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29io2y
|
can the Brocca area replace one another?
|
When people get hit in the Brocca area (speaking area) in their dominant hemisphere , they lose their ability to speak while the speech comprehension is preserved, so is it possible that the remaining one takes on its role?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cilpicp"
],
"text": [
"Language is the most heavily [lateralised](_URL_0_) of brain functions, so if we are talking about making a full recovery following a serious insult to Broca's area, that is very unlikely.\n\nThat being said, there is some evidence of plastic reorganisation following impairment. The homologous area in the intact hemisphere can take some of the roles of the damaged tissue, but it is highly dependent on a number of other factors such as nature, location and extent of the lesion, age of onset, intervention, etc."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function"
]
}
|
can the Brocca area replace one another?
When people get hit in the Brocca area (speaking area) in their dominant hemisphere , they lose their ability to speak while the speech comprehension is preserved, so is it possible that the remaining one takes on its role?
|
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] |
|
3590dp
|
Why is there only 1 start codon but 3 stop codons?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cr2kzra",
"cr2hak0"
],
"text": [
"I can't speak to the evolution or utility of why this or that codon is what it is, but I just wanted to point out that while AUG is the canonical start codon it is not the only one. There are a couple of alternate start codons which are basically one base substitutes of the usual methionine triplet. See [wikipedia](_URL_1_) or [this](_URL_0_) random example from the literature.",
"I'm in my last year as a bio undergrad, so I'm not as well qualified (or even qualified at all) to talk about this as much as the people with advanced degrees. From what I can tell the reason why we have extra codons is because the advantage of preventing readthrough during translation is greater than the disadvantage of causing early termination. Both proteins are (probably) non-functional in both cases. The energy is saved by not continuing to add more and more amino acids. Which I would assume could be very wasteful. Especially if the process carried through the 3' uncoded region and into the poly-a tail. Lysine for daysss. I'm sure I messed up in here somewhere, but I just thought I'd just give the question a shot."
],
"score": [
5,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://mcb.asm.org/content/19/1/505.full.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Start_codon"
]
}
|
Why is there only 1 start codon but 3 stop codons?
|
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||
2iv7b9
|
How Fast Would Something Need to Move in Order for it to Visibly Blueshift?
|
Pretty much as it says. How fast would something need to move before it would Blueshift to the naked eye?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cl5th4y"
],
"text": [
"The relativistic Doppler shift equation for when the source (s) is moving straight toward the observer (o) is:\n\n(λo/λs)^2 = (1+v/c)/(1-v/c)\n\nSolving this equation for the velocity v gives:\n\nv = c (1-(λo/λs)^2 )/(1+(λo/λs)^2 )\n\nLet's assume that a clearly visible blueshift would be if a solidly green color (λs = 530 nanometers) becomes a solidly blue color (λo = 470 nanometers). Plugging these numbers in we get:\n\nv = 0.12 c = 36 million meters per second (81 million miles per hour)\n\nFor comparison the fastest manned vehicle relative to the Earth (Apollo 10) traveled at 11 thousand meters per second (25 thousand miles per hour)."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How Fast Would Something Need to Move in Order for it to Visibly Blueshift?
Pretty much as it says. How fast would something need to move before it would Blueshift to the naked eye?
|
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|
4tqsq1
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Eric Noel Muñoz and I helped in the eradication of "Killer Algae" on the coast of Southern California. Environmentalist and Brady Bunch actor Christopher Knight will be joining me. Ask Us Anything!
|
Hi, my name is Eric Noel Muñoz. A life-long ocean lover with a degree in physical geography from San Diego State University, I wrote about how Agua Hedionda Lagoon in northern San Diego County eradicated an invasive species of seaweed between 2000 and 2006 which was most likely released from a home aquarium. This strain of Caulerpa taxifolia (nicknamed "Killer Algae" for good reason) is a mutant genetic clone of a natural counterpart; it has no predators, keeps fish away, grows rapidly and smothers reef or rocky substrate, and reproduces via fragmentation. First detected in the Mediterranean Sea and now in over half a dozen countries there, it also is in Southern and Eastern Australian wetlands.
As a Carlsbad city planner and later lagoon foundation president, I had many roles in the eradication effort and outreach efforts from 2000 through 2015. The book is a personal account which covers the issue from many angles and includes time spent in New Zealand, Australia, Croatia, France, and Monaco. Our local effort—the only known successful eradication of an invasive marine species—is put into a global context and outlines the success of our rapid response that combined funding, science, and policy.
You can check out my book *Caulerpa Conquest: A Biological Eradication on the California Coast* on [Amazon](_URL_1_) or directly from the publisher, [Open Books Press](_URL_2_).
You can watch my 3-minute TED animated video here: [Attack of the Killer Algae - Eric Noel Muñoz](_URL_0_)
For my AMA session, I will be joined as necessary by a consulting biologist/scuba diver who was part of the eradication team, Robert Mooney, Ph.D, of Marine Taxonomic Services in San Marcos, CA. Christopher Knight, environmental activist and Peter Brady from *The Brady Bunch* will be on from 12:30 to 1:00 PST and can chime in on any questions about his work with community outreach regarding *Caulerpa taxifolia*.
I look forward to your questions on everything from our efforts in California to the situation in the Mediterranean and in Australia, plus whatever else you might think up. I’ll be on from noon to 2 p.m. PST. AMA!
-----
Eric's publisher here! Eric has signed off for the night since he has a book signing to go to (California Surf Museum in #Oceanside from 6-8 p.m for anyone local) but wanted me to let you all that he really enjoyed the exchanges and the experience of hosting an AMA. We hope you'll give the book a read ([Amazon link](_URL_1_)). Feel free to contact Eric with any other questions or if he didn't reach yours in time; his email address is in the back of the book!
Thanks everyone, and thanks to the /r/askscience mods for a great time!
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Since you're good with killer algae can you please come check out the situation in Martin County, Florida with the toxic algae blooms caused by the releases from Lake Okeechobee? We are loosing hundreds of dolphins, manatees and there is now a large fish kill. Our government is unwilling to do anything to resolve the problem and this is being ignored at a federal level. \n\nEdit: Here are some articles to what I'm referencing.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_0_",
"How does one actually go about the extermination of algae? I assume it's more difficult than it sounds.",
"In Utah right now we are experiencing a huge algae bloom that has closed off many different waterfront areas for people. It almost appeared over night in some areas. Granted, this is not ocean water, but river and lake water. I've read that the growth may have been spurred by run off of fertilizers from people's yards, as well as the abnormally warm weather. What could have been the catalyst for such an explosion of growth? Also, how long do algae blooms usually last, and is there anything a normal citizen can do with clean up efforts/preventative measures?",
"Eradication of any species is really hard, eradication of a macro algae is probably impossible. How long has it been since the chlorine treatment?\n\nAlso - Did the violent death of Tiger the dog in season one of TBB have any immediate or lasting affects on the mostly child cast?",
"Have large scale algae blooms been tackled with any degree of success before? And if so with what methods?",
"Can you talk about how your personal knowledge of the ocean as a surfer/waterman, and knowledge of Southern California currents, factored into concerns of what might happen if caulerpa escaped Agua Hedionda lagoon and hit the open sea? Could you discuss that?",
"Here in MN, we have what's called blue-green algae and it has killed some pets here. Would your eradication method be applicable in freshwater?",
"What can every day citizens ( US ) do to help out? Even those of us who live no where near the oceans?",
"What do you guys think about what's going on a little north of you, in the Ballona Wetlands? Is it too late for that estuary, and the developers \"won,\" or can time be turned back and the wetlands restored despite all the ugly condo construction?",
"I'm not sure if you remember me, but I actually met you outside of Karl Strauss in Carlsbad! My friends and I asked you about your car, and I remember you showing us your book and giving us a card.\n\nAnyways, I was curious about how you guys actually go about getting rid of the algae. What's the process like, and what exactly do you guys do? How would you go about removing this strain of algae without harming other wildlife?",
"Hi. Since you have mentioned they have no predators. Can microorganism play any roles in eradication through infect them specifically or other mechanisms?",
"What are your thoughts on globalization and free trade as it pertains to the vectors by which flora and fauna are exported to non-native regions? Are government regulations sufficient to stem the spread of invasive species in the future or can we expect them to increase? How does climate change play into that? Since you're from California, is the Asian citrus psyllid a credible threat to the orange industry? How do you actually go about establishing a quarantine when the flow of commerce is virtually unabated?",
"Good morning from San Marcos, CA or currently from the federal area in downtown SD.\n\nDoes this killer algae have any effect on the normal non-selective bred algae if they were placed together in the same area? Is the regular algae noxious as well? \n\nIs there any action going on to prevent the further spread in already infested places like the Mediterranean? I understand it is too big of an area to control but what other methods have experts been using?",
"Were there significant negative impacts of the eradication process? Could they be handled better in the future?\n\nDo you consider some of the lessons learned to be immediately usefull for other invasive species situations?\n\nDid you gain any insight on the future of saltwater algae cultivation during the eradication?",
"Looking at wiki to check I don't have it in my aquarium, I notice there is mention of it controlling pollution in areas of the Med and not affecting the actual biodiversity or fishloads. What are your thoughts on the sources of this and have you done any comparison of pollution, biodiversity etc before and after in your area compared to the med areas quoted? Also what efforts have been made to reduce the pollution? Thanks\n_URL_5_",
"I live in Southern Arizona. Do you have any words of tactical/strategic advice in the ongoing effort to eradicate buffelgrass? Can you contrast the challenge of eradicating a land based invasive species vs. a marine invasive species? How is it easier? How is it harder? What about an invasive plants vs. an invasive animals (like the mussels that are causing the Hoover Dam so much concern)?\n\nAlso, what invasive species currently poses the biggest threat today?",
"I hope you know how greatful all us SoCal residents are. I can't even imagine this state without our beaches. Y'all are really amazing.\n\nHow did you know you wanted to study marine science? Did you ever think your education plan was going in a different direction?",
"1. Is aquarium dumping the only known vector for the spread of Caulerpa toxifolia, or can they, for example, spread with sea currents? \n \n2. Are there any projects related to Caulerpa toxifolia that focus on educating the public of the dangers of dumping aquarium plants?",
"Everyday new studies are published showing devastating effects of climate change. Do you see iron eating bacteria or any algae as a solution and major carbon sink? Also what are some things to worry about when intentionally booming these bacteria and algae communities?",
"Christopher, when you're helping with public perception of an environmental situation such as the one written about in 'Caulerpa Conquest,' what do you feel are the most important scientific and community messages that will get people to actively take part?",
"That is rather awesome! Do you think this knowledge will help enable you in handling of other invasive plant species?\n\nWould your experience also give you insight into eliminating non plant invasive species in a marine environment?",
"What causes \"red tide\" the glowing crashing waves? Is that native to California coasts or caused by an invasive species?",
"Why should we feel responsible to eradicate such an organism? Did we produce it? Or would it lead to mass extinctions if left unchecked?\n\nI'm mostly looking to gauge whether (globally) it's a positive negative thing that we've interfered.",
"What are 3 things you can suggest to a community that finds itself in a similarly difficult situation to Carlsbad in 2000 -- with an invasive marine species threatening an entire lagoon and business, in this case recreation?",
"What about the Zebra Mussels in Texas, is there a strategy to clear them out beyond just making sure you don't inadvertently transport them to another body of water?",
"What were the specific stages to the eradication effort in California -- and how can communities replicate them to have success with efforts against other invasive species?",
"Is blue green algae in lakes as dangerous in its proliferation as what you have dealt with in San Diego County?",
"What kinds of algae out there can cause harmful blooms like this? How are they all related to each other?",
"Good afternoon, have you ever encountered an invasive species that actually seemed to help it's host area?",
"What about algae in Oregon? I wonder if thats why all the starfish are dying here",
"Thoughts on Milfoil? It's smothering out the other plants in our lakes and killing certain fish.",
"Chris knight? Shouldn't he being trying to get Dr. Hathaways laser up and running?",
"We have killer algae in Utah, can you send help?"
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vd4rgN6MYtg",
"http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1941799426/?tag=penandpublish-20",
"http://openbookspress.com/books/caulerpa-conquest.php"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wptv.com/news/region-martin-county/stuart/martin-county-holding-emergency-meeting-over-algae-tuesday",
"http://www.tcpalm.com/news/indian-river-lagoon/health/high-levels-of-toxins-from-algae-at-4-test-sites-in-martin-county-379cc3be-928b-474f-e053-0100007f3d-386998721.html",
"http://www.wpbf.com/news/report-shows-extreme-toxicity-at-4-bodies-of-water-in-martin-county/40723340",
"http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/news/local/blue-green-algae-coming-up-on-shore-closes-some-tr/nrnpj/",
"http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/news/report-algae-shutting-down-martin-county-beaches-s/nrnWD/",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulerpa_taxifolia#cite_ref-8"
]
}
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Eric Noel Muñoz and I helped in the eradication of "Killer Algae" on the coast of Southern California. Environmentalist and Brady Bunch actor Christopher Knight will be joining me. Ask Us Anything!
Hi, my name is Eric Noel Muñoz. A life-long ocean lover with a degree in physical geography from San Diego State University, I wrote about how Agua Hedionda Lagoon in northern San Diego County eradicated an invasive species of seaweed between 2000 and 2006 which was most likely released from a home aquarium. This strain of Caulerpa taxifolia (nicknamed "Killer Algae" for good reason) is a mutant genetic clone of a natural counterpart; it has no predators, keeps fish away, grows rapidly and smothers reef or rocky substrate, and reproduces via fragmentation. First detected in the Mediterranean Sea and now in over half a dozen countries there, it also is in Southern and Eastern Australian wetlands. As a Carlsbad city planner and later lagoon foundation president, I had many roles in the eradication effort and outreach efforts from 2000 through 2015. The book is a personal account which covers the issue from many angles and includes time spent in New Zealand, Australia, Croatia, France, and Monaco. Our local effort—the only known successful eradication of an invasive marine species—is put into a global context and outlines the success of our rapid response that combined funding, science, and policy. You can check out my book *Caulerpa Conquest: A Biological Eradication on the California Coast* on [Amazon](_URL_1_) or directly from the publisher, [Open Books Press](_URL_2_). You can watch my 3-minute TED animated video here: [Attack of the Killer Algae - Eric Noel Muñoz](_URL_0_) For my AMA session, I will be joined as necessary by a consulting biologist/scuba diver who was part of the eradication team, Robert Mooney, Ph.D, of Marine Taxonomic Services in San Marcos, CA. Christopher Knight, environmental activist and Peter Brady from *The Brady Bunch* will be on from 12:30 to 1:00 PST and can chime in on any questions about his work with community outreach regarding *Caulerpa taxifolia*. I look forward to your questions on everything from our efforts in California to the situation in the Mediterranean and in Australia, plus whatever else you might think up. I’ll be on from noon to 2 p.m. PST. AMA! ----- Eric's publisher here! Eric has signed off for the night since he has a book signing to go to (California Surf Museum in #Oceanside from 6-8 p.m for anyone local) but wanted me to let you all that he really enjoyed the exchanges and the experience of hosting an AMA. We hope you'll give the book a read ([Amazon link](_URL_1_)). Feel free to contact Eric with any other questions or if he didn't reach yours in time; his email address is in the back of the book! Thanks everyone, and thanks to the /r/askscience mods for a great time!
|
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|
u55gl
|
Reddit do you have any examples of bias within science?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4seg62"
],
"text": [
"[This might be an interesting example of bias that was eventually overcome.](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_drop_experiment#Millikan.27s_experiment_as_an_example_of_psychological_effects_in_scientific_methodology"
]
}
|
Reddit do you have any examples of bias within science?
|
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||
9w0eyb
|
How does the composition of the Moho Discontinuity differ to the rest of the lithosphere?
|
I haven't had much success googling this and my journal subscriptions ran out two years ago. Does anyone here know?
Specifically, would one expect to find more (or less?) heavy metals down there than on the surface?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e9oijpm"
],
"text": [
"First I need to be a little pedantic: the Moho is a seismic and lithologic boundary that separates the lower crust (slow wave velocities) from the mantle (fast wave velocities). It's not a rock, and doesn't have a composition.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut what I think you mean is \"are there valuable heavy metals at moho depths?\" Are there valuable metals deep down? It depends. Mafic and ultramafic rocks, common near the moho, can sometimes have economically important amounts of PGEs, Ni, and Cr.\n\n & #x200B;"
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does the composition of the Moho Discontinuity differ to the rest of the lithosphere?
I haven't had much success googling this and my journal subscriptions ran out two years ago. Does anyone here know? Specifically, would one expect to find more (or less?) heavy metals down there than on the surface?
|
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|
12hjs6
|
What happens to the biliopancreatic loop after a duodenal switch is performed?
|
I was watching extreme bodies on netflix and they were talking about doing a [duodenal switch](_URL_0_). But what happens to the biliopancreatic loop and why do they leave it attached? I would think that it would be safer to just remove that section because it looks like it would have a chance of becoming blocked or dieing?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6v3n54"
],
"text": [
"The biliopancreatic loop carries digestive enzymes to the common channel so digestion can happen in that short length of small bowel."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.duodenalswitch.com/procedure/procedure.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens to the biliopancreatic loop after a duodenal switch is performed?
I was watching extreme bodies on netflix and they were talking about doing a [duodenal switch](_URL_0_). But what happens to the biliopancreatic loop and why do they leave it attached? I would think that it would be safer to just remove that section because it looks like it would have a chance of becoming blocked or dieing?
|
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] |
|
v9yf2
|
What does it mean when you "throw out your back"?
|
I've never actually done it, and googling the question returns no useful results.
At a biological level, what happens?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c52mb4t",
"c52m7k1",
"c52m8di"
],
"text": [
"It's not really a specific condition, but more so a general way of describing (typically lower) back pain. There can be a lot of things at play here. Usually it's just a strained muscle and will heal with just some basic rest, but sometimes it can be something a bit more serious like a herniated (slipped) disc. When this happens one of the discs in your (again usually lower) back has torn part of its fibrocartilage and has a bit of the softer inner squishy bits protruding from it. Usually quite painful, but will often heal on its own given enough time (occasionally requires surgical intervention).\n\nMuscle strains are a fairly straightforward process (over exertion causes muscle tear), but actual vertebral injuries are almost always a result of prolonged \"wear and tear\". Too much pressure over too much time causes something to shift where it shouldn't be shifted. Pretty natural part of the aging process (but overall your lower back is a champ), but clearly doing hard physical labor can significantly speed up the process.\n\nAnd that, kids, is why you always lift with your legs.",
"You're probably thinking of a [\"Spinal Disc Herniation\"](_URL_0_), but in contemporary usage it can mean any number of spinal injuries.",
"Sudden onset of generally severe pain in the back (often lower back) usually occurring when performing some sort of lifting, stretching, or other motion. Possible causes are numerous (slipped disk, ruptured disk, arthritis, muscle spasm, tumor, infection, fracture, etc.) and in many cases the cause remains undiagnosed."
],
"score": [
10,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herniated_disc"
]
}
|
What does it mean when you "throw out your back"?
I've never actually done it, and googling the question returns no useful results. At a biological level, what happens?
|
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|
1waii1
|
What might Jade Rabbit need to do to survive the lunar night?
|
Jade Rabbit is the Chinese lunar rover. It is at risk of harm because of a malfunction it is unable to prepare for the lunar night where, temperatures can drop to -150C for two weeks. Any ideas about what actions might be taken to protect the electronics? Would it be better to run the equipment to generate heat or could it be protected by shutting all the way down? And how would shutting down protect the circuits?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf09wvk",
"cf0aiwf"
],
"text": [
"Shutting things down isn't to protect the circuits so much as it is to conserve energy. Jade Rabbit uses solar panels and batteries to operate its electronics, but it can't charge the batteries during the two-week-long lunar night. Even if it could charge the batteries, conserving power would still be a good idea - cold batteries tend not to charge very well, as the temperature affects the chemical reaction going on inside the battery.\n\nSo most of the electronics are powered down. This is a good idea not only to save energy during the lunar night, but also because electronic component values usually vary with temperature. Presumably, the electronics are designed to operate normally over a broad temperature range, but even military-spec components can't handle the full spectrum of lunar temperature (about -180-120C, I think).\n\nHowever, you can't power down *everything*. Some circuits need to stay operational in order to keep an eye on essential functions, and to help the rover wake up later. The important stuff is supposed to be physically insulated and heated by two small radio-isotope heaters. If something went wrong with the insulation or the heating loop, that could easily screw things up.",
"From the wikipedia page, some details are given on what systems were built into it to handle the lunar night:\n\n > Energy is provided by two solar panels, allowing the rover to operate through lunar days. During the 14-day lunar nights the rover will go into sleep mode, during which heating is provided by radioisotope heater units (RHU) and two-phase fluid loops.\n\nTo translate that into layman's terms, a radioactive heat source warms up a fluid to the point where it boils into a gas; it then flows through a system of pipes and delivers warmth to the rest of the rover.\n\nDuring the lunar night, there's no electrical power available for running the equipment, and it would be unlikely to provide enough heat in the right places anyway. That's why they built in a heating system.\n\nIf the chinese space program is saying that it is unable to prepare for the lunar night, it most likely is a failure of the fluid loops that deliver heat from the RHUs. Either the coolant has leaked out or something has blocked the flow of it through the system.\n\nThere would be three potential sources of problems from this: First, components that contain liquid or gas (including any batteries and the coolant pipes themselves) could freeze, leading to damage of those components. Second, metal contracting at the cooler temperatures can break electrical connections or even mechanical ones. Third, the RHU could overheat without coolant flowing through it, and could overheat components near it on the rover."
],
"score": [
8,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What might Jade Rabbit need to do to survive the lunar night?
Jade Rabbit is the Chinese lunar rover. It is at risk of harm because of a malfunction it is unable to prepare for the lunar night where, temperatures can drop to -150C for two weeks. Any ideas about what actions might be taken to protect the electronics? Would it be better to run the equipment to generate heat or could it be protected by shutting all the way down? And how would shutting down protect the circuits?
|
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|
nahnb
|
Reddit, my mom told me she had an out of body experience
|
When she was a teenager, she had thyroid problems, and had to have surgery. Well, after her surgery there was complications and she told me that she had an out of body experience while she was lying down on the couch. She said that during her out of body experience, she tried talking to my uncle, but he didn't respond. She tried reaching out to hit him because he didn't respond, but nothing. Then she turned around and saw her body. She then said she returned to her body and woke up.
I'm not a religious man, however my mom is convinced that her experience is evidence of the supernatural (ghosts and whatnot). I have a great difficulty in believing that my mom's experience was caused by something supernatural. I don't believe that she didn't experience this, but I just have a hard time believing in supernatural things of this nature. So, I'm asking for a scientific explanation... and please be respectful.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c37k51x"
],
"text": [
"She did experience it, that doesn't mean that it's true or proof of anything supernatural. Our brains are very complex things and our perception is subject to all sorts of problems at the best of times. In a situation like surgery, especially if there were complications, her body was under and immense amount of stressed and tried to cope with what was going on. Her brain created the experience. It's real because it's real to her but there's no mechanism by which one's essence/soul/mind etc can leave the body and come back. However, we know of plenty of mechanisms that create false memories or false experiences."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Reddit, my mom told me she had an out of body experience
When she was a teenager, she had thyroid problems, and had to have surgery. Well, after her surgery there was complications and she told me that she had an out of body experience while she was lying down on the couch. She said that during her out of body experience, she tried talking to my uncle, but he didn't respond. She tried reaching out to hit him because he didn't respond, but nothing. Then she turned around and saw her body. She then said she returned to her body and woke up. I'm not a religious man, however my mom is convinced that her experience is evidence of the supernatural (ghosts and whatnot). I have a great difficulty in believing that my mom's experience was caused by something supernatural. I don't believe that she didn't experience this, but I just have a hard time believing in supernatural things of this nature. So, I'm asking for a scientific explanation... and please be respectful.
|
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|
1oyqrh
|
Cardiomegaly: Why is it okay for this to occur through exercise?
|
I've been learning about the cardiac system and noticed that healthy exercisers have many symptoms that would be adverse in a normal person, like bradycardia and cardiomegaly, so why is it okay? I know that healthy people can get by with a lower Pulse due to a stronger heart (higher stroke volume, I guess?), but I don't understand why the heart enlarges for runners and why that's okay.
Is there a way to shrink the tissue eventually? Is it necessary for ex-runners? Is there a chance that the stretched tissue could be at a greater risk of cardiomyopathy if an ex-runner stops running for a long time?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccxbzhp",
"ccx45o4"
],
"text": [
"All right, here's the deal!\n\nCardiac remodelling occurs as a response to both physiological and pathological loads. However, for reasons we don't quite understand, [the hyperthrophy is followed by different processes:](_URL_0_) Physiological hypertrophy is followed by a proportional expansion of the cardiac vasculature, while pathological hypertrophy for some reason does not involve angiogenesis (the forming of new vasculature) and causes fibrosis in the muscle (other processes are also relevant to some degree, but I'll leave that for the article ;) ). While the pathological hypertrophy in principle does what it's supposed to do (increase work to compensate for higher load of some form) it also leaves the heart more sensitive to sudden changes like ischemia, demands of higher Cardiac Output etc. Even if nothing new appears to exacerbate the damage, the muscle will still have to work harder with a lesser blood supply, and over time that can harm the muscle.\n\nAlso, to clarify: Jddad mentioned concentric and eccentric hypertrophy but didn't elaborate. BOTH are possible changes in heart failure, depending on the type of load you put on the heart (An aortic valve stenosis or hypertension will for example cause concentric hypertrophy, since these conditions demand higher pressure in the chamber to push the blood out into the aorta. On the other hand, an aortic valve insufficiency or mitral valve insufficiency won't force the heart to move blood \"harder\", it'll just have to move a bigger volume - > eccentric hypertrophy). There is nothing \"inherently pathological\" in either of these changes though.",
"There are two types of hypertrophy: eccentric and concentric. The former is when the heart \"stretches out\" so to speak and the latter is when it gets thicker. Athlete hearts have a very mild concentric hypertrophy which can return to normal after long periods of exercise cessation. The bradycardia is generally much more noticeable but is completely benign. It is caused by increased vagal tone due to the increased cardiac output an athlete has to supply more oxygen to tissues. \n\n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109706018080",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletic_heart_syndrome"
]
}
|
Cardiomegaly: Why is it okay for this to occur through exercise?
I've been learning about the cardiac system and noticed that healthy exercisers have many symptoms that would be adverse in a normal person, like bradycardia and cardiomegaly, so why is it okay? I know that healthy people can get by with a lower Pulse due to a stronger heart (higher stroke volume, I guess?), but I don't understand why the heart enlarges for runners and why that's okay. Is there a way to shrink the tissue eventually? Is it necessary for ex-runners? Is there a chance that the stretched tissue could be at a greater risk of cardiomyopathy if an ex-runner stops running for a long time?
|
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|
5xewsa
|
What is the slingshot effect and how does it work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dei4dy6",
"dehyj5a"
],
"text": [
"For a conceptual explanation of what is essentially the same principle as that of the slingshot effect, imagine throwing a ball into a wall at 20 meters per second. If we assume that there are no losses to friction or deformation, the ball will bounce back with the same speed, moving towards you at 20 m/s. \n\nNow imagine the (very heavy) wall moving towards the ball - and you - at 10 meters per second. From your point of view the ball is still moving at 20 m/s, but from a frame of reference where the wall is stationary, the ball is moving at 30 m/s, and just like in the first case it will bounce back with a speed of 30 m/s in the opposite direction, relative to the wall. So since the wall is moving towards you at 10 m/s, and the ball is moving away from the wall at 30 m/s, from your perspective the ball is now moving at 40 m/s!\n\nSo just as in u/NeonAardvark's first link, you see the 'ball' picking up speed equal to two times the speed of the 'wall'.",
"It's spacecraft \"stealing\" kinetic energy from the orbit of a planet or moon - I think the first diagram here is the simplest way to conceptualize it: _URL_0_ \n\nYou can see how dependent multiple chained uses are on things lining up in the famous Voyager mission slingshots: \n_URL_1_ \n\nWhich are rare on the order of a couple of hundreds of years. \n\nIt's also worth noting how the Voyager 2 velocity vector has now has translated through more than 180 degrees."
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath114/kmath114.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist#/media/File:Voyager_Path.svg"
]
}
|
What is the slingshot effect and how does it work?
|
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] |
||
qu1dd
|
How do leeches survive (in a pond) before they grab onto a person?
|
What are they feeding off of before they use a person as a host? Also, why would they switch to another object?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c40hrz7"
],
"text": [
"they do not have to eat all the time, in fact this is something that is only done, for the most part, by mammals. leeches gorge on blood, and then live on that for quite some time. they can also suck from fish.\n\nthey do not have hosts, just prey. they attach to their victim, feed, and then slowly crawl away, swollen with blood and go do leechy things for a few weeks, such as lay eggs or find a mate, and then go find more food."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do leeches survive (in a pond) before they grab onto a person?
What are they feeding off of before they use a person as a host? Also, why would they switch to another object?
|
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] |
|
1cu2ps
|
Orgo: Assigning priority to determine abs. config. (R or S): Tricky question!
|
Warning: Orgo-ese below, not for faint of heart!
I'm having trouble seeing why the chiral center in this molecule is R and not S: _URL_0_
I understand hydrogen is fourth priority and the hydroxyl oxygen is first.
What I don't understand is why the "tie" (12=12) between the carbons is settled the way it is. I know that you go to the next substituent sequentially until one of the branches has a higher priority substituent than the other. I also know that double bonded atoms are counted twice, triple bonded atoms counted three times, etc.
How is the next carbon on the mono-phenyl branch counted? Do i go to just one carbon in the ring, or are both considered the next sequential substituent? Is the bond considered 1.5 (aromaticity) and therefore the next carbon is counted as 18?
The phenyl-phenyl-hydroxyl branch: its next highest substituent is the oxygen, which is 16. So why is this branch higher priority than the mono-phenyl branch, and the center is ultimately "R"? What am I missing here? If I need to clarify something, please ask.
Thanks in advance if you got this far!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9jz9cq"
],
"text": [
"Your problem is understanding what is meant by the multiple bond rule. When they say double bonds are counted twice, that means imagine two separate single bonded carbons attached at that point (Not the sum of the carbons). In the phenyl ring you would imagine each carbon attached to three other carbons, the single bonded one, and two others in place of the double bond (each 12, MW doesn't change). \n\nSO no matter what every part of the phenyl ring will only be attached to other carbon12s, while following the other bond leads you to an oxygen (priority 2). That'll get you to the correct priorities for an R configuration"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/S878qOx.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Orgo: Assigning priority to determine abs. config. (R or S): Tricky question!
Warning: Orgo-ese below, not for faint of heart! I'm having trouble seeing why the chiral center in this molecule is R and not S: _URL_0_ I understand hydrogen is fourth priority and the hydroxyl oxygen is first. What I don't understand is why the "tie" (12=12) between the carbons is settled the way it is. I know that you go to the next substituent sequentially until one of the branches has a higher priority substituent than the other. I also know that double bonded atoms are counted twice, triple bonded atoms counted three times, etc. How is the next carbon on the mono-phenyl branch counted? Do i go to just one carbon in the ring, or are both considered the next sequential substituent? Is the bond considered 1.5 (aromaticity) and therefore the next carbon is counted as 18? The phenyl-phenyl-hydroxyl branch: its next highest substituent is the oxygen, which is 16. So why is this branch higher priority than the mono-phenyl branch, and the center is ultimately "R"? What am I missing here? If I need to clarify something, please ask. Thanks in advance if you got this far!
|
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] |
|
1ga1mc
|
What's the difference between using the words Apoapsis and Periapsis instead of Apogee and Perigee?
|
Are they interchangeable? Are they just different words for the same meaning? I'd like to know.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"caidhz5"
],
"text": [
"Apoapsis and periapsis are general terms for farthest and closest distance (respectively) of a body from its orbital focus. Note that there are two focii to an eccentric orbit. Apoapsis and periapsis are measured from the focus that is the center of mass of the system in question.\n\nApo- and peri-gee are used when the body in question is orbiting Earth specifically, it is in geocentric orbit. In this case, apo- and perigee are measured from the center of the Earth. (This convention is common for orbits around small bodies like planets.)\n\nSo, if a body is orbiting the Earth you could use either apoapsis or apogee. Often it is useful to be specific (i.e. use apogee) to avoid confusion about what system you are considering. For example, an asteroid orbiting the Sun has a certain apo- and perihelion (helion - > relative to the Sun). That asteroid may do a hyperbolic flyby of Earth, for which it will have a certain perigee. When talking about that asteroid you'd want to be careful to specify.\n\nColloquially, if it is clear from context what the body is orbiting, apo- and peri-whatever are often shortened \"apo\" and \"peri\".\n\nSee [Wikipedia: Apsis](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsis"
]
}
|
What's the difference between using the words Apoapsis and Periapsis instead of Apogee and Perigee?
Are they interchangeable? Are they just different words for the same meaning? I'd like to know.
|
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] |
|
3jko2i
|
What is this thing in the sky?
|
[This popped up on my facebook feed](_URL_0_) and I'm curious what it is or if it's even real. Obviously not aliens or anything (lol) but now I really want to know what it is. Any ideas?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cuq9pr7"
],
"text": [
"It is the Atlas V launch from Cape Canaveral on September 2. I am guessing that from: (1) recently on your facebook feed, (2) the people in the video are near Miami (they say so in the video, or maybe I'm hearing things, it wasn't that clear), and (3) the cloud is consistent with the launch. It was supposedly visible as far south as Key West. \n\nWhat you are seeing in the video is nothing more than a contrail cloud, or a vapor trail. (You are also probably seeing the plume trail caused by the exhaust of the rocket.) Contrail clouds occur when water vapor condenses out of the air near aircraft, usually because of pressure differences caused by the speed of the aircraft. The cloud in the video is then also illuminated by the sunrise, which is then scattered by the water vapor. On a dark background sky and with the light coming in at just the right angle, the effect is clearly quite dramatic. \n\nMore details can be found by googling \"Atlas V launch\"."
],
"score": [
14
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RP5lwgHRMb0&feature=youtu.be"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is this thing in the sky?
[This popped up on my facebook feed](_URL_0_) and I'm curious what it is or if it's even real. Obviously not aliens or anything (lol) but now I really want to know what it is. Any ideas?
|
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|
8eb68y
|
What are our chances of observing Gravitons?
|
What do physicists think about our chances of ever actually observing gravitons? Does the current models of particle physics make sense without them?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dxvwqnk"
],
"text": [
"I think most physicists expect them to exist - but if they exist as predicted, it will be essentially impossible to detect them individually. You would need crazy stuff like planet-sized particle detectors with impossible background rejection (the ability to filter out all stuff that is not from gravitons).\n\nSome models with quantized gravity predict the existence of additional gravitons with mass (the \"regular\" gravitons are massless), they could be easy to find if (a) they exist and (b) their mass is low enough to produce them in our particle accelerators."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What are our chances of observing Gravitons?
What do physicists think about our chances of ever actually observing gravitons? Does the current models of particle physics make sense without them?
|
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] |
|
pcoup
|
If a system favours going from order to disorder, why do oil and water separate?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3ob4uu"
],
"text": [
"The reason is that entropy of mixing is not the only consideration here- there are energetic factors as well. Basically, if oil and water experience a strong repulsion (oil is hydrophobic, though more precisely in my understanding it's that water is strongly attracted to itself, so the repulsion is just the result of the displaced water attraction), then the energetic gain from separating into phases can overcome the entropic gain from being well mixed (whether it does or not typically depends on the temperature). Note that the total entropy of the system still increases, since the extra energy is free to move around. \n\nA relevant equation is given on [wikipedia](_URL_0_), S=Kb*Log(omega). Boltzmann's constant is in energy/temperature, which immediately shows why the balance between entropic and energetic gains depends on temperature."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy#Definitions_and_descriptions"
]
}
|
If a system favours going from order to disorder, why do oil and water separate?
|
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||
zexlv
|
What resources will we run out of first? And what can we do to prevent it or slow down the rate.
|
I read earlier that helium will be depleted from earth in the next 25-30 years. What other natural resources will we run out of that we're dependent on?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c63zuax"
],
"text": [
"Helium isn't going to be depleted, it will just increase in price.\n\nThe USA decided that we should have strategic reserves of helium for national security, and then changed its mind. The government sold off this massive reserve and this excess in supply made it cheap enough for frivolous uses like party balloons. Once that supply runs out the prices will go up, which means things like MRI machines will be more expensive to operate.\n\nThe whole \"panic\" thing is because people got used to living in an artificial excess of supply."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What resources will we run out of first? And what can we do to prevent it or slow down the rate.
I read earlier that helium will be depleted from earth in the next 25-30 years. What other natural resources will we run out of that we're dependent on?
|
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|
18m056
|
I've heard people say that Kendrick Lamar flails his right hand around while he freestyle raps because it activates the left (language/critical thinking) side of his brain. Is there any validity to this claim? Or any research supporting something like this? (example link in post)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8fzc40"
],
"text": [
"[The idea of left-vs-right brain thinking is mostly myth](_URL_0_). So I doubt it."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2007/10/13/the-left-brain-right-brain-myt/"
]
}
|
I've heard people say that Kendrick Lamar flails his right hand around while he freestyle raps because it activates the left (language/critical thinking) side of his brain. Is there any validity to this claim? Or any research supporting something like this? (example link in post)
|
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||
1wdo5m
|
Does the temporary dipole on atoms and molecules last for a discrete time interval or is it a continuous thing
|
So I am learning about the dispersion forces, and the textbook does not clarify if the dipole that is the result of random fluctuations (are these truly random?) in the electron distribution of particle. If it is in a discrete time interval, what is the length of it?
Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf108ad"
],
"text": [
"It's not discrete in the sense of \"now there's a dipole, and now there isn't\". It's more like the dipole is swinging around (changing direction) randomly, and sometimes isn't there.\n\nThis is a quantum effect and you'll be hard pushed to visualise it. Essentially, the dipole depends on the behaviour of the electrons, which is not well defined at any specific moment."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does the temporary dipole on atoms and molecules last for a discrete time interval or is it a continuous thing
So I am learning about the dispersion forces, and the textbook does not clarify if the dipole that is the result of random fluctuations (are these truly random?) in the electron distribution of particle. If it is in a discrete time interval, what is the length of it? Thanks
|
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|
1vwwo7
|
What happens chemically when caulk "cures" during the required 72 hour waiting period?
|
You guessed it: I'm redoing the caulking in my bathtub. I only have one bathroom. This time, I bought a regular acrylic caulk that requires 72 hours to dry instead of silicon caulk that dries in just a few hours. My question is: what happens chemically during the 72 hour cure time required for caulk to dry/harden? I'm hoping I can add a catalyst to speed up the reaction to reduce the wait time (e.g., heat from a blow dryer). Ask Science, can you please help me out.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cews7zr"
],
"text": [
"You know how it tends to smell when curing? \n\nThere are volatile chemicals that rapidly evaporate when exposed to air. These evaporate, and the loss of this semi liquid element leaves the more inert elements of the caulk behind as harder, dry caulk."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens chemically when caulk "cures" during the required 72 hour waiting period?
You guessed it: I'm redoing the caulking in my bathtub. I only have one bathroom. This time, I bought a regular acrylic caulk that requires 72 hours to dry instead of silicon caulk that dries in just a few hours. My question is: what happens chemically during the 72 hour cure time required for caulk to dry/harden? I'm hoping I can add a catalyst to speed up the reaction to reduce the wait time (e.g., heat from a blow dryer). Ask Science, can you please help me out.
|
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] |
|
wmihh
|
Is doing what they did in tonights Breaking Bad feasible? Spoilers obviously.
|
There was a laptop with evidence that needed to be destroyed in a police evidence room. So, they took a van and put a large electromagnet in the back of it and parked it on the outside of the evidence room, fired up the magnet, and it attracted everything magnetic in the evidence room to the wall, and in the process wiping the hard drive of the laptop. I know it is theoretically possible, but I'm not sure exactly how much power you would need for that sort of thing (in the show they took 2 strings of 21 car batteries wired in series and wired the two strings in parallel to the magnet), or what sort of magnetic interference the walls would provide, or what other factors may come into account. Is it feasible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5esirt",
"c5erhrw",
"c5eq3ce",
"c5ep5lf",
"c5eot8o"
],
"text": [
"In general magnetic fields fall off as either 1/r^2 or 1/r^3 (Depending on if it approximates a monopole or dipole), its not strictly that simple but you can see that it is pretty fast. We are given a 1 Tesla junk yard magnet and an unknown wall thickness/material + distance so the problem becomes difficult to solve so I won't make a guess on it without further info.",
"There are commercial degaussing machines that are used to wipe hard drives.\n\n > The Latest Technology: Powerful bi-directional field which provides a 20,000 Gauss positive field and a 20,000 Gauss negative field. This results in a field spread of 40,000 Gauss (4 Tesla).\nThe T-4 Degausser offers patented new degaussing technology with NSA approval to provide the highest rated gauss rating on the market today: an Effective Magnetic Field (EMF) of 4 Tesla or 40,000 gauss field spread. \n\nI think you need MRI machine to get 4-teslas. From that distance, even MRI is probably not enough. I don' think it would work. \n\nedit: wikipedia tells me that junkyard magnets is typically 1 teslas. \n\n_URL_2_ \n_URL_1_ \n_URL_3_ \n_URL_0_",
"From what I understand - and I am no expert so take this with a grain of salt - the magnets in junkyards do not operate as shown in the episode. From what I've read, they have an iron core that is magnetized using a DC current, and de-magnetized using an AC current. It's not a traditional electromagnet that would have the sort of variable-voltage control like Walt was depicted as using.",
"There was a NYT article written about this particular episode: _URL_4_. To summarize, if you have a strong enough magnet and give it enough time, you would be able to damage the hard drive. However, I was unable to find how powerful the magnet would have to be at, x distance, to be able to do some damage to the hard drive.",
"I'm by no means an expert, but wouldn't such a powerful magnet destroy parts of the vehicle it was carried in?"
],
"score": [
4,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_remanence#Degaussing",
"http://degausser.com/",
"http://www.datadev.com/degausser-t4.html",
"http://www.dataerasure.com/degauss.php",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/16/arts/television/breaking-bad-creating-magnetic-attraction.html?_r=1&hp"
]
}
|
Is doing what they did in tonights Breaking Bad feasible? Spoilers obviously.
There was a laptop with evidence that needed to be destroyed in a police evidence room. So, they took a van and put a large electromagnet in the back of it and parked it on the outside of the evidence room, fired up the magnet, and it attracted everything magnetic in the evidence room to the wall, and in the process wiping the hard drive of the laptop. I know it is theoretically possible, but I'm not sure exactly how much power you would need for that sort of thing (in the show they took 2 strings of 21 car batteries wired in series and wired the two strings in parallel to the magnet), or what sort of magnetic interference the walls would provide, or what other factors may come into account. Is it feasible?
|
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-0.6646270751953125
] |
|
383ovy
|
[spoilers] I just saw the movie 'San Andreas' and was wondering how much of it is accurate?
|
I'm sure most of it was accurate, but I figured I ask anyway.
would the events depicted in the movie happen the same way in reality?
When the flooding occurred in the movie, would that specific area only be affected, or would the water rise on the entire coast?
Would the entirety of the events happen as quickly as they did in the movie, or would it be a much slower process?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"crs0zqj",
"crs1eka"
],
"text": [
"I have not yet seen the movie, but there have been a fair number of fact sheets put out regarding the multitude of massive inaccuracies in the movie. This is a [good, easily accessible one](_URL_1_). Check out the right column for all of the things that the movie gets (very) wrong.\n\nIn short, some of the big things: 1) The San Andreas is not capable of generating an earthquake greater than ~8.1-8.3 magnitude, 2) Strike-slip faults, like the San Andreas, do not generate large tsunamis (and the scale of the tsunami created, at least from stills I've seen looks vastly exaggerated compared to what you would get from a large earthquake on a fault capable of generating a tsunami), 3) Earthquakes do not create giant chasms, closest you would get be things like [mole tracks](_URL_2_), and 4) We cannot predict earthquakes, we can make forecasts based on past events but these are probabilistic forecasts, not predicting an earthquake at particular time or place.\n\nIn terms of the real possibility of a \"big one\" in California, something like the [scenario used in the California ShakeOut exercise](_URL_0_) is infinitely more realistic.",
"No, it is not accurate. San Andreas can't produce a 9.0(noting over about 8.5, in fact) and it's land based so it can't cause a tsunami.\n\nThat's just the mistakes from the trailer, so I guess the actually movie isn't much better.\n\n_URL_3_"
],
"score": [
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.shakeout.org/california/scenario/",
"http://earthquakecountry.org/sanandreas/",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=mole+tracks+earthquake&biw=1219&bih=739&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=nJVsVaygKIupogTS8INw&ved=0CB0QsAQ",
"http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-san-andreas-movie-unrealistic-science-20150528-htmlstory.html"
]
}
|
[spoilers] I just saw the movie 'San Andreas' and was wondering how much of it is accurate?
I'm sure most of it was accurate, but I figured I ask anyway. would the events depicted in the movie happen the same way in reality? When the flooding occurred in the movie, would that specific area only be affected, or would the water rise on the entire coast? Would the entirety of the events happen as quickly as they did in the movie, or would it be a much slower process?
|
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] |
|
45nkfi
|
Is bitterness only caused by bases?
|
My friend and I are having an argument and he thinks that only basic substances cause bitterness.
Is he right? Does the same apply for sourness and acids?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"czz7snf"
],
"text": [
"No, your friend is not right, or at least 99% not right. The sensation of bitterness comes from the activation of proteins in the TAS2R family (aka bitter receptors) in the tongue. Any chemical which activates the receptors will make you experience a bitter taste.\n\nIt is the case that lots of bitter chemicals have groups amines/amides (aka alkaloids) and when dissolve in solution make a slightly alkaline solution. However, you can just acidify the solutions, and then you will have a sour, bitter taste. If you want to experience this, just chew the whole peel of a cirtus fruit. Moreover, a solution of NaOH, aka Lye, is very very alkaline, but not bitter at all (until it starts making soap out of the fats in your mouth)\n\nSimply put, bitter is caused by bitter chemicals, and is completely independent of pH."
],
"score": [
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is bitterness only caused by bases?
My friend and I are having an argument and he thinks that only basic substances cause bitterness. Is he right? Does the same apply for sourness and acids?
|
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|
1d91hh
|
Is pointing at something a uniquely human behavior?
|
I've noticed that household pets don't generally understand what it means when a human points at something. It first dawned on me when I saw some folks playing frisbee with their dog - the frisbee got lost, the humans pointed, and the dog stared at the humans cluelessly.
Some dogs can be taught to point and understand pointing, so it can be learned. I've tried hiding treats for my cat and pointing at them, she has very, very slowly started to find them quicker, but I can't tell if it's trial and error.
So there's a couple parts to my question:
1) Is pointing/following points distinctly human?
2) Is pointing/following points a human instinct, or learned behavior?
3) Do any other animals instinctively point or follow points?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9o2c28",
"c9o2a4o"
],
"text": [
"What kind of household pet? Actually dogs are fairly renowned for their ability to understand pointing. A lot of dogs even understand if you hint at something with your eyes.\nAlso, see this: _URL_0_\n\"The name pointer comes from the dog's instinct to point\"\nYes, it definitely seems to be an instinct with dogs. My dog does it and she's never been a hunting dog in her life.",
"1. No. [Pointing emerges spontaneously, without explicit training, in captive chimpanzees.](_URL_1_)\n2. It appears to be instinctive, though the behavior is moderated by learned norms.\n3. Yes, the aforementioned chimpanzees are a prime example."
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointing_breed",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2151757/"
]
}
|
Is pointing at something a uniquely human behavior?
I've noticed that household pets don't generally understand what it means when a human points at something. It first dawned on me when I saw some folks playing frisbee with their dog - the frisbee got lost, the humans pointed, and the dog stared at the humans cluelessly. Some dogs can be taught to point and understand pointing, so it can be learned. I've tried hiding treats for my cat and pointing at them, she has very, very slowly started to find them quicker, but I can't tell if it's trial and error. So there's a couple parts to my question: 1) Is pointing/following points distinctly human? 2) Is pointing/following points a human instinct, or learned behavior? 3) Do any other animals instinctively point or follow points?
|
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] |
|
1zp3mg
|
How does demyelination happen?
|
How does demyelination happen?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cfvzjpi",
"cfwaxyj"
],
"text": [
"Demyelination can happen through a wide range of processes and pathways. I am familiar with one such pathway that I can explain...\n\nPeroxisomes are located inside of all eukaryotic cells and serve a variety of functions including detoxification of reactive oxygen species. Another function of peroxisomes is the formation of plasmalogen, a major component of the phospholipid membrane of myelin sheath outgrowths of glial cells. These sheaths cover neurons in the same way a wire is insulated.\n\nDefects in peroxisome function therefore have conclusively shown to lead to demyelination.\n\nSource: Master's student studying membrane biochemistry",
"The most common cause is loss of [oligodendrocytes](_URL_1_), which are the cells responsible for synthetizing and mantaining the myelin sheath in the Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord). This happens in demyelinating diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis or Periventricular leukomalacia. In the case of Multiple Sclerosis, for instance, oligodendrocytes die because of (i) overactivation of glutamate receptors (AKA excitotoxicity) or (ii) auto-immune attack when T-cell receptors recognize myelin proteins as target (and then other immune cells follow up). Both hypothesis are accepted today, though the autoimmune hypothesis is the most extended. I personally think that both happen simultaneously, leading to oligodendroglial death and loss of the myelin sheath.\n\n\nSometimes, demyelination can be caused by toxic agents, as organophosphates found in certain insecticides and pesticides. e-g- cuprizone, an organic compound that chelates (\"inactivates\") copper, is used as an animal model to study demyelination.\n\nOther disorders can be caused by loss of Schwann Cells, which, as oligodendrocytes, mantain the myelin sheath but in the Periferal Nervous System (the nerves that connect your spinal cord to your arms, legs, and internal organs).\n\n\nYou can further explore this topic [here](_URL_0_) and [here](_URL_2_) (The latter is particularly well written)."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demyelinating_disease",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendrocyte",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis"
]
}
|
How does demyelination happen?
How does demyelination happen?
|
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|
7cpxfv
|
How does Bernoulli's Principle explain things like Water Jet Cutters which can be used to cut thick sheets of metal when it states that fast moving fluids have low pressure?
|
Been trying to figure this out for a test, thanks in advance!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dps1mtu",
"dpsfh3z"
],
"text": [
"Well, first of all, you can think of where the water impacts the surface to be cut as an expansion in the duct, which would lead to high pressure and low ~~flow rate~~ velocity.\n\nBut I think you're fundamentally misunderstanding how a water jet cuts. If you've got a water jet cutting steel, it's not the water itself cutting anything -- it's abrasive material (typically very hard ceramic bits) carried by the water. The water provides a convenient way of carrying this abrasive material and simultaneously cooling the cut surface.",
"/u/Coomb is right, but to add a bit about velocity vs. pressure:\n\nIncreasing the velocity of a fluid lowers its *static* pressure (this is what you normally think of when you think of \"pressure\") and increases it's *dynamic* pressure. Essentially it's converting pressure into velocity. If you stop that flow by, say, putting a sheet of metal in front of it, the velocity will return to ~0 where it hits the surface. This will convert all of that velocity/dynamic pressure back to static pressure, and the fluid on the surface will be at much higher pressure than the flowing portion of the fluid."
],
"score": [
10,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How does Bernoulli's Principle explain things like Water Jet Cutters which can be used to cut thick sheets of metal when it states that fast moving fluids have low pressure?
Been trying to figure this out for a test, thanks in advance!
|
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|
3ldetn
|
How come when I use my immersion blender my meringue won't set, but when I whisk by hand it does?
|
I tried this controlled experiment: Same dish, same ingredients, the only difference was method. I tried my immersion blender for 30 minutes without success, yet if I got a huge workout by whisking by hand it worked. What gives?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cv5eg7w"
],
"text": [
"Immersion blenders don't aerate very well, they bludgeon the hell out of the proteins which causes moisture separation and the meringue breaks. It comes down to not being very gentle with something that's supposed to be kind of delicate. Just like how you're supposed to leave lumps in pancake batter. Mixing enough to get rid of the lumps breaks the bubbles so your pancakes are flat and bland.\n\nA comparison would be like the bubble wands you may have played with as a child. If you blow gently, you can get a couple good big bubbles. If you blow more quickly, you can get a stream of tiny little bubbles, and if you blow really hard you just make a mess."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How come when I use my immersion blender my meringue won't set, but when I whisk by hand it does?
I tried this controlled experiment: Same dish, same ingredients, the only difference was method. I tried my immersion blender for 30 minutes without success, yet if I got a huge workout by whisking by hand it worked. What gives?
|
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|
o2zmu
|
So, I was dumping out an old bottle of generic dayquil, and found two clear crystals, can you explain what I found?
|
They kinda look like salt or an actual crystal _URL_0_
**edit**
I'm eating it....it was sugar...
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3e0hqi"
],
"text": [
"Could you give me a sense for how big they are? It'd also help to get a picture from another angle, possibly in some lighting with a little less glare.\n\nThe generic answer is: I don't know, and its difficult to tell without some analytical tests.\n\nI can be more specific than that, though. Dayquil and its ilk, whether or not its the generic kind, have relatively few ingredients and it should be pretty easy to figure out whats what in this case. You're right, though, these are definitely crystals. I just pulled a bottle of generic dayquil out of my own cabinet, here is my ingredient list:\n\nAcetaminophen, Dextromethorphan HBr, Phenylephrine HCl, butylated hydroxyanisole, edetate disodium, FD & C yellow #6, flavors, glycerin, monobasic sodium phosphate, polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, purified water, saccharin sodium, sucrose, xanthan gum\n\nI immediately rule out edetate disodium or EDTA (abundance), the dyes (color), flavors (abundance), glycerin (melting point), polyethylene glycol (doesn't make crystals that nice), propylene glycol (melting point), water (melting point), and xanthan gum (poor crystallizer). Those I'm sure of. I'm also going to rule out butylated hydroxyanisole since its pretty soft and would leave a residue on your hand and I'm guessing you would've mentioned that. \n\nI'm also going to rule out dextromethorphan and phenylephrine because of abundance, there's only about 200 mg of each of those in the bottle total, which wouldn't have made crystals large enough for you to notice. \n\nThat leaves us with: Acetaminophen, sodium phosphate, saccharin and sucrose (table sugar). \n\nI'm betting against acetaminophen. Its extremely soluble in the amounts its present in the bottle and there really isn't alot of it. I'm also betting against sodium phosphate. Its difficult to get firm numbers, but I'm betting there isn't enough of it in the bottle. Between saccharin and sucrose, I'm picking sucrose (table sugar) because of the shape of the crystals. Saccharin seems to avoid the rhombic type crystals in the pictures you showed."
],
"score": [
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/zPyCv.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
So, I was dumping out an old bottle of generic dayquil, and found two clear crystals, can you explain what I found?
They kinda look like salt or an actual crystal _URL_0_ **edit** I'm eating it....it was sugar...
|
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|
qd5cs
|
What happens when I turn something on/off at the wall?
|
* **Extension cord**. If I turn on an extension cord at the wall, with nothing plugged into that extension, will it complete the circuit? I was working with someone today, and he said that leaving the extension on at the wall can create a fire hazard because the wire is coiled and can make heat [(This is what I'm talking about)](_URL_0_). I understand the idea of a coiled wire making resistance (this is how lightbulbs and electric heaters work) but surely without anything plugged in, there's no circuit, so there's no electricity unless there's a short.
* **A hoover**. If the hoover is turned off, but I leave it turned on at the wall, am I "wasting electricity"? This has bothered me for years, thanks to my parents telling me to conserve electricity.
* **A television**. From what I understand, these have 'standby' modes which use a small amount of electricity in the circuits, but not as much as if it were *on*.
* **An empty plug socket**. What if I leave the switch on at a plug socket? Except for being dangerous to toddlers and people with screwdrivers, why turn it off at the wall?
This is something which has plagued me for years, but I've never had the impetus to ask. Now I'm asking. Please help.
**TL;DR: When is electricity used in an appliance, and when is it not?**
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3wn3ae"
],
"text": [
"You're right about everything. If nothing is plugged into the other end of the extension cord then the circuit is still broken and no current flows. The vacuum acts relatively the same way. As long as the switch is turned to off then the circuit is broken and no power flows. The television still uses power because the receiver for the remote is always on so that it can detect the commands. And the open socket is the same as the extension cord and the hoover. As long as nothing is connecting the two leads, then the circuit is broken and though the potential is still there, no current flows."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.chinatraderonline.com/Files/AUTO/Auto-Emergency-Tool/UL-List--Extension-Cord--Reel-22400380105.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens when I turn something on/off at the wall?
* **Extension cord**. If I turn on an extension cord at the wall, with nothing plugged into that extension, will it complete the circuit? I was working with someone today, and he said that leaving the extension on at the wall can create a fire hazard because the wire is coiled and can make heat [(This is what I'm talking about)](_URL_0_). I understand the idea of a coiled wire making resistance (this is how lightbulbs and electric heaters work) but surely without anything plugged in, there's no circuit, so there's no electricity unless there's a short. * **A hoover**. If the hoover is turned off, but I leave it turned on at the wall, am I "wasting electricity"? This has bothered me for years, thanks to my parents telling me to conserve electricity. * **A television**. From what I understand, these have 'standby' modes which use a small amount of electricity in the circuits, but not as much as if it were *on*. * **An empty plug socket**. What if I leave the switch on at a plug socket? Except for being dangerous to toddlers and people with screwdrivers, why turn it off at the wall? This is something which has plagued me for years, but I've never had the impetus to ask. Now I'm asking. Please help. **TL;DR: When is electricity used in an appliance, and when is it not?**
|
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|
stx41
|
I was looking in some old boxes of chemistry stuff. What is this antique instrument used for?
|
Here is a [pic](_URL_0_)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4gxn5i"
],
"text": [
"My guess is low-flow gas or possibly liquid flow meter. Gas comes in one tube, spins the paddles, and goes out the other side."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/wbRzR.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
I was looking in some old boxes of chemistry stuff. What is this antique instrument used for?
Here is a [pic](_URL_0_)
|
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|
w848c
|
My brother found this book in a drawer full of old WWII letters. Looks to be chemistry. Can anybody identify what this is?
|
[Here are photos of the pages in the book](_URL_0_)
My brother works for an antique dealer doing the heavy lifting and whatnot. He found this (along with letters from WWII and Viagra) in a dresser drawer given by a war vet. My friend and I are trying to figure out what it is but we know nothing about chemistry. We are just curious to know what we are looking at.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5b8zeo"
],
"text": [
"This appears to me to be a notebook of someone learning to be a technician in a chemistry lab, where they have jotted down a bunch of formulae and procedures for rote memorization.\n\nIf it were a notebook for a student learning chemistry, there should be more theory, but none were seen. It's also not a notebook of a working or experienced laboratory chemist, as those usually record what was accomplished by the chemist. This notebook includes what seems to be instructions for a number of analytical tests along with the formulae used in the analysis, then some sample calculations. While those numbers could be a reflection on what was done, the instructional lines suggests to me this is not a laboratory notebook."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/Z9Abm#0"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
My brother found this book in a drawer full of old WWII letters. Looks to be chemistry. Can anybody identify what this is?
[Here are photos of the pages in the book](_URL_0_) My brother works for an antique dealer doing the heavy lifting and whatnot. He found this (along with letters from WWII and Viagra) in a dresser drawer given by a war vet. My friend and I are trying to figure out what it is but we know nothing about chemistry. We are just curious to know what we are looking at.
|
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|
m8jg0
|
How unfathomable were your odds of coming into being?
|
[This seems like crap to me](_URL_0_) but I'm not an expert. I'm hoping a mathematician or someone smarter than me can tell me if this is bullshit. It seems to me that the odds of my coming into existence are 100%.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2yydmv"
],
"text": [
"You are right that the probability of you coming into existence is 1 (or 100%), because the event already happened, but the probability of an event prior to its occurrence can also be estimated.\n\nThe \"infographic\" from your link was sourced to a blog, which sourced to a TEDtalk by a self-help author who claims to be a \"relationship expert and life coach\". All the numbers she uses seem suspiciously round and imprecise, but it doesn't appear her original intention was rigor - whoever made the infographic just co-opted her estimates and presented them as fact.\n\nI suspect it was meant to illustrate the point that the odds of being in this exact state are rare, when compared to the [perhaps infinite possibilities](_URL_0_).\n\nI take no specific issue with that view, but it is more of a philosophical point than a scientific one.\n\nBottom line: Don't trust infographics."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://io9.com/5858043/how-unfathomable-were-your-odds-of-coming-into-being"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation"
]
}
|
How unfathomable were your odds of coming into being?
[This seems like crap to me](_URL_0_) but I'm not an expert. I'm hoping a mathematician or someone smarter than me can tell me if this is bullshit. It seems to me that the odds of my coming into existence are 100%.
|
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] |
|
158vzp
|
Do antacids limit digestion? (and other related questions)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7kbfkw",
"c7khoje"
],
"text": [
"As a partial/tangential answer to you question, you should look up some information on [Proton Pump Inhibitors](_URL_2_) (PPIs). A significant number of people take it for [Gastroesophageal reflux disease](_URL_0_) (GERD). They reduce the pH of your stomach by reducing gastric acid secretion, and they are pretty well studied.\n\nSome of the issues which you bring up are addressed in this article:\n_URL_1_\n\nSome highlights (copy/pasted):\n\n* Pepsin, a digestive enzyme requires low pH to function properly\n* stomach acidity is a built-in barrier to infection\n* Increased stomach pH may reduce effective vitamin B12 absorption\n\nI have GERD myself, and I've been told by multiple doctors that low stomach pH is not essential for absorbing most nutrients. I've taken omeprazole and lansoprazole (prilosec and prevacid) on and off for about 10 years and haven't noticed any difference except for a reduction in my GERD symptoms. (i.e. no side effect, especially related to digestion). My case isn't a scientific study, but those are out there if you look.",
"Remember, there are individuals who have had their stomach removed who end up doing fine. They need supplements like B12 because they are not producing intrinsic factor, however they can otherwise absorb nutrients well."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastroesophageal_reflux_disease",
"http://www.health.harvard.edu/fhg/updates/do-ppis-have-long-term-side-effects.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-pump_inhibitor"
]
}
|
Do antacids limit digestion? (and other related questions)
|
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] |
||
7l5jmk
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What specific animals are affected by the cicadas' life cycle?
|
Does anyone know any specific species that are affected by the cicadas' 13 or 17 year cycle?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"drka9f2"
],
"text": [
"This isn't a direct answer, but you should know that there isn't a great big cicada awakening every 17 years. It's true they leave for 17 yeas, but only on a colony to colony basis.\n\nThere are different cicada colonies returning from their 17 year cycle every year."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What specific animals are affected by the cicadas' life cycle?
Does anyone know any specific species that are affected by the cicadas' 13 or 17 year cycle?
|
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|
ks7pf
|
How reputable are Tim Ferriss's claims of extraordinary self-improvement?
|
Tim Ferriss is the author of books like [The 4-Hour Body](_URL_0_). I'm inclined to see him as more of a Kurzweil than a Kinsey, but I've heard relatively little criticism. Is anyone familiar with a scientific perspective that supports or rejects his claims?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2msm5k",
"c2msofg"
],
"text": [
"There's an enormous amount of criticism for Ferriss' methods online. Look up anything that concerns \"From Geek to Freak\" - people love to hate on him. That being said, there's also a fairly large amount of anecdotal evidence in support of his methods, particularly at the FourHourBody forums.\n\nWithout a specific example it's difficult to give you an answer, though. Reading through the Four Hour Body, I found that nearly everything he wrote seemed logically plausible, though nearly all of it was based on his own independent trial and error. \n\nThe important thing to remember is that he does tend to hammer in that it's all relative - that his minimalistic methods will only take you 80-90% of the way, and so if your goal is anything past that you'll need another program. You won't become an olympic powerlifter or a world-class anything on his programs.\n\nWith regards to the \"Slow Carb Diet,\" I'd say the science is sound, and the principles are covered in a variety of other diets (paleo, for example). Less carbohydrates, more protein isn't a terribly novel concept, and the \"cheat day\" is likely based more in psychology than in nutrition. The diet, though, is probably his most researched aspect of the book.\n\nWith regards to muscle mass gain - if you lift weights and are eating properly, you'll trigger growth of some kind. That's just how that process works. He just picked a few compound exercises that are easy for beginners and work the whole body simultaneously, and designed the program to be as quick as possible so that the maximum number of people will stick to it - a 15 minute workout program is easier to stick to than a 2 hour one. The focus on rest is an interesting twist, but makes sense (particularly for injury-prone beginners), and the larger focus on food underscores the slow-carb diet (and prepares buyers for his third book, the 4-hour chef). \n\nSome of the more esoteric elements are more questionable, particularly concerning supplements. If there's anything specific we can address that.\n\nTL;DR: Most of what he suggests does work, with important caveats (what constitutes extraordinary?) that most people gloss over.",
"No science in this post, just some advice from a former Tim Ferris devotee. :-)\n\nThe man is a genius when it comes to marketing and creating a public image, and the reason I'm a *former* devotee is mainly this part of his genius. He's a master of exaggerating, and even if a lot (perhaps even most, who knows?) is true not all of it is. Furthermore in his self improvement tips he is usually very vague (I suppose, hope, the books are a bit more concise), like a lot of self-improvement stuff, so after reading them really take the time to think about this: didn't I already know this? Because usually you did know it, and all he's really teling you is encouragement rather than advice."
],
"score": [
5,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4-Hour_Body"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How reputable are Tim Ferriss's claims of extraordinary self-improvement?
Tim Ferriss is the author of books like [The 4-Hour Body](_URL_0_). I'm inclined to see him as more of a Kurzweil than a Kinsey, but I've heard relatively little criticism. Is anyone familiar with a scientific perspective that supports or rejects his claims?
|
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|
1oz74j
|
Im not sure if this is the right place to ask but I'll try. In the US constitution it states that funding towards raising armies should not last more than 2 years, is this still the case? Can anyone explain this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccx61g4"
],
"text": [
"I'm an attorney. I think the meaning is plain. Any appropriation of money for the armed forces can only last two years.\n\nIf you read through the Federalist and Antifederalist papers, published around the time of the ratification debate over the Constitution, having a standing army was a large concern for the founding fathers. It was seen as something that could be easily abused, and might be difficult to disband once created.\n\nThis section was added in, requiring Congress to re-appropriate money every two years, with the idea that if the standing army became an issue, congress could address it by defunding it.\n\nFor some time now, the armed forces have received appropriations annually, instead of every two years.\n\n[More information here.](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.heritage.org/constitution#!/articles/1/essays/52/army-clause"
]
}
|
Im not sure if this is the right place to ask but I'll try. In the US constitution it states that funding towards raising armies should not last more than 2 years, is this still the case? Can anyone explain this?
|
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||
z88yt
|
Why is pertussis making such a comeback?
|
I understand the current outbreak cannot be pinned on the people who do not vaccinate their children.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c62bock",
"c62bsdp"
],
"text": [
"It can be, and is. If a certain percentage are unvaccinated, a disease can maintain itself in the population. That is exactly what is happening here. Herd immunity has been compromised.",
"Because most adults fail to get the recommended booster shot\n\nAccording to the CDC: adults need one booster shot after age 18. But today only 8 percent of adults get that recommended booster.\n\nSource: _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
9,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-18563_162-57435050/whooping-cough-making-a-comeback-as-most-adults-fail-to-get-recommended-booster-shot/"
]
}
|
Why is pertussis making such a comeback?
I understand the current outbreak cannot be pinned on the people who do not vaccinate their children.
|
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] |
|
1cihp6
|
Having the hardest time with internal energy and Enthalpy
|
Can some please explain to me the relationship between the internal energy of a system and its enthalpy? I am particularly confused about the pv energy in enthalpy (h=u+pv) and the W energy in the internal energy equation and how they differ.
Actually... I am just confused about all of it. haha.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9gujgf",
"c9gun0l"
],
"text": [
"Internal Energy (U) is simply the thermal energy stored in a system, therefore U=U(T). But that does not account for any pressure that may be present. If you force a system to have a certain pressure, then the work required is dW=Vdp. If you integrate that, you get the work needed for bringing a constant-volume system to a certain pressure. \n\nExplained in other words: Enthalpy is the energy stored in a system dependant on the \n\n* Heat that you had to add to get it to that temperature (dQ=TdS)\n* Work that you had to add to get it to that pressure (dW=VdP)\n\nHope that helps.\n\nEdit: Just want to add why we need enthalpy: In closed systems, you calculate things using the internal energy (first thing you learn). But once you have open systems with flows etc., you cant get around using enthalpy since the main contributions to work comes from pressure drops (e.g. in a turbine).",
"Thanks for this little visit down chemistry street! I'll try to clear some things up for you.\n\nFirst, keep in mind that the W (work) in the internal energy equation you probably are referring to is only for an equation measuring the CHANGE in internal energy. In other words, you can change internal energy of a system if you do work on the system. \n\nSo let's say you have a chemical reaction happening during which a gas is created. If you have an open reaction, the gas is released from the system and that means work is being done on the surrounding. \n\nNow we are looking to keep track of everything in the system. If we are just looking at internal energy of a system, we know it is changing. We can also measure heat given off (or absorbed) by the system. But the system did work on the surrounding, so the heat cannot be the only thing we use to keep track of how the internal energy is changing. This is because some of heat was converted into work. So change in internal energy = heat + work.\n\nIf you didn't do any work on the system, change in internal energy = heat. Similarly, if you are at constant pressure, the enthalpy (change in enthalpy, actually) is nothing more than the heat given off by the chemical reaction. \n\nBut if pressure and volume are changing, that is another thing that needs to be tracked. It's not in the internal energy of the system because that has just changed as it interacted with it surrounding (energy used, work done), so the new term is +PV, the work being done to expand the gas. And all together it's the enthalpy. H = u+PV.\n\nSo using enthalpy allows us to get a feel for the energy of a system when it is open, to keep track of all the components that originated in a system. This is why enthalpy changes are no big deal when PV doesn't change much, such as in solid and liquid reactions."
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Having the hardest time with internal energy and Enthalpy
Can some please explain to me the relationship between the internal energy of a system and its enthalpy? I am particularly confused about the pv energy in enthalpy (h=u+pv) and the W energy in the internal energy equation and how they differ. Actually... I am just confused about all of it. haha.
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] |
|
u3z4d
|
Inside is a link to a pro-life poster that purports to depict a first trimester aborted embryo. There is some speculation that it is fake. Is it?
|
[Here is the poster](_URL_0_) and subsequent discussion on /r/atheism. I don't care about having a discussion about the merits of a pro-life stance. I am just wondering if anyone can confirm:
1. Is this actually an image of an aborted embryo?
2. Does the quarter next to it give a good idea of its size?
3. Is the claim that it is 8 weeks credible?
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4s4pqm",
"c4s4hcs",
"c4s86as"
],
"text": [
"For all the evidence I can find it appears to be a real picture. This [link](_URL_0_) which is a university page so it carries some weight supports this picture. [This](_URL_1_) post provides pictures of perserved embryos and also supports the ad.",
"Here is an image of an [8-week old embryo](_URL_2_) (last picture in that series).\n\n1) Seems unlikely. Note the head size. In the picture I linked the head is substantially larger than in that picture. That said I am not an expert...just noting the difference.\n\n2 & 3) Not sure. These seem to go together. The link I provided has a scale at 5 millimeters. I am not a good judge of these things but it seems smaller than in the picture with the quarter.",
"I've definitely seen some around 10 weeks that looked a little more developed than that, so I think it's believable. The size is a little off."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/S0Ijk.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://virtualhumanembryo.lsuhsc.edu/HEIRLOOM/Stages/HEP_StagesFS.htm",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/atheism/comments/u30m8/really_this_is_disgusting_and_needs_to_stop/c4s1qp7",
"http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/e/e5/Human_Carnegie_stage_1-23.jpg"
]
}
|
Inside is a link to a pro-life poster that purports to depict a first trimester aborted embryo. There is some speculation that it is fake. Is it?
[Here is the poster](_URL_0_) and subsequent discussion on /r/atheism. I don't care about having a discussion about the merits of a pro-life stance. I am just wondering if anyone can confirm: 1. Is this actually an image of an aborted embryo? 2. Does the quarter next to it give a good idea of its size? 3. Is the claim that it is 8 weeks credible? Thanks!
|
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|
b9teh1
|
What can we expect to learn from the LISA satelite?
|
I am not a professional theoretical physicist, just an interesting subject to me that I have a novice understanding off.
My understanding is this satellite could prove M Theory correct, by finding small inconsistencies in the laws of gravity. Leading everyone to agree there is more going on than we can see. Possibly the mathematically predicted 11 dimensions.
Am I understanding this correctly? What other discoveries have been hypothesized this technology can dectect?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ek7569j"
],
"text": [
"That...is not something that is expected to come out of LISA. LISA would be more sensitive to higher-wavelength gravitational radiation compared to LIGO, and would be able to detect compact objects (black holes, neutron stars, etc) in orbit before they collapse. It may also provide information about the gravitational background in the early universe, analogous to the cosmic microwave background."
],
"score": [
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What can we expect to learn from the LISA satelite?
I am not a professional theoretical physicist, just an interesting subject to me that I have a novice understanding off. My understanding is this satellite could prove M Theory correct, by finding small inconsistencies in the laws of gravity. Leading everyone to agree there is more going on than we can see. Possibly the mathematically predicted 11 dimensions. Am I understanding this correctly? What other discoveries have been hypothesized this technology can dectect?
|
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|
c2wdkc
|
Does asymptotic safety save everything?
|
I recently overheard the factoid, that a standard quantization or GR might actually be free of divergencies after all.
All this string theory business was invented, since a quantum theory of gravity is not renormalizable. As far as I understand, this could just be a consequence of perturbation theory and the full theory is completely fine.
What's up with that?
t. Not a theorist, but I know my QFT.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ernpo6a"
],
"text": [
"You're presenting some pretty big claims here and should at least provide the source where these claims originate I think. Especially if someone is supposed to comment on it.\n\nAn article I found to give a good transition from GR to quantising GR is this one _URL_0_ ."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Quantum_gravity_as_a_low_energy_effective_field_theory"
]
}
|
Does asymptotic safety save everything?
I recently overheard the factoid, that a standard quantization or GR might actually be free of divergencies after all. All this string theory business was invented, since a quantum theory of gravity is not renormalizable. As far as I understand, this could just be a consequence of perturbation theory and the full theory is completely fine. What's up with that? t. Not a theorist, but I know my QFT.
|
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0.1204361617565155,
-0.3958420753479004
] |
|
zkgbf
|
How do we progress from one second to another? Let me elaborate.
|
I saw this on some forum and it got me thinking.
If there are an infinite amount of numbers, how is it possible for us to reach one second to another? If we start any given point in time as one second, at some point it will reach 1.5 seconds, and then 1.7 second, and eventually 1.99 seconds, giving us 1/100th of a second remaining until we reach that 2 second mark. That said, if there is an infinite amount of numbers, how is it possible for us to reach the point where we get to that 2nd second? We would get to 1.999 second, then 1.99999 seconds, and then 1.9999999999 seconds, so on and so forth until we reach 1.99 repeating.
At what point do we reach that 2nd second if there is an infinite amount of 9s we much count before we turn over to 2.0 seconds?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c65ez8l",
"c65dbox"
],
"text": [
"The universe doesn't count. More importantly it doesn't count like that. We aren't progressing along those divisions that you just made. We progress along time and seek to divide it infinitely for our own purposes",
"noahjk link to Zeno's paradox is a good one and I would also suggest 'tending to limits' as a worthwhile study without the need to take on all of calculus.\n\nHowever, it isn't clear that time or space are infinitely divisible. While both extant major theories of physics imply a smooth space-time there are a number of observations that suggest a discrete (granular) structure at small scales.\n\nAs such, time may be (is, I happen to know) quantised and leap from one moment to the next rather than progressing through an infinite series of infinitesimal steps."
],
"score": [
6,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do we progress from one second to another? Let me elaborate.
I saw this on some forum and it got me thinking. If there are an infinite amount of numbers, how is it possible for us to reach one second to another? If we start any given point in time as one second, at some point it will reach 1.5 seconds, and then 1.7 second, and eventually 1.99 seconds, giving us 1/100th of a second remaining until we reach that 2 second mark. That said, if there is an infinite amount of numbers, how is it possible for us to reach the point where we get to that 2nd second? We would get to 1.999 second, then 1.99999 seconds, and then 1.9999999999 seconds, so on and so forth until we reach 1.99 repeating. At what point do we reach that 2nd second if there is an infinite amount of 9s we much count before we turn over to 2.0 seconds?
|
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|
l2gmg
|
The measurement problem??
|
So i hear a lot of people perverting quantum physics into some mystical/spiritual new concept and usually the measurement problem is at the root of these affirmations. Im not especially scientifically literate (i have no formal post secondary education in science) however as i understand it the measurement problem is a basically a problem that occurs when measuring the location of sub atomic particles. The problem exists because when you get down to the incredibly tiny almost anything will effect their "trajectory" ie. the small amount of radiation given off by a humans or equipment, photons reflected or directed on too them etc.
So its incredibly hard to measure these tiny particles without some how effecting them.
Now, as i understand it people are manipulating this anomaly by saying that human consciousness and the act of "observing" these particles is what "changes" them. They then infer that human consciousness can change the state or position of matter at a subatomic level and therefore by extrapolation upwards human consciousnesses can effect and change matter on a macro level.
Is this at all accurate? Am i correct in how I described the actual measurement problem? am i correct about how people are exploiting it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2p9ey8"
],
"text": [
"So first, there are some problems with measurement to discuss before we get to *the measurement problem*. So we've got to be clear about what science *is* (at least when we're speaking of physics, other sciences are a bit different). Science is our capacity to predict the outcomes of a measurement. So we pass a particle through a slit and we want to be able to predict where it will be on the next wall. But we find that the system behaves in such a way that it's as if it had a range of different momentum values through the slit, and different positions in that slit. The *probable* locations on the far wall are a summation of all the various paths that the particle can take through the slit, and the interference of these paths. \n\nThis and other quantum measurements represent the notion that quantum behaviour is such that quantum objects exist as an undefined mixture of states. The proper term is a superposition. *Yet* when we measure the object, it only has exactly one of these states. So this is *the* measurement problem. How does the act of measurement select one of these states from the set of states the particles are in? What's really important to interject *here* is that measurement has *absolutely nothing to do with consciousness*. \n\nSo let's expand the slit problem to the 2-slit experiment. Now we can treat it as if passing through one slit or the other is one state or another. So long as the experiment remains agnostic to which state it is (which slit it passed through) then there's an interference pattern among these states. The moment though that you change the experiment to ask \"which slit,\" the interference pattern disappears. But that's again, not because of consciousness, but because the experiment is *fundamentally different* and allows for *fundamentally different* outcomes. And that goes back to the earlier problem with measurement. If I'm measuring which slit, I have to interact with the particle somehow, and that interaction changes the system from the combination of both states to having a specific state, *the measurement problem.*\n\n---\n\nNow comes all of the philosophical interpretations of what all this means. The \"old school\" Copenhagen interpretation is still probably the most widely accepted explanation, where all of the particles of your measurement detector just are too complicated to sustain the fragile superposition of the particle being measured. It causes a thing called decoherence that isn't well mathematically described, just kind of a gut instinct of the Copenhagen school.\n\nI think most popular after that is the Multi State Interpretation (also more commonly known as Multi World Interpretation.) I wrote more about it [here](_URL_0_). But in a way it turns the Copenhagen solution on its head. It says that when the measurement happens, it doesn't \"collapse\" the measured thing into one state, that measured thing causes the measurement apparatus (including the human memory of what the measurement was) to join in a correlated superposition *with it*. Thus the whole universe is one wavefunction with many many superpositions of states within it.\n\nAlso popular is the Transactional interpretation. In this model, it's thought that since it is permitted for wavefunctions to travel back in time, prior to measurement the measured thing propagates forward in time an \"offer wave.\" And propagating back in time from the measurement event is a \"confirmation wave.\" And the interference of these two causes the measurement to collapse to one state or another.\n\nAnother popular one, though I'm less versed, is the deBroglie-Bohm pilot wave theory. Here the wavefunction is a *real* thing, even though it can't be measured. And the wavefunction guides around quasi-classical particles. The various wavefunctions interact and the quasi-classical particles then are in exact states, while their wavefunctions handle the probability stuff.\n\nAnyways, that's my 2 cents on the subject."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/g8fuo/many_worlds_interpretation/"
]
}
|
The measurement problem??
So i hear a lot of people perverting quantum physics into some mystical/spiritual new concept and usually the measurement problem is at the root of these affirmations. Im not especially scientifically literate (i have no formal post secondary education in science) however as i understand it the measurement problem is a basically a problem that occurs when measuring the location of sub atomic particles. The problem exists because when you get down to the incredibly tiny almost anything will effect their "trajectory" ie. the small amount of radiation given off by a humans or equipment, photons reflected or directed on too them etc. So its incredibly hard to measure these tiny particles without some how effecting them. Now, as i understand it people are manipulating this anomaly by saying that human consciousness and the act of "observing" these particles is what "changes" them. They then infer that human consciousness can change the state or position of matter at a subatomic level and therefore by extrapolation upwards human consciousnesses can effect and change matter on a macro level. Is this at all accurate? Am i correct in how I described the actual measurement problem? am i correct about how people are exploiting it?
|
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|
1mnf0e
|
What i´m doing when I treat y´ as dy/dx ?
|
That is, why I can think in a derivative as a ratio of two separate variables and operate algebraically, and why it works?
For example, when I solve the differential equation y´ = x^2 / y, despite being said it´s an "abuse of notation", I can just rearrange it as y dy = x^2 dx and integrate both sides.
Edit: I would also like to see a particular case of differential equation in that the manipulation of the differentials algebraically like variables leads to an error or something absurd.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccavpv4",
"ccavw0d"
],
"text": [
"Most people would tell you that dx and dy are limits of small variations; you take a small difference, keep track consistently of terms that are of comparable size, and get proceed with your limits, etc.\n\nHowever, there is a way to understand that the kind of manipulation you enage in above is correct *as is*. There is a way to formulate calculus using what is known as *non-standard analysis*, in which you extend the real numbers by adding in new objects, namely infinitesimals, and then see how you have to extend the number system if you include these objects plus the usual operations (addition, division, etc.). You get a new system of numbers, the hyperreals, and they contain the usual real numbers, plus infinitesimal and infinite objects. [Robinson](_URL_1_) showed that you can then perform the manipulation of infinitesimals in a mathematically rigorous way (your *dx* and *dy* are such infinitesimals), and showed too that the theorems and results of the ordinary approach to calculus are true for functions over the hyperreals. So when you perform the kinds of manipulations you describe in your question, you can understand that as performing a calculation using non-standard analysis, the ultimate result of which will reproduce a result that would follow (with more elaborate work) in the conventional limit approach to calculus. \n\nA text that develops calculus in this way is Keisler's, which is found [here](_URL_0_).",
"This is the Lagrangian approach to expressing differential equations. It was before the time when differential equations were properly invented, and so the rules were less well set out. Formally it is horribly wrong but Lagrange's notation seems to allow it.\n\nWhy does it work? Well think about what you're doing. Let's assume a simple differential equation.\n\ndy/dx = f(x)\n\nIf you take the integral of each side with respect to x, you get:\n\nInt (dy/dx ).dx = Int (f (x)).dx\n\nHowever the fundamental theorem of calculis states that if you take the integral of a derivative of an integral wrt the same variable, you get the original expression (plus a constant) and since dy/dx = d/dx (y)\n\ny=Int (f (x) ) dx + C (and the C can be included in the other Integral's C when you integrate that)\n\nSo it isn't actually cancelling or being moved around. It just looks that way and is a lot shorter to write."
],
"score": [
9,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html",
"http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Robinson.html"
]
}
|
What i´m doing when I treat y´ as dy/dx ?
That is, why I can think in a derivative as a ratio of two separate variables and operate algebraically, and why it works? For example, when I solve the differential equation y´ = x^2 / y, despite being said it´s an "abuse of notation", I can just rearrange it as y dy = x^2 dx and integrate both sides. Edit: I would also like to see a particular case of differential equation in that the manipulation of the differentials algebraically like variables leads to an error or something absurd.
|
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] |
|
5wzfvm
|
Is the word "Ow" universal?
|
If somebody in a remote tribe in Africa stubbs his toe, does he say "Ow"?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"deeknvs"
],
"text": [
"No. \nThe precise word varies from language to language. \nFor example the Japanese word for \"Ow\" is \"Itai\", you can see it in their media. \nNote that this is for minor pain, we all scream in agony in the same language."
],
"score": [
25
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is the word "Ow" universal?
If somebody in a remote tribe in Africa stubbs his toe, does he say "Ow"?
|
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|
1lg4vo
|
Is there a reason why adipose tissue is stored in specific areas the body?
|
For example, man breasts don't seem to serve a purpose, however, many overweight/obese men have them; some women have huge butts yet little belly fat. Is there a reason or advantage to having fat stored in these places? or is it completely genetic?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbyztl3"
],
"text": [
"One of the roles of adipose tissue in the body is as insulation against injury, which is why fat accumulates in the abdomen (to protect internal organs, including the kidneys). Also, as noted above, there are hormonal differences between the sexes. Since these hormones fluctuate as we age, the distribution of adipose tissue also changes as we age."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is there a reason why adipose tissue is stored in specific areas the body?
For example, man breasts don't seem to serve a purpose, however, many overweight/obese men have them; some women have huge butts yet little belly fat. Is there a reason or advantage to having fat stored in these places? or is it completely genetic?
|
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] |
|
oxm4s
|
What else did our teachers lie to us about? eg Divide by Zero, Momentum
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3kun2n",
"c3kuojh"
],
"text": [
"One of my favourite examples of this, is the idea (taught in high school science) that 'light always travels in straight lines'. Mainly because as your understanding increases, it goes full circle.\n\nAs a high school student, you learn that light always travels in straight lines, and there are nice experiments with prisms and mirrors to demonstrate this.\n\nThen, you start learning more physics. You learn that light is 'bent' by gravity, and so what you learned in high school was a lie.\n\nThen, when you learn more physics, you come across General Relativity. Photons actually travel along null geodesics in curved space-time, which is a straight line (albeit in curved space).",
"lies are different than gross simplification for initial foundational understanding."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What else did our teachers lie to us about? eg Divide by Zero, Momentum
|
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||
1wwwav
|
Has the American political landscape always been this vitriolic?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf71inb",
"cf66nm9"
],
"text": [
"I am undergraduate senior majoring in political science and have a minor in US history, so hopefully I am somewhat qualified to answer this.\n\n/u/Scaryclouds is correct, and you hear it a lot in the media that \"this is the most polarized America has been since the Civil War.\" This is, eh, probably a correct assumption, but it certainly isn't anything too spectacular in American history. There has been plenty of occasions of a very divided public. However, the media and public have developed a very short memory. The country has been pretty evenly divided since George Washington left office to be honest.\n\nAs for your word choice of vitriolic, politics has always seemed to bring out the \"passion\" in people. In the 1850's Preston Brook, Rep. from SC, beat Senator Sumner with a cane over the treatment of the territory of Kansas. Alexander Hamilton was challenged to a duel and subsequently killed by Aaron Burr over personal and policy disputes. Which would be like Cheney shooting Geithner... that actually doesn't sound too far-fetched now that I have typed it out. \n\nNow as this is more of history and politics than actual science, I will provide my speculation. I think the advent of the 24 hour news cycle and the dwindling number of problems with definite answers has exacerbated the current political climate. However, it is not much worse than any number of previous headbuttings like Vietnam, Civil Rights, and numerous entries of new states into the Union.",
"Well the lead up too the Civil War was certainly worse. There were instances of congressmen actually physically assaulting one another. Anyways, you may also want to try asking this question in /r/askhistotians. The last 20 years won't really be covered he subreddit rules, but they will talk about the rest of history."
],
"score": [
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Has the American political landscape always been this vitriolic?
|
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] |
||
1f5t96
|
Is this Facebook post accurate?
|
"If I had a pole in my hand that could reach to the moon, and on the moon was a button that I needed to press... using my pole, it would take about 2 weeks for the other end to push the button."
*sorry I couldn't think of a more fitting title.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca72m5p"
],
"text": [
"The speed of sound in steel is 6,100 m/s.\n\nThe moon is 384,400,000 meters away, on average.\n\nIt would take 63,000 seconds for movement to travel the length of the rod, or 17 hours.\n\nSo no, not quite. The original creator of that thought was probably incorrectly using the speed of sound in air, which would give a value of 13 days."
],
"score": [
57
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is this Facebook post accurate?
"If I had a pole in my hand that could reach to the moon, and on the moon was a button that I needed to press... using my pole, it would take about 2 weeks for the other end to push the button." *sorry I couldn't think of a more fitting title.
|
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|
6brq1u
|
Do people actually change?
|
[removed]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dhq0srh"
],
"text": [
"I just read an article out of the University of Minnesota that talked about how the perception of ourselves change over time. I was researching how elder people learn vs younger people, so the paper is more geared towards learning than actual psychological changes, but If you'd like me to track it down I'd be more than happy. On mobile right now so I don't have it handy."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Do people actually change?
[removed]
|
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|
pjl22
|
What Impact Does "When" We Eat Have?
|
I always hear two popular sayings in regards to when you eat.
-Always eat within 1 hour of waking up, as it will "jump start" your metabolism.
-Never eat within 1 hour of going to bed.
How much truth is their to each of these? I actually avoid going to the gym in the morning because I can't work out with anything on my stomach (medical) and I don't have time to eat something and wait a few hours before I go to the gym.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3px9wr"
],
"text": [
"I believe its pretty much a myth that timing meals affects your metabolism. Check out this [article](_URL_0_) for some scientific explanation to these myths and others."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.leangains.com/2010/10/top-ten-fasting-myths-debunked.html"
]
}
|
What Impact Does "When" We Eat Have?
I always hear two popular sayings in regards to when you eat. -Always eat within 1 hour of waking up, as it will "jump start" your metabolism. -Never eat within 1 hour of going to bed. How much truth is their to each of these? I actually avoid going to the gym in the morning because I can't work out with anything on my stomach (medical) and I don't have time to eat something and wait a few hours before I go to the gym.
|
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] |
|
40ya7p
|
Just started using jojoba oil in my beard, went out this morning in -4°c and my beard froze instantly. What happened?
|
I walked outside and instantly I felt my face tightening up and touched my beard and it was frozen. It was so fast I didn't realize what was happening at first. What's going on here?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cyyjpow"
],
"text": [
"[Jojoba oil](_URL_0_) is listed as having a freezing point somewhere between 7.5C-10C. If it was as cold as you say, it's no surprise that the oil was able to solidify quickly."
],
"score": [
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jojoba_oil"
]
}
|
Just started using jojoba oil in my beard, went out this morning in -4°c and my beard froze instantly. What happened?
I walked outside and instantly I felt my face tightening up and touched my beard and it was frozen. It was so fast I didn't realize what was happening at first. What's going on here?
|
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|
1dnpur
|
How high would you need to be in order to see 250 miles away?
|
Say a person is staring out a window in a really tall tower... how high off the ground would they need to be in order to see a point 250 miles away.
Let's assume no adverse meteorological conditions, and we're using the Earth's curvature.
I've tried looking elsewhere for the information, but figured that the people of Reddit could give me a clear answer.
Thanks much!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9s67pn"
],
"text": [
"[This page](_URL_0_) actually has an explanation of the calculation. Your answer is apparently about 41,600 ft."
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ringbell.co.uk/info/hdist.htm"
]
}
|
How high would you need to be in order to see 250 miles away?
Say a person is staring out a window in a really tall tower... how high off the ground would they need to be in order to see a point 250 miles away. Let's assume no adverse meteorological conditions, and we're using the Earth's curvature. I've tried looking elsewhere for the information, but figured that the people of Reddit could give me a clear answer. Thanks much!
|
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|
8oi28h
|
Is WISE 1828+2650 habitable at all?
|
I just found out recently, via a temperature of the universe info graphic, that WISE 1828+2650 has a surface temp of 80F/27C.
Is there a maintainable orbit where the radiant temp would be appropriate for human living conditions? What about the surface directly? Other than lack of oxygen, is there anything inherently toxic about the environment that would need to be overcome?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e03kuis",
"e03llv0"
],
"text": [
"So a few points about this:\n\n- That infographic just gave a single temperature of 27 °C / 80 °F, which is a little disingenuous since it says nothing about the uncertainty. Estimates are that the cloud-top temperature is anywhere between -23 to 127 °C, or -10 to 260 °F.\n\n- Even if the cloud-top temperature really is mild by human standards...that's at cloud-top. There is no surface to stand on, just an atmosphere that gets thicker and thicker, until the pressure and temperature is so great that hydrogen becomes a liquid metal. If this object formed like a brown dwarf, there's likely not even a solid core under all that crushing pressure of metallic hydrogen.\n\n- The range on the mass estimate is pretty large - plausibly anywhere from 3 to 6 Jupiter-masses. That means the gravity at cloud-top is anywhere from about 8x - 15x Earth's gravity. Even if you could float in a balloon at cloud-top, the gravity would crush you pretty quickly - no one can survive that for any extended period, and you'd black-out pretty quickly from your heart being unable to properly pump your blood.\n\nSo...don't plan on building your vacation home at WISE 1828+2650 just yet.",
"It is a disappointing answer but it looks like not enough is known at this point.\n\nIt isn't even clear whether it is a free floating planet or a brown dwarf. \n\nIf it were the right temperature, it would still need the right atmosphere and the right elemental composition to allow us to survive. As I am sure you know!\n\nIt also looks like there is some speculation about it being part of a binary system meaning gravity could be a problem. It is also the size of Jupiter so gravity would probably be prohibitively strong even in the absence of another celestial body.\n\nAll just speculation of mine though!"
],
"score": [
25,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is WISE 1828+2650 habitable at all?
I just found out recently, via a temperature of the universe info graphic, that WISE 1828+2650 has a surface temp of 80F/27C. Is there a maintainable orbit where the radiant temp would be appropriate for human living conditions? What about the surface directly? Other than lack of oxygen, is there anything inherently toxic about the environment that would need to be overcome?
|
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|
24o4b4
|
What is mechanistic medicine?
|
I have little fore-hand knowledge about the topic, I saw references to it in the 10 dogmas of science.
"Mechanistic medicine is the only kind that really works"
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ch9lqgq"
],
"text": [
"Mechanistic medicine is what's practiced in developed world. Mechanistic medicine looks at pathology in terms of chemicals, tissues, bacteria, viruses, DNA, physical injuries, etc. anything you can see on a scan, grow in a petri dish, detect in a sample down at the lab, or feel, hear, or see during a physical exam. Treatment is focused on correcting defects with surgery, or interrupting the disease process chemically, or using medications to manage symptoms. \n\nMechanistic medicine differs from, say, shamanistic medicine, which prescribes songs or exorcisms for a variety of different illnesses."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is mechanistic medicine?
I have little fore-hand knowledge about the topic, I saw references to it in the 10 dogmas of science. "Mechanistic medicine is the only kind that really works"
|
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|
67i9qf
|
Are mesosomes actual structures?
|
I've read different answers to this in different places. Some are saying that they have certain functions such as respiration and photosynthesis but other sources are saying they are just artifacts created as a consequence of the chemical processes involved in the preparation of specimens for electron microscopy. I am leaning more toward the latter right now, but I am not sure.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dgs36i1"
],
"text": [
"The problem is, mesosome is really general term. It can be all the thing you described. The strictest definition is an \"invagination of the membrane\".\n\nIf we are talking about prokaryotes, it means that the external membrane is folded on itself. As always, folds allow for more surface, but because it is invaginated, the folds are all concentrated within one cavity. This allows for complex reaction chains to happen :\n\nA + B = C + D catalysed by an enzyme S1 \nand C + D = E + F catalysed by an enzyme S2\n\nYou have a lot more chances of getting E and F if C and D don't float away (invagination), S1 and S2 are concentrated in one place (fixed surface membrane) and the surface they are attached on is big (folds).\n\nAs photosynthesis and respiration are complex chain reactions, they take place in mesosomes. If you have seen what a mitochondria is, you'll realize that the foldings of the inner membrane are also 'mesosomes'.\n\nAnd it can happen that the blade of a scalpel creates some sort of foldings by dragging bits of membranes."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Are mesosomes actual structures?
I've read different answers to this in different places. Some are saying that they have certain functions such as respiration and photosynthesis but other sources are saying they are just artifacts created as a consequence of the chemical processes involved in the preparation of specimens for electron microscopy. I am leaning more toward the latter right now, but I am not sure.
|
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|
37locp
|
HSV1: What is the scientific justification for (not) defining it as an STI?
|
I had a discussion yesterday with random internet person, who appeared to have some scientific knowledge, that said that science does not define HSV1 as an STI. He provided a reference to a seminal paper (with only 1 citation) that merely discussed the herpesviruses and not the classification of STIs but refused to provide any further citations. I cannot locate any reliable sources to answer this question.
Since the medical profession and the general population treat HSV1 differently, I would really love *scientific* references on why the general population should not classify HSV1 as an STI (and thus should be more afraid of HSV2 than HSV1 because HSV2 then becomes stigmatized (rightly/wrongly?) when you tell someone that one is an STI and the other isn't).
I am aware that HSV2 general sits in the nerves at the base of the spine and HSV1 sits at the top of the spine. I'm also aware that HSV2 is almost always transmitted through sexual contact and HSV1 is more frequently transmitted through non-sexual contact (kissing) though HSV1 is the cause of 30-50% of new genital herpes infections. To my knowledge, however, there has not been any studies conducted on the transmission rate of oral-genital transmission of either HSV1 or HSV2. (I know about base rate neglect, the use of barriers, increase in oral sex and all the other things that can affect the percentage of new genital infections.)
I'm not sure if the commenter was suggesting that since HSV2 sits at the base of the spine that's why "science" classifies it as an STI (though HIV doesn't sit there) or if he was saying that HSV2 is most frequently transmitted due to sexual contact (and thus if HIV was most frequently transmitted through needles or blood transfusions, it would no longer be classified as an STI).
I'm looking mostly for citations but any rational arguments would be helpful. I'm not looking to justify one position, I'm looking for the correct answer.
Thank you in advance your help!
tl;dr; Are there any *scientific citations* to support classifying HSV1/HSV2 together or differently as STIs?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cro56h6"
],
"text": [
"HSV1 is an STI. It is an infection. It is sexually transmitted.\n\nThere are multiple reasons why HSV1 is not commonly discussed as an STI, though.\n\nFirst of all, many HSV1 infections are transmitted between people with no sexual relationship (for example, parent-child transmission during childhood), or between people with a sexual relationship during non-sexual contact (for example, kissing). \n\nSecond (and related), HSV1 infections are often orolabial, rather than genital, infections. \n\nThird, and also related, is that there is a significant amount of stigma about STIs, which is cognitively discordant with double-digit HSV1 infection rates in the US. You'd hope that would lead people to flip out less about STIs, but in reality it results in people classifying HSV1 as \"not an STI\", or claiming \"I don't have herpes, I just sometimes get cold sores\". \n\nOn a side note, it's telling that google suggestions for \"Is oral herpes…\" are \"… an STI\" and \"… a big deal\"."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
HSV1: What is the scientific justification for (not) defining it as an STI?
I had a discussion yesterday with random internet person, who appeared to have some scientific knowledge, that said that science does not define HSV1 as an STI. He provided a reference to a seminal paper (with only 1 citation) that merely discussed the herpesviruses and not the classification of STIs but refused to provide any further citations. I cannot locate any reliable sources to answer this question. Since the medical profession and the general population treat HSV1 differently, I would really love *scientific* references on why the general population should not classify HSV1 as an STI (and thus should be more afraid of HSV2 than HSV1 because HSV2 then becomes stigmatized (rightly/wrongly?) when you tell someone that one is an STI and the other isn't). I am aware that HSV2 general sits in the nerves at the base of the spine and HSV1 sits at the top of the spine. I'm also aware that HSV2 is almost always transmitted through sexual contact and HSV1 is more frequently transmitted through non-sexual contact (kissing) though HSV1 is the cause of 30-50% of new genital herpes infections. To my knowledge, however, there has not been any studies conducted on the transmission rate of oral-genital transmission of either HSV1 or HSV2. (I know about base rate neglect, the use of barriers, increase in oral sex and all the other things that can affect the percentage of new genital infections.) I'm not sure if the commenter was suggesting that since HSV2 sits at the base of the spine that's why "science" classifies it as an STI (though HIV doesn't sit there) or if he was saying that HSV2 is most frequently transmitted due to sexual contact (and thus if HIV was most frequently transmitted through needles or blood transfusions, it would no longer be classified as an STI). I'm looking mostly for citations but any rational arguments would be helpful. I'm not looking to justify one position, I'm looking for the correct answer. Thank you in advance your help! tl;dr; Are there any *scientific citations* to support classifying HSV1/HSV2 together or differently as STIs?
|
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] |
|
td759
|
Would TCMP even work in real life?
|
I heard about [TCMP](_URL_0_) (Trans Consciousness Messaging Protocol) from xkcd, where the person would lucid dream in a keyboard and have the ability to type messages to the real world while they dream. My question is that is there even a possibility of that working? Or would the action of typing be impossible while in REM sleep?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4lplu9",
"c4llr6o"
],
"text": [
"Yes. I have been working on this for many years and am very close to completion. I designed a headband with a sensor that is sensitive enough to detect rapid eye movements. I also wrote a program that records my sleep and plays audio tracks when it detects that I am dreaming. \n\n[**[PROOF]**](_URL_0_)\n\nFurthermore, I have been training myself to blink in Morse Code patterns and am writing a plug-in to decode the short and long blinks in hope that I can transcribe live from the dream world one day. And yes, I have been using \"FIRST POST\" as the hello world debug test.",
"For normal individuals, [sleep paralysis](_URL_1_) occurs during REM that would prevent them from working a keyboard. I'm sure a specialist will drop by to talk about exceptions."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/tcmp.png"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://lsdbase.org",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_paralysis"
]
}
|
Would TCMP even work in real life?
I heard about [TCMP](_URL_0_) (Trans Consciousness Messaging Protocol) from xkcd, where the person would lucid dream in a keyboard and have the ability to type messages to the real world while they dream. My question is that is there even a possibility of that working? Or would the action of typing be impossible while in REM sleep?
|
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|
oksi7
|
Can the hunter gatherer diet cure MS? This lady makes a strong case for it.
|
_URL_0_
I always considered this stuff to be bogus, but never knew much about it.
Whats the deal with this diet? Is the theory behind it sound?
And if it's true why aren't every person with MS doing it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3i1hy1"
],
"text": [
"> And if it's true why aren't every person with MS doing it?\n\nWithout even watching the video you linked to, that question is your answer. Right now, there is no **cure** for MS. There are certainly treatments that can reduce the frequency and severity of symptom flair-ups. It's possible that whatever diet this person is touting could be of benefit to reducing symptom flairs, but it certainly will not cure MS. If I have the time or motivation maybe I'll watch the video and give you more of a specific answer later today."
],
"score": [
14
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://tedxtalks.ted.com/video/TEDxIowaCity-Dr-Terry-Wahls-Min;search:tag:%22tedxiowacity%22"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can the hunter gatherer diet cure MS? This lady makes a strong case for it.
_URL_0_ I always considered this stuff to be bogus, but never knew much about it. Whats the deal with this diet? Is the theory behind it sound? And if it's true why aren't every person with MS doing it?
|
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|
46uptc
|
How to calculate salary of an astronaut who travel in light speed?
|
Let assume that scientists already developed a star ship which can travel in light speed. An astronaut is told to travel space. So he starts travelling from earth -let say- 25 February 2240 at 08.00 am. And he is supposed to be back to the earth the next day at 08.00am. So he travels the space in light speed for 24 hours and back to earth. But when he lands on the earth he checks his clock and it shows that 25 February 2260. Appearantly he travelled 20 years. So my question is what will be his salary? How it will be calculated?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d08hqfr",
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],
"text": [
"You can't get light speed, it's impossible. With that said you can get close to the speed of light. In that, here's a hilarious paper working out how economics should work with relativistic space travel: \n\n* Krugman, Paul. \"The theory of interstellar trade.\" Economic Inquiry 48.4 (2010): 1119-1123. _URL_0_ \n\n > This paper extends interplanetary trade theory to an interstellar setting. it is chiefly concerned with the following question: how should interest charges on goods in transit be computed when the goods travel at close to the speed of light? This is a problem because the time taken in transit will appear less to an observer traveling with the goods than to a stationary observer. A solution is derived from economic theory, and two useless but true theorems are proved.",
"You certainly raise an interesting question that I am sure nerd culture has somewhere addressed in all seriousness to determine Captain Kirk's or Captain Jean-Luc Picard's rightful salary.\n\n > Let assume that scientists already developed a star ship which can travel in light speed.\n\nFirst off, this is obviously impossible, but for the sake of answering the question, we can just assume the spacecraft can travel at speeds arbitrarily close to light speed.\n\n > An astronaut is told to travel space. So he starts travelling from earth -let say- 25 February 2240 at 08.00 am. And he is supposed to be back to the earth the next day at 08.00am. So he travels the space in light speed for 24 hours and back to earth.\n\nIf the path of the astronaut through spacetime is described in Earth coordinates, your description implies that the path must begin at (0,0,0,0) and end at (T,0,0,0) where T = time elapsed on Earth (in this case, 1 day).\n\n > But when he lands on the earth he checks his clock and it shows that 25 February 2260. Appearantly he travelled 20 years.\n\nThis can't happen, at least not this dramatically. It *is* possible for an astronaut to travel away from Earth (into a weaker gravity well), come back to Earth in 1 day of Earth proper time, and find that she has aged more than the people on Earth. That is possible only because time seems to run relatively slower for observers deeper in a gravity well. (Think of the movie Interstellar: 1 day of proper time on the water planet is equivalent to 171 years of Earth proper time.)\n\nHowever, the gravitational time dilation factor for observers on Earth's surface is about [1+7 x 10^(-10)](_URL_1_). (This calculation assumes that the exterior of Earth is approximately Schwarzschild. It also does not take into account any effects due to the movement of the observers, as seen from infinity.) What this means is that every 1 second of Earth proper time is equivalent to 1.000000000695 seconds for someone at infinity. So if 1 day passes on Earth, the observer at infinity will have experienced an additional 60 microseconds. Whether the astronaut is paid according to the time elapsed on Earth or the time elapsed according to her is really immaterial. The difference in salary is only 7 parts in 10^(10). That is negligible.\n\nNow all of that assumes some very special properties of how the path the astronaut takes, and the 60 microsecond estimate is an absolute maximum for the additional amount of time the astronaut could have experienced in 1 day of Earth proper time. In reality, the astronaut is going to experience *less* proper time than Earth. (This is just the classical twin problem.) In fact, depending on how fast the astronaut travels with respect to Earth, the proper time of the astronaut can be arbitrarily small. That is, the astronaut can get back to Earth after 1 day has elapsed on Earth in such a way so that she experiences as little time as she wants. (Of course, if she has to stop somewhere and gather some data, there will be some lower bound to her proper time.)\n\n > So my question is what will be his salary? How it will be calculated?\n\nWell, here's the interesting part then. The astronaut can be paid according to the time elapsed on Earth (24 hours) or the time elapsed on the spacecraft (in principle, from an arbitrarily small elapsed time to 24 hours plus 60 microseconds). If she is paid according to Earth proper time, that doesn't seem very fair to her employer does it? But she did only work for possibly a few seconds, so why should she get paid for any other time other than her own proper time?\n\nIt's more interesting to talk about how interest should be charged and accrued on, say, trade goods in an intergalactic trade route or an intergalactic bank. I am sure that someone somewhere has worked all of that out. (**edit:** Apparently, /u/AsAChemicalEngineer has found and linked a relevant paper.)"
],
"score": [
9,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/interstellar.pdf",
"http://tinyurl.com/hdojlmy"
]
}
|
How to calculate salary of an astronaut who travel in light speed?
Let assume that scientists already developed a star ship which can travel in light speed. An astronaut is told to travel space. So he starts travelling from earth -let say- 25 February 2240 at 08.00 am. And he is supposed to be back to the earth the next day at 08.00am. So he travels the space in light speed for 24 hours and back to earth. But when he lands on the earth he checks his clock and it shows that 25 February 2260. Appearantly he travelled 20 years. So my question is what will be his salary? How it will be calculated?
|
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|
mtkge
|
Would it be possible for a species to devolve?
|
Or at least evolve in a pattern that would result in a match to its own species in a point in its prior evolution?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c33qdks",
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],
"text": [
"The word \"devolve\" does not relate to the concept of evolution.\n\nEvolution is the theory that a species will adapt over generations through multiple mutations and natural selection to be better suited to a given environment. A species will evolve traits suited to their environment as helpful traits are selected for and negative traits are selected against.\n\nEvolution is not a vector quantity. It does not have a forward or reverse direction. It only relates to the environment in which a species resides over a long period. If the environment changes, the species will evolve to suit the new environment and traits that may have been previously helpful could now be neutral or even negative.\n\nTo use your idea of \"devolve\" in this context, however, if the environment changes to be similar to an environment that a species had been previously adapted to, it is possible for that species to evolve traits that had been seen in their ancestors.",
"Evolution concerns itself with genetic traits that promote survival. If a species found itself in an environment where an older form of that species has a better chance for survival, over time, it may evolve in a manner that reestablishes some traits.\n\nEvolution will never jack on the brakes and shift it to Reverse gear, but it can make a U-Turn.",
"Evolution does have direction but it does not have momentum. Organisms evolve through time (they can't go back through this so it is directional). But justbecause they have changed through time at some rate does not mean they will continue to do so. \n\nNow as others mentioned, devolution is not a word. What you are referring to is to re-evolve primitive characteristics. This has happened many times. Often selection will change in direction so for a period things will go in one direction and then later it will swing back in the opposite direction. Imagine body size for example, this is easy and happens frequently.\n\nThere are other way more dramatic examples of organisms re-evolving complex structure and life history characteristics. FOr example, some stick insects have apparently re-evolved wings after having lost them for long periods. And salamanders re-evolved the larval life stage after having lost that stage completely. The mechanisms to make these kinds of dramatic changes are not nearly understood, but it may involve maintaining cryptic genetic variation (genes that go unexpressed) for long periods of time and then turning them back on after long latencies. How they could remain functional while being unexpressed for long periods is still a mystery."
],
"score": [
11,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Would it be possible for a species to devolve?
Or at least evolve in a pattern that would result in a match to its own species in a point in its prior evolution?
|
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|
v6pfl
|
Does Red bull really stimulate your metabolism?
|
On the side of my red bull can it claims that red bull stimulates your metabolism. Is this true and if so, what is it in the red bull that does this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c51tcr2"
],
"text": [
"Caffeine.\n\nCaffeine is a stimulant, it stimulates the central nervous system and helps ward off tiredness by blocking adenosine receptors. Also caffeine may increase fat utilization which decreases glycogen usage. It does this by increasing the amount of free fatty acids in the blood. This makes it popular in many athletic supplements. Caffeine can be extracted from many different sources such as the coffee seeds or tea plants. Which is then put into many energy drinks."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does Red bull really stimulate your metabolism?
On the side of my red bull can it claims that red bull stimulates your metabolism. Is this true and if so, what is it in the red bull that does this?
|
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|
sotlr
|
Science and the Burden of Evidence
|
Hey guys - I was hoping to get your opinion on a question that's more about the scientific process in general, rather than a specific topic.
I got into a discussion a few days ago with a fellow redditor that eventually came down to the scientific burden of evidence. I'm going to try to use an example to demonstrate the two positions.
Question: Do ghosts exist? (in the sense of dead spirits roaming the Earth).
Argument A: There is no evidence of their existence, so the scientific perspective would be to positively assert non-existence until such evidence was presented.
Argument B: There is no evidence of existence or non-existence, so the scientific perspective would be to draw no conclusion.
Is one of these incorrect, or are they both valid variations of scientific thought?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4fx1ur"
],
"text": [
"Burden of evidence is on the one who makes the original claim, so on a person who said ghosts exist. However, your example is slightly more complicated as none said that ghosts exist, one was just asking. Both arguments in this case are loose. The claim that ghosts exist might be made by a fictional writer, who is not obligated to provide any proof. As only existence can be proved by finding a ghost, it's non-existence is impossible to prove, because we can not imagine how to disprove infinite properties of ghosts like invisibility, their will not to communicate with those who want to disprove it and so on. So if the ghosts are not proved to exist, they are just a word in a dictionary or an image in our brain that have no need of disproval and cannot be said they are real on unreal. This is not equal to not knowing. \n\nIt would be a totally different story if ghosts would be able to prove. If we assume for example that people who can talk to death communicate trough ghosts and if this is the reason why ghosts should exist, the non-existence of ghosts can be proved by proving that these people can not indeed communicate with dead individuals. We can simply ask them to ask the ghost about something that they could not know, like what is in a will of a recently deceased person, whose will was not read by his lawyer. This would be a double blind test and would probably conclude that there are no ghosts or that all tested subjects were liars. But there is a finite number of subjects to test and a conclusion with absolute truth can be done."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Science and the Burden of Evidence
Hey guys - I was hoping to get your opinion on a question that's more about the scientific process in general, rather than a specific topic. I got into a discussion a few days ago with a fellow redditor that eventually came down to the scientific burden of evidence. I'm going to try to use an example to demonstrate the two positions. Question: Do ghosts exist? (in the sense of dead spirits roaming the Earth). Argument A: There is no evidence of their existence, so the scientific perspective would be to positively assert non-existence until such evidence was presented. Argument B: There is no evidence of existence or non-existence, so the scientific perspective would be to draw no conclusion. Is one of these incorrect, or are they both valid variations of scientific thought?
|
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|
avrmpj
|
Can you reverse cavities?
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ehiga58"
],
"text": [
"By the time you have a cavity big enough for the dentist to recommend a filling, it's too late to remineralize that part of the tooth. Drilling and filling will help protect the internal parts of the tooth and keep your cavities from turning into something worse, such as an abscess.\n\nBut regularly brushing with a fluoride toothpaste will help with remineralization to help reduce cavity formation in the first place.\n\nIf you normally drink non-fluoridated water, such as well water or some brands of bottled water, you may also benefit from regular fluoride treatments such as a fluoride varnish when you go to the dentist. Most water in the US provided via public utility (\"city water\") is fluoridated."
],
"score": [
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can you reverse cavities?
[deleted]
|
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] |
|
tp8zi
|
Free electricity: what's the science behind this? I'm skeptical, to say the least.
|
A friend posted this [video](_URL_0_). It's in Spanish, but you don't need to understand it to get the gist of the idea.
Basically they're saying that a spark can generate long lasting electricity.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4ojdhj"
],
"text": [
"Theres no such thing as \"free energy\" energy cannot be created or destroyed. If you see anything online that says they created free energy they are lying."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dsZoVnrv2Yo"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Free electricity: what's the science behind this? I'm skeptical, to say the least.
A friend posted this [video](_URL_0_). It's in Spanish, but you don't need to understand it to get the gist of the idea. Basically they're saying that a spark can generate long lasting electricity.
|
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-0.6929392218589783
] |
|
6wbxm3
|
How does the Van De Graff Generator work?
|
I'm really having difficulties with it and it'll be on my exams. Explanation with simpler terms is appreciated.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dm73sv1"
],
"text": [
"If it's on your exams, you should study your material. You probably won't get the answer you need here.\n\nA Van De Graff generator uses the [triboelectric effect](_URL_0_), the same effect that causes static electricity to build up when you rub a balloon, and probably how thunder works. The sphere at the top has a body capacitance, and accumulates electrons at a very high voltage. The triboelectric effect is poorly understood. Movement between the rubber belt and brush causes electrons to move around. We've ranked what direction they tend to move when two materials are rubbed together, and we think it has *something* to do with how adhesion works... but beyond that it all gets very vague."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triboelectric_effect"
]
}
|
How does the Van De Graff Generator work?
I'm really having difficulties with it and it'll be on my exams. Explanation with simpler terms is appreciated.
|
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] |
|
agf4xt
|
How do supervoids form?
|
And why do they even exist in the first place?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ee6e4ai"
],
"text": [
"Supervoids form from smaller voids joining up with each other, like soap bubbles merging to form larger bubbles. [Voids in general](_URL_0_) form as a consequence of [tiny density variations in the early universe](_URL_4_) that themselves were generated by quantum fluctuations while the observable universe was still microscopic. Areas of slight over-density (by around 1 part in 100,000) in the early universe served as gravitational seeds that attracted matter towards them, while areas of slight under-density became increasingly under-dense voids as matter fell out of them and accreted into a network of galaxy clusters and [filaments](_URL_3_) that formed in the over-dense regions between the voids. Effectively, [voids repel matter](_URL_2_) by attracting matter less strongly than more dense regions of the universe, so they grow increasingly less dense over time. Voids and supervoids aren't completely devoid of matter and the Milky Way resides within the [KBC Void](_URL_1_)."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Void_(astronomy\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KBC_Void",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole_repeller",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_filament",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background"
]
}
|
How do supervoids form?
And why do they even exist in the first place?
|
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|
1h4r7s
|
What is a "diquark"?
|
I read [this article](_URL_0_) but I don't understand it. Is it a bound state of two quarks? Can it be any two quarks?
Edit: Also, is it any different from a [baryon](_URL_1_)?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"caqtu73",
"caqu6pu"
],
"text": [
"It's a theorized arrangement of quarks in nucleons, or 'baryons' if you're a particle physicist. QCD and experiments tell us that nucleons have a set of three quarks held by the gluons. If the diquark model is accurate, it means that two of the three are more closely bound than the third- so you can imagine the nucleon is comprised of a diquark and a third valence quark, rather than just three rando quarks. I've heard the diquark compared to a meson, but that's not fully accurate- It's not a particle in its own right and cant exist without that valence quark because two matter quarks won't be color neutral, but I believe the diquark can be made of two ups, two downs, or one of each.\n\nBottom line: they are a new idea and research is ongoing.",
"I should also mention that they're not limited to being purely theoretical constructs. At least some of the programs used to simulate collisions at the LHC use diquarks in the modeling of the beam remnant. (The one I specifically have in mind is [Pythia](_URL_0_).)\n\n(In a high-energy collision between two protons, typically only one quark or gluon from each proton will interact and give you the \"hard process\" that can lead to producing new unknown particles. The beam remnant is the remainder - some momentum is imparted to the beam remnant, and it showers and hadronizes alongside the hard process and contributes to the signals you detect.)\n\nSo, you can imagine that removing one quark from a proton will leave you with something you could roughly model as a diquark. That being said, I'm not an expert on modeling beam remnant and I don't know how well diquarks properly model beam remnant, or if there are alternative models that might better agree with experiment. I just know that it's good enough for Pythia, and that Pythia is one of the Monte Carlo event generators being used by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the LHC."
],
"score": [
31,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diquark",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://home.thep.lu.se/~torbjorn/Pythia.html"
]
}
|
What is a "diquark"?
I read [this article](_URL_0_) but I don't understand it. Is it a bound state of two quarks? Can it be any two quarks? Edit: Also, is it any different from a [baryon](_URL_1_)?
|
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|
xumag
|
Are nootropic drugs a scam?
|
I've been hearing a lot of about these; the companies pushing them seem to be very good at marketing, hiring celebrities to give testimonials and the whole kaboodle. But is there any scientific evidence proving they can make a real difference, or is it all smoke and mirrors? I'm also wary of anything that's not a controlled substance... if it worked so well, why aren't pharmas picking them up? Can anyone give the lowdown?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5ptnk9",
"c5pvosp"
],
"text": [
"Nootropics aren't a real drug class. They are a sort of made up term for things that **may** help cognitive function. \n\nThe things on _URL_0_ are supplements/nutraceuticals that are branded in a way that are more brain health-focused. I'm not saying they have no science to back them up, but the science they show are not efficacy studies.\n\nFor example, the studies they cite may say...\"l-tryptophan levels are linked to depression\". Whereas the company says, \"we put lots of l-tryptophan in our pills as it's proven to have a cognitive benefit\". It's very misleading. And they do this often.\n\nUnless you see a study that clearly states that a significant amount of people had a benefit in the parameter they were testing from the \"drug\" vs. placebo, then the study doesn't verify anything. Every real drug has to go through the FDA's clinical trials where safety and efficacy vs placebo has to be shown. Health supplements don't have to do this.",
"If you're looking for things that make you visibly smarter, then you probably won't find them. There are substances that are harmless enough and, like HoboZoo said, *may* help, but it won't be something out of a science fiction movie. Research and healthy skepticism is probably most useful at this point, as there isn't a resource that will tell you reliably \"this will work, this won't\".\n\nFrom what I've read over time:\n\n- racetams (piracetam etc) may help some with intelligence\n\n- eating and sleeping well has about the same effect, and it's more reliable. \n\n- there are more pills that affect concentration and motivation, and they are a lot more reliable. Caffeine, L-Theanine (tea), kava-kava, modafinil (provigil), adderall are pretty well-tested. There are also amphetamines etc, but side-effects are usually not worth it.\n\n- again, good sleeping and eating habits do about as well long term. In my personal experience, meditation works about as well as modafinil and with a lot less side-effects\n\n- some substances affect mood. Alcohol and cannabis of course, but there's also St John's Wort which works reasonably well on depression. Look and you may find others. \n\nBut again, trick is to look not at sites selling them, but at peer-reviewed studies, and always read three times the side-effects section."
],
"score": [
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"onnit.com"
]
}
|
Are nootropic drugs a scam?
I've been hearing a lot of about these; the companies pushing them seem to be very good at marketing, hiring celebrities to give testimonials and the whole kaboodle. But is there any scientific evidence proving they can make a real difference, or is it all smoke and mirrors? I'm also wary of anything that's not a controlled substance... if it worked so well, why aren't pharmas picking them up? Can anyone give the lowdown?
|
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|
1898dx
|
What is our current understanding regarding muscle hyperplasia?
|
In my cursory research it seems that muscle hyperplasia in humans is a bit controversial. My question is, "where does current research stand on this issue?" Also, if muscle hyperplasia does take place what is the mechanism by which it occurs?
Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8cri6t"
],
"text": [
"I have a Ph.D. in Exercise Physiology, this is not my area of research and the data I am remembering is about 12 years old so take it for what it is worth. I am keeping to generalities as I do not remember the specifics. I'll kick around for my old notes later and see if I can get some citations. \n\nGenerally speaking the primary mechanism for muscle growth is hypertrophy (enlargement of the individual cells). It is possible to increase the cell number i.e. hyperplasia but I seem to recall that accounts for maybe 10-20% of the muscle growth and only under extreme training. \n\nThe average Joe going to the gym is not going to see very much if any hyperplasia and the strength gains they see are largely neural adaptations (the first 6-8 weeks) followed by hypertrophy. \n\nProfessional bodybuilders and powerlifters (and other highly anaerobic athletes) are going to see some hyperplasia. The mechanism that I am familar with is that an existing muscle fiber hypertrophies to the point where the volume of the cell becomes so large that the diffusion distance for substrates and metabolites becomes limiting so the existing fiber splits into two new fibers (think of a pair of pants). \n\nHyperplasia is documented to a greater degree in various animal models compared to humans (there is a pretty famous cat model that demonstrated significant hyperplasia, much more than has been demonstrated in humans). In humans I seem to recall that hyperplasia accounts for less than a 20% increase in growth with the rest being attributed to hypertrophy."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is our current understanding regarding muscle hyperplasia?
In my cursory research it seems that muscle hyperplasia in humans is a bit controversial. My question is, "where does current research stand on this issue?" Also, if muscle hyperplasia does take place what is the mechanism by which it occurs? Thanks
|
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|
2cfuk1
|
is there any natural or hypothetical systems that causes an object to have a non-zero rate of jerk, snap or crackle?
|
to clarify, jerk snap and crackle are the first second and third derivatives of acceleration.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cjf1cxm",
"cjf1sit"
],
"text": [
"A harmonic oscillator (weight on a spring) or a pendulum, or any oscillating system, all have infinite nonzero derivatives.",
"Any object that sometimes accelerates, and sometimes doesn't must transition from not accelerating to accelerating. During that period it has non-zero jerk. When it transitions from having zero jerk to non-zero jerk it has non-zero snap, etc...\n\nJerk, snap, and crackle are perfectly natural events."
],
"score": [
12,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
is there any natural or hypothetical systems that causes an object to have a non-zero rate of jerk, snap or crackle?
to clarify, jerk snap and crackle are the first second and third derivatives of acceleration.
|
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|
3866oc
|
What are some examples of objects that have significantly measurable levels of Snap, Crackle, and Pop?
|
so this engineer i know was telling me about the derivatives of Jerk: Snap Crackle and Pop, each being m/s^4 m/s^5 m/s^6 respectively, but then he coudn't give me examples of things that we actually use these measurements for. so what type of things move at such absurd rates that we found it necessary to create these new unites of measurement?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"crt2wff"
],
"text": [
"Something simple like a pendulum or a mass on a spring has nonzero values of all these. The question isn't measuring them, as you said, it's finding use for them.\n\nA lot of robotic devices that interface with people, e.g. modern prosthetics, utilize these higher derivates so match the inherent shakiness of human motion. Minimizing jerk is a common design goal. Here's an old but free paper on the topic: _URL_0_\n\nHere's a thesis that goes down to the pop level: _URL_1_"
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/5/7/1688.short",
"http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8s79b77v"
]
}
|
What are some examples of objects that have significantly measurable levels of Snap, Crackle, and Pop?
so this engineer i know was telling me about the derivatives of Jerk: Snap Crackle and Pop, each being m/s^4 m/s^5 m/s^6 respectively, but then he coudn't give me examples of things that we actually use these measurements for. so what type of things move at such absurd rates that we found it necessary to create these new unites of measurement?
|
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|
l33cw
|
What are the most interesting examples you've encountered of solutions to science problems coming from unexpected or cross-disciplinary avenues?
|
I'm talking a physics problem being solved by a chef, or a maths problem being solved because the solution was visualised by a mathematician staring at soap bubbles while washing his dog.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2pf1ic"
],
"text": [
"Perhaps not exactly what you're looking for, but soap bubble \"rafts\" are a great tool for understanding defects in crystalline materials. In particular they are a very good way of visualizing dislocations and how applied stress can lead to plastic deformation through the motion of dislocations. Check out _URL_0_ ."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble_rafts"
]
}
|
What are the most interesting examples you've encountered of solutions to science problems coming from unexpected or cross-disciplinary avenues?
I'm talking a physics problem being solved by a chef, or a maths problem being solved because the solution was visualised by a mathematician staring at soap bubbles while washing his dog.
|
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] |
|
oyof3
|
A friend found what looks to me like a dinosaur tooth fossil at the bottom of a bucket of arrow heads. They bought the bucket at an auction. Anyone able to verify?
|
Here are the only photos I could get of it. [(1)](_URL_1_), [(2)](_URL_2_), [(3)](_URL_0_)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3l3et7",
"c3l7kqs"
],
"text": [
"No that is not a tooth. It is sea bottom fossil. The shape is cone or [Here is an identifier page for fossils. ](_URL_0_) \n\nLook at the tooth or horn shape section.",
"This is a fossil solitary rugose coral (_URL_1_). You've got a couple of good pix of the septal distribution, but I can't ID the genus with the pictures shown (usually, you need thin section to ID these buggers)."
],
"score": [
12,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/FqCba.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/JuilU.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/FWfOX.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.uky.edu/KGS/fossils/fossilid.htm#s",
"http://www.palaeos.org/Rugosa"
]
}
|
A friend found what looks to me like a dinosaur tooth fossil at the bottom of a bucket of arrow heads. They bought the bucket at an auction. Anyone able to verify?
Here are the only photos I could get of it. [(1)](_URL_1_), [(2)](_URL_2_), [(3)](_URL_0_)
|
[
0.2620643377304077,
-0.5287415981292725,
0.20485509932041168,
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] |
|
130t7p
|
Can we replicate a Pool break in perfect conditions?
|
I was playing pool and thought of this scenario. If we used computer models to simulate a break in the game of Pool, would the balls end up in the identical position every time? Part 2, if we simulated the said model in real life controlled conditions, would we get the same results?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6zyjk1",
"c6ztppz",
"c6zykh0"
],
"text": [
"Part 1: Yes, a computer would be able to simulate the same break over and over pretty easily. Keep all the variables and math the same and you will keep getting the same outcome.\n\nPart 2: I could write a really long winded answer about chaos theory and computational/technological/practical limits, but rather I am just going to say no. There is just too much information to account for, and taking it down to the deepest level there is information that fundamentally cannot be known. I mean it really depends on what you consider \"same results\" to be. \"Did the balls all break apart?\" or \"Does the 1,289,376,875th atom in the 6 ball have the same kinetic energy as the model at t=3.47659 seconds?\" being extreme examples of this.\n\nIf you wanna know more about this type of predicting check out the wiki on [weather forecasting](_URL_0_) or the [theory behind why it's so hard](_URL_1_).",
"Theoretically, it would be possible to recreate a break. Using a computer model would be the easiest way. There are many variables to consider, and a computer would allow for consistency in the numbers between trials. In real life, however, you would need to place every ball in the EXACT location as the break you are trying to recreate. You would need to hit the ball with the EXACT same force and hit the racked balls at the EXACT same place from the EXACT same angle as the break you want to recreate as well (there are other variables too, but I think you get the idea). It is possible, however there would be great feats to overcome when considering the exactness of the conditions, which makes it improbable. One small change in the many variables to consider would cause at least a minor change in the outcome.\n\nEDIT: If you are looking for an answer the involves more than just variables, consider conservation of energy. When you hit the que ball, it has a certain kinetic energy. This kinetic energy gets displaced throughout the racked balls in a way that depends on the angles of contact between the balls. If the angle in which the que ball hits the first racked ball(B1 at top of the triangle) is altered slightly, every force vector will change within the rack (B1--- > B2 changes, B1--- > B3 changes, B2--- > B4, and so on to the back of the triangle).\n\nEDIT2: In the above case, only one variable was considered. If you consider others, such as the spacing (or tightness) of balls in the rack, you can see that there will nearly always be inconsistencies between the original break and the break you are trying to recreate.",
"No- Sensitivity to initial conditions would prevent this from happening. \n\nYou may know the position and velocity of the ball to so many decimal places, but you do not know it past that. You can not measure its position and velocity exactly. And since you do not know these exactly the divergence between actual and measured data will create a divergence in the final positions. A pool break is a chaotic system much like weather is. \n\nPast the break it becomes much less of an issue as there are fewer bodies involved."
],
"score": [
6,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory"
]
}
|
Can we replicate a Pool break in perfect conditions?
I was playing pool and thought of this scenario. If we used computer models to simulate a break in the game of Pool, would the balls end up in the identical position every time? Part 2, if we simulated the said model in real life controlled conditions, would we get the same results?
|
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|
1w16w0
|
What takes place in the brain during an "aha" moment?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cext1qh"
],
"text": [
"I think the short answer is that it involves either reward circuits, or memory circuits. There's been [a lot of investigation](_URL_0_), but there really isn't a definitive answer. Many people cite studies showing your anterior cingulate is active when you have an aha moment, and this is a region that is a huge player in reward, as well as monitoring the relevance of incoming information. Others cite locations like the hippocampus, or regions that feed into the hippocampus, which is involved in the formation of new memories. \n\nOf course, one can't really engineer aha moments, and actual ones are too infrequent to scientifically investigate, so we develop things that seem similar. In neuroscience, these types of problems are not called 'aha' or 'eureka' moments, but are called 'insight.'"
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/520/art%253A10.1007%252Fs11434-012-5565-5.pdf?auth66=1390754760_1c44571e12c3141e318810a50cd45c34&ext=.pdf"
]
}
|
What takes place in the brain during an "aha" moment?
|
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] |
||
q2diq
|
Can a society without money work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3u52o4",
"c3u51ft"
],
"text": [
"Not sure this is really an appropriate post for /r/AskScience",
"> The Idea of property and stealing would cease to exist. \n \nHow would abolishing money lead to this? The idea of property and stealing have long preceded the invention of money."
],
"score": [
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can a society without money work?
|
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||
4ak5bg
|
How can computers calculate sines so accurately?
|
I've been learning about rewriting a function as a series in my Calculus class, and my professor mentioned that computers need to use series to approximate the values for functions such as sine. To calculate a sine accurately, you need a good number of terms, and even with that, the error from using a series with a finite number of terms increases by quite a lot as the sines argument (for lack of a better word) distances from zero. I wrote a rather simple calculator program to compare the time of executing the Taylor series with < 0.01% error to the built in program, and found that the built in program is much faster, especially as the input numbers got larger. How does a computer calculate these functions so quickly and accurately? Is it even using a Taylor series, or some other approach?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d117yxj"
],
"text": [
"First of all, you can (and really should) always arrange the argument of your sine or cosine to be between 0 and π/4 by using periodicity and identities. In this small interval the error in the series expansion is much smaller, and controlled.\n\nHowever, computer implementations (like C built-in functions) do not usually use the series expansion. They tend (there's actually a different function for each architecture) to use an algorithm called [CORDIC](_URL_0_).\n\nCORDIC is better on hardware because it reduces mostly to multiplications and divisions by powers of 2, which can be done with bitshifts and so are faster than floating point operations."
],
"score": [
16
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORDIC"
]
}
|
How can computers calculate sines so accurately?
I've been learning about rewriting a function as a series in my Calculus class, and my professor mentioned that computers need to use series to approximate the values for functions such as sine. To calculate a sine accurately, you need a good number of terms, and even with that, the error from using a series with a finite number of terms increases by quite a lot as the sines argument (for lack of a better word) distances from zero. I wrote a rather simple calculator program to compare the time of executing the Taylor series with < 0.01% error to the built in program, and found that the built in program is much faster, especially as the input numbers got larger. How does a computer calculate these functions so quickly and accurately? Is it even using a Taylor series, or some other approach?
|
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|
1w7r3x
|
Why is conservation important?
|
I'm an Ecology undergrad and love wildlife and all that it entails (naturally) but I'm interested to explore the ideas of why we conserve animals and plants. I'm well aware of the argument that once they are gone, they aren't coming back, but to me at least, I feel there is a more fundamental reason for why we should conserve animals as this would imply that if we could store the genomes of all the worlds species then our job would be done and it wouldn't really matter if things when extinct; we could just wait for the technology to exist at a point where we could bring them back to life...
Yet despite this I am struggling to put this fundamental need for conservation more eloquently. Can anyone help me out or point me in a good direction to learn more on the subject?
|
askscience
|
{
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"I think there are three good answers to this question. The first one is the one you've already stated: you \"love wildlife and all that it entails\". The human love for nature is a fundamental reason that we value it and choose to protect it. We love nature because of its beauty, majesty, etc. This is a common reason, and is why it's easier to conserve 'charismatic megafauna', like owls and polar bears.\n\nThe second reason is not so dissimilar. It relies on an 'ecosystem services' argument -- the natural world provides us humans services that would be impractical or cost prohibitive to mimic or replace. This includes things such as water filtration, climate stabilization, drug discovery, recreation, stress relief, wave/storm buffering, etc etc. Essentially, ecosystems and the species that compose them do something that we humans value, and so it is in our best interest to preserve them. This has turned out to be a very important argument politically and quite a bit of ink has been spilled calculating monetary values for different systems. However, this is also problematic, because it reduces nature to something that exists for the benefit of humans -- if that rare flower isn't a cancer cure then it no longer has value. You see this argument less explicitly in explanations phrased as something something \"interconnectedness of nature\" something something \"it's risky to meddle\".\n\nThe third reason is the one you're actually looking for, but it can be a hard sell. It's the idea that ecosystems, species, and/or individual living organisms other than humans have intrinsic value, similar to the intrinsic value we give to other humans, our pets, and maybe art. Though on the surface they seem similar, this idea is very different than the first reason, because it has removed the necessity of humans liking something from whether or not it should be valued. That is, both the first and second reasons rely on our intrinsically valuing humans and their needs/desires, whereas this intrinsically values nature. Like all intrinsic values, though, you either believe it or not; that is, they're axiomatic and can't be derived from other values. And that makes answering \"why?\" difficult, which is why you'll mostly see the ecosystem services answer.",
"As you may know, each animal/plant has its own place in the food chain. Whenever one species goes extinct, that link of the food chain is gone, risking the collapse of the entire food chain.\n\nFor example, consider this very simplistic food chain: \n\nTigers- > Deer- > Plants.\n\nIf tigers were to suddenly go extinct, then the deer population would spike since they aren't being hunted anymore. Since there are now more deers and the same amount of vegetation (plants), all the vegetation would be consumed and the deers would starve to death. \n\nIn reality, this process is much much more complicated since in an ecosystem you would have thousands or millions of species all depending on each other in some way or another. Often times removing just one or two links won't always collapse the food chain but that's not the case when you start taking out multiple links. Therefore, it is always wise to protect as many species as possible.",
"There is way more valuable information in living ecosystems than there is in genomic information. Imagine how much would be lost if only the genomes of humans were conserved? All our culture, our symbionts, our pets, our knowledge, etc. Similarly, plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, etc all interact and we would lose the opportunity to understand those interactions if those organisms go extinct. Storing genomes is not a bad idea, but it still matters when species go extinct.",
"A similar question was asked recently. [I answered it here](_URL_8_) and modified it slightly below. There are lots of philosophical reasons to value conservation, and I highly recommend Aldo Leopold's work for that. You can read one of his essays [here](_URL_0_).\n\nThere are practical reasons in addition to any ethical reasons or intrinsic value we put on natural areas. Conservation and preserving biodiversity definitely has direct benefits.Good conservation practices preserve ecological integrity. Species are all directly and indirectly interacting in an ecosystem, but it's not just interactions between species: ecosystems play an integral role in [biogeochemical cycles](_URL_14_). This includes removing carbon from the atmosphere, cycling nitrogen and other nutrients through soil, and altering the water cycle, all of which directly benefit humans.\n\nEcosystems with more of their biodiversity intact [are more stable](_URL_5_) (PDF). Many of these cycles and processes function as feedback loops, so the loss of some species can trigger an [ecological cascade](_URL_15_) that can [trigger extinctions](_URL_2_) (PDF). \n\nEcosystems provide [valuable services for humans](_URL_4_). [These include](_URL_3_):\n\n- Sources of food and medication \n- Crop pollination \n- Products like wood\n- Breakdown of organic wastes\n- Mediation of pollutants \n- Mitigating events like erosion and flooding\n- [Protecting ecosystems and humans from infectious diseases](_URL_11_) ([here](_URL_10_) is a peer-reviewed source)\n\nThese ecosystems services have measurable economic impacts, although the impacts might also have long-term effects that aren't captured immediately. Degrading ecosystems causes a decline in the services they are able to provide.\n\nEven in an agricultural setting, increasing and conserving local biodiversity can be [used to combat crop pests](_URL_6_), making a local environment more habitable for the pests' enemies. This can increase the yield and quality of crops.\n\nThe loss of biodiversity has a more immediate effect on [people living in poverty](_URL_12_) (PDF) because they are more likely to rely more directly on ecosystem services and less likely to preserve them, so there is a social justice effect there as well. \n\nWhile these effects are often direct and measurable, I wouldn't underestimate the cultural and aesthetic value of conserved areas, either. Urban greenspace (like parks) are known to improve psychological well-being, and it turns out that [those benefits improve with increased biodiversity](_URL_1_). Studies have shown that people exposed to a natural environment are [less stressed, recover from surgery more quickly, and even experience lower crime rates](_URL_13_) (PDF). \n\nFor an incredibly in-depth source, [here is a report](_URL_16_) (PDF) on biodiversity and its effect on the well-being of humans from the UN's [Millennium Ecosystem Assessment](_URL_9_).\n\nAs a side note, this question is becoming more as we increasingly live in urban environments. This detachment from the natural world leads to people to [question biodiversity's importance](_URL_7_) (PDF), which is why education is so important.",
"Lets say we DO somehow map the genome of every organism possible(quite the undertaking). Who's to say we ever get the tech to bring these species back? And if we do, can it be soon enough to be useful? And what would be the point in letting them die if we're just going to bring them back? Letting them die only to bring them back also negates any changes that could have occurred if the population had still been alive and adapting. Simply put, we don't know what is useful until it is used, and if we only have gene maps as opposed to the organism itself, we can't ever know what is useful."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.eco-action.org/dt/thinking.html",
"http://intl-rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/3/4/390.full",
"http://www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/02-03-013.pdf",
"http://www.nrem.iastate.edu/class/assets/For460-560/Biodiversity%20Issues/Pimentel%20et%20al_1997.pdf",
"http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040277",
"http://pascencio.cos.ucf.edu/classes/Plant%20Ecology/Loreau%20et%20al%202001.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1439179104701061",
"http://millerlab.nres.illinois.edu/pdfs/Biodiversity%20Conservation%20and%20the%20Extinction%20of%20Experience.pdf",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1tbnu6/why_exactly_is_biodiversity_desirable/",
"http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx",
"http://www.academia.edu/466111/Impacts_of_biodiversity_on_the_emergence_and_transmission_of_infectious_diseases",
"http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101201/full/news.2010.644.html",
"http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sdev/mg/pdfs/mg205.pdf",
"http://kar.kent.ac.uk/28709/1/Dallimer_et_al._BioScience_2012.pdf",
"http://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/earth_system/biogeochemical_cycles.html",
"http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/ecol_com/ecol_com.html",
"http://www.unep.org/maweb/documents/document.356.aspx.pdf"
]
}
|
Why is conservation important?
I'm an Ecology undergrad and love wildlife and all that it entails (naturally) but I'm interested to explore the ideas of why we conserve animals and plants. I'm well aware of the argument that once they are gone, they aren't coming back, but to me at least, I feel there is a more fundamental reason for why we should conserve animals as this would imply that if we could store the genomes of all the worlds species then our job would be done and it wouldn't really matter if things when extinct; we could just wait for the technology to exist at a point where we could bring them back to life... Yet despite this I am struggling to put this fundamental need for conservation more eloquently. Can anyone help me out or point me in a good direction to learn more on the subject?
|
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|
j5a5c
|
Are there fields or unsolved questions which the educated layperson could potentially contribute to?
|
...without getting a specialized degree? I'm not trying to take the easy way out here, I'd just like something I can casually work on here and there. My job requires I spend a lot of time in hotels and having a problem to distract my mind would be fun, even if the odds of me contributing were low.
The big problems in most fields are beyond me, and I assume most others without specialized degrees. I won't be attempting P=NP or Riemann anytime soon. Though I don't mind spending a year or two learning a subject to understand the problem itself. I'm always randomly reading/watching lectures on science topics that interest me, I figure I might as well try to focus my science free time and have a goal to work on.
So maybe think of it like this, say you had 100 people with degrees, who were of above average intelligence and capable of teaching themselves material, what problem would you assign them to work on? (They each work individually to eliminate brute force operations, you're just hoping one of them contributes)
Thanks and sorry if it sounds like a lazy question, I'm pretty sure I'll never have a Ph D in a hard science (my field is psychology) but it's no reason that I can't try to help. Thanks for your time and suggestions.
(For the curious I've been messing around with the fine structure constant lately. It's one of those topics that introduces me to a bunch of other things I don't know so it's fun to play around with.)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c299x0u",
"c29g0l4"
],
"text": [
"First, I'd like to say that I really like the question! I'm really glad to hear from someone who is enthusiastic about helping with science.\n\nUnfortunately, I can't personally think of anything within mathematics research on which a layperson would be able to make any progress without roughly a year of initial study. We tend to have a difficult enough time finding approachable problems for undergraduate math majors! As a general rule, if laymen could be substantially helpful for research, we would have already hired them.\n\nHowever, this doesn't mean that you can't help the effort of science. One aspect of science that scientists tend to somewhat neglect is communication with the public, such as the writing of expository material. In the last few years, Wikipedia has become the go-to place for basic science knowledge on the internet, and you could try to contribute to the science articles there. It would be fairly easy, for example, to find some information in science books that has not yet made it into the relevant Wikipedia articles.\n\nAnother skill that is in short supply within mathematics (and science in general) is programming. If you have any programming skills, I imagine it would be easy to find programs that you could write that would be helpful for working scientists.\n\nSimilarly, I think there is a relative shortage of high-quality images within mathematics, or more generally within science. For example, there is a relative shortage of free, high-quality images on the internet illustrating certain aspects of topology and geometry. If you have any skill at all with computer graphics, you could be immensely helpful in this regard.",
"[FoldIt: solve puzzles for science.](_URL_0_) It gives you a 3D model of amino acids, and you try to fold it into the shape of the actual protein. You don't have to study anything for this. The first few levels teach you the rules of the game, which correspond to the current thermodynamic rules of protein folding. \n\nfrom the website\n > The eventual goal is to have human folders work on proteins that do not have a known structure. This would require first attracting the attention of scientists and biotech companies and convincing them that the process is effective. Another goal is to take folding strategies that human players have come up with while playing the game, and automate these strategies to make protein-prediction software more effective."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://fold.it/portal/"
]
}
|
Are there fields or unsolved questions which the educated layperson could potentially contribute to?
...without getting a specialized degree? I'm not trying to take the easy way out here, I'd just like something I can casually work on here and there. My job requires I spend a lot of time in hotels and having a problem to distract my mind would be fun, even if the odds of me contributing were low. The big problems in most fields are beyond me, and I assume most others without specialized degrees. I won't be attempting P=NP or Riemann anytime soon. Though I don't mind spending a year or two learning a subject to understand the problem itself. I'm always randomly reading/watching lectures on science topics that interest me, I figure I might as well try to focus my science free time and have a goal to work on. So maybe think of it like this, say you had 100 people with degrees, who were of above average intelligence and capable of teaching themselves material, what problem would you assign them to work on? (They each work individually to eliminate brute force operations, you're just hoping one of them contributes) Thanks and sorry if it sounds like a lazy question, I'm pretty sure I'll never have a Ph D in a hard science (my field is psychology) but it's no reason that I can't try to help. Thanks for your time and suggestions. (For the curious I've been messing around with the fine structure constant lately. It's one of those topics that introduces me to a bunch of other things I don't know so it's fun to play around with.)
|
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-0.10670733451843262,
-0.1894633173942566,
0.09526816755533218,
-0.9052442312240601
] |
|
9i8yuu
|
Do other languages use the Oxford comma?
|
And for those that don't, do they face the same problem of occasional ambiguity?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e6ig2e4"
],
"text": [
"In Dutch it does not exist. I have never encountered a sentence where it would have been necessary either.\nBut, as I’m not a linguist, it wouldn’t surprise if you’d be able to come with one that would benefit from a comma"
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Do other languages use the Oxford comma?
And for those that don't, do they face the same problem of occasional ambiguity?
|
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] |
|
12qyjo
|
What is a surface plasmon?
|
I know that it is some kind of quasiparticle, but I don't really understand how they behave or how they might be created through stimulated emission, as in a spaser. I have read the wiki articles and other sources, but I'm still unclear on the concept.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6xgwpl"
],
"text": [
"A surface plasmon (really surface plasmon polariton) is a mode of light in which the wave is partially in a dielectric material and partially in a metal. Plasmons are electron waves: if you have a propagating EM wave that hits a free electron gas (i.e. a metal), it causes the electrons to oscillate. A surface plasmon occurs when this electron wave propagates along the surface of the metal, such that part of the wave is in the metal and part of it is outside, in the dielectric material. It isn't truly a photon since there are actual massive particles moving, yet it isn't just an electron excitation since it extends outside the metal.\n\nThe cool thing about this is that for a given energy, the wavelength of the surface plasmon can be very small, over 10 times less than the free-space wavelength. In this way you can think of having optical circuits that are extremely tiny, or having lots of EM energy confined to a small area which gives rise to interesting nonlinear effects."
],
"score": [
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is a surface plasmon?
I know that it is some kind of quasiparticle, but I don't really understand how they behave or how they might be created through stimulated emission, as in a spaser. I have read the wiki articles and other sources, but I'm still unclear on the concept.
|
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|
8p70yj
|
Physicists or physical chemists: what is a surface plasmon?
|
An undergrad researcher here doing work with gold nanoparticles. In solution they are a dark red color, with the hue depending on the diameter of the spheres. The only explanation I have found so far is "surface plasmon resonance" saying that a plasmon is a collective oscillation of the electron sea - what does this mean and how does it correlate to the surface of the sphere and the color of solution?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e095xlk"
],
"text": [
"In a metallic material, the valence electrons are completely free to move within the metal. From one perspective, you can kind of imagine a piece of metal as a 'sea' and the electrons in the metal as the water in that sea. Since light is an electromagnetic wave, light can excite 'ripples' in this sea of electrons. The 'ripples' on the surface of the metal are known as surface plasmons.\n\nThe ripples in this electron sea act like waves. So in the same way that sound waves in a guitar string will resonate at certain frequencies, electron waves in a piece of metal will resonate at certain wavelengths. If the piece of metal is small enough, these resonant wavelengths will be visible colors of light. For gold, it is possible for gold particles to resonate at wavelengths near the red wavelengths of light.\n\nHope this answers your questions."
],
"score": [
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Physicists or physical chemists: what is a surface plasmon?
An undergrad researcher here doing work with gold nanoparticles. In solution they are a dark red color, with the hue depending on the diameter of the spheres. The only explanation I have found so far is "surface plasmon resonance" saying that a plasmon is a collective oscillation of the electron sea - what does this mean and how does it correlate to the surface of the sphere and the color of solution?
|
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|
2olad8
|
Can you use conductive gel to create a "faraday bath" for ESD or EMP protection?
|
Would it be possible to suspend chips/electronics inside a bath of electrically conductive gel? You know, the type they use for ultrasounds or what ever. Disregarding any physical damage from the equipment being submerged. Just assume the equipment is in a little standard plastic bag or something. Would the conductive gel bath protect it from ESD or EMP?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmo9e7h"
],
"text": [
"It depends on how conductive the gel is, but yes it could help. The big risk here would be the gel getting onto the circuit board, because it will just short it out. Any connectors that attach to the board would need to be sealed against the gel, since very circuit has to somehow connect to the outside world to be useful. Heat dissipation will also become more complex, since most chips rely on natural convection or a heatsink being bolted to a metal case."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can you use conductive gel to create a "faraday bath" for ESD or EMP protection?
Would it be possible to suspend chips/electronics inside a bath of electrically conductive gel? You know, the type they use for ultrasounds or what ever. Disregarding any physical damage from the equipment being submerged. Just assume the equipment is in a little standard plastic bag or something. Would the conductive gel bath protect it from ESD or EMP?
|
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] |
|
2dlef7
|
Can you infinitely zoom out of the mandlebrot set? If we back away would more of the pattern emerge? I know you can infinitely zoom in but maybe I don't fully understand the concept.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cjqou6a",
"cjqpzra"
],
"text": [
"All points in the Mandelbrot set are contained in the closed disk of radius 2 centered on the origin, so if you zoom out further, you won't see anything more.\n\nHere's why: By definition, the Mandelbrot set is the set of points c in the complex plane such that the sequence of points given by starting with c and iteratively applying the function f(z) = z^2 + c is bounded. If |z| ≥ |c| > 2, then |z| = 2 + ε and |c| = 2 + δ for some ε ≥ δ > 0; by the [reverse triangle inequality](_URL_0_), |z^2 + c| ≥ |z^(2)| – |c| = (2 + ε)^(2) – (2 + δ) = 4 + 4ε + ε^2 – 2 – δ ≥ 2 + 3ε = |z| + 2ε.\n\nThus, with each iteration, the next point in the sequence is at least 2ε further from the origin, which means the sequence is unbounded. Hence, c is not an element of the Mandelbrot set.",
"No. The definition of the mandelbrot set is the set of the complex number c where z of z*_n+1_* = z*_n_*^2 + c remains bounded (not escapes to infinity) over iterations of n, starting with z*_0_*=0. The magnitude of z is always below 2, i.e. it's contained in a circle of radius 2 from the starting point.\n\n_URL_2_\n\nYou can see a video of a zoom of the mandelbrot set here, starting \"zoomed out\":\n\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
13,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle_inequality#Reverse_triangle_inequality",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Mandelset_hires.png/800px-Mandelset_hires.png",
"http://hd-fractals.com/last-lights-on/"
]
}
|
Can you infinitely zoom out of the mandlebrot set? If we back away would more of the pattern emerge? I know you can infinitely zoom in but maybe I don't fully understand the concept.
|
[
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||
5nd216
|
What do we mean by an excitation of a field?
|
I understand particles to be excitations in fields that permate the entire universe -- the EM field, the Higgs field, etc. I understand an excitation to be simply a fluctuation in the energy level/value of a specific field.
However, my question is ~where~ do we excite a field? Like, what do we mean by particles being produced by energy exciting a field? And to add to this, are we able to excite specific fields at places like CERN? Like, how can we excite the Higgs field to produce a Higgs boson?
Thanks.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dcahic9",
"dcarijq"
],
"text": [
"This is one of these cases in physics where (in my opinion), it's easier to explain in the language of math than in words. Unfortunately, most people are not familiar with the math of quantum field theory.\n\nIf you're talking about free particles in scattering states (what you generally study in a high energy physics experiment), they are particles with definite momenta. But a particle with a definite momentum has a totally indefinite position. So in the strictest sense for a particle with a definite momentum, the \"where\" is everywhere.\n\nYou can get around this by thinking of wave packets instead, which are localized both in position and momentum, but not to better than the Heisenberg uncertainty principle will allow of course.\n\nIn the case of a free particle with a definite momentum, the excitation of the field is simply the presence of a particle with some momentum. Conversely you can think of a free particle as a \"ripple\" in the field which carries some momentum as it propagates around.\n\nWe are able to excite the Higgs field at CERN because CERN has an extremely powerful machine whose job (or one of them at least) is to produce particles like the Higgs.\n\nAt the very least you need to be able to produce collisions with enough energy in the center of mass frame to produce the mass of the particle you're interested in. You also need a reaction which can do that, and you'd like to do it under conditions where the probability of producing your desired particle is maximized.",
"_URL_0_\n\nThis is a good introduction to fields and particles"
],
"score": [
8,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/particle-physics-basics/fields-and-their-particles-with-math/"
]
}
|
What do we mean by an excitation of a field?
I understand particles to be excitations in fields that permate the entire universe -- the EM field, the Higgs field, etc. I understand an excitation to be simply a fluctuation in the energy level/value of a specific field. However, my question is ~where~ do we excite a field? Like, what do we mean by particles being produced by energy exciting a field? And to add to this, are we able to excite specific fields at places like CERN? Like, how can we excite the Higgs field to produce a Higgs boson? Thanks.
|
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] |
|
sjlpv
|
Is there a universal standard or scale to describe someone's skin color?
|
How do i correctly describe how "blacker" or "paler" someone is? In a lot of games you can slide scale skin color. Is there a some type of accepted system I can refer to when making comparisons between people? Thanks guys!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4ejc3s",
"c4ejqkr"
],
"text": [
"I think you're probably looking for the [Von Luschan's Chromatic Scale](_URL_0_).\n\nIn the UK the police force don't have a colour scale, they use the Identity Code (IC) scale:\n\n* IC1 is White European \n* IC2 is Dark European \n* IC3 is Afro-Caribbean \n* IC4 is Asian (Indian, Bangladeshi or Pakistani) \n* IC5 is Oriental \n* IC6 is Arab/North African",
"In the United States, Dermatologists utilize the [Fitzpatrick Scale.](_URL_1_) It is based on the skin's response to UV light.\n\nType I (scores 0-7) White; very fair; freckles; typical albino skin. Always burns, never tans\n\nType II (scores 8-16) White; fair. Usually burns, tans with difficulty\n\nType III (scores 17-25) Beige; very common. Sometimes mild burn, gradually tans to a light brown\n\nType IV (scores 25-30) Beige with a brown tint; typical Mediterranean Caucasian skin. Rarely burns, tans with ease to a moderate brown.\n\nType V (scores over 30) Dark brown. Very rarely burns, tans very easily\n\nType VI Black. Never burns, tans very easily, deeply pigmented."
],
"score": [
9,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Luschan's_chromatic_scale",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitzpatrick_scale"
]
}
|
Is there a universal standard or scale to describe someone's skin color?
How do i correctly describe how "blacker" or "paler" someone is? In a lot of games you can slide scale skin color. Is there a some type of accepted system I can refer to when making comparisons between people? Thanks guys!
|
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|
c7077r
|
What is the oldest expression we still use in modern times?
|
Expressions like "to the bitter end" are relatively new, but are there some which made it over from old cultures? And how old would they be?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"esd6cnz"
],
"text": [
"A lot of enduring phrases are usually religious in origin simply because preaching in olden times was the main way to convey an idea. \"A drop in the bucket\" can be linked to Isaiah 40:15 (KJV) for example. Now if this became an everyday expression more recently or not is harder to prove, but the strong imagery is something that many people have always been able to understand."
],
"score": [
24
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the oldest expression we still use in modern times?
Expressions like "to the bitter end" are relatively new, but are there some which made it over from old cultures? And how old would they be?
|
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|
vyk7o
|
Silly question from a non-science guy: Are there folks who actively research/test/explore what are already held to be rock-steady theories?
|
For example: are there folks still looking for instances where energy might not be conserved, or where the laws of thermodynamics don't apply? I've always wondered if the validity of these ideas were sometimes tested to keep them active and relevant.
EDIT: Thanks, everyone! Your answers really shed some light on my pondering, and reaffirmed why I love this subreddit.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Sure.\n\nExperiments are often repeated. Either as a teaching tool or because someone thinks they have a new angle/technique to test something or because equipment has gotten more sensitive and an experiment can be done to a greater degree of accuracy.\n\nIt is quite common for \"settled\" science to be re-tested.",
"That's a GREAT question, not a silly one.\n\nI think there are two types of answers in physics:\n\n1. What is the value of science if nobody cares about the results? If the results of one study are not used in another, it's pretty much worthless in the first place, no better than the answer to a trivia question. If the results have *any* sort of relevance, similar experiments will be performed in the future and those results will be built upon. There are many well-known cases of scientific fraud. For example, Jan Hendrik Schoen published a number of fradulent results about a decade ago and was found out when other scientists tried to reproduce his experiments. A lower profile instance recently came up in my own research where interesting results were obtained in the literature but couldn't be replicated with modern equipment (nobody is accusing these guys of fraud -- they were making an indirect measurement and the data seems to speak for itself, but apparently they should have been more careful).\n\n2. There are some people who try to measure physical constants as accurately as possible, to see if they're changing in time or space, or maybe for other reasons. NIST is one place where this gets done a lot.\n\nBut as for the way you've worded your initial question, if someone COULD come up with a way to disprove a law of thermodynamics, that certainly would have a huge impact on their career. So the incentive is certainly there for people to come up with groundbreaking experiments -- but the question is whether or not these things are actually likely to be demonstrated.",
"Science builds on itself. In order to make the next step, you need to repeat methods used for previous theories tons of times.\n\nFor example, I'm working on the receptor for a pathogen. The initial work in the field was done back in the 1950s, everyone in the field for the last 60 years has copied what worked in order to refine theories.",
"It's also worth noting that even if experimentalists aren't *directly* carrying out tests on an established theory, if their method relies on that theory they are indirectly testing it. So, for example, if I'm measuring sedimentation rates of something in water, then I'm indirectly testing both gravity, and Newtonian fluid dynamics at the same time. If the results weren't to make sense it would be an indication to go back and look at the original assumptions.",
"This kind of validity check is being conducted all the time in cognitive psychology. I, for one, specialize in this area given new technologies. Consider, if you will intelligence testing and even knowledge assessment. Many approaches were developed 30+ years ago. I spend a great deal of time re-assessing their validity.",
"I do. I'm currently working on a challenge to a long-standing and widely-accepted theory about the vertical structure of Earth's atmosphere. This belief goes back to *at least* 1979. Science changes all the time.",
"Well, sure. We actually do this every day, in school and in labs. All the experiments you were doing in physics class prove that Newton's laws of classical mechanics are true at a small scale, etc.",
"Yep I do this too. People published some models about the function of an ion channel I work on about 20 years ago. I came up with a different model for it's function so I'm currently trying to disprove them. I like this fun / creative part of science where you think of a completely different way things could work!"
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Silly question from a non-science guy: Are there folks who actively research/test/explore what are already held to be rock-steady theories?
For example: are there folks still looking for instances where energy might not be conserved, or where the laws of thermodynamics don't apply? I've always wondered if the validity of these ideas were sometimes tested to keep them active and relevant. EDIT: Thanks, everyone! Your answers really shed some light on my pondering, and reaffirmed why I love this subreddit.
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] |
|
4juce5
|
Looked up "chirp mass" on Wikipedia and it leaves out the juicy part: why is it called a chirp mass?
|
It's not capitalized, it doesn't have its own entry...what the hell, astrophysicists?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d39owdk"
],
"text": [
"When you have a binary systm going through an inspiral and then merging, the gravitational waves emitted go in the form of a chirp.\n\nYou can actually hear this and see it represented for the binary black hole merger announced by LIGO in February; check out this:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThe chirp is the \"whoop\" at the end. As the objects spiral in and get closer, the rotational frequency increases until the objects merge. This is the chirp.\n\nThe chirp mass determines the precise form of the chirp signal. It's called a mass because it has units of mass. You can see the relationship between the chirp mass and the frequency of the gravitational waves in the black hole merger in the paper announcing that finding [here (PDF)](_URL_0_)."
],
"score": [
15
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1602.03837.pdf",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egfBaUdnAyQ"
]
}
|
Looked up "chirp mass" on Wikipedia and it leaves out the juicy part: why is it called a chirp mass?
It's not capitalized, it doesn't have its own entry...what the hell, astrophysicists?
|
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|
13rqhn
|
Talk to me about Active Galactic Neuclei! How does "unification" work?
|
I understand qualitatively the processes that AGNs use to throw out energy, but don't quite get how unification works.
Is there only one class of AGN, and we just view them at different angles producing the many different classes observed? Or are there two classes? (radio loud/quiet). I would have thought radio waves would pass through the accretion disc without too much trouble due to their long wavelengths..
As a corollary: Am I correct in thinking the beams that come off the core perpendicular to its plane are from Synchrotron Radiation and that the rest of the radiation thrown out is due to matter in the accretion disc rubbing against each other?
I apologise if this is a bit of a mess but I feel like I get the gist of what's going on but am just fuzzy on some details..
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c76n33h"
],
"text": [
"You're pretty much spot on. The idea of unification is that AGN are generally similar to each other, but we see different properties depending on our viewing angle. The radio emission is mainly from synchrotron emission and is [relativistically beamed](_URL_0_), which is why radio emission from the core and inner jet is fainter when the jet is not oriented toward us. Jets perpendicular to the line of sight still create large plumes at their end, creating what we know as radio galaxies. Emission at optical and higher frequencies is indeed mostly from the accretion disk."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_beaming"
]
}
|
Talk to me about Active Galactic Neuclei! How does "unification" work?
I understand qualitatively the processes that AGNs use to throw out energy, but don't quite get how unification works. Is there only one class of AGN, and we just view them at different angles producing the many different classes observed? Or are there two classes? (radio loud/quiet). I would have thought radio waves would pass through the accretion disc without too much trouble due to their long wavelengths.. As a corollary: Am I correct in thinking the beams that come off the core perpendicular to its plane are from Synchrotron Radiation and that the rest of the radiation thrown out is due to matter in the accretion disc rubbing against each other? I apologise if this is a bit of a mess but I feel like I get the gist of what's going on but am just fuzzy on some details.. Thanks!
|
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|
bvuys7
|
Why does the Earth have a preference for supercontinents?
|
I've always appreciated the way all of our current continents fit so tidily together into Pangaea, but the idea of a supercontinent always bothered me... Why should there ever have been a single continent in the first place? Why weren't there always just a bunch of random continents drifting around independently?
I hit up wikipedia to try to get some answers but only came away with more questions... I learned that Pangaea is not \*the\* supercontinent, but merely the most recent of many supercontinents, preceded by Columbia/Nuna, Rodinia, Pannotia and any number of others over the past 4 billion years.
So I started off wondering why Pangaea should ever have been a single supercontinent (why shouldn't landmass be naturally distributed over the surface of the planet?) but now that I see all this cyclic activity, I'm wondering why on Earth the Earth has such a predilection for supercontinents. It seems to jam us all together into a new one every few hundred million years.
I would have thought that the tectonic plates were subject to some sort of randomized Brownian motion, and that they'd just bounce around with free reign to cruise wherever they felt like over the planet's surface, but the geology suggests otherwise. What's causing everything on the surface of the planet to bunch up into supercontinents every so often? It can't be purely a matter of gravity, as there's always much more of the Earth's mass pulling towards the core as there would be laterally in any surface direction. What's really going on here?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eptfedm",
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"text": [
"Inherent in it being a [cycle](_URL_0_), I wouldn't say that there is a 'preference for supercontinents' (comments on anthropomorphizing or assigning agency to natural phenomena aside) any more that there is a preference for distributed continents. In actuality, there seems to be a 'preference' for the time between supercontinents, [e.g. figure 9 of this paper](_URL_5_), however this comes with the caveat that our recognition of supercontinents and specifically constraints on their timing/duration becomes less certain the deeper into time we go.\n\nThe formation and disaggregation of supercontinents isn't that unexpected when you consider it within the context of the mechanisms driving plate tectonics, which is where I think the logic breaks down for many (i.e. plates are not randomly drifting, there are clear mechanisms driving plate motion in particular directions / ways, more on that in a bit). In regards to OPs comment on their own post, gravity plays an important role in plate tectonics, but not in the way described (i.e. gravitational attraction between continental masses plays no role), but rather in the density/buoyancy contrasts that fundamentally drive plate motion. For a longer description than I'll provide here, [this review paper](_URL_2_) does a nice job of describing our ideas of how and why supercontinents form and break up. \n\nIn short, ocean basins have internal feedbacks which tend to limit their size and promote the eventual closure / consumption of these ocean basins. The principle driver of all plate motion is the [slab pull](_URL_9_) force, i.e. the force exerted on a plate by the sinking of a slab of oceanic lithosphere at [subduction zones](_URL_4_). This slab pull force exists because of a density (and thus a buoyancy) contrast between the sinking slab and the overriding plate, whether that is continental or oceanic lithosphere. The origin of this density contrast is two fold. One is that [oceanic](_URL_7_) and [continental](_URL_6_) crust are different compositions with oceanic crust being denser, meaning that it will always sink beneath continental crust/lithosphere. The second is that oceanic crust (which is produced at [mid-ocean ridges](_URL_8_)) gets cooler, thicker, and more dense as it gets older (i.e. as an ocean basin grows wider by production of oceanic crust, the edges of the basin are getting older, cooler, thicker, and denser), meaning that there can be internal density contrasts between juxtapositions of older (more dense) and younger (less dense) oceanic crust. This also means that as an ocean basin grows, the oldest portions will eventually become dense enough to initiate a subduction zone which will eventually lead to closure of the ocean basin itself. On a global scale, closure of one ocean basin will not always lead to a supercontinent, but there is some probability of the right set of ocean basins to close at the same time (or progressively) where you end up with a supercontinent. \n\nOnce a supercontinent has formed, it's been argued that they also tend to drive their own destruction, but it's driven by an accumulation of heat as opposed to cooling. The idea is that the presence of the supercontinent acts as kind of a blanket on the overlying mantle, which leads to heating of the supercontinent from below. As a general rule for Earth materials, as they get hotter they also get mechanically weaker. In the case of the supercontinent, this heat build up eventually leads to the formation of a continental [rift](_URL_3_), which tears the supercontinent apart, beginning the cycle anew. The build up of heat also causes a 'geoid high', which is a positive bulge in the [geoid](_URL_1_) reflecting that the thick, hot continental crust is pretty bouyant. This geoid high is unstable, which likely also contributes to the formation of the rifting and destruction of the supercontinent. \n\nThe review paper I linked to also goes through the logic that because of the way plate tectonics works, once a supercontinent has formed and broken up, the system is kind of seeded for the next supercontinent to form (and then eventually break up, etc etc), but also highlights that there are some aspects of the supercontinent cycle which are still not well understood (specifically why some supercontinents seem to form by 'extroversion' and other by 'introversion', referring to whether the ocean basin that surrounded the former supercontinent closes to form the next one or whether the new ocean basin opened up between the last supercontinent closes to form the next one).",
"As I think through this... perhaps it is just due to gravity after all? If two continental bodies are in the same hemisphere, I can see how they would experience the same common core attraction which would tend to cancel out and let the immediate gravitational attraction between the two bodies themselves initiate their drift to a common center.\n\nThe only thing that throws a monkey wrench into this is if there's a third continent that's 180 degrees on the other side of the Earth, or even merely > =90 degrees. It seems like that would inevitably leave some continents stranded beyond the first set's gravity's pull... which leaves me wondering why the Earth didn't have periods of two diametrically-opposed supercontinents."
],
"score": [
10,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S167498711200103X",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987112001570",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_crust",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_crust",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slab_pull"
]
}
|
Why does the Earth have a preference for supercontinents?
I've always appreciated the way all of our current continents fit so tidily together into Pangaea, but the idea of a supercontinent always bothered me... Why should there ever have been a single continent in the first place? Why weren't there always just a bunch of random continents drifting around independently? I hit up wikipedia to try to get some answers but only came away with more questions... I learned that Pangaea is not \*the\* supercontinent, but merely the most recent of many supercontinents, preceded by Columbia/Nuna, Rodinia, Pannotia and any number of others over the past 4 billion years. So I started off wondering why Pangaea should ever have been a single supercontinent (why shouldn't landmass be naturally distributed over the surface of the planet?) but now that I see all this cyclic activity, I'm wondering why on Earth the Earth has such a predilection for supercontinents. It seems to jam us all together into a new one every few hundred million years. I would have thought that the tectonic plates were subject to some sort of randomized Brownian motion, and that they'd just bounce around with free reign to cruise wherever they felt like over the planet's surface, but the geology suggests otherwise. What's causing everything on the surface of the planet to bunch up into supercontinents every so often? It can't be purely a matter of gravity, as there's always much more of the Earth's mass pulling towards the core as there would be laterally in any surface direction. What's really going on here?
|
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|
8a9pbk
|
How come it took so long for humanity to develop the concept of interchangeable parts?
|
_URL_1_
There was evidence of interchangeable parts over 2,000 years ago, but it never caught on for some reason. Why did it take so long? I feel like there must’ve been a bunch of scientists at the time who, afterwards, said “Gee, I wish *I’d* thought of that!”
As a side note, it’s often said that you can’t make something that [fits all of these requirements,](_URL_0_) but interchangeable parts are better, cheaper, and faster.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dwx4g91",
"dwx2pju",
"dwx2gzd"
],
"text": [
"The concept existed for a long time. Its too hard to hand craft every item identically to the last item. Its much easier to build part #1 then built part #2 to fit part #1 than to try and make two identical part #1s. Only once machines were doing much of the fabrication was it cost effective to make thousands of identical parts that were interchangeable and in fact it was easier to make them all that way since the machines did it the same way every time.\n\nIts debatable if interchangeable parts are good. Mass produced interchangeable parts are \"good enough\" particularly for the price and speed of production. Even today hand crafted items tend to be better quality and are sought after for certain applications. There is an entire market of handcrafted clothing with emphasis on stitching and materials for example rather than mass produced clothing.\nBeing much cheaper and produced much faster pushed the world away from individual parts that were potentially better quality.",
"The concept of interchangeable parts (ax handles, carriage axles, etc) may have been around for centuries, however it wasn't feasable on a large scale until electricity.\n\nYou answered it here; \"viaWiki link: Electrification allowed individual machine tools to be powered by electric motors, eliminating line shaft drives from steam engines or water power and allowing higher speeds, making modern large scale manufacturing possible.[2] \"\n\nMass production wasn't possible until electricity was commonplace to run the machines. Prior to this, the effort was too great and the accuracy was not possible.",
"This is mostly a historical question but I’ll try to answer it. The main reason is there was no need for interchangeable parts before the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Before then, industry was mostly agricultural or handcrafted. With the industrial revolution came factories that contained hundreds of machines and hundreds of workers in the same building, something that had never been seen before. Only then, would interchangeable parts be required."
],
"score": [
8,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://fastgood.cheap",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interchangeable_parts"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How come it took so long for humanity to develop the concept of interchangeable parts?
_URL_1_ There was evidence of interchangeable parts over 2,000 years ago, but it never caught on for some reason. Why did it take so long? I feel like there must’ve been a bunch of scientists at the time who, afterwards, said “Gee, I wish *I’d* thought of that!” As a side note, it’s often said that you can’t make something that [fits all of these requirements,](_URL_0_) but interchangeable parts are better, cheaper, and faster.
|
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] |
|
sk1n0
|
Kung Fu question
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4emyld"
],
"text": [
"Not accurate at all. Most of that stuff is based off of either the concept of Qi or 'Pressure Point Fighting.' Qi doesn't exist, as far as science can tell, and the popularized \"Pressure Point Fighting\" systems (Dillman Kenpo, for example,) have been disproved numerous times.\n\nThe concept is that when the blow is delivered to a specific spot (and depending on the style, could even be a specific time of day... seriously,) that the CNS is overloaded and causes paralysis, numbness, organ failure or death.\n\nPractitioners of these arts often give demonstrations about how effective it is, but almost always demonstrate the techniques on fellow practitioners (Students, etc.) Often, when its performed on lay-people, or spectators, the techniques don't work. This has led some researchers and skeptics to conclude that suggestibility plays a large part in the technique working on someone. Similar to how people who believe in hypnosis are more susceptible to stage hypnosis.\n\nThere ARE \"Deathblows,\" but almost all of them rely on severing the spinal cord, a major artery, etc."
],
"score": [
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Kung Fu question
|
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||
5nx92d
|
Why do baryons have a half life?
|
I noticed that the proton has a half life of 10^32 years. A neutron seems to have a half life of 10.3 minutes when not near a proton. Why is this? How can the quarks, which are bound together so strongly, decay that quickly?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dceyait"
],
"text": [
"As far as we know, protons are stable. Some theories predict proton decay but it's never been seen. All other baryons are unstable.\n\nThe neutron half-life is **extremely long** on strong force timescales (10^(-23) seconds). The lifetimes of other baryons are all much shorter than that of the neutron."
],
"score": [
14
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why do baryons have a half life?
I noticed that the proton has a half life of 10^32 years. A neutron seems to have a half life of 10.3 minutes when not near a proton. Why is this? How can the quarks, which are bound together so strongly, decay that quickly?
|
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|
x0sed
|
Sound/Pitch effect on the body
|
A little back story first. I'm a musician and a few months back I was playing at a benefit for the daughter of a friend. Earlier in the night I received a slight concussion (amusing story but this isn't the place for it). I played the benefit even though I really shouldn't have. The sound company provided monitors (speakers directed towards the musicians so we hear what the crowd hears). I normally don't use them. Typically the guitarist and I (I play bass) point our speaker cabs towards each other and keep our volume down and the more powerful sound comes from the mains and subs in front of us and directed away from us. During the benefit a harmonica player asked to play a song with us. We accepted and as soon as he hit the first note I felt odd suddenly (disoriented, confused and wobbly) and attributed it to the bump on the head.
Fast forward to last weekend. We played another benefit and had a sound company who again set up a monitor. We have a female singer and she hit a certain octave/note/pitch that was similar to the note the harmonica player hit. I felt the exact same effect (disoriented, confused and wobbly). I know the simple suggestion is to never use monitors but is what I am feeling when a certain note is hit and amplified a side effect of a long past concussion or do certain sounds have an effect (especially when amplified) on certain people and at certain octaves?
|
askscience
|
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],
"text": [
"We did an thing in high school physics where a pure sine wave was played at a certain frequency and is was a bit disorientating. If I remember correctly, the wavelength was roughly the same as the distance between your ears. The explanation for the disorientation was that your brain uses the phase offset at each ear to help determine the direction that sound is coming from - and because it was just a single frequency playing, it was hard for the other means of determining direction to have an effect. (the other means being the relative attenuation of different frequencies by your ear shell and skull and stuff). It sounded like the sound was coming from everywhere mostly, but very slight shifts in your head position would make it sound like it was coming from random directions. Maybe they hit that frequency? Possibly excarbated by concussion?"
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Sound/Pitch effect on the body
A little back story first. I'm a musician and a few months back I was playing at a benefit for the daughter of a friend. Earlier in the night I received a slight concussion (amusing story but this isn't the place for it). I played the benefit even though I really shouldn't have. The sound company provided monitors (speakers directed towards the musicians so we hear what the crowd hears). I normally don't use them. Typically the guitarist and I (I play bass) point our speaker cabs towards each other and keep our volume down and the more powerful sound comes from the mains and subs in front of us and directed away from us. During the benefit a harmonica player asked to play a song with us. We accepted and as soon as he hit the first note I felt odd suddenly (disoriented, confused and wobbly) and attributed it to the bump on the head. Fast forward to last weekend. We played another benefit and had a sound company who again set up a monitor. We have a female singer and she hit a certain octave/note/pitch that was similar to the note the harmonica player hit. I felt the exact same effect (disoriented, confused and wobbly). I know the simple suggestion is to never use monitors but is what I am feeling when a certain note is hit and amplified a side effect of a long past concussion or do certain sounds have an effect (especially when amplified) on certain people and at certain octaves?
|
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|
1ono0e
|
Do our bodies absorb anything we take in without prejudice or does it block out certain substances? (especially harmful ones)
|
A follow up to this question:
Would one day, if we keep absorbing the same bad chemicals, our bodies will start to reject bad substances, or negate the effects?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccttacn"
],
"text": [
"Within certain ranges of properties, we tend to take up most things through the gut wall, for better or worse. Those ranges cover the size of the molecules, their polarity, and physical / chemical properties like that. (As someone who works in the drug industry, I'm always having to think about whether the compounds I make will be OK for oral medications). There are some substances that have their own special uptake \"ports\", such as cholesterol, but most everything else reasonable-sized is pulled in, dumped into the hepatic portal vein, and left for the liver to sort out.\n\nAs for evolutionary pressure, it's possible, I suppose, but since we're omnivores, the pressure seems to be more to have a system that's capable of absorbing and handling a huge range of things, since there's no telling what we'll put in our mouths next. The chemical properties of many poisons are basically identical to that of many harmless substances, so it's difficult to work up defenses other than the broad-based ones we have (liver enzymes, etc.)"
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Do our bodies absorb anything we take in without prejudice or does it block out certain substances? (especially harmful ones)
A follow up to this question: Would one day, if we keep absorbing the same bad chemicals, our bodies will start to reject bad substances, or negate the effects?
|
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] |
|
2ctwic
|
What exactly causes myocardial hypertrophy?
|
For instance, hypertension can result in left ventricular wall hyperthropyz but what mediators are exactly in play here?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cjj0txc",
"cjj6yrs",
"cjm1dt9"
],
"text": [
"The largest mediator at play is repeated damage to the heart tissue, leading to scarring and enlargement of the walls. High blood pressure produces increased vascular stress in the heart, causing inflammation and damage. Unlike skeletal muscle, the heart never stops to rest and heal, so the damage is more likely to be repaired via less-than-ideal means, like building up additional tissue. [This](_URL_1_) abstract gives a good summary of the processes that lead to myocardial hypertrophy and hyperplasia. (The full text is behind a paywall, sorry.)\n\nThe underlying inflammatory processes behind myocardial hypertrophy aren't perfectly clear, though there's [evidence](_URL_3_) that cytokines and damage in the microvasculature play a major role. This abstract: _URL_0_ is pretty good, too. (Sorry about the lack of a properly formatted link, parentheses in the URL borked it up.)\n\nThis is not to be confused with [hypertrophic cardiomyopathy](_URL_2_), a genetic heart defect causing abnormal thickening of the cardiac walls.",
"I don't think that there will be a common mechanism as there are different types of hypertrophy. *Concentric hypertrophy* (thickened wall) occurs due to chronic pressure overload of the ventricle, for instance in the case of chronic hypertension. From Laplace's Law, wall tension is reduced with increasing wall thickness.\n\n*Eccentric hypertrophy* (bigger chamber, wall not so thickened) is more associated with volume overload. There is usually a mix of concentric and eccentric hypertrophy and there are many different conditions that can cause hypertrophy. Because cardiac hypertrophy is a diverse condition and I think you will struggle to find a common mechanism.\n\nNarrowing the discussion to hypertensive cardiomyopathy is sensible. We know that hypertension is associated with concentric hypertrophy and we assume that this is a causal relationship. Histology shows myocyte and fibroblast proliferation, and the mediators that may be involved are *angiotensin II, endothelin-I, aldosterone* (which mediate fibroblast proliferation) and growth hormone, thyroxine, and pressure/volume loading (which are involved in myocyte proliferation). This leads to enlargement of cardiac myocytes and fibrosis - hence the thick, stiff, non-compliant ventricle of the hypertensive patient.\n\nThe *angiotensin II receptor-type 2* (\"AT-2\") seems to be important in the pathogenesis of hypertensive cardiomyopathy (knocking out the AT-2 gene in mice stops left ventricular hypertrophy and fibrosis due to pressure overload).\n\nThere are also *coronary vascular changes* (perivascular fibrosis, and thickening of media). I'm not sure of the clinical significance of this - but I'd guess that this contributes to the fibrosis of the ventricle.\n\nThere is also *pressure overload induced apoptosis* of the cardiac myocyte. Again I don't know the significance of this. Maybe it is involved in the transition between compensated to decompensated heart failure. \n\nIt seems reasonable to assume that the myocyte proliferation is physiological (at least initially) and the fibroblast proliferation is more likely to be pathological. \n\nThere are some recent papers about the molecular targets and regulators for cardiac hypertrophy if that is more what you are after - but that is getting too detailed for me. \n\nFinally don't forget that there can be genetics factors that lead to hypertrophy. The classic example is hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (\"HOCM\"), aka \"familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy\", and the genes involved have been identified.",
"Another cause not mentioned but important is in diseases that obstruct blood flow through the pulmonary blood vessels (e.g. pulmonary arterial hypertension). The right heart has to work harder to pump blood through the pulmonary vasculature due to increased resistance, and this leads to right ventricular hypertrophy."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ajconline.org/article/S0002-9149(97)00749-2/abstract",
"http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/6/6_Pt_2/III38.abstract",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertrophic_cardiomyopathy",
"http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/bloodjournal/104/1/100.full.pdf"
]
}
|
What exactly causes myocardial hypertrophy?
For instance, hypertension can result in left ventricular wall hyperthropyz but what mediators are exactly in play here?
|
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