priestly duties at the altar, so (Rabbi Jonathan reasoned) Numbers 18:3 must also address the Levites' duties in the altar service. It was also taught that the words of Numbers 18:3, "That they [the Levites] do not die, neither they, nor you [Aaron, the priest]," mean that priests would incur the death penalty by engaging in Levites' work, and Levites would incur the death penalty by engaging in priests' work, although neither would incur the death penalty by engaging in another's work of their own group (even if they would so incur some penalty for doing so).
But Abaye reported a tradition that a singing Levite who did his colleague's work at the gate incurred the death penalty, as Numbers 3:38 says, "And those who were to pitch before the Tabernacle eastward before the Tent of Meeting toward the sun-rising, were Moses and Aaron, . . . and the stranger who drew near was to be put to death." Abaye argued that the "stranger" in Numbers 3:38 could not mean a non-priest, for Numbers 3:10 had mentioned that rule already (and Abaye believed that the Torah would not state anything twice). Rather, reasoned Abaye, Numbers 3:38 must mean a "stranger" to a particular job. It was told, however, that Rabbi Joshua ben Hananyia once tried to assist Rabbi Joḥanan ben Gudgeda (both of whom were Levites) in the fastening of the Temple doors, even though Rabbi Joshua was a singer, not a door-keeper.
A non-Jew asked Shammai to convert him to Judaism, on condition that Shammai appoint him High Priest. Shammai pushed him away with a builder's ruler. The non-Jew then went to Hillel, who converted him. The convert then read Torah, and when he came to the injunction of Numbers 1:51, 3:10, and 18:7 that "the common man who draws near shall be put to death," he asked Hillel to whom the injunction applied. Hillel answered that it applied even to David, King of Israel, who had not been a priest. Thereupon the convert reasoned a fortiori that if the injunction applied to all (non-priestly) Israelites, whom in Exodus 4:22 God had called "my firstborn," how much more so would the injunction apply to a mere convert, who came among the Israelites with just his staff and bag. Then the convert returned to Shammai, quoted the injunction, and remarked on how absurd it had been for him to ask Shammai to appoint him High Priest.
Tractate Terumot in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the portion of the crop that was to be given to the priests in Numbers 18:8–13 and Deuteronomy 18:4
In Numbers 18:11, God designated for Aaron and the priests “the heave offering (, terumat) of their gift.” The Mishnah taught that a generous person would give one part out of 40. The House of Shammai said one out of 30. The average person was to give one out of fifty. A stingy person would give one out of 60.
Tractate Bikkurim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the firstfruits in Exodus 23:19 and 34:26, Numbers 18:13, and Deuteronomy 12:17–18, 18:4, and 26:1–11.
The Mishnah taught that the Torah set no fixed amount for the firstfruits that the Israelites had to bring.
Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel taught that any baby who lives 30 days is not a nonviable, premature birth (nefel), because Numbers 18:16 says, "And those that are to be redeemed of them from a month old shall you redeem," and as the baby must be redeemed, it follows that the baby is viable.
Tractates Terumot, Ma'aserot, and Ma'aser Sheni in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpret the laws of tithes in Leviticus 27:30–33, Numbers 18:21–24, and Deuteronomy 14:22–29 and 26:12–14.
Tractate Demai in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud, interpreted the laws related to produce where one is not sure if it has been properly tithed in accordance with Numbers 18:21–28.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Numbers chapter 16
Baḥya ibn Paquda taught that because God showed special goodness to a certain family among families in the appointment of the priesthood and the Levites, God charged them with additional duties. But whoever among them rebels against God falls from those high degrees in this world, and will suffer severe pain in the World To Come, as was seen from what befell Korah and his company.
The 12th century French commentator Rashbam wrote that Moses called God "God of the spirits" in Numbers 16:22 as if to say that God knew the spirits and the minds of the rest of the people, and thus knew that they had not sinned. But the 12th century Spanish commentator Abraham ibn Ezra taught that the words "God of the spirits" just explain the word "God," indicating that God could destroy the congregation because God had their spirits in God's hand. Ibn Ezra acknowledged that some say that "God of the spirits" means that God has the power to investigate human souls, and that God knew that one man—Korah—alone sinned and caused the others to sin. But Ibn Ezra wrote that he believed that the words "Separate yourselves from among this congregation" in Numbers 16:21 refer to Korah and his congregation—and not to the entire congregation of Israel—and that God destroyed Korah's congregation.
Numbers chapter 18
Maimonides explained the laws governing the redemption of a firstborn son (, pidyon haben) in Numbers 18:15–16. Maimonides taught that it is a positive commandment for every Jewish man to redeem his son who is the firstborn of a Jewish mother, as Exodus 34:19 says, "All first issues of the womb are mine," and Numbers 18:15 says, "And you shall surely redeem a firstborn man." Maimonides taught that a mother is not obligated to redeem her son. If a father fails to redeem his son, when the son comes of age, he is obligated to redeem himself. If it is necessary for a man to redeem both himself and his son, he should redeem himself first and then his son. If he only has enough money for one redemption, he should redeem himself. A person who redeems his son recites the blessing: "Blessed are You . . . who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us concerning the redemption of a son." Afterwards, he recites the shehecheyanu blessing and then gives the redemption money to the Cohen. If a man redeems himself, he should recite the blessing: "Blessed . . . who commanded us to redeem the firstborn" and he should recite the shehecheyanu blessing. The father may pay the redemption in silver or in movable property that has financial worth like that of silver coins. If the Cohen desires to return the redemption to the father, he may. The father should not, however, give it to the Cohen with the intent that he return it. The father must give it to the Cohen with the resolution that he is giving him a present without any reservations. Cohens and Levites are exempt from the redemption of their firstborn, as they served as the redemption of the Israelites' firstborn in the desert. One born to a woman of a priestly or Levite family is exempt, for the matter is dependent on the mother, as indicated by Exodus 13:2 and Numbers 3:12. A baby born by Caesarian section and any subsequent birth are exempt: the first because it did not emerge from the womb, and the second, because it was preceded by another birth. The obligation for redemption takes effect when the baby completes 30 days of life, as Numbers 18:16 says, "And those to be redeemed should be redeemed from the age of a month."
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Numbers chapter 16
James Kugel wrote that early interpreters saw in the juxtaposition of the law of tzitzit in Numbers 15:37–40 with the story of Korah's rebellion in Numbers 16:1–3 a subtle hint as to how Korah might have enlisted his followers. Forcing people to put a special blue tassel on their clothes, ancient interpreters suggested Korah must have argued, was an intolerable intrusion into their lives. Korah asked why, if someone's whole garment was already dyed blue, that person needed to add an extra blue thread to the corner tassel. But this question, ancient interpreters implied, was really a metaphorical version of Korah's complaint in Numbers 16:3: "Everyone in the congregation [of Levites] is holy, and the Lord is in their midst. So why then do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of the Lord?" In other words, Korah asserted that all Levites were part of the same garment and all blue, and asked why Moses and Aaron thought that they were special just because they were the corner thread. In saying this, Kugel argued, Korah set a pattern for would-be revolutionaries thereafter to seek to bring down the ruling powers with the taunt: "What makes you better than the rest of us?" Kugel wrote that ancient interpreters thus taught that Korah was not really interested in changing the system, but merely in taking it over. Korah was thus a dangerous demagogue.
Gunther Plaut reported that source-critics saw two traditions in Numbers 16, a Korah rebellion directed against Aaron and Levitical privilege (assigned to the Priestly source), and an anti-Moses uprising led by Dathan and Abiram (assigned to the J/E source). Plaut wrote that the Korah story appears to reflect a struggle for priestly privilege in which Korah's people, originally full priests and singers, were after a power struggle reduced to doorkeepers. The story of the rebellion of Dathan, Abiram, and members of the tribe of Reuben, Plaut wrote, may represent the memory of an intertribal struggle in which the originally important tribe of Reuben was dislodged from its original preeminence.
Plaut read the words "Korah gathered the whole community" in Numbers 16:19 to indicate that the people did not necessarily side with Korah but readily came out to watch his attack on the establishment. Plaut noted, however, that Numbers 17:6 indicates some dissatisfaction rife among the Israelites. Plaut concluded that by not backing Moses and Aaron, the people exposed themselves to divine retribution.
Robert Alter noted ambiguity about the scope of the noun "congregation" (, edah) in Numbers 16:21. If it means Korah's faction, then in Numbers 16:22, Moses and Aaron pleaded that only the ringleaders be punished, not all 250 rebels. But subsequent occurrences of "community" seem to point to the whole Israelite people, so Alter suggested that Moses and Aaron may have feared that God was exhibiting another impulse to destroy the entire Israelite population and start over again with the two brothers. Nili Fox and Terence Fretheim shared the latter view. Fox wrote that God was apparently ready to annihilate Israel, but Moses and Aaron appealed to God as Creator of humanity in Numbers 16:22a and appealed to God's sense of justice in Numbers 16:22b, arguing that sin must be punished individually rather than communally. Similarly, Fretheim reported that Moses and Aaron interceded arguing that not all should bear the consequences for one person. And Fretheim also saw the phrase "the God of the spirits of all flesh" in Numbers 16:22 (which also appears in Numbers 27:16) to appeal to God as Creator, the One who gives breath to all. In Fretheim's view, God responded positively, separating the congregation from the rebels and their families.
Numbers chapter 18
Robert A. Oden taught that the idea that spoils of holy war were devoted to God (, cherem), evident in Leviticus 27:28–29, Numbers 18:14, and Deuteronomy 7:26, was revelatory of (1) as "to the victor belong the spoils", then since God owned the spoils, then God must have been the victor and not any human being, and (2) the sacred and religiously obligatory nature of holy war, as participants gained no booty as a motivation for participation.
Jacob Milgrom taught that the verbs used in the laws of the redemption of a firstborn son (, pidyon haben) in Exodus 13:13–16 and Numbers 3:45–47 and 18:15–16, "natan, kiddesh, he‘evir to the Lord," as well as the use of padah, "ransom," indicate that the firstborn son was considered God's property. Milgrom surmised that this may reflect an ancient rule where the firstborn was expected to care for the burial and worship of his deceased parents. Thus the Bible may be preserving the memory of the firstborn bearing a sacred status, and the replacement of the firstborn by the Levites in Numbers 3:11–13, 40–51; and 8:14–18 may reflect the establishment of a professional priestly class. Milgrom dismissed as without support the theory that the firstborn was originally offered as a sacrifice.
In April 2014, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled that women are now equally responsible for observing commandments as men have been. The Committee thus concluded that mothers and fathers are equally responsible for the redemption of their firstborn sons and daughters.
Plaut reported that most Reform Jews have abandoned the ceremony of redemption of the firstborn as inconsistent with Reform Judaism's rejection of matters relating to priestly privilege and special status based upon one's parentage or sibling birth order.
Numbers 18:16 reports that a shekel equals 20 gerahs. This table translates units of weight used in the Bible:
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 5 positive and 4 negative commandments in the parashah.
To guard the Temple area
No Levite must do another's work of either a Kohen or a Levite
One who is not a Kohen must not serve in the sanctuary
Not to leave the Temple unguarded
To redeem the firstborn sons and give the money to a Kohen
Not to redeem the firstborn of a kosher domestic animal
The Levites must work in the Temple
To set aside a tithe each planting year and give it to a Levite
The Levite must set aside a tenth of his tithe
In the liturgy
Some Jews read about how the earth swallowed Korah up in Numbers 16:32 and how the controversy of Korah and his followers in Numbers 16 was not for the sake of Heaven as they study Pirkei Avot chapter 5 on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah.
And similarly, some Jews refer to the 24 priestly gifts deduced from Leviticus 21 and Numbers 18 as they study chapter 6 of Pirkei Avot on another Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is 1 Samuel 11:14–12:22.
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Rosh Chodesh, the haftarah is Isaiah 66:1–24.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Exodus 13:1–2 (firstborn); 13:12–13 (firstborn); 22:28–29 (firstborn).
Numbers 3:11–13 (firstborn); 26:9–11 (Korach, Dathan, Abiram).
Deuteronomy 15:19–23 (firstborn).
1 Samuel|12:3 (not having taken a donkey).
Jeremiah 31:8 (firstborn).
Ezekiel 7:10 (rod blossomed); 8:9–12 (elders burning incense); 18 (individual responsibility).
Psalms 16:5 (God as inheritance); 55:16 (go down alive into the nether-world); 105:26 (Moses as God's chosen); 106:16–18, 29–30 (rebellion and earth swallowing; plague as God's punishment).
Early nonrabbinic
Pseudo-Philo 16:1–17:4.
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 4:2:1–4, 3:1–4, 4:1–2, 4. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 102–07. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Jude 1:11 (Korah's rebellion).
Pausanias. Description of Greece, 2:31:10. Greece, 2nd Century C.E. (After Heracles leaned his club against the image of Hermes, the club took root and grew.).
Qur'an: 28:76–82; 29:39; 40:24–25. Arabia, circa 609–632. In, e.g., The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an. Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, pages 981–84, 996, 1211-12. Beltsville, Maryland: Amana Publications, 10th edition, 1997. And in The Qur'an With Annotated Interpretation in Modern English. Translated by Ali Ünal, pages 815–17, 828, 965. Clifton, New Jersey: Tughra Books, 2015. (In the Qur'an, Korah is called Qarun.)
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Demai 1:1–7:8; Terumot 1:1–11:10; Challah 1:3; 4:9; Bikkurim 1:1–3:12; Chagigah 1:4; Sanhedrin 9:6; 10:3; Avot 5:6, 17; Bekhorot 8:8. Land of Israel, circa 200 C.E. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 36–49, 93–120, 148, 157, 329, 345–53, 604–05, 686, 688, 806. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. And in, e.g., The Oxford Annotated Mishnah. Edited by Shaye J. D. Cohen, Robert Goldenberg, and Hayim Lapin. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.
Tosefta: Demai 1:1–8:24; Terumot 1:1–10:18; Maaser Sheni 3:11; Challah 2:7, 9; Shabbat 15:7; Chagigah 3:19; Sotah 7:4; Sanhedrin 13:9; Bekhorot 1:5. Land of Israel, circa 300 C.E. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 77–202, 313, 339, 414, 677, 861; volume 2, pages 1190, 1469. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Jerusalem Talmud: Demai 1a–77b; Terumot 1a–107a; Maaser Sheni 4a, 5a, 53b–54a; Challah 9b, 23b, 29a, 33a; Orlah 18a, 20a; Bikkurim 1a–26b; Pesachim 42b, 58a; Yoma 11a; Yevamot 51b–52a, 65b, 73b–74a; Ketubot 36a; Gittin 27b; Sanhedrin 11a, 60b, 62b, 68a–b; Avodah Zarah 27b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 4, 7–8, 10–12, 18–19, 21, 30–31, 39, 44–45, 48. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 19:2; 22:10; 26:7; 43:9. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 149, 189–90, 217–19, 358–59; volume 2, pages 528, 656–57, 817, 899, 952–53, 980. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 19:3:2; 43:1:13; 46:2:4; 79:4:2; 84:1:9. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 77, 182, 199, 367, 377. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 21b, 45a, 47a–b; Shabbat 25a, 31a, 26a, 88b–89a, 127b, 135b; Eruvin 19a, 31b; Pesachim 23a, 34a, 35b, 54a, 64b, 73a, 121b; Yoma 24a, 27a, 44a, 45b, 52b, 74b; 9a; Beitzah 3b, 12b–13b; Rosh Hashanah 12b; 9b, 23b; Moed Katan 5a–b, 12a, 13a, 16a, 18b, 28a; Chagigah 7b, 10b, 11b; Yevamot 74a, 85b–86b, 89b, 99b; Ketubot 8b, 72a, 102a; Nedarim 7b, 12b, 18b, 38a, 39b, 64b; Nazir 4b; Sotah 2a, 13b, 15a; Gittin 11b, 23b, 25a, 30b, 52a; Kiddushin 11b, 17a, 29a, 46b, 52b–53a; Bava Kamma 13a, 67a, 69b, 78a, 79a, 80a, 110b, 114a, 115b; Bava Metzia 6b, 22a, 56a, 71b, 88b, 102b ; Bava Batra 74a, 84b, 112a, 118b, 143a; Sanhedrin 17a, 37b, 52a–b, 74b, 82b–84a, 90b, 108a, 109b–10a; Makkot 4a, 12a, 13a, 14b, 17a–b, 19a–b, 23b; Shevuot 4b, 17b, 39a; Avodah Zarah 15a, 24b; Horayot 12a; Zevachim 16a, 28a, 32a, 37a, 44b–45a, 49b, 57a, 60b, 63a, 73a, 81a, 88b, 91a, 97b, 102b; Menachot 9a, 19b, 21b, 23a, 37a, 54b, 58a, 73a, 77b, 83a, 84b, 99a; Chullin 68a, 99a, 120b, 130a, 131a–32b, 133b, 134b, 135b–36a; Bekhorot 3b–4b, 5b, 6b–7a, 10b, 11b–12b, 17a, 26b, 27b, 31b–33a, 34a, 47b, 49a, 50a, 51a–b, 53b, 54b, 56b, 58b–59a, 60a; Arakhin 4a, 11b, 16a, 28b–29a; Temurah 3a, 4b–5b, 8a, 21a–b, 24a; Keritot 4a, 5b; Meilah 8b; Tamid 26b; Niddah 26a, 29a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
Avot of Rabbi Natan, 36:3. Circa 700–900 C.E. In, e.g., The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan. Translated by Judah Goldin, page 149. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1955. The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan: An Analytical Translation and Explanation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 217. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.
Midrash Tanḥuma Korach. Circa 775–900 C.E. In, e.g., The Metsudah Midrash Tanchuma. Translated and annotated by Avrohom Davis, edited by Yaakov Y.H. Pupko, volume 7 (Bamidbar volume 2), pages 1–56.
Tanna Devei Eliyahu. Seder Eliyyahu Rabbah 67, 77, 83, 106, 117. 10th Century. In, e.g., Tanna Debe Eliyyahu: The Lore of the School of Elijah. Translated by William G. Braude and Israel J. Kapstein, pages 150, 172, 183, 233, 256. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1981.
Midrash Tehillim 1:15; 19:1; 26:4; 24:7; 32:1; 45:1, 4; 46:3; 49:3; 90:5; 132:1, 3. 10th century. In, e.g., The Midrash on the Psalms. Translated by William G. Braude, volume 1, pages 20–22. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959. LCCN 58-6535.
Rashi. Commentary. Numbers 16–18. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 4, pages 189–224. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 225–46. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Numbers Rabbah 18:1–23. 12th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Numbers (Ba-Midbar). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 126–51. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1999.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Structure. Cairo, Egypt, circa 1170–1180.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Talmud Torah (The Laws of Torah Study), chapter 3, ¶ 13. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot De'ot: The Laws of Personality Development: and Hilchot Talmud Torah: The Laws of Torah Study. Translated by Za'ev Abramson and Eliyahu Touger, volume 2, pages 206–09. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Matnot Aniyiim (The Laws of Gifts to the Poor), chapter 6, ¶ 2; Hilchot Terumot (The Laws of Priestly Offerings); Hilchot Ma'aser (The Laws of Tithes); Hilchot Bikkurim (The Laws of First Fruits); Hilchot Shemita V'Yovel (The Laws of the Sabbatical and Jubilee Years), chapter 13, ¶ 12. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Zeraim: The Book of Agricultural Ordinances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 154–55, 196–499, 600–715, 834–35. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2005.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Kli Hamikdash (The Laws of the Temple Utensils), chapter 3, ¶ 1. Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Ha'Avodah: The Book of (Temple) Service. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 148–51. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2007.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapters 15, 20. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 25, 29. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 933–50. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Nachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Numbers. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 4, pages 158–93. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1975.
Zohar part 3, pages 176a–178b. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated by Eliyahu Touger; edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 4, pages 1547–79. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1101–20. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 728–41. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 4: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 160–88. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 730–45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 865–74. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 260–64. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:38, 40, 42. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 485–86, 505, 563–64. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Bamidbar: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 270–327. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2013.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1496–528. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Samson Raphael Hirsch. Horeb: A Philosophy of Jewish Laws and Observances. Translated by Isidore Grunfeld, pages 189–95, 261–65. London: Soncino Press, 1962. Reprinted 2002. Originally published as Horeb, Versuche über Jissroel's Pflichten in der Zerstreuung. Germany, 1837.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1060–71. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
H. Clay Trumbull. The Salt Covenant. New York, 1899. In Kirkwood, Missouri: Impact Christian Books, 1999.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 243–48. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, page 431. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 119–22. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Julius H. Greenstone. Numbers: With Commentary: The Holy Scriptures, pages 164–200. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1939. Reprinted by Literary Licensing, 2011.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, page 55. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
A. M. Klein. "Candle Lights." Canada, 1944. In The Collected Poems of A.M. Klein, page 13. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1974.
Jacob Milgrom. "First fruits, OT." In The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. Supp. volume, pages 336–37. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon, 1976.
Joseph B. Soloveitchik. "The 'Common-Sense' Rebellion Against Torah Authority." In Reflection of the Rav: Lessons in Jewish Thought. Adapted by Abraham R. Besdin, pages 139–49. Jerusalem: Department for Torah Education and Culture in the Diaspora of the World Zionist Organization, 1979. In Ktav Publishing, 2nd edition, 1993.
Philip J. Budd. Word Biblical Commentary: Volume 5: Numbers, pages 178–207. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1984.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 173–75. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Jacob Milgrom. The JPS Torah Commentary: Numbers: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 129–57, 414–36. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.
Howard Handler. "Pidyon HaBen and Caesarean Sections." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1991. YD 305:24.1991. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 171–74. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Baruch A. Levine. Numbers 1–20, volume 4, pages 403–53. New York: Anchor Bible, 1993.
Gerald Skolnik. "Should There Be a Special Ceremony in Recognition of a Firstborn Female Child?" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1993. YD 305:1.1993. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 163–65 New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Mary Douglas. In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers, pages 40, 59, 84, 103, 110–12, 122–23, 125, 130–33, 138, 140, 145, 147, 150, 194–95, 203, 211, 246. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Reprinted 2004.
Elliot N. Dorff. "Artificial Insemination, Egg Donation and Adoption." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1994. EH 1:3.1994. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 461, 497. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (implications of the law of the firstborn son for deciding whether a child born from a donated egg is Jewish).
Judith S. Antonelli. "Korach's Rebellion." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 357–60. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Vernon Kurtz. "Delay of Pidyon HaBen" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1995. YD 305:11.1995. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 166–70. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 220–23. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 366–74. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 254–59. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Elyse D. Frishman. "Authority, Status, Power." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 286–93. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Dennis T. Olson. "Numbers." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 175–78. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Elie Wiesel. "Korah." Bible Review, volume 16 (number 3) (June 2000): pages 12–15.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 53–61. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 233–38. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 762–77. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Barbara Borts. "Haftarat Korach: I Samuel 11:14–12:22." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 180–84. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Nili S. Fox. "Numbers." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 315–21. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 255–66. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
James Findlay. “The Priestly Ideology of the Septuagint Translator of Numbers 16–17.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 4) (June 2006): pages 421–29.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 1001–21. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Direct Line to G-d." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 97. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
Shai Cherry. "Korah and His Gang." In Torah Through Time: Understanding Bible Commentary, from the Rabbinic Period to Modern Times, pages 132–60. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 290, 330–34. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Françoise Mirguet. “Numbers 16: The Significance of Place—An Analysis of Spatial Markers.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 32 (number 3) (March 2008): pages 311–30.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 893–914. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
R. Dennis Cole. "Numbers." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 363–69. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 219–23. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Jane Rachel Litman. "Torah and Its Discontents: Parashat Korach (Numbers 16:1–18:32)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 202–05. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Idan Dershowitz. “A Land Flowing with Fat and Honey.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 2) (2010): pages 172–76.
Terence E. Fretheim. "Numbers." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 213–17. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Michal Hunt. "The Pentateuch Part IV: Numbers: Lesson 8: Chapters 16–18: The Kohathite Rebellion. Agape Bible Study, 2010. (Catholic study of Korah.)
The Commentators' Bible: Numbers: The JPS Miqra'ot Gedolot. Edited, translated, and annotated by Michael Carasik, pages 115–37. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011.
Calum Carmichael. "The Status of the Firstborn (Numbers 16–18)." In The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis, pages 90–102. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Empowerment through Knowledge and Commitment." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 216–22. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Shlomo Riskin. Torah Lights: Bemidbar: Trials and Tribulations in Times of Transition, pages 127–52. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2012.
Josh Feigelson. "Restraining Ambition: How can we each fulfill the uniqueness of our potential, while doing so with humility and a spirit of service?" The Jerusalem Report, volume 24 (number 5) (June 17, 2013): page 45.
Daniel Greyber. "Memory can be redemptive: We remember Korah and his companions to learn from their mistake. By so doing we redeem them, and ourselves." The Jerusalem Report, volume 25 (number 6) (June 30, 2014): page 47.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 205–09. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. Bewilderments: Reflections on the Book of Numbers, pages 170–93. New York: Schocken Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 239–43. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 136–45. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 127–29. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Jonathan Sacks. Numbers: The Wilderness Years: Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 185–233. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2017.
Bill Dauster. "What Was So Bad About Korach?" Washington Jewish Week, July 4, 2019, page 21.
Mira Balberg. "The Fruits of Halakhah." The Jewish Quarterly Review, volume 3, number 3 (summer 2021): pages 356-61. (tithes).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20Kuusysi
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FC Kuusysi
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FC Kuusysi (; Finnish for FC sixty-nine) is a football club in Lahti, Finland. Its men's team is currently playing in the fourth tier of Finnish football (Kolmonen), and its women's team is playing in Kakkonen. The homeground of FC Kuusysi is Lahden kisapuisto.
Synopsis
The club was founded in 1934 with the name Lahden Pallo-Miehet ('Lahti Ball Men'). It used this name until 1963, when the name was changed into Upon Pallo, having by then a connection with UPO, a white goods company from Lahti. Six years later (1969) the name was again changed, into Lahti-69, which soon was moulded into Kuusysi ('sixty-nine'). When this later was adopted as the official name of the club, it was natural that another nickname soon came to be used, this time Kyykkä.
The club has won five men's Finnish championships, four times when the top flight was still called Mestaruussarja, and once during Veikkausliiga. It has also twice won the Finnish Cup. Their best result in European competitions is the quarterfinals of the 1985–86 European Cup.
After the 1996 season, the men's team merged with that of Reipas Lahti, giving rise to the current club FC Lahti.
History
Founding of the club
The first club to begin to play football in Lahti was Lahden Ahkera (founded 1907), which started its team in 1908. However, they had little activity during the first years, and the team really picked up only after the independence of Finland in 1917. In 1922, Ahkera played its first official match, in which it lost to the Kouvolan Urheilijat Ball Men, the score being 1–3. In 1931 Ahkera decided to begin a separate section for football, after which football activity in the vicinity began to pick up, when Ahkera played against the other clubs of the town. Three years later the pressure for founding a specialised club for football began to increase, and thus in the spring of 1934 there was a meeting in a café called Häme in Lahti, in which a proper football club was founded. After a meeting that lasted two hours, a new club was founded, with the name Lahden Pallo-Miehet ('Lahti Ball Men'). The newly founded club decided to put special emphasis on football propaganda directed at boys.
Lahden Pallo-Miehet played its first official match in July 1934 against Heinolan Isku. It ended in a goalless draw, in front of some 500–600 spectators. In August, the club faced the third team of Helsingin Palloseura of Helsinki and lost to them, the score being 10–1. However, in the next match the club met with its first victory. A year after its founding, the club already had 300 members, although this figure also included those who played bandy, which was the winter sport of the club.
First medal achieved with boys' A team
For the 1936 season, the Pallo-Miehet team was given a face lift, in that it now consisted of younger players than before. Soon the previous dismal results gave way to losses in matches in which the team did have a chance, and it also achieved a few wins. For the 1939 season, it was decided to expand the Suomensarja, or second level of football in Finland, and Pallo-Miehet was accepted into this competition. The club participated in the Western section, group 2, of this competition, where it played 12 matches and finished sixth, second from bottom. In the twelve matches, the team managed to win two, both of them against Heinolan Isku from neighbouring Heinola. After the Winter War, the number of the teams was reduced, and Pallo-Miehet was left outside of the competition.
Although the men's team thereafter did not compete in the top level competitions in the country, the club had success in A boys' (U 19) competition. In the 1948 season, the Finnish championship for this age group was decided in a cup format competition. The team of Pallo-Miehet, called the Maila-Pojat ('bat boys'), won its matches in the early rounds against a team from Käpylä, a Helsinki residential neighbourhood, and against Myllykosken Pallo. In the semi-finals, faced HJK Helsinki, a match that they won 1–0 on penalties. The final was played in Pori, against the local club Porin Kärpät. Maila-Pojat already had a 0–2 lead, but in the end they lost with a scoreline of 4–2. The men's team in the meanwhile had found themselves in a play-off match about relegation from the provincial series to a district series, and it was decided to let the A boys' (U 19) team try their hand, in an attempt to see if they would do better than the men's team. The boys lost by one goal, and thus the Pallo-Miehet men's team was relegated to the a district series.
Pallo-Miehet expected that the A boys would eventually propel the club into success in men's competitions, but this did not happen. The A boys' (U 19) team soon disintegrated, and the key players joined Reipas Lahti, now relocated from Viipuri, as that club had been promoted into 1950 Suomensarja. However, this turned out to be only a French visit, and ended in relegation, and at the same time, Maila-Pojat were not able to achieve a promotion to the provincial series. However, in 1955 they at last did succeed in this.
Promotion into Suomensarja
The manager of the Finland national football team, Kurt Weinreich joined the coaching team of Pallo-Miehet before the 1957 season. Under Weinreich's influence, less emphasis was put on fielding strikers, and the season began with clear victories. During the last round of matches, Pallo-Miehet faced HPK of Hämeenlinna. HPK only needed a draw in order to gain promotion, whereas only a win would do for Pallo-Miehet. The match ended with 2–1 for the Lahti team, which thus was promoted to 1958 Suomensarja.
After the promotion into the Suomensarja, the president of the club announced that the next goal was promotion into the Mestaruussarja, i.e. 'Championship Series.' However, during the following season, the club fielded mostly minors in the men's team, and did not acquire players from any other sources. At the end of the season, the club was left seventh in the series, and was the last team to avoid relegation. However, during the seasons that followed, the Pallo-Miehet was consistently found to be one of the best teams in the series. After the 1959 season, Pallo-Miehet was transferred to the eastern section of Suomensarja, instead of the western section, where their local rivals Reipas Lahti also played. Both teams were among the best in this competition, and at the end of the season Reipas achieved promotion into the Mestaruussarja. In the 1962 and 1963 seasons, Pallo-Miehet came second in the eastern section, but they did not gain promotion into the Mestaruussarja.
Financial difficulties and evolving into Upon Pallo
Although the club had considerable success in sports, it found itself in great financial difficulties. In the autumn of 1963, the debts of the club had reached 11 000 Finnish Marks. This situation grew worse due to the clubs activities in ice hockey, which it had begun at the beginning of that decade, and it was suggested that the club abandon this sport. Pallo-Miehet then turned to the white goods company UPO, and after some negotiations, the company decided to overtake the club in October 1963. In the following month the name of the club was changed into Upon Pallo.
The support from UPO made it possible for the club to acquire some well-known names in Finnish football. These included e.g. the Finnish internationals Markku Kumpulampi and Rauno Kestilä. Also some well established players from Suomensarja joined the club. The new club began the 1964 Suomensarja with a 3–0 victory over Pallo-Pojat, and it went on undefeated until the 13th match of the season. This proved to be the only defeat of the season, and the club secured promotion to 1965 Mestaruussarja in September, when it drew against Herttoniemen Urheilijat. Upon Pallo won its section with a 13-point marginal against the second team in the competition, Sudet from Kouvola.
Under the auspices of UPO, the boys' teams attracted many young players, and in consequence some of them made into the national teams of their age groups. The men's team acquired Finnish international goalkeeper Lars Näsman. In the end the club was left to the relegation zone as the last team to be relegated.
For the next season, the club acquired numerous Finnish internationals, e.g. Simo Syrjävaara, Reijo Kanerva, Matti Mäkelä and Pertti Mäkipää. Thanks to these new players, the team won 18 matches and was undefeated, and thus secured promotion back into the Mestaruussarja.
However, the club was being criticised about this policy of acquiring new players. The basis of this criticism was the fact that the club would have found players from its own ranks, and yet new players were imported who might even play in a position in which there was no need for new players. Some of these players did not play for the team but rather displayed their individual skills. In spite of everything, Upon Pallo ended up fourth in the 1967 Mestaruussarja. Reipas Lahti were crowned champions, and the biggest ever crowd of spectators were seen in the match between Upon Pallo and Reipas. This match, which ended in a defeat for Upon Pallo was attended by 8 144 spectators. The following season Upon Pallo had a number of younger players in its team, and some of the international players were transferred elsewhere. The 1967 season saw varying results, but in the end the team finished sixth in the series. In October the club played its last match with the name Upon Pallo, against Kotkan Työväen Palloilijat of Kotka.
A short merger with Reipas
The expenses of Upon Pallo were constantly on the increase, which is why UPO wanted to disband the club. At the same time, Reipas was also experiencing financial difficulties, and this situation caused the two clubs to consider a merger. The working name for the club was Lahti-68. In the end, the people involved in backing Reipas did not like this, and they persuaded CEO, Councillor of Mining Arvi Tammivuori of Asko-Upo to let the name of the new club to remain Reipas. This is what then happened, and many people in Upon Pallo decided not to join the new club, as they felt that the people in Reipas were in fact just trying to get rid of their local rival. The main coach of the new club was Raimo Valtonen. Five players from Upon Pallo joined the new club, but many of their fellow players refused to follow them. These players continued their careers in a new club, which was founded to continue the activities of Upon Pallo. This new club was founded just a month before the 1969 Mestaruussarja ('Championship Series') began, and it was given the name Lahti-69. In colloquial speech this turned into Kuusysi. This nickname became the official name of the club in 1974.
Lahti-69 was given the place of Upon Pallo in top-flight football, and the new club did not have the financial burdens Upon Pallo. Eero Nopsanen became the manager of the new club. Football was now the only sport of this club, as ice hockey was not adopted. However, from the point of view of performance, the first season did not meet the club's expectations. Lahti-69 was only tenth in the series, and the last club to cling onto its place in the Mestaruussarja. After this season, the merger with Reipas was officially dissolved, and Lahti-69 and Reipas were again separate clubs.
The 1971 season was the first one when Kuusysi did better than Reipas. During this season, Kuusysi was not able to field Hannu Hämäläinen ja Urho Partanen, because Reipas demanded a quarantine fee of 20 000 for them, which Kuusysi could not afford to pay. This was first season, when Kuusysi took the lead in the series. However, any hopes of a gold were buried in September, when the club drew with Kokkolan Palloveikot. At the end of the season Kuusysi failed to focus on its matches properly, when they had lost sight of their goal, and in the end they finished sixth.
Relegation from top flight
During the 1972 and 1973 seasons the most important players of the club either ended their careers or transferred to other clubs, and Kuusysi was not able to acquire adequate replacements. In the autumn of 1973 the management of the club decided to let almost all of the players go, except for their biggest star, Raimo Saviomaa. It was decided instead to bring promising but inexperienced young players from its own ranks into the men's team.
During the whole of the ensuing 1974 season, Kuusysi stayed near the bottom of the table. Before the last matches, they faced the situation, in which their best prospect was a possible replay about staying in the series, guaranteed only by a win in an away game. However, the season ended in a defeat in the hands of Mikkelin Palloilijat, 1–0, and thus Kuusysi was relegated to 1. Division.
The following season in the second tier did not begin well, since the best players had abandoned the club, and only Saviomaa and the younger players were left. The club was not able to acquire new good players, when the numbers of the spectators at the same time dwindled. However, the various boys' teams of the club did well, as two of them won the Finnish championship in 1975. Now, when Reipas was the only top-flight club in Lahti, Kuusysi contemplated even abolishing its men's team in the autumn of 1976. This, however, did not happen. Towards the end of the 1970s, the various boys' teams of the club won several medals in their competitions. The C-boys (U–16) team even won gold in 1979.
Promotion into the Mestaruussarja under Voutilainen
In the autumn of 1979, the club acquired a new manager, Keijo Voutilainen. Prior to this, he had achieved promotion into the Mestaruussarja with Kuopion Pallotoverit of Kuopio. Under Voutilainen, Kuusysi became known for being a young team that passed the ball skilfully and beautifully. However, the results were disappointing at first, and after six matches in the 1980 season, the club was at the bottom of the table. Voutilainen was already wanting to quit, but the management of the club succeeded in persuading him to stay. After the sixth match, the team began to catch up with the leading teams. Voutilainen gave more playing time to the young players, and in addition to them, two players better known from ice hockey, Kari Eloranta and Harri Toivanen played in the team. In the end, the club finished fourth in the series, and were granted a place in the promotion/relegation group, where it was decided which teams would play in the Mestaruussarja the following season. In the promotion/relegation group Kuusysi finished fifth, when only the first four qualified for the 1981 Mestaruussarja.
In the 1981 season Kuusysi won the Preliminary Stage of 1. Division and again qualified for the promotion/relegation group, in which the club ended at the very top. The club also reached the final of the Finnish Cup, where it played against Helsingin Jalkapalloklubi. The match ended in a comprehensive 4–0 victory for HJK.
Success in the 1980s
Kuusysi started the 1982 Mestaruussarja with high hopes, since it had been able to acquire some high quality players. In the Preliminary Stage, the team stayed close to the leading teams, and in the end finished sixth. In the Championship Stage the other teams were not able to keep up the pace, whereas Kuusysi's results got better and better. Winning the next to last match against Kokkolan Palloveikot, the club climbed to the top. In the last match Kuusysi played against Ilves of Tampere, and won this match 5–0. Thus the club earned its first Finnish championship.
During this decade, financial backing came from businessman Martti Rinta, who in 1982 paid all the debts of the club, which amounted to 600 000 Finnish marks.
Thanks to its success in the Finnish cup in the previous season, Kuusysi was granted a place in the 1982–83 European Cup Winners' Cup, while HJK represented Finland in the 1982–83 European Cup. In the first round Kuusysi faced Galatasaray from Turkey. The first leg ended in a win for Galatasaray, and in the second leg the result was a draw. Kuusysi lost 2–3 on aggregate.
At home in Finland, Kuusysi was fourth in the 1983 Mestaruussarja Preliminary Stage, but in the Championship Stage ended up fifth.
During that decade Kuusysi participated a number of times in European competitions. 1983–84 European Cup was the first time in this competition. In the first round Kuusysi faced Dinamo București, losing 0–1 at home and 0–3 away.
At home in the 1984 Mestaruussarja the club fared better, finishing third in the Preliminary Stage. The rest of the competition was played in a knock-out fashion, and in the semi-finals Kuusysi faced FC Haka of Valkeakoski. They won 3–2 on aggregate and faced TPS Turku in the finals. When the first leg ended in a 4–0 win and the second leg ended in a draw, it was time for Kuusysi to celebrate their second Finnish championship.
In the following season, in the 1984–85 European Cup Winners' Cup, Kuusysi faced FK Inter Bratislava in the first round. When the first leg ended in a 2–1 win for Bratislava and the second leg in a goalless draw, Kuusysi was eliminated 2–1 on aggregate.
At home in the 1985 Mestaruussarja the club did not do as well as the previous season, and it ended up fifth in the Preliminary Stage and thus they were the first teams left outside the play-offs.
The greatest success for Kuusysi in Europe took place in the 1985–86 European Cup. This was the second time in the prime European club competition. In the first round the club faced FK Sarajevo, winning 2–1 both home and away, and thus 4–2 on aggregate. In the next round they faced FC Zenit of Leningrad. They took an early lead, but were not able to keep the opponents at bay, and lost 2–1. At home, however, they won 3–1, and thus 4–3 on aggregate and made the last eight, i.e. the quarterfinals. In the draw for the last eight, they were sent against Steaua București. This was a disappointment for the team, as Steaua was virtually unknown in Finland, and they could have faced some much more famous teams. The first leg in Bucharest ended in a goalless draw. Steaua was the dominant team, but goalkeeper Ismo Korhonen kept the opponents at bay. The club decided to play the second leg at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium, even though there was already snow on the ground. It was played in front of lopulta 32 552 spectators, which was the record amount for any Finnish club. The match went on goalless until the very last minutes, when Steaua's Victor Pițurcă managed to score. Kuusysi had to play without Keijo Kousa, who was injured. Ismo Lius and Markus Törnvall did not play either, because the club had been forced to sell them before these matches. Thanks to this success, the club was able to pay 2 million Finnish marks worth of debts, when the total amount had been 2,3 million.
At home in Finland, the 1986 Mestaruussarja ended in another championship for Kuusysi.
The 1987 Mestaruussarja ended with Kuusysi achieving silver. They were three points behind champions HJK Helsinki. At the end of the year Voutilainen was sacked, and a new manager, Antti Muurinen was brought in, although initially the club had approached Martti Kuusela. Before he was sacked, Voutilainen had stated that he was disappointed in the team, and after that the club decided that Voutilainen's best years as a manager were already in the past. The club was experiencing pressures in local competition, when Reipas was performing better with a young, promising player named Jari Litmanen.
In the European season 1987–1988 Kuusysi participated in the European Cup. In the first round the club faced Neuchâtel Xamax and lost 2–6 on aggregate. At home in the 1987 Mestaruussarja Kuusysi was again second in the Preliminary Stage, and again behind HJK. In the Championship Stage the club remained in the same position and thus were awarded silver at the end of the season.
In the 1987 Finnish Cup, however, the club was victorious, and thus they represented Finland in the 1988–89 European Cup Winners' Cup. The results were disappointing, as the club lost in the first round to Dinamo București.
For the 1989 Mestaruussarja season Muurinen was able to put together the team he wanted. The club had a winning streak of 16 games, and they secured the championship in their last game, against TPS Turku before 7 000 spectators.
Financial difficulties in the 1990s and the founding of FC Lahti
In 1990 the Mestaruussarja was discontinued and in its stead the current top-flight competition, Veikkausliiga, was founded. During the first season Kuusysi won the preliminary stage and in the play-offs they advanced into the finals, where they met HJK, but lost both legs. During the following season Kuusysi won the championship, with a one-point gap separating them and the second place team Mikkelin Palloilijat. The championship was secured in the last game, in which Kuusysi beat HJK.
In the 1991–92 UEFA Cup Kuusysi faced in the first round Liverpool, which had just been freed from a long European ban. The first leg ended in a 6–1 defeat at Anfield, but Kuusysi won at home 1–0.
For the 1992 season Kuusysi acquired the league topscorer of the previous season, Kimmo Tarkkio. He played as a striker together with Mike Belfield. HJK ended up as the champions, and Kuusysi won silver. This proved to be the last medal for the club. In December 1992, businessman Martti Rinta, who had financed the club, died. According to his own estimates Rinta had spent several million Finnish Marks on the club. Before he died, Rinta had e.g. paid the remaining 600 000 Mark debt. After Rinta's death the budget of the club had to be rewritten.
During the 1993 season Kuusysi had plenty of ups and downs, but with a spurt at the end, the club managed to achieve a fourth position. However, for the club this was the first season without a medal for seven years.
The 1993–1994 was the last time that Kuusysi participated in European competitions, this time in the UEFA Cup. In the first round they beat KSV Waregem from Belgium with an aggregate score of 6–1. In the second round they faced Brøndby IF from Denmark, and lost with an aggregate score of 2–7.
After this season, manager Muurinen left the club, even though he had a year left of his contract. Jorma Kallio took his place. This move was dictated by financial reasons, and at the same time many of the players either ended their careers or transferred to other clubs. These players were replaced by young players from the club's own ranks. The most important of these young hopefuls were Marko Tuomela and Antti Pohja. Tuomela had already played in the men's team before.
For the 1994 season Kuusysi acquired its first Brazilian players. The team lacked a clear direction, and e.g. for goalkeeping the club tried three different players, of whom Mikko Kavén finally turned out to be the best choice. At the end of the season, the club was ninth in the league. The following season was the last one for the club in top-flight football. The foreign players were often injured, and when the club found itself lower and lower in the league table, they decided to acquire more new players. These acquisitions were done despite the grim financial situation, and altogether 33 players represented the club during this season. Relegation was a fact after a 1–0 defeat at the hands of Rovaniemen Palloseura in October. During the 1996 season the club played in Ykkönen, in its northern section. The club aimed to return to top flight, but in the end they found themselves in the third place in their section.
The debts of the club now had risen to one million Finnish Marks, and also local rivals Reipas, likewise now relegated to Ykkönen, was in financial difficulties, and they had no way of achieving promotion back to top flight. There had already earlier in the decade been suggestions about a merger of these two clubs. Now this proposition was reconsidered. FC Lahti was suggestion for a new name, and at the same time it was considered that Kuusysi and Reipas would concentrate in youth work, and it was also suggested that FC Lahti would pay the debts of these two clubs according to a certain timetable. Kuusysi was the first to accept these suggestions, but it took longer for Reipas to be persuaded. Finally in November 1996, FC Lahti was officially founded. The new club was given Kuusysi's place in Ykkönen, and FC Pallo-Lahti took the place of Reipas in Kakkonen.
Return to men's competitions
The Lahti club FC City Stars became part of the Kuusysi organisation in the autumn of 2006 (see Other teams) and it played in Kakkonen during the seasons 2007–2008 and in 2010.
In the 2011 season Kuusysi returned to men's competitions with its own name and colours, taking the place of the City Stars in Kakkonen.
The club
Colours and logos
When Lahden Pallo-Miehet was founded, the official colours were black shorts and an orange jersey, with a black horizontal stripe. When the club's name was changed to Upon Pallo, the colours also were changed. The new colours were blue and white. In the 1990s the club also used yellow jerseys and blue shorts. During the last season in top flight, the team had black shorts. The current logo was designed for the 1971 season by Tuulo Lehtinen.
Stadium
The club began to play in 1934 at the Lahti Radiomäki ('Lahti Radio Hill'), where there was the Radiomäki Sports Ground. From there the club moved to Lahden kisapuisto. For a short while, the club also played at the Lahti Stadium, but it soon returned to Kisapuisto.
When the club played in the 1985–86 European Cup against FC Steaua Bucharest, they did so at the Helsinki Olympic Stadium.
During the second last season in Ykkönen, the club played at the Lahden kisapuisto stadium. The capacity of the Kisapuisto is currently 3 500 spectators.
In 1981, the city boasted with the first full size football hall, the Lahti suurhalli, which made it possible for footballers to practise during the winter.
Other teams
Kuusysi became well known for its good work with youth teams. During 1975–1982 the club's youth teams won 16 medals in the series they played. In addition to this, young footballers from Kuusysi played in the boys' and girls' national teams. When the men's team was discontinued, all resources were concentrated in the youth teams. In 2001 Kuusysi was awarded the "Young Finland Seal" for its youth work.
In 1977 a sister club, Palloseiskat ('Little Sevens') was founded, so that those youngsters, who did not make the first team, could have a chance to play. At the same time, the youth work was assigned to a section of its own, which made it easier to run the club and to its economic side.
The women's team was started in the autumn of 1971. Three years later the financial situation of the club got worse, and the women's team was transferred to Lahden Sampo. In the 1980s and 1990s the Kuusysi Women's Team played on five occasions in top-flight women's football in Finland, but each time they were relegated back to Women's Ykkönen. The latest promotion to the Women's League took place in 2007. However this stint in top flight in 2008 again ended in relegation.
FC City Stars
In 2001 FC Lahti had discontinued its second team, FC Pallo-Lahti. Both Kuusysi and Reipas wanted to have a team that would play in Kakkonen, so that those young players who were too old for the youth teams would have a team in which to play. However, during that year FC Lahti showed a loss, and they could not finance the operation of this kind of a team. Therefore, in the autumn of 2006, Kuusysi incorporated another Lahti team the FC City Stars into its functions. FC Lahti and FC City Stars made a farm team contract, and thus FC City Stars acquired a number of players with experience from top-flight Finnish football. The contract at first was to last until 2008, but the clubs decided to extend it further. City Stars was discontinued in 2010, when Kuusysi took its place in men's competitions.
Rivalries
In the eyes of its supporters, the main rival for Kuusysi was the other big club from Lahti, Reipas. The Lahti derbies were always great events. In the 1980s, however, Kuusysi was so much better, and therefore the players did not get too excited about these matches. For them it was more important to play when they faced HJK Helsinki.
Finnish internationals
The following list consists of players who have played for Kuusysi boys' or men's teams and have later played in the Finnish national team.
Men's team in the 2016 season
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Dual Registration with FC Lahti
Managers
Between 1934 and 1952, Kuusysi had several player-managers. Among them were e.g. Erik Tuuha, Juuso Lampila, Veikko Raviniemi and Erkki Kaarivuo. When the club played under the name of Upon Pallo, the directors of the club had the say in who would play for the club, and the managers just had to accept this situation. The most accomplished manager of the club has been Keijo Voutilainen, under whose guidance the club won three Finnish championships.
Statistics
Players
* Only Mestaruussarja and Veikkausliiga matches included.
Honours
Finnish championship (5)
1982, 1984, 1986, 1989, 1991
Finnish championship runners-up (silver) (4)
1987, 1988, 1990, 1992
Finnish Cup (2)
1983, 1987
Kuusysi in European competitions
''*Q = Preliminary round; 1R = First round; 2R = Second round; QF = Quarter-finals; a.e.t. = After extra time
Upon Pallo and Kuusysi record on tier 1 and tier 2 in Finland
Sources
References
External links
Kuusysi official homepages
Football clubs in Finland
Association football clubs established in 1934
Sport in Lahti
1934 establishments in Finland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1995 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1995 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – John Major (Conservative)
Parliament – 51st
Events
January
1 January
Fred West, the 53-year-old Gloucester builder charged with killing twelve women and children (including two of his own daughters), is found to have hanged himself in his cell at Winson Green Prison, Birmingham. He was due to go on trial this year, along with his 41-year-old wife Rosemary, who is charged with ten murders.
South Korean industrial giant Daewoo announces plans to build a new car factory in the United Kingdom within the next few years, costing up to £350,000,000 and creating new jobs.
10 January – The British transfer fee record is broken when Manchester United sign striker Andy Cole from Newcastle United in a deal valued at £7,000,000.
20 January – The first MORI poll of 1995 shows that the Conservative Party have cut Labour's lead in the polls from 39 points to 29.
25 January – Eric Cantona, the French international forward, assaults a spectator after being sent off while playing for Manchester United against Crystal Palace in the FA Premier League.
27 January – Manchester United confirm that Eric Cantona will not play for the first team for the rest of the current football season.
February
1 February – New domestic electrical appliances must be supplied with an appropriately fused pre-wired plug.
2 February – Tennis legend Fred Perry dies aged 85 in hospital in Melbourne, Australia, following a fall.
7 February – Rumbelows, the electrical goods retailer and former sponsors of the Football League Cup, closes its 311 stores with the loss of more than 3,000 jobs.
14 February – Sizewell B nuclear power station, the UK's only commercial pressurised water reactor power station, is first synchronised with the National Grid.
15 February
The manufacturing sector has reported its biggest rise in employment since the Conservatives first came to power sixteen years earlier, although the national unemployment rate rose slightly in January, still being in excess 2.5 million - it has not been below this level for more than three years.
The England football team's friendly match against the Republic of Ireland in Dublin is abandoned due to the behaviour of a small number of English fans, believed to be members of far-right activist groups.
16 February – Neil Kinnock, former Leader of the Labour Party, resigns from Parliament after twenty-five years to take up a new role as a European Commissioner, sparking a by-election in his Islwyn constituency in South Wales. Don Touhig retains the seat for Labour, with nearly 70% of the vote.
17 February – The famous MG sports car brand, not seen on a volume sports car since 1980, is revived when the Rover Group announces the new MGF sports car which will go on sale in September this year.
19 February – Sir Nicholas Fairbairn, the Conservative MP for Perth and Kinross, dies in office aged 61.
21 February – George Graham, who has won six major trophies including two league titles in nearly a decade as manager of Arsenal F.C., is sacked over allegations that he accepted illegal payments from an agent when signing two players in 1992.
24 February – The Football Association bans Eric Cantona from football for eight months, meaning that he will not be able to play competitively until after 30 September.
26 February – Barings Bank, the UK's oldest merchant bank, collapses following $1,400,000,000 of losses by rogue trader, Nick Leeson.
28 February – The Diary of Bridget Jones column first published in The Independent.
March
9 March – Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visit Northern Ireland for the first time since the IRA and Loyalist ceasefire which came into force last year.
20 March – The Queen arrives in Cape Town for the first royal visit to South Africa in nearly fifty years.
23 March – Eric Cantona is sentenced to fourteen days imprisonment at Croydon Crown Court for his assault on a Crystal Palace fan two months ago. He remains free on bail pending an appeal against his sentence, but if this is unsuccessful he will be the first footballer to be jailed in Britain for an on-field offence. 39-year-old former Scotland winger Davie Cooper dies aged 39 after suffering a brain haemorrhage.
31 March – Eric Cantona wins his appeal against his prison sentence, which is reduced to a 120-hour community service order.
April
1 April – South Korean carmaker Daewoo begins selling cars in the United Kingdom. It offers a two-model range, the Nexia and Espero, updated versions of the previous generation Vauxhall Astra and Vauxhall Cavalier.
8 April – British-born American national Nicholas Ingram, 31, is executed in Georgia for a murder committed in 1983.
16 April – PhONEday changes all telephone area dialing codes UK-wide.
May
4 May – The Conservative government's fortunes continue to decline as the local council elections see them in control of a mere eight councils, while Labour control 155 councils and the Liberal Democrats control 45. The Conservatives now have control of no councils in Wales or Scotland.
8 May – The fiftieth anniversary of VE Day is celebrated across Britain.
14 May – Blackburn Rovers become FA Premier League champions, earning them their first top division league title since 1914.
19 May – Geoffrey Dickens, the Conservative MP for Littleborough and Saddleworth, dies in office aged 63.
20 May – Everton win the FA Cup with a 1–0 win over Manchester United at Wembley Stadium.
21 May – United Kingdom BSE outbreak: First known death from variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, that of a 19-year old man; not until 20 March 1996 does the Secretary of State for Health announce that vCJD is caused by eating beef infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy.
24 May – Former Prime Minister Harold Wilson dies of cancer in London, aged 79.
25 May – Roseanna Cunningham wins the Perth by-election for the Scottish National Party, three months after the seat became vacant upon the death of the Conservative MP Sir Nicholas Fairbairn. The Conservative majority has now fallen from 21 seats to 11, in the space of three years since the last general election.
June
9 June – Andrew Richards, a 26-year-old serial sex offender of West Glamorgan, becomes the first person to be convicted of male rape under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
14 June – Pauline Clare is appointed as Chief Constable of Lancashire Constabulary, becoming the first woman to hold the office of Chief Constable.
20 June – Arsenal pay a British record fee of £7.5million for Inter Milan and Holland striker Dennis Bergkamp.
22 June – In an attempt to reassert his authority, John Major resigns as leader of the Conservative Party (but not as Prime Minister) triggering a leadership election.
23 June – The latest MORI opinion poll shows that Conservative support has reached an 18-month high of 32%, but Labour still have a 22-point lead over them.
28 June–22 August – 1995 Great Britain and Ireland heat wave: The driest summer in recorded English meteorological history, with an average EWP series of only , and also the third-hottest with an average Central England temperature of .
July
3 July – The British football transfer record fee is broken for the third time in six months when Liverpool sign striker Stan Collymore from Nottingham Forest for £8.5million.
4 July – John Major wins the Conservative Party leadership election, gaining 218 votes to John Redwood's 89.
13 July – A memorial service is held for Harold Wilson in Westminster Abbey, attended by Prince Charles, John Major, and three other living former Prime Ministers.
19 July
Pensions Act 1995 receives Royal Assent, proposing to phase in a state pension age for women at 65 (equalising it with that for men) over a ten-year period and introducing measures intended to safeguard occupational pension schemes.
Unemployment is reported to be on the rise again, though the government denies that it is pointing towards another recession.
23 July – War in Bosnia and Herzegovina: British forces sent to Sarajevo to help relieve the Siege of Sarajevo.
27 July – The Conservative government's majority is slashed further, to nine seats, as the Liberal Democrats win the Littleborough and Saddleworth seat in Lancashire, two months after it was left vacant by the death of Conservative MP Geoffrey Dickens.
30 July - A murder investigation is launched after two teenage boys, Robbie Gee and Paul Barker, are found dead near a lake in rural Cheshire. Police in North Wales begin a murder hunt after the body of seven-year-old Sophie Hook is found washed up on a beach near the Llandudno home of her uncle.
August
3 August - 30-year-old Colwyn Bay man Howard Hughes is charged with the murder of Sophie Hook, and remanded in custody.
6 August – Pubs in England are permitted to remain open throughout Sunday afternoon for the first time.
16 August – Unemployment is now at 2,315,300 – one of the lowest figures recorded in the last four years.
20 August – BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London, Europe's first traditional-style purpose-built Hindu temple (and England's largest), is inaugurated in Neasden.
26 August – Middlesbrough F.C. move into their new 30,000-seat Riverside Stadium, to replace Ayresome Park which had been their home since 1903. Their new stadium is the largest club stadium to be built in England since the 1920s.
September
2 September – Boxer Frank Bruno wins the WBC world heavyweight championship.
27 September – The BBC begins regular Digital Audio Broadcasting, from the Crystal Palace transmitting station.
October
2 October – Manchester band Oasis release their 2nd studio album (What's the Story) Morning Glory? which proves to be one of the most successful of all time.
7 October – Conservative MP Alan Howarth defects to Labour, cutting the government's majority to seven seats.
9 October – Former Prime Minister Sir Alec Douglas-Home dies aged 92 at his home in Coldstream in the Scottish Borders.
16 October – Julie Goodyear, who joined the ITV soap opera Coronation Street in 1966 and had been a regular cast member since 1970, departs from the show.
18 October – Unemployment drops below 2.3 million for the first time since 1991.
20 October – Vauxhall unveils its new Vectra range of large family hatchbacks and saloons. The Vectra, which replaces the long-running Cavalier, will be built in Luton and from next year will also be sold as an estate.
22 October – Brilliant!, an exhibition by the Young British Artists group (who also feature heavily in this year's British Art Show), opens at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, USA.
25 October – Singer Cliff Richard receives a knighthood.
31 October – The Duke of Northumberland dies aged 42 of a heart attack caused by drug abuse. He is succeeded by the current holder of the title, his younger brother.
November
16 November –
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother has a hip replacement operation. At ninety-five years of age, she is believed to be the oldest patient to undergo such surgery.
Essex teenager Leah Betts dies in hospital four days after slipping into a coma due to taking an ecstasy tablet whilst drinking large amounts of water, sparking a media crusade, backed by Leah's father and stepmother, against the drug and those supplying it.
17 November
Launch of the European Space Agency's Infrared Space Observatory including a Long Wave Spectrometer built in the UK.
The Today newspaper is discontinued after nine years in circulation.
20 November – "An Interview with HRH The Princess of Wales" an episode of Panorama, is broadcast on BBC One in which Diana, Princess of Wales, is interviewed by Martin Bashir. She discusses her adultery, depression and bulimia, her children, the media and the future of the monarchy in candid detail. An estimated 22.78 million watch the broadcast, the all-time record for a UK current affairs programme.
22 November – Rose West is found guilty of murdering ten women and children, including her 16-year-old daughter Heather and seven-year-old stepdaughter Charmaine, after a trial at Winchester Crown Court. She is sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that she is never released.
24 November – The spy James Bond returns to U.K. cinemas six years after Licence to Kill, for the seventeenth film GoldenEye, with Irish actor Pierce Brosnan playing the part of Bond, filmed at the newly created Leavesden Studios.
28 November – Budget: Chancellor Kenneth Clarke cuts the basic level of income tax to 24p in the pound.
30 November – President of the United States Bill Clinton visits Northern Ireland.
December
2 December – "Rogue trader" Nick Leeson is jailed for six-and-a-half years in Singapore on a double fraud charge relating to the recent financial collapse of Barings Bank.
8 December – Head teacher Philip Lawrence is murdered in London.
10 December – Joseph Rotblat wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
13 December – A riot takes place in Brixton, London.
20 December – The Queen writes to the Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) three years after their separation, urging them to divorce as soon as possible.
29 December – The Conservative majority now stands at a mere five seats following the defection of MP Emma Nicholson to the Liberal Democrats.
30 December – Altnaharra in the Scottish Highlands matches the lowest temperature UK Weather Record at −27.2 °C (−17.0 °F).
Undated
Contingent fee litigation permitted in the Courts of England and Wales.
1% of the UK population (some 600,000 people) now have internet access.
AMCO Burglar Alarm Company is founded.
Publications
Martin Amis's novel The Information.
Iain Banks' novel Whit.
Pat Barker's novel The Ghost Road.
Nick Hornby's novel High Fidelity.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novel Maskerade.
Philip Pullman's novel Northern Lights, first in the His Dark Materials trilogy.
Delia Smith's cookery Winter Collection.
Barry Unsworth's novel Morality Play.
Births
January
January – Kane Haysman, footballer
1 January – Adam Campbell, footballer
5 January – Tom John, footballer
4 January – Adam Webster, footballer
7 January – Jessica Judd, runner
8 January
Kyle Edmund, South Africa-born tennis player
Stephen Hendrie, footballer
Romello Nangle, footballer
13 January
Steven Brisbane, footballer
Eros Vlahos, actor
16 January – Sam Long, footballer
18 January – Tommy O'Sullivan, footballer
20 January – Calum Chambers, footballer
23 January – Clifford Newby-Harris, footballer
25 January – Joel Logan, footballer
26 January – Lewis Small, footballer
28 January – Mimi-Isabella Cesar, rhythmic gymnast
29 January – Germain Burton, cyclist
30 January – Jack Laugher, diver
February
1 February – Richard Wisker, actor
2 February – Paul Digby, footballer
6 February
Jasper Johns, footballer
Jack Shore, mixed martial artist
7 February
Ashleigh Butler, dog trainer
Tom Glynn-Carney, actor
10 February – Harry Finch, cricketer
11 February – Luke Humphries, darts player
12 February – Reece Hales, footballer
13 February
Alex Mowatt, footballer
Connor Waldon, footballer
Craig Watson, footballer
18 February
Mitchell Oxborrow, footballer
Kimberley Reed, athlete
19 February
Ryan Finnie, footballer
Dylan McLaughlin, footballer
23 February – Rory Elrick, actor
24 February – Jacob Murphy, footballer
26 February – Liam Fairhurst, charity fundraiser (died 2009)
March
1 March – Danny Mullen, footballer
2 March – Joe Hanks, footballer
4 March – Bill Milner, actor
12 March – Forrayah Bass, footballer
20 March – Harry Lee, footballer
22 March – Dafydd Howells, rugby union player
27 March - Olivia Fergusson, women footballer
29 March – Joshua Sinclair-Evans, actor
30 March – Tao Geoghegan Hart, road racing cyclist
April
9 April – Coll Donaldson, footballer
11 April – Siobhan Cattigan, rugby union player (died 2021)
12 April – Harry Middleton, footballer
14 April – Alan Frizzell, footballer
15 April – Nick Awford, footballer
16 April
Poppy Lee Friar, actress
Josh Meade, footballer
Ross M. Stewart, footballer
17 April – Will Hughes, footballer
21 April – Josh Adams, rugby union player
23 April
Callum O'Dowda, footballer
Kelly Simm, gymnast
25 April – Lewis Hornby, footballer
30 April – Drey Wright, footballer
May
4 May – Alex Lawther, actor
9 May – Beth Mead, footballer
14 May – Fox Jackson-Keen, actor, dancer and singer
18 May – Craig Sibbald, footballer
20 May – Brandon Zibaka, footballer
24 May – Prince Joseph Wenzel of Liechtenstein
25 May – Jamie Allen, footballer
30 May – Jonah Hauer-King, actor
June
June – Arran Fernandez, student
1 June - Charlotte Jordan, actor
5 June
Beckii Cruel, dancer and singer
Ross Wilson, tennis player
8 June
Bessie Cursons, actress
Tom Grennan, singer
12 June – Hannah Starling, diver
16 June
Jake Dennis, racing driver
Oliver Lines, snooker player
17 June – Richie Fallows, squash player
20 June – Behzinga, Youtuber
22 June – Jack Lynch, footballer
23 June – Lauren Aquilina, singer–songwriter
25 June - Asya Safa, Model
29 June – Tyler Harvey, footballer
30 June – Declan John, footballer
July
5 July – Baily Cargill, footballer
7 July – Cameron Dawson, footballer
9 July – Georgie Henley, actress
12 July – Luke Shaw, footballer
15 July
Matt Grimes, footballer
Joseph N'Guessan, footballer
16 July – Kortney Hause, footballer
23 July – Faryl Smith, singer
26 July
Holly Bodimeade, actress
Darren Petrie, footballer
28 July – Ben Watton, actor
August
2 August – Vikkstar123, Youtuber
4 August – Chris Sutherland, footballer
5 August – Leo Chambers, footballer
11 August – Ben Davies, footballer
17 August – Alex Skeel, football coach and domestic violence survivor
22 August – Dua Lipa, singer and songwriter
23 August – Cameron Norrie, tennis player
24 August – Cammy Smith, Scottish footballer
29 August – Shaquille Hunter, footballer
31 August – Ceallach Spellman, actor
September
1 September – Dannielle Khan, cyclist
5 September – Dominic Sibley, cricketer
7 September – George Williams, footballer
10 September – Jack Grealish, footballer
13 September – Robbie Kay, actor
20 September
Kirsty Howard, charity fundraiser (died 2015)
Rob Holding, footballer
24 September – Conor McGrandles, footballer
26 September – Hayley Jones, racing cyclist
27 September – Ryan Haynes, footballer
30 September – Harry Stott, actor
October
5 October – Diego De Girolamo, footballer
12 October – Jordan Howe, athlete
28 October – Wesley Burns, footballer
November
1 November – Nick D'Aloisio, Australia-born entrepreneur, computer programmer and designer
6 November – Bradley Tarbuck, footballer
9 November – Finn Cole, actor
13 November – Lucy Fallon, actress
16 November – Rolando Aarons, footballer
22 November – Declan McDaid, footballer
28 November
Emily Benham, mountain bike orienteering champion
Libby Rees, author
29 November – Siobhan-Marie O'Connor, swimmer
December
2 December – Kalvin Phillips, footballer
4 December – Dina Asher-Smith, sprinter
7 December – Jaanai Gordon, footballer
8 December – Jordon Ibe, footballer
12 December – Mark O'Hara, footballer
16 December – Ryan Gauld, footballer
19 December – Elliot Evans, singer
27 December – Laurence Belcher, actor
Full date unknown
Tex Jacks, actor
Joshua Pascoe, actor
Deaths
January
1 January – Fred West, serial killer (born 1941) (suicide by hanging while in custody)
2 January – Henry Graham Sharp, figure skater (born 1917)
4 January – Robert Latham, editor and scholar (born 1912)
5 January – Somerset de Chair, author, politician and poet (born 1911)
7 January
Harry Golombek, chess grandmaster (born 1911)
Larry Grayson, comedian and gameshow host (born 1923)
9 January – Peter Cook, comedy actor, satirist, writer and comedian (born 1937)
11 January
John Gere, art historian (born 1921)
Peter Pratt, opera singer (born 1923)
13 January
Richard Causton, businessman and author on Buddhism (born 1920)
David Looker, bobsledder (born 1913)
Mervyn Stockwood, clergyman and former Bishop of Southwark (born 1913)
14 January
Mark Finch, cinema promoter (born 1961); suicide
Sir Alexander Gibson, conductor (born 1926)
Stafford Somerfield, newspaper editor (born 1911)
17 January – Evadne Baker, actress (born 1937, South Africa)
18 January – Joseph Kagan, Baron Kagan, industrialist (born 1915, Russian Empire)
19 January – John Pearson, 3rd Viscount Cowdray, peer and polo player (born 1910)
21 January – Kenneth Budd, mural artist (born 1925)
22 January
Stuart Davies, aerospace engineer (born 1908)
Christopher Palmer, composer (born 1946)
26 January
Louis Heren, journalist (born 1919)
Alaric Jacob, writer and journalist (born 1909)
29 January – Dickie Burnell, rower (born 1917)
30 January – Gerald Durrell, naturalist, zookeeper, author and television presenter (born 1925 in British India)
February
1 February – Jill Phipps, animal rights activist (born 1964); crushed by lorry
2 February
David Kindersley, typeface designer (born 1915)
Fred Perry, tennis player and three times Wimbledon champion (born 1909)
Donald Pleasence, actor (born 1919)
4 February
David Alexander, singer (born 1938)
Godfrey Brown, Olympic athlete (born 1915)
5 February
Jimmy Allen, footballer and football manager (born 1909)
Frank Costin, automotive engineer (born 1920)
Frederick Riddle, violist (born 1912)
7 February – Helen Wallis, map curator at the British Museum (born 1924)
8 February – Rachel Thomas, Welsh actress (born 1909)
12 February – Robert Bolt, writer (born 1924)
14 February
Roger de Grey, artist and president of the Royal Academy (1984–1993) (born 1918)
Nigel Finch, film director and filmmaker (born 1949)
15 February
Seymour Berry, 2nd Viscount Camrose, peer, politician and newspaper proprietor (born 1909)
Francis Taylor, Baron Taylor of Hadfield, businessman, founder of Taylor Woodrow (born 1905)
17 February – Thelma Hulbert, artist (born 1913)
18 February – Denny Cordell, record producer (born 1943)
19 February – Nicholas Fairbairn, Scottish politician (born 1933)
22 February – Nicholas Pennell, actor (born 1938)
23 February
James Herriot, veterinary surgeon and writer (born 1916)
Norman Hunter, writer (born 1899)
25 February – Terence Weil, cellist (born 1921)
26 February – Jack Clayton, film director (born 1921)
28 February – Walter Allen, literary critic and novelist (born 1911)
March
2 March – Vivian MacKerrell, actor (born 1944)
5 March
Marguerite Kelsey, artist's model (born 1909)
Vivian Stanshall, singer-songwriter, musician and poet (born 1943); accidentally killed
7 March – Ivan Craig, Scottish actor (born 1912)
11 March
James Scott-Hopkins, politician (born 1921)
Myfanwy Talog, Welsh actress (born 1944)
15 March – Fred Mulley, politician, lawyer and economist (born 1918)
16 March – Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat, Scottish peer and World War II Commando (born 1911)
17 March
Donald Baverstock, television producer (born 1924)
Ronnie Kray, jailed crime leader (born 1933)
18 March – Hugh Kelsey, writer on bridge (born 1926)
20 March – Sir James Kilfedder, Northern Irish politician (born 1928)
21 March – Robert Urquhart, actor (born 1922)
22 March – Peter Woods, journalist (born 1930)
23 March
Alan Barton, singer (Black Lace) (born 1953); accidentally killed
Davie Cooper, footballer (born 1956)
24 March – Joseph Needham, biochemist, science historian and sinologist (born 1900)
25 March
James Gardner, designer (born 1907)
Stuart Milner-Barry, chess player and World War II codebreaker (born 1906)
29 March – John Terry, film financier (born 1913)
April
1 April – Lucie Rie, ceramicist (born 1902, Austria-Hungary)
3 April – David Herbert, socialite and writer (born 1908)
4 April
Richard Adrian, 2nd Baron Adrian, peer and psychologist (born 1927)
Kenny Everett, comic broadcast presenter (born 1944) (AIDS-related)
6 April – Trevor Park, lecturer and politician (born 1927)
7 April
Peter Brinson, writer and lecturer on dance (born 1920)
Nicholas Ingram, first British citizen to be executed by the electric chair in the United States (born c. 1964)
10 April – Glyn Jones, Welsh writer (born 1905)
12 April – Chris Pyne, jazz trombonist, brother of Mick Pyne (born 1939)
14 April – Michael Fordham, psychologist (born 1909)
16 April – Arthur English, actor and comedian (born 1919)
19 April – Neil Paterson, author (born 1915)
20 April – Bob Wyatt, former cricketer (born 1901)
21 April – Tessie O'Shea, singer and actress (born 1913)
26 April
Hugh Morton, Baron Morton of Shuna, lawyer and politician (born 1930)
Peter Wright, scientist and MI5 intelligence officer (born 1916)
27 April – Albert Brown, cricketer and snooker player (born 1911)
28 April – Walter Tracy, type designer, typographer and writer (born 1914)
30 April – Michael Graham Cox, actor (born 1938)
May
2 May – Sir Michael Hordern, actor (born 1911)
5 May
Alastair Pilkington, engineer and businessman, inventor of the float glass process (born 1920)
Sir Anthony Wagner, herald and Clarenceux King of Arms (born 1908)
7 May
Katharine Banham, psychologist (born 1897)
Ray Buckton, trade unionist (born 1922)
10 May – Harold Berens, actor and comedian (born 1903)
11 May – John Phillips, actor (born 1914)
12 May – Arnold Goodman, Baron Goodman, lawyer and political advisor (born 1913)
14 May – Jessy Blackburn, aviation pioneer (born 1894)
15 May – Eric Porter, actor (born 1928)
16 May – Raymond Lyttleton, mathematician and theoretical astronomer (born 1911)
17 May – Geoffrey Dickens, politician (born 1931)
18 May – Robert Harris, actor (born 1900)
22 May – Robert Flemyng, actor (born 1912)
23 May
Mick Pyne, jazz pianist, brother of Chris Pyne (born 1940)
Geoffrey Waldegrave, 12th Earl Waldegrave, peer (born 1905)
24 May – Harold Wilson, politician, Prime Minister (1964–70 & 1974–76) (born 1916)
25 May – Jack Allen, actor (born 1907)
28 May
Helen Ballard, horticulturalist (born 1908)
Jean Muir, fashion designer (born 1928)
29 May – Sir Archibald Russell, aerospace engineer (born 1904)
30 May
Ted Drake, footballer and football manager (born 1912)
Lofty England, engineer and motor company manager (born 1911)
Philip Sherrard, author and translator (born 1922)
31 May – Roy Beddington, painter, illustrator, poet, writer on fishing, and journalist (born 1910)
June
1 June – Colin Ronan, author and science historian (born 1920)
3 June – Dilys Powell, film critic and travel writer (born 1901)
9 June – Frank Chacksfield, musician and orchestral conductor (born 1914)
10 June – Bruno Lawrence, British-born New Zealand actor (born 1941)
15 June – Charles Bennett, screenwriter (born 1899)
17 June – David Ennals, Baron Ennals, politician and human rights activist (born 1922)
18 June – Arthur Howard, actor (born 1910)
19 June
Murray Dickie, opera singer (born 1924)
Richard Pape, writer and World War II escapee (born 1916)
Peter Townsend, RAF officer and lover of Princess Margaret (born 1914)
21 June – Tristan Jones, sailor and author (born 1929)
26 June – Edgar Williams, Army officer and historian (born 1912)
28 June – Donald Sinclair, veterinary surgeon (born 1911); suicide
29 June – Noel Dyson, actress (born 1916)
July
2 July
Gervase Jackson-Stops, architectural historian and journalist (born 1947)
Geraint Morgan, lawyer and politician (born 1920)
3 July – Bert Hardy, photographer (born 1913)
7 July – Geoffrey Freeman Allen, railway writer (born 1922)
8 July – Dorothy Stanley-Turner, racing driver (born 1916)
9 July – Vera Thomas, table tennis player (born 1920)
10 July – Sir Hugh Dundas, World War II fighter pilot and television executive (born 1920)
12 July
Michael Clegg, naturalist and television presenter (born 1933)
Gordon Flemyng, television and film director (born 1934)
Sean Mayes, pianist and writer (born 1945)
John Yudkin, psychologist and nutritionist (born 1910)
13 July
Sir Varyl Begg, Royal Navy admiral (born 1908)
Peter Morrison, politician (born 1944)
16 July – Stephen Spender, poet and writer (born 1909)
19 July
Michael Andrews, artist (born 1928)
Sydney Lipton, dance band leader (born 1905)
21 July – Elleston Trevor, novelist and playwright (born 1920)
22 July
Daniel Dixon, 2nd Baron Glentoran, Northern Irish soldier and politician (born 1912)
Harold Larwood, fast bowler (cricket) (born 1904)
24 July
Jerry Lordan, singer-songwriter (born 1934)
George Rodger, photojournalist (born 1908)
25 July – Janice Elliott, novelist and journalist (born 1931)
28 July – Susie Cooper, ceramicist (born 1902)
30 July – Harry L. Shorto, linguist (born 1919)
August
2 August – Thomas Brimelow, Baron Brimelow, diplomat (born 1915)
3 August
Ida Lupino, actress and director (born 1914)
Alan Mitchell, dendrologist (born 1922)
5 August – Mark Colton, racing driver (born 1961); killed while racing
6 August – Harold Lever, Baron Lever of Manchester, lawyer and politician (born 1914)
7 August
Brigid Brophy, novelist (born 1929)
Dursley McLinden, actor (born 1965 in the Isle of Man) (AIDS-related)
10 August – Peter Williams, dance critic (born 1914)
11 August – Herbert Sumsion, organist (born 1899)
12 August - Raymond Sandover, British Brigadier who served in the Australian Army (born 1910)
13 August – Alison Hargreaves, mountain climber (born 1962); died while descending
15 August – Humphrey Moore, pacifist and journalist (born 1909)
17 August
Marjorie Sykes, educator and peace activist (born 1905)
David Warrilow, actor (born 1934)
19 August – Johnny Carey, footballer and football manager (born 1919)
21 August – Anatole Fistoulari, orchestral conductor (born 1907, Russian Empire)
23 August – Arthur Holt, politician (born 1914)
24 August – Jason McRoy, mountain bike racer (born 1971); road accident
25 August – John Brunner, science fiction writer (born 1934)
27 August – Carl Giles, cartoonist (born 1916)
29 August – Harry Broadhurst, World War II air ace (born 1905)
31 August – David Farrar, actor (born 1908)
September
3 September – Mary Adshead, painter, illustrator and designer (born 1904)
5 September – Francis Showering, brewer, founder of Babycham (born 1912)
8 September – Peter Baxandall, audio engineer and electronics engineer (born 1921)
9 September – Ida Carroll, musician and composer (born 1905)
10 September – Derek Meddings, special effects designer (born 1931)
11 September – Kieth O'dor, motor racing driver (born 1962); killed while racing
12 September
Jeremy Brett, actor (born 1933)
Tom Helmore, actor (born 1904)
14 September – A. E. Wilder-Smith, organic chemist (born 1915)
16 September – Michael Balfour, historian and civil servant (born 1908)
17 September – Catherine Cobb, jeweller (born 1903)
18 September – Donald Davie, poet and literary critic (born 1922)
19 September – Sir Rudolf Peierls, physicist (born 1907, German Empire)
20 September – Monica Maurice, industrialist (born 1908)
21 September – William Murray, educationist (born 1912)
25 September – Dave Bowen, footballer and football manager (born 1928)
26 September – Lynette Roberts, poet and novelist (born 1909)
28 September – Albert Johanneson, South African born, British based footballer (born 1940)
29 September
Alfred Felix Landon Beeston, Orientalist (born 1911)
Susan Fleetwood, actress (born 1944)
30 September – Frederick Warner, diplomat (born 1918)
October
1 October – Rene Cloke, artist (born 1904)
2 October – Elizabeth Jane Lloyd, artist and art teacher (born 1928)
5 October – Arthur Barbosa, artist (born 1908)
6 October – Anthony Newlands, actor (born 1925)
8 October
John Cairncross, Scottish-born public servant, spy for the Soviet Union, academic and writer (born 1913)
Sir Geoffrey Warnock, philosopher (born 1923)
9 October – Alec Douglas-Home, politician, Prime Minister (1963–64) (born 1903)
12 October – Gary Bond, actor and singer (born 1940)
14 October – Edith Pargeter, writer (born 1913)
16 October – Richard Caldicot, actor (born 1908)
18 October
Bryan Johnson, actor and singer (born 1926)
Ted Whiteaway, racing driver (born 1928)
20 October – Eric Birley, archaeologist and historian (born 1908)
22 October
Kingsley Amis, writer (born 1922)
Ralph Whitlock, farmer, conservationist and author (born 1914)
23 October – Gavin Ewart, poet (born 1916)
24 October
Marion Adnams, painter, printmaker and draughtswoman (born 1898)
Ronnie Selby Wright, Church of Scotland minister (born 1908)
30 October
Brian Easdale, composer (born 1909)
Paul Ferris, composer (born 1941); suicide
31 October
Alan Bush, composer, pianist and conductor (born 1900)
Derek Enright, politician (born 1935)
Henry Percy, 11th Duke of Northumberland, peer (born 1953)
November
1 November
Bill Hudson, Army officer in World War II (born 1910)
Desmond Shawe-Taylor, music critic (born 1907)
3 November
Wallas Eaton, actor (born 1917)
John Orchard, actor (born 1928)
4 November
Marti Caine, comedian and actress (born 1945)
Paul Eddington, actor (born 1927)
7 November
Andrea Adams, journalist and broadcaster (born 1946)
Felicity Winifred Carter, author and playwright (born 1906)
9 November – F. G. Emmison, archivist and historian (born 1907)
12 November – Sir Robert Stephens, actor (born 1931)
14 November – Jack Holt, boat designer (born 1906)
15 November – Billy Hughes, educationist and politician (born 1914)
16 November
Leah Betts, high-profile victim of the drug ecstasy (born 1977)
Gwyn A. Williams, historian (born 1925)
18 November
John G. Collier, chemical engineer (born 1935)
Miron Grindea, literary journalist (born 1909, Romania)
20 November – Robin Gandy, mathematician (born 1919)
21 November
Peter Grant, manager of the band Led Zeppelin (born 1935)
Wilfred White, equestrian (born 1904)
22 November – Edna Deane, dancer and choreographer (born 1905)
24 November
Malcolm Munthe, soldier, writer and curator (born 1910)
Leslie O'Brien, Baron O'Brien of Lothbury, banker, Governor of the Bank of England (1966–1973) (born 1908)
25 November – Alan Nicholls, English football goalkeeper (born 1973)
26 November
Sydney D. Bailey, author and pacifist (born 1916)
Charles Warrell, teacher and creator of the I-Spy books (born 1889)
December
3 December – Jimmy Jewel, actor (born 1909)
5 December
Charles Evans, mountaineer (born 1918)
Keith Runcorn, geophysicist (born 1922)
6 December – Trevor Key, photographer (born 1947)
7 December
James Derek Birchall, chemist (born 1930); road accident
Kathleen Harrison, actress (born 1892)
8 December – Philip Lawrence, school headteacher (born 1947); murdered
9 December
Hugh Clegg, academic (born 1920)
Benny Lee, actor (born 1916)
Gillian Rose, philosopher and author (born 1947)
10 December
Sir Godfrey Agnew, civil servant (born 1913)
Mary Lascelles, literary scholar (born 1900)
Lavinia Fitzalan-Howard, Duchess of Norfolk, noblewoman (born 1916)
11 December – Arthur Mullard, actor and singer (born 1910)
12 December – Sir David Lightbown, politician (born 1932)
14 December – Constance Tipper, metallurgist and crystallographer (born 1894)
17 December – Peter Warlock, magician (born 1904)
18 December – Brian Brockless, organist and composer (born 1926)
20 December – John Jacques, Baron Jacques, businessman and politician (born 1905)
21 December – Trenchard Cox, museum director (born 1905)
22 December
David Land, impresario and theatre producer (born 1918)
James Meade, economist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1907)
23 December – Patric Knowles, actor (born 1911)
27 December – Jeremy John Beadle, critic, writer and broadcaster (born 1956)
29 December – Harold Collison, Baron Collison, trade unionist (born 1909)
31 December – David Anderson, politician, lawyer and judge (born 1916)
See also
1995 in British music
1995 in British television
List of British films of 1995
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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5135539
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edie%20Britt
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Edie Britt
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Edie Britt is a fictional character created by television producer and screenwriter Marc Cherry for the ABC television series Desperate Housewives. Nicollette Sheridan portrayed Edie from her debut in the pilot episode of the series until the character's death in the fifth season.
Within the series, Edie lived at 4362 Wisteria Lane in Fairview. Edie was a real estate agent. She was married three times; to Charles McLain (with whom she had a son, Travers), Umberto Rothwell, and Dave Williams. Throughout her time on the series, she also had numerous relationships with the ex-husbands or former lovers of other characters.
Sheridan's portrayal of the character earned her a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress.
Development and casting
The character Edie Britt was a series regular for the first 5 seasons, despite originally being conceived as a recurring character. Actress Nicollette Sheridan, who originally auditioned for Bree Van de Kamp, one of the series' more prominent roles, was cast in the role in February 2004. On August 11, Sheridan was announced to have joined the main cast for the series' first season, the thirteenth regular cast member to do so. Despite proving popular with fans and critics, Sheridan's role remained somewhat minimal in the series' first two seasons. Series creator Marc Cherry insisted that Edie served "only as a spoiler to complicate the other women's lives." Although Sheridan thought of Edie as the fifth main housewife—in addition to Susan Mayer, Bree Van De Kamp, Lynette Scavo, and Gabrielle Solis—the opening credits only pictured the other four women. Additionally, Cherry shared that his goal was to have the central four women remain in the series.
However, Marcia Cross' maternity leave caused Bree to be absent in several episodes of the third season. Edie's character was elevated in prominence, providing the fourth concurrent storyline for the episodes. During this time, the character's "layers are peeled away and the character is developed on a deeper level than has been previously explored." Despite Cross' return, Edie maintained a more important role throughout seasons four and five until the character's death.
Departure
In February 2009, it was announced that Sheridan would be leaving the show following her character's death, which would involve a car accident and electrical wire. Cherry had confirmed the death of several fan favorites at the beginning of the series' fifth season in September 2008. Rumors of on-set problems with Sheridan and her squabbles with Cherry reportedly led to her departure. Sheridan commented that killing Edie "was a risky decision that could have devastating ramifications," and admitted to feeling ignored by Cherry while on the series. Cherry alleges that the reason behind Edie's death was to cut costs from the series. The series reportedly saved an estimated $100,000 to $200,000 per episode without the cost of Sheridan's salary. In April 2010, Sheridan filed a lawsuit against Cherry, alleging wrongful dismissal and assault and battery, among five other counts. The following June, Sheridan filed an amended claim, clarifying that the alleged assault was a "light tap," but reaffirmed her stance that her contract was wrongfully terminated.
On August 7, 2011, after the announcement that Desperate Housewives would be concluding at the end of its 8th season, Marc Cherry hinted that he may ask Nicollette Sheridan back for the series finale, "to pay homage to everyone who has been on the show", including Edie and without addressing Sheridan's lawsuit. However, while being interviewed on NBC's Today the following day, the actress firmly denied her comeback on Wisteria Lane, saying "That's news to me. [...] I had an amazing time playing that character. I loved her dearly, but they killed her! She's dead."
Storylines
Past
Edie Britt was born in 1967. Her father left her mother for another woman with a daughter when Edie was 16 years old (year 1983). Edie has a sister, and brother who died from a drug overdose. Edie's mother - Ilene (K Callan) - liked to steal and drink, so much so that she ended up in prison. The court gave the Britt siblings a tough woman, curator Mrs. Muntz, to care for them. Mrs. Muntz was much worse than their mother, and Edie was very happy when Ilene was released from prison. As a teenager, Edie spend her time with the "freaks" hanging out by the loading docks, where she would smoke with them. Ilene died when Edie was an adult, alone in a truck.
Edie lost her virginity at a young age, ostensibly because of the lack of a father in her life. She married Dr. Charles McLain (Greg Evigan), with whom she had a son, Travers (Jake Cherry), in 1998. According to Edie, the "only thing [she] learned from Charles was bluffing, because he was bad in bed", and they divorced. She gave Travers up to his father, as she believed she would be a bad mother, but they agreed that she would visit their son from time to time. In 2002 she married gym instructor Umberto Rothwell (Matt Cedeño). In 2003 they moved to 4360 Wisteria Lane and the couple divorced one year later, after she found out that he is gay.
Season 1
Edie is introduced as a serial divorcée, with two marriages behind her at the beginning of the show. Martha Huber (Christine Estabrook) tells Susan that she will be babysitting Edie's son, although he does not appear until season 3. Edie and Susan Mayer are attracted to new neighbor Mike Delfino (James Denton), creating tension between them which culminates in Susan accidentally burning down Edie's house. Edie is upset when Martha is murdered, and proves to be the only Wisteria Lane resident who wants to give her a proper burial. Susan admits to Edie that she burned her house down and Edie uses Susan's guilt to join the housewives' poker group. Edie continues to hit on Mike, however he is more interested in Susan. Edie is upset when Susan and Mike move in together. Edie tries to get the women to convince Susan that Mike is bad for her, but Susan is sure he's the one. Susan later finds out her ex-husband, Karl Mayer (Richard Burgi), cheated on her with Edie while they were married; using this knowledge, Edie and Karl start dating, increasing the tension between her and Susan.
Season 2
Edie finishes rebuilding her new house on the property of 4362 Wisteria Lane and starts dating Karl, Susan's ex-husband. Edie and Susan have many confrontations as Susan tries to deal with some minor jealousy issues. Edie later discovers a wedding ring in Karl's briefcase and suspects Karl plans to propose. In actuality, the ring is because Karl has temporarily remarried Susan so she can access his health insurance to pay for a splenectomy. Susan tells Karl that Edie thinks he's going to propose so he does. Susan's boyfriend, Ron McCready, tells Edie about her and Karl's sham marriage. Angry with them for lying to her, Edie punishes Karl and Susan by deciding Karl will throw her a lavish wedding and Susan will be burdened with the arrangements. However, one morning, Edie wakes up to find Karl leaving permanently, and also discovers that Karl slept with another woman while they were engaged, and breaks the news to the other housewives. Edie is extremely upset and Susan, who feels guilty about unknowingly being the "other woman", tries to make her feel better. Edie begins bonding with Susan, making her feel even more guilty. Eventually, Susan writes Edie a confession letter admitting the truth. Feeling betrayed, Edie retaliates by burning down Susan's house. After discovering Edie was responsible, Susan tries to get a confession out of her whilst wearing a wire, leading to a fight when Edie realizes. Trying to catch Susan, Edie is badly stung by yellowjackets. Susan feels guilty when Edie is hospitalized and tells her she won't give the confession to the police, sparing Edie prison. Edie refuses to accept Susan's pity and vows to get revenge.
Season 3
In the show's third season, Edie declines Susan's attempts to rebuild a friendship. She is present when Mike wakes up from his coma and learns that he has retrograde amnesia and has forgotten the last two years. Edie's revenge on Susan is to take advantage of this. While "helping" Mike fill in the blanks, Edie makes him think that Susan never loved him and that they were miserable together. Edie admits that she's always had a crush on him and how hurt she was that he ignored her. Susan comes by the hospital to give Mike flowers, but catches him having sex with Edie. Edie and Mike start a relationship but Edie ends it when Mike is arrested for the murder of Monique Pollier. Edie's nephew, Austin McCann (Josh Henderson) moves in with her. He starts dating Susan's daughter, Julie Mayer, after the two of them and Edie are held hostage by Carolyn Bigsby (Laurie Metcalf) at the supermarket. Susan disapproves but Edie claims she can't do anything about it because they are in love. Julie gets Edie to pose as her mother so she can get birth control pills. Edie and Susan later catch Austin having sex with Bree's daughter, Danielle Van de Kamp. He is later forced by Orson Hodge to leave Wisteria Lane when Danielle is discovered to be pregnant with his child.
Edie's son, Travers, is introduced for the first time, having been dropped off by his father for a month-long visit. Carlos Solis develops a father/son relationship with Travers as he is constantly called on to look after him. When Edie develops romantic feelings for Carlos, she uses his relationship with Travers to her advantage and tries to seduce him, but he tells her he's not interested in her that way. They eventually sleep together and later start dating. Carlos wants to keep the affair a secret, making Edie think he still holds a torch for Gabrielle. Edie tells the girls about her and Carlos at Gabrielle's engagement party. Gabrielle is furious and demands Edie stop seeing Carlos, but Edie refuses. Gabrielle tries to get her friends to freeze out Edie, but Edie makes it difficult. Gabrielle eventually makes peace with the relationship...for now. Edie considers going for full custody of Travers to keep Carlos around, but Carlos convinces her not to. When Travers is collected by his father, Edie asks Carlos to move in with her. When he declines, Edie visits his landlady, Mrs. Simms, at her nursing home and alleges that Carlos is an addict and alcoholic who uses her home as a place to hook up with prostitutes. Mrs. Simms terminates the lease and evicts Carlos. Edie offers Carlos a place to stay, but he is quick to figure out her involvement in the process. Carlos tells Edie he doesn't love her and she tells him she could be pregnant. After they find that she isn't, she suggests he stay with her and they try for a baby but continues taking the pill, because she doesn't want a baby until he starts to love her. While looking for money in Edie's purse to pay the paper boy, Carlos discovers the pills. At Gaby's wedding, Carlos confronts Edie. She tries to apologize but is unsuccessful. At the closing scene of the season, Edie is shown with a sealed letter to her "beloved" Carlos, and hangs herself with a scarf.
Season 4
In the first episode of season 4, it transpires that Edie's suicide attempt was merely a bid for Carlos' attention. Carlos feels responsible and agrees to resume their relationship, leading Edie to discover his secret offshore bank account containing $10 million. She uses this knowledge to blackmail him, asking him to marry her, unaware that Carlos is having an affair with Gabrielle. Edie goes on to announce their engagement party, but discovers Carlos' betrayal when she, Carlos, and Gabrielle's new husband, Victor Lang (John Slattery), all suffer from crabs. Edie hires a private detective to spy on Carlos and gets pictures of him and Gabrielle sharing a passionate kiss, before telling the IRS about his offshore account. She discovers that Carlos has emptied and closed his offshore account so she turns the pictures over to Victor, knowing he will get revenge. When Victor subsequently goes missing after Gabrielle and Carlos knock him over the side of his yacht, Edie, still feeling vindictive, tells the police that Gaby may be responsible for Victor's disappearance. A tornado is about to hit Wisteria Lane and Carlos and Edie plan to disappear. Gabrielle is given a folder, giving her access to Carlos' offshore bank account. Edie and Gabrielle fight over it but lose the papers in the tornado. They are forced to take shelter together in Edie's crawl space and are able to put aside their differences for a while. Carlos is blinded in the tornado.
Edie finds out Carlos gave her fake jewelry when they were together and gets back at him by staying with him. Edie learns that Carlos' blindness is permanent, when she thought it was only temporary. Later Edie tells Gabrielle that the way she is treating Carlos is sick and that there are other women out there who would treat Carlos better. When Bree and Orson Hodge (Kyle MacLachlan) are having troubles, Edie lets Orson stay with her. Edie later shares a brief drunken kiss with Orson which is seen by Bree, who is looking for Toby the cat. Bree confronts Edie about the kiss. When Edie says it meant nothing, Bree slaps her and a full-scale war erupts between them. Bree sabotages Edie's business by hounding off potential house buyers. Edie visits Orson, who is now living at a hotel, to complain about Bree. When she enters the room, she discovers a piece of paper revealing that Bree's baby is really Austin and Danielle's. Edie threatens to tell everyone about it unless Bree does exactly what she wants. In turn, Bree tells her friends about her faked pregnancy and about Edie's threats. The housewives confront Edie, and tell her that from now on they won't be friends with her anymore and will ignore her whenever she talks to them. Afterward, Edie calls Travers, and tells him she's going to be spending a lot more time with him from now on.
Five-year jump
While off the lane, Edie starts visiting Orson while he is in prison for the hit and run of her ex-boyfriend Mike Delfino. After Bree hears that Edie has been visiting her husband, Bree goes to Edie's new house to confront her. Edie then shames Bree into being a better person. Bree doesn't tell anyone about this until she, Susan, Lynette, Gabrielle and Karen McCluskey go to bring Travers Edie's ashes. This makes Bree the only housewife to see Edie until she returns five years later.
During the five-year jump, Edie begins dating motivational speaker, Dave Williams. Edie proposes and they elope right away. Dave convinces Edie into moving back to Wisteria Lane, though oblivious to her, he has his own agenda.
Season 5
The fifth season is set five years on from the fourth-season finale. Edie returns to Wisteria Lane, five years later, a new and transformed woman. When the housewives notice the change in Edie, they pretend to resume their friendship with her. Dave is persistent in convincing Edie to get along better with her neighbors. He kidnaps Karen McCluskey's cat after she is rude to Edie, only returning him when Karen apologizes. When Karen attempts to investigate Dave's background, Edie realizes she knows very little about his past. Dave's doctor arrives in Fairview and confronts Dave at the White Horse Club, but Dave strangles him and sets fire to the building. Dave has only married Edie to have an excuse to move to Wisteria Lane and get revenge on Mike, as he and Susan were involved in a car accident that killed Dave's wife and daughter. Edie starts to notice something is off about Dave and is irritated that he doesn't show interest in her. One night she wakes up and sees Dave talking to himself. Edie wants to know why he's acting so strangely and Dave tells her he used to be married before he met Edie and that his wife died. Edie is furious he never told her about this before and throws him out of the house. When Edie is locked in a basement with Susan, they have a heart to heart chat and Susan tells Edie not to treat men like tissue and to believe in happily ever afters. After they are freed Edie goes to Dave and tells him to move back in. When Edie learns that Eli Scruggs, the neighborhood handyman, has died, she recalls how he helped her out when she was having marital problems with her ex-husband Umberto. In a flashback, while feeling insecure about her appearance after Umberto turns out to be gay, Eli reassures Edie and makes her feel better and ends up having sex with her.
While at a liquor store, Edie observes an encounter between Dave and Father Drance. Suspicious about her husband's motives, she does a research on his past after Father Drance calls her Mrs. Dash. Determined to know more about her husband's past, Edie goes to the local newspaper archives for information on Dave's family, only to learn that Dave had both a wife and daughter who were killed in a car crash. Later, when she asks Dave how he feels about children, he tells her that his "friend" had a daughter he loved who died in the crash and lives his life wondering what she would've looked like and how old she would've been; he also tells her that he would never have a child as it wouldn't be worth it. Edie is still determined to know a lot more about Dave's past. Upon receiving a news article on the fateful car accident and finally learning the truth about her husband's intentions, she confronts Dave when he returns home from his camping trip. As she attempts to call Mike to warn him, she is almost strangled to death by Dave. Tearful and disorientated, Edie manages to run away and drives down the lane. She almost hits Orson as he stumbles onto the road; swerving to miss him, she hits an electric post instead. Dazed and unaware that the power line had snapped and there is water underneath the car, Edie steps out. She receives an electric shock, falls to the ground and dies a few minutes later.
The housewives pay a visit to Travers (Stephen Lunsford) to announce her death and to give him her ashes. On the journey up each of the housewives and Karen McCluskey share memories of Edie. In one flashback, Susan and Edie did get along in the beginning, until Susan finds out Edie is having sex with her neighbor's husband. In another flashback, Edie takes Lynette out to help her acquire the courage to beat cancer. In another flashback, Edie tells Bree that she has been visiting Orson because Bree can't bring herself to enter the visiting room at all since he went to jail. In another flashback, Edie reveals to Gabrielle that she always knew she wouldn't live a long life, and she should live it up while she still can. However, although Edie was right, Gabrielle convinced her that in 50 years time they would still go out and still be the hottest ladies on the lane. And in a final flashback, Edie visits Karen McCluskey on the anniversary of her son's death. Edie explains that she gave her son to her ex because she wanted him to have a good life and she knew that she would have made a bad mother. Karen says she hopes she isn't making a mistake, and Edie replies "Me too". Once they arrive, however, Travers tells them that they were her closest friends and that they should spread the ashes wherever they see fit. Ultimately, her ashes are spread around Wisteria Lane. Edie was at peace about her death and had no regrets because she lived her life to the fullest and to her it was "a one of a kind life."
Edie appears briefly in "Everybody Says Don't" as a hallucination of Dave's, revealing his thoughts. Edie says that his plans to kill M.J. on the fishing trip, pretending it was an "accident" is a boring plan, and that he might as well kill M.J right then and there. She says that Susan would suffer more if she knew why M.J. died. She then says in a mocking tone that everyone would finally know what he's been going through.
References
Desperate Housewives characters
Television characters introduced in 2004
Fictional attempted suicides
Fictional real estate brokers
Fictional housewives
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5135980
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frieda%20Fromm-Reichmann
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Frieda Fromm-Reichmann
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Frieda Fromm-Reichmann ( Reichmann; October 23, 1889 in Karlsruhe, Germany – April 28, 1957 in Rockville, Maryland) was a German psychiatrist and contemporary of Sigmund Freud who immigrated to America during World War II. She was a pioneer for women in science, specifically within psychology and the treatment of schizophrenia. She is known for coining the now widely debunked term Schizophrenogenic mother. In 1948, she wrote "the schizophrenic is painfully distrustful and resentful of other people, due to the severe early warp and rejection he encountered in important people of his infancy and childhood, as a rule, mainly in a schizophrenogenic mother".
Family history
Fromm-Reichmann was born to Adolf and Klara Reichmann in Karlsruhe, German Empire in 1889. She was raised in a middle-class Orthodox Jewish family and was the oldest of three daughters; her sisters were Grete and Anna. She came from a large, supportive and impactful family. Her paternal great-grandfather had 93 grandchildren and her extended family played an important role in her life. Her mother was part of a group that established a preparatory school for girls in 1908 to prepare them for university because girls were not permitted to attend Gymnasium.
One of her aunts was instrumental in the establishment of kindergartens in Germany and one of her uncles, who owned the bank her father worked at, financed Frieda's college education. Her mother and father developed significant deafness, which Frieda would later develop as well. Due to the stresses of this impairment and the impending end of his career, Adolf died by suicide in 1925.
At age 36, Frieda began an affair with her patient, Erich Seligmann Fromm (1900-1980), who was a student of psychoanalysis and social psychology. They met at Weißer Hirsch sanatorium where Frieda analyzed Erich as part of his training. Once they fell in love, she stopped analyzing him and they married in 1926 (one year after her father's death).
Erich developed tuberculosis, which Frieda believed was a physiological expression of psychological distress. The couple agreed that Erich would move to Switzerland to undergo specialized treatment and to live apart. However, after Erich immigrated into the United States of America in 1933, he sponsored her affidavit to flee Germany after Nazi occupation in 1934. They officially divorced in 1942. Frieda never remarried and never had biological children.
Despite having no biological children, Frieda served as a "mother" figure to her patients, friends, and family. During World War II, she financially supported more than a dozen family and friends, and advocated for their safe escape from persecution by the Nazis. Although she pleaded with her sisters and mother to also emigrate to the United States, they remained in England and Palestine. She developed deep meaningful friendships with colleagues Gertrud Jacob and Hilde Bruch, loved to play piano and listen to classical music, and dote on her beloved cocker spaniels. When Gertrud Jacob fell ill also with tuberculosis, Frieda moved with her to Santa Fe, New Mexico to seek specialized treatment. Jacob died during surgery while Frieda was back in Rockville, MD. Every summer after, Frieda spent two months at her home in Santa Fe.
She had hereditary deafness and died from a heart attack in 1957 at her home at the Chestnut Lodge in Rockville, Maryland.
Her home was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2021, in recognition of her influence in the development of interpersonal psychoanalysis in the mid-20th century.
Educational and professional history
Because Adolf Reichmann had no sons, Frieda was granted privileges other Orthodox Jewish women were not allowed. Her mother, who was trained as a teacher, strongly encouraged higher education for women. Her father, who was a merchant and bank director, encouraged her to go to medical school and become a doctor. After first completing six months of "domestic science" under her mother's tutelage, Frieda attended medical school in Königsberg in 1908 as one of the first women to study medicine. She received her medical degree in 1913 and began a residency in neurology studying brain injuries with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist and psychiatrist. During World War I she was a Major in the German Army and ran a clinic for brain-injured German soldiers. She worked under Kurt Goldstein, who was her most influential teacher and mentor. Her work led to a better understanding of the physiology and pathology of brain functions. She studied the soldiers' anxieties and panic issues and this knowledge was later applied to her work with her clients diagnosed with schizophrenia. She learned two important principles: the impact of brain trauma on healthy men and the adaptive capacity of the brain. She also studied neurology and dementia praecox.
Fromm-Reichmann continued to have an interest in psychiatry and discovered Freud's writings. Her approach to treatment emerged from her research with Kurt Goldstein. To further her psychotherapy skills, she pursued psychoanalytic training at the Berlin Institute. Her understanding of anxiety in soldiers helped her understand schizophrenia later and was the "hallmark of her life's work". She used "whatever worked with each individual" and relied "on the patients own inherent capacity for healing to guide the treatment". She also recognized the role of trauma in mental illness and started to understand the dynamics of the therapeutic relationship.
Following World War I, she worked in a sanitarium near Dresden, was a visiting physician at a psychiatric clinic in 1923, and established a small private psychoanalytic sanitarium in 1924 in Heidelberg that combined therapy with Jewish dietary rules and Sabbath observance, jokingly referred to as the "Thorapeutikum" (it later closed in 1928). She and her husband helped found the Frankfurt Chapter of the German Psychoanalytic Society and established the Psychoanalytic Training Institute of Southwestern Germany.
When Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany and Jews began to be persecuted, Frieda moved to the Germany-France border where she rented two hotel rooms, one to sleep in and the other to see patients throughout the day. Upon immigrating to the United States, she worked as a psychiatrist at Chestnut Lodge, a mental hospital in Maryland. She was a resident psychiatrist for 22 years and spent her entire American career at the Chestnut Lodge. She focused on early life experiences that affected her patients and their ability to understand the world. Fromm-Reichmann viewed her patients as people who need help overcoming an illness. She believed a psychiatric hospital could be a therapeutic institution with individualized treatment that reflected the idiosyncratic needs of each patient.
When she fled Nazi Germany, several U.S. hospitals and institutions offered Fromm-Reichmann positions, but she was persuaded to come to Chestnut Lodge in 1936 by Dr. Dexter Bullard, its administrator, who promised to build her a home on the grounds. "Frieda's Cottage" also housed her office where she saw the majority of her patients. It was carefully restored in 2009 by Peerless Rockville, a nonprofit historic preservation organization, and was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 13, 2021. While Chestnut Lodge was tragically lost to fire in 2009, the Lodge's open surroundings are maintained as a City of Rockville park that thus preserves the setting Frieda and her patients traveled between the cottage and the Lodge building.
During her time at the Lodge she emphasized communicating understanding in her work with individuals with schizophrenia and that psychotic communication contained meaning. She collaborated with other doctors at the Lodge to make the hospital a psychoanalytic benchmark for the treatment of psychosis. She stressed the importance of the therapist respecting the patient and continuing to try to reach them. She utilized the concepts of transference and resistance, as well as the unconscious and the importance of early childhood experiences when examining personality. She is described as one of the few notable exceptions to Freud's maxim of charging for missed appointments: '"I feel that it is not the psychiatrist's privilege to be exempt from the generally accepted custom of our culture in which one is not paid for services not rendered", she wrote in her book Principles of Intensive Psychotherapy'''.
Despite major successes and growing fame, Frieda's work and person were criticized by contemporaries who vehemently denied her claims that schizophrenia could be treated with psychoanalysis. An empiricist at heart, Frieda continued her work to demonstrate how the use of intuition and creativity applied to psychoanalysis could treat the most severe psychosis.
Ever the pioneer for women in science, Frieda was the first woman to be invited to the Macy Foundation in 1954. One year later, Frieda was the first woman and nonacademic member to be invited to Ford Foundation's Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (Palo Alto, CA). Fromm-Reichmann joined Fromm, Clara Thompson, Harry Stack Sullivan, David Rioch, and Janet Rioch to found the William Alanson White Institute, a famed psychoanalytic institute in New York City. Having overcome many personal and professional adversities, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann inspired generations of psychologists and the American Academy of Psychoanalysis annual Frieda Fromm-Reichmann award.
The "Redeemed"
Mrs. E was the first of a series of major breakthroughs for Frieda when applying psychoanalysis to schizophrenia, which Frieda described as "helping the doctor to ferret out whatever will to health remained buried in the illness and urging it toward the goal of cure." Once fully recovered, Mrs. E told Frieda that taking her out of the restraints by herself was the starting point of her recovery; it had the connotation for her that her doctor did not consider her to be too dangerous to emerge from her mental disorder.
Her most famous patient was Joanne Greenberg, who wrote a fictionalized autobiography of her time at the mental hospital entitled I Never Promised You a Rose Garden, which offers a very attractive portrayal of her as "Dr Fried": 'She is brainy...but after you know her a while, you'll find out that with little Clara Fried, brains are only the beginning'. Other famous clients include Rollo May.
The "Unredeemed"
Fromm-Reichmann also treated Karl Hermann Brunck. His wife was told, "No one really knows (why he was suffering from this mental illness)... All we can say for sure about his sort of illness is that it has its roots in the failure of the parents - commonly the mother figure - to provide emotional security in infancy. This causes a weak ego organization, inability to give and receive love on an adult level." Brunck made several attempts to kill himself. His wife, Hope Hale Davis, blamed Frieda for his suicide, stating, "the most elementary routine precautions had been neglected, and Hermann had used a belt to hang himself."
Dr. D alternated between patient and staff for over a decade at Chestnut Lodge, eventually referred out because of the dual role conflicts. He threatened to sue Frieda and other staff due to lack of progress, but eventually was admitted to a state hospital. Miss N. was treated from 1945 to 1955 and was recorded more than 60 times (one of the few recordings ever made of psychotherapy with a chronic schizophrenia patient). Mr. R was frequently hostile and aggressive toward her, but a "pure case" (i.e., no history of shock therapy or other somatic treatments) which presented many treatment and research possibilities.
Despite these "failures", Frieda maintained respect for the patient, rolled with resistance, and remained focused on treatment goals. She argued that even efforts to act out (e.g., masturbating during session and spitting on her) were efforts to form a deeper connection with the therapist and external world. She told students that a failed treatment might yield insights that could help the next case.
Publications
Following her Jewish roots, Frieda preferred the oral tradition of the Hasidic legend, "A story must be told in such a way that it constitutes help in itself." Eventually in 1950, she published a series of her lectures assembled as Principles of Intensive Psychotherapy. The first five chapters of which are dedicated to the temperament of the therapist and countertransference by the therapist within treatment.
She published articles on Migraine, Stereotypies, and Domineering Mothers, as well as on work with psychotics. On migraine, 'Fromm-Reichmann [1937] is of the opinion that the symptom is produced when an unconscious hostile tendency is directed in particular at the destruction of an object's intelligence ("mental castration") and guilt feelings turn this tendency instead against one's own head'. With psychotics, 'Fromm-Reichmann sees in stereotypies a compromise between a tendency to express certain (tender or hostile) object impulses and the tendency to repress these impulses for fear of rebuff'. She also noted 'the increasing presence of "domineering" mothers'.
Her other works can be found here (some published posthumously):
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1948): Bemerkungen zur Behandlung der Schizophrenie in der psychoanalytischen Psychotherapie. Heilung durch Wiederherstellung von Vertrauen. In: P. Matussek (1976, Hg.): Psychotherapie schizophrener Psychosen. Hamburg: Hoffmann & Campe, S. 34-52
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1950): Principles of intensive psychotherapy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1959): Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. Selected papers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1989): Psychoanalysis and psychosis. Madison: International Universities Press.
Reichmann, F. (1913): Ueber Pupillenstörungen bei Dementia praecox. In: Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 53, (1), pp. 302–321.
Reichmann, F., K. Goldstein (1920): Über praktische und theoretische Ergebnisse aus den Erfahrungen an Hirnschussverletzten. Berlin: Springer.
Bibliography
"Principles of Intensive Psychotherapy" by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Publisher: University Of Chicago Press, 1960,
Hornstein, Gail A. (2000). To Redeem One Person Is to Redeem the World: The Life of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. New York: Other Press.
Berman, L. H. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. I. Introduction. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 89–90.
Bruch. H. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. III. Personal reminiscences of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 98–104.
Cohen, R. A. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. II. Notes on the life and work of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 90–98.
Crowley, R. M. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. IV. Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: recollections of a student. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 105–106.
Green, H. [Joanne Greenberg] (1964): I never promised you a rose garden. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gunst, V. K. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. V. Memoirs—professional and personal: a decade with Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 107–115.
Hoff, S. G. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. VI. Freida Fromm-Reichmann, the early years. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 115–121.
Hornstein, G. A. (2000): To redeem one person is to redeem the world: The life of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann. New York: Other Press.
Scholz, A. (2004): Ärzte und Patienten in Dresdner Naturheilsanatorien. In: medizin - bibliothek - information 4, (1), pp. 13–19.
Stanton, A. H. (1982): Frieda Fromm-Reichmann: a seminar in the history of psychiatry. VII. Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, MD: her impact on American psychiatry. In: Psychiatry Interpersonal & Biological Processes 45, (2), S. 121–127.
References
Further reading
D. A. Dewsbury/M. Wertheimer, Portraits of pioneers in psychology'' (2006)
External links
An Analysis Of The Shadow Side Of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann
Ansgar Fabri: Biography of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann in: Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY).
1889 births
1957 deaths
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
German psychiatrists
German psychoanalysts
American psychotherapists
Women and psychology
Physicians from Karlsruhe
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
University of Königsberg alumni
German women psychiatrists
20th-century American psychologists
20th-century American physicians
American deaf people
Deaf scholars and academics
Physicians with disabilities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism
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Humanism
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Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry.
The meaning of the term "humanism" has changed according to successive intellectual movements that have identified with it. During the Italian Renaissance, ancient works inspired Italian scholars, giving rise to the Renaissance humanism movement. During the Age of Enlightenment, humanistic values were re-enforced by advances in science and technology, giving confidence to humans in their exploration of the world. By the early 20th century, organizations dedicated to humanism flourished in Europe and the United States, and have since expanded worldwide. In the early 21st century, the term generally denotes a focus on human well-being and advocates for human freedom, autonomy, and progress. It views humanity as responsible for the promotion and development of individuals, espouses the equal and inherent dignity of all human beings, and emphasizes a concern for humans in relation to the world.
Starting in the 20th century, humanist movements are typically non-religious and aligned with secularism. Most frequently, humanism refers to a non-theistic view centered on human agency, and a reliance on science and reason rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world. Humanists tend to advocate for human rights, free speech, progressive policies, and democracy. People with a humanist worldview maintain religion is not a precondition of morality, and object to excessive religious entanglement with education and the state.
Contemporary humanist organizations work under the umbrella of Humanists International. Well-known humanist associations are Humanists UK and the American Humanist Association.
Etymology
The word "humanism" derives from the Latin word humanitas, which was first used in ancient Rome by Cicero and other thinkers to describe values related to liberal education. This etymology survives in the modern university concept of the humanities—the arts, philosophy, history, literature, and related disciplines. The word reappeared during the Italian Renaissance as umanista and entered the English language in the 16th century. The word "humanist" was used to describe a group of students of classical literature and those advocating for a classical education.
In 1755, in Samuel Johnson's influential A Dictionary of the English Language, the word humanist is defined as a philologer or grammarian, derived from the French word humaniste. In a later edition of the dictionary, the meaning "a term used in the schools of Scotland" was added. In the 1780s, Thomas Howes was one of Joseph Priestley's many opponents during the celebrated Unitarian disputes. Because of the different doctrinal meanings of Unitarian and Unitarianism, Howes used "the more precise appellations of humanists and humanism" when referring to those like Priestley "who maintain the mere humanity of Christ". This theological origin of humanism is considered obsolete.
In the early 19th century, the term humanismus was used in Germany with several meanings and from there, it re-entered the English language with two distinct denotations; an academic term linked to the study of classic literature and a more-common use that signified a non-religious approach to life contrary to theism. It is probable Bavarian theologian Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools. Soon, other scholars such as Georg Voigt and Jacob Burckhardt adopted the term. In the 20th century, the word was further refined, acquiring its contemporary meaning of a naturalistic approach to life, and a focus on the well-being and freedom of humans.
Definition
There is no single, widely accepted definition of humanism, and scholars have given different meanings to the term. For philosopher Sidney Hook, writing in 1974, humanists are opposed to the imposition of one culture in some civilizations, do not belong to a church or established religion, do not support dictatorships, and do not justify the use of violence for social reforms. Hook also said humanists support the elimination of hunger and improvements to health, housing, and education. In the same edited collection, Humanist philosopher H. J. Blackham argued humanism is a concept focusing on improving humanity's social conditions by increasing the autonomy and dignity of all humans. In 1999, Jeaneane D. Fowler said the definition of humanism should include a rejection of divinity, and an emphasis on human well-being and freedom. She also noted there is a lack of shared belief system or doctrine but, in general, humanists aim for happiness and self-fulfillment.
In 2015, prominent humanist Andrew Copson attempted to define humanism as follows:
Humanism is naturalistic in its understanding of the universe; science and free inquiry will help us comprehend more about the universe.
This scientific approach does not reduce humans to anything less than human beings.
Humanists place importance of the pursuit of a self-defined, meaningful, and happy life.
Humanism is moral; morality is a way for humans to improve their lives.
Humanists engage in practical action to improve personal and social conditions.
According to the International Humanist and Ethical Union:
Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality.
Dictionaries define humanism as a worldview or philosophical stance. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, humanism is " ... a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; especially: a philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual's dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason".
History
Predecessors
Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy. Pre-Socratic philosophers were the first Western philosophers to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason and natural law without relying on myth, tradition, or religion. Protagoras, who lived in Athens , put forward some fundamental humanist ideas, although only fragments of his work survive. He made one of the first agnostic statements; according to one fragment: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist nor of what kind they are in form: for many things prevent me for knowing this, its obscurity and the brevity of man's life". Socrates spoke of the need to "know thyself"; his thought changed the focus of then-contemporary philosophy from nature to humans and their well-being. Socrates, a theist who was executed for atheism, investigated the nature of morality by reasoning. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) taught rationalism and a system of ethics based on human nature that also parallels humanist thought. In the third century BCE, Epicurus developed an influential, human-centered philosophy that focused on achieving eudaimonia. Epicureans continued Democritus' atomist theory—a materialistic theory that suggests the fundamental unit of the universe is an indivisible atom. Human happiness, living well, friendship, and the avoidance of excesses were the key ingredients of Epicurean philosophy that flourished in and beyond the post-Hellenic world. It is a repeated view among scholars that the humanistic features of ancient Greek thought are the roots of humanism 2,000 years later.
Other predecessor movements that sometimes use the same or equivalent vocabulary to modern Western humanism can be found in Chinese philosophy and religions such as Taoism and Confucianism.
Arabic translations of Ancient Greek literature during the Abbasid Caliphate in the eighth and ninth centuries influenced Islamic philosophers. Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational, and scientific discourse in their search for knowledge, meaning, and values. A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history, and philosophical theology show medieval Islamic thought was open to humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism, liberalism, and free speech; schools were established at Baghdad, Basra and Isfahan.
Renaissance
The intellectual movement later known as Renaissance humanism first appeared in Italy and has greatly influenced both contemporaneous and modern Western culture. Renaissance humanism emerged in Italy and a renewed interest in literature and the arts occurred in 13th-century Italy. Italian scholars discovered Ancient Greek thought, particularly that of Aristotle, through Arabic translations from Africa and Spain. Other centers were Verona, Naples, and Avignon. Petrarch, who is often referred to as the father of humanism, is a significant figure. Petrarch was raised in Avignon; he was inclined toward education at a very early age and studied alongside his well-educated father. Petrarch's enthusiasm for ancient texts led him to discover manuscripts such as Cicero's Pro Archia and Pomponius Mela's De Chorographia that were influential in the development of the Renaissance. Petrarch wrote Latin poems such as Canzoniere and De viris illustribus, in which he described humanist ideas. His most-significant contribution was a list of books outlining the four major disciplines—rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar—that became the basis of humanistic studies (studia humanitatis). Petrarch's list relied heavily on ancient writers, especially Cicero.
The revival of classicist authors continued after Petrarch's death. Florence chancellor and humanist Coluccio Salutati made his city a prominent center of Renaissance humanism; his circle included other notable humanists—including Leonardo Bruni, who rediscovered, translated, and popularized ancient texts. Humanists heavily influenced education. Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino Veronese created schools based on humanistic principles; their curriculum was widely adopted and by the 16th century, humanistic paideia was the dominant outlook of pre-university education. Parallel with advances in education, Renaissance humanists made progress in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, and religion. In philosophy, Angelo Poliziano, Nicholas of Cusa, and Marsilio Ficino further contributed to the understanding of ancient classical philosophers and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola undermined the dominance of Aristotelian philosophy by revitalizing Sextus Empiricus' skepticism. Religious studies were affected by the growth of Renaissance humanism when Pope Nicholas V initiated the translation of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts, and other texts in those languages, to contemporaneous Latin.
Humanist values spread from Italy in the 15th century. Students and scholars went to Italy to study before returning to their homelands carrying humanistic messages. Printing houses dedicated to ancient texts were established in Venice, Basel, and Paris. By the end of the 15th century, the center of humanism had shifted from Italy to northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam being the leading humanist scholar. The longest-lasting effect of Renaissance humanism was its education curriculum and methods. Humanists insisted on the importance of classical literature in providing intellectual discipline, moral standards, and a civilized taste for the elite—an educational approach that reached the contemporary era.
Enlightenment
During the Age of Enlightenment, humanistic ideas resurfaced, this time further from religion and classical literature. Science and intellectualism advanced, and humanists argued that rationality could replace deism as the means with which to understand the world. Humanistic values, such as tolerance and opposition to slavery, started to take shape. New philosophical, social, and political ideas appeared. Some thinkers rejected theism outright; and atheism, deism, and hostility to organized religion were formed. During the Enlightenment, Baruch Spinoza redefined God as signifying the totality of nature; Spinoza was accused of atheism but remained silent on the matter. Naturalism was also advanced by prominent Encyclopédistes. Baron d'Holbach wrote the polemic System of Nature, claiming that religion was built on fear and had helped tyrants throughout history. Diderot and Helvetius combined their materialism with sharp, political critique.
Also during the Enlightenment, the abstract conception of humanity started forming—a critical juncture for the construction of humanist philosophy. Previous appeals to "men" now shifted toward "man"; to illustrate this point, scholar Tony Davies points to political documents like The Social Contract (1762) of Rousseau, in which he says "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Likewise, Thomas Paine's Rights of Man uses the singular form of the word, revealing a universal conception of "man". In parallel, Baconian empiricism—though not humanism per se—led to Thomas Hobbes's materialism.
Scholar J. Brent Crosson argues that, while there is a widely-held belief that the birth of humanism was solely a European affair, intellectual thought from Africa and Asia significantly contributed as well. He also notes that during enlightenment, the universal man did not encompass all humans but was shaped by gender and race. According to Crosson, the shift from man to human started during enlightenment and is still ongoing. Crosson also argues that enlightenment, especially in Britain, produced not only a notion of universal man, but also gave birth to pseudoscientific ideas, such as those about differences between races, that shaped European history.
From Darwin to current era
French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced the idea—which is sometimes attributed to Thomas Paine—of a "religion of humanity". According to scholar Tony Davies, this was intended to be an atheist cult based on some humanistic tenets, and had some prominent members but soon declined. It was nonetheless influential during the 19th century, and its humanism and rejection of supernaturalism are echoed in the works of later authors such as Oscar Wilde, George Holyoake—who coined the word secularism—George Eliot, Émile Zola, and E. S. Beesly. Paine's The Age of Reason, along with the 19th-century Biblical criticism of the German Hegelians David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach, also contributed to new forms of humanism.
Advances in science and philosophy provided scholars with further alternatives to religious belief. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection offered naturalists an explanation for the plurality of species. Darwin's theory also suggested humans are simply a natural species, contradicting the traditional theological view of humans as more than animals. Philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Karl Marx attacked religion on several grounds, and theologians David Strauss and Julius Wellhausen questioned the Bible. In parallel, utilitarianism was developed in Britain through the works of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Utilitarianism, a moral philosophy, centers its attention on human happiness, aiming to eliminate human and animal pain via natural means. In Europe and the US, as philosophical critiques of theistic beliefs grew, large parts of society distanced themselves from religion. Ethical societies were formed, leading to the contemporary humanist movement.
The rise of rationalism and the scientific method was followed in the late 19th century in Britain by the start of many rationalist and ethical associations, such as the National Secular Society, the Ethical Union, and the Rationalist Press Association. In the 20th century, humanism was further promoted by the work of philosophers such as A. J. Ayer, Antony Flew, and Bertrand Russell, whose advocacy of atheism in Why I Am Not a Christian further popularized humanist ideas. In 1963, the British Humanist Association evolved out of the Ethical Union, and merged with many smaller ethical and rationalist groups. Elsewhere in Europe, humanist organizations also flourished. In the Netherlands, the Dutch Humanist Alliance gained a wide base of support after World War II; in Norway, the Norwegian Humanist Association gained popular support.
In the US, humanism evolved with the aid of significant figures of the Unitarian Church. Humanist magazines began to appear, including The New Humanist, which published the Humanist Manifesto I in 1933. The American Ethical Union emerged from newly founded, small, ethicist societies. The American Humanist Association (AHA) was established in 1941 and became as popular as some of its European counterparts. The AHA spread to all states, and some prominent public figures such as Isaac Asimov, John Dewey, Erich Fromm, Paul Kurtz, Carl Sagan, and Gene Roddenberry became members. Humanist organizations from all continents formed the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), which is now known as Humanists International, and promotes the humanist agenda via the United Nations organizations UNESCO and UNICEF.
Varieties of humanism
Early 20th century naturalists, who viewed their humanism as a religion and participated in church-like congregations, used the term "religious humanism". Religious humanism appeared mostly in the US and is now rarely practiced. The American Humanist Association arose from religious humanism. The same term has been used by religious groups such as the Quakers to describe their humanistic theology.
The term "Renaissance humanism" was given to a tradition of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers that developed during the 14th and early 15th centuries. By the late 15th century, these academics began to be referred to as umanisti (humanists). While modern humanism's roots can be traced to the Renaissance, Renaissance humanism vastly differs from it.
Other terms using "humanism" in their name include:
Christian humanism: a historical current in the late Middle Ages in which Christian scholars combined Christian faith with interest in classical antiquity and a focus on human well-being.
Ethical humanism: a synonym of Ethical culture, was prominent in the US in the early 20th century and focused on relations between humans.
Scientific humanism: this emphasizes belief in the scientific method as a component of humanism as described in the works of John Dewey and Julian Huxley; scientific humanism is largely synonymous with secular humanism.
Secular humanism: coined in the mid-20th century, it was initially an attempt to denigrate humanism, but some humanist associations embraced the term. Secular humanism is synonymous with the contemporary humanist movement.
Marxist humanism: one of several rival schools of Marxist thought that accepts basic humanistic tenets such as secularism and naturalism, but differs from other strands of humanism because of its vague stance on democracy and rejection of free will.
Digital humanism: an emerging philosophical and ethical framework that seeks to preserve and promote human values, dignity, and well-being in the context of rapid technological advancements, particularly in the digital realm.
Philosophy
Immanuel Kant provided the modern philosophical basis of the humanist narrative. His theory of critical philosophy formed the basis of the world of knowledge, defending rationalism and grounding it in the empirical world. He also supported the idea of the moral autonomy of the individual, which is fundamental to his philosophy. According to Kant, morality is the product of the way humans live and not a set of fixed values. Instead of a universal ethic code, Kant suggested a universal procedure that shapes the ethics that differ among groups of people.
Humanism is strongly linked to rationality. For humanists, humans are reasonable beings, and reasoning and the scientific method are means of finding truth. Humanists argue science and rationality have driven successful developments in various fields while the invocation of supernatural phenomena fails to coherently explain the world. One form of irrational thinking is adducing. Humanists are skeptical of explanations of natural phenomena or diseases that rely on hidden agencies.
Human autonomy is another hallmark of humanist philosophy. For people to be autonomous, their beliefs and actions must be the result of their own reasoning. For humanists, autonomy dignifies each individual; without autonomy, people's humanity is lessened. Humanists also consider human essence to be universal, irrespective of race and social status, diminishing the importance of collective identities and signifying the importance of individuals.
Philosopher and humanist advocate Corliss Lamont, in his book The Philosophy of Humanism (1997), states:
In the Humanist ethics the chief end of thought and action is to further this-earthly human interests on behalf of the greater glory of people. The watchword of Humanism is happiness for all humanity in this existence as contrasted with salvation for the individual soul in a future existence and the glorification of a supernatural Supreme Being ... It heartily welcomes all life-enhancing and healthy pleasures, from the vigorous enjoyments of youth to the contemplative delights of mellowed age, from the simple gratifications of food and drink, sunshine and sports, to the more complex appreciation of art and literature, friendship and social communion.
Themes
Morality
The humanist attitude toward morality has changed since its beginning. Starting in the 18th century, humanists were oriented toward an objective and universalist stance on ethics. Both Utilitarian philosophy—which aims to increase human happiness and decrease suffering—and Kantian ethics, which states one should act in accordance with maxims one could will to become a universal law, shaped the humanist moral narrative until the early 20th century. Because the concepts of free will and reason are not based on scientific naturalism, their influence on humanists remained in the early 20th century but was reduced by social progressiveness and egalitarianism. As part of social changes in the late 20th century, humanist ethics evolved to support secularism, civil rights, personal autonomy, religious toleration, multiculturalism, and cosmopolitanism.
A naturalistic criticism of humanistic morality is the denial of the existence of morality. For naturalistic skeptics, morality was not hardwired within humans during their evolution; humans are primarily selfish and self-centered. Defending humanist morality, humanist philosopher John R. Shook makes three observations that lead him to the acceptance of morality. According to Shook, homo sapiens has a concept of morality that must have been with the species since the beginning of human history, developing by recognizing and thinking upon behaviors. He adds morality is universal among human cultures and all cultures strive to improve their moral level. Shook concludes that while morality was initially generated by our genes, culture shaped human morals and continues to do so. He calls "moral naturalism" the view that morality is a natural phenomenon, can be scientifically studied, and is a tool rather than a set of doctrines that was used to develop human culture.
Humanist philosopher Brian Ellis advocates a social humanist theory of morality called "social contractual utilitarianism", which is based on Hume's naturalism and empathy, Aristotelian virtue theory, and Kant's idealism. According to Ellis, morality should aim for eudaimonia, an Aristotelian concept that combines a satisfying life with virtue and happiness by improving societies worldwide. Humanist Andrew Copson takes a consequentialist and utilitarian approach to morality; according to Copson, all humanist ethical traits aim at human welfare. Philosopher Stephen Law emphasizes some principles of humanist ethics; respect for personal moral autonomy, rejection of god-given moral commands, an aim for human well-being, and "emphasiz[ing] the role of reason in making moral judgements".
Humanism's godless approach to morality has driven criticism from religious commentators. The necessity for a divine being delivering sets of doctrines for morals to exist is a common argument; according to Dostoevsky's character Ivan Karamázov in The Brothers Karamazov, "if God does not exist, then everything is permitted". This argument suggests chaos will ensue if religious belief disappears. For humanists, theism is an obstacle to morality rather than a prerequisite for it. According to humanists, acting only out of fear, adherence to dogma, and expectation of a reward is a selfish motivation rather than morality. Humanists point to the subjectivity of the supposedly objective divine commands by referring to the Euthyphro dilemma, originally posed by Socrates: "does God command something because it is good or is something good because God commands it?" If goodness is independent from God, humans can reach goodness without religion but relativism is elicited if God creates goodness. Another argument against this religious criticism is the human-made nature of morality, even through religious means. The interpretation of holy scriptures almost always includes human reasoning; different interpreters reach contradictory theories.
Religion
Humanism has widely been seen as antithetical to religion. Philosopher of religion David Kline, traces the roots of this animosity since the Renaissance, when humanistic views deconstructed the previous religiously defined order. Kline describes several ways this antithesis has evolved. Kline notes the emergence of a confident human-made knowledge, which was a new way of epistemology, repelled the church from its authoritative position. Kline uses the paradigm of non-humanists Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo to illustrate how scientific discoveries added to the deconstruction of the religious narrative in favor of human-generated knowledge. This ultimately uncoupled the fate of humans from the divine will, prompting social and political shifts. The relation of state and citizens changed as civic humanistic principles emerged; people were no longer to be servile to religiously grounded monarchies but could pursue their own destinies. Kline also points at the aspects of personal belief that added to the hostility between humanism and religion. Humanism was linked with prominent thinkers who advocated against the existence of God using rationalistic arguments. Critique of theism continued through the humanistic revolutions in Europe, challenging religious worldviews, attitudes and superstitions on a rational basis—a tendency that continued to the 20th century.
According to Stephen Law, humanist adherence to secularism placed humans at odds with religion, especially nationally dominant religions striving to retain privileges gained in the last centuries. Worth notes religious persons can be secularists. Law notes secularism is criticized for suppressing freedom of expression of religious persons but firmly denies such accusation; instead, he says, secularism protects this kind of freedom but opposes the privileged status of religious views.
According to Andrew Copson, humanism is not incompatible with some aspects of religion. He observes that components like belief, practice, identity, and culture can coexist, allowing an individual who subscribes to only a few religious doctrines to also identify as a humanist. Copson adds that religious critics usually frame humanism as an enemy of religion but most humanists are proponents of religious tolerance or exhibit a curiosity about religion's effects in society and politics, commenting: "Only a few are regularly outraged by other people's false beliefs per se".
The meaning of life
In the 19th century, along with the decline of religion and its accompanied teleology, the question of the meaning of life became more prominent. Unlike religions, humanism does not have a definite view on the meaning of life. Humanists commonly say people create rather than discover meaning. While philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre wrote on the meaning of life in a godless world, the work of Albert Camus has echoed and shaped humanism. In Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus, he quotes a Greek myth in which the absurd hero Sisyphus is destined to push a heavy rock up a hill; the rock slips back and he must repeat the task. Sisyphus is negating Gods and preset meanings of life, but argues that life has value and significance, and that each individual is able to create their meanings of life. Camus thus highlights the importance of personal agency and self-determination that lie at the centre of humanism.
Personal humanist interpretations of the meaning of life vary from the pursuit of happiness without recklessness and excesses to participation in human history, and connection with loved ones, living animals, and plants. Some answers are close to those of religious discourse if the appeal to divinity is overlooked. According to humanist professor Peter Derks, elements that contribute to the meaning of life are a morally worthy purpose in life, positive self-evaluation, an understanding of one's environment, being seen and understood by others, the ability to emotionally connect with others, and a desire to have a meaning in life. Humanist professor Anthony B. Pinn places the meaning of life in the quest of what he calls "complex subjectivity". Pinn, who is advocating for a non-theistic, humanistic religion inspired by African cultures, says seeking the never-reaching meaning of life contributes to well-being, and that rituals and ceremonies, which are occasions for reflection, provide an opportunity to assess the meaning of life, improving well-being.
In public life
In politics
The hallmark of contemporary humanism in politics is the demand for secularism. Philosopher Alan Haworth said secularism delivers fair treatment to all citizens of a nation-state since all are treated without discrimination; religion is a private issue and the state should have no power over it. He also argues that secularism helps plurality and diversity, which are fundamental aspects of our modern world. While barbarism and violence can be found in most civilizations, Haworth notes religion usually fuels rhetoric and enables these actions. He also said the values of hard work, honesty, and charity are found in other civilizations. According to Haworth, humanism opposes the irrationality of nationalism and totalitarianism, whether these are part of fascism or Marxist–Leninist communism.
According to professor Joseph O. Baker, in political theory, contemporary humanism is formed by two main tendencies; the first is individualistic and the second inclines to collectivism. The trajectory of each tendency can lead to libertarianism and socialism respectively, but a range of combinations exists. Individualistic humanists often have a philosophical perspective of humanism; in politics, these are inclined to libertarianism and in ethics tend to follow a scientistic approach. Collectivists have a more-applied view of humanism, lean toward socialism, and have a humanitarian approach to ethics. The second group has connections with the thought of young Marx, especially his anthropological views rejecting his political practices. A factor that repels many humanists from the libertarian view is the neoliberal or capitalistic consequences they feel it entails.
Humanism has been a part of both major 20th-century ideological currents—liberalism and Marxism. Early 19th-century socialism was connected to humanism. In the 20th century, a humanistic interpretation of Marxism focused on Marx's early writings, viewing Marxism not as "scientific socialism" but as a philosophical critique aimed at the overcoming of "alienation". In the US, liberalism is associated mostly with humanistic principles, which is distinct from the European use of the same word, which has economical connotations. In the post-1945 era, Jean-Paul Sartre and other French existentialists advocated for humanism, linking it to socialism while trying to stay neutral during the Cold War.
In psychology and counseling
Humanist counseling is humanism-inspired applied psychology, which is a major current of counseling. There are various approaches such as discussion and critical thinking, replying to existential anxiety, and focusing on social and political dimensions of problems. Humanist counseling focuses on respecting the client's worldview and placing it in the correct cultural context. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. It also recognizes the importance of moral questions about one's interactions with people according to one's worldview. This is examined using a process of dialogue. Humanist counseling originated in post-World War II Netherlands.
Humanistic counseling is based on the works of psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what Rogers and Maslow viewed as the over-pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.
Some modern counseling organizations have humanist origins, like the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy, which was founded by Harold Blackham, which he developed alongside the British Humanist Association's Humanist Counselling Service. Modern-day humanist pastoral care in the UK and the Netherlands draws on elements of humanistic psychology.
Demographics
Demographic data about humanists is sparse. Scholar Yasmin Trejo examined the results of Pew Research Center's 2014 Religious Landscape Study. Trejo did not use self-identification to measure humanists but combined the answers of two questions: "Do you believe in God or a universal spirit?" (she chose those who answered 'no') and "when it comes to questions of right or wrong, which of the following do you look to most for guidance?" (picking answers 'scientific information' and 'philosophy and reason'). According to Trejo, most humanists identify as atheist or agnostic (37% and 18%), 29% as "nothing in particular", while 16% of humanists identify as religious. She also found most humanists (80%) were raised in a religious background. Sixty percent of humanists are married to non-religious spouses, while one quarter are married to a Christian. There is a gender divide among humanists: 67 percent are male. Trejo says this can be explained by the fact that more males self-identify as atheist, while women have stronger connections to religion because of socialization, community influence, and stereotypes; some women, especially Catholic Latinas, are expected to be religious and many of them abide by their community expectations. Other findings note the high level of education of most humanists, indicating a higher socioeconomic status. The population of humanists is overwhelming non-Hispanic white; according to Trejo, this is because minority groups are usually very religious.
Criticisms
Western and Christian
Criticism of humanism focus on its adherence to human rights, which some critics have called "Western". Critics say humanist values have become a tool of Western moral dominance, which is a form of neo-colonialism that leads to oppression and a lack of ethical diversity. Other critics, namely feminists, black activists, postcolonial critics, and gay and lesbian advocates, say humanism is an oppressive philosophy because it is not free from the biases of the white, heterosexual males who shaped it. History professor Samuel Moyn attacks humanism for its connection to human rights. According to Moyn, the concept of human rights in the 1960s was a declaration of anti-colonial struggle, but that idea was later transformed into an impossible utopian vision, replacing the failing utopias of the 20th century. The humanist use of human rights rhetoric thus turns human rights into a moral tool that is impractical and ultimately non-political. He also notes a commonality between humanism and the Catholic discourse on human dignity.
Anthropology professor Talal Asad argues humanism is a project of modernity and a secularized continuation of Western Christian theology. According to Asad, just as the Catholic Church passed the Christian doctrine of love to Africa and Asia while assisting in the enslavement of large parts of their population, humanist values have at times been a pretext for Western countries to expand their influence to other parts of the world to humanize "barbarians". Asad has also said humanism is not a purely secular phenomenon but takes the idea of the essence of humanity from Christianity. According to Asad, Western humanism cannot incorporate other humanistic traditions, such as those from India and China, without subsuming and ultimately eliminating them.
Sociology professor Didier Fassin has stated that humanism's focus on empathy and compassion, rather than goodness and justice, is a problem. According to Fassin, humanism originated in the Christian tradition, particularly the Parable of the Good Samaritan, in which empathy is universalized. Fassin has also argued that humanism's central essence, the sanctity of human life, is a religious victory hidden in a secular wrapper.
Amoral and materialistic
The main criticism from evangelical Christians, such as for example Tim LaHaye, is that humanism destroys traditional family and moral values. According to Corliss Lamont this criticism is a malicious campaign by religious fanatics, the so-called Moral Majority, who need a demonic scapegoat to rally its followers. Other religious opponents scorn humanism by claiming it is materialistic thereby diminishing humanity because it denies the spiritual nature and needs of man. Also, because the goal in life is the acquisition of material goods, humanism produces greed and selfishness. In response to this criticism Norman states that there is absolutely no reason why humanists should be committed to the view that the only things worth living for are 'material goods'. Such an accusation, he says, is based on a "sloppy" understanding of materialism. However, he does acknowledge a "tension" in humanism that because of its championing of scientific knowledge, it appears to be committed to a materialistic conception of human beings as physical systems and therefore as not much different from anything else in the universe.
Vague and indefinable
Humanism has frequently been criticised for its vagueness and the difficulty of defining the term. According to Paul Kurtz, “Humanism is so charged with levels of emotion and rhetoric that its meaning is often vague and ambiguous”. For Giustiniani, “the meaning of ‘humanism’ has so many shades that to analyze all of them is hardly feasible”. Nicolas Walter points out that most of the people in the past who have called themselves or been called humanists would reject many of today’s tenets. The origins of humanism, he writes, “are so contradictory and confusing that it is often meaningless on its own”. Andrew Copson notes that the suggestion that there are two types of humanism - religious and secular - “has begun to seriously muddy the conceptual water”. According to Tony Davies, “the meaning of ‘humanism’ is the semantic tangle, or grapple, that makes its meaning so difficult to grasp”. For Sarah Bakewell, humanism “is a semantic cloud of meanings and implications, none attachable to any particular theorist or practitioner”.
Yet, the difficulty of defining humanism is not necessarily a problem. Davies avoids offering a definition, choosing instead “to stress the plurality, complexity and fluidity of meanings”. Jeaneane Fowler argues that humanism is indefinable precisely because of its “particular dynamism” and the acknowledged vagueness of the term “far from being a disadvantage, is an asset”.
Antihumanism
Antihumanism is a philosophical theory that rejects humanism as a pre-scientific ideology. This argument developed during the 19th and 20th centuries in parallel with the advancement of humanism. Prominent thinkers questioned the metaphysics of humanism and the human nature of its concept of freedom. Nietzsche, while departing from a humanistic, pro-Enlightenment viewpoint, criticized humanism for illusions on a number of topics, especially the nature of truth. According to Nietzsche, objective truth is an anthropomorphic illusion and humanism is meaningless, and replacing theism with reason and science simply replaces one religion with another.
According to Karl Marx, humanism is a bourgeois project that inaccurately attempts to present itself as radical. After the atrocities of World War II, questions about human nature and the concept of humanity were renewed. During the Cold War, influential Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser introduced the term "theoretical antihumanism" to attack both humanism and humanist-like socialist currents, eschewing more structural and formal interpretations of Marx. According to Althusser, Marx's early writings resonate with the humanistic idealism of Hegel, Kant, and Feuerbach, but Marx radically moved toward scientific socialism in 1845, rejecting concepts such as the essence of man.
Humanist organizations
Humanist organizations exist in several countries. Humanists International is a global organization. The three countries with the highest numbers of Humanist International member organisations are the UK, India, and the US. The largest humanist organisation is the Norwegian Humanist Association. Humanists UK—formerly the British Humanist Association—and the American Humanist Association are two of the oldest humanist organizations.
In 2015, London-based Humanists UK had around 28,000 members. Its membership includes some high-profile people such as Richard Dawkins, Brian Cox, Salman Rushdie, Polly Toynbee, and Stephen Fry, who are known for their participation in public debate, promoting secularism, and objecting to state funding for faith-based institutions. Humanists UK organizes and conducts non-religious ceremonies for weddings, namings, comings of age, and funerals.
The American Humanist Association (AHA) was formed in 1941 from previous humanist associations. Its journal The Humanist is the continuation of a previous publication The Humanist Bulletin. In 1953, the AHA established the "Humanist of the Year" award to honor individuals who promote science. By the 1970s, it became a well-recognized organization, initiating campaigns for abortion rights and opposing discriminatory policies. This resulted in the organization becoming a target of the religious right by the 1980s.
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
American Humanist Association
International Humanist and Ethical Union
Humanists UK
Freethought
Philosophical schools and traditions
Philosophy of life
Philosophy of religion
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracey%20Takes%20On...
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Tracey Takes On...
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Tracey Takes On... is an American sketch comedy series starring Tracey Ullman. The show ran for four seasons on HBO and was commissioned following the success of the 1993 comedy special Tracey Ullman Takes on New York. Each episode focuses on specific subject in which Ullman and her cast characters comment on or experience through a series of sketches and monologues.
Unlike her previous Fox show, Tracey Takes On... was filmed without a studio audience, on location, single-camera; instead of upwards of a hundred characters, the show focused on a steady rotation of nearly 20. "I wanted to do a show where you could get familiar with the characters, where I could express a point of view, where we could get controversial [...] I also didn't want to do a series where I had to do 22 or 26 episodes a year. I have two children and have a husband, and there are other things I'd like to do during the year. Ten shows is a good number, and HBO gives me a great (artistic) freedom," said Ullman in 1996. The only character to return from the original Tracey Ullman Show was Kay Clark, as Ullman was the sole creator. Former cast member Julie Kavner became a recurring guest star in the series.
In 1998, a book based on the series, Tracey Takes On was released. In 2003, the character Ruby Romaine was spun-off into the HBO television special, Tracey Ullman in the Trailer Tales.
Premise
Tracey Ullman and her cast of characters "take on" a different subject for each episode of the series.
Production
Conception and development
In 1990, Ullman's husband Allan McKeown, a founding member of the Meridian Broadcasting consortium, placed a bid for the ITV television franchise in South East England. Along with the bid he included a potential programming lineup which included a Tracey Ullman special. Ullman, who had just ended four seasons of her eponymous Fox series, had just given birth to their second child and was quite content staying at home. In September 1991, McKeown was elated when he was informed that his bid was successful; he was subsequently responsible for all of Meridian's comedy programming. Ullman dreaded the idea of doing another show. "I was really not prepared to do TV again. I had an extraordinary run at FOX in the late '80s with the Tracey Ullman Show, and couldn't imagine putting forth that amount of energy again. [...] The type of makeups I liked to disguise myself under had not been conducive to a live show [...] Once I inhaled so much remover that I passed out on the makeup room floor. I was resuscitated and went out to give a terrific performance, even though I can't remember being there." She had a year to deliver the show. The 1993 special Tracey Ullman: A Class Act, a satire about the British class system, was shot entirely on location and co-starred actor Michael Palin. The show's success led to American cable television network HBO becoming interested in having Ullman do a special for them. The only caveat was that she take on a more "American" subject. She chose New York City. That special, Tracey Ullman Takes on New York, was an award-winning success. HBO then broached the idea of a "Takes on" series.
Ullman was unsure if she could do it without the help of her "mentor" James L. Brooks who helped launch her American career with The Tracey Ullman Show. "Last year, I was 35 years old, and I thought, 'It's time to do it myself really. I thought, 'I know the premise, I know what I want to do...' I sat at the head of the table and made myself a boss." Production on season one of Tracey Takes On... began in Los Angeles in 1995. Characters created for her previous two HBO comedy specials were carried over for the series: gay airline steward Trevor Ayliss, British Conservative MP wife Virginia Bugge, British magazine editor Janie Pillsworth, Long Island housewife Fern Rosenthal, and faded Hollywood actress Linda Granger.
Ullman was thrilled with the artistic freedom working in cable television allotted her, specifically HBO. "If we did the story line with me and [Julie Kavner] as gay golfers on network TV, Johnson & Johnson would pull their advertising, then there'd be a big piece in USA Today, and it would be a headache. HBO let us have fun with it, and when Julie and I come out at the end, it's in the most wonderful way. Our Romance show may be a bit sappy, but it's more of a battle theme, something that will get people talking."
Production on Tracey Takes On... began each year in February with a staff retreat. Three months would then be spent writing the scripts. Pre-production would follow in July and August with filming commencing in September and wrapping in November. The completed season would "ideally" get delivered to HBO by December.
The series came to a close after a four season run in 1999. Ullman began conceiving a new show in which she'd play only one or two characters with minimal makeup. "This time I'll play one or two characters [instead of all the characters]. I just don't want to put all that rubber on my face. That began to get really tedious. I've got make it easier on myself, and it'll be easier if I don't have to spend ten hours in make-up."
Format
A typical episode consists of two or three long sketches with interstitial character monologues all focusing on the episode's subject. However, every season featured one or two episodes which deviated from the show's regular format in favor of a single storyline (e.g., "Vegas", "Hollywood", "Road Rage", "The End of the World").
Opening title sequence and theme song
Each episode of season one opened with Ullman asleep in bed, musing about the topic she would be taking on in that particular episode. This was her only appearance out of character in the show. This would end up becoming an issue for some viewers as many were unaware that Ullman was playing every character. The theme song was an original song performed by Ullman, describing the show's characters as "company in between [her] ears."
A new opening was conceived for season two in which she opened the show with an anecdote or monologue in relation to each episode's subject. The show's theme song was also changed to her 1983 cover version of the Kirsty MacColl song "They Don't Know", with Ullman and her characters lip-syncing and dancing to it.
In February 1998, Ullman revealed that some viewers were still unaware that she was playing all the characters, "We still get letters asking, 'Can I have a picture of Tracey and the rest of the cast?'"
Advertising
Famed caricaturist Al Hirschfeld's artistic rendering of Ullman surrounded her characters was used to promote the show's third season.
In 1999, Ullman was featured in a Got Milk? ad campaign, along with three of her Tracey Takes On... characters, Kay Clark, Linda Granger, and Hope Finch.
Character origins and development
All of the characters in Tracey Takes On were original creations. Ullman shied away from doing straight-up impersonations of celebrities believing it was Saturday Night Live territory. She instead chose to do amalgamations of many real-life everyday people, and in some instances, famous ones.
The only character to return from The Tracey Ullman Show was Kay Clark, as Ullman was her sole creator; Fox owned the rights to all the other characters that appeared on that show. "I love Kay. I'm very fond of her. This little British spinster – she's so courageous, and to think she's sort of on national television in America is rather thrilling to me when I used to witness her in the local bank in my village. She'd say, 'Hello, Miss Ullman. How's Hollywood?' And to think she's on American television and – she doesn't know!"
Ruby Romaine, who Ullman has described as "pure Hollywood white trash", was based on many of the Hollywood union makeup artists sent to make her up over the years. Ruby's look was inspired by Romaine Greene, a hairstylist who worked on many of Woody Allen's films, while her voice was inspired by Florence Aadland, mother of actress Beverly Aadland, who at 15 had an affair with 48-year-old Errol Flynn. Ullman had played Florence in the one-woman Broadway show The Big Love, for which she had prepared by listening to hours' worth of Florence's dictations to writer Tedd Thomey, for their book of the same name. There are parallels between Ruby Romaine's early days in Hollywood and those of Beverly Aadland, specifically Beverly's affair with Erroll Flynn.
The characters Fern and Harry Rosenthal and Linda Granger were created for Tracey Ullman Takes on New York. Ullman had toyed with the idea of giving Fern her own show but found that playing Fern left her "feeling like a limp rag" and that her husband avoided her afterward. She described Fern as "Loud, emotional with 'I'm from the suburbs' written all over her. She sat behind me at matinees of Cats and Les Misérables, not too shy to shout out to the performers, 'Speak up, darling, we can't hear you!'" When asked who had inspired washed-up Hollywood actress Linda Granger, and who they were, Ullman cited Loni Anderson and actresses that ended up guest-starring in episodes of Murder, She Wrote: "the kind of women that Ruby Romaine made up."
The characters Trevor Ayliss, Virginia and Timothy Bugge, and Janie Pillsworth, along with her mother Jackie, were originally created for the 1993 special Tracey Ullman: A Class Act. Trevor was based on a real British Airways steward and an observation Ullman made about crewmen who would "butch up" when leaving the galley. Ullman said of him, "I love Trevor. I've always wanted to do one of those gay air stewards because they're always so lovely to me. As Linda [Granger] says ... 'I have a wonderful homosexual fan base, and I love them!'" Since playing the character, every male steward Ullman has encountered is convinced that she based it on them. "And I always say I did. I go, 'You're right, I based it on you,' because that way I get free caviar." Fashion magazine editor Janie Pillsworth was an amalgamation of British editors such as Tina Brown and Anna Wintour.
Feeling that it would have been passé to play a talent agent, Ullman opted instead to play an attorney, Sydney Kross, apropos in the wake of the OJ Simpson trial and Court TV. Critics immediately took note of the character’s uncanny resemblance to real-life attorney Leslie Abramson, who defended Lyle and Erik Menéndez. Ullman noted, "She has a fascinating look.... I think she'll recognize herself physically but not her personality.... I've got some things physically which [aren't her]. I've [had] some teeth [made] that look like sharks. I had the glasses, the suit, but then I put these teeth in, and it made me move my mouth in a certain way. And I filed my nails square. Women in L.A. have these square white nails, reeeelly square...." When it came to Sydney's personality, Ullman found inspiration from an agent she had in Los Angeles named Holly, "who was insane." Always wanting to find some redeeming quality in all her characters, she was found herself stuck at first when it came Sydney. "[I]t seemed she had no redeeming features: she's horrid, cold, impersonal." But then she found a "humanizing trait": loneliness. "She's so aggressive, and so ugly! She's got adult acne, and her teeth are terrible! [...] She became sort of appealing to me. All of my characters have a sadness or inadequacy about them."
Her Royal Highness was a combination of Queen Elizabeth's voice, Princess Margaret's lifestyle, the Duchess of Kent's hats, and Princess Anne's teeth. Ullman sent a copy of the show's "Royalty" episode to Princess Diana feeling that she could use a laugh, and Diana, through her lady-in-waiting, expressed that she had enjoyed it.
The show's Asian doughnut shop owner, Mrs. Noh Nang Ning, was modeled after a real-life doughnut shop owner Ullman met while writing the show's first season in Los Angeles. The character was the show's only encounter with controversy. An Asian American watchdog group protested the show, calling the character stereotypical and racist, and asked HBO to remove the character. HBO defended the character, saying, "Tracey Ullman is a brilliant satirist and comedienne, and all of her work is in the spirit of fun and good humor." Ullman said of the controversy, "My criteria for doing a character is, do they exist, do they talk like this, would they indeed run a doughnut establishment? And I think Mrs. Noh Nang Ning meets all of that." However, she acknowledged, "Asian people don't necessarily see themselves in mainstream television and certainly not comic situations and after Mickey Rooney [as Mr. Yunioshi] in Breakfast at Tiffany's, I can understand why they're a little gun-shy." The controversy later become comic fodder in season four when Ruby Romaine announces that she was behind Mickey Rooney's look in Breakfast at Tiffany's. True to form, Ruby doesn't understand the controversy and declares that she should have won an Oscar. Mrs. Noh Nang Ning was retired after season three; Ullman had been complaining for years that the character's makeup felt like being buried alive. In fact, people of color, including Asian Americans, made up the show's largest fan base; Ullman commented, "It's such a diverse audience that I get. They're all those characters that I portray that are supposed to be politically incorrect. I get these Asian teenagers who come up and I think, 'Aren't you supposed to be offended by my doughnut-shop lady?' and they go, 'Oh, no! There's no one like that on TV. That's like my grandmother. I'd rather you do it than no one at all.'"
Beverly Hills madam Madam Nadja was based on Elizabeth Adams (known as "Madam Alex"), of whom Ullman said, "I love that she kept money underneath her bed. She never gets up all day. If she ever has to get out of bed, it's like, 'Dammit, I've got to get out of bed. I've got to get dressed.' That's when something major happens that she has to get dressed. She's very angry because she had to get out of bed today because of some stupid hooker in Venice."
The character Chic was based on a real New York City cab driver who once drove writer Allen Zipper to LaGuardia Airport. The line "You want to fuck me or you want to fuck my Mercedes?" was an actual comment from the driver, about how women in Los Angeles only cared about money. Ullman had a similar experience and spent the entire ride wondering how she could turn herself into the driver. The character was also partially based on a man she knew as a teenager in London, who worked in a restaurant and used the come-on line "Hey, darling, you like sex?"
Guest stars
Guest stars marked with an asterisk (*) represent those who made recurring appearances.
Amy Alcott as herself
Joan van Ark as herself
Corbin Bernsen
Julie Brown
Timothy Busfield
Ron Canada *
Seymour Cassel *
Billy Connolly
Bob Costas as himself
Kristin Dattilo *
Melinda Dillon
Richard Dimitri *
Alastair Duncan *
Chris Elliott
Erik Estrada as himself
Jon Favreau *
Mo Gaffney *
Judy Geeson *
Gloria Gifford *
Steven Gilborn
Adele Givens *
Joanna Gleason *
Whoopi Goldberg
Huell Howser as himself
Finola Hughes
Alex Karras as himself
Julie Kavner *
Hugh Laurie *
Hiep Thi Le
Jennifer Jason Leigh
Tobey Maguire
John Mahoney
Cheech Marin *
Penny Marshall as herself
Roddy McDowall
Bruce McGill
Tim McInnerny *
Michael McKean *
Sam McMurray
Helen Mirren
Joshua Malina *
Alfred Molina
Olivia Newton-John as herself
Natalija Nogulich *
Todd Oldham as himself
Carre Otis as herself
Maulik Pancholy *
Ron Perlman
Victoria Principal as herself
Giovanni Ribisi
Marissa Ribisi *
Melissa Rivers as herself
Glenn Shadix
George Segal *
Harry Shearer
John Stamos
Jeffrey Tambor
The Roches as themselves
Scott Thompson
Liz Torres *
Bradley Whitford
Danny Woodburn *
Episodes
Reception
Awards and nominations
The series was nominated for 24 Emmy Awards, winning 6, including 1 in 1997 for Outstanding Music, Comedy and Variety Show. The show won a CableACE award in 1996 for Best Comedy Variety Series, 3 American Comedy Awards, and 2 GLAAD Media Awards in 1998 and 1999.
American Comedy Awards
1998–Funniest Female Performer in a TV Series (Leading Role) Network, Cable or Syndication
1999–Funniest Female Performer in a TV Series (Leading Role) Network, Cable or Syndication
2000–Funniest Female Performer in a TV Series (Leading Role) Network, Cable or Syndication
CableACE Awards
1996–Actress in a Comedy Series
1996–Variety Special or Series
Directors Guild of America
1997–Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Musical/Variety
Primetime Emmy Awards
1997–Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series
1997–Outstanding Makeup for a Series
1997–Outstanding Costume Design for a Variety or Music Program
1998–Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series
1998–Outstanding Costume Design for a Variety or Music Program
1999–Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series
GLAAD Media Awards
1996–Outstanding TV Individual Episode ("Romance")
1999–Outstanding TV - Individual Episode ("Religion")
Online Film & Television Association
1998–Best Ensemble in a Variety, Musical, or Comedy Series
1998–Best Host or Performer in a Variety, Musical, or Comedy Series
1998–Best Variety, Musical, or Comedy Series
1998–Best Actress in a Cable Series
1999–Best Costume Design in a Series
1999–Best Host or Performer in a Variety, Musical, or Comedy Series
1999–Best Variety, Musical, or Comedy Series
Satellite Awards
1998–Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series - Comedy or Musical
Screen Actors Guild Awards
1999–Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series, Tracey Takes On...
Home media
VHS
DVD
On December 26, 2005, HBO Home Video released the first two seasons of Tracey Takes On... to DVD. The second season's "They Don't Know" lip-syncing title sequence has been removed and replaced with a black screen with the episode title, with an instrumental version of the first season theme. The closing credits feature the first season's theme song as well. Extras on the sets include the original HBO special Tracey Ullman Takes On New York (season 1), commentary on one episode per season by Tracey, previously unreleased Character Comedies, character bios (season 1), and a photo gallery (season 2).
Seasons 3 and 4 were released by Eagle Rock Entertainment as one DVD set on July 14, 2009 in the United States. While it claims to be "complete", the set's episodes are heavily edited, some to only three to five minutes in length; "Religion" is missing entirely. The set includes three Character Comedies: Virginia, Ruby, and Rayleen. The DVDs are region-free.
Streaming
Seasons 1 through 4 were released for purchase through iTunes and Amazon Video-on-Demand service in the United States in 2009, but are currently unavailable in either store. The episodes were heavily edited; some episodes were combined to make up for lost running time due to editing. In 2012, the entire series of 65 episodes could be streamed through Hulu, including all 15 unaired Character Comedies episodes.
References
Sources
External links
Tracey Takes On... Emmy Awards
Tracey Ullman
HBO original programming
1996 American television series debuts
1999 American television series endings
1990s American sketch comedy television series
1990s American LGBT-related comedy television series
Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series winners
Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series
English-language television shows
Television series by Fremantle (company)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misty%20Knight
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Misty Knight
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Mercedes "Misty" Knight is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Tony Isabella and Arvell Jones, the character was first mentioned in Marvel Premiere #20 (January 1975) and first appeared in Marvel Premiere #21 (March 1975).
Misty Knight is a former NYPD police officer whose arm was amputated following a bomb attack. After receiving a bionic prosthetic from Tony Stark, she started a private-investigation agency with close friend, Colleen Wing. The two would later form the crime-fighting duo Daughters of the Dragon. As private investigators, Misty Knight and Colleen Wing frequently worked with the Heroes for Hire duo Luke Cage and Iron Fist. Misty Knight is often seen in a romantic relationship with the latter. They had the first interracial kiss between super heroes in mainstream comics in 1977. Misty Knight is also the co-leader of the Valkyrior with Valkyrie.
Simone Missick portrayed the character in the Netflix television series Luke Cage (2016–2018), The Defenders (2017), and the second season of Iron Fist (2018), set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU).
Publication history
1970's
Misty Knight was first mentioned in Marvel Premiere #20 (January 1975). She debuted in Marvel Premiere #21 (March 1975), created by writer Tony Isabella and artist Arvell Jones. A later retcon in Marvel Team-Up #64 by Chris Claremont and John Byrne would reveal she had previously appeared as an unnamed character in Marvel Team-Up #1 (March 1972), written by Roy Thomas and penciled by Ross Andru. She appeared in the 1977 Deadly Hands of Kung-Fu series and the 1981 Bizarre Adventures series by writer Chris Claremont and artist Marshall Rogers. She appeared in the 1991 Deathlok series.
2000's
Misty Knight appeared in the 2005 Daughters of the Dragon series, by writer Justin Gray, writer Jimmy Palmiotti, and artist Khari Evans. She appeared in the 2006 Heroes for Hire series. She appeared in the 2006 Immortal Iron Fist series. She appeared in the 2010 Shadowland series. She appeared in the 2013 Fearless Defenders series, by writer Cullen Bunn and artist Will Sliney. She appeared in the 2017 Black Panther & The Crew series.
Fictional character biography
Misty Knight was a rising star with the NYPD when she was seriously injured preventing a bomb attack that forced the amputation of her right arm. Rather than take a desk job, she resigned from the police force, though she remained good friends with her long-time partner on the force Rafael Scarfe. Tony Stark provided her a bionic arm that endowed her superhuman strength. Soon after that, she met Spider-Man and then Iron Fist. Misty roomed with X-Men member Marvel Girl until Marvel Girl returned to her life as an X-Man.
Misty teamed with her friend Colleen Wing in fighting the criminal Emil Vachon in the Hong Kong area. She saved Colleen from an attempted beating. She then set up a private detective agency with Colleen entitled: "Knightwing Restorations Ltd".
Soon after she first met Iron Fist, the two crimefighters fell in love. Misty conducted undercover work against the crime lord John Bushmaster. She aided Iron Fist, Spider-Man, and Colleen Wing against Davos, the Steel Serpent. She then first met and fought Luke Cage, Power Man. Misty's "Knightwing Restorations Ltd" detective agency would go on to help Power Man and Iron Fist's Heroes for Hire agency on numerous cases. Misty aided Iron Fist and Power Man in rescuing captives of John Bushmaster and procured a videotape clearing Cage of crimes. Misty was then captured and nearly killed by Nightshade. She then helped the X-Men, Colleen Wing, and Sunfire against Moses Magnum in Japan. She fought Sabretooth, and then fought Constrictor and Sabretooth together, and was rescued by El Aguila. She escaped captivity and captured Ward Meachum. Colleen Wing later broke off her friendship with Misty due to Misty's relationship with Tyrone King. Misty rescued Iron Fist from drowning, reconciled with him, and ended her relationship with Tyrone King. Later, when Iron Fist broke up with her, Misty began a short romance with Power Man. This episode was a source of tension between Power Man and Iron Fist for a brief period.
Misty later learned of Iron Fist's apparent demise. Iron Fist was presumed dead for an extended period until Misty saw the Super-Skrull impersonate Danny Rand (Iron Fist) on television. She confronted the Super-Skrull in his guise as Danny Rand. Misty assisted Namor in finding and saving the hero. They went to the Savage Land, where they learned that the Super-Skrull had been posing as Iron Fist, and Misty aided Namor and Namorita against the Super-Skrull. She and Danny Rand were ultimately reunited and renewed their relationship.
During the 2006 "Civil War" storyline, Misty Knight and Colleen Wing were contacted by Iron Man, Reed Richards, and Spider-Man to re-form Heroes for Hire and track down superhumans who refused to register. Initially hesitant, the pair eventually agree creating a team including Shang-Chi, Humbug, Orka, Black Cat, Paladin, and a new Tarantula. Misty was identified as one of the 142 registered superheroes who was part of the Initiative.
After the Civil War between the superheroes ended, Iron Fist was shocked to find that Misty had sided with the Initiative as he had joined the New Avengers. Nevertheless when the Steel Serpent and HYDRA plotted to kill Iron Fist and destroy the seven cities of heaven (the latter unbeknownst to Steel Serpent), Misty and Colleen rushed with Luke Cage to Danny's aid. Later, the three helped Danny stop a terrorist attack by HYDRA on the mystical city of K'un L'un where Danny told Misty, "I love you, Misty... but I make a lousy boyfriend". Though Danny said this, they continued a sexual relationship and finally committed to each other on his birthday, despite their disagreement over the Superhuman Registration Act.
Returning from a mission to capture Moon-Boy during the World War Hulk storyline, Heroes for Hire arrive in New York to see that it has been taken over by the Hulk. After being captured by Warbound, Colleen Wing and Tarantula were offered to No-Name the Brood Queen by their possessed teammate Humbug. Misty makes a deal with Paladin to take Moon-Boy (whom Colleen had become attached to) to find both Colleen and Tarantula after their capture. When Misty and the other heroes come to save them, Colleen is in traumatic shock from the torture she endured; she is further agitated when Moon-Boy is taken into custody by Paladin. Colleen, deeply upset by her friend's actions, leaves the group as a result. Heroes for Hire itself has disbanded permanently in the aftermath of this. Misty becomes depressed due to her actions that led to the breakup of the group. Iron Man later comes to her to enlist her aid in stopping the Hulk's remaining robots; through this, she was able to move past her mistakes.
Misty and Danny move in with each other in Harlem. Danny proposes to Misty and she accepts, after that she tells him that she is pregnant with his child. They have since found out that this was a false pregnancy, causing a strain on their relationship. They decide to move out of their apartment and live separately, but continue their relationship.
During the 2010 "Shadowland" storyline, Misty, Colleen Wing, Iron Fist, Luke Cage, and Shang-Chi confront Daredevil in an attempt to stop him without violence. After a commotion happens elsewhere in his castle, he attacks the group, believing they are responsible.
Misty teams up with Paladin, Silver Sable and the Shroud to discover who is framing the Hand for the murder of a number of New York's mobsters.
Following the events of the "Shadowland" storyline, Misty revamps the Heroes for Hire concept by basing herself as 'control' and utilizing various street heroes based on their powers and abilities in exchange for money or information. At the end of the first issue, it is revealed that Misty is being manipulated by the Puppet Master. Misty is later freed from mind control with help from Iron Fist and Paladin. After being freed, Paladin approaches Misty to continue the operation Puppet Master set in place, but on her terms.
As part of the Marvel NOW! initiative, Misty Knight showcases in the comic book alongside Valkyrie where she is one of the members of the Fearless Defenders.
Misty Knight appears during the 2015–17 All-New, All-Different Marvel promotion as a supporting character to Sam Wilson, the new Captain America, who is uneasy now that his friend Steve Rogers has regained his original moniker. Though the two men opt to share the name, many civilians in the Marvel Universe feel that Sam Wilson is undeserving of the title. Misty helps him deal with his doubts and is revealed to be in a sexual relationship with him as well. She then helps clear the names of female heroes and villains, who fell victim to a scandal over embarrassing sex videos posted on the internet.
During the "Hunt for Wolverine" storyline, Misty Knight has left the NYPD for an unknown reason. She is approached by Daredevil and Nur who enlist her to help find Wolverine after his body goes missing from its unmarked grave. She takes them to an information broker that she knows who turns out to be Cypher. When Nur hands him a smartphone, Cypher makes use of it and tells Daredevil, Misty Knight, and Nur about the different Wolverine sightings in the past sixty days. Using an Attilan Security Force Skycharger that was "borrowed" from the Inhumans, Daredevil, Misty Knight, Nur, and Cypher investigate the sightings of Wolverine in Manhattan, Phoenix, and Chicago. Misty Knight and Nur arrive at McCarthy Medical Institute in Manhattan where Jane Foster was enrolled and learned that an unnamed man delivered flowers. The security footage revealed that it was by someone that resembled Wolverine. In Chicago, Misty Knight learns from a security guard that he deleted a post when he thought he saw Wolverine. When it came to Saskatchewan, they hear that Ranger Outpost Nine in Meadowlake Provincial Park was attacked by a man with claws. When they arrive, Daredevil, Misty Knight, and Nur find the males dead and the female missing as they head into the forest to investigate. When they find Cypher on the ground with a slit throat, Nur works to heal Cypher as Daredevil and Misty Knight discover that the attacker is Albert as they fight him. When Albert grabs Daredevil by the neck and demands to know what he did to Elsie-Dee, Misty Knight combines her bionic arm's attacks with Nur's gun and a recovered Cypher's laser to deactivate Albert as they leave an anonymous tip for the Canadian authorities to come to pick him up. Upon returning to Chicago, Daredevil, Misty Knight, and Nur visit the security guard she questioned again only to find him dead and a bomb nearby as it goes off. Misty Knight's cybernetic arm manifested a shield big enough to protect her, Daredevil, and Nur from the explosion. Then they worked to evacuate those who couldn't get out of the burning building. Nur reveals to Misty Knight that his eyes also work as a camera flash as he analyzed the apartment before it blew up. His analysis revealed that the security guard worked for a group called Soteira which was listed as an asset management company. Daredevil, Misty Knight, and Nur head to one of their offices in Chicago where Daredevil's radar detects the people inside purging their records. As the group crashes through the window, Nur holds the workers at gunpoint as Cypher works to see if he can stop whatever they were doing on the computer. Misty Knight works to protect Cypher who retrieves the data as the four of them escape from the Level Four Killteam. When Misty Knight asks what to do next, Daredevil states that he is grateful for their help as this is no longer a missing persons case. As Nur asks what he plans to do with the drive after getting him, Misty Knight, and Cypher back to New York, Daredevil says that he is giving it to Kitty Pryde while informing her on who else is looking for Wolverine and what they are walking into. Nur recaps his wife leaving him following his Terrigenesis and tells Misty Knight that he looks forward to working with her again.
Iron Man later enlists Misty Knight to help him rescue James Rhodes from Korvac.
Powers and abilities
Misty Knight is a highly skilled combatant who, in addition to her police-combat training, is proficient in martial arts and possesses near-perfect aim with firearms. She is a superb detective, having graduated at the top of her class at the police academy and earned a degree in criminology from the John Jay College of Criminal Justice. Her bionic arm is superhumanly strong, and she can punch a target with incredible force, or crush objects as tough as steel in her vise-like grip. Since the rest of her body is not cybernetically enhanced, she cannot lift objects heavier than her back, shoulders, and legs can physically support. Her arm's advantages as a weapon are limited to kinetic crushing and impact forces.
Her original bionic right arm was constructed from steel, and designed by Stark International. Her new arm was built by Stark Industries and is an alloy of Antarctic vibranium and diamond; at close range it can liquefy all known metals, including adamantium. It is now able to generate a wide anti-gravity repulsor field similar to Iron Man's armor. It can apparently release a concentrated beam of cryogenic energy, which can cover a target in a blanket of ice from a distance. This cold seems to make the target much more fragile, allowing otherwise durable materials to be broken or rended when frozen. Iron Man revealed the arm also displays technopathic capabilities, teaching Misty how to control a horde of robots. Following her "pregnancy", Danny Rand spent money on additional features to the arm, including magnetism and a concussive blast.
A couple of new upgrades given to her bionics were shown during her hunt across the world for the recently resurrected Wolverine. Showcasing an energy shield to ward off incoming assaults with, a force field which she can expand over a marginal radius to help protect multiple people if need be. It even has a deployed grapple line within the forearm for use as an extension to reach and grab objects a good distance away. Often useful for latching onto and swinging from place to place with or to escape deadly falls from great heights.
Reception
Critical response
Deirdre Kaye of Scary Mommy called Misty Knight a "role model" and a "truly heroic" female character. Rosie Knight of Nerdist included Misty Knight in their "8 Awesome Women Detectives in Comics" list. John Wilson of WhatCulture ranked Misty Knight 4th in their "10 Best Comic Book Detectives (That Aren't Batman)" list. Angelo Delos Trinos of Comic Book Resources ranked Misty Knight 9th in their "10 Most Iconic Black Marvel Superheroes" list, writing, "Misty became a cult favorite among fans. Misty's rise to prominence continues to this day, and she has nowhere else to go but up." Jason Serafino of Complex ranked Misty Knight 14th in their "25 Most Memorable Black Comic Book Characters" list, saying, "Misty is a refreshing figure for all readers to look up to. She's never over sexualized, and never gimmicky. Sadly, that's rare in the superhero genre."
Impact
A character known as Misty Knight appears in Quentin Tarantino's short film My Best Friend's Birthday and is named after the Marvel character.
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
An alternate version of Misty Knight appears in the Age of Apocalypse reality. She was one of many 'flatscans'- non-mutants- forced underground by Apocalypse. When her friends were attacked by a Brood, that had come to Earth, Misty escaped with the aid of Scott and Alex Summers, only to subsequently die fighting the reanimated corpses of her former friends.
MC2
IAn alternate version of Misty Knight appears in the MC2 universe. She eventually settled down and married Iron Fist. Unfortunately, at some point in the past, she died of cancer. Because of this Iron Fist gave up crime-fighting, and began to live as a simple martial arts trainer.
Ultimate Marvel
An alternate version of Misty Knight appears in the Ultimate Marvel Universe in the 2006 limited series Ultimate Extinction. She appears to have the same origin story as before, with an artificial arm created by Tony Stark. While investigating a "Paul Maitreya", a cult leader who resembles the Silver Surfer, she encounters a bald-headed woman who shoots Paul and his cult before escaping Misty. This woman appears to be one of an army of genetic clones of Heather Douglas a.k.a. Moondragon.
In Ultimate Mystery, Misty Knight later became a scientist and appears as a member of Roxxon Brain Trust.
House Of M
An alternate version of Misty Knight appears in the "House of M" storyline. She is part of Luke Cage's resistance and is killed when a Sentinel attacks their base and Cloak fails to teleport her out. It was revealed within the past that Misty was originally placed in Luke Cage's Avengers as an NYPD spy operating under Thunderbird (John Proudstar), but defected to the Avengers after refusing Proudstar's order to kill Cage. Misty eventually became Luke's lover, after some time has passed since the Taskmaster's murder of Tigra. It was Misty who realized that Luke's Avengers were inspiring non-mutants to fight for their rights as "Sapien" and tried to convince Cage to think beyond protecting Sapien Town.
newuniversal
An alternate version of Misty Knight appears in newuniversal: Shockfront. She appears as a detective assigned to apprehend John Tensen. She is partnered with Jean DeWolff.
Earth-13584
An alternate version of Misty Knight appears in A.I.M.'s pocket dimension of Earth-13584. She appears as a member of Spider-Man's gang.
In other media
Television
Misty Knight appears in The Super Hero Squad Show episode "A Brat Walks Among Us!," voiced by Tamera Mowry. This version is a member of Heroes for Hire.
Misty Knight appears in the Netflix series set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Simone Missick. This version is a detective at the NYPD's 29th Precinct in Harlem, known by her colleagues for her tendency to visualize crime scenes through viewing photos.
First appearing in the first season of Luke Cage, she is partnered with Detective Rafael Scarfe, though she is unaware that he is secretly working for Cornell "Cottonmouth" Stokes. As the season progresses, she attempts to expose Cottonmouth's crimes, along with those of Willis "Diamondback" Stryker, Shades, and councilwoman Mariah Dillard as well as investigating Luke Cage's connection to them. After Scarfe is killed trying to extort Cottonmouth, Knight is reassigned to work under Inspector Priscilla Ridley. At the end of the season, Misty Knight goes undercover at the Harlem's Paradise nightclub to spy on Mariah and Shades.
Misty Knight appears in The Defenders. As of this series, she has been promoted to a citywide task force investigating crimes committed by the Hand and joins forces with Cage, Jessica Jones, Matt Murdock, Danny Rand, Colleen Wing, and Claire Temple to protect their loved ones and defeat the Hand. While Knight loses an arm to Bakuto in the process, she learns Rand arranged for her to receive a bionic prosthetic while recovering in the hospital.
As of the second season of Luke Cage, set after the events of The Defenders, Misty Knight is still in therapy, adjusting to life without her arm amidst mockery from her coworkers and criminals alike, especially her rival Detective Nandi Tyler. After receiving advice from Wing, Misty Knight agrees to be outfitted with the Rand Enterprises prosthetic arm before resuming her investigation into Dillard and Shades' criminal activities as well as Bushmaster's attacks on the pair.
Misty Knight also appears in the second season of Iron Fist.
Video games
Misty Knight appears as an assist character Marvel Heroes, voiced by Cynthia McWilliams.
Misty Knight appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Alliance.
Misty Knight appears in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Misty Knight appears in Marvel Contest of Champions.
Misty Knight appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Future Fight.
Misty Knight appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy, voiced by Cenophia Mitchell. This version is a member of the Defenders.
Misty Knight appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
Misty Knight appears in Marvel Strike Force.
Misty Knight appears in Marvel Snap.
Notes
References
External links
World of Black Heroes: Misty Biography
African-American superheroes
Characters created by Tony Isabella
Comics characters introduced in 1975
Female soldier and warrior characters in comics
Fictional amputees
Fictional New York City Police Department officers
Fictional private investigators
Iron Fist (comics)
Luke Cage
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics cyborgs
Marvel Comics female superheroes
Marvel Comics martial artists
Marvel Comics police officers
Marvel Comics sidekicks
Marvel Comics superheroes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosys
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Biosys
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Biosys (stylised as biosys or BioSys) is a 1999 simulation/graphic adventure game hybrid developed by British studio Jumpstart Solutions Interactive and published by Take-Two Interactive. Inspired by the Biosphere 2 experiment, the game is set inside an artificial biosphere.
Plot
Background context
At the height of his career, celebrated ecologist and environmental campaigner Professor Alan Russell announced a Biosphere 4 project in 1990 in the Ecuadorian slopes of Mount Chimborazo as a follow-up to the Arizonian Biosphere 2. According to Russell, it would be an "enormous sealed environment, capable of identifying current research into the processes of our ecosystem". As lead of the Russell Group, he soon announced that he aimed to use the facility to develop a new type of vegetation called Bio-Engineered Synthetic Hybrids (Synths) that would combat the rising levels of . Russell's outlandish statements were ridiculed by the press, and to the world the plans were shelved when in 1992 Russell pulled the plug and abruptly resigned in order to avoid his public commitments and instead work on "the one key issue we now face". The Russell Group was in the process of pushing Sanctuary Initiative legislation to save the oceans, but, to the world at large, it seemed that without their leader the group lost influence and momentum. By abandoning and sabotaging the project, Russell caused a scandal. In actuality, Russell had retreated to Mt. Chimborazo and began to commence work on the biodomes, and lobbied the government to aid this project.
In 1995, it was reported that top secret construction work was happening around the biosphere location, protected by local government forces, and by August 1996 the three primary biodomes were sealed. Russell's attention turned to his project Biosphere 4 - an accelerated evolution biodome to house the Synths - and despite his reservations decided to sell to Subtech to ensure its completion. It was officially announced that Sam Devlin would become the sole funder of the Biosphere 4 research facility when his company Subtech, a subsidiary of Subsea Technologies Corporation, bought out the project. Devlin and Russell had previously been Subtech's employees in the 1970s, but when it was revealed their project for allowing people to live at ocean depths for months was to allow the mining of Earth's seabeds, Russell left while Devlin stayed. By buying him out, Devlin now compromised Russell and effectively removed the last obstacle in their way. The Biosphere 4 'popped' to become a sealed environment by the year 2000, and Russell began the second phase of his project, to create Synths. This became his singular project, to the point where he almost eradicated the rainforest biodome due to a fungal outbreak. In 1993, Russell shared his research regarding the Synth4 plants to his colleague, Sarah Parish, and asked for her help with the research. However, in 1995, he became too accustomed to the quick feedback loop of the biodome, and let the latest variant - Synth8 - be planted into the Biodome despite warnings from Sarah regarding their instability. After discovering that the Synths began attacking their babies within the growth chamber, Russell feared that he should have heeded Sarah's warnings though noted that oxygen could kill the strongest of Synths. He pumps oxygen in killing his creations, and he fears what he has unleashed.
In the lead-up to the 10th anniversary of the Biosphere 4, Russell sent Devlin his proposed speech which pushed environmental issues. This angered Devlin who noted that he owned the project and Russell, and that it was seen as "his baby" at Subtech, so he would reassert his power if need be. In 1996, Devlin emailed Russell about workers arriving to construct a leisure resort complex in the advanced evolution biodome called Club Eden, which Russell was not happy about due to putting an end to his Synth experiments. When Devlin sent Russell a blackmailing video detailing how Russell had orchestrated an assassination of a colleague, Russell noted that Biosphere 4 was his home and that he would do anything in his power to protect it. The act of welding is turning oxygen into as the workers began to notice a change in the ecosystem, causing the air to become unfit to breathe and making them suffer from respiratory issues or exhaustion. The workers began hearing and seeing weird things (the Synths), and Russell begins making trips to the biodome, spraying fire extinguishers to lure out the Synths. Devlin instigates a policy where if the project wasn't completed, the workers would be sealed inside the dome. Devlin also disconnects power from the biodome to the main control centre so Russell can't interfere. On December 10, 1997, the biodome wired up to the terminal so they could regulate their own atmosphere, taking the power away from Russell. Soon enough, a worker is killed by a Synth. On December 12, 1997, Devlin removed the ladder leaving to the cave out of the Biodome, effectively trapping the workers. On December 16, 1997, Russel issues his last warning and on December 20, Devlin tells the workers that everything's going to be okay. On December 23, 1997, two more workers disappear. Each of these deaths causes to be turned into oxygen. On December 24 during a Christmas party, Russell leaves a frantic message to the workers about the Synths, before a fire breaks loose which decimates the biodome. It's implied that Russel did this in an attempt to flush the biome clean by pumping oxygen, thus killing all the Synths, as relayed in an audio recording. There aren't enough extinguishers to put out the fire. Russell shows up to help while the leader of the workers, who had previously been skeptical of Russell, attempts to follow him to safety, but he and the rest die (accelerated by the alcohol). Russell barely escapes and passes out once he returns to the rainforest biodome, suffering from amnesia, which is where the game starts, on December 25, 1997.
Devlin sends Russell a video message saying that he knows Russell is responsible for the fire, and that he's furious and will destroy his life's work at any cost.
Upon the player nearing completion of restoring the atmosphere of Biosphere 4, Devlin sends Russell a final message detailing that thanks to Russel's efforts, Club Eden is ready for its first consignment of tourists, and that Subtech will kill Russell and posthumously ruin his reputation as the murderer of the Subtech worker crew and for being complicit in the assassination of his partner. Russell successfully escapes by un'popping' Biosphere 4, though the experiment proves that colonies can be created on other planets like Mars. When the police wish to speak to him regarding the fire and assassination, Russell disappears without a trace. Meanwhile, Club Eden opened as planned and patrons noticed their partners going missing, which Devlin put down to administration error. Devlin is later killed by a Synth, and the Synth spores spread out into the human world.
The game's perspective
The game follows the protagonist Professor Alan Russell and is set inside the fictional ecological facility Biosphere Four which was built by the Subtech Corporation. Russell awakes in what first appears to be a rainforest, but is actually one of four artificial biomes. The player initially has to maintain Russel's survival inside this environment and begin to unravel the mysteries behind this facility and the character's current predicament (Russell is suffering from amnesia). The ultimate goal of this real-time adventure is for the player to restore the natural balance in four artificial biotopes and escape.
Gameplay
The game is a combination of mystery, puzzle, survival, and simulation genres.
Pressing Tab will show the health/energy status of the player, which show if the player is hungry, thirsty, tired, hot, sick, or has other physical conditions. This information is used when players plan trips through the complex - longer trips use up more resources. The game consists of 360° rotational screens, and predefined pathways for the player to follow. The game is presented from the subjective first-person point of view. The biospheres live and breath in real-time - for instance plants grow as day and night passes. Decisions made in the game can have effects on both that enclosure and the other biodomes, and poor decisions can cause plant and animal life to die.
Development
Aaron Witkin, the game's executive producer, had preceded this title with the 1994 CD-ROM The Dead Sea Scrolls Revealed, along with Pixel Multimedia and under license from the Israel Antiquities Authority. This game bears a similarity to the "scientific experiment Biosphère 2 that had plunged a few men and women into a giant sphere to determine if they could preserve the ecosystem and live in total self-sufficiency".
The game was announced in PC Games issue 74, which noted that Take 2 was working on a render adventure in the style of Myst, which would include puzzles while also conveying biological connections. Originally meant to be released in October 1998, then November 13, 1998, but it was eventually delayed for the following year. In January 1999, Arcade reported the game would be released later that month. By February 1999, the game was due to be released in Germany during the First Quarter of that year. It was eventually released in Germany on March 3.
Tancred Dyke-Wells was an artist, animator and game designer on the title. The game has one hundred pre-rendered locations, and includes both a day/night cycle and a health status mechanic. Jumpstart Solutions consulted with three employees of Biospheres, which was owned by the founder of artificial biosphere Biosphere 2, who were credited in the game for “Ecological Research.” Touch Interactive / Touch Animation, based on Covent Garden, did much of the development for the title. The role of Jon Brierley was to " create a hugely complex computer interface within the game, which controlled and monitored the vast virtual environment".
It became one of the first major games published by Take-Two. The game was never published in the US, though was released in the UK and Germany. In Italy the game was to be distributed by Leader.
The game was a total commercial failure.
A real-time 3D sequel entitled "Mission To Mars" was to be released at the turn of the millennium, project directed by Tancred Dyke-Wells, but it was eventually unpublished. A message at the end of Biosys told players to "look out" for the game.
As the game is so unknown, there is no dedicated community to make it accessible. For many years the best way to play it is to buy an old CD-ROM or to download and manipulate files off archive.org. However, in the late 2010s a version for download which included a Windows 1995 emulator was released by Zombs Lair.
Critical reception
The game drew many comparisons with the adventure Myst and the survival game Robinson's Requiem, and critics often wrote about the game's difficulty or repetitiveness, though the audiovisuals were often praised.
Pre-release
In November 1998, PC Zone summarised the upcoming release as: "Cyborg things do battle. Very probably in the future". The following month, PC Zone noted that the word 'biosys' is short for biological systems, so assumed the game was about "cyborgs having a fight". This implies that by December 1998 (two months before its release), major magazines hadn't yet received playable demos or critic copies.
Contemporary
In 1998, All Game Guide felt that the game was "impressively detailed", and held the player's interest throughout the mystery plotline. Arcade felt that while the game involves many puzzles and resource management, it avoids being frustrating due to its engaging plot, though added that it can play a little slow. In January 1999, PC Gamer UK felt the gameplay was more sophisticated than the "pedestrian puzzling" of Myst, though felt it was let down by narrative confusion and a disorientating interface. In February 1999, Publico described it as a clone of Myst, released at the time when such a game was considered obsolete. Generation 4 said that the game felt like a "real ecosystem that seems to have been recreated". PC Player wrote that it's vital the player understands the interface as "any thoughtless change can cause the entire ecosystem to collapse", and suggested a month later that the game couldn't decide what it wanted to be; for an adventure game it had too few puzzles and for a simulation it wasn't serious enough.
In March 1999, PC Games deemed the game an unusual mix of adventure and eco-simulation, both an edutainment product and a fully-fledged graphical adventure, and recommended it for players interested in ecological issues. Gamereactor felt that a really good idea was hampered by poor execution. PC Joker deemed it an "original and challenging survival adventure", and expressed excitement that Jumpstart was working on a sequel. PC Action felt the complex narrative was the bright spot of an experience let down by things such as broken graphics and uninteresting riddles. PC Zeta felt that the game brought together lovers of three types of games: adventure, strategy, and simulation; additionally the magazine praised the audiovisual assets, noted that the puzzles were perfect for those less experienced in the adventure genre, and added that the interface is relatively easy to pick up. The magazine ultimately decided that Biosys contained all the elements of a good title: "originality, excellent story, engaging game situations and plot that unfolds in a crescendo [of] discoveries all while desperately trying to survive".
That April, Pelit thought the game would be a great experience for anyone who has imagined surviving in nature and manipulating it. Meanwhile Gamestar offered a scathing review, deeming it boring, overly complicated, and appealing to no one. PC Open deemed it an "unmissable game for both lovers of adventure for simulation enthusiasts", and deemed it one of the best video games of the year. The game reminded Gambler magazine of Robinson's Requiem, though noted it also included RPG and ecological gameplay; ultimately it deemed the game fit for the patient player due to its intricacies. PC Zone felt that while "interacting with a dynamically changing realistic world" would intriguing in theory, the game becomes very tedious, dull, and plodding in practice, and said it was like Robinson's Requiem only "complete crap"; the magazine ultimately compared the graphics negatively to Starship Titanic and said the title would only have value to those who enjoyed studying ecology. Micromania compared the effect of combating a myriad of threats in a labyrinthine environment to tamagotchi gameplay; the magazine commented that the technical design was awkward and artistic design came off as poor, in particular finding the screen transitions to be frustrating. However, Micromania praised the sound effects.
In June, Spielletips felt the game was "interesting and multi-faceted". Przygodoskop thought the game touched on themes of loneliness and loss. PC Gamer Italy concluded its review by asserting that "Even with its limits Bìosys remains a good adventure: the excellent ambience, involving storyline, and the simulation elements that distinguish it from every other adventure".
Retrospective
Biosys received the 1999 Seal of Approval from the German Center for Youth Media Culture.
In April 2001, Game reviewer Paul Smith thought he game makes more sense than Riven, but that it lacks the mystery of the game. New Scientist thought the game "probably teaches you more biology than you'll realise at the time", and notes that the game requires a fast processor and much RAM in order to look its best. In 2005, Rebell felt the gameplay of the long-forgotten Biosys made games from Russian developers look like Tamagotchi games due to its success as a challenging adventure game. A decade after its release, Wine HQ would write that it was "quite timeless and, sad enough, the only of its kind". Adventures Index summarised it as "another small masterpiece that went completely unnoticed thanks to the stupidity of the reviewers". Zombs Lair felt it is a "really interesting and, sadly, very obscure game". In 2017, Chordian felt Biosys was a game to skip because of the tedium in constantly keeping track of one health and energy status. In 2018, Egg Network felt the game was very innovative and ahead of its time.
The game inspired Edwige Lelievre's 2019 title Tevi, which was created in partnership with the Eden Project. Lelievre is currently completing a research project on Tevi another of her games called Vestigia, and Biosys; she is studying the latter from an external, poietic perspective. She has deemed the piece a meditation on "the relationship between humans and nature".
References
External links
https://www.kultboy.com/index.php?site=t&id=17531
1999 video games
adventure games
Take-Two Interactive games
video games developed in the United Kingdom
Windows games
Windows-only games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight%20of%20the%20Intruder
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Flight of the Intruder
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Flight of the Intruder is a 1991 war film directed by John Milius, and starring Danny Glover, Willem Dafoe, and Brad Johnson. It is based on the novel of the same name by former Grumman A-6 Intruder pilot Stephen Coonts. The film received negative reviews upon release, and was Milius's final theatrical release as a director.
Plot
Lieutenant Jake "Cool Hand" Grafton (Brad Johnson) and his bombardier/navigator and best friend Lieutenant Morgan "Morg" McPherson (Christopher Rich) are flying a Grumman A-6 Intruder during the Vietnam War over the Gulf of Tonkin towards North Vietnam. They hit their target, a 'suspected truck park', which actually turns out to be trees. On the return to carrier, Morg is fatally shot in the neck by an armed Vietnamese peasant. Landing on USS Independence with Morg dead, a disturbed Jake, covered in blood, walks into a debriefing with Commander Frank Camparelli (Danny Glover) and Executive Officer, Commander "Cowboy" Parker (J. Kenneth Campbell). Camparelli tells Jake to put Morgan's death behind him and to write a letter to Sharon, Morg's wife. New pilot Jack Barlow (Jared Chandler), nicknamed "Razor" because of his youthful appearance, is then introduced.
Lieutenant Commander Virgil Cole (Willem Dafoe) arrives on board and reports to Camparelli, who later tells Jake's roommate Sammy Lundeen (Justin Williams) to take Jake, Bob "Boxman" Walkawitz (Tom Sizemore) and "Mad Jack" (Dann Florek) to fly into Subic Bay the next day and help Jake unwind. Jake goes to see Sharon, but she has already departed. He runs into a woman named Callie Troy (Rosanna Arquette), who is packing Sharon's things, and they have a small, tense encounter. After an altercation with civilian merchant sailors in the Tailhook Bar, Jake runs into Callie again. After they reconcile, dance and spend the night together, she reveals her husband was a Navy pilot himself and was killed on a solo mission over Vietnam.
Jake returns to the carrier, where Camparelli confronts him regarding the bar incident, and Cole reports in Jake's favor. Cole and Jake are paired on "Iron Hand" A-6Bs loaded with Standard and Shrike anti-radiation missiles for SAM suppression. During the mission, after a successful strike, they encounter and manage to evade a North Vietnamese MiG-17.
Jake suggests to Cole that they bomb Hanoi, which would be a violation of the restrictive rules of engagement (ROE) and could get them court-martialed. Cole initially rejects the idea. On the next raid, Boxman hits the suspected target, but is shot down by another SAM and killed. The North Vietnamese in Hanoi gloat on TV over the downing of U.S. aircraft. Cole then agrees with Jake's plan to attack Hanoi, deciding to hit "SAM City", a surface-to-air missile depot.
To secure their mission, they coercively enlist the aid of the Squadron Intelligence Officer, who has been caught urinating in the commander's coffee decanter, being the Phantom Shitter who's secretly repeated this deed throughout the first half of the film. He warns Jake and Cole that there's no chance of succeeding in their mission, but he is soundly ignored.
Sent to bomb a power plant in the vicinity of Hanoi, they drop two of their Mark 83 bombs, keeping eight for the missile depot and set a new course for Hanoi for their independent bombing mission. Arriving at SAM City, on their first pass, their armament computer malfunctions and they are forced to bomb 'by hand' (guesswork), and after barely surviving a barrage of enemy fire, their bombs fail to release. The two come back around, rerun the route, successfully drop their bombs and manage to obliterate the missile depot in a spectacular display of secondary explosions. Upon returning to the carrier, Camparelli angrily chastises the pair for their independent mission and informs them of their impending court martial at the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay. During the preliminary hearing, Cole and Grafton are criticized for their actions, and informed that their naval careers are essentially over.
The charges are dropped the next day when Operation Linebacker II is ordered by President Richard M. Nixon, and the unauthorized mission is covered up. The next day, Camparelli grounds Jake and Cole while the rest of the carrier's A-6 and A-7 crews conduct a daylight raid to destroy anti-aircraft emplacements: the tangible, lucrative targets they've longed to attack. Camparelli is hit by a ZSU-23-4 Shilka AA tank and crash lands, his bombardier dead. Sammy Lundeen is hit and has to head for the ocean. Razor is ordered by Camparelli to disengage and obeys. Jake and Cole, defying orders, man their Intruder, launch and fly one more time to assist Camparelli. They destroy the ZSU, but are forced to eject from their heavily damaged aircraft. After bailing out, Jake lands near Camparelli's crashed Intruder and runs to cover with Camparelli. Separated from Jake, Cole is mortally wounded in hand-to-hand combat with an enemy soldier. On the radio, he lies to Jake, telling him he has already gotten away. Moments later, a pair of U.S. Air Force A-1 Skyraiders ("Sandy") appear and provide cover.
Cole instructs the lead Sandy to drop ordnance on the spot he has marked with smoke. He is killed along with a few dozen NVA soldiers. Cole's final voice transmission to Sandy is: "Alpha Mike Foxtrot"! (meaning "Adios, mother fucker!") Jake and Camparelli retreat into the woods, pursued by a sniper. A "Jolly Green Giant" helicopter picks up the two men, and the Skyraiders make one final napalm run to finish the job.
Later, recovering from his injuries, Jake joins his crew and Camparelli, all in their Navy whites, on deck to prepare for entry at a port of call. Jake and Camparelli reconcile their differences, and the movie ends in rolling credits.
Cast
Danny Glover as Commander Frank "Dooke" Camparelli
Willem Dafoe as Lieutenant Commander Virgil "Tiger" Cole
Brad Johnson as Lieutenant Jake "Cool Hand" Grafton
Rosanna Arquette as Callie Troy
Tom Sizemore as Bob "Boxman" Walkawitz
J. Kenneth Campbell as Lieutenant Commander "Cowboy" Parker
Jared Chandler as Lieutenant Junior Grade Jack "Razor" Barlow
Dann Florek as Lieutenant Commander Jack "Mad Jack" / "Doc"
Madison Mason as C.A.G.
Ving Rhames as Chief Petty Officer Frank McRae
Christopher Rich as Lieutenant Morgan "Morg" McPherson
Douglas Roberts as "Guffy"
John Corbett as "Big Augie"
Scott N. Stevens as Hardesty
Justin Williams as Lieutenant Sammy Lundeen
Politician and actor Fred Thompson has an uncredited role as a JAGC Captain during the court-martial sequence, reflecting his real-life profession as an attorney. David Schwimmer has a bit part as a Squadron Duty Officer. David Wilson, a military advisor to the production, appears as an officer in the flight briefing.
Production
Original novel
The US Naval Institute, which publishes Proceedings, the professional journal of the US Navy, had a success publishing the first original novel in its 112-year history with The Hunt for Red October. They were flooded with manuscripts and decided to publish as a follow-up Flight of the Intruder by Stephen Coonts. Coonts was a Denver lawyer who had flown during the Vietnam War; he was discharged in 1977 after nine years of active duty, including two combat cruises aboard the Enterprise, 1600 hours in Intruders and 305 carrier landings, 100 of them at night. He had sent the book to 36 publishers, 30 of whom refused to look at it, four who rejected it and two that he was waiting to hear back from. Coonts says he made up the central thrust of the film: "There was no secret bombing. It comes out of the character's deep-seated sense of frustration with the course of the war".
The book became a best seller, due in part to an endorsement from Tom Clancy and President Ronald Reagan (who had liked Red October) and was a selection for the Book of the Month Club. Paperback rights were sold for $341,000.
The book spent over six months on the best seller list and sold over 230,000 copies in hardback. Coonts signed a contract with Doubleday to write another novel about pilot Jake Grafton, Final Flight. The Naval Institute Arm sent Coonts a letter asking for a licensing fee to use the character again.
Development
Film rights were bought by producer Mace Neufeld, who had filmed The Hunt for Red October. A script was written and John McTiernan was originally going to direct Intruder but dropped out and eventually served as an executive producer. The Russian sequences in the film of October had been rewritten at Sean Connery's request by John Milius, and Milius was signed to direct Intruder.
Milius commented about the novel: "It was such an internal examination of that life and what it takes to fly. There was such wonderful reality on life aboard a naval carrier and life in Vietnam. I loved the whole idea of what those guys do".
Milius rewrote the original script. According to Sam Sayers, who worked on the film as technical adviser, "I never saw the first script, but I understand there were scenes of pilots smoking pot and that kind of nonsense. It was unrealistic - Top Gun in Vietnam. Milius just went back to the book. It's the reason he wanted to make the film".
Coonts said that "most books don't seem to survive, but this was an excellent transition. It takes 12 hours to read the book on tape, and it's certainly abridged - 13 flights in the book are scrunched down to four, and the role of the girl (played by Rosanna Arquette) is smaller. But the themes of the film are the same as the book".
Milius said that he was not interested in debating about the Vietnam War, but about "what happens to people, in this case the professionals who fought it, and their reactions as human beings, the institutions that people belong to and give themselves to that are larger than themselves... It certainly is no more patriotic than The Right Stuff, but it's in the same vein".
Milius also added that "one of the things I like about the military, and why I'd have loved to be an officer in the Navy, is that the (moral) code is very simple. I come from a business where there's a preponderance of literature on the lack of morality - and I don't find it terribly entertaining, that atmosphere, in fact I find it rather weak".
The lead roles of the pilots were given to Richard Gere and Brad Johnson; Johnson had just played a key role in Steven Spielberg's Always (1989). Milius talked to Richard Dreyfuss about playing the squadron commander. Rosanna Arquette had the female lead. Gere dropped out and was replaced by Willem Dafoe. Danny Glover played the squadron commander. The film included an early role for Tom Sizemore.
Danny Glover spent five days aboard the aircraft carrier USS Independence for research, which he said made him appreciate the story more: "It's about the camaraderie and the bond of trust that exists between men under stress. The camaraderie and trust I've seen among the men here, many only 18 or 20 years old, in peacetime, has got to be that much stronger under conditions of conflict, especially if they don't feel they're supported from up above".
Shooting
Filming began in November 1989 on location in Hawaii.
Flight of the Intruder was made with complete U.S. Navy cooperation, with eight Naval Air facilities at the disposal of the Paramount production team. The USS Independence (CV-62), provided for two weeks of filming in November 1989 and A-6E Intruders from VA-165 "Boomers" were used. Members of VA-165 spent two weeks on the Independence. The film crew kept the ship's fire party busy with numerous small electrical fires started by their lighting equipment. The Navy had script approval and was reimbursed for costs associated with the film: an estimated $1.2 million.
The ship seen on guard station in the background as Grafton threw Morg's fuzzy dice overboard after his memorial service was the USS William H. Standley (CG-32). Naval Air Station Barbers Point Hawaii Hangar 111 (HSL-37 and VC-1 hangar) housed the A-6 Intruders during filming in Hawaii. The battleship USS Missouri can be seen behind Camparelli during the court martial sequence. Also two scenes were shot at Naval Station Long Beach, California.
Future U.S. Senator Fred Thompson had a major speaking part during the court-martial sequence, portraying a U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General (JAG) Corps captain. As a favor to his friend, John Milius, Ed O'Neill was originally cast in the movie in a small uncredited role, but when the film was screened for test audiences, his appearance led to laughter, as audience members associated him with his Married... with Children character, Al Bundy. The director recast his character and reshot those scenes.
Milius described the film as one of the "worst experiences" of his career:
That was Paramount with the Paramount control, and they tried to control every aspect of it. I'd spent more money than I'd ever spent before, because they told me how much I was going to spend on it. They didn't let me control it. I would have made that movie for at least $5 million less.
Before the film was released, Milius did a draft of Clear and Present Danger.
Aircraft used
Flight of the Intruder required early variants of the A-6 Intruder, the A-6A conventional bomber and A-6B equipped with specialized electronics and weapons for suppression of enemy air defenses missions. All operational A-6s at the time of filming, however, had been updated to the A-6E without the TRAM targeting equipment, or KA-6D standards. The A-6 featured in the crash scene was a detailed mock-up patterned from an actual aircraft but with a foreshortened rear fuselage. The large-scale (1/160) miniature of Hanoi and "Sam City" was recreated to serve as the backdrop for rear projection work.
Other aircraft included a Sikorsky SH-3 "Sea King" rescue helicopter in various action sequences, with brief appearances of U.S. Navy aircraft such as the North American RA-5C Vigilante, Vought A-7 Corsair II, Grumman C-2 Greyhound and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, as well as a MiG-17 in North Vietnamese markings. Two privately owned Douglas A-1 Skyraiders also flew in the rescue sequence.
Differences from the novel
In the novel, the A-6 Intruder pilots operate from the fictional aircraft carrier USS Shiloh. Grafton enlists his new bombardier Cole and Abe Steiger (the squadron intelligence officer) to attack the headquarters of the Communist Party in Hanoi, but Steiger is unable to find any information on Communist Party Headquarters among the targeting materials available aboard the Shiloh. They ultimately decide to attack the National Assembly building as requesting targeting information about Communist Party Headquarters would raise unwanted attention and suspicion. In the novel, Callie had not been previously wed (nor was she a mother). In another departure from the film, Grafton and Cole are shot down during a twilight SAM suppression raid. Major Frank Allen, an Air Force A-1 pilot and member of the rescue operation to recover Grafton and Cole, is shot down. Dying and unable to free himself from his aircraft, he calls in a strike on his location, not Cole. The novel ends with Cole and Grafton being rescued. Cole is eventually transferred to Naval Hospital Pensacola, Florida, for treatment of his wounds while Grafton reflects on his progress towards his naval service and gets lost in a state of limbo regarding his career.
Reception
The film was meant to be released on July 13, 1990, but was delayed in order to shoot a new ending. Neufeld said the studio did not want the film to compete with two other military-aircraft themed films, Memphis Belle and Air America. Also he wanted to film an additional scene aboard the USS Ranger in San Diego with Danny Glover and Brad Johnson: "We worked around the navy's schedule. After all, you just don't put in an order for one of these things to come into port". The film was eventually released in January 1991. It coincided with the beginning of Operation Desert Storm.
Box office performance
The film earned $5,725,133 in its first weekend on 1,489 screens, making it the fourth most popular film in the US. Its final theater gross was $14,587,732, failing to recoup its $30 million budget.
Critical response
Flight of the Intruder earned mostly negative reviews upon its release, with many reviewers noting inconsistencies in plot and continuity errors in the final edit, as well as the low-budget special effects. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 25% approval rating based on 12 reviews, with a rating average of 4.80/10. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert called the film a "mess", noting that "some scenes say one thing, some say another, while the movie develops an absurd and unbelievable ending and a final shot so cloying you want to shout rude suggestions at the screen". In a 2019 interview, Stephen Coonts, the author on the book on which the film was based gave two reasons for the poor quality of the film. Firstly, his book being poorly suited for adaption into a film, and secondly micromanagement from the US Navy, which was providing access to its ships and aircraft for the film.
Video game
Flight of the Intruder, a video game based on the original novel, was released for personal computers in 1990 and re-released for the Nintendo Entertainment System around the same time as the film. Developed by Rowan Software, Ltd. and published by Spectrum Holobyte, the game allowed players the choice of flying either the Grumman A-6 Intruder or the F-4 from aircraft carriers against targets in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
In popular culture
The theme music of Flight of the Intruder was later used as the opening theme of the Belgian TV humorous talk show/game show series Schalkse Ruiters.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Farmer, James H. "Making 'Flight of the Intruder'". Air Classics, Volume 26, No. 8, August 1990.
Segaloff, Nat. "John Milius: The Good Fights". McGilligan, Patrick. Backstory 4: Interviews with Screenwriters of the 1970s and 1980s. Berkeley, California: University of California, 2006. .
External links
NY Times: Flight of the Intruder Overview
1991 films
American aviation films
Films about shot-down aviators
Films directed by John Milius
Films produced by Mace Neufeld
Films scored by Basil Poledouris
Films set in the 1970s
Films shot in Hawaii
Films shot in Savannah, Georgia
Vietnam War aviation films
Vietnam War films
Films about the United States Navy
Films based on American novels
Films with screenplays by John Milius
Films set in Hanoi
Films set on aircraft carriers
Comedy television theme songs
Television game show theme songs
Television talk show theme songs
1990s English-language films
1990s American films
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