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wczkz
|
What does a medical study mean when they say "increases risk of death?"
|
The text that prompts this is: "There is currently a widespread belief that any degree of overweight or obesity **increases the risk of death**, however our findings suggest this may not be the case." (from the Gizmodo article linked [here](_URL_0_)). Isn't the risk of death 100%? How can it increase?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"In any given finite period, there is a chance that you will die. In the next 5 minutes, it is pretty small (unless you are making fun of a biker`s moustache or something) but over the course of a year, it is more likely and over decades, it is even more likely. \n\nIncreases risk of death means that for some finite period, the chance of you dying goes up.",
"Risk of death is assessed as a comparative measure between two populations. For example, let's say you have 1000 people taking a medicine vs 1000 people who are not taking the medicine. If, in the duration of the study (eg 10 years), you find that 500 of the people taking the medicine died vs 300 of the people not taking the medicine, then we would say that there seems to be a correlation between the medicine and increased risk of death. (This would have to be run through stats to ensure statistical significance.) In this simplified example, the risk of death for the no-medicine group was 300/1000 (0.3), while the risk of death for the medicine group was 500/1000 (0.5). The attributable risk in this case is 0.5-0.3 = 0.2. The relative risk is 0.5/0.3 = 1.7. In other words, the med increases your risk of death by about 20%, while making you about 70% more likely to die as compared to someone not taking the medicine. Keep in mind this is all based on population studies and really only applies to populations (I think Bayesian stats delves into this in more detail).",
"The best way to think of this is in regards to an experiment.\n\nLet's take a hypothetical experiment (which would never get ethics board approval), where ten unlucky \"volunteers\" (PhD students bribed with the promise of free Kraft Dinner and coffee) are randomly assigned to one of two groups. \n\nAll ten of them are taken up in an airplane and then forced to jump out (you threw the Kraft Dinner and coffee out of the plane, and they chase it). However, group one (five students) were all given parachutes. \n\nGroup two weren't.\n\nIt is highly likely (though not completely so), that there will be 100% survival among the 5 students with parachutes, and 0% survival among the group with no parachutes.\n\nThe conclusion of this study would be that not wearing a parachute increases the risk of death.\n\nSame thing with a study looking at obesity. When you take two groups of people, one who is obese, and one who isn't, and compare them... the obese group will have a higher risk of death. In other words, if you followed these two groups over a period of time, less obese people would still be alive at the end of this time period, than non-obese people."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://gizmodo.com/5924696/being-obese-is-better-than-being-underweight"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What does a medical study mean when they say "increases risk of death?"
The text that prompts this is: "There is currently a widespread belief that any degree of overweight or obesity **increases the risk of death**, however our findings suggest this may not be the case." (from the Gizmodo article linked [here](_URL_0_)). Isn't the risk of death 100%? How can it increase?
|
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68zvak
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Why is the periodic table such a great historical accomplishment? I understand that Mendeleev was ahead of his time but I never understood what it is he actually did, or how he did it to be able to get his results.
|
'Chemistry'
|
askscience
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"text": [
"It's a great ordering of elements. The way the table is setup for example more or less predicts certain properties of (even not yet discovered) elements, where elements in the same columns often share properties. The accomplishment I think consists in finding the patterns of properties in the first place and ordering them this way which explains a lot in one view.",
"It has some amazing patterns and predictive powers. It arranges things into groups and periods, where you can see similar behavior within groups (like the Halogen family). \n\nYou can also predict properties like boiling point, melting point, stability, ionization energy, electron affinity, and many others.\n\nIt is incredibly visually easy to find an element and then figure out its orbital structure and behavior in reactions just by looking at relative positions on the chart.",
"You try organizing all those elements in a table with that many different patterns in a reasonably logical easy to read way. It's not easy, especially without much of an idea of how it's gonna look. It makes sense that the guy who managed to do this difficult task is so highly respected.",
"Mendeleev was the first to look at an overarching ordering principle (atomic mass) which was suggested by observation, rather than a pre conceived notion of how the universe should behave based on your favourite holy book or philosophy. This allowed him to make predictions where gaps appeared in his scheme.",
"If you understand atomic structure then the periodic table is an obvious sort of arrangement for elements. Elements are uniquely defined by their \"atomic number\" which is the number of protons in their nucleus, that dictates their electronic structure, which will follow an arrangement based on electron orbitals.\n\nHowever, none of that theory was available to folks like Mendeleev. He didn't know about nuclei, he didn't know about atomic orbitals, he don't know about how molecular bonds worked, he did not even know about electrons. So from only a fairly vague theory of the atom he was able to use experimental observation to empirically determine the structure of elemental periods and families. That's quite remarkable. It's like finding a sketch of a jet engine in da vinci's notebook. It took many decades for the atomic theory to catch up to what had been learned about atoms from careful experimentation and a few leaps of insight. It was not until the 1930s (a century after Mendeleev was born) that atomic orbital theory finally came to be able to understand the structure of the periodic table from first principles.\n\nMendeleev's work, and the work of others in creating the periodic table, helped guide researchers and theorizers toward the eventual atomic theory that evolved. Understanding that any theory had to explain the already understood aspects of atomic structure elucidated through work on the periodic table was immensely helpful in that regard.",
"Some of the answers here are great for what we _now_ understand the periodic table to be about, but it is worth remembering that in Mendeleev's day they did not have electrons or protons in their vocabulary! (Mendeleev's table was in 1869; electrons came in 1897, protons in 1905, electron shells in the 1910s-1920s.)\n\nTo understand his accomplishment then, you have to see the world of chemistry as he saw it then. The \"chemical revolution\" of the 18th century was basically people realizing that there were a _lot_ of chemical elements, not just the earth/water/fire/water sorts of schemes that had been talked about for thousands of years before (though were already waning in popularity by the 17th century). By \"chemical element,\" they understood this to mean that there were fundamental \"building blocks\" of all compositions of matter, that couldn't be reduced down further. So one of the canonical breakthroughs (by Lavoisier and Priestly) was to find out that \"air,\" that thing everyone thought they understood for many years, was actually not a single element but a mixture of two others: oxygen and nitrogen. They developed the techniques for separating out these elements, and for verifying that you couldn't separate them out any further: oxygen was oxygen, nitrogen was nitrogen, and they couldn't be changed into one another. Conservation of mass played a role in this understanding as well; in chemical reactions, elements change position and create different molecules, but you never destroy or create a new element. (Ignore nuclear reactions! Those come much later and were mind blowing specifically because they violated these rules.)\n\nOK, great. So you now know the world is filled with a lot of different fundamental elements. How many? Scientists went about isolating new elements everywhere they could, finding all sorts of interesting things about them and their chemical properties. But they had no way of making sense of the overall scheme of them. Why is oxygen _not_ nitrogen, or vice versa? What's _different_ about them? Is there any rhyme or reason to it? They didn't know. \n\nMendeleev was one of many people who sought to bring some order to this unruliness. His approach was to group elements by the fact that some of them had similar chemical properties — they reacted in similar ways to one another. A very basic example of this is sodium and lithium. As everyone who had a cool chemistry teacher knows, if you put pure sodium or pure lithium in water, they will react very violently and explosively. In fact there are several elements that have this same reaction (sodium, lithium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, etc.). That's very curious — perhaps, Mendeleev reasoned, they share that same reaction because they are somehow similar to one another.\n\nWhat his table did was to try and group elements by how similar they were, chemically. To put them into groups, ordered by the different weights that had been calculated for them. Once he did this, a bunch of interesting things came out of it. One, it was clear that there were _gaps_ in the table — elements not yet discovered, perhaps. Two, it was clear that some of the weights didn't line up correctly with the chemistry — so maybe they were measured incorrectly.\n\nUltimately such a table is a _tool_, it is a means to better understand how chemistry works, and to ask new questions about elements. It helped take a very unruly chemical world and make it more orderly, and at the same time raised new questions and approaches to research. In science, that's pretty useful and important (you could say similar things about, say, why Newton's work was so important), because it helps contribute to a coherent worldview while at the same time driving new efforts. \n\nWe now know why Mendeleev's approach makes sense on a physical level (the weights correspond with atomic masses and eventually the number of protons, and the number of protons determines the number of electrons, and the number and arrangement of electrons determines the chemistry of an element), but that sort of explanation came much later. \n\nIf you are curious about Mendeleev's science and world (his personal life is pretty fascinating), check out Michael Gordin's _A Well-Ordered Thing_ (Princeton University Press, 2004).",
"At the time, it was a discovery of the most fundamental building blocks of everything in nature. Now we understand there are smaller parts than atoms, but at the time it was believed that literally everything was made up of a few dozen different components. Understanding how those components interact with one another is the basis of understanding chemistry.",
"The periodic table not only organizes them in terms of number (aka number of protons), but also by their electron orbitals and valence electrons. So you can easily look at the table and see many different properties of each element, but also see trends and relationships based on those properties."
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Why is the periodic table such a great historical accomplishment? I understand that Mendeleev was ahead of his time but I never understood what it is he actually did, or how he did it to be able to get his results.
'Chemistry'
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] |
|
iwen2
|
Is it possible to have perfect color in the same way that some people have perfect pitch?
|
Normal people need to hear a note relative to another note to determine it's pitch. People with perfect pitch do not. This reminds me of how with colors we look at what is surrounding one shade to determine its color. Is it possible to judge a color correctly in any frame of reference?
In other words, Is there anyone who would not be fooled by this?
_URL_1_
If you do not know what I mean by perfect pitch, see here: _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2761xn",
"c2760vi",
"c277xmk",
"c276peu"
],
"text": [
"Nope. \n\nThe eyes don't work like hearing, and we are more limited in light perception. We have thousands of cilia that pick up sound, but really only see color as a mixture of perhaps 4-5 receptors for light, making color a far more \"processed\" sense, meaning the brain has to do a lot more work to figure it out. By doing this, a lot of information is often viewed as relative to it's surroundings and the available light. Machines aren't limited by this, which is why we use them to measure color accurately.",
"I don't know about the context of your image, but from a biological perspective the peak of performance would be [tetrachromacy](_URL_0_). \n\nNormally people see color using three different cones tuned to three different wavelengths. A tetrachromat would theoretically use four cones tuned to four wavelengths.\n\nIf someone were to possess this trait, she would have superior color discrimination abilities.",
"I've read somewhere that our perception of colour is in part determined by the languages we know, as well as our own colour vocabulary. English has thousands of words for colour alone, making lilac, mauve and lavender three distinct \"colours\". Often, undeveloped languages have a limited number of words, which can lead to a different perception of the same wavelength of light.\n\n[Wikipedia](_URL_1_) has an explanation for this too.",
"\"1 out of 255 women and 1 out of 12 men have some form of color vision deficiency.\"\n\nI know nothing about this (and citation needed), but that's what [this test](_URL_2_) said.\n\nedit: i didn't read anything in your description when i posted this. I realize it was somewhat irrelevant, but it's still a cool test"
],
"score": [
17,
10,
5,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_pitch",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/files/2009/06/colors.gif"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromat",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_term",
"http://www.xrite.com/custom_page.aspx?PageID=77"
]
}
|
Is it possible to have perfect color in the same way that some people have perfect pitch?
Normal people need to hear a note relative to another note to determine it's pitch. People with perfect pitch do not. This reminds me of how with colors we look at what is surrounding one shade to determine its color. Is it possible to judge a color correctly in any frame of reference? In other words, Is there anyone who would not be fooled by this? _URL_1_ If you do not know what I mean by perfect pitch, see here: _URL_0_
|
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sklnk
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What would it be like to live on a planet with rings around it?
|
askscience
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"Typically rings are made out of large chunks of rock and ice. From Earth, the rings would appear quite bright I think, as the ice would reflect sunlight in all directions. In fact, it is this reflection via ice that allows Saturn's rings to be so visible. \n\nHowever, one should point out that rings don't necessarily have to look like those around Saturn. The intricacy of Saturn's rings comes from what are sometimes called 'Shepherd moons'. These are relatively small moons that orbit in among the debris which forms the rings, keeping them in line with their gravity, and thus creating the intricate rings that we observe. \n\n~~Sadly, this would never be possible with Earth.~~ Rings are formed partially due to what is known as the Roche limit. This limit is related to the ~~mass~~[density], ~~and therefore gravitational force of a planet~~. Within the limit, objects which are not held together strongly enough will break up. Because Saturn is so large the Roche limit is far enough away from the planet such that the rings were able to form - that is, the debris was not able to clump up and form moons. Considering that our moon was made from a collection of debris, we would have rings if it were not for the Roche limit being too close.\n\nHope that's some of what you were looking for. \n\nEdit Note: Made some edits in the last paragraph to account for some incorrect assumptions I made concerning the Earths Roche Limit.",
"Imagine no satellites: no satellite tv, no gps. Because geostationary orbit would be filled with lots of rocks.",
"This isn't 100% related, but on the wikipedia page for saturn's rings, I saw an enhanced version of [this picture](_URL_0_) for the first time. It might be the most beautiful picture I've ever seen. The dot to the upper left of the rings is Earth.",
"It would be so beautiful if we had rings (and they looked like they did in the video).\n\nI also wonder what this would mean for the temperature of the earth. Would it affect it at all?",
"In the not so distant future, we may live on an earth that has a ring or two. Nothing like Saturn's rings, but more like very thin bands of satellites. We are launching artificial satellites into orbits that will remain almost the same for hundreds, maybe thousands of years. As the more useful orbits get cluttered with a growing number of satellites, it would eventually constitute a \"ring\" of sorts. It might be visible from the ground, if only barely. Also, because there are many different orbits that could end up like this, there could be multiple rings, not all lined up like Saturn's rings. The more likely case however, is that earth will end up looking something like this: _URL_1_",
"On a planet with rings, one would always be able to tell which direction was north or south. I think this would have presented very interesting differences in the age of exploration, e.g. made compasses unnecessary.",
"Better question: Since the earth exerts gravity equally in all directions, What keeps the micrometeorites, and other dust in a flat disc shape parallel to the equator?",
"Another question: would we be able to create some sort of base, or land a spacecraft on a given asteroid?",
"What it would look like if earth had rings like saturn! _URL_2_",
"Earth actually does have a ring. It's made of antiprotons. _URL_3_",
"One thing I often ponder if Earth did have rings similar to those of Saturn is how different humanity would be. I imagine the rings would play a large part in early religions, perhaps modern religions as well. Allso how would it change the development of early sciences like astronomy and physics (with less visibility at night to see the stars/planets) etc. Of course there are no definitive answers to these questions, just something I like to think about."
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"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Saturn_eclipse.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/ysjdW",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hoz5Q2rGQtQ",
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21128245.500-antiproton-ring-found-around-earth.html"
]
}
|
What would it be like to live on a planet with rings around it?
|
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20g2ga
|
Is it possible to create salt-water tolerant crops?
|
We have no shortage of salt water but droughts of fresh water are a problem and are likely to become worse. An obvious source of water is the ocean (we're unlikely to deplete that) but the salt content is quite high and desalination is expensive.
Is it possible to "force evolve" some crops to be tolerant of salt water conditions? Such as by gradually increasing the salt content of the irrigation water over number of years such that the crops have time to adjust to the new conditions.
|
askscience
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"Forced evolution of a plant species by slowly increasing salt concentration is possible, but the generation time is so long (usually at least a year) that starting now probably wouldn't lead to any significant advancements in our lifetime.\n\nForced adaptation of a single plant by increasing salt concentrations over a few years probably wouldn't succeed, because most plants don't have the genetic tools to adapt to high salinity.\n\nThe most likely avenue of success would be genetically modifying plants to allow them to be watered with salt water. [Plants that tolerate high salinity](_URL_0_) already exist, and finding a way to transfer that tolerance to major crops would probably be the best way to create salt-tolerant crops.\n\nAnother problem is the salt has to go somewhere. The plants will either incorporate or eliminate the salt from the water. If the salt is incorporated, it may well end up in the fruiting body of the plant, affecting taste. If the salt is eliminated, a lot of it will probably end up in the soil. Over a few years, this will most likely kill all the microbiota that help the soil healthy, and it would also ruin the land for any non-modified plantsl",
"You put water on your fields to irrigate them. It dries out and you add more water. Each time you do this the soil picks up any traces of salt that were in your irrigation water.\n\nYou will be left with a salt pan eventually, or at least [evil puddles of hypersaline brine](_URL_2_) that would discourage even the hardiest sea oats.\n\nNormally this is a slow process because you use fresh water and flush the field a bit to wash away any salt buildup. Seawater is 3%-4% salts and agriculture can use quite a lot of water.\n\nIt would be logistically simpler to [start farming seaweed](_URL_2_).",
"One edible salt-tolerant plant is [salicornia](_URL_3_) - you sometimes see it called \"sea beans\" (I've gotten it at farmer's markets in Seattle). It's very tasty!\n\nOne reason salt tolerant plants might be difficult to cultivate agriculturally is that the way plants can acclimate to salty soil or irrigation water is that they can sequester salt in compartments in their cells, called vacuoles. Since plants have to create and alter the driving gradients around them for water flow in all the parts of the cell, the end result is you wind up with pretty salty stems and leaves.",
"Crops grown for direct human consumption do not need vast fields to feed the entire world, the majority of crop land in the US is devoted to industrial crops rather than human food. Considering the largest irrigated crop in the US is lawn grass, and corn is second, it pays to look at what is being watered and why. Around half of our corn crop is used for ethanol first, then livestock feed after the starch is used to produce fuel. \n\nThis is actually more efficient for livestock feed than feeding the animals unprocessed corn, which is one of the few uses for industrial corn, because the ethanol process only uses 1/3 the kernel, the starch. The remaining parts are what animals get from corn, and most have a difficult time digesting the starch, which creates more methane.\n\nWouldn't it be easier, simpler, more cost effective, to utilize salt water plants rather than try to adapt plants to salt water? Kelp is an amazing plant with many uses, we can make both ethanol and biodiesel from it as well as eating it, and it grows profusely in areas such as the dead zone at the mouth of the Mississippi river.\n\nAnother plant with impressive uses is cattails (typha) which can produce double to 5x the starch/ethanol per acre of corn while it remediates water. Cattails have six times the starch of a potato by weight, and they grow prodigiously anywhere its moist with a slow flow of water past them.",
"We already have farms that grow plants in sea water: [seaweed farms](_URL_6_). There are [145 varietis](_URL_5_) of seaweed, so you even have a pretty good variety. As for the reason this is not more widespread your guess is as good as mine.\n\nHere's mine: I believe it's a cultural factor, like with edible insects. Sure, it has many advantages, but nobody would prefer a plateful of crickets to a nice sirloin. Also many poor countries don't have a sea, so it would have to be grown somewhere else and then exported. Now: if you own a seaweed farm would you rather sell your nori to sushi chefs for a nice markup or give it to poor people in exchange for thanks and karma? Furthermore, while economically seaweed farms are pretty cheap, the manpower needed isn't, and is in fact very [labour-intensive](_URL_4_).\n\nThat's my two cents.",
"Just eat kelp. But jokes aside,:\n* if salt water was spread on a field repeatedly the salt levels in the soil would build up fast. Looking at the worst case; a year with little rainfall, there would be so much salt that crystals would be visible. Now there are plants than can take some salt, but not salt like that. \n*The sodium chloride not only pulls water out of tissue through osmosis, it acts much like nutrients plants need. Potasum nitrate, for example, in simplest terms, gets sucked in. If too much is available too much gets sucked in and things go bad for the plant, often called nutrient burn. Plants are already bred to be resistant to this so we can dump more fertilizer on them. The problem is sodium chloride acts much like these needed nutrients (many of which are actually called salts). So what would happen is you couldn't fertilize the field because of the salt. And before someone jumps in talking about organic farming, that's out too. The salt will destroy your soil and you'd be working in a sand box in no time.\nEdit: slight improvement of my crappy writing.",
"A few years ago, there was a [study](_URL_7_) on\n[Pokkali](_URL_8_), which is a unique saline-tolerant rice variety, that is currently being cultivated [in an organic way](_URL_10_) in the water-logged, coastal regions of [Kerala](_URL_9_)",
"in addition to the genetic modification that was mentioned, one strategy that has been used to increase salt tolerance in plants is adaptive symbiosis. certain types of endophytic fungi can turn genes off and on in plants affecting traits like water use efficiency. by mining plants that grow in salty areas for symbiotic fungi, one can find candidates for fungi that affect salt tolerance. introducing these fungi into crop plants can improve the salt tolerance of crop plants.",
"to manipulate the question a bit: would it be possible with hydro/aquaponics? I read this article a while back and it sounded very exciting: _URL_11_\n\nis it bullshit?",
"Actually we learned that i think two years back about genetically engineering. Scientist have already tried doing it but the plants soaked up so much salt that the plant would be the same thing as drinking saltwater. Right now their making crops that can withstand harsh climates and no water for months. Concluding to that they have genetically modified rice, called golden rice which has proteins and vitamins in them and they were going to give the seeds to developing countries, but protesters thought they were going to be testers for a poison, they canceled the seeds and now dont know what to do with golden rice.",
"Many so called \"droughts\" are caused by man. Many areas that are naturally arid and are now green only became that way through irrigation. Now dams are discouraged for environmental reasons and the land goes back to being the desert it was before. That is not a drought.\n\nThe Japanese have eaten seaweed for years and it should be possible to farm it so a good solution to the problem has already existed for centuries. Try some California Rolls at a sushi place to see what seaweed is like."
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halophyte",
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/10/12/162728509/kelp-for-farmers-seaweed-becomes-a-new-crop-in-america",
"http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=03-P13-00017&segmentID=6",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicornia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaweed_farming#Culture_methods",
"http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17870743",
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/21/superfood-seaweed-health-benefits_n_3786076.html",
"http://www.plantcell.org/content/13/4/889.full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokkali_Rice",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala",
"http://www.academia.edu/3661092/Simultaneous_rice_-_fish_culture_system_in_modified_Pokkali_rice_fields_-_a_possible_alternative_to_improve_sustainability",
"http://www.energypost.eu/exclusive-report-boeing-reveals-biggest-breakthrough-biofuels-ever/"
]
}
|
Is it possible to create salt-water tolerant crops?
We have no shortage of salt water but droughts of fresh water are a problem and are likely to become worse. An obvious source of water is the ocean (we're unlikely to deplete that) but the salt content is quite high and desalination is expensive. Is it possible to "force evolve" some crops to be tolerant of salt water conditions? Such as by gradually increasing the salt content of the irrigation water over number of years such that the crops have time to adjust to the new conditions.
|
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|
x1el6
|
I have a ring made of Tungsten Carbide. It has some scratches on it. How could this have happened?
|
I don't own or handle any diamonds, and my understanding is that Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest substances around. Is there anything that I may encounter in my every day life that has the ability to scratch my ring?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"You have to remember the pressure applied to the ring can overcome the point at which cleavage occurs. You can smash a diamond with a hammer and some force. You can scratch a ring with the right amount of pressure even with an item that is not as hard as the material that the ring is made out of.",
"Aluminum oxide, a common sandpaper abrasive, is potentially hard enough to scratch tungsten carbide.",
"This depends on the purity of manufacture and carbon content of the tungsten carbide in question. Often it is alloyed with titanium, nickel or cobalt. \n\nAlso tungsten carbide is comparatively brittle, any contact with sufficient force can cause chipping or pitting along the area, more often though you'll see deposition of the material contacted into the surface of the carbide itself. \n\n(source: experienced machinist and aerospace coatings application)",
"From metallurgist point of view: probably you do not have 100% pure WC ring, but sintered with binding material (Co/Ni), because pure WC is not that useful because it is brittle. Co and Ni binders are added, but there must be taken care of C percentage because it makes brittle eutectic alloy.\n\nEven sintered, the material still lacks elasticity and because of hardness, plastic properties, so it can be easily damaged with excessive force and hard contact with abrasive materials (Al2O3,SiC per example). Mohs goes only for pure crystalline WC.",
"A little late to the party but I worked as a jewelry salesman for a long time. Most tungsten carbide rings are built with break points in the ring in case of an emergency when it would have to be removed (broken finger, defibrillator, etc). Depending on the company they usually put in two or three. These areas are usually very narrow but can still scratch because they are made of a less durable alloy. If the scratches seem pretty localized this could be what's happening.",
"There is usually a coating around rings that give them a super polished look. This is usually what looks worn and can be reapplied easily and cheaply.",
"Is it possible the scratch isn't in the metal itself, but some sort of shiny finish on top of the metal?",
"Do you have a lady friend/wife with a diamond ring?\n\nAlso, many high-end tools (including drill bits) are made with carbides that could potentially scratch it.",
"Tungsten carbide is great for wear resistance, but it can be brittle if banged off things or hit. I use tungsten carbide puck and ring mills all the time to grind silica, magnesite, limestone, zirconium, and other fun things. The mills last quite a longtime and I pick up very little W when I analyze samples. If you aren't careful and drop it or bang it off items it the sink while washing, it will chip, splinter, and crack fairly easily. Same for tungsten carbide tipped mixing blades, ribbon blades in a mixer, or pins in a pin mixer.",
"Are these gouges, or surface scratches?\n\nSand or even heavy dust if applied at the right angle, shift knob, door handle etc, has the ability to scratch. Little rocks and such.",
"you can scratch a hard material with a softer material, the softer material will get worn away more but both will be damaged if you use enough force."
],
"score": [
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
I have a ring made of Tungsten Carbide. It has some scratches on it. How could this have happened?
I don't own or handle any diamonds, and my understanding is that Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest substances around. Is there anything that I may encounter in my every day life that has the ability to scratch my ring?
|
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|
3hkoup
|
AskScience AMA Series: I am skratchx and I study magnetoresistance. Ask Me Anything!
|
I'm /u/skratchx, a "senior" graduate student working in an experimental condensed matter physics group focusing on applied magnetism. My research focuses on patterning and characterizing systems exhibiting magnetoresistance, usually with a conductive atomic force microscope. This involves running a current through tiny (sub 100 nm diameter) pillars. Magnetoresistance is a phenomenon whereby the resistance of a system of thin magnetic films depends on the relative orientation of the magnetizations. Magnetoresistive systems could have transistor-like applications without issues of volatility. The discoverers of a closely related phenomenon, giant magnetoresistance (GMR), were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 2007. GMR has been widely used in traditional hard drive read heads for many years. In general, my research has many direct applications to data storage technology. My research also involves working in a nanofabrication facility (a clean room) doing things like thin film growth, lithography, and dry etching.
AMA about the physics of magnetism, what happens to magnetism at the nanoscale, spintronics (the interplay between spin and charge), atomic force microscopy, nanofabrication, graduate school, cats, the hard drive industry, or anything else you think could be related!
I should be available during lunch EST (~4-6 UTC)
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"In relation to the famous video of Feynman talking with layman, can you tell us: how do magnets work?",
"Do you think that magnetic RAM will replace electric in our lifetime for domestic applications? How about industrial applications that don't require \"electrically hard\" memory?",
"> This involves running a current through tiny (sub 100 nm diameter) pillars\n\nYou have any AFM pictures of these pillars? :D\n\n > direct applications to data storage technology \n\nCan you talk about this a bit more? I'm always interested in hearing about advances in data storage mediums.",
"What did you major in for undergrad and what is your major in grad school?",
"What does happen to magnets at the nanoscale? Have you gotten to a small enough scale that you have noticed they start behaving differently than expected? What are your thoughts on quantum magnetism?",
"What determines the magnetic properties of an atom or a molecule?\n\nIron, cobalt and certain rare earth materials are magnetic, while copper, aluminium and titanium are not. What is it about certain materials that make them magnetic and is it possible to modify a non-magnetic material (Like copper) to become magnetic?",
"I have a magnet at my desk that is only magnetic on one side. It baffles me. It sticks to steel on one side and completely falls off on the other. \n\nIts a thin rectangle and the wide flat surfaces are the ones im referencing.\n\nMonopoles dont exist, right?",
"If they have transistor like properties, do you think magnetoresistant materials could replace traditional transistors? With traditional transistors slowly reaching a fundamental minimum size due to quantum effects at the n-p junction do theses materials provide any greater advantage over the current material?",
"Given the focus on increased storage density and miniaturization (hard drives), are there advantages to the scale of magnetoresistance you're studying over the current technology?",
"What are the magnets made out of? Ceramics or alloys? If your using alloys how do you avoid tin whiskers type issue? :)",
"Serious question: How much energy/power does it take for a magnet to damage a hard drive (without opening it)? Aside from intentionally degaussing the thing, how realistic is such a scenario that a normal home user could damage a hard drive by way of magnetic forces?\n\nJoke question: How frequently do you get the \"Magnets, how do they work?\" meme quoted at you? What's your usual response, or do you just scowl disapprovingly?",
"I'm going to take a break from answering questions for a while but I've really enjoyed it so far! Alas, I should get some real work done. I will check back later on and try to answer more.",
"What do you mean by senior graduate student? How long have you been in grad school? What factored in your decision to go? What sort of career options do you have when you graduate?",
"How much room for advancement do you think is left in hard disk technology?",
"Is anyone still interested in spin toque oscillators?",
"Awww. Nanoscale? I had a mega macroscale question."
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{
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{
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|
AskScience AMA Series: I am skratchx and I study magnetoresistance. Ask Me Anything!
I'm /u/skratchx, a "senior" graduate student working in an experimental condensed matter physics group focusing on applied magnetism. My research focuses on patterning and characterizing systems exhibiting magnetoresistance, usually with a conductive atomic force microscope. This involves running a current through tiny (sub 100 nm diameter) pillars. Magnetoresistance is a phenomenon whereby the resistance of a system of thin magnetic films depends on the relative orientation of the magnetizations. Magnetoresistive systems could have transistor-like applications without issues of volatility. The discoverers of a closely related phenomenon, giant magnetoresistance (GMR), were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 2007. GMR has been widely used in traditional hard drive read heads for many years. In general, my research has many direct applications to data storage technology. My research also involves working in a nanofabrication facility (a clean room) doing things like thin film growth, lithography, and dry etching. AMA about the physics of magnetism, what happens to magnetism at the nanoscale, spintronics (the interplay between spin and charge), atomic force microscopy, nanofabrication, graduate school, cats, the hard drive industry, or anything else you think could be related! I should be available during lunch EST (~4-6 UTC)
|
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awu3g9
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In snowy mountain areas, avalanches occur, we all know this, but does the same happen in the desert on high dunes?
|
askscience
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"Yes, avalanches [are common and are a fundamental part of how dunes behave/evolve](_URL_0_). Basically, grains roll and bounce along the windward, more gentle side of a dune and are deposited at the top of the leeward, steeper side of the dune (i.e. the slip face). These grains build up until they destabilize the slip face and avalanche down towards the base of the dune. This is a fundamental part of how a dune migrates.",
"From the perspective of Jamming, or un-jamming in this case. Both same dunes and snow mountains un-jam at critical shear stress and then begin sliding downhill. However, this phenomenon is highly dependent on the material that is being jammed. Sand is a dry frictional poly-disperse material that un-jams at critical stress directly relate to its angle of repose and it well determined for different types of sand. Snow on the other hand is a potentially wet, mono-disperse material that has a highly variable critical shear stress dependent upon things like humidity, temperature, etc. So unlike sand, snow avalanches are less predictable and can sometimes build up much greater stresses leading to catastrophe.",
"As others have said dunes have small slides constantly based primarily on the angle of repose of the sand particles. Snow avalanches occur on slopes between °25-°45 snow unlike sand changes based on temperature and humidity once it is on the ground. These process cause the formation of layers in the snow pack some can be very weak and some can be very strong. There is a lot of science I’m leaving out, but essentially when you have strong snow on top of weak snow something can come along and cause the weak snow to collapse and the strong snow begins to slide on top of the weak snow. The strong snow is so well bonded to its neighbor that it causes the avalanche to propagate across the slope and the whole thing gets very big and can destroy lots of things. Unlike the sand dune slide that just kind of sluff off constantly but in small amounts to maintain itself near or at its angle of repose.",
"Sand naturally compacts itself to 100% so there are no layers in the dune that are less dense like snow on a mountain. This means sand dunes won’t have catastrophic avalanche events with large portions sliding down the dune.",
"Sand piles up with gravity working on each grain individually. The violence of a snow avalanche is due to the fact that snow adheres to itself and can build horizontally until the weight is enough to break it free.",
"Others have pointed out that sand dunes \"avalanche\" all the time, a process that geologists might call \"raveling\", and it's less dangerous because there aren't big slabs. The reason is that sand dunes form at the friction angle of the material (sand) and can't steepen unless cohesion develops, which does happen over time (but not really in active dunes).\n\nWater could change this: sand can have steeper slopes went wet (capillary pressure), which is why you can build sand castles, and why people sometime die in sand cave collapses. But I struggle to come up with an example in nature when wet sand would somehow form a large steep slope on it's own... if it did, it would be very dangerous.",
"Snow avalanches occur because of weak layers being overloaded by new or wind blown snow. Old snow degrades and turns into crystals. The new snow on top can adhere to each other and become this huge block. Eventually it breaks loose naturally or by a person. People dig pits into mountain sides to view the different layers from past storms to make a best judgement decision on the stability of the snow on the slope.",
"This also happens at the beach. Sometimes, kids/people dig a hole too deep and the sides collapse, covering and sometimes killing the person(s) in the hole). I hear about this almost every year. Makes me nervous when I see kids digging huge holes at the beach, knowing they could be buried.",
"Just watched David Attenborough's *Africa* yesterday on Netflix. The Sahara episode showed how dune waves work, how the dunes actually move, and the \"Singing Dunes\", caused by the grains of sand rubbing during avalanches. Fascinating stuff for someone who will never get the chance to go and see it.",
"There are several different types of snow avalanches that happen based on the condition of the snowpack. Snow is deposited in layers over the course of months. Sometimes you'll get a bunch of dense, wet snow, maybe it'll freeze and form a crust, or maybe some hoarfrost will form on the surface. Maybe a couple feet are deposited over a day or two. This means that the snowpack is composed of stratified layers of snow with different characteristics. Avalanche forecasters dig pits to [examine these layers](_URL_3_ Bkmore pit_MARKED.jpg?itok=5wdIuTS6)\n\nThe type of avalanche people typically think of is called a \"slab avalanche\". It looks like [this](_URL_3_). This happens when there is a thick, cohesive layer on top of a weak layer. That top slab isn't solidly adhered, so it may fracture and come off all at once as a big sheet. This can get a LOT of snow moving. The line you see at the top of the avalanche is called the crown, and it can range from a few centimeters to several meters tall.\n\nSand doesn't really have this variety of characteristics, so it won't form layers the same way. It doesn't crystalize or form different structures. When sand slides, it's more analogous to a [\"sluff avalanche\"](_URL_3_). This happens in loose snow and doesn't send a layer down.\n\nIf you have a pile of granules, it has an \"angle of repose\", which is the maximum slope for that material. This is why at construction sites, you'll see that the piles of dirt always have a consistent slope - it happens naturally when you dump it in a pile. If you took a shovelful of sand from the bottom of a dune, the sand just above it would slide down, causing the sand above that to slide, and so on so it's never steeper than the angle of repose (you can't make a tower of sand).",
"The study of sandpile avalanches has been an area of research for decades, in a field called “self-organized criticality”. Sand avalanches of many different sizes can occur, but the most frequent ones are small ones. The size of any particular avalanche is unpredictable, but the size vs frequency fits a power law distribution. \n_URL_4_\n\nEfforts are ongoing, to make the theory more closely match the observations, especially for larger avalanches.",
"I have to do a presentation on extraterrestrial geomorphology in about 2 week's time and just today I remembered reading about an article where one of NASA's rover's camera took a snapshot of a small dust cloud, when checking what the terrain around the rover looked like. They investigated and eventually concluded that they had caught the first ever avalanche (albeit a small one) on another planet on camera.",
"Speaking unscientifically, I have ridden in the sand dunes and skied on the snow. Sand is heavier than snow. Typical western snow that tends to avalanche is dry snow. Accumulated snow has different layers because of different temperatures throughout its growth. Sand is just sand layered upon sand. Pretty consistent. Sand doesn’t hold water which is why there are often flash floods in the desert. When it rains in the sand dunes it makes the sand heavier and denser, less likely to shift, and not prone to avalanche. We ride light, two wheeled vehicles, and about one ton four wheeled vehicles all over Glamis sand dunes without causing avalanches. You can ride up the face of a steep dune. When you run out of power or it gets too step, you just turn and head downhill. No worries of avalanche, no concerns of burial. From an experienced point of view, sand is not prone to avalanche. Snow definitely is. Now sand can shift, which can wreck havoc on structures, but generally not to humans.",
"Given how snow tends to lace itself together due to the crystal structure of each flake, it tends to resist giving way. The uniform surface of a sand grain with no protrusions of note means that it can't rely of friction and structure to resist movement. Most dunes are typically already at the optimum angle for grains to fall down from the top to the base 24/7 \n\n & #x200B;\n\nWhen there is a disturbance in the dune, it will typically propagate upwards from the site of the distortion, and the majority of the activity will be from grains above falling into the disruption and stopping, and will practically never result in massive amounts of sand suddenly racing down the dune. You'd need a truly massive disruption, something akin to an earthquake, before you get any cascading failure of a dune. And even if that does happen, it's more likely to just round off the tops and leave the majority of the dune intact."
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"url": [
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jgrf.20130",
"https://www.mtavalanche.com/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/images/Rott_",
"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/1200/1*SB7L1Hmb1PgORJ9L3KvjTA.jpeg",
"https://3c1703fe8d.site.internapcdn.net/newman/csz/news/800/2017/towardsbette.jpg",
"https://www.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/mtec/chair-of-entrepreneurial-risks-dam/documents/Essay/0SX3463.pdf"
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}
|
In snowy mountain areas, avalanches occur, we all know this, but does the same happen in the desert on high dunes?
|
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||
mlybj
|
I'm stranded in the wilderness and have fire and spoiled meat, can I eat the meat and live?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c31zubl",
"c321px1",
"c31ztpd",
"c322vfx",
"c320mpw"
],
"text": [
"Bacteria many times leave behind waste products as toxins that cannot be disinfected or burnt away. Botulism toxin can be destroyed through such a method of cooking (_URL_1_) but there are many toxins that cannot (Staphylococcus aureus) or the destruction of the toxin would require so much heat that it would leave the meat completely inedible.\n\nSource: (_URL_0_)",
"Although not a scientific answer to your immediate question, if you were looking to survive, I would suggest, instead of eating the rancid meat, which may or may not kill you, ration the meat to lure other animals into your immediate vicinity. With a bit of tact, or forward thinking you should be able to trap or snare a fresher/safer meal for yourself.",
"Maybe not okay. Although cooking destroys the bacteria, the toxins produced by some bacteria are heat stable and may not be destroyed.\n\nYou might be okay, you might not.\n\nedit: this might help - \n\n_URL_2_",
"Yes cooking the meat will kill all the bacteria, but living bacteria isn't all you have to worry about. Bacteria can leave behind endotoxins, heat stable molecules that can cause some issues, notably food poisoning; which would make life terrible all alone in the wilderness.",
"Follow-up question: For sufficiently rotten meat, would bacteria break down the proteins so the meat would cease to be nutritious?"
],
"score": [
14,
12,
8,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://cooking.stackexchange.com/questions/12992/why-is-it-dangerous-to-eat-meat-which-has-been-left-out-and-then-cooked",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botulism",
"http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/extension/poison.html"
]
}
|
I'm stranded in the wilderness and have fire and spoiled meat, can I eat the meat and live?
|
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||
6peo30
|
Have we ever observed anything behaving as if it only existed in a lower number of dimensions?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dkou8wo",
"dkoxl01",
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"dkpoymi",
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],
"text": [
"Yes. Take a flat microwave cavity and solve the (electromagnetic) Helmholtz equations. Once you are below a critical frequency, they behave like a two-dimensional system. So your EM field now behaves like a 2-d entity.\n\nTake this a step further: \"The formal similarity between the stationary Schrodinger and Helmholtz equations, the latter considered for frequencies f below a critical frequency f_c where the electrical field distribution depends only on the planar variables x and y, renders such experiments suitable for the study of quantum phenomena. The height d of the microwave cavity in the z direction is bounded by d < c/2f_c.\" (Taken from [Graf et al, PRL 69 (1992) 1296](_URL_0_))\n\nThis means you can use a flat microwave cavity as an analogue computer for a quantum system governed by the equivalent Schroedinger equation - as the authors have done.",
"Yes, this happens all the time for electrons if they are in a confining potential along some axis such that their wavefunction becomes quantized along that direction:\n\n_URL_5_\n\nIf say the average electron has the amount of energy corresponding to state C there and the average fluctuation in energy is much less than the difference in energy between D and C then that degree of freedom becomes \"frozen out\", as its motion in that direction is fixed and trapped at C and the electron exists as a reduced dimensional creature. If you only confine along one direction you create a Quantum Well (electron sees a 2D universe):\n\n_URL_5_\n\nAn example here is the billions of transistors that are the basis of the computer you're using right now. Charge passes through those transistors as if it exists in a 2D world, it's called a 2D electron gas (or 2DEG):\n\n_URL_5_\n\nIf you confine along two directions (electron sees a 1D universe) you get a nanowire;\n\n_URL_5_\n\nAnd if you confine in all directions you get a zero dimensional structure (0D universse) which is called a quantum dot:\n\n_URL_5_\n\nDimensional confinement also happens to other things other than electrons, for example in magnetic excitations.",
"I was thinking about this the other day but from a slightly different perspective that I would love some insight on. \n\nWould it be possible to have particles that interact in 4 or higher spatial dimensions and have them cross the 3D \"plane\" of our existence? Wouldn't there just be the briefest of moments that they would even exist in our reality (as they pass through it)?",
"One question I've been wondering about for a while that's kind of related, is that since the fractions in some thermodynamics formulas come from the degrees of freedom of motion of gas molecules, and since 3 of those degrees of freedom come from the fact that we live in a 3D universe, can you practically restrict the motion of a gas in one or more spatial dimensions to change properties of the gas like its specific heat capacity? Or would it be impossible to contain a gas in such a tight cavity without impacting the other translational degrees of freedom as well?\n\nEdit: I missed /u/cantgetno197 pointing out this can happen with electrons in a conductor (not sure if my specific heat question is as relevant there). Can it happen with a regular gas as well?",
"Strongly rotating fluid systems (systems with Rossby numbers much less than unity) behave 2-dimensionally as can be shown by the Taylor-Proudman theorem. The canonical example of this is a Taylor column in which a finite height object \"appears\" infinitely tall. \n\n_URL_7_\n\n_URL_6_"
],
"score": [
168,
63,
9,
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3
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://journals.aps.org/prl/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.69.1296",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanowire",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_well",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:InfiniteSquareWellAnimation.gif",
"https://youtu.be/7GGfsW7gOLI",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor–Proudman_theorem"
]
}
|
Have we ever observed anything behaving as if it only existed in a lower number of dimensions?
|
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||
1h2d35
|
Does the start of the Industrial Revolution mark the first time humans were able to have a global impact on the environment - such as through climate change? Did this happen before the era too?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"caqcqmd",
"caq6zyo",
"caq8be5",
"caq6jwq"
],
"text": [
"No, the Industrial Revolution isn't the first time we've had an impact, although our most significant impact has been since that period. Before then, human impacts were mostly limited to clearing forests and the occasional extinctions.\n\nHuman impacts on the planet became significant during the Holocene Epoch, starting about 12,000 years ago, mostly in the form of anthropogenic land cover change (ALCC)--that is, humans changing the flora around them through deforestation and agriculture. Unsurprisingly, these impacts coincide with the Neolithic Agricultural Revolution (not to be confused with [later agricultural revolutions](_URL_0_).) [This analysis](_URL_2_) describes the estimated effect of ALCC on carbon concentration starting from 8,000 years ago. From 8,000 ka to 3,000 ka, human activities are thought to have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations by 7ppm. In contrast, since the Industrial Revolution, CO2 concentration has increased from about [280 ppm to 400 ppm.](_URL_3_) [This paper](_URL_1_) goes into more detail for the ALCC emissions in the last millenium.\n\nHumans are also known to have led to the extinction of some species, and thought to have caused extinction for many others, long before the IR. [This Wikipedia article](_URL_4_) gives a good description of the theory and main objections.\n\nAlthough humans did affect climate before the IR, our impact wasn't nearly as significant as it has been since.",
"There is evidence that the advent of agriculture and the domestication of animals about 10,000 years ago caused a spike in methane levels (cows produce a lot of methane) that caused a small global temperature rise. Not on the scale we observed during the 20th century up to the mid '90's, but still significant.",
"I have heard claims that the invasion of Gengis Khan killed so many people that it led to enough reforestation to cause a global decrease in temperature.\n\n_URL_5_\n\nI haven't read this study so I can't vouch for how accurate it is but it was be something to think about.",
"I think that the Agricultural Revolution was the first time humans impacted their world directly and negatively. We were able expand populations and form permanent cities thereby changing the earth itself. See the boom Ishmael by Daniel Quinn for the details."
],
"score": [
5,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_revolution",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2010.00479.x/pdf",
"http://hol.sagepub.com/content/21/5/775.short",
"http://articles.latimes.com/2013/may/13/science/la-sci-sn-carbon-dioxide-400-20130513",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event#Hunting_hypothesis",
"http://news.mongabay.com/2011/0120-hance_mongols.html"
]
}
|
Does the start of the Industrial Revolution mark the first time humans were able to have a global impact on the environment - such as through climate change? Did this happen before the era too?
|
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||
3u2k8g
|
If you point a very focused and EXTREMELY powerful torch at a very sensitive weight scale, would it show anything at all?
|
This is probably a dumb question, but I still want to ask, let's say the torch is 9999x more powerful than you thought it was after reading the title, and the scale is the most accurate and sensitive one possible. If the answer is absolutely 0, does this apply to microwaves, other EMR? (Let's also forget about the energy from the torch melting the scale or similar things)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxbd1eu",
"cxbmjhk",
"cxbm76u"
],
"text": [
"In principle the answer is yes, but the reading you would get even for a very powerful source of light would be very close to zero. The reason you could measure *something* at all is because light is composed of units of energy called photons, each of which has a certain momentum (p), given by:\n\np = E/c,\n\nwhere E is its energy and c is the speed of light. So now say your scale were to absorb this photon, it would have to absorb this momentum. Moreover, we know from Newton that a change in momentum (dp) in a given time (dt) produces a force (F):\n\nF=dp/dt.\n\nTherefore, the act of the light being absorbed will create an effective pressure in the absorber, the so-called [radiation pressure](_URL_1_). This is exactly the mechanism that makes [solar sails possible](_URL_2_).\n\nNevertheless, even though such a pressure would exist, it would actually be really, really tiny. So let's put some numbers on this. To make things a bit simpler, instead of using a strong torch/flashlight, let's use a very strong laser, say operating at 100W. This is actually *a lot* of power, enough in fact to [set many things of fire](_URL_0_). So now let's say we have a scale that is covered in a perfect absorber and we shine the laser on it. Assuming the absorbing material doesn't burst into fire, the scale would record a force of \n\nF = 100W/c ~ 3\\*10^-9 N. \n\nDividing this by the gravitational constant, we get a mass of 35*10^(-6)g, or 35 micrograms. This is about the mass of a human eyelash! So even that insanely powerful laser that can literally burn through stuff would still require a very sensitive scale to be detected at all.",
"Not to be pedantic or anything, but it may be helpful to specify that Torch is the british term for flashlight.\n\nI can see someone in the US thinking of an acetylene torch or something, cause that was my first impression, especially when you mentioned melting the scale.",
"OP if you are asking such a question I want to just volunteer something related that you might also find interesting. If you have two VERY sensitive scales, and two wind up pocket watches placed on each you can observe something strange. Wind up on clock, don't wind the other, the weight on the scale with the wound watch will be slightly greater than the weight of the unwound watch. The potential energy stored within the springs of the watch increase the energy of the watch and therefore increase its mass. Weird stuff, man."
],
"score": [
91,
67,
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVrJUbeuG44",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_sail"
]
}
|
If you point a very focused and EXTREMELY powerful torch at a very sensitive weight scale, would it show anything at all?
This is probably a dumb question, but I still want to ask, let's say the torch is 9999x more powerful than you thought it was after reading the title, and the scale is the most accurate and sensitive one possible. If the answer is absolutely 0, does this apply to microwaves, other EMR? (Let's also forget about the energy from the torch melting the scale or similar things)
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] |
|
2l2xr5
|
Is External Processing Possible?
|
I there a way of connecting a computer to and external server in such a way that all processing usually done on the computer could be done on the server, and then the results displayed on the computer? Example: Using an external server to process a game of COD and play it on a netbook with 0.5 gigs of ram. Is it possible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"clrjdjv",
"clrl38e",
"clru89r",
"clrjc5s"
],
"text": [
"Yes, this is possible. Various companies have brought to market [\"cloud gaming\"](_URL_0_) solutions for exactly this market. My understanding is that generally the performance isn't that great, because most people's internet connections are just too slow to support sending high-quality images of the screen 60 times a second.",
"This has been done in some way or another since the earliest days of computing. It's very common to offload CPU intensive tasks but less common to do so for real time graphically intensive ones, although it can be done if the network bandwidth and latency are sufficient.\n\nTo specifically answer your question regarding gaming, [steam already offers this](_URL_1_) but only over a local network.",
"As others have already explained, yes, this is very possible. Interestingly though, if you want to get technical/pedantic, you could say that this is how all desktop work already. \n\nThink about the display control menu found on modern monitors. The hardware that controls that interface and processes the video signal generally contains one or more microprocessors with embedded firmware which by a strict definition, makes it a computer. This hardware operates largely or totally independent of the main “computer” itself. So you can view it as a computer displaying the output of a “server” connected via a video cable. This is actually true for virtually every part of a modern computer. In reality a single “computer” is a network (of networks) of smaller computers, each handling various sub-functions.",
"Theoretically, yes. The concept is basically a game streaming feature that only relies on the latency of the connection to and from the server and local computer and visual rendering capability of the local computer. It is just a networked version of a typical computer or console setup. The biggest issue is the infrastructure to network the remote and local."
],
"score": [
7,
6,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_gaming",
"http://store.steampowered.com/streaming/"
]
}
|
Is External Processing Possible?
I there a way of connecting a computer to and external server in such a way that all processing usually done on the computer could be done on the server, and then the results displayed on the computer? Example: Using an external server to process a game of COD and play it on a netbook with 0.5 gigs of ram. Is it possible?
|
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|
jan22
|
Where did most of you learn all of this scientific knowledge?
|
askscience
|
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"I had the (mis)fortune of switching through several majors, all in the sciences. I found that intro courses really gave worthless impressions of what a major was actually like (and often had incredibly dumbed-down and over-simplified facts taught), so for a couple years I took high level courses in a handful of fields. So that helped give me insights into several branches of the sciences, and *in turn* those insights helped me put further knowledge I came across into context. The final science major I ended up with was a fairly broad field of study, in that it had applications in geology, urban planning, ecology, economics, politics, and so on. Again, this gave me the building blocks to further my knowledge on my own. Afterward, I specialized in a single field of science for graduate school, so that has naturally given me a ton of insight into my field of choice.\n\nBut a large amount of my knowledge comes from personal research. Almost all (all?) universities will give you free access to a pretty huge selection of research papers in every subject. Getting a hold of recent research from reputable sources is a *fantastic* way to expand your knowledge. For example, I took a single high level neuroscience course at my university. While I learned a ton of stuff in it, that amount *pales* in comparison to what I've learned reading through papers and books on neuroscience and psychology on my own. However, if it wasn't for that one course most of what I read would have gone over my head, or even mislead me.\n\nSo to answer your question - I didn't technically acquire all of my knowledge through school. I have learned a lot from papers, books, TED talks, Wikipedia, and even here. However, for me personally college courses and hard work opened the doors for me to pursue educating myself correctly (and painlessly). The more you learn, the easier learning gets.\n\nDon't worry that you don't know much in high school. Basically no one does and you aren't really supposed to (maybe that's just my cynicism). Heck, I've done a fair amount of un-learning of what I was taught in high school. I know it feels different when you're there, but if you take further academics seriously you'll see what I mean.\n\nAlso - I realize most of this won't help you in the short term, since you're in high school and it may be a while before you continue to college. So here are a couple resources that may help \"jump start\" your education, and let you build up a basic skill set in whatever fields interest you.\n\n[MIT online courses for a wide range of subjects - totally free video lectures and/or lecture notes and/or example exams for hundreds and hundreds of college level courses](_URL_3_)\n\n[Same thing, but limited to physics](_URL_2_)\n\n[If you don't know about TED talks, some of these are fantastic. Just be aware some stretch the truth, or portray controversial things are facts](_URL_1_)\n\n[I'm afraid I haven't used this myself, and open source journals *tend* to be less reliable than commercial journals - but it may be worth reading some of these. I would only honestly suggest this if you felt very comfortable with the fundamentals of a subject though, because reading through journal papers can be incredibly daunting in high school - seriously](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT: Again, I want to stress - don't worry about even trying to become proficient in any field yet. You have literally *tons* of time left, as long as you don't get lazy about academics. You're \"competing\" with people who have been in school or the workforce for a *long* time here, so it's totally fine if you find it hard to contribute to threads yet. Unless you feel an unstoppable passion in a subject, just get a grasp on the basics and fundamentals. That will help you more than you can imagine when you start college. Plus, for me personally, high school would have been *way* too early to start focusing hard on learning, and I'm sure I would have burned out and suffered very much if I had tried.",
"For me there was an active, kind of forced, high school learning period where I became proficient at the basics. I knew that I liked science but the stuff we were learning in class didn't grip me as much as it could have. \n\nI liken this period to learning how to read. You deliberately mull over letters, words, sentences, until they become intuitive, and then for the rest of your life you're primed for absorbing language. Once you've got a basic understanding of some core science you can pick up new concepts much more easily and even intuitively - a lot like reading.\n\nBy the end of high school most of my pleasure reading was in science-based books. I read books from Hawking, Dawkins, Brian Greene, the sort of authors who take a cool scientific concept and make it more accessible to the non-hardcore scientist. \n\nWhen I entered university with that foundation it was like a buffet of delicious opportunities to explore the topics I actually found interesting. (Still had to trudge through those intro courses though!) This is where you start to progress towards the \"frontier\" of whatever fields it is you're interested in. I took some research based courses and volunteered some lab time. \n\nFrom University you gain access to the world of research and journals. Sometimes you have to do lots of readings for classes, sometimes you're just interested in something so instead of novels you find yourself flipping through journals. \n\nTo sum it up I'd say I was just resourceful and followed up on the things I was interested in. At different points I had different resources but they always pretty much boiled down to textbooks and internet. Fast forward a bunch and I've got a few science degrees, working on one in medicine, and reading the science subreddits in my spare time... but its all just a continuation of that high school mentality of \"oh that cool, I should read about it\".\n\nIf I were a budding high school scientist I'd probably take a topic I was interested in and run it by one of the many wiki sites, or maybe khanacademy, or one of the Universities that posts lectures online. Once I got the basics down I'd progress to using _URL_4_ and learn how to get journal articles which is where the best info is! Also - local library. If they don't have it they'll order it.",
"In my case it was a mixture of self-directed learning, school, university (undergrad and postgrad), and lecturing. I'm afraid I can't help much with philosophy resources!\n\n**School:** Provides you with the foundation knowledge and essential skills required to learn.\n\n**University undergrad:** As an undergrad at university you basically have a mountain of knowledge tossed your way, and it is your responsibility to learn it. It can be quite overwhelming. Undergrad degrees train you to become an independent learner: you gain the skills necessary to quickly incorporate new knowledge when required. In the years following a bachelors degree, you will be pleasantly surprised by just how much you actually did learn during this period!\n\n**University postgrad:** This is thrown-to-the-sharks style education. It is your responsibility to carve out a research niche for yourself and get results. You will become a true expert in a very specific area. Often this is a topic that is sure to evoke either sleep or blank stares from those outside your faculty.\n\n**Lecturing:** Having to stand in front of a class, often with a few students poised to pounce at the slightest infraction, is a great way to ensure you keep up-to-date so you know what the hell you are talking about. You also learn to very quickly mentally assess and answer questions. Often students have had weeks to think over a problem and they will expect you to answer their question no less than immediately. :) (I really love teaching though, don't let this comment make you think otherwise.)\n\n**Self-directed learning:** You become better and better at this with practice. If you are sufficiently interested in a topic, you will find yourself researching it. At university you will have access to better resources that will make SDL more efficient.",
"Dark, I an only comment for myself. In university, I wavered between elnglish literature and medicine as a career choice. The pragmatic side of me won out, better go where you know you can get a job.\n\nBut I was good at science in high school, i won my schools science fair by devising a method to calculate the coeficient of friction between different substances with nothing more than an inclined plane and a pocket watch. Not tough for a lot of guys on this subreddit, but my high school physics teacher said he didnt think it could be done. So I did it.\n\nMostly, my knowledge was through education (Med School). Also, continuing education. You learn every day in medicine, through your peers, and through conferences, etc.\n\nLastly, my education is through things like reddit, or discovery channel, or history channel, etc. If I am not watching Hockey on TV, it is something educational.\n\nEdit - As a person with a career in science, you receive journals. I have 3 I receive and read every month.",
"Many of us have PhD's, or are pursuing them. Getting to this point is a fairly intense combination of schooling and personal study. Pop science books (the ones you find in the science section of a book store) are a good place to start., then once you learn more about your specialty you can start reading advanced text books and research papers.",
"Almost everyone you see with a tag either has a phd or is well on their way to getting one. A lot of the people without tags here are also in a similar position.\n\nTLDR; lots of hard work bro, lots of hard work."
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{
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{
"url": [
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"http://www.ted.com/talks",
"http://www.perimeterscholars.org/253.html",
"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/",
"scholar.google.com"
]
}
|
Where did most of you learn all of this scientific knowledge?
|
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5ult6o
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AskScienceAMASeries: Hi Reddit! We’re NOAA scientists Jamison Smith and Ed Lyman. In celebration of #WhaleWeek and World Whale Day on Saturday, February 18, we’re here to talk about the whales we protect and the entanglement response teams that risk their safety to rescue them. Ask us anything!
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Hi Reddit! I’m NOAA Fisheries scientist Jamison Smith. I am the NOAA Fisheries National Entanglement Response Program Coordinator and I oversee NOAA’s whale entanglement response teams. And I’m Ed Lyman, I serve as the large whale entanglement response coordinator for Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary.
Whales are becoming entangled in fishing gear and marine debris at an increasing rate and scientists are unsure why. Scar studies in U.S. waters show that 83 percent of all right whales and 70 percent of whales overall have been entangled in fishing gear or other marine debris at some point in their lives. Fortunately, the efforts of whale entanglement response teams are paying off. There are endangered North Atlantic right whales alive and reproducing today because of successful disentanglement efforts of NOAA Fisheries and our partners.
Whale entanglement response teams must be available at a moment’s notice and they deal with a variety of cetacean species, from the largest to the smallest, in a range of different ocean and weather conditions. These teams are highly skilled and use specialized equipment to cut whales free from tangled lines, buoys, and other debris. They can also administer on-site medical care to treat wounds and promote continued recovery.
If you’re interested in whales and the people who spend their lives saving them, this is your chance to learn more. We’re here from 1:00 to 3:00 p.m. ET today to answer your questions. Ask us anything!
____________________________________________________________________________________
Thank you for joining us today for this Reddit AUA! You had great questions on whale entanglement. We are out of time, but we appreciate your interest in this topic. If you want to learn more about whales and how we work to protect them, please visit the following sites:
Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program (_URL_0_)
Disentangling a Whale of a Problem (_URL_4_)
The Common "Sense" Way to View Majestic Whales (_URL_5_)
Podcast: How to Disentangle a Tangled Up Whale (_URL_8_)
Whale Disentanglement (_URL_1_)
VIDEO: Reporting Entangled Whales in Hawaii (_URL_2_)
Large Whale Disentanglement Rescue Techniques (_URL_6_)
Whale Week 2017 (_URL_7_)
VIDEO: Recovering the Southern Resident Killer Whale through Research and Conservation (_URL_9_)
Tracking Technology: The Science of Finding Whales (_URL_3_)
|
askscience
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"1) What can the average American do to protect whales?\n\n2) Are whales negatively impacted by climate change (ocean acidification, decreased dissolved oxygen, etc.)?",
"Whales are my favorite animals!\n\nIs there a problem with unethical whale watch tours (like boats that get too close to the whales and distress them, that sort of thing)? If I want to go on a whale watch, what kind of things should I look for to make sure the company running it has good practices (or red flags for bad ones)?",
"Hi Jamison and Ed. Thanks for doing this.\n\nI'd like to talk to you about lobster gear marking.\n\nI own a marine and hardware store in Downeast Maine. Let me say up front that none of the fishermen around here have an issue with protecting the whales in their waters. But I have watched the lobster fishermen struggle to comply with the gear marking rule for two years. The rule requires 3 twelve inch marks (top, middle, bottom) on each buoy line.\n\nThe fishermen have tried the following, with varying success: sewing twine into the rope, wrapping/weaving in colored cable ties, using plastic heat shrink electrical tubing, wrapping in electrical tape, soaking in thinned oil-based paint, using spray paint and plastic-bonding spray paint.\n\nThe fishermen have the following challenges:\n\n1. Making marks by hand: \nFishermen take a 600'-1200' coil of float rope--depending on the thickness of the rope--measure out and cut the lengths they need based on where they fish and how many traps they have, and then need to mark each rope three times. That's why a lot of fishermen here went to spraying with or soaking in paint.\n\n2. Making marks on different lengths of rope: \nBuoy lines vary by the depth of the water, anywhere from 5-120 fathom (30-720 feet). And fishermen move their trawls throughout the season to different depths, so they either have to keep multiple sets of rope and change out their gear each time they move, or have one set of rope marked in more than 3 places so they can lengthen or shorten the rope as needed. (This is a good overview of lobster gear configurations: _URL_0_)\n\n3. Making marks that do not interfere with their haulers: \nFor those who don't know, the buoy lines are usually pulled up by an electric winch. Surface variations on the rope can put the hauler off balance causing damage to the rotating plates and motor.\n\n4. Making the marks permanent:\nThe hauler puts friction on the rope, eventually rubbing the marker away.\n\nSo my questions are:\n\n1. Has NOAA heard any successful techniques from fishermen that I can share with my customers?\n\n2. Can you clarify what the purpose of the markings are? Folks around here say that it's either so the whales can see the ropes more easily or so NOAA can identify where a rope came from if a whale gets tangled.\n\n3. Could NOAA work with rope manufacturers to produce rope that achieves the desired result? For example, if rope was pre-marked every 2 fathom, would it have the same effect?\n\nThanks for your time and keep up the good work!",
"What is the simplest thing that citizens can do that would help prevent entanglement?",
"Mass beachings? What is going on?\n\nIf whales are of near human intelligence are they capable of self harm like humans?",
"Hi guys! Thanks for all that you do for the whales! It inspires those of us interested in conservation to know that there are people like you working hard everyday to keep our whales and our oceans safe.\n\nAs an undergrad in marine biology hoping to also work in cetacean rescue and rehabilitation, what career or educational moves can I make to end up in a position similar to yours? Also, what would make a person stand out amongst their peers seeking work in your field, and what certifications or experiences are particularly useful and beneficial to what you do? \n\nLastly, can you tell us anything about the conservation efforts regarding the vaquita, considering entanglement in gillnets has essentially wiped out their population? Do you think there's any hope of getting a permanent ban on gillnets in the Gulf of California, or stricter punishment for those caught using them? \n\nThanks so much for doing this AMA!",
"Reddit is obviously going to be very Pro-whale conservation (I am passionate about it myself) but what are some of the common objections and negative feedback you get? \n\nAre there are maritime industries like shipping and fishing that push back? \n\nWhat do those conversations look like?",
"What are some facts about whales that motivated you to pursue this career?",
"What kind of specialized equipment is used for cutting the whales free, and what is the extent of the medical aid you're able to provide for them?\n\nI was under the impression that it was just a simple solution like having divers swim out with knives to cut them free, i'd never considered being able to assist them medically after considering their size and weights.",
"Hi there. If things remain on their current path (environment, pollution, etc) will we still have whales by the end of the century? Or will the current conditions have wiped them out. \nI guess my question is are we on the right track with preserving oceans and large sea mammals like whales.",
"Whales are my favorite animals, and im sure you guys love them too. What are your favorite whale species, and why?",
"How does one become a whale entanglement professional aide?\n\nAlso, whales are magnificent creatures. Thank you for all that you do to help them.",
"Hey guys, thanks for doing this AMA! I have a few questions.\n\n1) What sort of monitoring/alert system does your team use to know exactly when and where there is an entangled whale?\n\n2) Is there any sort of thought being shifted towards proactive prevention of whale entanglement by NOAA?\n\n3) As someone interested in working in conservation in the future, what did both of your school and career paths look like to get you to this current job?\n\nThanks again for taking the time to do this AMA!",
"What's the best way for the everyday person to help save them? Or prevent any further harm?",
"Thanks for doing this AMA!! Love marine bio.\n\nUnder Trumps gag orders on scientists, how legal is this AMA?",
"Hi Jamison! Thanks for doing this AMA. Where I live we have a lot of migrating (humpback) whales come by every year. Once I saw a large adult (no calf so I presume male?) hit the surface of the water with his/her tail for the better part of an hour. Just massive hit after massive hit. What is the reason for this behaviour?",
"This isn't about entanglement, but more about international rescue and injury resources.\n\nI run an environmental conservation NGO on an island in northern Vietnam. As you might imagine, I get called up for all sorts of animal rescues and issues. A few years back I got called to rescue an Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin (one of the three types we have in the area) that had been trapped in a shallow muddy area by the falling tide (diurnal tide of up to 4 meters).\n\nWe moved it to open water and, fortunately the dolphin had no injuries. After about an hour of me working with it, it swam away.\n\nIf it had been injured I don't know what we could have done. Any injury would have been far beyond our capacity to deal with and none of the other NGOs or contacts we have in the region have any idea what to do in a situation where there is an injured marine mammal (or turtle for that matter).\n\nDo you know of any people or other resources I can access in Northern Vietnam if a similar situation happens again?",
"Hi James, \n\nWhat is your pet theory regarding the low birth number of NARW and the seemingly low numbers feeding in the Gulf of Mane/Bay of Fundy? I've heard it suggested that they are now migrating to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .",
"Do you think local whale hunters have a large impact on the whale populations? Or are they barely affecting it?",
"Hello, thank you so much for the help you offer to these magnificent creatures. In your experience how often do whales cooperate during a rescue and how often do they show appreciation for the help they receive? Thank you again for what you guys do.",
"Is there any punishment for getting caught dumping or abandoning nets/ lines/ debris? If not, do you think it would help discourage dumping if there was a penalty for it? Or are whales caught in operational fishing gear?",
"You are cool humans protecting a part of our beautiful planet, thanks for doing this. I hope this AMA spreads awareness \n\nCan you share an interesting story? How was the first time you saved a whale?",
"Hello\n\nWhat is your relationship with the fishing industry like? What rule changes would you suggest to improve that relationship and rescue efforts?",
"Firstly, thank you for helping these magical sea dinosaurs! What has been your favourite rescue or 'worth it' research moment for you both?",
"As someone who spams my friends with whale facts (similar to cat facts) What is your favourite whale fact?",
"How do you feel about Futurama's portrayal of Whale Biologists?",
"Thanks so much for doing this AMA. Big fan of NOAA!\n\nI don't know anything about the patterns here. I'd assume most entanglements occur with nets that are free-floating, as opposed to those that are actively fishing - is that the case? Do entanglements mostly happen at the surface? What is the average time a whale spends immobilized, and what is the maximum it can survive? Do they get moved by currents once entangled, and what sorts of tactics do their whale-friends have of helping keep them alive? Has any work been done monitoring their communication while entangled? Do you have the cooperation of the local fishermen? \n\n~~also whats your favorite thing about Woods Hole~~\n\nThanks again!",
"Hello!\n\nI just finished my Master's degree studying marine mammal physiology and was lucky enough (and unfortunate enough) to assist on a necropsy of a fatally entangled North Atlantic Right Whale in Maine last September.\n\nI have a few questions for you:\n\nDoes NOAA have a program that funds research into alternative fishing gear that breaks away or biodegrades?\n\nDo you have any advice for someone who is trying to start a career in marine mammal research?\n\nHow has NOAA/NMFS been affected by the new administration and will you see any change in your ability to perform disentanglement response?\n\nThanks!",
"Hey guys, thanks for doing this!\nHow does one become an employee of NOAA? More or less everything that NOAA does is something that interests me and something that I would love to officially be a part of. I'm an airmen in the US Air Force currently and thought about transferring into another government agency at some point later in my career. Are there steps I should take now to gear myself towards this goal? Specific degree(s) I should pursue now to increase my likelihood of getting a job later on? Thanks for any information you can give!",
"Hi there, and thank you and your team for all your hard work!\n\nAre the nets and other gear the whales get tangled in largely discarded by the time the whales get to them, or do they ever get caught in gear being used? Is it an issue of fishing boats deliberately leaving discarded nets instead of retrieving them and taking them ashore, or is this just something that happens in the course of putting equipment in heavy use, like semi truck tires peeling off retread and leaving it behind on the highway?",
"Hi, thanks for doing this AMA. I used to work for the SEFSC, but I worked on fish populations and know very little about whales and dolphins. My question is, what causes the whales to get entangled? Do they just swim into gear by accident, or are they trying to get at fish stuck in the net when they get entangled? What sort of things can fishermen do to prevent entangling cetaceans?",
"My girlfriend is studying Marine Biology and NOAA is an organization she dreams to work with! What are some ways she can get involved with NOAA or ocean conservation/protection of marine life while still doing her studies? Do you have any suggestions or advice for a student looking to pursue a career with NOAA? This is her dream and we both appreciate the wonderful research you do!",
"1-2 years ago a young inventor made the news for designing a passive oceanic trash collection system to address the great \"Pacific garbage mass\". \n\nWith Baleen whales feeding on shallow dwelling krill, how important/imperative is the need for an oceanic cleanup plan in addition to the proactive regulations to limit trash? \n\nWhat are the best ideas you've heard to solve the trash issues?",
"Hi there!\n\nI'm an undergraduate who is currently studying plastic pollution in the marine environment as my dissertation. It's something I wish to pursue as a post graduate. Are there any universities you would recommend?\n\nFinally, have you noticed an increase in dead whales being found with stomachs full of plastic? \n\nThanks for the fantastic work you do :)",
"Sorry if this has been asked already. I know you have mentioned reducing waste and picking up trash as major ways to protect whales. Could you give some every day examples of how to reduce waste? I'm sure one includes using reusable plates/cups/utensils rather than disposable, but could you suggest some more?",
"Hey guys! I'm an aspiring whale/dolphin scientist. I've had trouble breaking into the field for a few reasons, but at the end of the day I just want to help. How can we get involved in helping with standings/net entanglements in our area, or anywhere really?",
"Hi! Thanks for doing this. On your website is says 95% of the ocean is unexplored. What exactly does this mean, that there could be a kraken down there? I heard in response to that the the entire sea bed has been mapped and charted. \n\nThanks!",
"1) What's your take on veganism? Do you think it would be better for the oceans if we just stopped fishing?\n\n2) What can a person do to make a sensible difference for cetaceans?",
"What do you think of Sea Shepards' actions to stop whaling/destruction of marine environments? They seem to be highly controversial, either people love them or hat them. What do you think?",
"Hello NOAA, I hope you guys are having a great day! As a Student leader. How can we contribute on protecting the marine eco system and the safety of endangered species?",
"i saw this interesting theory by a spanish(?) researcher who could trace the sonars used by the navy back to whale breaching. does that theory or idea still hold true?",
"There have been three record-breaking years of whales reported entangled off California, often in lines used for Dungeness crab pots. What is NOAA doing to ensure this stops now?",
"*Thinks and snaps fingers*\n\nHow can whales, such as the humpback (I think), survive on a diet of krill and the like?",
"What are your favorite whales that you have been in contact with, and if they are, why are they your favorite?",
"What inspired you to \"save the whales\"? You guys are awesome, keep saving our world. We need our oceans :)",
"Are there any documented cases of a human riding on a whale, even for a short time?",
"Have you served on any Coast Guard vessels, and if not, do you plan to?",
"Why have you NOAA people fudging global warming data numbers?",
"Which whales are the coolest? I know you have favorites.",
"Is your work being compromised by the current administration?"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/MMHSRP.html",
"http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/news/nov15/whale-disentanglement.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAR8cuOExrA",
"http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/stories/2017/02/science_of_finding_whales.html",
"http://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/stories/2016/07/whale-entanglement.html",
"http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/stories/2017/02/whale-sense-viewing-guidelines.html",
"http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/res/rescue_techniques.html",
"http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/stories/2017/02/whale-week-2017.html",
"http://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/podcasts/2014/03/disentanglement_whale.html#.WKHri3p8laY",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_MFQljQvbkw&feature=youtu.be"
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{
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|
AskScienceAMASeries: Hi Reddit! We’re NOAA scientists Jamison Smith and Ed Lyman. In celebration of #WhaleWeek and World Whale Day on Saturday, February 18, we’re here to talk about the whales we protect and the entanglement response teams that risk their safety to rescue them. Ask us anything!
Hi Reddit! I’m NOAA Fisheries scientist Jamison Smith. I am the NOAA Fisheries National Entanglement Response Program Coordinator and I oversee NOAA’s whale entanglement response teams. And I’m Ed Lyman, I serve as the large whale entanglement response coordinator for Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary. Whales are becoming entangled in fishing gear and marine debris at an increasing rate and scientists are unsure why. Scar studies in U.S. waters show that 83 percent of all right whales and 70 percent of whales overall have been entangled in fishing gear or other marine debris at some point in their lives. Fortunately, the efforts of whale entanglement response teams are paying off. There are endangered North Atlantic right whales alive and reproducing today because of successful disentanglement efforts of NOAA Fisheries and our partners. Whale entanglement response teams must be available at a moment’s notice and they deal with a variety of cetacean species, from the largest to the smallest, in a range of different ocean and weather conditions. These teams are highly skilled and use specialized equipment to cut whales free from tangled lines, buoys, and other debris. They can also administer on-site medical care to treat wounds and promote continued recovery. If you’re interested in whales and the people who spend their lives saving them, this is your chance to learn more. We’re here from 1:00 to 3:00 p.m. ET today to answer your questions. Ask us anything! ____________________________________________________________________________________ Thank you for joining us today for this Reddit AUA! You had great questions on whale entanglement. We are out of time, but we appreciate your interest in this topic. If you want to learn more about whales and how we work to protect them, please visit the following sites: Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program (_URL_0_) Disentangling a Whale of a Problem (_URL_4_) The Common "Sense" Way to View Majestic Whales (_URL_5_) Podcast: How to Disentangle a Tangled Up Whale (_URL_8_) Whale Disentanglement (_URL_1_) VIDEO: Reporting Entangled Whales in Hawaii (_URL_2_) Large Whale Disentanglement Rescue Techniques (_URL_6_) Whale Week 2017 (_URL_7_) VIDEO: Recovering the Southern Resident Killer Whale through Research and Conservation (_URL_9_) Tracking Technology: The Science of Finding Whales (_URL_3_)
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|
rbfl3
|
Will opening a door darken a room?
|
Suppose you are trying to sleep in a small room with several doors and a lamp. It is hard to fall asleep because of the brightness of the lamp. Will opening the doors "darken" the room (the rooms on the other side of the doors are dark)? Will some of the photons now travel to the other room as opposed to bouncing off the walls in your room?
|
askscience
|
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"Yes, very slightly. Light that would have previously been reflected off the surface of the door will now move through to the adjacent dark room, lightening it by a very slight degree.\n\nHowever, the brightness of the lamp itself (as the source of the light) will not get any darker and it won't help you sleep better. This is because you could say that there are two different light sources: the light coming directly from the lamp and hitting your eyes, and the light that is heading out in different directions - away from your eyes - and reflecting off the surrounding walls and doors back at your eyes. The latter is the background light which illuminates the room, while the former is the direct light which is the cause of the glare.\n\nBy opening the door, the light is lowered in two subtly different ways: the light that would have reflected off the door and at your eyes is no longer there, and the light that would have reflected off in other directions and scattered / bounced around the room - raising the lux levels around the room in general - is also gone. However, these are both very slight reductions (also mediated by the fact that any light going into the next room could also reflect back, such as if the lamp illuminated the carpet in the open doorway). So, to answer your question, opening a door will probably darken the room *very* slightly, but not the perceived brightness of the lamp itself. Maybe it's time for a dimmer switch?\n\n*/edited for clarity*\n\n/architect with many years of dealing with environmental consultants and lighting engineers.",
"Interior designer here. Really, it depends upon the surfaces involved. if your room is black with matte finishes, and the adjoining rooms are white with gloss finishes, opening the doors will actually brighten your room, effectively adding more surface area for light to bounce off of and reenter your eyes. However if you switch these factors, (light room, dark halls) the inverse will be true and your room will get darker. Different surfaces reflect different levels of light, and by changing the quantities and relationships of these surfaces, you can alter how much light is present in a space at a given time. \n\nedit- Chris probably said it in a more complete manner than I did. Also, architects tend to trump interior designers as a rule.",
"Yes, but probably not by a noticeable amount. If you're in a 3m x 3m room with 2.5m ceilings, there's (2 \\* 3mx3m = 18m^2 of ceiling/floor) + (4 walls \\* 3mx2.5m = 30m^2 of walls) = 48m^2 of area.\n\nLet's generously say your door is 1m wide by 2.5m tall, so 2.5m^2 of door.\n\nSo even with generous estimates under ideal conditions (all parts of wall/floor reflecting light evenly), opening the door could reduce the brightness in the room by 4-5%.",
"Yes.\n\nJust imagine you're in small circular room surrounded by white doors, with a lamp in it. This room is sitting in a dark field at night.\n\nWith the doors closed, you're in a small white space with a bright light.\n\nWith the doors opened, you're basically in a dark field with a bright light.\n\nAlthough the light output stays the same, the amount reflected will change dramatically.",
"Well the lamp won't be any darker but the total amount of light coming at you from all directions will be less.",
"I'm surprised no one here has mentioned it: In computer graphics we have a simulated lighting system called \"radiosity\". If you use a single light source in a room, it only directly illuminates surfaces in direct line of sight. If you put a light bulb over a table, the underside of the table is pitch black. So we usually just cheat and create additional light sources, making all surfaces slightly luminous or create a light source that just kind of permeates everything evenly.evels\n\nIt makes for a LOT of work in creating l with convincing lighting. \n\nRadiosity is a technique where you can place a single light source, and then surfaces will reflect light accurately. So the light from that bulb will \"bounce\" off the walls and floor and cast indirect light on the underside of the table, just light a real lightbulb.\n\nit has its limitations, but it's a very promising technique. The scenario you described is one of the hardest things to solve. Making those calculations dynamic enough while still being CPU efficient to handle that small drop in lighting that would be the natural result of opening a door into a darkened room.",
"There are too many possible configurations to give any concrete answer, but assuming the obvious: yes, the room will darken and the adjacent rooms will brighten accordingly. Since the doors are no longer positioned to reflect the light back into the room, the light will be exposed to and be absorbed/reflected by a much greater surface area (the interiors of the adjacent rooms). The dimming of the room can also be achieved by painting the doors a dark, matt colour so that the light is absorbed - or doing anything else that *reduces* the reflective area of the room where the lamp is, by the same amount."
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Will opening a door darken a room?
Suppose you are trying to sleep in a small room with several doors and a lamp. It is hard to fall asleep because of the brightness of the lamp. Will opening the doors "darken" the room (the rooms on the other side of the doors are dark)? Will some of the photons now travel to the other room as opposed to bouncing off the walls in your room?
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|
8fz14e
|
Can you get Vitamid D from a large enough fire?
|
The sun is essentially a huge bonfire way way far away, so can a smaller fire that's closer provide us with Vitamin D?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dy7jxal",
"dy7ol2b",
"dy7rnhg",
"dy7luhu",
"dy7xup3"
],
"text": [
"In practice, almost certainly no. The way sunlight generates some vitamin D in your skin is by causing a chemical reaction that converts [7-Dehydrocholesterol](_URL_2_) into Vitamin D3. However it's mainly only a high energy component of the solar spectrum, namely [UVB rays at a wavelength of 320-290nm](_URL_3_) that can start the reaction.\n\nNow the issue is that the UVB component is much stronger in sunlight than in a regular fire. The reason is that hot objects emit light with a profile called the [blackbody spectrum](_URL_1_). This profile will then depend on the temperature [as shown here](_URL_0_). Notice that the hotter the object, the more light it will emit at high energies (short wavelengths). The Sun acts like an effective blackbody at ~5550K so it has a decently strong component in the UV. On the other hand common fires that burn at ~1300K will only have a vanishingly small component in the UVB range. As a result you can sit in front of a fire until the cows get home and not get a benefit of Vitamin D production while a few minutes in sunlight is enough.",
"I'd like to point out that the sun is nothing like a bonfire. A bonfire is a thermic reaction of wood, heat and oxygen. The sun doesn't actually burn, it undergoes nuclear fusion, where hydrogen atoms are fused into helium, under intense heat and pressure, releasing radiation.",
"As u/crnaruka pointed out, the fire would have to be hot enough to put out shortwave UV. A really hot hydrogen fire might do it... hydrogen fires are often called invisible because most of their spectrum is UV. The space shuttle main engines could give you vitamin D, but I wouldn't recommend standing close enough.",
"You could probably get some vitamin D from a specialized flame, like acetylene, or incandescence from a ceramic catalyst such as a camp stove mantle. These can burn energetically enough to emit skin penetrating photons. Since you question was about ‘fire’, a rather general term, it would have to include these more energetic combustions.",
"You need a hot fire -- not a large fire -- to make ultraviolet light. So a small magnesium fire would be better than a giant bonfire. Technically, a large bonfire would produce enough UV due to the blackbody spectrum, but it would also produce enough infrared that you couldn't stand near enough to get it without dying."
],
"score": [
1094,
218,
14,
12,
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://i.imgur.com/gLYtQzZ.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol",
"https://i.imgur.com/Q3qDB07.jpg"
]
}
|
Can you get Vitamid D from a large enough fire?
The sun is essentially a huge bonfire way way far away, so can a smaller fire that's closer provide us with Vitamin D?
|
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4fn152
|
PLOS Science Wednesday: Hi Reddit, we’re Eric C. Leuthardt, Joshua Shimony, and David Tran. We discovered the blood-brain barrier stays open after laser ablation surgery, creating opportunities for glioblastoma treatment, as described in PLOS ONE – Ask Us Anything!
|
Hi Reddit,
My name is Dr. Eric C. Leuthardt and I am professor of neurosurgery at [Washington University](_URL_1_). My research focuses on brain computer interfaces, advanced brain mapping and the development of new medical technologies. And my name is Joshua Shimony and I am an Associate Prof. of Neuroradiology at [Washington University School of Medicine](_URL_0_). My research focuses on advanced MRI imaging and its clinical applications. And I am David Tran, the chief of neuro-oncology in the department of neurosurgery at the [University of Florida’s College of Medicine](_URL_4_). My research focuses on understanding the mechanism of cancer progression and on developing novel therapeutic approaches to cancer.
We recently published a study titled [Hyperthermic Laser Ablation of Recurrent Glioblastoma Leads to Temporary Disruption of the Peritumoral Blood Brain Barrier](_URL_2_/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0148613) in [PLOS ONE]( _URL_2_). We found that a laser system commonly used to kill brain tumors has an additional and significant benefit: It creates a temporary opening in the blood-brain barrier — a natural barrier that’s normally efficient at blocking out chemicals and bacteria — to allow the passage of chemotherapy and immunotherapy drugs into the brain, for up to six weeks. This discovery could lead to new treatment protocols for glioblastoma, a very aggressive brain cancer that’s highly resistant to standard treatment.
**We will be answering your questions at 1pm ET – Ask Us Anything!**
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Hi Eric, Joshua and David, and thank you for doing this AMA. \n\nYour hypothesis seems to be that opening the blood-brain barrier will allow researchers to attack glioblastoma tumors with chemotherapy and immunotherapy drugs. But isn't this already possible?\n\nTemozolomide is an alkylating chemotherapy agent that is orally available and crosses the BBB without difficulty. In fact, it is the only chemotherapy agent which has consistently demonstrated a survival benefit in glioblastoma patients.\n\nThere are plenty of other methods for delivering chemotherapy across the BBB (wafers, convection-enhanced delivery etc.). The problem seems to be, however, that glioblastoma is very drug resistant, not that getting drugs to the tumor sites is a challenge.\n\nImmunotherapy similarly doesn't seem terribly hindered by the BBB. PD1-blocking agents, for example act in the periphery and not at the tumor site. And even if you want to use an immunotherapy agent that needs to be at the tumor site to be active, there is no shortage of ways to deliver antibodies to the brain.",
"1) Are there permanent changes in BBB or changes on it's permeability after the six weeks?\n\n2) What is the next step with your research?",
"My father died from glioblastoma a couple of years ago. \n\nI have no question, but I wish you the best of luck for your research, and I wish *us* that it leads to treatments that make this diagnosis a little less terrifying.",
"Is the mechanism for opening the BBB with lasers different from doing it with [bubbles?](_URL_0_) Does one technique have an advantage over the other?",
"Thanks for taking the time to do this. What are the pros and cons of a laser + chemo/immunotherapy approach relative to the poliovirus approach being developed at Duke? Do you envision a way for your findings to work synergistically with the poliovirus approach? \n\nFor people interested: _URL_1_",
"Would opening the blood-brain barrier allow bacteria to enter the brain and cause dangerous infections? Also would temporarily getting rid of the barrier allow some drugs that would not normally be in the brain to enter and cause changes?",
"This is a huge deal - thank you very much for taking the time to answer our questions!\n\nDoes reducing the integrity of the BBB involve a compromise between the ability to deliver drugs and reductions in immune system capabilities? If so, would this treatment only occur for particularly grave cases? \n\nAstrocytes are an important component of the BBB, but also serve many other critical functions. How does this treatment impact neuronal metabolism, considering the fact that astrocytes deliver nutrients and antioxidants to neurons?",
"Hi guys,\nGiven the blood:brain barrier is breached, would a febrile neutropaenia be much more likely to lead to brain or cerebrospinal fluid infection?\nWhat chemotherapeutic drugs are being considered for the task?",
"Hello Doctors,\nI have not read the paper, but one would think that the implications of these findings (despite being preliminary) warrant publication in a much higher impact journal such as Nature Medicine or JAMA. Why did you chose to publish these findings in PLOS ONE? \nThank you.",
"How long does the bbb stay open after you attack it with lasers? Is it just one laser or is it triangulated? Would you add the treatment via iv? Why is this easier than tricking the bbb to accept it through the powers of chemistry? Thanks!",
"Could this also have an adverse effect as to the medication they may be taking daily since the blood brain barrier is weakened/non-existent?\n\nSorry for any ignorance as I only have basic knowledge to this subject.",
"Hi Dr. Leuthardt,\n\nWhat, in your expertise, are the most promising technologies for brain mapping?\n\nI know the basics (pros and cons of EEG, MEG, fMRI, fNIRS, etc.) and am currently employed in the field, but I don't get to read much literature. Also, I work at an EEG company, so I only hear about slight advances in signal processing from time to time.\n\nAre there any new studies, technologies, or methods that have really opened up a lot doors for brain mapping research? I will likely go back to school, and both mapping and characterizing cognitive functions of the brain are in my interests.\n\nThank you all for taking time to be online here for questions!",
"How could you actually show that it stays open?",
"After Briefly reading through your paper I have a couple of questions. \n1.) Did any of the patients survive the trial? \n2.) You seem to have used two indirect methods of measuring blood brain barrier integrity. BSE measures a protein level and MRI measure fluid movement. Are these established metrics for the field or is there a lack of useful metrics to quantify the BBB? \n3.) I believe the doxorubicin was administered systemically, you only measured the integrity of the blood brain barrier for the MRI at the site of the tumor. Is the BSE measurement indicative of the whole BBB integrity? Further, I have always thought of the BBB as a whole entity. Is there now an accepted theory of localized BBB systems? Did you account for this in your experimental design? \n4.) Why doxorubicin? \n5.) Are you storing the genetic information gathered on your patients in any de-identified form? \n6.) Did you quantify tumor size or drug that reached the brain? \n\nThanks so much for doing the AMA and great research. Its an interesting paper!",
"I usually glance over the methods section first.\n\n > The Pearson correlation values between the Ktrans measurements and the serum BSE values was r = 0.28 with standard deviation (stdev) of 0.52. The correlation calculation resulted from averaging of two different groups of subjects. Subjects that had an early rise in their BSE serum values had a higher positive correlation with the DCE-MRI Ktrans results. Subjects with a delayed rise in their BSE serum values had a lower and, in some cases, negative correlation with the Ktrans values. The Pearson correlation of the area of FLAIR signal abnormality was r = 0.25 (stdev = 0.61) with the Ktrans, and r = 0.18 (stdev = 0.59) with the BSE serum values.\n\nSo, what is meant by stdev=0.61? Usually the correlation coefficient should have a confidence interval instead. I am also missing a test on whether the correlation is significant or not.",
"Thank you very much for taking the time to answer our questions. My question is whether there's a chance that your research on opening up the blood-brain barrier for chemotherapy could eventually lead to progress in drug development for diseases that have been stymied by an inability to get the necessary drug across the blood-brain barrier? For example, in narcolepsy where a solution as to how to get orexin across the blood-brain barrier would be a major breakthrough.",
"Hello Dr. Leuthardt I'm curious if this could have other treatment options for different fields, such as depression, addictions, or PTSD treatment. I'm just a layman in this field, but I feel this could have enormously benificial affects in other fields of medicine."
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{
"url": [
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"http://www.cancer.duke.edu/btc/modules/Research3/index.php?id=41"
]
}
|
PLOS Science Wednesday: Hi Reddit, we’re Eric C. Leuthardt, Joshua Shimony, and David Tran. We discovered the blood-brain barrier stays open after laser ablation surgery, creating opportunities for glioblastoma treatment, as described in PLOS ONE – Ask Us Anything!
Hi Reddit, My name is Dr. Eric C. Leuthardt and I am professor of neurosurgery at [Washington University](_URL_1_). My research focuses on brain computer interfaces, advanced brain mapping and the development of new medical technologies. And my name is Joshua Shimony and I am an Associate Prof. of Neuroradiology at [Washington University School of Medicine](_URL_0_). My research focuses on advanced MRI imaging and its clinical applications. And I am David Tran, the chief of neuro-oncology in the department of neurosurgery at the [University of Florida’s College of Medicine](_URL_4_). My research focuses on understanding the mechanism of cancer progression and on developing novel therapeutic approaches to cancer. We recently published a study titled [Hyperthermic Laser Ablation of Recurrent Glioblastoma Leads to Temporary Disruption of the Peritumoral Blood Brain Barrier](_URL_2_/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0148613) in [PLOS ONE]( _URL_2_). We found that a laser system commonly used to kill brain tumors has an additional and significant benefit: It creates a temporary opening in the blood-brain barrier — a natural barrier that’s normally efficient at blocking out chemicals and bacteria — to allow the passage of chemotherapy and immunotherapy drugs into the brain, for up to six weeks. This discovery could lead to new treatment protocols for glioblastoma, a very aggressive brain cancer that’s highly resistant to standard treatment. **We will be answering your questions at 1pm ET – Ask Us Anything!**
|
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|
1vlehl
|
Is there a substance which would be more dangerous to handle when using rubber gloves?
|
I was just doing some cleaning with bleach and had a moment being amazed at all the things rubber can handle. So I wondered if there is something you shouldn't handle with rubber gloves specifically because it would react in some way that could cause serious harm.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"Nitrile gloves are useless for handling strong acids and bases as well as certain organic solvents like acetone and DMSO. In some cases, i have seen sulfuric acid melt and burn the glove into the skin of the person wearing them. it is much better to not wear gloves at all if you don't have polyethylene ones and to work near a sink, safety shower and/or eye wash when working with these chemicals because you can rapidly wash it off without the gloves on. DMSO is particularly dangerous because it is a carrier agent that will introduce anything dissolved in the DMSO into your blood stream almost instantly including some of the glove itself. This really is dangerous if working with toxic chemicals dissolved in DMSO.\n\nPolyethylene gloves are the best for handling dangerous chemicals of all kinds.\n\n[edit] I am referring to the common nitrile gloves that come 50 to a box, the disposable ones, and high grade, thick polyethylene gloves that cover the forearms. These are standard in most chemical laboratories.",
"Chemistry professor [Karen Wetterhahn](_URL_0_) died in 1997 from dimethyl mercury poisoning. She received the toxic dose by handling the substance using latex gloves in a fume hood, which was considered the correct procedure at the time. It was later determined that the toxic liquid can penetrate gloves and human skin within 15 seconds of exposure and deliver a fatal dose.\n\nSo, while the gloves did not cause the injury, they provided a false sense of security when handling the material. The 'danger' is in thinking the gloves are adequate protection, when they are not much better than bare skin against this substance.",
"While not an adverse chemical reaction, wearing gloves while doing work around certain types of machinery can be more dangerous than working barehanded. They provide less tactile feedback, can get caught, and won't protect you from serious harm.",
"Don't try to use an electric screwdriver to insert screws into anything while wearing latex gloves. The screw can stick to the gloves and the latex will twist around the screw as it turns. The latex will usually tear quite quickly, but you're much safer using bare fingers or leather/fabric gloves.\n\nI know it's not technically an example of a substance as stated in the question, but it is a situation that can benefit from gloves and leather is a much better choice.",
"I never have gloves on when working with liquid nitrogen. \n\nUsually, the nitrogen just evaporates instantly if it hits the skin, due to the [Leidenfrost effect](_URL_1_). So, a few splashes of liquid nitrogen are no problem.\n\nHowever, when wearing gloves, the liquid nitrogen can accumulate under the gloves and doesn't evaporate that quickly. Hence, freezes are possible. We had quite a few small incidents at our lab with liquid nitrogen, so this gets teached at the safety lecture."
],
"score": [
32,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wetterhahn",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect"
]
}
|
Is there a substance which would be more dangerous to handle when using rubber gloves?
I was just doing some cleaning with bleach and had a moment being amazed at all the things rubber can handle. So I wondered if there is something you shouldn't handle with rubber gloves specifically because it would react in some way that could cause serious harm.
|
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1jc9hm
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Why do we do the order of operations in the way that we do?
|
I've been wondering...is the Order of Operations (the whole Parenthesis > Exponents > Multiply/Divide > Add/Subtract, and left > right) thing...was this just agreed upon? Mathematicians decided "let's all do it like this"? Or is this *actually* the right way, because of some...mathematical proof?
Ugh, sorry, I don't even know how to ask the question the right way. Basically, is the Order of Operations right because we say it is, or is it right because that's how the laws of mathematics work?
|
askscience
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"I've seen this question answered before on reddit (possibly on /r/askmath, which would be a better place for this question) but can't find it right now.\n\nExcuse the long answer - I've tried to summarise it in a TL;DR below.\n\nEssentially we use PEDMAS because we've found it to be useful in arithmetic and algebra (although there are areas of mathematics where this isn't necessarily the case). There's nothing to stop us from using, say, ~~SAMDEP~~ PSAMDE if we wanted to, but things would get very messy if we did.\n\nLet's just consider the DMAS bit. Why do multiplication and division come before addition and subtraction? Because it makes sense to do it that way. I might send you out to buy me three half-dozen boxes of eggs and two boxes containing a dozen. The total number of eggs is 3 x 6 + 2 x 12. The real-life situation this describes requires us to interpret this as (3 x 6) + (2 x 12), or 42 in total, rather than 3 x (6 + 2) x 12. Multiplication before addition occurs naturally all the time, so it makes sense to do the operations in that order.\n\nFurthermore, PEDMAS allows us to simplify algebra. We can write an expression like:\n\n c = 4a^2 + 5b + 1\n\nand we know this means we have compute a x a x 4 and 5 x b, add these together and add 1. If the order were SAMDEP, this would have to be written as:\n\n c = [4(a^2)] + (5b) + 1\n\nwhich is less easy to read.\n\nWhy do things work out this way? Well, multiplication is really repeated addition, and exponentiation is just repeated multiplication. Suppose a = 3 in the above expression, and we expand it out: \n\n c = 4 x 3^2 + 5b + 1\n\n = 4 x (3 x 3) + b + b + b + b + b + 1\n\n = 3 x 3 + 3 x 3 + 3 x 3 + 3 x 3 + b + b + b + b + b + 1\n\n = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + b + b + b + b + b + 1\n\nNow we have only one operation so we can do the additions in any order, but you can see that if we go backwards to the original expression, each time we collect up addends into a multiplication, we get a single product that needs to be added to another result. So we end up adding together products, meaning multiplication must come before addition. Exponentiation bundles together multiplicands ready for multiplication by other terms, hence the exponentiation needs to be done before the multiplication.\n\nIf we consider integers only, division can be viewed as just repeated subtraction, and subtraction is just addition of negative terms, hence division comes at the same level as multiplication and subtraction at the same level as addition.\n\nParentheses give us a way of overriding the existing order, so P has to come before everything else so we can more easily solve word problems like the following: \"How many ounces of vegetables are there in three bags of mixed vegetables each containing four ounces of carrots and six ounces of peas?\" (Answer: 3 x (4 + 6) oz = 3 x 10 oz = 30 oz.) Without parentheses, we would have to write 3 x 4 + 3 x 6, essentially expanding the parentheses. Imagine if the parentheses contained some much more complicated expression - we would need to write it out in full several times over if parentheses weren't available.\n\nTL;DR: For integers, exponentiation is repeated multiplication and collects up multiplicands ready for multiplication by or addition to other terms, while multiplication is repeated addition and collects up addends for addition to other terms. Hence it is useful to do exponentiation before multiplication (and division), and multiplication before addition (and subtraction). Parentheses give a way of overriding the order.\n\nEDIT 1: removed extraneous word \nEDIT 2: P must come first, whatever the order, or else parentheses are useless \nEDIT 3: Gasp! Someone's given me Reddit Gold (thank you, that person) AND this thread has hit the front page!\nEDIT 4: Some clarifications of disputed points",
"It's because of polynomials. \n\nPolynomials used to be one of the most studied objects back when this sort of notation was being formalized. Originally you'd have to write them like \n\n(2(x^2 )) + (3x) - 5\n\n which is just ridiculous. People are lazy, so they eventually dropped the parentheses and experienced mathematicians knew what they meant. But for new students, they had to explain how to read these nonsensical shorthands like \n\n2x^2 + 3x - 5.\n\nWell, the exponent is applied to x before you multiply it by 2. Then you multiply 2 by x^2 and 3 by x. Then you add everything together. \n\nIt's really nothing more than a typesetting rule, like \"always put the period before the quotation mark.\" It was, at one point, the most convenient way to do things, and at some point it got formalized.",
"It's arbitrary because all of written math is arbitrary symbolic notation invented by humans. There are plenty of programming languages and other types of notation systems that don't follow PEMDAS. For example, Reverse Polish Notation (which was favored by early computer scientists) is written \"operand operand operator.\" So, for example 3 4 + 7 / evaluates to 1 because, from left to right, 3 4 + evaluates to 3+4=7. Then you have 7 /, so the 7 that came from 3 4 + you divide by 7.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nFor what it's worth, both exponents and parentheses are relatively recent additions to math notation, so it makes sense that our arbitrarily defined writing system would adapt to new symbols by saying \"everything works exactly the same as before, but before doing that, we have to do the new stuff and get it out of the way.\"",
"There's no mathematical proof which would indicate that our notation is \"right\"—simply because there is no definition of \"right\" (though you might get somewhere by looking for proofs that some notation uses the minimal number of `()`s or forms the shallowest expression tree).\n\nIt is however guided by the mathematical structure we usually write using it. For instance, `+` (completely by convention) tends to represent a \"combining operation\" which is \"abelian\" which means that\n\n a + b = b + a\n\nfor any a and b. Multiplication represented by `·` tends to mean a \"non-abelian\" combining operation. When you put these two operations together in a special way you get something called an [algebraic ring](_URL_1_). Algebraic rings also have the property that `·` distributes over `+` like this\n\n a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)\n\nIf you prefer the right side of that equation (for aesthetic purposes or analytical purposes) then you'll be tempted to write all your ring expressions as \"sums of products\" like this\n\n (a · b · c) + (d · e) + (f · g) + ...\n\nwhich is a bit nicer on the eyes if we just declare that `·` \"binds more tightly\" than `+`.\n\n a · b · c + d · e + f · g + ...\n\nAnd reads *even better* if we just say that juxtaposition means `·` instead of \"word formation\"\n\n abc + de + fg + ...\n\nand continuing on that thread while generalizing the structure you're working in more and more gives you exponentiation as well.\n\nThe nice part about the \"sum of products\" form is that the degree of a polynomial is incredibly easy to read off—it's simple the largest exponent on your polynomial variable (usually `x`).\n\n---\n\nNow, what about if we liked the *right* side of that distributive equation? Then we'd be lead to write things as \"products of sums\"\n\n (a + b + c) · (d + e) · (f + g)\n\nand we might be tempted to say that `+` binds more tightly than `·`\n\n a + b + c · d + e · f + g\n\nand even that juxtaposition means `+` (!!)\n\n abc · de · fg\n\nwhich is bizarre by our conventions, but not actually mathematically any different from the previous \"most simplified\" form.\n\nThis form makes it really easy to read off the roots of a polynomial in `x` like\n\n ax · bx · cx · dx\n\nhas roots at `(-a)`, `(-b)`, `(-c)`, and `(-d)`.",
"To be honest, this is by far the best explanation I've heard. \n_URL_2_\nAlso, check out his other stuff.",
"Because it works. Math isn't just done the way it is because of a choice, it's because of the nature of the rules. John Deere tractors are green because of a choice. Order of operations is done because it's simply right. \n\nOn the other hand, the symbols chosen are a choice. We could use a Q in place of a multiplication sign, or an \"N\" in place of \"(\" and an \"M\" in place of a \")\" which is a lot like choosing a color. The meaning behind the symbols are intrinsic and logical, and therefore cannot be changed (or at least not without getting much farther into philosophy than I think anyone here cares to). \n\nHere's a word problem. Solve in any order you like, but I think you'll see that only one gets an answer that makes sense:\n\nThere are 3 people sharing 2 bags of 60 skittles, but 2 skittles fall to the floor after they're opened, but before they're divided amongst the 3 people, and therefore nobody will eat those 2. If the remaining Skittles are to be divided evenly, how many would each person get? \n\nI would write it out this way:\n\n[( 60 x 2) - 2 ] / 3 = the number of skittles each. Let's throw order of operations out, and subtract 2 first. So how do we do that? Do we subtract 2 from the 2 we're multiplying by? How about from the 3 that we're dividing by? What if we subtract it from the 60 that represents the number of skittles in each bag? So you can do any of those operations first, but since we lost the skittles from the combined set of both bags of skittles, we should subtract them from the total, so the order matters here. Now let's say that the parentheses are omitted. 60 * 2 - 2 / 3 almost looks right too, but we'd end up with 120-.66 = 119.33. We have 120 skittles total, lose 2, and share them among 3 people, and that means they each get 119 skittles? That doesn't make sense either. 60 *2 = 120 - 2 = 118 / 3 = 39 1/3 seems to be the right order, and works out to the logical answer. \n\nSo while this isn't a mathematical proof in the truest sense, it seems to show the basic importance when it comes to counting integers. The rest seems to build from there, so I'll leave that to the pros.",
"- \"Is the Order of Operations right because we say it is, or is it right because that's how the laws of mathematics work?\"\n\nboth, its all logic. the logic of math. the logic of your mathematical calculations is either right or wrong, and you do not want to do illogical things with your math because that does not guarantee a logical solution.\n\n---\n\nthere are some simple logical axioms in regard to order of mathematical operations: \n\n- _URL_4_ (if order of numbers/operands does or does not matter (addition and multiplication order of NUMBERS does not matter))\n\n- _URL_5_ (if order of operations/functions does or does not matter)\n\n- _URL_6_ (a rule of compressing or extracting)\n\nit basically comes down to all these logical _URL_6_ that tell you what can be replaced by what (by being equal to it), and what can not, because it would not necessarily be equal.",
"It's just convention, I believe, a shared convention that allows mathematicians everywhere to understand what another mathematician might be saying with their symbols. You could have a different order of operations, but universality is important so that nobody gets confused about what somebody else is trying to show/say.\n\nThere are other reasons why the order of operations is the way it is, and other posters have listed those reasons better than I could, although if you are asking if it could technically be another way, then yes, technically, it could.",
"> Basically, is the Order of Operations right because we say it is, or is it right because that's how the laws of mathematics work?\n\nNo, it's just because the exponent is short hand. And multiplication is short hand.\n\n2^3 means 2\\*2\\*2\n\n3\\*4 means 3+3+3+3 (or 4+4+4)\n\n2/3 means 2\\*(1/3) or (1/3+1/3)\n\n3-5 means 3+(-5)\n\nSo the order matters only because of what the symbols mean. If you convert it all to addition (of negative numbers and fractions) you can then do the addition in any order.",
"Formally a binary operation (those that are discussed in this thread) is a function that maps 2 elements to some element. \n\nThere should always be parenthesis, to be clear which are the elements on which the function is applied, some are omitted due to convention and the fact that humans wouldn't like reading through so many ( ) symbols. \n\n Then, this \"order of operations\" that we learn in elementary school comes in to get us used to the convention of omitting parenthesis.",
"Yes, it's arbitrary. Essentially, it has to be that way for our system of mathematical notation to work properly. Note that there is nothing fundamental about our mathematical notation - it's a system created by humans.\n\nIn fact, there are other workable systems of mathematical notation. Notably, [reverse Polish notation](_URL_7_) can be evaluated without apply any order of operations rules.",
"It follows from the distributive property, which is an axiom used to define multiplication and addition.\n\nDistributive property:\n\n- a(b+c)=ab+ac\n\nDistributive property if addition came before multiplication:\n\n- a+(bc)=(a+b)(a+c)",
"A lot of the answers here are really long. Here's a short ( < 5 min) video by MinutePhysics that explains it really well.\n\n_URL_8_",
"I've seen a good video about the order of operations on Minutephysics recently.\n\n[Here it is](_URL_9_)"
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9h1oqv21Vs&feature=youtube_gdata_player",
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_property",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9h1oqv21Vs",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9h1oqv21Vs"
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|
Why do we do the order of operations in the way that we do?
I've been wondering...is the Order of Operations (the whole Parenthesis > Exponents > Multiply/Divide > Add/Subtract, and left > right) thing...was this just agreed upon? Mathematicians decided "let's all do it like this"? Or is this *actually* the right way, because of some...mathematical proof? Ugh, sorry, I don't even know how to ask the question the right way. Basically, is the Order of Operations right because we say it is, or is it right because that's how the laws of mathematics work?
|
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|
yarc7
|
So what evidence is AGAINST Evolution?
|
I know I'm going against the grain here, but I am generally curious. Off the top of my head, I can't really think of anything.
Note: I am not talking about abiogenesis.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5tuw07",
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"c5tv7f3",
"c5tx9i9"
],
"text": [
"> Note: I am not talking about abiogenesis.\n\nThis is worth addressing:\n\nThe theory of evolution says *nothing* about how life started. Not even a little bit.\n\nThe theory of evolution is all about how organisms adapt over time.\n\nAnd there is no scientific evidence against the theory of evolution. To be clear there are still arguments about certain aspects of the theory but none of those arguments deny the overall theory of evolution. Merely quibbling over some details about how this or that bit really works.",
"The opponents of evolution use the notion of [irreducible complexity](_URL_5_) to support their cause. They claim that an eye can't go through evolution. Either it sees or it doesn't. But [Dawkins](_URL_1_) debunks this belief with his argument that there are voluminous examples of evolutionary development that goes from a simple light sensitive organisms such as the single-celled euglena through primitive eyes, and finally to the fully functional eye of higher organisms. \n\nThe Intelligent design promoters use the same logic for [flagella](_URL_0_) and [blood clotting](_URL_3_) but these examples are proved false and they too follow the evidence of evolution: [flagella](_URL_4_) and [blood clotting](_URL_2_)",
"there isn't any.. \n\nThe touted evidence is often a series of archaic ideas and notions which when taken out of context and presented to the laymen, appear to be controversial. \n\nThe truth of the matter is that year after year multiple disciplines of science in Biology, Genetics and Paleontology present more evidence in favor of evolution. \n\nMeanwhile the deniers are left with ancient teachings which never get updated and are subsequently exceedingly difficult to invent new material for. \n\nThe attempts are getting rather sad given the current state of the science behind evolution",
"A creationist told me that while many animals share skeletal characteristics, the genes that control these areas are in different locations (?) and thus couldn't have been passed down as a genetic trait. Is this even remotely true?",
"Problem with arguing with the Theory of Evolution is that every time a serious flaw is found the theory is adapted to include it. This is why it is called science."
],
"score": [
8,
6,
6,
4,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_complexity#Flagella",
"http://richarddawkins.net/articles/1787-arguments-against-evolution",
"http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/DI/clot/Clotting.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_complexity#Blood_clotting_cascade",
"http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_complexity"
]
}
|
So what evidence is AGAINST Evolution?
I know I'm going against the grain here, but I am generally curious. Off the top of my head, I can't really think of anything. Note: I am not talking about abiogenesis.
|
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] |
|
3uh0lq
|
How does one define a staight line?
|
I was taught that the definition of a straight line is the shortest distance between two points. What happens if these points are infinitely far apart? I assume that this is basically some kind of phallacy/ paradox type thing but yeah, lemme know please!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxevm4f",
"cxezwu7",
"cxf61se"
],
"text": [
"A line is not the shortest distance between two points, but the path with the shortest distance between two points. What do you mean by two points that are infinitely far apart? If you have two points in the plane, then they will be a finite distance from each other. Always. Their distance can be very, very large, but it will never be infinite.\n\nIn basic geometry, though, we don't define lines, we assume them. A line is just a \"thing\" that satisfies 1.) For every pair of points, there is exactly one of these \"things\" that pass through both of them 2.) Any two of these \"things\" intersect at, at most, one point. 3.) If two of these \"things\" don't intersect, then the distance between them doesn't change.\n\nA line is just a \"thing\" that satisfies these conditions.",
"Outside of euclidian geometry in curved spaces the definition of a straight line changes. Here we call a 'straight line' a [geodesic](_URL_2_) which can be defined as such by [parallel transport](_URL_1_). These 'straight lines' are not always the shortest distance between two points so distance isn't really required to determine straightness. PBS Space Time had a [great visual explanation](_URL_0_) of this while trying to explain general relativity(though I only linked the geometry part). Hope this helps!",
"Frequently, you don't define a straight line. Oftentimes the notion of a line is taken as a primitive concept without a definition.\n\nOther times you define a line to be something quite foreign to a layperson, such as on Fano's Plane, where lines are composed of exactly three points."
],
"score": [
66,
12,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3GVVkPb3OI",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_transport",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic"
]
}
|
How does one define a staight line?
I was taught that the definition of a straight line is the shortest distance between two points. What happens if these points are infinitely far apart? I assume that this is basically some kind of phallacy/ paradox type thing but yeah, lemme know please!
|
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|
3nmuvy
|
What would happen if there was an unbreakable rope tethering the earth to the moon?
|
The rope can neither be broken or unattached, how would this impact life on earth or the orbits of the moon/earth.
Edit/update : several comments have been asking how does the location of the tether affect the outcome? (ex: poles vs equator)
Edit 2: Secondary question : What if the "rope" was actually rigid and could not bend/wrap around the earth?
|
askscience
|
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"Since the Earth rotates faster than the Moon revolves around us, the cable would wind itself around the planet. The tension from the rope would slow down the rotation of Earth while pulling the Moon closer to us.\n\nThen you can ask, how far will the Moon be pulled in before the Earth stops rotating? Well, the Earth's rotational kinetic energy is about 3x10^29 Joules, and the binding energy of the Moon's orbit is only slightly less, 6x10^28 Joules. (My numbers may not be right, I would appreciate a check!) Then the Earth will stop rotating once it's contributed all of its rotational energy to the Moon's gravitational binding energy, which happens at about *one quarter* of its current orbital distance. So it would get pretty frighteningly close before starting to spin-up the Earth in the opposite direction.\n\nEdit: actually, I think this is quite a bit more complicated than I've said here. I neglected the fact that the tension in the rope will affect the orbital velocity of the Moon. My answer above should only be considered a back of the envelope estimate, I'm honestly not 100% sure how to solve the problem completely yet.\n\nEdit 2: I think I can solve it numerically, but it will take a little bit of work. Will report back later\n\nEDIT 3: DONE. [Here are some plots.](_URL_1_) The first is the result of the simulation: the angle of the Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit as a function of time; Earth is blue and Moon is gold. Dashed lines are normal rotation/orbit without a tether. You can see the Earth stops and turns around after about 9 days, while the Moon's orbit speeds up while it is pulled in closer. The second plot shows the Earth-Moon distance, relative to its usual distance: the Moon gets to about 1/3rd of its usual distance (not too far off from my 1/4 estimate, considering...). The last plot shows the speed of the moon---at its peak it's orbiting nearly 10 times faster than usual (around once every 2.8 days instead of 28).\n\nThis is assuming the rope is attached at the equator. At the poles, not a whole lot will happen: it will just twist around without wrapping. In between is complicated.\n\nAs others have pointed out, the tides will dissipate energy from this system, eventually tidally locking the Earth and Moon. I haven't included that effect. I've also only simulated the first wind-unwind cycle. (My code is wrong after that point, it thinks the cable will start getting longer. Rather than add absolute value signs I just ended the plot...) Everything just repeats in the opposite direction, anyway.\n\nFor the pros: this is a system with constraints so I used a Lagrangian that included the Earth's rotation, Moon's velocity, and Earth-Moon gravitational potential energy. The constraint is that the distance between the Earth and Moon is a - R(theta-phi), where a is the original Earth-Moon distance (rope length), R is Earth's radius, theta is the rotation angle of the Earth, and phi is the angle of the Moon in its orbit.\n\nEDIT 4: [Here's a gif](_URL_0_)",
"It's very hard to say exactly what would happen without crunching the numbers (which I believe would involve some probably nonlinear differential equations). But from first principles, I can give you an idea of what sort of effects would happen, and you could try to estimate the exact effects:\n\nInitially, the Earth will be rotating at a higher angular velocity than the moon (15 deg/hour vs .555 deg/hour). The cable will be pulling on the moon mostly tangent to its orbit but very slightly forward as well due to the geometry. As the cable warps around the Earth, it shortens and pulls on the moon, the Moon's orbit will shift to be closer to the Earth. The secondary major effect is that the cable will slow down Earth's Rotation and speed up the Moon's.\n\nI'll gloss over more complicated effects such as what happens if your cable can stretch, because that would introduce oscillations and make calculation even harder. In the simplest case, I believe the Moon would remain tidally locked as it's orbit got closer to the Earth and it's rotation speeds up. Depending on how the numbers work out, one of two things happens:\n\n1) Eventually the Moon is pulled into geosynchronous orbit with the Earth and Moon tidally locked with each other. The Earth's rate of rotation will have slowed down (can't say how much without doing the math) so that GEO is at a further distance than it is currently. There are no more tides, but sea level is permanently shifted towards whichever side of the Earth faces the moon. Depending on how closer the moon ends up, the tidal force is potentially MUCH larger than normal and probably has bad effects on both sides of the planet (Many parts of the planet that faces the moon are now under water, and coastlines on the away-facing side have their coastline recede substantially. With no more tides, a lot of sea life goes extinct. Due to the new shape of the coastline, weather patterns likely change quite a bit.\n\n2) The Moon gets pulled to within the Roche limit and breaks apart, eventually forming rings. There are no more tides which is bad for some sea life. Coastlines don't change much though. \n\nPerhaps a biologist can elaborate on the consequences of not having tides anymore. I'm guessing it'll be nothing good though.",
"The rope (attached to the surface of the earth and moon) would transfer the energy from angular momentum into relative motion towards each other as the rope wraps around the two bodies. The moon would then enter a decaying orbit and crash into the earth [Like this](_URL_2_)",
"Considering the moon is not geostationary (it rises and sets) the tether would wind around the planet at about 1 circumference of the planet every day and a half. As the tether got shorter the moons orbital period would too. Potentially it *could* hit a point just right where it becomes geostationary. But I think it's far more likely that it eventually just gets pulled into a suborbital trajectory and plows into the earth."
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/bksaOv1",
"http://imgur.com/a/3Kaow",
"https://youtu.be/t5oN7KA-08s?t=62"
]
}
|
What would happen if there was an unbreakable rope tethering the earth to the moon?
The rope can neither be broken or unattached, how would this impact life on earth or the orbits of the moon/earth. Edit/update : several comments have been asking how does the location of the tether affect the outcome? (ex: poles vs equator) Edit 2: Secondary question : What if the "rope" was actually rigid and could not bend/wrap around the earth?
|
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|
3n344u
|
If molecules of water were the size of the cherry, droplet would be size of the Earth. Is this true?
|
I read this somewhere, but it seems too mindblowing to be true. I mean, I know molecules are really smal, but come on...
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"OK let's see. First let's lay out the numbers. \n\nAssuming we're talking about pure water:\n\n1 drop of water = 0.05 mL\n\n1 mole = 6.022 × 10^23 molecules\n\n1 mole of water = 18 grams = 18 mL\n\nNow let's find out how many moles of water are in a drop.\n\n0.05 mL ÷ 18 mL = 0.0028 moles\n\nAnd how many molecules in 0.0028 moles.\n\n0.0028 × (6.022 × 10^23) = 1.69 × 10^21\n\nIf a cherry is 2 cm in diameter and a perfect sphere the area it occupies is.\n\n(4/3) × pi × r^3 = 4.2 × 10^-6 m^3\n\nMultiply by the number of molecules.\n\n(4.2 × 10^-6 m^3) × (1.69 × 10^21) = 7.1 × 10^15 m^3\n\nThe volume of the earth is 1.1 × 10^21 m^3\n\nAs you can see between the two figures, the difference in volume would be 6.5 × 10^-6 that of earth's. \n\nOr if a cherry were a water molecule, the earth would be about 155,000 water drops.",
"A molecule of water is about 10^(-10) m in diameter. A cherry is about 10^(-2) m. That means the expansion is a factor of 100 million. If we take a drop of water as having a diameter of 1 mm, you end up with a final diameter of about 1000 km, which is the same magnitude as the diameter of the earth.",
"I'm bored so I'll do the math for you:\nH2O diameter is roughly 2.75 Å\n1 Å = 0.0000000001 m = > H2O diameter = 0.000000000275 m\n\nCherry I ate had diameter of around 2 cm\n1 cm = 0.01 m so cherry is around 0.02 m in diameter\n\nEarth diameter is 12 742 000 meters (~12 000 km)\n\nDroplets can be any diameter but let's say it's around 0,5 cm or 0.005 m\n\nCherry/H2O molecule diameter ratio will then be 72 727 272.73 \n(This represents how much more big cherry is than H2O molecule in diameter)\n\nNow if we assume that H2O molecules are packed tight in water, we may expect that droplet will be increased in size 72 727 272.73 times. All the way up From 0.005m to 363 636.36m in diameter\nNow compared to earth diameter it will still be 35.04 times smaller than earth. \nHowever if you use bigger cherries and bigger droplets you can still get pretty close to earth sized droplets.\n\nThe only question is WHY?!",
"Molecule of water: its diameter is about 2.7×10^-10 m (2.7 å). Droplets vary in size, but the average size of a rain droplet is between 0.1 and 5 mm, so lets use 2.5×10-3 m (2.5 mm). Increase of about 9.26×10^6. Since a cherry is around 1.5×10^-2 m, if a molecule of water had its smallest dimension about the size of cherry, the droplet would be about 1,4×10^5 m in diameter, 140 kilometers in diameter. Earth is about 13000 kilometers, meaning it's not right at all.\n\nWhy not say \"If a water molecule was made one meter wide, a droplet made of such molecules would be around the size of Earth\"? That would work out better. Considering that the size of droplets is not fixed, you can also say \"If you were the size of a water molecule, the Earth would be the size of a droplet\". Also, the Everest would be the size of a red blood cell, biggest Pyramid in Egypt would be the size of HIV, red blood cell would be the size of an electron.and the sun would be the size of a melon, and one light minute would be the size of a cow. A light year would be the size of the moon."
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If molecules of water were the size of the cherry, droplet would be size of the Earth. Is this true?
I read this somewhere, but it seems too mindblowing to be true. I mean, I know molecules are really smal, but come on...
|
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imgs0
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Stop apologizing for asking stupid questions
|
If it's something you're wondering about, there are probably a lot of other people wondering the same thing. This is the whole point of /r/AskScience. Someone will be happy to answer any legitimate science question you have.
EDIT: Ok, wow... people got opinions. It seems like the consensus is somewhere between "No such thing as a bad question" and "Do you research before you ask." Obviously it's a fine line. I tend to think that OPs should at least check to make sure their question isn't answered in the first paragraph of the wikipedia article, but half the fun of askscience is that you can get a hold of a real live expert who's nice and patient enough to answer. Personally as a commenter, I really like the basic questions because they give me practice for the day when a pretty girl stops me on the street and asks for a concise explanation of the principles of quantum mechanics in layman's terms. A man can dream.....
Anyway, sorry about the meta-thread. We now return to your regularly-scheduled science.
|
askscience
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"> there are probably a lot of other people wondering the same thing\n\nWhich is why it's important to use the search function :) It can be a little draining to answer the same question over and over again. If you can't find the appropriate older thread, often the veteran asksciencers will be able to find it for you.\n\nEdit: btw, Reddit's search is not great, but you can [use google](_URL_0_) to search askscience.",
"Obviously the reason someone tacks on 'this is probably stupid' is to remove any responsibility for not knowing the answer. However, this can also be a fairly aggressive way to ask a question in a way in which the asker doesn't realize. If the person you are asking doesn't know, then you are basically forcing them into the position that they do not know the answer to a stupid question.\n\nSo just ask your question. If there is a simple answer, you'll get it. If there is a complex answer, you may or may not get it after some discussion. But saying 'this may be a stupid question' only accomplishes annoying the people who will be answering.",
"PANELISTS: How do you feel about the current state of the forum, particularly with regards to reposts?",
"I love askscience and I've read the rules thoroughly, repeatedly and use the search function but I still worry that someone is gonna tell me that I've not asked my question 'properly' or that someone has asked something similar before.",
"Reposts: they probably do annoy people\n\nOther stupid questions though: they can generate surprisingly stimulating discussion. Oftentimes, they're the most popular threads in a particular forum (just look at any subforum in Physics Forums and arrange replies by most replies to least replies ;) )",
"Not everyone is as nice as you are... I see a lot of very condescending answers on this subreddit (Interestingly, almost never from panelists) and it doesn't surprise me that people would apologize for asking what might be seen as a stupid question.",
"Is there a /r/metaaskscience?\n\nLots of posts in the last week providing commentary about the subreddit instead of asking science a question.",
"What's an illegitimate question?\n\nEdit: Like, no fringe science or UFOs, right?",
"> Stop apologizing for asking **ignorant** questions\n\n\nFTFY\n\nIgnorance is a lack of knowledge. It can be remedied by asking questions. Nobody should apologize for trying to learn.\n\nA stupid question, such as \"Is your refrigerator running\", probably should be prefaced with an apology.",
"My high school calculus teacher always said, \"There is no such thing as a stupid question, only stupid students. A stupid student is one who does not ask a question when they don't understand something.\"",
"I'm so late to this, but it's so true. Sometimes I come across questions that are so simple I wonder how I never thought of them. I really appreciate those posts.",
"Quit telling people not to express their feelings. It's not up to you to micromanage the vocabulary used in posts, get over it, get over yourself.",
"Hey man, not the topic, but I have picked up more than one pretty lady by explaining the basics of evolution. Reading in public helps.",
"sorry if this is a stupid question, but does it really bother you *that* much?",
"\"There are no stupid questions, just stupid people.\" - Mr. Garrison, South Park.",
"I'm sorry if as a Canadian I say sorry a lot... sorry."
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Stop apologizing for asking stupid questions
If it's something you're wondering about, there are probably a lot of other people wondering the same thing. This is the whole point of /r/AskScience. Someone will be happy to answer any legitimate science question you have. EDIT: Ok, wow... people got opinions. It seems like the consensus is somewhere between "No such thing as a bad question" and "Do you research before you ask." Obviously it's a fine line. I tend to think that OPs should at least check to make sure their question isn't answered in the first paragraph of the wikipedia article, but half the fun of askscience is that you can get a hold of a real live expert who's nice and patient enough to answer. Personally as a commenter, I really like the basic questions because they give me practice for the day when a pretty girl stops me on the street and asks for a concise explanation of the principles of quantum mechanics in layman's terms. A man can dream..... Anyway, sorry about the meta-thread. We now return to your regularly-scheduled science.
|
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|
14pz6f
|
How much energy are you burning when you shake your legs passively (while sitting at a desk)? Over a period of hours, does it make a caloric difference?
|
As a drummer, I shake my legs nonstop when I'm studying... Especially this week (finals UGH).
edit: since so many people seem to care... I hit the gym 2~3 a week and get plenty of walking/running time every day as an ambulatory student without a car.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"While not specifically limited to shaking your legs, people who fidget can burn up to 350 extra calories a day vs. people who don't.\n\n > \"The most detailed study ever conducted of mundane bodily movements found that obese people tend to be much less fidgety than lean people and spend at least two hours more each day just sitting still. The extra motion by lean people is enough to burn about 350 extra calories a day, which could add up to 10 to 30 pounds a year, the researchers found.\"\n\n[Fidgeting Helps Separate the Lean From the Obese, Study Finds](_URL_0_)",
"This is usually categorized as [NEAT] (_URL_2_) (non-exercise activity thermogenesis) and is considered as part of your total energy expenditure (TEE). I believe [this](_URL_2_) is the article people are citing. The issue is that although there are a number of studies on NEAT, the term doesn't apply specifically to fidgeting, so there are few studies looking at that question directly.",
"It does make a caloric difference. It's called [NEAT](_URL_3_) non-exercise activity thermogenesis. Pretty much means that every small movement, such as fidgeting, does make a difference, and does in fact burn calories. So as a fellow drummer and fidgeter- Keep it up!",
"I'm going to make a few assumptions:\n\n*Your foot weighs 1 pound\n*You move your foot 4 inches\n*You move your foot 3 times per second\n\nEach time your move your foot your are burning .0239 calories\n\n.0239 x (3/sec)*(60sec/min)*(10min) = 43 calories for 10 min of foot wiggling",
"Additional question. I hear that people with anorexia willingly be cold to force themselves to shiver and inherently use energy as a result. Is this true and does it work?",
"I read that as \"shave your legs...over a period of hours\". It was cringeworthy to imagine someone going raw from the constant abrasion. However, OP's question has me equally curious."
],
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A41897-2005Jan27.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11101470",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12468415",
"http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/26/4/729.full"
]
}
|
How much energy are you burning when you shake your legs passively (while sitting at a desk)? Over a period of hours, does it make a caloric difference?
As a drummer, I shake my legs nonstop when I'm studying... Especially this week (finals UGH). edit: since so many people seem to care... I hit the gym 2~3 a week and get plenty of walking/running time every day as an ambulatory student without a car.
|
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|
1x3r17
|
Does the flight from Europe and USA (and in the other way) lasts longer/shorter because of Earth movement beneath the plane?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf7u4oe",
"cf7vf7q",
"cf7w2r0",
"cf89q4v"
],
"text": [
"It doesn't create any real effect on travel time; Air in our atmosphere tends to rotate with the earth. A small headwind however can change flight times by hours. These winds tend to blow in one direction, so traveling one way you'll have a tailwind, reducing your travel time.\n\n_URL_0_",
"Main reason why flights from the North America to Europe are shorter is because the upper-level winds in the atmosphere at the mid-latitudes blow west to east. Aircraft heading east travel with a tailwind whereas aircraft heading west have a headwind. \n\n[Here is an image of the 250 millibar wind speeds](_URL_1_) (approx 30,000 feet above sea level), at 12Z Wed Feb 05 2014 per the 0-hour GFS model run at the same time. The jet stream blows anywhere from 100-200 kt+ from the west in the winter months. It weakens in the summer months and migrates poleward a bit.",
"You'll experience the Coriolis effect, especially if you travel north near the pole and come back down, which many planes do.\n\nHere are some fun reads\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_4_",
"Solar heating generates 3 convective cells in both the north and southern hemisphere. Near the equator are Hadley Cells. They tend to generate constant winds about 15^o north and south of the equator. Over the poles there are Polar cells, they're like big static air glaciers with vortexes on the edges. In between the Ferrell Cell mixes between the warm tropics and the cold polar cells. Those are more ropey and twisty. At the top of the Ferrell cell air has been lofted up from the tropics and is flowing towards the poles. That air has the rotational velocity of the equator, so when it gets far north if it has retained a lot of that equatorial velocity it tends to jet along on the boundary where the cell convects down. That boundary is the [jet stream](_URL_6_).\n\nEvery day, twice a day airline service companies develop a network of tracks that cross the northern and southern oceans to take advantage of these tailwinds. The westbound tracks avoid the jetstream. Eastbound tracks follow them. Its like a line of spagetti strung out over the oceans. They're called North Atlantic Tracks (NAT) between Europe and the US. These are just lat/longs like YHZ (halifax) to 65N060W to 66N050W 70N040W to 71N030W etc all the way to Shanwick, which is near 0W (ie Grennich Meridian). There are six to ten NAT tracks for both the day and night tracks [west and eastbound tracks](_URL_5_). \n\nThese tail winds can be anywhere from 30knots to 200knots. A nautical mile per hour is just a bit faster than a mile per hour. The entire route won't have high tail winds usually. The routes the flights fly is more a minimal gas track than it is a minimal time track. \n\nPlanes don't exactly compensate for Coriolis effects. I've never heard that term used in an aeronautical setting. If they are high enough to take advantage of jet streams they're not choosing their routes. They just fly the routes they're cleared to fly, crabbing into the wind to maintain their assigned heading. They're expected to stay at a specific altitude to within about 300' and a specific course to within no more than 4 or 5 km deviation laterally. Most big planes don't float off course much at all over the ocean. You can tell time by them."
],
"score": [
60,
31,
9,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/dynamics/q0027.shtml",
"http://imgur.com/Sj1EzPZ",
"http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/coriolis.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect#Rotating_sphere",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_route",
"http://www.bcavirtual.com/VA%20flight%20School/atlantictracks1.gif",
"http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/blog/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/080104_gfs_maxwind_anim.gif"
]
}
|
Does the flight from Europe and USA (and in the other way) lasts longer/shorter because of Earth movement beneath the plane?
|
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1pk55x
|
Why are we still using wind tunnels when designing something that needs to be aerodynamic,why can't we do that completely by software? What are the drawbacks of designing something in 3D then emulating the wind tunnel using software.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"CFD programs have come LOOOOOOOONG way, but they still are based on approximations. The wind tunnel is an approximation as well, but when you understand both methods limitations and benefits you can leverage the two results to get closer to real world effects.\n\nBesides its a lot easier to screw up when you are setting up a computer model than it is with a wind tunnel. Wind tunnels have their own quirks in pulling useable data, so they aren't perfect either.\n\nMy $.02. I'm more versed in FEA stress/temperature simulation with real world sample testing back up. We use the FEA models to quickly test changes and the physical samples when we are more confident in a working prototype. Oil & Gas.",
"To boil it down basically: a) we still don't know enough, and b) we don't have the computing power.\n\nNothing in the real world ever works quite exactly like the theoretical models. In this case, there are differences in the composition of the air (tempurature, humidity, pressure, dust particles, crosswinds/updraughts/standing vorteces in the environment, etc), manufacturing tolerances of the components tested, and the fact that the models used in CFD are only [\"tessellated\"](_URL_2_) approximations of the actual complex surfaces. We need insane computer power to control all these variables and process complex shapes accurately. Companies like Boeing, Airbus, or top-flight F1 teams have some of the most processing power in the world, and even that is not enough.\n\nWe are quite good at approximating [laminar flow](_URL_1_), but the problem is that most of the things we are concerned with regarding CFD are high-speed applications (aerospace, cars, large pipelines, etc) which are firmly in the [turbulent flow](_URL_0_) regime. This flow is characterized by very chaotic flow patterns, and after the last 200 years of modern fluid dynamics research, even modelling the simplest of turbulent systems theoretically on paper involves a lot of approximation, and still much debate between differing theories.\n\nIt is actually quite amazing how close we can get now to approximating real world situations, but we still need to verify our results with real world testing. Pure CFD (or any computer simulation for that matter) isn't really at the point yet (nor probably for a long time coming) where we can really expect results coinciding with nature. *What it IS good for though,* is for comparisons and trending. We can compare two or more ideas, and see which is more promising, but we can't tell exactly how much better without fine-tuning in the real world.\n\nSource: Master's level in mechanical engineering",
"Computer models are just exactly that -- models. You include everything you think might be important, abstract away what you think is not important, and as much as you try to get it right, you accept that you are probably going to get a good but not perfect result. So, once you have something that simulates well, you can put a physical model into a wind tunnel and check that what you can measure in reality matches what the computer model says it should be.\n\nThe idea is that you can't measure nearly as much in a real tunnel as you can extract from a computer model, but you still do it so that you can compare what you *do* measure to validate that your model actually matches your physical design.",
"Some aviation accidents can be attributed to insufficient testing and CFD initially didn't detect it because the event hadn't been anticipated. The tilt rotor osprey experienced crashes when rotor wash was cycled up back on top of the aircraft. The software can simulate the event afterwards, but The discrete testing prior to flight just doesn't get the entire flight envelope. Flight data instead is providing feedback for improving software.",
"From what I understand about fluid flow dynamics there is no model that can reproduce physical conditions with enough certainty. In other words, fluid flow is extremely difficult to model and cannot be solely relied upon.",
"For complex geometries it can take weeks to build a good geometric model and optimize a mesh for it in CFD, while I can toss a model in a wind tunnel in an afternoon.",
"Two reasons:\n\n1) The models suck. No, really, with some great supercompute time they can come close to modelling what actually happens. But when you get to actual testing you almost always find out where they went wrong. Engineers can be brilliant and still have blind spots.\n\n2) The difference between theory and practice is that in theory they are the same, but in practice they aren't.",
"Personally speaking. The time I spent in a wind tunnel on a time trial bike seems like it would have been more difficult to duplicate via computer. Moving parts, varying body positions, varying bicycle components, etc... Rebuilding all of that in software would've taken a lot more man hours.",
"Odd suggestion, but due to Formula One's dependence upon aerodynamics, I reckon /r/formula1 would be able to offer some real world examples of why physical testing is still required in this regard. \n\nEssentially, Formula One teams without adequate windtunnel facilities are at a severe disadvantage to the wealthier teams.",
"I don't have a general and complete answer to your question, but there was a case where a formula 1 team tried to use just CFD simulation (instead of the combination of CFD simulation and wind tunnel testing that all other teams used). They failed, although the jury is still out on whether this was due to the lack of wind tunnel testing or to other factors.\n\nyou might find these links interesting:\n\n* _URL_3_\n\n* _URL_4_\n\n* _URL_5_",
"A colleague of mine and professor of fluids recently received a massive grant, state, and school funding to buy a supercomputer to analyze fluid flows over complex objects. He is a techie die hard and he will even admit that his million dollar computer still cannot completely handle some of the situations a wind tunnel can",
"Nothing models nature like nature does.\n\nCFD is a great tool, but because there is no closed solution the the navier stokes equations when applied to variable geometry, it will always be an approximation."
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"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminar_flow",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation",
"http://www.engineeringexchange.com/profiles/blogs/how-to-lose-races-with-cfd",
"http://www.symscape.com/blog/how-to-lose-f1-races-with-a-wind-tunnel-and-cfd",
"http://www.symscape.com/blog/wind-tunnels-and-cfd"
]
}
|
Why are we still using wind tunnels when designing something that needs to be aerodynamic,why can't we do that completely by software? What are the drawbacks of designing something in 3D then emulating the wind tunnel using software.
|
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||
11tmmc
|
Can anyone be a scientist or do you have to have an official B.S. (Bachellor of Science) and publish a in a "peer-review" journal to be a scientist?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"There is a major difference between these things: \n\n1) Doing Science\n\n2) Publishing Scientific Research\n\n3) Making a living as a Scientist \n\nI guess the first question is how you are defining scientist. If it's anyone who does science, than obviously no degree is needed. Children do science all the time. Anyone who works with their hands does. Anyone who cooks or bakes does. Design an experiment, execute it, observe the results, and take them into account when you do it next time. Learn from what you see. \n\nPublishing scientific research is a different story. It is very hard to get published with no reputation, and no laboratory or research group to back you up. Without such a peer group, you don't have anyone to guide you through the writing and submission process. Is it possible to do it alone? Sure. But it's damn hard. Thus you're more likely to be able to publish if you're attached to a research group or laboratory. And if you're attached to one of those, you're probably already got a degree, or you're working on one. Also, a lot of liberal arts colleges give out BAs for science degrees. Doesn't make sense, I know. But there are plenty of Biology and Chemistry BAs running around doing science and publishing stuff. \n\nTo make a living as a scientist, you definitely don't need a degree. There are a lot people involved in science, from all walks of life. It's harder to get an interview, let alone a job in the sciences without a degree in the field, or something related. However, it's definitely possible. I know plenty of IT people who are the foundation research groups are built on, and who get their names on every publication because of that. Some have a BS, some other degrees, some no degrees.",
"A scientist is someone using the scientific method. For some reason, our society seems to want to treat scientists like priests five hundred years ago...people with a special knowledge unattainable by the general public. That's BS. Wasn't that long ago our scientists were writers and politicians and businessmen as well.\n\nThat being said, you're probably going to have reputation and credibility problems in the same way someone who passes the bar exam without a degree from a reputable school will have problems getting hired by a law firm. We are a society that values credentials.",
"You certainly don't need a B.S. to be a scientist. It just will likely be harder to get published in a peer-reviewed journal. This, though, would depend on your record and reputation as well as the specifics of what you are trying to publish.",
"My only knowledge is in the fields of biological/biomedical science, so I can't speak for other fields. \"Scientist\" is a very broad term, but I can speak best about academic scientists (work for a university).\n\nDo you mean a B.S. specifically or just a college degree? Like many fields these days, you generally cannot be hired as a \"scientist\" in any capacity without having a college degree or being in the process of earning a degree. I should mention that the differences between a B.S. and a B.A. are irrelevant. Some schools give out one degree, some schools give out another. I have a B.A. in molecular biology, not a B.S. I also have friends who had a B.A. in fields like economics or English, but still worked in labs and got published.\n\nMost published scientists (the kind of papers you read on PubMed) have a doctorate (PhD, MD, DVM, etc) or are working towards a doctorate. You can be published with only a bachelor's or master's, but it's harder unless you're part of an established laboratory. You can certainly work in a laboratory as a \"scientist\" and be published even before you finish your college degree (I was), but again, usually only if you're part of an established laboratory staffed by scientists with doctorates. Some journals specifically require that you be part of an established laboratory/hospital/organization before they'll even consider your paper, but some will still consider a paper from an individual without a degree who is not under the mentorship of an established scientist. But you'll have a much harder time.\n\nFurthermore, most kinds of science require equipment, materials, and space, all of which cost money. To get this money, scientists apply for grants from government and nonprofit agencies. Unless you are an established scientist (published and part of a lab) or are under the mentorship of an established scientist, it's going to be near impossible to get a grant. No money= no experiments.\n\nBut there are different ways to be a scientist, and working in academia is not the only one! Industry (pharmaceutical companies, companies that develop various chemical products, etc) hires people to work in labs to help develop and test new products. You don't necessarily need a doctorate or be published to work in industry (although as usual, it helps). You can also work out in the field doing ecological work (collecting samples, documenting species, etc), which does not necessarily require a doctorate either."
],
"score": [
12,
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3
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can anyone be a scientist or do you have to have an official B.S. (Bachellor of Science) and publish a in a "peer-review" journal to be a scientist?
|
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s92n6
|
Question about Evolution
|
I was reading a book called Sciencia, which is just a big book with a brief overview of a multitude of different scientific concepts from Math to Physics to Chemistry to Biology and one section mentioned a concept called convergent evolution. Basically it said that there are only a few design solutions that solve certain problems like flying and vision, etc. It noted that there are several species with similar physical attributes that evolved in entirely different ways. i.e. the eye of a mammal is similar to the eye of say and octopus, but they two are built using entirely different DNA.
My question is, if this is true, would it be reasonable to say that if there is a similar planet to Earth somewhere else in the universe, would the life that occupies the planet be somewhat similar to life on Earth?
|
askscience
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"Ooh, I like this question. I think about it a lot.\n\nFirst of all, I'm going to assume that an alien organism will have similar biochemistry to ours: carbon based, uses water as a solvent, has some sort of macro molecule which can pass information on to the next generation a la DNA.\n\nObviously such an organism would undergo evolution. Any self replicating system with differences within the population which can pass down heritable traits to its offspring will undergo evolution.\n\nLet's start by hypothesizing some structure which are likely to be present among even alien species.\n\n* The eye. Like you said, this structure evolved independently several times here on Earth, so it is not a stretch to assume this will happen elsewhere. The fact of the matter is, light is an excellent way to sense your surroundings: it is instant, and has a longer range than both smell and hearing. Alien lifeforms may not be able to detect the same wavelengths of light which we do, as this will likely depend on the type of star they have and the wavelengths of light emitted by that star.\n\n* Other senses: I don't find it unlikely that aliens will develop similar senses to our own. Detecting vibrations in the air or vapourized molecules all are very useful, so it is not unlikely that aliens will develop hearing or smell. Touch is a bit more obvious, as I cannot imagine any organisms which is not able to sense things contacting its own body. Even the simplest microbes can do that. Now, they may have additional senses which we do not have, but we don't have enough information to speculate on those.\n\n* Limbs. Limbs are useful. Tons of organisms have limbs, and I think we can all agree that they are awesome. We can't speculate on what alien's limbs will look like, but it is likely that structures which vastly increase survivability by increasing the ability to interact with the environment will be conserved.\n\n* Plants/autotrophs. Plants turn sunlight into chemical energy, which is then eaten by animals. I can't imagine any system which does not utilize their star as the basis of their food chain, as it is such a useful and easily accessible source of energy. Now, this is not discounting planets with heavy cloud cover or planets which are far from their sun, but if these planets are even capable of supporting life it is unlikely that they can support complex organisms.\n\n* Lungs. The square-cube law is universal, which means that any organism bigger than a nematoad will need specialized structures to exchange gases with its environment. This isn't a problem with simple microorganisms, but with larger organisms, their volume is to great for them to be able to exchange gases with their skin. Even small insects have simple book lungs.\n\nNow, let's get into some biochemistry:\n\n* Cell membrane. Every organisms here on Earth has a cell membrane which separates \"self\" from \"environment\". This allows it to control homeostasis and perform cell functions which would be impossible if its molecules were allowed to simply diffuse throughout the environment. It is debatable if we would even be able to call an \"organism\" which could not even separate itself from its surroundings an organism at all.\n\n* DNA. It is not clear if DNA is the only or the best molecule for information storage, or if it is simply the one which by chance occurred on Earth. Whatever macromolecule an alien has, it has to be able to replicate itself and pass on information to subsequent generations. DNA is good at this, but we don't know if it is the best or simply the most fortunate.\n\n* Proteins. Again, it is unclear whether hypothetical biochemistrys will use the same molecules as we do, or if they will use something vastly different. The must be able to perform functions such as catalyzing reactions and replicating DNA at least, which is the job proteins do here on Earth. Because amino acids are not exactly rare throughout the cosmos, it is likely that aliens will use them in some way. How they do that, and whether or not it resembles our way, is up for debate.\n\nIn summary, there are certain things which are likely to be universally beneficial to any organism. These are likely to be observed in any system undergoing evolution. In addition, while it is likely that alien biochemistrys will be very different from our own, there are certain rules that all organisms probably have to play by.",
"It's really hard to say. It sort of seems that way, but we only have one data point. Pretty much everything that's happened on Earth is contingent on everything that happened before it, so it's really hard to draw any strong conclusions to that effect because we don't really have sufficiently independent observations to do so.",
"Not necessarily. There's a lot of things about life that 'could' be different, and lead to different forms of life. \n\nFirst of all, our 'life' is carbon based, because carbon has certain advantages when it comes to building life (four valence electrons, very good at linking to itself in unique ways, etc). Life found in other planets might be carbon based, but might also be silicon based (thus retaining many of the unique advantages), or it could be based of an element that we find surprising. \n\nAlso, life forms on earth use water almost exclusively as a panacea, due to a) the unique biochemistry of water and b) the availability of water, and c) water's ability to act as a solvent to a wide range of things. This is why a lot of our search for extraterrestrial life is focused on finding sources of water elsewhere. However, scientists as influencial as Carl Sagan have considered alternatives to water possible on other planets, including things like ammonia. \n\nIf life in other places are both carbon-based and water-using, then there is a reasonable chance that they also use DNA/RNA, and are shaped similarly to primitive bacteria. However, if one or both of these conditions are not held, then life would look radically different. \n\n(These two conditions are not the only two that would change life dramatically, but two of the main culprits.)"
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Question about Evolution
I was reading a book called Sciencia, which is just a big book with a brief overview of a multitude of different scientific concepts from Math to Physics to Chemistry to Biology and one section mentioned a concept called convergent evolution. Basically it said that there are only a few design solutions that solve certain problems like flying and vision, etc. It noted that there are several species with similar physical attributes that evolved in entirely different ways. i.e. the eye of a mammal is similar to the eye of say and octopus, but they two are built using entirely different DNA. My question is, if this is true, would it be reasonable to say that if there is a similar planet to Earth somewhere else in the universe, would the life that occupies the planet be somewhat similar to life on Earth?
|
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|
md54w
|
Why is it that sometimes when you are picking up or lifting something that is heavy, your body makes you scream, and in doing so, you feel as if it makes you stronger?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2zyk2p",
"c300qjf",
"c3008lg",
"c30035t"
],
"text": [
"From what I understand, the yell or scream you produce during the event of a short-burst of strenuous physical activity, would be an exaggerated exhalation. Whilst your thoracic chamber collapses during the exhalation (i.e. scream), you are also contracting a plethora of muscles in the thorax and abdomen, notwithstanding the other muscles needed to perform the feat, to convey the greatest amount of strength to the task at hand. Conversely, a lung-full of air could imbalance pressure in the core area of the body making it more difficult to do perform the feat.\n\n**Disclaimer:** this is simply a rendition of knowledge through physiology and anatomy classes.",
"This is an involuntary use of the Valsalva Maneuver... you raise internal blood pressure and intra-abdominal pressure to create a more stable platform from which to transfer power from your legs to your arms and vice versus. The yelling is no necessary. \n\nAlso related : Abdominal bracing vs. Abdominal Hollowing..... bracing = good, hollowing = shit.",
"Followup/related question: Is this related to the [valsalva maneuver](_URL_0_)? I seem to remember reading that this is sometimes utilized by weight lifters.",
"When you scream/yell, you are exhaling a large amount. This in sequence with what Shampoomyquarks said, also compresses your lungs. When your lungs compress, all of the newly oxygenated blood in the lungs is pushed out into the systemic circulatory system allowing for more blood to nourish the muscles associated with the action."
],
"score": [
5,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valsalva_maneuver"
]
}
|
Why is it that sometimes when you are picking up or lifting something that is heavy, your body makes you scream, and in doing so, you feel as if it makes you stronger?
|
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8khkhn
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Are Monte Carlo simulations really necessary, considering that in order to set up the simulation, you need to know enough about the problem such that you can solve it analytically?
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Consider the traditional MC simulation problem of simulating pi: you generate random points in a unit square and check to see if they lie inside or outside a unit circle. In order to run that simulation, you need to know the equation of the circle, which I would think imply that you already have the ability to compute pi without having to do the simulation. It makes me think that all MC simulations are like this -- you have to know enough about the problem to set up the simulation, which should be enough info to solve the problem already.
Are there practical problems for which Monte Carlo simulations are the only way to find a solution? If so, is that only because we don't know yet how to solve those problems analytically?
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askscience
|
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"> Consider the traditional MC simulation problem of simulating pi: you generate random points in a unit square and check to see if they lie inside or outside a unit circle. In order to run that simulation, you need to know the equation of the circle, which I would think imply that you already have the ability to compute pi without having to do the simulation.\n\nThis is an extremely simple example of Monte Carlo. It's supposed to illustrate how Monte Carlo works; it doesn't represent what Monte Carlo is actually used for in practice. In a realistic situation, the problem you are trying to solve with Monte Carlo is difficult, if not impossible, to solve analytically.",
"Monte Carlo simulations are useful for situations in which an analytical solution is known, but which the fastest supercomputer on Earth would not finish before the heat death of the universe. The n-body problem with high 'n' is a good example of this. To begin, the n-body problem can only be easily solved in certain restricted examples. Beyond those, you need to carry out simulations, which can be done to arbitrary accuracy over arbitrary time.\n\nBut you have a problem if there is uncertainty in initial or future variables. Since you can't just algebraicly solve for the whole probability-space, you have to independently simulate different combinations of possible variable values, and the number of combinations goes up exponentially with 'n'.\n\nIn the context of Solar System dynamics, for instance, you simply have so many bodies and so many variables contributing to the simulation you simply couldn't ever simulate them all, and have to sample. You might think, \"hey, why not just simulate for the extreme possible values of each variable and that will tell you your margin of error for final predictions?\" And if you did think that, you'd be wrong, because n-body simulations are chaotic, meaning that doesn't give you the actual range of possible outcomes.",
"> you generate random points in a unit square and check to see if they lie inside or outside a unit circle. In order to run that simulation, you need to know the equation of the circle, which I would think imply that you already have the ability to compute pi without having to do the simulation.\n\nNot necessarily. You generate points (x, y) randomly from (-1, -1) to (1, 1); and accept them if x^2 + y^2 < 1. You get the area of the unit circle as a ratio of accepted points to all points. Nowhere in the procedure you need to know the value of pi.\n\nThis works in general for any shape for which you know the \"inside\" and \"outside\", but not necessarily an explicit formula for its area. Computer graphics for example is full of such cases.",
"There are many problems for which we can find no closed form solution, often provably. MC gives us a way to get an answer.\n\nOr let's say you have a system with uncertainty in the inputs. Like, for example, the weather. You don't just compute one weather forcast for one set of starting conditions, you run thousands of simulations based on different starting conditions, and let the statistics tell you what is likely to happen. The trouble is we don't have exact and fine grained enough data to be able to accurately predict what will happen with 100% certainty. And even if we knew how, no one has time to sit down with paper, derive analytic equations for the specific conditions, solve them, and program them. So you take the information from the weather stations, vary them in 'usual' ways, run the simulations. Maybe 80% of them say you will get rain, well, there's your prediction - 80% chance of rain. \n\nOr you want to know where the hurricane is going to go. Running many models gives you a reasonable idea of the possibilities, and you can triage your efforts. You can't evacuate the entire coast (say), but you can evacuate the areas that are more likely to be most significantly affected by the hurricane.\n\nMany of these problems have something in common - many, highly coupled degrees of freedom. This becomes ferociously difficult to solve analytically even when small. \n\nOne of the simplest examples is the denominator of Bayes equation, which is a multiple integral that is extremely difficult to impossible to solve except for very special forms of probability distributions, such as Gaussians. So tracking applications, like self driving cars, tend to use particle filters, which are a form of MC sampling. By sampling you don't need to compute that impossible integral analytically, you just normalize your samples, effectively computing the denominator (dividing essentially normalizes).\n\nAlso, note that many of these problems are dealing with discrete, measured data. I can perform analytic operations with a Gaussian, for example, but draw an arbitrary wavey curve on a page to represent a PDF and tell me, what is the area between [0, 1.3)? You couldn't possibly figure that out analytically because you don't have an analytic representation for the curve in the first place. Now, you can numerically integrate it, sure, just like you can integrate the equation of a circle to get pi, but in practice that doesn't work. A curve on a piece of paper is 2 dimensions; imagine the combinatorial explosion when working in 20D, 50D, etc. In contrast, MC techniques can arrive at the solution with much less computation time. Yes, it is silly to do it for pi, but for real problems it is a very sound choice, and very often the only choice. \n\nIn many cases we are trying to solve inverse problems. That is, given this set of data, figure out what causal relations exist. That's not trivial (to say the least). It's common to express these problems using linear algebra, and in a broad sense we are finding the answer by inverting a matrix. If x is our state, then Gx would yield the data b, or GX=b. So, given data b, we need to invert G to figure out x. However, the matrix is almost never invertable. Tracking problems such as self driving cars fall into this category. We either don't have enough data, or we have too much data, and in either case there is no unique solution. Life gets considerably more difficult mathematically if the equations are not linear. Formulating it as an optimization problem makes the problem tractable. Another thing to do is recast it as a Bayesian inference problem (and that horrible denominator rears it's head). We can use MC techniques to solve either, and so we do.\n\n\ntl;dr: yes, many problems are not solvable analytically, but there are other factors such as computational speed, input uncertainty, or inverse problems.",
"One example that gets a lot of coverage these days is neural net machine learning. I give you a set of inputs and desired outputs (the \"training set\"), and ask for the settings of a neural net which will reproduce those outputs from the given inputs. In general, if the training set is large enough, no such settings will exist, so instead I ask for the settings that minimize the net's average error over the training set. That's a second-year calculus problem that we can solve analytically, in principle. In practice it is way to complicated to solve analytically; often there will be hundreds of millions of variables. So we use Monte Carlo, namely \"stochastic gradient descent\", and it works beautifully.",
"No, you do not need the ability to compute pi beforehand. While it is true that you need the equation and with _this_ equation you _can_ integrate it analytically to find the area (and thus pi) - two things: For one, the integrated equation will have a trigonometric function, which would still have to then be calculated numerically to find the value of pi, but of course this is much more efficient than using the Monte Carlo calculation. The other thing, however, is that the same technique will work with an equation where it is _not_ integratable analytically - consider the modification of the circle equation to the \"Lp\"-form: |x|^p + |y|^p = 1, for p > 1, which gives varying kinds of \"squircles\" as p gets larger (from p = 2 to p = 1, the squircles approach a diamond or tilted square, from p = 2 to p = oo they approach a square the \"right way up\".). These integrals cannot be solved analytically(*), but the Monte Carlo method will numerically estimate the answer just fine for arbitrary values of p. (Note that you do not need pi _explicitly_ to _do_ the simulation: you only need to know if a point is inside or outside, and that is just done by checking if the distance is within the radius, which amounts to x^2 + y^2 < 1. And of course, the analogous process for the \"Lp squircle\" is checking for |x|^p + |y|^p < 1.)\n\n(*) GAH - actually you _can_, _if_ you extend your \"analytic solutions\" to include a Hypergeometric function - and that can be much more efficient to compute! But you should get the idea you can use the MC even if you did not know about such things.\n\n(**) GAH 2 - _Actually_ that hypergeometric series, _directly_ converges rather badly but I believe can be converted to a fast converging form with tricks. With 1000 terms I get the area of the p = 2 as ~3.141604, vs. the correct ~3.141592, about 3.8 PPM accuracy. But using Monte Carlo with 1000 terms you get area as ~3.044 (random) - which is only within 3% (~3000 PPM). So the hypergeo is still more efficient; even without algebraic tricks to convert it to faster converging form. Nonetheless, the first point above still holds.",
"> in order to set up the simulation, you need to know enough about the problem such that you can solve it analytically?\n\nThe claim here is false.\n\nI've performed a great many Monte Carlo simulations -- and while it's important to know a certain amount about what you're doing (some properties of what you're trying to compute), and it's also true that knowing more can make it easier in a number of ways, you are typically dealing with a situation you can't compute analytically -- and in the cases where it's possible, it may be considerably less practical than simulation.\n\n\nIt's possible to prove that some calculations cannot be done analytically; this doesn't mean simulation is the only possible option -- in spite of the implication in your question which contains the premise that \"analytical methods\" and \"simulation methods\" exhaust the possibilities for computing quantities. They don't. \n\nThere's a variety of numerical methods that I wouldn't include in either camp that are sometimes important tools, and which may sometimes be better than simulation."
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Are Monte Carlo simulations really necessary, considering that in order to set up the simulation, you need to know enough about the problem such that you can solve it analytically?
Consider the traditional MC simulation problem of simulating pi: you generate random points in a unit square and check to see if they lie inside or outside a unit circle. In order to run that simulation, you need to know the equation of the circle, which I would think imply that you already have the ability to compute pi without having to do the simulation. It makes me think that all MC simulations are like this -- you have to know enough about the problem to set up the simulation, which should be enough info to solve the problem already. Are there practical problems for which Monte Carlo simulations are the only way to find a solution? If so, is that only because we don't know yet how to solve those problems analytically?
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] |
|
5lalah
|
What's something that was incurable 10 years ago which is curable now?
|
people actually like if their condition is incurable now, it's going to be that way for the rest of their life. How hopeless is it really? I know cancer has not been cured what about other things. Is there any decent chance that neuropathy will be cured soon? What has been cured in the last decade?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dbukkpr",
"dbuec0x",
"dbuiwie"
],
"text": [
"They invented [sofosbuvir](_URL_0_) and basically cured hepatitis C virus. Has been very controversial over the cost... a 12-week course of treatment costs about $84,000. But this gives a 95% success rate, so they are basically selling a product that is putting itself out of business. And they would argue they have to recoup the research costs. \n\nIt is a great topic of discussion for examining the subject of drug development costs and pharmaceutical prices.",
"> I know cancer has not been cured \n\nLots of cancers have been effectively cured. Especially childhood cancers, some of which have gone from survival rates of less than 10% to greater than 90% (see [Twenty years of follow-up among survivors of childhood and young adult acute myeloid leukemia: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study.](_URL_2_) and [Childhood and Adolescent Cancer Survival in the U.S. by Race and Ethnicity ](_URL_2_)). Admittedly, that's not on the 10-year scale asked about here.",
"'Cure' is a vague word. Lets consider mortality instead which is easy to quantify.\n\nWe are at a point where people pretty much dont have to die from AIDS anymore! It has become a disease to manage like diabetes instead of a death sentence. Not a cure or vaccine yet, but for somenoe with it, thats is absolutely live-savingly good.\n\nCancer mortality and years-to-live for many different kinds of cancer has been reduced substantially. Via new chemo/radiation/surgical therapies, early intervention and diagnosis and reduction of carcinogensis before it causes cancer. Some cancers have been traced to viruses which too can be controlled better.\n\nMany genetic diseases are now manageable instead of a life-sentence, in part from knowing what deficit they cause and knowing how to deal with those.\n\nYears-to-live for many kinds of organ deterioration/failure have increased quite a bit. From better transplant success rates, artificial implants, better management with external machines until implants/transplants become available etc.\n\nNeuropathy is a complex set of ailments, and it will depend on what exact kind you had in mind to see how close we might be to making progress there. But in general, instead of thinking of cures, you'll probably find more hope if you look at trends in increase of functional-years with the disease which can increase a little by little even if no breakthrough 'cure' per se can be found."
],
"score": [
53,
42,
12
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofosbuvir",
"http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/108/11/560?sso-checked=true",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2765225/"
]
}
|
What's something that was incurable 10 years ago which is curable now?
people actually like if their condition is incurable now, it's going to be that way for the rest of their life. How hopeless is it really? I know cancer has not been cured what about other things. Is there any decent chance that neuropathy will be cured soon? What has been cured in the last decade?
|
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|
opxcg
|
When did human beings start exercising?
|
From an anthropological standpoint, when did humans start developing and using exercises to improve physical fitness? When did we discover that repetitive motion + resistance = growth?
|
askscience
|
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"Physical activity for the sake of fitness began when we'd progressed to the point that members of society could survive without significant physical exertion - i.e., when society had reached a point where physically contributing members could support nonphysically contributing members to a degree where a primarily sedentary lifestyle was possible. Leaders, the aged, artisans and others would fall in this category. \n\nThere are references as far back as the early Chinese dynasties recognizing lack of activity as a contributor to ill health, so it's a connection people made pretty quickly. Remember, in a state of nature fitness is the norm - or you die. We wouldn't have \"developed exercise\" so much as we would have noticed an odd phenomenon of sedentary life and developed techniques to address it.",
"Every predator that I can think of utilizes play beginning at an early age to hone skills, and improve strength and conditioning. I would argue that is the foundation of what we humans have refined into \"exercise\" and this foundation stretches further down the evolutionary tree than just humans. So when did humans first start doing it? Whenever humans first existed.\n\nI think you mean consciously doing it though, not just as an instinct. I don't have a good answer for that, but with human mental prowess I don't think it would have taken them long to realize that the more someone runs the better they are at it. There would have been a lot of selection pressures for this behavior to develop, so I can't imagine it going unnoticed for long and it likely evolved long before anything so formal as a gymnasium was constructed.",
"It was at least before or during the [Neolithic Revolution](_URL_0_) for the same reason that other people gave (people started settling down). This was really the first time that people could survive without physically exerting themselves enough to stay fit so they would have quickly realized that exercise was vital to staying healthy. Any exercise that people did before this time would have probably been minimal and irregular if it happened at all because it is a huge risk to expend large amounts of energy when you don't know if you're going to be able to replenish it.",
"That is quite the general question. Do you mean exercising for health or for sport/games? I would agree Jack Lalane popularized the \"health\" portion of exercise in the past 100 years. On the competetive side, I would refer back to the original ancient olympic games. I would think they knew about exercise relating to greater physical strength and fitness back even then. _URL_1_\n\n\"By 720, men participated naked, except for the foot race-in-armor (50-60 pounds of helmet, greaves, and shield) that helped young men prepare for war by building speed and stamina. Achilles' epithet, swift footed, and the belief that Ares, god or war, was fastest of the gods indicate, according to Roger Dunkle (2), that the ability to win a race was a much admired martial skill.\"",
"Let me try to answer this from a different approach. In the modern sense of average middle class, middle age people exercising purely because they did not receive enough physical activity in their normal daily life. This goes back to 1948 in Santa Monica California.\n\nwikipedia:\n\"The earliest health clubs designed for the general public were probably the ones started back in 1947 when Vic Tanny opened an exercise facility in a Second Street loft in Santa Monica, California.\" \n_URL_2_\n\nPrior to world war 2 most people still worked on the farm and had very strenuous lives where exercise would not be needed. Once the majority of the population began working in manufacturing or office jobs physical activity was needed to stay fit. \n\nI also happen to believe that in the US Teddy Roosevelt was a major influence in reintroducing the idea that exercise and physical exertion was good and healthy. Remember that not to long before this the Victorian era notion of powder white skin and no physical exertion by women was the norm for rich people to show that they were rich and didn't have to work. I believe that white skin went out of fashion in the era of silent films when some actress went to the amazon and got all tanned or something.",
"This is a very loaded question, but he obviously is wondering when humans started exercising for fun. The majority of people who work out constantly get a joy out of it, so I'm assuming the \"exercise\" he is speaking of is probably traceable back to hunter/gatherer days.",
"Romans had practice swords that weighed twice as much as combat swords. They were used to build strength. There is an African tribe that has a jumping ritual and they practice that.",
"Try asking at [r/askhistorians](_URL_3_). IMO this sort of question will probably get a better answer there.",
"My hypothesis is that \"exercise\" seperate from \"work\" began with armed bands that began preying upon agricultural and trading communities. At some point communities may have clashed over resources (it could have been a survival issue, perhaps in a period of famine?) and in the process, the armed group of one community then robbed some of the stored resources of the community with which they were clashing. They then noticed (or simply repeated the behavior in following times of scarcity) how much easier it was to simply take from another community compared to having to cultivate, hunt, mine, etc... themselves (especially if they came from territories with little resource, poor soil, long winters, etc... like the \"vikings\" may have). They may have then evolved into relatively \"leisurely\" raiding communities. \n\nI'm hypothesizing that \"exercise\" came from a natural convergence of purposes occurring to establish pecking orders for leadership, jobs(roles in the society), mating and for entertainment and strength building -- as well as the physiological phenomenon that we recognize today as the \"runner's high\" or the feel-good reward of having engaged in physical labor. I think that within any kind of group, individuals want to demonstrate their importance to that group, so showing that you were the best (or at least a worthy) grappler, striker, spear thrower, archer, runner, etc... in a raiding society was important and thus people would practise those skills and this led to developing strength (and perhaps a greater level of and more task-specialized strength) that they no longer developed so much from manual labor (as in more strictly agricultural societies). The mating, leadership and status benefits in the group tied in to re-inforce the behavior. \n\nIn relatively \"recent\" history, the vastly greater size of the raiding societies (supranational empires and alliances such as the Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, French, Portuguese, English, Russian/Soviet, US empires, \"Axis\", \"NATO\", the \"UN\", the \"Soviet Bloc\", etc...) and technological efficiences (as well as technological efficiences throughout societies as a whole) have allowed for the actual raiding parties to be a smaller and more specialized segment of society and for development of a more sizable leisure class. Although exercise is still reinforced by factors such as status, leadership and mating it has lately found an increasing level of reinforcement from science -- which backs up previous observation that an active lifestyle contributes to longevity and a higher quality of life -- with a greater understanding of the processes involved (through chemistry, biology, anatomy, statistics, physiology, medicine, etc...).",
"I feel it is rather hard to speculate on the origin of exercising. I could only assume your definition of exercising as one consciously perform repetitive motion that is specifically tailored to attempt to perfect one's physical capability. I feel the earliest of the time would be the beginning of existence of war. When one side determine that physical fitness and mental cohesion is necessary to win a battle, it's when they begin to train soldiers so they would be superior to others. Though they will not be lifting weight or running on treadmill. However, things such as practice hand to hand combat, swordsmanship, archery, would be the old way of exercising. Not due to mentality of physical appearance, but for a purpose, to kill and win battles.",
"Probably the instant an individual needs to regularly perform a physically arduous task for the very first time, beyond his original routine.\n\nFor example farming. From the first morning an adolescent needs to help his dad with the hoe and plow, he's worn out. But he knows from his forebears that the second morning will be easier on his body, and so returns to the field again to plow a second day.\n\nThat is the first instance of conscious exercise---when the individual adopts a tasking physical lifestyle change for survival.",
"I'm not sure about the time but I have read that the ancient Romans would use a wooden \"practice sword\" that was made to weigh twice as much as their normal ones. Swinging these a couple times a day meant they would be able to swing their lighter, real ones much faster while in combat",
"I would say that the science of exercise did not take off until the 1950's. This was mainly due to make players larger for football in America. Instead of training their men on the field, they put them in the weight room. That is when coaches asked professes what makes a player bigger.",
"Our word gymnasium comes from ancient Greek. Gumnazomai meant to exercise oneself (usually naked). So there was a word for it before the Roman empire came about.",
"When people realized others would pay money for a machine to run on instead of running outside for free.",
"When we were able to stop chasing our food.",
"Found this link if anyone was interested.\n\n_URL_4_"
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3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution",
"http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/olympics/p/OlympicEvents.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_club#cite_note-3",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askhistorians",
"http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/history.html"
]
}
|
When did human beings start exercising?
From an anthropological standpoint, when did humans start developing and using exercises to improve physical fitness? When did we discover that repetitive motion + resistance = growth?
|
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|
n78zs
|
How good were our ancestors at keeping track of time in previous centuries? Is it definitely 2011?
|
Nowadays with everyone constantly in communication, it'd be pretty hard to add a day here or a week there, but are we certain that dates were kept properly throughout history? Have changes in what we consider to be a month or a year been taken into account when calculating the current date?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"There's actually a theory called the Phantom Time hypothesis that the dark ages never happened, and that we're actually in the 1700s now. This theory is totally, completely bonkers, but I suspect that if you track down some of the debunking articles on it you will get a good start on the evidence for the current date.\n\nRemember that we also have the various Chinese and Persian calendars running in parallel (and the Islamic calendar later on), if there had been years missed in our calendar then that would be obvious in accounts of events recorded by both sides, because there would be a discrepancy.",
"We've been using the Gregorian calendar since the late 1580's, when Pope Gregory XIII introduced a calendar system to replace the Julian calendar that had been in place since 58 BC when Julius Caesar implemented it. The Julian calendar was replaced because while it assumed that the year was 365.25 days long, the year is actually about 11 minutes shorter than that, and they still had leap years every four years. So, after about four centuries or so, there would be three extra days of error on the calendar from the extra 11 minutes accumulating over time. Since Easter is a big deal for the Catholic Church, and the Spring Equinox is tied to Easter, it simply wasn't cutting it, what with the equinox being pushed backed by almost ten days at the time of implementation. The gregorian calendar then eliminated three leap years every four centuries; any year exactly divisible by 100 that isn't exactly divisible by four hundred would not be a leap year, which is why the year 2000 is a leap year and 1900 isn't a leap year.\n\nIt's just a simple matter of calculation to keep everything in line with the new system.\n\nPrior to that, there was no \"uniform\" calendar. Just a hodgepodge of calendars based on lunisolar movements or star positions. I'm not very familiar with those, however.",
"Yes it is definitely 2011. Let's consider for the moment only the Greco-Roman and then Western Christian chronologies, which are the source of our calendar. \n\nGreek years were reckoned by Olympiads, and Roman years by consulships, or by years since the mythological founding of the city. These years never conflict with one-another but there are gaps in the records. How can we be sure that no mistake was made? The answer is simple: astronomy!\n\nI should explain that astronomy, especially the motion of the bodies in our solar system is a very, *very* precise science. We can predict (or deduce) the positions of the planets, moons and sun at any time, far into the future or past, with very good accuracy. \n\nThere are lots of records in the fragmented written history which refer to astronomical events, most notably eclipses (or comets). So you get Greek historians referring to battles happening in such-and-such an olympiad, and there was a lunar eclipse the night before. Then, you get another one saying that in an olympiad corresponding to 37 years later, there was a solar eclipse during the harvest or something like that. \n\nBecause we already have an idea of when these events happened, we can run the planetary motion simulation program, and we find that in 451 BC there was a lunar eclipse in Greece and that there was a solar eclipse in the fall of 434 BC in Greece or something like that. Because these events are rare, we can state with high confidence that those dates are exact. (I've made up the numbers and events, so don't try to Google them, but the principle is correct.)\n\nConsider Thales of Miletus, the first(!) Greek (and therefore Western) philosopher or scientist. Back then (600s-500s BC) the records were poor, and we're not even really sure exactly when he was born or died. He predicted a solar eclipse at some time in his life. But using astronomy, we just run the numbers, and we can state with great confidence that that was on May 28, 585 BC!\n\nSo we get a series of these instances in the written record referring to events that we can pin down with certainty, all along the written record. And it turns out that there are no gaps or overlaps, in other words, Western timekeeping has not lost or gained anything since it started, and we know that all dates in the past, in addition to the present dates, are not ballpark figures, but actually exact. This is all possible due to the precision of astronomy.\n\nSource: I have a degree in physics and a degree in the classics.",
"Also keep in mind that there is no year zero: \n\"\"Year zero\" does not exist in the widely used Gregorian calendar or in its predecessor, the Julian calendar. Under those systems, the year 1 BC is followed by AD 1\"\n\nfrom _URL_0_",
"Well, you can never be certain if a _single_ date is correct. But it'd be pretty unlikely for everybody using the same calendar to suddenly lose a day or a year. So calendars are pretty consistent 'internally'. But they're not necessarily consistent with what they're measured against. I.e. Jesus was probably not born in the year zero, but it's still 2011 years since the start of the Gregorian Calendar, which was defined relative the earlier year count, which was from the founding of Rome (also probably not accurate).\n\nThe definitions of months and years, and in particular the handling of leap days/weeks/months varies hugely between calendars, so to reliably convert between different systems, you basically have to count in terms of days, since that's the one unambiguous unit. You don't just equate dates in one to the 'equivalent' ones in another. Which is why the [October Revolution](_URL_1_) actually occurred in November, in the Gregorian calendar.",
"We actually are pretty certain that the year is accurate because we have cross-referenced recorded years of certain events that many historians witnessed, such as volcano explosions and the appearances of supernovas in the sky.",
"Check out the 13 month lunar calendar. 13 months of exactly 28 days. 4 weeks of 7 days. With 1 day each year considered the \"day out of time\". They say that this is how the women's menstrational cycles and many of natures cycles run, using this. \n\nThis calendar has been around for 1000s of years, and is much more in sync than our Gregorion calendar that has so many months of different amount of days and leap years and shit. \n\nI'm on alien blue, or else I would provide a link. But someone can google it.",
"_URL_2_\nWe should all be living in the 34th millennium by now. :P",
"I wondered about something similar a few years back, so I dived into this. There appear to have been two confusing periods with regard to our calendar:\n\n* There is quite a bit of uncertainty as to the application of the leap year rule in the early days of the Julian calendar (the predecessor of the Gregorian calendar). In the beginning the rule was not properly followed, and every third year was considered a leap year. This was fixed by emperor August at around 8 AD; but what happened before that is still topic of debate (see [Wikipedia](_URL_3_)).\n\n* the time at which the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar was made differs greatly among countries (and sometimes, within countries), and it is sometimes not fully clear when the transition was precisely made. The Gregorian reform was initiated by the pope, and many protestant countries didn't want to adopt it for that reason; so you will see that many traditionally Catholic countries adopted it early on after the papal decree (1582), while other countries followed much later. Notably, England only followed in 1752.\n\nApart from these two, everything appears to be fully clear -- at least for the Julian and Gregorian calendars.",
"historian here. the ancients were incredibly precise in their ability to record time. mayans, greeks, chinese, and everyone in between were able to keep very accurate star charts; both the lunar and solar calendars have always been quite accurate.",
"Well, first off, you can only really lose years. Many cultures were adept at working out the equinox, so while there have been periods when the calendar was 'off' because of length of year issues, this is a naming problem, not 'dereferenced time.' The absolute pin point of the solstice pretty much allows at least some cultures to keep aligned on days.\n\nYears can get lost, sure, and almost definitely HAVE. I can believe that between 0 A.D. and 2011 a few years have appeared or disappeared, but many? No, as stated by others, the alignment of calendars from different cultures argues against any large amount of missing time.\n\nI saw a talk by one of the 'Dark Ages Never Happened' guys and it just didn't make sense. He was willfully inserting missing time whenever there was the slightest ambiguity.",
"There is too much debating on something science fixed years ago. They used astrological events documented in history to fix the years. They can calculate when comets and eclipses will happen and have happened to adjust inaccuracies. So in a text book when it says 1495 it's most likely correct. Back then it could of been off. The calculation is so specific that it even take into account the earths rotation slowing.",
"I wonder if there is a chance, in the future, of extrapolating a more exact timeline of the big bang and having a \"true\" \"star date\" system.",
"At what point did we start counting years in AD? We obviously didn't do it in 1AD."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0_(year)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_Civilization#Rise_of_civilization",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar#Leap_year_error"
]
}
|
How good were our ancestors at keeping track of time in previous centuries? Is it definitely 2011?
Nowadays with everyone constantly in communication, it'd be pretty hard to add a day here or a week there, but are we certain that dates were kept properly throughout history? Have changes in what we consider to be a month or a year been taken into account when calculating the current date?
|
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|
to32i
|
how do microchips know time?
|
I know wrist watches use a piezo quartz vibrating to maintain time. But how do other chips, from the processors in our computers to more simple chips that might just make an LED in a circuit flash, work out delays and time?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Crystal oscillators\n[Wikipedia](_URL_1_)\n > A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as \"crystal oscillators.\"\n\nHope that helps.\n\nYou were also asking about the flashing LED\nThe LED is wired up to another little chip, which again gets its clock from some kind of an crystal oscillator. But you dont need a new crystal for every chip. \nIt´s possible to divide the clock rate in half by using [JK latches](_URL_0_). (Linking fixed, thanks to droneprime)",
"CPUs use a clock signal as sort of a metronome to control the signal flow. The clock signal is produced using a crystal oscillator circuit.",
"I am an electrical engineer, so i'll provide an answer. Your question depends on what sort of time signal you think about. Do you want the time, in hours, minutes and seconds(and date, month, year, etc)? Or just a signal that flash eg. once per second?\n\nIn the first case, you will need a real-time clock(RTC). It is basically an oscillator with some counters and perhaps some memory. The oscillator is usually a crystal, as they provide the most precise signals, but it can be something like an RC circuit, as other people mention. The crystal will actually oscillate and vibrate at a very precise and known frequency. The built-in counter counts the oscillations, and when a certain value is counted, it knows that now one second has passed. A typical RTC oscillator frequency is 32.768kHz. This means that the counter must count to 2^15 in order to know that one second is passed. Then, when the value is reached, it resets, but sends a signal to another counter. This counter then count to 60, and this indicates seconds. this again sends a signal to the next counter, which counts to 60. The next counter counts to 24 to indicate hour, and so on. There is typically some other logic to take into account leap-years and date of certain months and so on. Some memory might be present to store the counter values in case you need to change the battery or depending on the implementation of the counters.\n\nAs you can see, each year is dependent on each date, which is dependent on each hour, which is dependent on each minute, which again is dependent on each second, which is finally dependent on 32768 oscillations of the crystal. Thus, you can imagine how a small imprecision in the oscillations of the crystal will ripple through the system and potentially provide a wrong answer. Fortunately, crystals are very precise.\n\nIf you only need a light to blink eg. once every second, but don't care about the date or time, there is no need to build such a complicated system. It will be much easier to just use an RC oscillator. It will be less precise and prone to age of the components as well as the temperature, but since you only want a blinking light and not a precise time reference, you usually don't care if the light blinks 1.000 per second or 1.001 per second. It will also be cheaper to build in terms of components(crystals are expensive). The funny part is, that the light source will use much more power than the RTC clock.\n\n[Here is a little writeup on the power consumption of an RTC](_URL_2_). For reference, i can tell you that an LED uses around 10-20mA, which would be enough to run off the CR2032 cell for around 100-200 hours, not counting the power consumption of the RC timer itself :)",
"It seems like nobody has really given you a complete explanation, so let me take a knock at it.\n\nThere's a guy that referenced charge and decay rates from RC circuits. While it is true that you can measure time by taking voltage measurements, this is NOT how modern day microchips know time. RC analog circuits are simply not accurate enough to perform the precision you need for digital clocks.\n\nThe short answer has already been given to you with [crystal oscillators](_URL_4_) and [phase locked loops](_URL_5_), but there's a little more to the answer than this. Getting a stable clock source is only one part of the equation.\n\nLet's say you have a steady 1 kHz clock (using a crystal clock and phase locked loop, of course), meaning that every 1 second the signal goes on and off 1000 times. This means that for all intents and purposes, your circuit or \"clock\" could never measure more accurately than .001 fraction of a second. This is called your 'resolution.' While this resolution isn't bad, it's still far from great when you're talking digital circuits. You can see why having a much faster clock (GHz range instead of kHz) can be so important when you're talking about precise measurements.\n\nNow, even chips that run in the GHz range will work out long time delays such as 10 seconds or even hours. How does this work? \n\nThe simplest way is to use a counter. As an example, let's go back to our kHz clock that turns on and off 1000 times a second. If you wanted to measure **five seconds**, and flash an LED, you could start a counter that increments from 0 to 5000, toggles the LED, and repeats. Given any clock frequency, you can figure out how high your counter should go to calculate any time. (Counter = ClockFrequency * TimeDelay)\n\nWhile this is the simplest solution, it's FAR from the BEST solution. The most common solution is done in software using [interrupts...](_URL_3_) specifically 'timed' or 'periodic' interrupts. Interrupts are features that are already built into a microchip that allow you to basically tell a computer, in X amount of time, wake up and do something. Without getting too involved, that's the essence of a periodic interrupt.\n\nThe answer gets even more complicated when you're talking about different 'threads' or 'cores' running at the same time, but hopefully this quick answer helps a little bit.",
"It literally uses the exact same thing. The Real Time Clock on your motherboard utilizes a quartz crystal oscillator just like your wrist watch. It uses an oversized watch battery to run it while your PC is powered off.",
"I'm not sure there's a full, accurate answer here yet, so I'll add my two cents.\n\nAs a preface, I'll mention that tiny quartz crystals in the shape of a tuning rod can be precisely calibrated to resonate at a specific frequency. Due to the piezoelectric effect this allows the crystal's vibration to be driven by electric current and also to generate a precisely timed series of electrical pulses. Those pulses are then used in digital circuitry which does little more than add numbers together in order to keep track of seconds, minutes, days, months, years, etc.\n\nIn a typical computer there is an entire subsystem that is effectively just a little quartz watch. This is called the [Real Time Clock](_URL_6_). Computer systems can use this clock to keep track of time, and they can use it in conjunction with it's own sub-systems to keep track of extremely short timescales as well (since the CPU is also powered by a precisely controlled high frequency \"clock\" signal). This sub-system contains a battery so that even when the power is off your computer will still keep track of time.\n\nAdditionally, modern computers call out to trusted time servers on the local network or the internet to keep their clocks calibrated over longer periods of time.",
"There are a lot of answers here for how the time pulse works, but none on how time is stored. In a digital system, typically time is stored in a 32 bit or 64 bit integer. Depending on the system, this integer is the number of seconds since jan 1 1970 (unix), or the number of 100 nanosecond intervals since jan 1 1601(windows). The software or microchip then has a routine that converts this integer number into a real world representable date/time. I recommend reading the Wikipedia article on \"system time\""
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_\\(electronics\\)#JK_latch",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/to32i/how_do_microchips_know_time/c4oa5d2",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-locked_loop",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_time_clock"
]
}
|
how do microchips know time?
I know wrist watches use a piezo quartz vibrating to maintain time. But how do other chips, from the processors in our computers to more simple chips that might just make an LED in a circuit flash, work out delays and time?
|
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] |
|
n4pfg
|
How can we measure the absolute speed of something?
|
As far as I understand everything is moving. Our solar system is moving, our galaxy is moving. So basically we have no point of reference to determine what our absolute speed is.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c367t6i",
"c367uzl",
"c367txb",
"c367tfk"
],
"text": [
"There is no absolute speed, only relative speed.",
"I'm seeing some quick/not fully explained answers here, so here is a link to a series of askscience questions related to special relativity. \n\n[A good summary of the simple questions about special relativity](_URL_0_ )\n-",
"One of the most basic claims to come out of Special Relativity was that there is no \"preferred frame\". \n\nThere's no such thing as an absolute speed.",
"Einstein's special theory of relativity showed that there is no preferred inertial reference frame; in other words, the notion of absolute speed is meaningless."
],
"score": [
17,
9,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/hoi8o/if_you_have_two_very_high_relative_velocities_why/"
]
}
|
How can we measure the absolute speed of something?
As far as I understand everything is moving. Our solar system is moving, our galaxy is moving. So basically we have no point of reference to determine what our absolute speed is.
|
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|
mkeyo
|
Why do our brains know how far to throw a ball, and where to catch that ball.
|
I'm amazed by these two little features because they seem to be almost innate abilities.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c31mwun",
"c31r80h",
"c31mlng",
"c31nbjf"
],
"text": [
"There's some evidence that humans actually evolved intelligence to throw objects (spears and rocks especially) well and then co-opted that structure. When you throw an object and anticipate where it will go you are essentially approximating solutions to a very tough set of differential equations. Neuroscientist William Calvin is one of the main proponents of this idea. It is discussed in two of his books \"A Brief History of the Mind\" and \"The Throwing Madonna\" (the second is a collection of his essays only some of which are relevant to this hypothesis.)",
"Our brains know how far to throw a ball and how to catch a ball because it is a very useful task. This is similar to why our brain knows how to evacuate our bowels, and how to cry as newborns. If our brain did not know these things, we probably would have been weeded out by natural selection long ago. \n\nAs for \"how\" our brain knows these things, I am not equipped to answer, but at least we have \"why\" figured out now.",
"Practice. Combination of muscle memory, motor precision, vision processing, and experience.",
"Carl Sagan talks about it in [this book](_URL_0_) \nWe (animals/life) have an understanding of physics built into us, the same way a lion knows how to chase down its prey."
],
"score": [
8,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.amazon.com/Varieties-Scientific-Experience-Personal-Search/dp/0143112627/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1321905618&sr=1-1"
]
}
|
Why do our brains know how far to throw a ball, and where to catch that ball.
I'm amazed by these two little features because they seem to be almost innate abilities.
|
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|
1010yh
|
I've always had outdoor cats and i never understood something. What compels them to come back home?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c69iz61",
"c69j832",
"c69j8pb",
"c69k0en"
],
"text": [
"Cats are territorial creatures, they basically have a \"home-base\" where they eat, sleep, etc.\n\nA paper on territorial habits of cats: _URL_1_\n\nEasier to digest article:\n_URL_0_",
"Is it possible to convince a cat to change its \"home base\" or will it always go back to the original until somehow kept from doing so?",
"According to [this](_URL_2_) article, cats are social species, and only stay in a solitary state when food resources are too minimal to allow a social group to form. Also, according to the same source they have established territories, so it makes sense that they'd show back up at your house which would be part of their range. \n\nEdit--Moving this bit to say the above is cited and these are my speculations based upon what I read in that article: While this article is specifically talking about interactions with other cats, I think the socialization points can be applied to humans, in much the same way that domesticated dogs bond to humans instead of other members of a dog/wolfpack.",
"I have heard about cats going away from home to die, is that true?"
],
"score": [
344,
59,
44,
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://news.illinois.edu/news/11/0526_cat_study_Horn-Mateus-Warner.html",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jwmg.145/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+21+May+from+10-12+BST+for+monthly+maintenance",
"http://zoopsy.free.fr/veille_biblio/social_organization_cat_2004.pdf"
]
}
|
I've always had outdoor cats and i never understood something. What compels them to come back home?
|
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||
3oub6x
|
How fast do I have to go to reach Alpha Centauri in 4.37 years (on my clock)?
|
Alpha Centauri is 4.37 lightyears distant. If I go at 0.01 x *c*, then it woult take me 437 years, because Lorentz contractions are not significant.
If I go at 0.99999999 *c* I would arrive in just a few days, since in my reference frame, the distance would shrink and I'd get there quicker.
How fast do I go to get there in 4.37 years from my point of view?
Hard mode: if I start at Earth and constantly accelerate until I get midway, then constantly decelerate until I get to Alpha Centauri. How hard would I have to accelerate/decelerate to arrive there 4.37 years later?
Star problem: can somebody get me a Wolfram Alpha query that answers this question for any arbitrary distance? That is, "how hard would I need to accelerate in order to arrive at *X* lightyears distance in *X* years of subjective time?"
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cw0jkcl",
"cw0jm6j",
"cw0vl4o",
"cw0m28i",
"cw0ua5f"
],
"text": [
"This is a question about relativistic [proper velocity](_URL_0_).\n\nFor easy mode: assume you're using convenient units where speed is measured as a fraction of c, and time and distance use the same units (eg years and lightyears), then: γ=sqrt( 1 / 1-v^2 ), and Tp (proper time) = (d/v)/γ. You're trying to solve for Tp=d, or in other words, for vγ=1. You reach that for v=sqrt(1/2), in other words, about 71% the speed of light.\n\nFor hard mode, take a look at the \"Unidirectional acceleration via proper velocity\" section of the wikipedia article.",
"According to [this post on relativistic rockets](_URL_1_) if you accelerated at 1g constantly, turning around half way, you'd reach Alpha Centauri in 3.6 years. The formulas are a bit beyond me but someone should be able to adjust them to work out the acceleration required to reach Alpha Centauri in 4.37 years.",
"> Hard mode: if I start at Earth and constantly accelerate until I get midway, then constantly decelerate until I get to Alpha Centauri. How hard would I have to accelerate/decelerate to arrive there 4.37 years later?\n\nSee [this post](_URL_5_) and [this post](_URL_6_). The formulas therein apply to a trip in which you have piecewise constant proper acceleration: you accelerate for half of the trip and then decelerate for the second half so that your destination is at rest with respect to you when you arrive. (Be careful though: some of the formulas might apply only to the first half of the journey, so make sure to read the post for context.) The calculations also ignore gravity since they are done in SR. For instance, if you try to use the formulas for cosmological distances or time, then universal expansion is likely to become non-negligible.\n\n > Star problem: can somebody get me a Wolfram Alpha query that answers this question for any arbitrary distance? That is, \"how hard would I need to accelerate in order to arrive at X lightyears distance in X years of subjective time?\"\n\nGiven S = time as measured by you and L = distance to destination as measured by Earth, the required proper acceleration *a* > 0 satisfies the equation\n\n`[; \\cosh\\left(\\frac{aS}{2c}\\right) = 1+\\frac{aL}{2c^2} ;]`\n\nSo you have to use a numerical solver to solve this equation for *a*. You are asking about traveling a distance L in proper time S = L/c (e.g., 4.37 light-years in 4.37 years). So we have to solve the equation\n\n`[; \\cosh(z) = 1+z ;]`\n\nwhere\n\n`[; z = \\frac{aL}{2c^2} ;]`\n\nThe approximate numerical solution to the first equation is [z = 1.61614](_URL_5_). Hence *a* = 2c^(2)z/L. For Alpha Centauri (L = 4.37 ly), we have\n\n > [a = 7.027 m/s^(2)] (_URL_6_)\n\nNote that *a* scales like 1/L; the larger the distance, the smaller the required proper acceleration. However, your maximum speed (with respect to Earth) during this trip is\n\n`[; \\frac{v}{c} = \\tanh\\left(\\frac{aS}{2c}\\right) = \\tanh(z) = \\frac{\\sqrt{(1+z)^2-1}}{1+z} = \\sqrt{1-\\frac{1}{(1+z)^2}} ;]`\n\nSubstituting the value z = 1.61614 gives [v = 0.9241c](_URL_6_). Note that this maximum speed is independent of the distance to your destination, since it depends only on *z*. The only requirement is that you travel an Earth-distance of L in proper time L/c.",
"You can use special relativity to get an equation that looks like: \n\n x' = ( c^2 / a ) ( cosh (a tau/c ) - 1) \n\nFor the distance traveled by an observer accelerating at a constant rate. *x'* is the distance in the earth's frame. \n\nIt's easy enough to just solve this on the accelerating leg of the journey. Let proper time *tau* = 4.37/2=2.185 years, and *x'* is 2.185 lightyears (in the earth frame). \n\nSince it's a bitch to solve for *a*, I'll just guess and check. Starting with [*a=g*,](_URL_7_) I get 3.7 light years. \n\nSo I find that an acceleration of [*a*=7.1 m/s^2](_URL_8_) gets us a distance of about 2.2 light years in about 2.2 years. This is a bit less than Venus surface gravity, but still much better than Mars or Mercury. It would be a comfortable trip (barring the radiation).",
"The formula for distance (d) traveled after proper time (T) in the starting frame of reference at acceleration (a) is:\n\n* d = (c^2 / a) * (cosh(a * T / c ) - 1)\n\nJust fill in some values and ask wolfram alpha\n\n* c = 1 ly/year^2\n* T = 4.37/2 years\n* d = 4.37/2 ly\n\n_URL_9_\n\n* a = 0.739651 ly/year^2\n* a = 7.026723 m/s^2"
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_velocity",
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/rocket.html",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3js7t7/question_about_relativity_on_a_trip_to_alpha/",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Solve+Cosh%28z%29+%3D+1%2Bz+for+z+%3E+0",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=tanh%281.61614%29",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3m3zb0/every_single_space_ship_acceleration_at_1g/",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=2*c%5E2*1.61614%2F%284.37+light+year%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28c^2+%2F+9.81+m%2Fs^2+%29%28+++cosh+%289.81+m%2Fs^2+*+%282.185+year%29++%2F+c%29+-+1+%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28c^2+%2F+7.2+m%2Fs^2+%29%28+++cosh+%287.2+m%2Fs^2+*+%282.185+year%29++%2F+c%29+-+1+%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=linsolve+%284.37%2F2%29+%3D+%281%5E2+%2F+a%29+*+%28cosh%28a+*+%284.37+%2F+2%29+%2F+1%29+-+1%29"
]
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|
How fast do I have to go to reach Alpha Centauri in 4.37 years (on my clock)?
Alpha Centauri is 4.37 lightyears distant. If I go at 0.01 x *c*, then it woult take me 437 years, because Lorentz contractions are not significant. If I go at 0.99999999 *c* I would arrive in just a few days, since in my reference frame, the distance would shrink and I'd get there quicker. How fast do I go to get there in 4.37 years from my point of view? Hard mode: if I start at Earth and constantly accelerate until I get midway, then constantly decelerate until I get to Alpha Centauri. How hard would I have to accelerate/decelerate to arrive there 4.37 years later? Star problem: can somebody get me a Wolfram Alpha query that answers this question for any arbitrary distance? That is, "how hard would I need to accelerate in order to arrive at *X* lightyears distance in *X* years of subjective time?"
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llsry
|
Is the extrovert/introvert thing supported by science? Or is it just another pop-psych myth?
|
I'm not a scientist, but it seems very oversimplified to me. Is this dichotomy of personality actually supported by evidence, or is it just another attempt to categorize ourselves?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"You are artificially creating a dichotomy and then you're using it to disprove the \"extrovert/introvert thing\" as an oversimplification, when there are multiple degrees of extroversion/introversion. Is the dichotomy of human height supported by evidence? No. It doesn't mean that there are no tall/short people.",
"I remember there was a study about the introvert and extrovert difference can be from the difference of how blood flows through different parts of the brain. \n\nOh, Wikipedia never fails:\n > One study found that introverts have more blood flow in the frontal lobes of their brain and the anterior or frontal thalamus, which are areas dealing with internal processing, such as planning and problem solving. Extraverts have more blood flow in the anterior cingulate gyrus, temporal lobes, and posterior thalamus, which are involved in sensory and emotional experience.\n\nSource: Johnson, D. L., Wiebe, J. S., Gold, S. M., Andreasen, N. C. (1999). Cerebral blood flow and personality: A positron emission tomography study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 252–257.",
"There has been research focusing on the psychobiological basis of intro and extroversion but it is something I am not too familiar with, but here are some related studies: \n\n\"On both psychological and physiological grounds it is suggested that the hypothesis in Eysenck's theory of introversion-extraversion attributing greater conditionability to the introvert should be replaced by the hypothesis that the introvert is relatively more sensitive to punishment and to frustrative nonreward. The data on which this conclusion is based stem chiefly from the study of eyeblink conditioning in Man as a function of personality, and from the study of the physiological locus of action of the extraverting drug, sodium amobarbital, in animals. It is suggested that the physiological basis of introversion includes, besides the Ascending Reticular Activating System, an inhibitory system comprising the orbital frontal cortex, the medial septal area and the hippocampus. This system is able to carry out the essential psychological functions believed by Eysenck to underlie introversion-extraversion. A new conception of neuroticism as reflecting degree of sensitivity to both reward and punishment is also proposed.\"\n\nJeffrey A. Grey. (1970) The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy\n\n\n\n\n\"A recent theory suggests that the agency facet of Extraversion (E) is based on brain dopamine (DA). The paucity of human data relevant to this model is probably due to the lack of widely accessible noninvasive psychophysiological indices and well-established behavioral measures sensitive to both E and manipulations of DA activity. Aiming to identify such measures, the authors assessed the electroencephalogram and n-back task performance in groups of introverts and extraverts after administration of either placebo or a selective DA D2 receptor antagonist. As predicted, the antagonist's effects on n-back reaction time measures and frontal versus parietal electroencephalogram theta activity were strongly and specifically modulated by E. New research avenues and theoretical extensions suggested by these results are discussed.\"\n\nWacker, Jan, Chavanon, Mira-Lynn, Stemmler, Gerhard. (2006)\nInvestigating the Dopaminergic Basis of Extraversion in Humans: A Multilevel Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.",
"A large part of science is based on the categorization of phenomena, so I'd never call something \"just another attempt to categorize x.\" Whether or not we have clear evidence of the causes of introversion and extroversion, it's pretty clear that some people prefer high energy social situations and some people prefer their own company, so to speak; I wouldn't really call it a dichotomy so much as a gradient, though.",
"My question would be (which I think may be the same as OP): Can you separate people into groups of extraverts and introverts and observe a significant difference between them? And are there studies on this?\n\nI realize that it's probably not as simple as that. We're probably talking about a spectrum on which people are distributed like a bell curve - not just two simple groups. And these ideas may also have different definitions depending on the psychologist.\n\nBut if the idea of extraversion/introversion is of significance there should be an observable difference between everyone on one side of the spectrum and everyone on the other side, and especially between the extremes. And also, if you look at the spectrum it should produce a corresponding spectrum of the differences."
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Is the extrovert/introvert thing supported by science? Or is it just another pop-psych myth?
I'm not a scientist, but it seems very oversimplified to me. Is this dichotomy of personality actually supported by evidence, or is it just another attempt to categorize ourselves?
|
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|
408j11
|
Does every pure chemical have a triple point?
|
A triple point is a temperature and pressure where the substance is simultaneously a solid, liquid and a gas
Are triple points for some substances predicted theoretically but hard to test?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cyshqhg",
"cysi9y7",
"cyss7kl"
],
"text": [
"Helium does not have a triple point.\n\nAs shown in [the phase diagram](_URL_0_), helium remains a liquid (as a superfluid) all the way down to absolute zero. \n\nNow, it does have \"lambda point\" near 2 Kelvin and 60 atmospheres where a single point separate the solid, normal liquid, and superfluid states, but there is no triple point that separates the gas, liquid, and solid states.\n\n(EDIT: Swapped out the Helium-3 phase diagram for the far more common Helium-4 phase diagram.)",
"Not all.\n\nHelium is the notable example, as the 'freezing point' for He is 25 ATM at about 1 Kelvin, the extreme pressures and temperatures required to produce the solid pre-empt it from having a traditional triple point. A triple point can be thought of as the minimum temperature that a fluid exists. Since the fluid exists to 0K (as close as we can tell) then there are problems getting to a triple point. Helium does however have two states of superfluid that can function like a triple point (co-exist with boiling at the right temp and pressure). Even those are up for debate as He is not a traditional liquid (or solid) but superliquid and supersolid.\n\nLikewise, not all elements have existed long enough/been observed enough to have their triple point characterized. While the triple point is theorized to exist (not all even have good predictions of the triple point), the value of that point must be validated by careful measure.\n\nSo it's really how much do you want to nitpick. You can broad-strokes the whole thing and say every element has a triple point. Or you can say that because we haven't observed a triple point for all recorded elements and/or helium's triple point is a matter of some debate (do two fluid states with distinct properties count the same as a solid/fluid state?) so most but not all elements have this point.",
"> A triple point is a temperature and pressure where the substance is simultaneously a solid, liquid and a gas\n\nThat's wrong. I'm surprised that now one pointed that out yet but the triple point is the point where all three phases (gas, liquid, solid) are in equilibrium. \nThe critical point is the point where a substance is liquid and gas at the same time if one wants so but that's not the case at the triple point."
],
"score": [
637,
73,
28
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/v6LDmuB.gif"
]
}
|
Does every pure chemical have a triple point?
A triple point is a temperature and pressure where the substance is simultaneously a solid, liquid and a gas Are triple points for some substances predicted theoretically but hard to test?
|
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|
xvc6o
|
Whether man-made, natural or extra-terrestrial in source, what was the largest energetic event Earth has ever witnessed in joules?
|
8+ VEI Super Volcanoes, 9.0+ Earthquakes, Nuclear Weapons, Meteor Impacts, etc. -- what event holds the record for the most joules of energy output on Earth?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"If you don't count the formation of the planet itself, then probably the [impact that created the Moon](_URL_0_). If I'm plugging in the numbers correctly, the energy comes out to around 4*10^31 J.",
"depends what you mean by \"witnessed\". the light from distant super-nova explosions can be witnessed from earth with a powerful enough telescope. those are certainly far more energetic than nearly everything else in the galaxy.",
"Energetic, or powerful? Energy is measured in Joules, Power is measured in Joules per second, or Watts. \n\nIf you're talking energetic, the Sun has output ~6E43J in the 5 billion years since it started fusing.",
"Large asteroid impacts usually have more energy than most volcanoes, but these are extremely rare and smaller metheorites that barely even reach the ground are slightly more common.\n\nThe largest nuclear weapons are dwarfed even by a smaller volcanic erruption. And volcanos are pretty normal on earth.\n\nNuclear esplosions become unpractical for warfare beyond a point were most of the energy just goes up and not sideways.\n\nIf we would have decided to use nuclear explosions for mining operations and use fusion bombs for it by now, these would barely have a limit energy wise, but they would also spread radioactive dust all over the place resulting in a few years without summer and only half as much sunlight, causing starvation worldwide for a hole in the ground. That why we do not do it. If you think that the idea is insane, have a reminder that human insanity knows no limits: _URL_3_\n\n\nhave a _URL_3_\n\nand play with _URL_3_",
"According to the [Giant Impact hypothesis](_URL_4_), the Moon was created when a planetoid collided with the early Earth. I doubt anything comes close to that.",
"It could be argued that the most energetic effect is still ongoing. Technically, the sun has been depositing (approximately) 1.74831e11 watts onto Earth for the last 4.54 billion years, or approximately 800,000,000,000,000,000,000 joules so far.",
"How about the ignition of the sun? It is an event which continues to this day, and should continue for quite a while longer. [Approx 174 petawatts](_URL_5_) times 4.5 billion years, yields 2.5*10^31 J."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis",
"http://www.carloslabs.com/projects/200712B/GroundZero.html",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/george_dyson_on_project_orion.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_on_Earth",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Breakdown_of_the_incoming_solar_energy.svg"
]
}
|
Whether man-made, natural or extra-terrestrial in source, what was the largest energetic event Earth has ever witnessed in joules?
8+ VEI Super Volcanoes, 9.0+ Earthquakes, Nuclear Weapons, Meteor Impacts, etc. -- what event holds the record for the most joules of energy output on Earth?
|
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4mskhx
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AskScience AMA Series: I am Dr. Laura Kloepper, a biologist who studies the emergence and echolocation dynamics of large bat cave colonies. This summer I am traveling and camping with two female students as we record bats across the Southwest. Ask Me Anything!
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Hi Reddit! I am Dr. Laura Kloepper, an Assistant Professor of Biology at Saint Mary's College in Notre Dame, Indiana. My research involves using audio, video, and thermal imagery to understand the emergence, flight, and echolocation dynamics of large (1 million +) colonies of Mexican Free-tailed bats. These bats leave the cave at densities of up to 1,000 bats per second, flying at speeds of 25 mph, beating their wings ten times per second, and rarely run into each other. Their primary mode of navigation is using echolocation, or making a loud sound and using the information in the echoes to create a visual representation of their surroundings. Everything we know about biology, mathematics and physics says that they should not be able to successfully echolocate in these large groups. My main research involves trying to understand how they are able to successfully navigate via echolocation without interfering with one another, and these findings have technological implications to improve man-made sonar. I am also interested in flight dynamics in large groups, factors that control the emergence timing, and unique characteristics of bat guano.
This summer I am traveling with two female undergraduate students and my trusty field dog as we visit 8 caves across the Southwest to tackle multiple research projects. We will be doing a lot of camping, consuming a lot of canned food, and putting close to 7,000 miles on our rental SUV. We will be documenting our journey on our blog, _URL_0_, or on our Twitter and Instagram (@smcbellebats).
I will be here from 12:00pm EDT to 2:00pm EDT to answer your questions...AMA!
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askscience
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"Out of curiosity, why was it necessary to mention that the two students assisting you were female?",
"How do the bats avoid crosstalk? Do they all echo locate at different frequencies, or is it highly directional? Or do they rely on some kind of \"near field\" communication with a couple of key bats doing the ranging for the group?",
"You mention specifically that you're traveling with two other women who are scientists. Do you feel like you have to address gender in order to remind the broader world that women are an important part of the scientific community?",
"Is echo location an innate skill? Or is there a learning curve? Do baby bats need to learn echo location, or can they do it as soon as they fly? Same question for flying, do baby bats need to learn or do they just drop and fly?\n\nAnd be sure to include photos of your dog in your blog posts! What's your dog's name?",
"Hi Dr. Kloepper, \n\nI studied bats in grad school and loved it. Such fascinating creatures that are unfortunately so misunderstood. I hope to work with them again in the future. Public perception may be changing, slowly... I have two questions: \n\n1) I don't know how common it may be, but I have read of some accounts that suggest bats may navigate using eyesight during well-lit times (e.g., dusk or full moon nights). Do you have any experience with this? Do you think this is to avoid detection by prey, or maybe because it's more energetically efficient than echolocation? \n\n2) It is commonly said that bats are highly prone to human disturbance, including noise. I worked with Rafinesque's big-eared bats and did not see this sensitivity to the degree that is often suggested in bat circles, but I'm still amazed that bats take up residence in what must be very noisy places like the Congress Ave bridge in Austin. What are your thoughts on this?",
"Hi Dr. Kloepper,\nHow has white nose syndrome affected your work? Last reports I heard had it in Nebraska and moving west but I'm not clear on how the south has been affected by it. Do you still treat each site with the potential for infection and sterilize as if it was there?",
"Hi Dr. Laura Kloepper,\n\nWhat's the biggest misconception about bats that you would like to debunk?\n\nAlso, how come they don't interfere with each other? How do you get to claim/identify something as complex as that?\n\nThank you for doing this AMA!",
"Hello,\n\nI am a photographer that knows of a cave with bats in it, and would like to photograph some. I would of course want to do so with a minimum of harm. Could you give me some recommendations for how and when to do it, or explain why not do it at all? Ideally I would like to use a flash to catch one in flight, and probably to use IR illumination to get around in the dark.\n\nTo ask something more ontopic, is there any affordable equipment I could use to capture the sounds they make?\n\nThanks!",
"Hey, I saw your talk yesterday at the World Science Festival, and I mainly just wanted to tell you that it was an excellent talk. But I'll ask a question, too: Can you elaborate on why you say, \"Everything we know about biology, mathematics and physics says that they should not be able to successfully echolocate in these large groups.\" Are you saying that man-made sonar placed in a similarly noisy environment is incapable of producing a roughly usable 3D map its surroundings? (And if so, why not?)\n\nBonus question: Tell us something fascinating about bat guano.",
"Hello, physicist here. I read an article in Nature magazine a few years ago discussing echolocation. If I remember correctly, part of the article described how the bats can control the \"divergence\" of the sound they produce by altering their vocal chords. I.e. they can they make the sound spread to a wider angle on demand. Is this true or am I mistaken?\n\nIf so, given the wave-nature of the problem, I wonder if you can describe this aspect of echolocation using [the Van Cittert - Zernike Theorem](_URL_0_). Just a thought.\n\nIt's always interesting to hear about how evolution has solved problems in often the most elegant ways!",
"I live near Carlsbad Caverns, and seeing the bats there emerge at dusk is one of the most amazing things I've seen. \n\nIs the population there larger than you'd find in other caves? \n\nAlso, I found a Mexican free tailed bat stuck to the side of a building in midday. My coworkers wanted me to rescue it, but it didn't appear to be in distress so I left it alone. \n\nDid I do the right thing? How might be have ended up away from his proper home during the daytime? I have been worried about the little guy!",
"Do bats have group flight behaviors, like murmuration?",
"Other than providing bat boxes, is there anything that we can do, or stop doing to help local bat populations?",
"Thanks for doing this, Dr. Kloepper!\n\n\n\nWhen did you realize you wanted to study bats specifically? Did you know exactly what you wanted to do in undergrad, and how did that knowledge (or lack thereof) influence where you went for graduate school?\n\n\nAlso, would you say it's still worth it for aspiring biologists to try to get a tenure-track position in academia or is being trapped in post-doc hell a valid fear?",
"Could you simply explain how bat echolocation works and how it's distinguished from other kinds of echolocation?",
"Hello and thank you for taking the time to do this AMA.\n\nHow are bat populations doing in the wake of White nose syndrome?\n\nWhat is a little known fact about bats you'd like everyone to know?\n\nBats are really fascinating animals. I'm looking forward to reading through your answers to the comments here.",
"Recently in my neighbourhood I've noticed a decline in the number of bats I see in the evenings. What can I do to help them out?",
"Do bats have a mating call? \nIf so, does it range in wavelengths? And is it species specific?",
"Hi Dr. Laura Kloepper, \n\nWhat do you know about human echolocation? (If any)",
"Do you receive sexual discrimination at your college and/or field? If you do, has there been any improvement in recent years?\n\nAlso, can humans echolocate?",
"I saw your presentation recently at the World Science Festival and wanted to thank you for it.\n\n Question: Are there defects that reduce or alter a bats'/dolphins' ability to echolocate? Is it possible for a bat to be deaf :( or for a dolphin to lack the fat in its hollow jaw that allows it to receive and amplify these types of sounds? \n\nSurely out of a million bats in bats in a cave some small number of these must have genetic defects, or are these defects so crippling that these phenotypes couldn't possible survive?\n\n Similarly, are there some bats/dolphins that are better than average at echolocating, and do these abilities peak and plateau or decline with maturation? I hope these questions make sense. Thank you for your time.",
"Hi Dr. Kloepper,\n\nYour work sounds like a fantastic initiative! It's really important for scientists to show the world how they do work, to inspire others and show the value of your work!\n\nMy question is related: how can others (especially those who work in labs like myself) do similar outreach? What strategies have worked for you, and what have been your biggest lessons learned? What has been the best advice you've received about outreach, and what was the worst?",
"Hello Dr Kloepper\n\nI am a Master's student and I study the evolution of [bat flies](_URL_1_) - the true flies that are exclusively parasitic on bats. Do you think there is a single origination of bat flies or multiple? Also, could bat flies play any role in spreading diseases among the bat colonies like the white nose syndrome?",
"Dr. Kloepper, what exactly does it mean when you say bats construct a visual representation from their echoes? Blind humans who use tongue-click echolocation report the same thing, but I think that's always been a hard concept to evaluate objectively. Thank you!",
"What neural structures unique to bats allow them to use such finetuned echolocation? Are there any attempts to use their capabilities in robotics? Do you ever imagine how their specific means of sensing appears experientially and phenomenally?",
"How do bats know that the sound input they get from the echolocation is not that of the bat next to them?",
"Do you look for parallels with how other animals move in large groups--thinking particularly of schools of fish?",
"Can animals (maybe other bats), generate jamming signals?...that is false or interfering signals. Thx",
"How do you avoid spreading White Nose Syndrome?",
"I have two questions, if that's alright. \n\nI went to see the Carlsbad Cavern when I was little, and I had two questions that the ranger couldn't answer. At the time, there were hundreds or thousands of bats, all swirling up out of the cave and flying off to go do their nightly hunting. There was also an owl or a hawk flying around the edges of the colony and nonchalantly swooping through the cloud of bats to pick off one or two here and there for its dinner. However, the bats didn't respond to it at all, as if they were entirely unaware there was a threat.\n\n1. When bats are flying in a large group, as when they're returning home or leaving their cave, *how* do they manage to avoid hitting one another? Wouldn't the sounds of their echolocation get mixed up with the sounds of hundreds of other bats? Can you elaborate on the current theories about that?\n\n2. How can the bats be so accurately attuned that they can tell each other apart and catch tiny insects in flight, yet they seemingly can't identify a much larger owl preying on their group? Did the owl's feathers muffle the owl?\n\n-----\n\n**Edit:** Given my current schedule, I will be asleep when you are here to answer questions. If, in the course of your AMA, you think of something particularly interesting that hasn't been covered by another question, please feel free to go ahead and expound upon it; just pretend I asked an appropriate follow-up question and answer to your heart's content. Thank you very much!",
"Hi Dr. Laura Kloepper! Thanks for doing this AMA!\n\nI love bats, they're such fascinating animals! My dad rehabilitates any that are found injured in our local area (mainly common pipistrelles, but he recently had a brown long-eared which was awesome!). It's great to get such a good look at them, and they each seem to have different personalities!\n\nI was wondering, how do you go about singling out an individuals echolocations sounds in such large colonies? Also, is there any evidence that each individual bat makes unique echolocation calls?\n\nOne final question. What is your favourite species?\n\nMany thanks!",
"Hello and thank you for doing this AmA! \n\nI've heard that bats can eat up to ~1,000 mosquitoes an hour and that I could keep a 'bat house' for them on my property and keep the mosquito numbers down. My question is, is this a good idea? Is this safe for the bats? And if so, how can I do this responsibly and as a benefit to the bats around me on the front range here in Colorado?\n\nThank you!",
"Asa MSc student who is working with white nose syndrome, I had a hell of a time trying to find cave locations as these are protected by the government, researchers or caving groups who are reluctant to share information.\n\nDid you have any similar struggles? How did you locate your caves, was there specific agreements you had to have in place?\n\nLooking forward to the work you do!",
"2 Questions: How fast is the echolocation and their brain response, as far as we can tell? How fast can they interpret and respond to changes around them? I'm sure you are thinking of ways that you could incorporate that into drone swarms?\n\nQuestion 2: Do you have any cool bat sound files that are particularly interesting or odd? Thanks so much!",
"My question is a little more professional in nature. My SO is a field biologist as well, and often spends several days in remote locations for her work. Is there any advice you could give to a woman working in the field that maybe she wouldn't have discovered after doing this for ~6 years?",
"Hi Dr. Kloepper!\n\nWhat would you say would be the most significant finding you have found throughout your research? And also, is there a specific way you get your funding? Because I aspire to be a researcher in neurology one day, so I need to know about finding. :) \n\nThank you once again!",
"Hi Laura. You have my dream job. I studied ecology and wanted to research bats. My path lead me somewhere else. Hopefully one day I can get back to the bats. I will add your twitter account. Thank you so much for posting. I have questions to ask!",
"If proper funding was provided, do you think, with the information of your research, or even knowledge your team has now, that it would be possible and/or practical to invent a device that will summon bats and control them Batman-style?",
"There are a lot of neat bat \"super powers.\" Echolocation. Flight through the [power of jazz hands](_URL_3_). Vampirism. [Empathy(?)](_URL_2_). Do bats have other awesome abilities that I might not know about?",
"To Dr. Kloepper,\n\nWhat were some of the biggest challenges you found on your academia journey? I hope to head in the same direction albeit in biochemistry.",
"What kind of safety precautions do you need to take in regards to bat guano? In other words are there health/disease concerns (i.e. histoplasmosis)?",
"How prevalent are bat bugs, the blood sucking parasites related to bed bugs? Any stories related to the bugs?",
"How many bats do you think you'll encounter? And how many will you want to bring home?",
"So bats and odontocetes both selected for echolocation independently of one another, likely due to very similar pressures (the visual occlusion of prey). Both echolocators have been extremely successful in their respective (and disparate) environments, as evidenced by their near-global range and diversity.\n\nWould you say that the success of both echolocators is evidence for an \"echolocation niche\" of sorts?\n\nWhat cognitive and behavioural similarities have you seen between bats and dolphins? More specifically, do you see bats engaging in cooperative hunting behavior, like herding mosquitoes into \"bait balls\" or some other cooperative strategy?\n\nThanks so much for doing this AMA!",
"Does your research have any application potential for real-time spatial topography mapping for use in virtual or augmented reality? \n\nFew spatial mapping techniques can account not just for the appearance of the surroundings but also the fact- or not- of the solidity of those surroundings under low light or bright light conditions the way echolocation has the potential to do.\n\nI see echolocation as a tool in a robust toolset of sensor information for a spatial node mesh network for augmented and virtual reality applications.\n\nIs this kind of use for your research at all on your radar?",
"Hi Laura! I actually worked under you as an intern a few years ago. (Hi, it's Dan!)\n\nOne thing I remember about working with bats is the tremendous effort that it took to isolate and remove background noise while detecting echolocation signals, even with large arrays. How much harder is it to accomplish that in the field? Or since you're recording a large number of bats at once, does it not matter as much?",
"Hi Dr. Kloepper\nWhen bats travel in large groups or even when they are just a few together, do they use the echolocation from each other or are they relying only on the sounds they produse them self? Got to think about this from your describtion about the large group leaving the caves at ones.\n\nThanks for doing this. Hope your trip is succesfull.\nBest regards from Denmark",
"Will you end up visiting El Malpais near Grants, New Mexico? I remember going to check out an insane bat cave there many times in the mid 90s.\n\nHave you ever produced \"bat noise\" and used speakers to direct it at masses of bats to see the results of a \"false\" stimulus?",
"Hi, thanks for this AMA-\n\nIs it possible when the bats are in a large group that a single \"voice\" is formed and local smaller groups make a larger decision for the rest?\n\nSorry if this isn't a clear question.",
"Do you have to be certified as a Qualified Bat Surveyor in the states that you do your research in? If so, how difficult is it to get that designation?",
"If a large colony of bats is flying, is there any confusion / interference when all of the bats are using echolocation at the same time?",
"Do bats use echolocation in the same way that dolphins do? Can they tell the difference between per-say plastic and wood? I love you Dr.",
"As someone who is an amateur bat lover, I just wanted to thank you for the time you spend working with these noble creatures!",
"Why does it matter that the students helping you are female? Aren't more biology students female for the past 30 years at least?",
"What kind of unique characteristics does bat guano have?",
"OK, this is a weird one.\nA bat sends out a sound that reflects off an object and is changed in the process giving the bat some information about the object; a \"picture\" of what's in front of it.\nIf the bat (or other echolocating animal) has the vocal equipment to reproduce the changed or distorted sound then he could communicate with others simply by reproducing those sounds. No \"language\" needed.\nSuppose I want to tell another bat where I found food. I don't need to give directions, just send him a series of pictures showing what I \"saw\" on my trip to that place. It would require very little thinking on the part of either bat for them to communicate pretty complex information without any symbolism in the traditional/human sense. \nDo they or any echolocating animal do this?",
"> These bats leave the cave at densities of up to 1,000 bats per second\n\nWhat kind of models best describe the crowd dynamics of such large amounts of bats? Do they behave like a liquid? How similar is their dynamics to that of schools of fish, or herds of wildebeest, or large amounts of migrating birds? Also, do large colonies of bats in flight which are under thread from predators ever break down in a fashion similar to the \"bait ball\" phenomenon observed in schools of fish?",
"How can I tell the difference between a bat in a bird when they are flying? I think someone has a bat house in my area but I hear little tweets so I'm assuming they are really small black birds. Texas area around 8pm month of May/June. I don't see a tail and they seme to glide more than birds.",
"Have you been to the bat colony under the bridge in Austin, TX? I remember hearing that it's one of the largest in the world and they even rebuilt the bridge to accommodate it's growing size. Truly a wonder to watch the entire colony of over a million bats fly south to feed at night!",
"I wonder if anyone has yet definitively tied birdsong to weather, wind, light, and temperature variations? Making all the bird sounds essentially a 3D map of the sky.\n\nThis would then be, somewhat at least, the birth of what later became echo location in mammals.",
"This question isn't related to your work, but did you teach at TC about 10 years ago? Yoy may have taught me biology in high school way back when. If so, congratulations on your accomplishments :D",
"I've heard that there has been recent success in curing white nose syndrome in bats. Have you heard anything about this, and do you have any opinion on whether or not the plagued can be stopped?",
"Could an echolocating animal communicate by using it's voice to \"draw\" an object in a way that another of it's species could then \"see\"? Asking from a speculative evolution point of view.",
"How do you make a living doing this? Do you sell the research? Or does someone sponsor it right from the get go. \n\nI imagine traveling especially with helpers can't be cheap.",
"In your search and exploration of caves, have you ever come across a human dressed in black and grey? Usually has a cape and cowl, goes by the name of Bruce?",
"Did a project back in diff eq on DDT and the complete opposite effect it had (from what it was engineered to do). Are flies the primary food source of bats?",
"I've heard that bat caves are full of dangerous bat poop. Could you explain what the inside of the caves are like?",
"I want a colony of bats in my yard how do I go about establishing such colony ?",
"So when humans do that clicking thing when they're blind, does that actually help them?",
"What kinds of tools are you using in the study? How do they work?",
"How hard was it to get a research job after finishing your PHD?",
"Hi Dr. Kloepper! \n\nWhat started your interest in bat biology?",
"Only slightly related to your research, but related to my interests. I'm looking to start in fruit agriculture (apples specifically). I think bats are underrepresented as a solution to pest management. It seems like keeping a bat house adds biodiversity while reducing the need for chemicals.\n\nI can concede that bats may not be the best solution for a given pest (e.g. Codling Moth, Plum Curculio, Apple Maggot). But I've never heard it suggested as a solution to anything. Organic Orchards go to some pretty extraordinary lengths to handle pests. Researches may be interested more in the detail than the application. I'm wondering about the application of the research towards a positive ends.",
"Hiya Dr. Kloepper! \n\nSo what exactly is the bat guano going to tell you? How does this relate to the echolocation? \n\nAlso, I was reading your blog, are those four meals the only things you guys are going to be eating? I don't think I could go 56 days rotating on only four meals.\n\nGood luck!",
"I read that the kinds and amounts of creatures living in the guano of bat colonies can be... creepy/ disgusting. Any stories/ details on the critters that live there, perhaps unique or uniquely concentrated?\n\nAlso I think it is rare but you can get aerosol transmission of rabies. Is that concerning in your work?",
"Hi,\n\nHow do bats locate a new cave, and why? For example, do they overpopulate a cave, but then how do they go about spreading as a population?\n\nI asked this question when I was about eight years old about forty years ago and the tour guide didn't know.",
"This is may be outside your wheelhouse, but what do we know right now about how and when echolocation evolved in bats? Are there any ideas about what early echolocation looked like and how it was selected for (I can't imagine that the trait appeared suddenly)?",
"I have read that it is extremely difficult to \"jam\" bat echolocation, so they must be acutely aware of their own and others' signals, is there any evidence that they can share echolocation like other humans would benefit from one holding a flashlight?",
"Are you coming to the Mason Bat Cave in TX? It is a nursery for Mexican Freetail Bats. If you are, please send me a message. I'd like to take you to lunch and maybe write an article for our tiny hometown newspaper.",
"Hello Dr. Kloepper! Does your dog Klaipo have any sort of specific role in your research, besides being a cool dog? I noticed you called him a \"field dog.\" I like to imagine him with bags strapped to him carrying equipment.",
"May have missed my shot, but what's your take on the Bear Grylls bat controversy? Do you think a poor example like that has set back community education re the importance of bat colonies?",
"As bats are a major vector of rabies, what precautions do you need to take to avoid transmission? How do you think increased awareness of rabies from bats has impacted conservation efforts?",
"Do you think that North American bats will go mostly extinct in time due to the white nose syndrome? Will it be appropriate to just replace them with Old World transplants?",
"Hi Dr. Laura,\nGreetings from Croatia. \n\nI was wondering if you could tell me why do bats hang upside down most of the time? :)\n\nThanks!",
"i really want to know if bats get diarrhea . because if they do . pooping while upside down must be like hell",
"Do NOT Spread white nose syndrome\n!! wash your shoes or replace shoes before entering a new cave.",
"Can you explain to me how the phrase, \"blind as a bat\" is a misconception?"
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Cittert%E2%80%93Zernike_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nycteribiidae",
"https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/wild-things/vampire-bats-share-blood-make-friends",
"http://dobrador.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/bat-wings-skin-stretched-between-elongated-fingers-fly-through-jazz-hands.jpg"
]
}
|
AskScience AMA Series: I am Dr. Laura Kloepper, a biologist who studies the emergence and echolocation dynamics of large bat cave colonies. This summer I am traveling and camping with two female students as we record bats across the Southwest. Ask Me Anything!
Hi Reddit! I am Dr. Laura Kloepper, an Assistant Professor of Biology at Saint Mary's College in Notre Dame, Indiana. My research involves using audio, video, and thermal imagery to understand the emergence, flight, and echolocation dynamics of large (1 million +) colonies of Mexican Free-tailed bats. These bats leave the cave at densities of up to 1,000 bats per second, flying at speeds of 25 mph, beating their wings ten times per second, and rarely run into each other. Their primary mode of navigation is using echolocation, or making a loud sound and using the information in the echoes to create a visual representation of their surroundings. Everything we know about biology, mathematics and physics says that they should not be able to successfully echolocate in these large groups. My main research involves trying to understand how they are able to successfully navigate via echolocation without interfering with one another, and these findings have technological implications to improve man-made sonar. I am also interested in flight dynamics in large groups, factors that control the emergence timing, and unique characteristics of bat guano. This summer I am traveling with two female undergraduate students and my trusty field dog as we visit 8 caves across the Southwest to tackle multiple research projects. We will be doing a lot of camping, consuming a lot of canned food, and putting close to 7,000 miles on our rental SUV. We will be documenting our journey on our blog, _URL_0_, or on our Twitter and Instagram (@smcbellebats). I will be here from 12:00pm EDT to 2:00pm EDT to answer your questions...AMA!
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] |
|
1v3jo8
|
High thermal, low electric conductivity in solids?
|
I am wondering what solids have very high thermal conductivity and very low electric. I am interested in very good heat sinks in a place where electric conductivity would be a problem.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ceohnua",
"ceojxos",
"ceoygke"
],
"text": [
"Have you looked much into phase change heat transfer in heat pipes? Heat pipes yield extremely good heat transfer rates using phase transitions (boiling and condensation of a fluid) in a closed system where the fluid can capillary effect back to the heat source to reboil after it condenses. Heat pipes are pretty common in computer cooling systems, although these are still usually encased in copper or aluminum, I don't envision any particular technical challenges in making them out of something less electrically conductive. There might be a little bit of efficiency loss in doing so, but they should still perform well.",
"Ceramics. [Here's an article talking about them](_URL_0_), but I'm sure google will lead to better info if you dig.",
"Diamond, it conducts heat 5x better than copper. Bit pricey though."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://electronicdesign.com/lighting/ceramic-heat-dissipation-less-more"
]
}
|
High thermal, low electric conductivity in solids?
I am wondering what solids have very high thermal conductivity and very low electric. I am interested in very good heat sinks in a place where electric conductivity would be a problem.
|
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|
ov1ey
|
During early ambiogenesis is there really a need for stable lipid bilayer enclosures or can they extremely dynamic?
|
My basic conception of early ambiogenesis is that early nucleotides were free floating in the "soup" and dynamic lipid bilayers would be rapidly forming and falling apart spontaneously. So the early life would basicly be more akin to a viral soup then a cellular soup with the nucleotides only transiently existing within lipid sacks. Then cellularization would have only occured many many (who knows how long ? millions ? billions?) years later only after the nucleotides were already highly advanced, possibly even already having some form of protein machinery....
The reason I want your take on this is because if seems like many people seem to think early life needed more stable lipid sacks that would spontaneously gloop apart in a sort of cellular replication system, which in my head isn't really necessarily. Anyways what are your thoughts?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3kazat",
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],
"text": [
"I am not a biologist, but here are my thoughts. Hopefully someone more knowledgeable on the topic will come along. \n\nThere would need to be some sort of a boundary. It wouldn't necessarily have to be made of lipids perhaps it could be as simple as small pockets in a rock (really getting outside my area of expertise trying to come up with specific ideas). I can tell you that life requires a decrease in entropy (Wikipedia if you aren't familiar) because it leads to complex, ordered, improbable arrangements of atoms. This is only possible if it is coupled to a increase in entropy elsewhere achievable by the giving off of heat for example. It needs to take in materials it can consume to produce that heat and to eject waste. If there wasn't anything to contain the early nucleotides you described separate from the environment while still allowing the exchange of heat and nutrients, I don't think that indefinite growth of the level of complexity of the cellular machinery would be possible.",
"There are researchers who beleive in the \"soup\" idea, but the key issue concerns Darwinian evolution. Organisms can't really compete against eachother if they aren't isolated from one another. These systems are also prone to collapse due to selfish organisms (protviruses if you will). Some pretty useful simulations have been done to show this. To skirt the issue, some people envoke the Darwinian threshold, whereby early life evolved through the means of HGT (_URL_0_) and then reached a point where they crossed the threshold and become compartmentalised. The other key issue has already been mentioned, entropy. In a biological context this really means the ability to concentrate molecules that are useful, though this can be done without complete barriers, certain clay sufaces will do as will pumice.\n\nEdit: Also, the \"gloop apart\" mechanism is actually fairly robust. A group knocked out the cell division machinery of Bacillus subtillus (bacteria) and found that it still divided through multiple generations in ways that resemble the division of \"lipid sacks\".",
"Abiogenesis?\n\nFirstly, there are fossils of cellular structures from 3.5 billion years ago, so millions of years.\n\nSecondly, are you asking what the overall order of molecules evolution is? *NA, proteins, lipids? One point that is missing concerns the nature of the cell boundary : it is possible that it was inorganic, not lipid.\n\nIn any case, one reason a boundary is necessary is that it separates metabolism from the inputs and outputs. Another is that it allows protocells to set up proton gradients to drive formation of energetic molecules (ATP, creatine phosphate, etc) as happens in mitochondria and chloroplasts today.\n\nThe main problem with an early formation of lipid boundaries is making the lipids themselves. I'm not sure what mechanisms have been proposed for chemical formation of these molecules."
],
"score": [
4,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGT"
]
}
|
During early ambiogenesis is there really a need for stable lipid bilayer enclosures or can they extremely dynamic?
My basic conception of early ambiogenesis is that early nucleotides were free floating in the "soup" and dynamic lipid bilayers would be rapidly forming and falling apart spontaneously. So the early life would basicly be more akin to a viral soup then a cellular soup with the nucleotides only transiently existing within lipid sacks. Then cellularization would have only occured many many (who knows how long ? millions ? billions?) years later only after the nucleotides were already highly advanced, possibly even already having some form of protein machinery.... The reason I want your take on this is because if seems like many people seem to think early life needed more stable lipid sacks that would spontaneously gloop apart in a sort of cellular replication system, which in my head isn't really necessarily. Anyways what are your thoughts?
|
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2wjonl
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XKCD's "Fundamental Forces" isn't funny, it's sad. Can you do better?
|
Today's [XKCD cartoon](_URL_0_) accurately depicts the sad state of explanations of the fundamental forces. For goodness sake, I majored in Physics and got a masters in a related field, and I still couldn't give a better explanation than the one in that comic. (Except that I could explain Maxwell's equations.)
Can anyone here in /r/askcience do a better job? Can you give a simple explanation of the 4 fundamental forces that does NOT just gloss over the strong and weak forces?
(A reference to a good explanation, rather than explaining it here on reddit, is a perfectly acceptable answer.)
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askscience
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"So here's the deal: the weak and strong force are understood perfectly well, on a par with electromagnetism. The xkcd is not reflecting the state of our knowledge, but rather the difficulty in explaining detailed scientific concepts in non-technical language.\n\nOne should realize that the descriptions of gravity and electromagnetism given in the xkcd are nowhere near the full picture of those forces; they are the little pieces of those forces that are easy to describe in simple algebraic terms. But neither force is completely explained by those two inverse square laws. At the classical (non-quantum) level, for gravity, we need the contributions of general relativity, and for electromagnetism, we need such things as magnetism and electromagnetic induction, things covered in any intro course.\n\nIn addition, because the weak and strong forces are short range, you can't really talk about them effectively, in terms of their behavior in the world, without quantum field theory, whereas electromagnetism and gravity have useful classical limits. But explaining quantum electrodynamics is way more complicated than the inverse square law or the inverse square law plus magnetism and all that, and probably no easier than explaining the weak and strong forces; try to explain gravity at the quantum level, and we don't even have a technical answer, much less a non-technical explanation.\n\nI know this doesn't answer your question directly, but I think the context is important.\n\nEdit: Phrasing improved.",
"I can try my hand at the strong force.\n\nIts most exotic characteristic is that, unlike with gravity or electromagnetism, the magnitude of the strong force is proportional to a **positive** power of the distance. That means that it gets stronger as distance increases. Because of this, everything subject to that force tends to clumps up (the technical term is confinement). If you tried to separate a pair of quarks, for example, you'd have to pump so much energy into the system that you'd create two more quarks to pair up with the ones that you've separated (here you would be transferring energy to mass as per Einstein's famous equation).\n\nWhile gravity only has one charge and electromagnetism has two, the strong force has six. Strong force charge is called \"color\". Fundamental units of strong charge are red, green or blue, while their anti-particles are anti-red, anti-green and anti-blue. To get something that is white, i.e. color neutral and not affected by the strong force, you need either all three colors, all three anti-colors or a color-anti-color pair. That's why hadrons are either made of three quarks (like protons and neutrons) or two (pions, for instance).\n\nHowever, for any force you need a particle that will mediate it. For electromagnetism, that particle is the photon, which is massless and chargeless. For the strong force, that particle is the gluon. The gluon, however, has color, which means it is also affected by its own force. That's the main reason why strong force is way more complicated to treat than the two more mainstream ones, and can't have an equation derived from a potential.\n\nEdit: Thanks for the gold, now I get to figure out what it does!",
"Don't be sad! We understand the fundamental forces perfectly well (err, except gravity.. We're working on that one). At the classical (i.e. non-quantum / first-year-physics) level, we're taught to think about forces F = {some function of position and time}, and we're taught that forces act on particles causing them to accelerate. More often, we talk about the potential of a force, which is just it's integral. So for newtonian gravity and coulomb interaction we talk about a 1/r potential (which leads to a 1/r^2 force when you differentiate).\n\nFirst, let me try to describe how a force is different from matter from the POV of modern theoretical physics, then I'll get to specific examples. In the language of quantum field theory, which is how we currently talk about fundamental forces, a \"force field\" is a field which is introduced into your equations in order to impose that some symmetry of the matter fields holds true. The procedure of introducing forces into your matter equations is known as \"gauging\" the matter. The whole procedure is called \"gauge theory.\" All of the forces that we understand well (i.e. everything but gravity) are described using gauge theory, and we don't know why it works so well. But it does and we're big fans of that so we do it a lot.\nOnce you have a theory with \"matter fields\" and \"force fields,\" you can extract classical potentials (like 1/r potentials) from the quantum field theory. But the full quantum field theory is capable of much crazier behavior which is all insignificant at the classical level but is very significant at the quantum level (things like vacuum polarization). \n\nSpecific example time. The first force that we really understood properly was E & M, so lets talk about that. For brevity, I'm going to gloss over some details about the fact that electrons have spin. If you write down the equation for electrons by themselves (with no forces), your electron field is a complex valued function of space and time. I.e. your electrons are described by, \n\nphi(x,y,z,t) = some complex number\n\nYour equation for the electron field is something involving phi and derivatives of phi. Something like\n\nyour equation = |phi|^2 + |grad phi|^2\n\n(if this equation is confusing, don't worry about it. I just wanted to throw it out there). Now you notice that if you multiply phi(x,y,z,t) by a constant phase everywhere in space and time\n\nphi(x,y,z,t) -- > phi(x,y,z,t)*exp(i*C)\n\nyour equations stay the same. This is known as a global symmetry. However, if you let that phase vary with position and time,\n\nphi(x,y,z,t) -- > phi(x,y,z,t)*exp(i*C(x,y,z,t))\n\nyour equations won't look the same anymore because you'll have extra terms from taking derivatives of C. If the equations looked the same for C(x,y,z,t), it would be called a \"local symmetry.\"\nHere's the key point: in gauge theory, we INSIST (for no good reason!) that the local symmetry MUST hold. In order to MAKE it hold, we introduce a new field which sucks up all the extra terms and makes our equations look the same as they did before the phase factor was introduced. This extra field is a force field, by definition. So a cute and kind of grandiose way to say it is \"the symmetry of the electron field necessitates the existence of the electromagnetic force (light).\" The form of the electron equations and the symmetries therein determine everything about the electromagnetic force equations.\n\nIn a more complicated theory like the strong nuclear force, you start with a matter field, the \"quark field,\" which has a much more complicated global symmetry built into the equations. Then, when you insist that the symmetry hold locally, you get a force field with a much different character from the E & M field -- in this case, you get the gluon field of the strong nuclear force. The different character of the force arises from the different character of the symmetry of the matter. (Aside: The reason quarks of three colors is related to the global symmetry of the quark field.)\n\nSo that's what force fields are and where they come from, but now what about all that 1/r potential stuff from classical physics that we're familiar with. As I said, once you have the quantum field theory for a force, you can extract the classical potential. It turns out that the form of the classical potential has a lot to do with whether the force field has a mass. It turns out that one can show that any force field which is massless will lead to a 1/r potential. Photons (electromagnetic force), gravitons (gravity), and gluons (strong nuclear force) are all massless and so all lead to 1/r potentials. The strong nuclear force has a peculiar feature that the next correction to the classical potential is linear, i.e.\n\nV_strongnuclear = a/r + br + ...\n\nSo if you try to pull two quarks far apart, the 2nd term eventually kicks in and the force starts to get STRONGER rather than weaker (1/r falloff). This leads to quark confinement (trapping quarks inside of protons/neutrons/etc) as mentioned below. Caveat: unlike the e & m and gravitational potentials, which work well at long distance, the strong nuclear potential above works well only at short distance (~radius of proton).\n\nThe weak nuclear force field has a rather large mass, and this leads to a different classical potential known as the Yukawa potential\n\nV_weaknuclear = a*exp(-m*r)/r\n\nThis type of classical force has a much SHORTER range than 1/r potentials because of the exponential fall off due to the nonzero mass. Here's a sort of ELI5 explanation of how the weak force / yukawa potential different from E & M. Particle A wants to communicate with particle B via some force. He happens to have a friend, E & M, who is an Olympic runner. Because he's so \"light\" on his feet (get it?) he can deliver the message very far. The force has a long range because the force carrier has a small mass (zero mass, really, for light). In a different scenario, particle C wants to send a message to particle D, but particle C hasn't chosen his friends carefully in life and can only get his friend the weak force to deliver the message. The weak force is a heavy guy who doesn't work out much, so he's not willing to carry the message more than a few blocks. The force has a short range because the force carrier has a large mass. \n\nSome fun caveats about the weak force. Matter particles actually have two \"pieces\" -- a left handed and a right handed piece (not the same as antiparticles). The weak force actually only talks to the left handed part of the particle, but the right handed part doesn't know anything about the weak force. This is a big part of the reason why it is interesting that neutrinos have mass. Massless matter particles only have a left handed piece and no right handed piece, so -- since neutrino's only interact via the weak force (and gravity) it's impossible to learn anything about the right handed piece directly. So originally we assumed they were massless and that the right handed piece didn't exist at all. But now we know it's there, and it's a big mystery. We can't probe it directly because the weak force doesn't talk to that part of the particle. We can only learn about it indirectly.\nAnother interesting caveat is that the weak force actually has three different aspects to it. If you want to think about it in terms of particles, there is not one particle that mediates the weak force, but three. The neat thing is that two of them have an electric charge (one is postive and one is negative, the W+ and W- bosons respectively). Its interesting because a particle, through interacting with the weak force, can change into a different type of particle with different charge. This is how beta decay works: roughtly speaking, a neutron interacts with the W field and is able to change charge from neutral to positive and become a proton!\n\nAn interesting note: even though it is not a \"fundamental\" theory, the interaction of neutrons and protons via the strong nuclear force can be modeled by an approximate force field called the pi-meson field (this is called Yukawa theory). The pi-field has a mass and so the classical potential looks just like the weak nuclear force potential above. This was one of the early models for the strong nuclear force before quarks were discovered.\n\n\nEdit: added more ramblings about the weak force by request and as a way of saying thanks for the gold!",
"To understand what each of the fundamental forces are, the first question we must answer is this: *What is a force?*\n\nIn the most general sense, **a force is any external interaction which changes the state of a particle**.\n\nFrom classical physics, we know that any particle which is left undisturbed will travel in a straight line with constant velocity forever. Nothing interacts with it, nothing changes.\n\nThen **gravity** comes in. A particle which comes near anything with mass will have its momentum changed. The heavier the mass or the closer the object, the faster the momentum will change. The particle will speed up, slow down, change direction, or some combination of those.\n\nHow? Every object that has mass/energy effects space and time. The details don't matter, but what is important is that heavy objects tend to \"pull\" on space. Which makes space and time bend in weird ways. When sometimes encounters this bent spacetime, it will still follow a straight path through that bent spacetime, but its actual trajectory will seem curved, sped up or slowed down.\n\nSo far so good for objects with no charge. But sometimes particles have an **electric** charge through which they can affect each other's momentum. They don't simply attract, but can also repel. The two types of electric charge are labeled (+) and (-), opposites attract and likes repel. How strongly? Well, the stronger the charge the stronger the force, and the closer together they are, the stronger the force.\n\nBut that's not everything. If you carefully measure the forces from these electrically charged particles, you would see that something is \"off\" when they're moving. The forces are not *quite* what you'd expect. It turns out there is another effect in play, that of **relativity**. When objects move fast, weird things start happening like lengths that become shorter or timescales that become longer. Again, the details don't matter, but they have a measurable effect on the kind of forces that these electric charges exert on each other. We call the difference between the force we'd expect from a static picture, and the actually measured force **magnetism**.\n\nBut how does this work exactly? This is the point where we start looking at microscopic stuff and things get **weird**. Lets forget everything we know about particles and forces and start from scratch. A particle can be considered as a very small chunk of highly condensed energy. As we all know, energy is conserved, but can be changed from one form to another. A particle like an electron, which is a small chunk of condensed energy, can be split into two different chunks of energy: a new^1 electron with different kinetic energy and a photon.\n\ne^- → e^- + γ\n\nHow often does this happen? All the time. Randomly^2. It just does, in every direction. But it averages out to zero, so we won't notice anything in a single particle. But this photon can be absorbed by another electron.\n\ne^- + γ → e^-\n\nNow the second electron has absorbed the momentum the photon was carrying, and the result is a force between the two electrons. Photons are massless and do not decay, so this charge can reach infinitely far. A bajigazillion (technical term) exchanges of photons produce a huge change in momentum, which we can easily see as a classical force. Furthermore, the photon has no electric charge, so doesn't interact with itself.\n\nSo much for the classical forces. But what about the others? We're getting into slightly unfamiliar territory, but the same principles still apply. Beyond electric charge, certain particles, called **quarks**, also have **color charge**. Instead of two, there are three types of color charge, labeled red, green and blue. These are the charges of the **strong force**. Obviously, these charges have nothing to do with actual colors, but they are named so because three of those charges are required to neutralize each other.\n\nIf you have a positive and negative electric charge and bring them close together, the effects you feel at long distance will be almost zero, because the effect of the two charges neutralize. The same happens with color charges, though you need three quarks of different color together to get **neutral**. Another option is having a quark/anti-quark pair with corresponding color/anti-color^3. You're probably wondering if this also works in terms of \"likes repel and opposites attract\", but the situation is slightly more complex.\n\nJust as the electromagnetic force is carried by photons, the strong force is carried by **gluons**. What does this interaction look like? Does it change the momentum of the particles like the photon does? Yes, but that's not the only thing. Gluons are not color neutral. They carry a color and an anti-color charge. Tt effectively allows them to change another particles color charge. So for example:\n\nblue quark → red quark + blue/anti-red gluon\n\nAnd if a red quark happens to be nearby, it can absorb the gluon:\n\nred quark + blue/anti-red gluon → blue quark\n\nBut that's not all! The gluons can also couple to *each other*:\n\ngreen/anti-blue gluon + red/anti-green gluon → red/anti-blue gluon\n\nGluons are massless, like photons, meaning they can reach infinitely far. But because they can interact with themselves, that also allows them to multiply as they travel (just reverse the interaction above). So that means that the further two quarks are apart, the more gluons they will be sending to each other. This results in the force getting **stronger with distance**. Luckily this doesn't spiral out of control, eventually the energy in the intermediate space will become so large, it will condense into a quark/anti-quark pair, forming new neutral particles with the ones that were interacting previously.\n\nThree quarks can form a **proton** or a **neutron**, each having a neutral color charge. But sometimes gluons escape, allowing them to interact with each other. These \"leakages\" are what holds atomic nuclei together, but the specific interactions are fiendishly hard to calculate.\n\nNow what determines whether three quarks will form a proton or a neutron? The answer is quark **flavor**. The only two relevant flavors^4 for us at this point are called up and down. The up quark has an electric charge^5 of +2/3, while the down quark has an electric charge of -1/3. A proton consists of *uud*; two ups and one down. This gives it a total charge of +1. The neutron is *udd*, with zero electric charge^6.\n\nWhy is this relevant, you ask? Because of the **weak force**. It is the third^7 interaction that governs the quarks in the protons/neutrons in the nuclei, alongside the electromagnetic and strong force. And the question is of course what it does. It affects momentum, just like the electromagnetic and strong force, but that is the least important of its effects.\n\nBecause the weak force is the only interaction that can **change flavor**. Now this works the same as the other two. The weak interaction has three force carriers. The W^+, the Z^0 and the W^-. Their electric charges are +1, 0 and -1 respectively, and the two W particles are each other's anti-particle. I won't go into detail about the Z, so lets consider the W's.\n\nA quark will spontaneously emit W particles, just as it emits photons and gluons. This works in the following way:\n\n*u* → *d* + W^+\n\nAn up quark can emit a W^+ and change flavor to a down quark. If another down is nearby, it can absorb this W^+ and change itself into an up. This will have its usual contribution to change in momentum, but overall we will still have an up and a down.\n\nBut what if an up quark in a proton emits a W^+ and the W^+ escapes? Well, it will turn the proton into a neutron, because the total quark flavor will have changed from *uud* to *udd*.\n\np^+ → n^0 + W^+\n\nLikewise, a neutron can change into a proton by emitting a W^- or absorbing a W^+.\n\nYou might ask what happens to the W now. These W particles are quite heavy, so they will quickly decay (break into smaller chunks of energy). Which ones, well...\n\nW^+ → e^+ + ν_e\n\nOkay, what happened here? The W broke up into an anti-electron and an electron **neutrino**. Neutrinos are nearly massless, neutral particles which only interact through the weak force. Although there are many interesting things about them, there isn't much to say about them in this context. They hardly interact at all with anything. They just kind of pass through everything.\n\nThis is the mechanism with which (beta) **nuclear decay** occurs. If an atomic nucleus would be more stable with a different proton/neutron ratio, a proton will change into a neutron or vice versa. Why specific ratios are more stable is then again determined by the electromagnetic and strong force.\n\nI hope you at least understood some of that :)\n\n^(1 How can we distinguish between a new electron and the same electron which simply bounced off a photon? It depends on your interpretation of \"same electron\". In essence, all electrons are identical and indistinguishable. But every time an electron's state is changed, such as its momentum or any other feature, it could be considered a completely newly created particle while the old one is destroyed.)\n\n^(2 The probability of this happening is actually tied to the amount of momentum and energy the photon is carrying but the details of this are very technical.)\n\n^(3 Anti-quarks do not carry color, but anti-color. They are aptly named anti-red, anti-green and anti-blue.)\n\n^(4 There are six of them. Up, strange & top have electric charge +2/3; while down, charm & bottom have charge -1/3. There are corresponding anti-quarks with anti-flavors and opposite charges.)\n\n^(5 These are fractions of the elementary charge *e*. The charge of the electron is -1.)\n\n^(6 There are some wonderful experiments that map the position of + and - charge within the neutron. It also has a significant magnetic moment because the quarks are not stationary.)\n\n^(7 Gravity is irrelevant here)\n\n[TL;DR](_URL_0_)",
"I think part of the problem is that we start by calling them all \"Forces\", which is more or less an empty concept at the quantum level. So when we get to the part about describing the nuclear forces, we wave hands because they're not forces. Not in the Newtonian sense that we've just prepared the listener for with Gravity and EM. I like /u/iorgfeflkd 's description of the nuclear interactions.\n\nActually... I tend to think of the strong force as kind of an anime tentacle-monster.",
"The strong force is like a spring that connects quarks, but when you try to pull it apart it makes more quarks. The weak force is like a tennis ball that you throw at a basketball to turn it into a ping pong ball.\n\nThe thing about not understanding gravity is a bit overblown. Saying \"gravity as a quantum field theory is non-renormalizable\" is not the same as saying we don't understand gravity.",
"[There was a thread last month asking how protons and neutrons stuck together in the nucleus, and I gave a sort of ELI5 explanation of field theory and the strong force, so that might be an interesting read for some people.](_URL_1_)\n\nAdmittedly a few parts are gross oversimplifications, but I think it might give you a flavor of how these things work if you've never heard of them before.",
"The issue is that, when people hear the term \"fundamental force,\" they immediately assume that we're describing a force in the classical sense — or, more accurately, something which creates a classical force. Gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong force all create forces on different particles and objects (e.g. Newton's law and Coulomb's law), which is why people have this paradigm, put it's not a complete way of looking at things.\n\nMore accurately, a force is a set of rules that determines how a certain class of interactions take place. For example, the electromagnetic force is a set of rules that determines the interactions between charged particles and photons, and between photons and other photons. Some of those interactions result in a force (e.g. Coulomb's law), but there are many cases where this doesn't happen.\n\nWhen you start looking at a force as a set of rules, rather than as something which creates a classical force, then the weak force stops being problematic. It's just a set of rules governing how W and Z bosons interact with other particles.",
"I feel like I have a decent understanding of what all these forces mean except for the weak force. Can anyone please explain that in somewhat simple terms? (assuming high school level physics + background knowledge on physics enough to know that gluons mediate the strong force)",
"The gravitational force holds the universe together. The electromagnetic force holds atoms together. The strong force holds nuclei together. And the weak force is the one you can't explain to your non-physicist friends.\n\n(I'm a physics professor and this is my tried-and-true introductory explanation.)",
"Our Chemistry professor used a very beautiful analogy to teach us how strong forces work. \nThe strong forces is basically the bond between protons and neutrons inside the nucleus and they constantly exchange pi mesons to remain stable.\nHe first went on to tell us that he has two big dogs on his farmhouse, and they're both pretty violent and not very obedient. They'd violently fight each other if left by themselves and only he knows how to make them stay together. So when he goes to meet them, he gets a tennis ball and throws it and makes them fetch, and the competition of fetching the ball allows them to play together and in the process, they keep exchanging the ball between them.\nAnd this is what happens in the nucleus, the protons and neutrons are busy playing with the pi mesons to bother with the repulsive forces that would otherwise rip the nucleus apart. So the exchange of these pi mesons is essentially the strong force keeping the violent nucleons together.",
"I'm not here to explain it; I just wanted to echo your sentiment. I think it's an issue that extends beyond physics, I've been seeing it a lot in chemistry (although I only really see it in physics-related topics, e.g. thermodynamics/kinetics).\n\nOver the past few years I've become relatively passionate about it, to the point that I'm considering course design as a career possibility. I truly believe that current math-bases topics are taught in a way that excludes the majority of learning types, and that it could be interesting and intuitive for everyone, if presented the right way.",
"Although it mainly deals with electromagnetism (quantum electrodynamics) rather than the other forces, one brilliant book which explains some very complex concepts without requiring a lot of deep math is Feynman's \"QED - The Strange Theory of Light and Matter\".\nIt's ideal for those very interested in physics but not so much that you want to go through calculus and imaginary numbers...",
"I'm actually reading \"Brief History of Time\" and have just got to this chapter. I haven't finished yet, but it's a very good book in explaining the issues we currently face in unifying the theories of the 4 forces. \nSorry I can't answer here but thought you might like the read. I'm also a huge XKCD fan too!"
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XKCD's "Fundamental Forces" isn't funny, it's sad. Can you do better?
Today's [XKCD cartoon](_URL_0_) accurately depicts the sad state of explanations of the fundamental forces. For goodness sake, I majored in Physics and got a masters in a related field, and I still couldn't give a better explanation than the one in that comic. (Except that I could explain Maxwell's equations.) Can anyone here in /r/askcience do a better job? Can you give a simple explanation of the 4 fundamental forces that does NOT just gloss over the strong and weak forces? (A reference to a good explanation, rather than explaining it here on reddit, is a perfectly acceptable answer.)
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17ve8d
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As a reformed creationist I am now thoroughly convinced that evolution is true. I do have one question though.
|
Why is it that we don't see information being added to the genome? We always hear about "dormant genes being reactivated" or something along those lines, but where did the genes come from? Why don't we constantly see new information in subsequent generations of animals? If we do, where can I read about it?
|
askscience
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"You get duplication of genes. These duplicate copies made either by mutations or transposons (jumping genes), can then be mutated to have new properties. This is essentially how organisms become more and more complex.",
"The issue is that the word \"information\" has a subtler meaning than you think. How much information would you say there is in a megabyte of random noise? It's not correlated with anything, it's not useful, it doesn't contain knowledge, but it's also completely impossible to predict - so, on the one hand, it contains exactly a megabyte's worth of information, but on the other hand, it contains very little usable information. How about the four-kilobyte program to construct [this video](_URL_1_), creating a beautiful experience out of what's likely to be fewer bytes than the text of this post itself will take? Would you say there can be a standard by which the information in that program is more valuable or just different from random noise?\n\nBesides information theory itself (you might want to [have a look](_URL_0_)), the solution to these problems in the context of your question is to realise that living things exist in a certain *environment*, and if they have adapted to live in that environment, you should expect them to have some predictable relation with it.\n\nLet's say I'm going to show you two foxes. One has thick fur that changes seasonally between white and brown, small ears, short legs, and thick body fat. The other has massive ears, a pale yellow or cream coat, and kidneys that prevent water loss. Even without recognising them as the arctic fox and fennec fox, just based on those few details about their phenotype you can easily tell that one of them lives in a cold tundra environment and the other in a dry desert.\n\nThese aspects are information about the animal, encoded within their genome, and they are not arbitrary - they are highly correlated with aspects of their environment. In essence, the processes of mutation and recombination, together with natural selection, have copied information from the environment into their genomes. Giraffes have long necks because trees are tall, cheetahs run fast because so do gazelles, etc. - they have those aspects because the process of evolution copied that information into them from the environment. It's a roundabout way, taking far more way than it would take for a human to snap a photo of these places or to, say, design a car to move around in them (snowtrack is a very different solution than tires), but in any case you end up with what's essentially information copied from the environment.\n\n\"But\", you should say at this point if you're still with me, \"a fox is a far more complex thing than a copy of some information about where it lives\". It is! After all, it took their entire evolutionary history to bring them to where they are now, and they're going to keep evolving just as they have so far, indeed faster because mankind's emergence has changed the selection pressures so dramatically. A solution that was appropriate for an earlier environment might be obsolete now. We carry around traces of our evolutionary history, stretching back billions of years - a lot of things can pile up in that time.\n\nAnd that's not even the really important part. There are founder effects and genetic drift, there's luck and coincidence, there's the fact that most larger creatures' genome is by any measure far larger than the population size, meaning that most possible mutations simply never occur and it's impossible to predict which ones do. There's genes that seem to do very little but make more and more copies of themselves around the genome, there's retroviruses inserting themselves in completely random places, there's freak cosmic rays that end up creating whole new species. In short, there's noise, no less random than what a cryptographer would call quality noise.\n\nHow life has ended up in the particular forms that it takes right now, then, is a combination of random chance and of information copied from the environment over evolutionary history (information that, of course, depends on all of the other life that exists in their environment at that time!). It's very hard to take apart exactly which genetic or phenotypic aspects arise from which. Both count as information, but by different standards - one is \"useless\" by itself but always \"surprising\" since it's unpredictable, while the other is \"useful\" but \"boring\" since you can sort of predict it from the environment. The two aspects come together to produce creatures that are both \"useful\" and \"surprising\" - life which uses clever, brilliant solutions to deal with the problems of its environment.\n\nAs I understand it, the basic thrust of creationist arguments is that they require evolution to generate information that's both \"useful\" and \"surprising\", and sure enough, it does do that - but only through a process where the way that both aspects are created is separable. You don't see, and never will see, a natural mutation or recombination that came about expressly in order to increase a creature's adaptivity - it's impossible by definition, since there is no intention behind these things. Similarly, you don't see, and never will see, an instance of selection, or an event where populations become separated, or a change in the climate, or etc. that directly causes new genetic variation to come into existence. The creationist standard for information is expressly defined so that natural evolution can, by definition, never meet it.",
"So, if we merely think of DNA as a sequence of letters, what do we mean by \"new information\"? Do we just mean a new sequence of letters? In that case, new information appears in genomes all the time. Every human individual has about a hundred new mutations appear in their genome (through replication errors, etc). There is also a fair amount of copy-number variation floating around in human genomes (that is, cases where you have two copies of a particular gene where someone else has one) that result from gene duplication events.\n\nThis article might be good reading:\n_URL_2_",
"_URL_3_\n\nAlso there was one experiment with e-coli were they decoded the genomes of every generation of a bacteria untill they got to a generation of bacteria with a new and unique resistance against something that no previous generation had. They wanted to see exactly what changes happened and what was necessary untill e-coli got a new ability.",
"One answer I can provide is that DNA repair mechanisms are actually quite robust. If during a read, something doesn't match up to the \"blueprint,\" then it is excised or repaired, depending on what sort of mutation it is. That's generally why DNA is pretty conserved across generations.",
"Well you have to step back a moment and realize... We don't know a lot about Evolution.\n\nWe used to think it was purely genetic, meaning changes in the genetic code through mutations are what was passed on ultimately. \n\nHowever we also learned something very interesting. Most of our DNA is \"junk\" in the sense it does very little. This \"junk\" is mostly dormant genes, genes that are no longer \"expressed\" in a sense, they no longer determine changes in the organism. However they are always very clear to say \"junk\" because most of the \"junk\" is just not well understood, dormant or doesn't SEEM to have a function.\n\nThat being said we used to think it was just genetics, and having dormant genes would be a benefit. Instead of just destroying unneeded genes, going dormant means the organism still has the ability to revolve a trait more rapidly if needed. If humans had genes for much sharper teeth, and our planet changed drastically that we may require them, several hundred generations instead of thousands or millions may be required because the gene is already there. It may never revolve but it has a better chance. That is not to say that your DNA did this on \"purpose\" to leave the gene dormant just in case. Neutral mutations with no ill effects of benefits survive just fine in Evolution.\n\nHowever that is just genetics, moving on a huge change in modern biology is called Epigenetics. We are starting to see it's not just the DNA, but the entire environment that controls how DNA will ultimately \"work\". \n\nClone 2 people, separate them by two different lifestyles and distances. Will they have the same genetic code? Yes, will they pass down the same genes? No. Overall there genetic make-up has changed, their DNA has changed. They are no longer clones.\n\nThis happens do to how genes are expressed, the chemistry in your body. You can imagine stress, activity, diet, smoking etc will all change your bodies chemistry, and the overall chemistry determines how your DNA replicates. Certain genes will be expressed more, certain genes will be expressed less.\n\nSo imagine DNA as a sentence.\n\n\"The dog jumped over the fence, and went right into the barn.\"\n\nSo DNA can be thought of as the letters, Epigenetics would change how the sentence is expressed such as spaces and punctuation.\n\n\"The dog \"jumped\" over the fence; and WENT right inTO the barn!\"\n\nNo letters changed, but you can see how those two sentences are different, but contain the same information.\n\nSo Epigenetics changes as well. It's a huge area of research, because if you have a bad diet, are a smoker, do not exercise, or are very stressed you may pass that directly down to your children. This is due to normally during reproduction all expressive markers are \"stripped\" for new ones for the baby, however \"conditioned\" or \"stuck\" expressions pass on. So don't smoke 5 packs a day, it may actually hurt your children even if you quit a year before having one.\n\nNow above you also mention why we don't see information being added to the genome... Well that is kind of false.\n\n_URL_4_\n\nNylon eating bacteria! Nylon was made by us, and is not in nature, we introduced it an 40 years later found bacteria able to break it down. The bacteria made an entirely new enzyme called nylonase that breaks down and digests nylon.\n\nNow you may be wondering, how was the information added to create this new enzyme?\n\nWell no information may of been added, but in this case it wasn't really an \"addition\" of information, but a shift of information.\n\nTake for example the below code.\n\n\"ATG:AGG:ATT:TTG:AGT\"\n\nNow let's say that every 3 letters are \"read\" at a time and mean something in particular. Now this is just a small piece of the entire code. Let's say the entire code is 1,000 letters long, and this piece is just in the middle somewhere.\n\nNow let's say something happens before that snippet, and adds a letter, or shifts everything 1 letter to the right.\n\n\"TAT:GAG:GAT:TTT:GAG:T\"\n\nCheck above, they are the same code, except a T at the beginning shifted each letter to the right. \n\nDo you think the cellular machinery will read that piece the same way? \n\nThis is actually how Nylonase had evolved they believe, a shift in information changing the overall genetic code. \n\nNow there are times where DNA can be damaged, and to \"repair it\" it can grab a piece from another strand of DNA to repair the broken DNA. The problem is, what happens if the second \"good DNA\" had a few errors? They get coppied. What if the machinery cuts the DNA off at the wrong point, or replicates a couple units to long? All that is adding, changing the size, and in most cases will cause destruction for the DNA, some times maybe it's enough to pass on.\n\nDNA isn't pretty, it works with what it has. It's amazing, and we still know very little about how it all works.\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_5_ < Epigenetics scishow.",
"This is flat out wrong. There are several phenomena that can increase the length of the genome, and several that can increase the portion of it that is actively transcribed. There are several types of genes that relocate themselves, sometimes multiple times, leaving copies throughout the genome. There are types of mutations that simply copy large sequences right where they are. Viruses can insert genes (sometimes the entire viral genome) into their hosts DNA.\n\nIn addition to this, the control-statements that enable genes to be expressed can be moved to surround previously innactive DNA by mutation creating those activation sequences, relocation of activation sequences, and by deleting the barrier between transcribable and non-transcribable DNA.\n\nSo, your premise is false.",
"New information is added to the genome due to a) gene duplication, which happens due to errors in meiotic recombination, and b) exogenous viruses which have integrated into our genome but silenced due to DNA methylation and histone modifications. These viral sequences comprise around 45% of the human genome, and are often referred to as transposons or \"jumping genes.\" In fact, mammals have co-opted what were once dangerous viral parasites into normal physiology. For example, the regulatory sequences of these viruses can be used to control the expression of our own genes. The diversity of mammalian placentation is partially attributed to various viruses which have infected us and eventually silenced (see syncytin). It's amazing how species have adapted to the onslaught of these molecular parasites, and how we've ever survived at all. So, it is quite common for new information to be added to the genome, just not on the time scale of a single human life."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_YWMGuh15nE",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy-number_variation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria",
"http://youtu.be/kp1bZEUgqVI",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics"
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}
|
As a reformed creationist I am now thoroughly convinced that evolution is true. I do have one question though.
Why is it that we don't see information being added to the genome? We always hear about "dormant genes being reactivated" or something along those lines, but where did the genes come from? Why don't we constantly see new information in subsequent generations of animals? If we do, where can I read about it?
|
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|
1fhhwr
|
I've read a lot of speculation about the future of the world's water supply. How serious is the issue, and what is likely to occur over the next decades?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The main thing to remember about this is the interconnectedness of resources in general. There's plenty of water in the world; it's just not potable. The availability of cheap energy would solve this issue, as that's mainly what makes it expensive to, say, desalinate seawater.",
"This question has popped up a few times over the last few days (I can only guess that one media outlet ran a story on it and the rest have all jumped on the bandwagon) - there's a fairly good discussion [over here](_URL_0_) on the technicalities behind the problem. I think there was another discussion but I can't find it - it might have been on another subreddit, though.",
"Many areas have seriously depleted their local groundwater, such as Atlanta, GA, or the aquifer just east of the Rockies which many farmers have been draining for centuries. The water in these areas is just more difficult and costly to extract. On the other hand, in time these divot shaped underground boundaries will eventually come back to their original shape, unfortunately it can take water over 100 years to move through the soil and back into lakes/rivers etc. Imagine a giant sponge underground, and the water can only move through it slowly. Each time it rains the sponge is rejuvenated(if only slightly) but it takes a century potentially for the raindrop hitting one side of the sponge to come back out the other side, and only if the raindrop penetrates the soil and doesn't become runoff. Runoff is the hydrologist's main problem, not running out of potable water, at least where I live.",
"There was a great [interview Susan Lealon](_URL_1_) chief strategy officer of AECOM Technology Corporation, and co-author of the book, \"Running Out of Water on Bloomberg Radio on Friday. In it, she outlines where and how the major consumption of water occurs and what is being done to fight regional water shortages. Like most things on Bloomberg, it's focused on the economic drivers, but still definitely worth a listen.",
"Essentially, all \"limited resource\" issues are just \"energy\" issues in disguise. Even things we think of as extremely limited on earth, generally aren't. They just may not be found in sufficient concentrations to make accessing them cost effective or they may be in a place that makes it prohibitively expensive to get to them. There's plenty of water, it covers 3/4 of the earth's surface. The question is potability and suitability for agricultural uses. We are able to desalinate enough water to provide for all humanity's water needs. The problem will be the energy requirements to do so, along with the infrastructure costs.\n\nGlobal warming will have various effects on rainfall. NASA has modeled this in [research](_URL_2_) soon to be published in Geophysical Research Letters. Their modeling projects \"more heavy rain, less moderate rain events, and prolonged droughts.\" That may sound contradictory, but it isn't. The analysis predicts, \"for every 1 degree Fahrenheit of carbon dioxide-induced warming, heavy rainfall will increase globally by 3.9 percent and light rain will increase globally by 1 percent. However, total global rainfall is not projected to change much because moderate rainfall will decrease globally by 1.4 percent.\" Where there is now heavy rain, with warming there will be more heavy rain. Light rain will also increase. But moderate rain will decrease, and there will be prolonged droughts."
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1ffeao/is_it_really_possible_to_run_out_of_water/",
"http://media.bloomberg.com/bb/avfile/News/Surveillance/vP7wqFV8lQ1c.mp3",
"http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/wetter-wet.html"
]
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|
I've read a lot of speculation about the future of the world's water supply. How serious is the issue, and what is likely to occur over the next decades?
|
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745cng
|
Today I saw the equation "PV=nRT". Why do the variables all match exactly? Why don't we have to multiply R by 1.25? Or P by 0.5?
|
It boggles my mind that everything is so.... perfect. Did n and R only come about because of this equation, and so were given arbitrary values that caught on?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"The gas-constant, R, was chosen in such a way that this equation would hold.\n\nIn discovering a equation like this, people will first discover relations between various observables. For example \"keeping other factors fixed, pressure is proportional to tempature\" or \"pressure is inversely proportional to volume\". This gives rise to a propotionality relation: PV ~ nT (~ denotes \"is proportional to\"), which is already very useful in describing physical phenomena. However, for calculations, an exact equality is preferable, so a proportionality constant has to be introduced.\n\nIn this case, this is the gas constant R. It's value can be obtained by carefully measuring the other variables (P, V, n & T) and plugging them into the equation. \n\nNote that the value of R is completely dependent on the choice of units. Pressures are normally measured in Pascal (Pa, or Newton per square meter), but if you were to measure pressures in pounds per square inch (psi), the value of R that you'd need to balance the equation would change.\n\nHowever, the underlying proportionality relation, PV ~ nT, which is what actually describes what is happening, remains unchanged. R is just there to balance the books.",
"> It boggles my mind that everything is so....\n\nR is an experimental constant. Take, and these are just made up numbers, ( 1.21 P )( 0.78 V) = (1.1 n)(0.3 T)\nand you could write that as PV = ( (1.1x0.3)/(0.78 x 1.21) ) nT and just take (1.1x0.3)/(0.78x1.21) ~ 0.35 and give it a name, the \"Cantgetno197 constant\" and then you're set. You can always capture all prefactors and accumulate them into one constant.\n\nThis is the case with all such relations. Newton's law of universal gravity is: Force of gravity = G m1 m2/r^2 where m1 is the mass of the first object, m2 is the mass of the second and r is the distance between them. G is an experimental constant that makes the units match and the numbers \"scale\". For example, 2 masses of 1kg at a separation of 1 meter would make m1 m2/r^2 = 1 kg^2 / m^2. However, kg^2 /m^2 is not even a unit of force (which is a Newton or a kg m / s^2 ) and two 1 kg objects with a separation of 1 meter do not experience 1 Newton of gravitational force, that's what G does, given the units we arbitrarily chose it scales the number to actually be the correct amount for gravity and it also maps the correct units onto each other).\n\nThe ideal gas law can also be written as PV = N kb T, where N is the number of particles rather than moles, kb is the experimental constant. Coulomb/electrostatic force goes like Force = k q1 q1 / r^2 where q1 and q1 are the charge of the two particles (notice the similarity to the form of Newton's law of universal gravitation). k is the experimental constant.\n\nAnd so on.\n\n > and so were given arbitrary values that caught on?\n\nThe numerical value of the experimental constant is determined by the units used and will take a different value depending on whether you're working in SI, \"Freedom\"/Imperial Units or Stadia per Fortnight. However, that is not the same as saying they are arbitrary. They encode real information about the nature of the systems that produces them. For example in our gravity law, G tells the magnitude of force that two masses at a distance experience gravitationally. If, for the same units, the value of G were to be changed, then that would mean the strength of gravity as a fundamental force has literally changed.",
"PS: if you'd *like* a factor of 1.25, you're free to write your own version of the Ideal Gas Law:\n\nPV = 1.25 n S T\n\nwhere S is the Soupmeister constant, equal to 6.651 J/mol K.",
"So I get that the value of R (by what ever dimensions) was derived experimentally, but how does it (does it at all) connect with deeper structures in physics, or is it just some random parameter of the universe? What would happen if the value of R were different? I assume heat engines would be more or less efficient but are there other consequences?"
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|
Today I saw the equation "PV=nRT". Why do the variables all match exactly? Why don't we have to multiply R by 1.25? Or P by 0.5?
It boggles my mind that everything is so.... perfect. Did n and R only come about because of this equation, and so were given arbitrary values that caught on?
|
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|
2bu7qv
|
Say that two "perfect" squares are diagonal to each other. Are they touching?
|
[Here](_URL_0_) is a visual of what I mean.
Say that the squares are perfectly straight, even down on the atomic and plank scales.
You can zoom in further and further, but no matter how far in you go, it'll look the same.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cj92pfr",
"cj94io1",
"cj9nfva",
"cj92q95",
"cjaezmy"
],
"text": [
"Squares do not exist in real world. They are an ideal representation of your brain in order to simplify and process better visual information. The idea of points that form the square also are an idealized perception. \n\nMathematicaly, you could perfectly have what you propose. Let's take the two squares formed by the two set of points {0 < = x < = 1;0 < = y < = 1} and {-1 < = x < = 0;- & < = y < = 0}. These two sets form \"tiles\" (square filled up) that only share the point (0,0). \n\nIn reality, you couldn't describe objects as set of points. You cannot have ponctual contact because contact is actually related to the force that make atoms repulse each others (it's not my speciality, but wouldn't it be electrostatic force between the two atoms electron clouds ?).",
"I don't have license to speak physically. No physical square meets the precision of mathematics. I can, however, give you a mathematical interpretation.\n\nSuppose we are working in the upper right quadrant of the Euclidian plane. This would be the set S={(x,y)| x,y > =0}. Let's further restrict this to the set S1={(x,y)| 0 < = x < = 2, 0 < = y < = 2}. S1 is just a big 2 by 2 square.\n\nSo now consider the set D1={(x,y)| 0 < = x < = 1, 0 < = y < = 1} and the set D2={(x,y)| 1 < = x < = 2, 1 < = y < = 2}. If I were to plot them, they would look like your visualization.\n\nThe intersection of D1 and D2, or the set of things that are both in D1 and D2, is non-empty. There is exactly one point in both sets, and that is the point (1,1). So in this sense, they are touching.\n\nThis is really contingent on the sets being ~~compact~~ closed. Without a ~~compact~~ closed set, this doesn't work.",
"You indicate in the comments you're talking about mathematical squares. In that case the question hinges entirely on what you mean by \"touching\", which is a word with an informal, everyday meaning that's ambiguous when applied to rigorous mathematical objects. A mathematician would accept the geometry of the situation for what it is without applying ill-defined labels.",
"Are you talking about physical or mathematical squares? The reference to atomic and Planck scales makes me think the former, but the fact that you posted it here makes me think the latter.\n\nIf you mean mathematical squares, then I would say that two regions are touching if the intersection of their boundaries is nonempty, and in this case the intersection of the boundaries of the squares is exactly one point, so yes.",
"The vertex where they meet is the same point. Does this mean they're touching? It depends on your definition of touching. \n\nThat point is on the boundary of both squares, so if sharing any common boundary points is your definition of touching, then yes, they're touching."
],
"score": [
14,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/ExEZVsJ.png"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Say that two "perfect" squares are diagonal to each other. Are they touching?
[Here](_URL_0_) is a visual of what I mean. Say that the squares are perfectly straight, even down on the atomic and plank scales. You can zoom in further and further, but no matter how far in you go, it'll look the same.
|
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31tcim
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Why do people so confidently dismiss ideas that contradict thermodynamics, relativity, etc, when we already know that until a grand unified theory is discovered, these theories are incomplete at best?
|
Of course most of the people talking about perpetual motion and zero point energy are obvious lunatics, I guess what I'm really wondering is, are there are any big contradictory theories that are actually respected and studied seriously?
|
askscience
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"They are dismissed because theories like relativity and thermodynamics are incredibly well tested, are correct to an astonishing level of precision, and have not once been shown to not be correct. This means that any \"theory of everything\" must incorporate all of the experimentally proven results of other theories. Thus, it's not that the theories are incomplete, but rather, they are limiting cases of the ToE. Any theory that comes along that contradicts these theories must almost certainly be wrong.\n\nE: Also, I should add that contradicting thermodynamics is an especially bad faux pas, because it is less a *physical* theory and more a *mathematical* one. For example - the increase of entropy isn't saying something about the physical laws governing a set of particles, but rather, it says that, when any possible state for a set of particles is equally likely, the state with the most possible arrangements is the most likely one to find the system in. It's hard to argue with something that simple.",
"Your question conflates two different aspects of scientific understanding.\n\nA scientific theory is a predictive model based on evidence that operates within a well-defined domain. Most major advances: (a) don't fundamentally change the understanding of existing theory within the currently well-understood domains and (b) definitely don't contradict existing empirical evidence. Rather, new theories typically unify multiple existing theories, or they simply propose a model that operates in a new domain (usually one that partially or completely subsumes a domain covered by an existing theory).\n\nFor example, electromagnetism didn't suddenly disprove anything we already understood about electricity or magnetism, it simply proposed a model that treated them as two expressions of the same underlying force.\n\nRelativity didn't overturn Newtonian physics, it simply expanded the domain to cover things moving closer to light speed than we were ever able to explain before; or, if you like, expanded the domain down to levels of precision we previously couldn't at low speeds.\n\nIt's important to understand how scientific knowledge functions. All models have limits, and we have a good understanding of where those limits are and how the domain of a theory is defined. And, empirical evidence is irrefutable–no future model may make predictions that conflict with evidence...this is how we know it's wrong.\n\nLet me repeat that last bit: *Conflicting with current evidence is how we know a proposed theory is wrong.* So when people start carrying on about thermodynamics or relativity and claim some new way of understanding that conflicts with evidence, we do well to treat it no different than any other proposed model and see if it conflicts with evidence. Most of the time, that's all it takes to discount some new proposal. It fails to make accurate predictions–never mind that it conflicts with some other model, we almost never have to even look at existing theories to debunk junk science. They fall on their own wrt evidence, irrespective of what thermodynamics says or doesn't say.",
"Historically, new scientific insights are not gained by simply adopting ideas that run counter to established theories. \n\nRather there must be good reason to abandon old theories, such as a new theory that explains all that was explained by the old theories, and explains things that the old theories did not explain.",
"As others have said, thermodynamics is in its real application a statistical formalism that as far as anything in this universe can be proven is proven. All that the laws of thermodynamics state is that the most probable events occur the most, and in the limit of infinite possible states, any one state is impossible (for example the state of increasing energy in an closed system or decreasing entropy).\n\nThat idea can be mathematically proven and time and time again has been tested to be true.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nRelativity on the other hand is a different issue. Most of the time theories that disagree with relativity in minute ways, but yet are not refuted by experimentation are theories in which the only time the difference could possibly matter are those times in which we can not experience or measure a difference yet. As such even though the theories may very well be different and could hold different \"deep\" meanings in the universe, they are reducible to the same thing. This is a very real issue in the field of theoretical physics and I very much doubt you would find many theoreticians out there that straight up agree with relativity in totality, but since for almost every condition known to man and certainly everyone we have worked out to an exactitude available to us, those theories reduce to the same results, then in effect they ARE the same.",
"There are many contradictory theories, and many observations that our best theories cannot explain. But it's never some dude with a highschool diploma that manages to find such discrepancies. It's almost always someone working with a cutting edge new device that is more powerful or more precise than anything that was previously possible. Notable examples include the Kepler and Hubble telescopes, vacuum tubes, and the Large Hadron Collider. \n \nAnd of course, there are more such devices on the way. There are some telescopes on the way that will dwarf anything that we have now, and gravity wave detectors that will (hopefully) actually be able to detect gravity waves, which would be revolutionary.",
"I like the chess analogy. You look at a chess game without knowing the rules and you notice that the bishop always seems to stay on one color. As it moves around the board each bishop is either on a black or white square and never switches colors. You in response to this create a theory saying \"All bishops at the beginning of the game will either be on a white square or a black square and cannot switch colors.\". This theory is true. In no game of chess will a bishop switch colors. Every observed bishop move will have it end up still on it's original color and the theory is true given all circumstances. \n\nThis theory is however incomplete and doesn't paint the full picture. In reality a bishop moves diagonally which means it will always be on the same color. The grand unified theory in this case is the understanding that a bishop will always move diagonally in chess which in turn means that it will always stay on the same color. The grand unified theory is a better explanation because it explains all unknown factors such as \"how does a bishop choose where to move?\" but it doesn't change the already observed rules of \"A bishop will stay on the same color\". \n\nThis analogy fits physics as well. Newtonian physics are correct. We don't understand how they interact with everything completely but they work in normal circumstances. A grand unified theory would explain how and why Newtonian physics work but it won't change the physics themselves.",
"Wow, there is a lot of answers in here already, for the sake of time I will simply contribute my experience. I have been accused of this from time to time, once while a fellow employee was showing me his \"blueprint\" for a time machine. Sometimes theories aren't dismissed as readily as you would think, but rather because it's an avenue that person has pursued and studied to know exactly why it doesn't work or has learned enough to realize how silly something is, like a spinning disk magically transporting you through time.\n\nThat said, I have also known a lot of scientists who will fall into that category of \"it isn't in my book, it doesn't exist\" who like to preach certain ideas as gospel. It also depends on the exact subject matter, as areas less understood by the person you are asking seem to be met with more skepticism and lacking explanations, so buzzwords like \"relativity\" and \"thermodynamics\" pop out, though the understanding of those ideas is also either primitive or not clearly understood by the skeptic.\n\nI get most frustrated when people reference certain notions about quantum mechanics, because it's something that I studied.\n\nFact of the matter is, that skepticism is often better than raw enthusiasm, the lesser of two evils, if you will. But out rightly saying that something is \"impossible\" moves you to dangerous waters. The same goes for reading articles from the news and showing them to be proof that \"x\" can happen. News articles often far overstate the science of what is going on for lack of understanding. They also lead to conspiracy theories, but that's another topic.\n\nI don't know if I answered your question entirely, but that's my viewpoint on the matter."
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Why do people so confidently dismiss ideas that contradict thermodynamics, relativity, etc, when we already know that until a grand unified theory is discovered, these theories are incomplete at best?
Of course most of the people talking about perpetual motion and zero point energy are obvious lunatics, I guess what I'm really wondering is, are there are any big contradictory theories that are actually respected and studied seriously?
|
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7hh5n0
|
AskScience AMA Series: We are working to build precise atomic clocks that could fit inside your smartphone. Ask Us Anything!
|
Atomic clocks are among the most precise scientific instruments ever made, and play an important role in advanced navigation, secure communication, and radar technology. Kyriakos Porfyrakis and Edward Laird of the University of Oxford are working on building a hyperprecise atomic clock that could fit on a chip inside a smartphone.
They begin with a nitrogen atom, which resonates at a particular frequency and acts as a very precise reference point by which to track time. Since nitrogen is highly reactive, they have to trap the nitrogen atom inside of an endohedral fullerene-a sort of atomic cage made out of 60 carbon atoms-in their lab. To do it, they used a process called ion implantation. This process produces a molecule called N@C_60 that can easily be collected and stored (they even sell it for £200 million per gram).
But before they could put the molecule in a clock, they also had to figure out how to cancel out magnetic fields from the surrounding environment that could disrupt the energy level of the nitrogen atom within. Earlier this year, they developed a way to shield the nitrogen atom from external magnetic fields by applying a steady magnetic field that would cancel out any effects.
They recently wrote about their work for IEEE Spectrum (_URL_0_).
They'll be here starting 12 PM ET (17 UT). You can ask them about GPS, atomic clocks, nanomaterials, or anything else!
|
askscience
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"text": [
"Why? What benefit would this serve my phone?",
"isn't it easier to just sync smartphones to a single atomic clock for daily reference?",
"If the nitrogen atom is shielded, how do you manage to read its frequency?",
"This is very cool, but how much would something like this cost? It would surprise me if this ever ended up in a phone I owned",
"As someone in the precision-clock industry, do you know yet what the stability of these atoms will be (and on what timescales), perhaps in comparison to sort of \"standard\" atomic clocks?",
"With enough of these spread across the globe and with enough precision, is there a possibility of \"crowdsourced\" measurements of post-Newtonian general relativity parameters based on deviations of the tick rates?",
"Why Nitrogen instead of the Cesium vibrations that the metric second is defined with? Is using a Nitrogen atom more or less accurate than using a Cesium atom?",
"When could commercial phones start having this?\n\nHow much battery would such a device drain?\n\nHow mass producable is this? Could you fill an order of 100million units in a year?\n\nWhat are the biggest challenges remaining?",
"Given the exorbitant cost of the material, how much is actually needed to create one atomic clock unit.",
"Question #1 Why? I can't see a reason why I would need the clock on my phone to be more precise than within one second. Let alone 5+ decimal places.\n\nQuestion #2 Upright or canister vacuum cleaner?",
"How does it compare to the Chip-scale atomic clock?",
"How coupled is the nitrogen atom electron levels are going to be to the fullerene structure? What degree of control do you foresee?",
"Very cool. What broader application for atomic clocks are you personally most excited about? Thanks!",
"How much space would this take up in a smartphone?",
"But then you can't say, \"Sorry, my watch must be running slow\" or \"the time on my phone is off somehow.\" People need some fudge factors to grease the eternal hamster wheel of everyday life.",
"Do you foresee any different use in of your clock as a super sensitive sensor of electric/magnetic fields (or of anything else)?",
"Why would this be useful for us?\n\n\n\nHow would it affect the cost of our devices?",
"From the few talks I’ve been to regarding atomic clocks, I gathered that gravitational effects are something of a concern. How do you plan to deal with the minor difference in frequency as a result of distance form the earth? How would flight be accounted for and corrected for.",
"Why? I don't need that. Why not work on something that helps the homeless or less fortunate. Everybody already has a clock of some sorts. I think you're wasting your life away.",
"How difficult would it be to reuse these clocks? Would it be possible to remove one from a dead/broken phone and use it in a new phone?",
"Would an atomic clock be accurate and consistent in a spacecraft outside of our solar system or at the core of the earth?",
"What sort of AD stabilities or S/N levels do you anticipate?",
"Have you found any unexplained anomalies with your work?"
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"url": [
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
AskScience AMA Series: We are working to build precise atomic clocks that could fit inside your smartphone. Ask Us Anything!
Atomic clocks are among the most precise scientific instruments ever made, and play an important role in advanced navigation, secure communication, and radar technology. Kyriakos Porfyrakis and Edward Laird of the University of Oxford are working on building a hyperprecise atomic clock that could fit on a chip inside a smartphone. They begin with a nitrogen atom, which resonates at a particular frequency and acts as a very precise reference point by which to track time. Since nitrogen is highly reactive, they have to trap the nitrogen atom inside of an endohedral fullerene-a sort of atomic cage made out of 60 carbon atoms-in their lab. To do it, they used a process called ion implantation. This process produces a molecule called N@C_60 that can easily be collected and stored (they even sell it for £200 million per gram). But before they could put the molecule in a clock, they also had to figure out how to cancel out magnetic fields from the surrounding environment that could disrupt the energy level of the nitrogen atom within. Earlier this year, they developed a way to shield the nitrogen atom from external magnetic fields by applying a steady magnetic field that would cancel out any effects. They recently wrote about their work for IEEE Spectrum (_URL_0_). They'll be here starting 12 PM ET (17 UT). You can ask them about GPS, atomic clocks, nanomaterials, or anything else!
|
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|
zrvwq
|
How is it possible for a lab to produce 10 Terawatts, if the world consumes only 15 Terawatts? Is there something I'm overlooking?
|
Intellectual Ventures is a notorious patent troll, and they also built a lab where they come up with inventions. On their lab website, one of their claims is ["10 Terawatts – Instantaneous optical power we can achieve with our three femtosecond lasers and OPO, comparable to a nuclear blast."](_URL_1_), yet I didn't really know the magnitude of this power so I did some research into how much the world consumes. Howstuffworks says that world uses ["15 terawatts"](_URL_0_), but they cited The Economist as their source. So what am I to believe?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c676j5b",
"c676gc1",
"c676xb3"
],
"text": [
"It's the difference between power and energy. Well, they sustain that power only for a femtosecond =10^-15 seconds times 10*10^12 Watt = 0.001 Joule. It takes 4800 joules to heat up a coffee one (1) degree. So they really don't use up a lot of energy. Then the experiment stops and no more power is used. Meanwhile the world is consuming power CONTINUOSLY at a rate of 15* 10^12 times 365 days times 24 hours times 3600 sec per hours =4.7 *10^20 Joule. That huge amount of energy. \n\nOh yes, the people of Intellectual Ventures are assholes.\n\nSo they are technically correct but the comparison to a nuclear blast or the world energy consumption should not be made without considering how long the power is used.\n\nBy the way, i don't think they should be allowed to have a patent on this (they dont claim to have one for as far as i know). They certainly did not invent femtosecond lasers or optical parametric amplification/oscillation",
"10 Terawatts over 3 femtoseconds is only [30 milli-Joules](_URL_0_). If you have energy output over an extremely short period of time, you can claim a large instantaneous power output.",
"The world use 15 Terawatts *continuously*. It is a rate, not an amount.\n\nThey produced 10 Terawatts for an instant."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/world-power-consumption.htm",
"http://intellectualventureslab.com/?page_id=3469"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=10+terrawats+*+3+femtoseconds"
]
}
|
How is it possible for a lab to produce 10 Terawatts, if the world consumes only 15 Terawatts? Is there something I'm overlooking?
Intellectual Ventures is a notorious patent troll, and they also built a lab where they come up with inventions. On their lab website, one of their claims is ["10 Terawatts – Instantaneous optical power we can achieve with our three femtosecond lasers and OPO, comparable to a nuclear blast."](_URL_1_), yet I didn't really know the magnitude of this power so I did some research into how much the world consumes. Howstuffworks says that world uses ["15 terawatts"](_URL_0_), but they cited The Economist as their source. So what am I to believe?
|
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|
1vo0kl
|
Does anything happen when you point lasers at each other?
|
Say you have three lasers (blue, green and red) and you point them in a way that beams hit each other at an exact point. Could that break the laser beams and create a predetermined color (based on the intensities of each of the laser beams)?
Sorry if my question sounds confusing, and sorry i have zero background in optical science.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ceu87q7",
"ceue4kj",
"ceu82zr",
"ceu6dwl"
],
"text": [
"There are two (actually three) fundamental groups of particles in the Standard Model:\n\n* Fermions - particles like Electrons and quarks are Fermions. They obey the so-called Fermi-Dirac Statistics\n\n* Bosons - particles like Photons and Gluons. They obey the Bose-Einstein Statistics\n\n ~~(and the Higgs Boson, which is a bit special)~~\n\nThe key difference between those two groups of particles is, that the wave function of Bosons is symmetric and the wave function of Fermions is anti-symmetric.\n\nA consequence of this is, that two Bosons may occupy the same space, whereas two Fermions have a probability of exactly zero to occupy the same point in space. You might have heard of this under the name of \"Pauli Exclusion Principle\".\n\nAs stated above, photons are Bosons. That means that they may occupy the same point in space at the same time. Consequently, nothing exciting happens when you point two laser pointers at each other. The photons simply \"pass through\" one another. This is called the [superposition principle](_URL_0_), since you can simply and arithmetically add their vector fields to one another. (Unless both photons have *really* high energies, in which case [pair production](_URL_1_) may occur)",
"While the other answers are correct that if you intersect three laser beams in vacuum there will be no interaction, there are a couple of cases where something like an interaction can happen.\n\n1. If you point two lasers directly at each other and align their beams very closely to each other, they are likely to interact, and you are likely to disturb the operation of one or both lasers. This can either be because an incoming beam disturbs the gain material of the second laser, or because the optics of the second laser causes a back reflection that disturbs the optical properties of the first laser. Neither of these effects is really what you seem to be looking for when you talk about intersecting 3 beams at a point.\n\n2. If you place a special material, with [nonlinear optical properties](_URL_2_) at the place where you intersect the three (or two or four) beams, you can cause an effect like the interaction of the beams. For example if you intersect two infrared beams with 1.1 um wavelength, you could produce an output beam with a visible green (550 nm) color. However doing this requires very careful choice of the material you use, the laser wavelengths, and the geometry of how the beams overlap. Strictly this doesn't happen because the beams themselves interact but because they interact together with the molecules in the nonlinear material.",
"Nothing special will happen. At a point within the intersection the elecromagnetic waves will just add up. The wave at that point is then just a combination of the 3 waves. Only when your eye is exactly at that point of intersection(please dont do this xD) you will see a combination of the colors.",
"Not really, no - the light beams will just pass through each other. You might get some odd effects from the three beams working together to heat up the material they're passing through at that point, but that's not linked to any direct interaction between the beams."
],
"score": [
8,
7,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Standing_wave_2.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_production",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"
]
}
|
Does anything happen when you point lasers at each other?
Say you have three lasers (blue, green and red) and you point them in a way that beams hit each other at an exact point. Could that break the laser beams and create a predetermined color (based on the intensities of each of the laser beams)? Sorry if my question sounds confusing, and sorry i have zero background in optical science.
|
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n72st
|
Using biology to reduce drag
|
In theory, would I be able to reduce drag using 'fish scale' like coverings? Particularly towards the rear of a vehicle? Would strategically placed 'scales' be able to reduce drag (possibly, like a golf ball's dimples?) or additionally increase downforce?
Additionally, would mechanized scales, able to be computer controlled and moved effectively, improve handling, reduce drag, increase downforce, and counter other aerodynamic forces? Completely impractical, but in theory would it be aerodynamically useful?
|
askscience
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"(Mech. Engineering)\n\nAt the rear of the vehicle, a zone of low pressure is created because air is forced to move into the space left by the vehicle. Because the air impinging on the front of the vehicle is at higher pressure, this creates a net force on the vehicle, which is a major component of drag. Adding things like fish scales, dimples, ect... towards the rear of the vehicle would thicken the boundary layer of air (air moving more or less with the vehicle) around the area the scales or other protrusions cover. Although for some specific cases this might have a net positive effect on vehicle performance, there is no universal mechanism for why this would be a good thing.\n\nOn the front of the vehicle, however, there could potentially be a benefit from boundary-layer thickening by adding dimples, small protrusions, ect if that increase in the boundary layer helps make airflow over a sharp discontinuity in the vehicle's shape (junction between windshield and hood in some cars, ect...) flow more smoothly. This might help eliminate some frictional drag on the vehicle itself or possibly help maintain a smoother flow of air over the vehicle, which might prevent the formation of energy-wasting vortices, ect....\n\nHowever, whenever possible, smooth, generally teardrop shaped vehicles are best. Fish scales are mostly a protective coating to keep parasites out and assist fish in maintaining an different osmotic balance inside their bodies than in the water they live in. Also have you ever handled a fish? Most fish who do a lot of swimming have sleek, smooth-to-the-touch bodies.",
"Where are you? Got access to a wind tunnel? Lets test it!\n\n_URL_0_",
"(Aerospace engineer)\nIt is definitely possible, depending on the shape of the rear of the vehicle, but maybe not for the reasons you're thinking of. There are two types of drag - skin friction and pressure drag. Skin friction drag is due to \"friction\" with the air. As you might expect, a rougher surface causes higher skin drag. Pressure drag is due to the vortices formed at the space behind the vehicle (if you assume no shocks occur - a safe assumption for most road vehicles). These vortices form because there is a void left by the vehicle that must be filled. If the vehicle tapered to a point at the rear, there would be no void, and thus no pressure drag.\n\nSo why does this matter? The interesting part is that the angle of the taper (or angle of attack) matters. If you taper too quickly, the air no longer wants (due to unfavorable pressure gradients) to continue along the surface and separates. This is what causes a plane to stall when it tries to pitch up at too large of an angle. To clarify what I mean by \"taper too quickly\", think of a 0 deg taper as a sheet of paper pulled in the wind, with the edge facing the airflow. Think of a 90 deg taper as the sheet 'blocking' the airflow. As your taper increases from 0 to 90 degrees (meaning as you rotate the sheet of paper), you get more pressure drag, which is why you would feel the force on the paper increasing.\n\nOk, so to the point. Everything I've said holds true for laminar (smooth, even) airflow. When the air is turbulent (eddies, etc), lots of interesting things happen. One of the key things that happens is that the flow does not separate as easily, as it has more energy to work against unfavorable pressure gradients. By introducing dimples into a golf ball, pressure drag is reduced by making the flow turbulent, and thus more likely to stay attached to the surface of the ball.\n\nBy introducing dimples toward the rear of the car (and making the rear less boxy and more tapered), the flow could be induced to stay attached for longer, decreasing pressure drag. Of course, this is a tradeoff, as those dimples also make the surface rougher, increasing skin friction drag. At some point, the level of turbulence caused would increase skin friction drag to the point where the reduction in pressure drag would be negated.",
"A lot of the features useful in aerodynamics of small objects do not translate to large objects well. Look up \"scalability\" in the field of aerodynamics. A golf ball achieves roughly comparable speeds to a car on a highway, but it's diameter is an extremely small fraction in comparison to the length of a car. This results in a very different speed to chord length (airflow velocity vs. object length). These two objects would experience significantly different air resistance issues.\n\nFurthermore, dimples on a spinning golf ball cause a lifting effect called the Magnus effect to increase the range of a drive. This has the appearance of lower drag, but this is not the case. Conversely, a car operates very close to a stationary surface (the ground) and is subject to significant ground effects.\n\nIn any case, aerodynamic considerations do not figure highly in automobile design. Most aerodynamic \"features\" should be called aeroDRAMATIC features because they're intended to look awesome. If you look at most consumer vehicle spoilers, you'll note that they're placed near the very rear of the trunk. Too far back to cause early turbulence over much length of the car. If a spoiler were to be placed in the proper place, it would obstruct your view when backing into a parking space. If the feature was intended to produce downforce, it would have to be a lot stronger in order to push downwards on the rear of the vehicle significantly. Most spoilers are flimsy plastic fairings.\n\nMost of consumer vehicle aerodynamic engineering is intended to reduce wind noise more than reduce drag. If we really cared about drag, we wouldn't have exposed undercarriages or wheel wells. \n\nNature sometimes provides interesting solutions to problems, but generally they're extremely specific solutions that are context dependent. Take the fish out of water and throw it down the highway and you might find that the much higher speeds, ground effect, and inviscid medium provide a completely different environment for which fish are not well adapted for."
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Using biology to reduce drag
In theory, would I be able to reduce drag using 'fish scale' like coverings? Particularly towards the rear of a vehicle? Would strategically placed 'scales' be able to reduce drag (possibly, like a golf ball's dimples?) or additionally increase downforce? Additionally, would mechanized scales, able to be computer controlled and moved effectively, improve handling, reduce drag, increase downforce, and counter other aerodynamic forces? Completely impractical, but in theory would it be aerodynamically useful?
|
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|
jioh7
|
49,999 readers! Because reading AskScience was also cool before hitting 50k!
|
Alrighty, we're officially pretty darn huge by now. 55th largest subreddit, half-way to the big 100,000. Excellent!
Since the last State of AskScience post, we have seen a few exciting changes:
* Slim and improved side-bar, enabled by the nifty [faq](_URL_2_) that explains our house rules, mission statement, and so on.
* Improved panel tags! Easier to administer, unlimited slots, a sharp new look, and more colors.
---
We're continuously growing, and that means there are more and more people who are new to /r/AskScience. For the most part, I'm happy to see all the traffic. I see lots of really interesting and novel questions, and many really awesome scientific responses, from both old-timers and newcomers.
However, the amount of non-science commenting is (again) on the rise, so I ask *all* of you: please think before you submit!
Try not to comment if you do not know how to scientifically back up what you are saying. Asking a question, or simply up-or-downvoting is most often a much better way of interacting with and contributing to the community. We're trying to run a valuable service here, please help us keep it as awesome and on-target as it has been in the past.
For example:
* Bad: I'm not a physicist but if I had to guess I'd say that the magnets would fly off...
* Good: According to my understanding, the magnets would fly off because of the [redacted] principle. Is this correct?
Finally, if you have a source handy, please provide it. If you know where your knowledge and wisdom came from, please cite it. Thanks!
---
***BIG ANNOUNCEMENT***
We're branching out into other social networks, so that everybody can benefit from the wisdom in these pages instead of just redditors. Spread the wealth: [Facebook Page](_URL_0_) and [Google+ stream](_URL_1_).
The concept is that it's a user you can add to an appropriate Google+ circle, or "like" the Facebook page, which adds a feed that links to the best few AskScience questions every day. *That's all* - short and sweet!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2cfxpj",
"c2cfs5t",
"c2cictx",
"c2cgkq0",
"c2cfsls",
"c2chz20",
"c2ci6en",
"c2cgeg9",
"c2chdnl",
"c2cgo0h",
"c2cjtsz",
"c2chq5a"
],
"text": [
"Another thing:\n\n**AskScience is not LikeImFive**\n\nDon't just post questions like \"explain acid-base chemistry to me like I'm five.\" Ask a specific question, and someone will answer it but will treat you like an adult.",
"AskScience is *way* too mainstream now.\n\nBut seriously, huge thanks to everyone that contributes and makes this subreddit the great place that it is. Our expert panelists, interesting question askers, and everyone else that posts in /r/AskScience, I love you all.",
"Here's a specific reminder: if you see an off-topic meme, joke in a top-level comment, or off-topic comment, go ahead and hit that report button. It helps when the mods don't have a chance to read every comment in every thread. Thanks!",
"Hrm, wonder what number I joined at. How am I supposed to know what my appropriate level of smugness is? \n\nOh well, to ∞ and beyond!",
"Thanks to all your scientists for you time and knowledge! Maybe I'll have the honor of joining you one day.",
"You guys deserve a reddit award for the best moderators. You're consistently posting these threads reminding everyone about what r/askscience is here for. Thank you guys for keeping this place in check, keep up the great work!",
"I haven't been around on reddit for too long, but as soon as I joined, this quickly became my favorite subreddit. It's really heavily moderated, which is great, because it has none of the crap that you see in r/answers or r/askreddit. The sidebar is also really helpful.\n\nThanks for all the work you put into this, guys.",
"So should we start a /r/AskHipsters for all of us who were there before it was mainstream?\n\nAlso, \"magnets flying off because of the [redacted] principle\"....does this mean that the SCP foundation is watching this subreddit? Because I have some scientific questions about a few of those...",
"I have been on reddit for over 3 years, just found this one a few mojths ago and it is probably my favorite /r/. I spent hours reading old posts as soon as I found it. Thanks to all who make it great.",
"How can you see which reddits are the biggest?\n\nThat's an actual question, not a riddle.",
"I used to listen to askscience on vinyl.\n\nSeriously though. Was the idea of a cool header ever kicked around amongst the bigshots? Something ala /r/earthporn? don't worry its totally safe for work.",
"Does anyone have a link to the lists of top subscribed subreddits?"
],
"score": [
158,
32,
11,
11,
11,
7,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.facebook.com/pages/rAskScience/128802790545333?sk=wall",
"https://plus.google.com/117310850002483290031/about",
"http://www.reddit.com/help/faqs/AskScience"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
49,999 readers! Because reading AskScience was also cool before hitting 50k!
Alrighty, we're officially pretty darn huge by now. 55th largest subreddit, half-way to the big 100,000. Excellent! Since the last State of AskScience post, we have seen a few exciting changes: * Slim and improved side-bar, enabled by the nifty [faq](_URL_2_) that explains our house rules, mission statement, and so on. * Improved panel tags! Easier to administer, unlimited slots, a sharp new look, and more colors. --- We're continuously growing, and that means there are more and more people who are new to /r/AskScience. For the most part, I'm happy to see all the traffic. I see lots of really interesting and novel questions, and many really awesome scientific responses, from both old-timers and newcomers. However, the amount of non-science commenting is (again) on the rise, so I ask *all* of you: please think before you submit! Try not to comment if you do not know how to scientifically back up what you are saying. Asking a question, or simply up-or-downvoting is most often a much better way of interacting with and contributing to the community. We're trying to run a valuable service here, please help us keep it as awesome and on-target as it has been in the past. For example: * Bad: I'm not a physicist but if I had to guess I'd say that the magnets would fly off... * Good: According to my understanding, the magnets would fly off because of the [redacted] principle. Is this correct? Finally, if you have a source handy, please provide it. If you know where your knowledge and wisdom came from, please cite it. Thanks! --- ***BIG ANNOUNCEMENT*** We're branching out into other social networks, so that everybody can benefit from the wisdom in these pages instead of just redditors. Spread the wealth: [Facebook Page](_URL_0_) and [Google+ stream](_URL_1_). The concept is that it's a user you can add to an appropriate Google+ circle, or "like" the Facebook page, which adds a feed that links to the best few AskScience questions every day. *That's all* - short and sweet!
|
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|
1mtnqy
|
Bayesian approach to criminal justice
|
As I understand it, Bayesian reasoning uses past statistics as a given and then deduces the probability of a future event.
1. Is this a fair assessment of the theory?
2. Can it be used to determine guilt of an accused party in a specific situation? Example: If I know that when a particular type of crime is reported that a) it is a "truthful" accusation, not a maliciously false one 90% of the time, and b) that statistically, when this crime is committed, it is committed by a certain discrete segment of the population 99% of the time, can I use Bayesian reasoning to determine whether a member of this particular group is guilty of a particular instance of this crime in the absence of additional evidence?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cccj29h",
"cccjv5p",
"cccjfge"
],
"text": [
"You could only determine a *probability* that the person is guilty.",
"1. Generally speaking, yes, albeit somewhat of an over simplification. \n\n2. I think the operative word in this question is 'determine'. Determining guilt for any practical purpose (say, demonstrating with sufficient evidence to result in the conviction of a crime) would typically require evidence beyond a reasonable doubt, at least in today's criminal justice system. So your outcomes would have to be very accurate. Bayesian inference is inherently based on the notion of probabilities, and the interaction of variables with one another. These initial relationships or assumptions are based on some know data set, with some confidence attached to it. The challenge (as with any statistical model I suppose) is having sufficient base data which could cover the potentially innumerable number of factors that one might consider predictors of a given crime.\nHaving said that, with a well trained model and data sufficiency, it is possible to reach a reasonable level of accuracy using a Bayesian system, but not one that I would want my fate based on if I was the one on trial, (at least not by today's standards).\n\nBeyond the mathematical challlenges associated with producing sufficiently accurate predictions (which I dont believe would be insurmountable as we continually conquer the 'big data' problem, collecting more and more data across every conceivable dimension of our lives, and employ machine learning to train on these data), there would also be far reaching implications of associating crime in the context of racial disparities, socioeconomic inequality, etc.\n\n**TL;DR:** you could certainly utilize a Bayesian approach but it would likely only be useful from an academic perspective, and less so for practical application of ascribing guilt in today's criminal justice system given the high bar and social implications that likely wont be palletable anytime in the near future, IMO\n\nsource: I work on Bayesian network designs for predicting outcomes based on behaviors/demographics in a field unrelated to (and slightly less controversial than) criminal justice",
"That sounds like you would be judging/convicting the defendant for who they are or their alleged tendencies. Instead, they should be judged/convicted for crimes they have committed. \n\nAlso, check out Federal Evidence Rule 413."
],
"score": [
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3
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
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Bayesian approach to criminal justice
As I understand it, Bayesian reasoning uses past statistics as a given and then deduces the probability of a future event. 1. Is this a fair assessment of the theory? 2. Can it be used to determine guilt of an accused party in a specific situation? Example: If I know that when a particular type of crime is reported that a) it is a "truthful" accusation, not a maliciously false one 90% of the time, and b) that statistically, when this crime is committed, it is committed by a certain discrete segment of the population 99% of the time, can I use Bayesian reasoning to determine whether a member of this particular group is guilty of a particular instance of this crime in the absence of additional evidence?
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] |
|
1qwqfu
|
What does it mean when a series converges? Laymans terms.
|
I know that if you use it in the context of area under a curve that when it is convergent, it has a finite area. When it is divergent then it has an infinite area. Thanks guys.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"Consider 1/2+1/4+1/8+1/16... each term is smaller than the last and each additional term brings the series closer to 2. This is a convergent series, each additional term brings it closer to converging on a finite value.\n\nConsider 1/2+1/3+1/4+1/5+1/6+1/7... this series does not converge. It reaches infinity with an infinite number of terms, or an arbitrarily large number with a very large number of terms.",
"Your first impression may be that if you add up an infinite number of anything, that their sum must be infinite. However, this isn't necessarily the case. \n\nThe most common example is the series 1/n^(2), where n is integers. Writing out the first couple of terms you get 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/16 +... You can try it, keep typing as many of those as you want into your calculator, and you'll see that while the sum is (of course) always increasing, no matter how many you punch in, it will never get larger than 1.7 (in fact, it goes to \"pi squared over six\"). \n\nIf this is still confusing, imagine an even simpler series: 0.9 + 0.09 + 0.009 + 0.0009... you can see that each term of this series will get you a little closer to 1, but you'll never be larger than 1. So from these examples you can start to see how series convergence works. You are adding up an infinite number of things, but if the series gets \"smaller\" quickly enough, the sum can be contained.",
"It means that there exists some number, such that you can arbitrarily close to it, merely by adding enough terms in the sequence. Put another way, no matter how close you want to get to the limit, there is some sufficiently large number of terms you can add to get that close.\n\nOne caveat to that is that the series needs to stay near that limit even if you add more terms. In other words, after you add that sufficient number of terms, it won't get further away than that arbitrarily picked closeness (and as a caveat to that caveat, the needed number of terms so that it stays close could be more than the first time the series gets that close to the limit).\n\nContrasting with divergent series (which diverge to infinity in a monotonic fashion), a divergent series is one in which you can reach any arbitrarily large number by simply adding enough terms. There can be no finite number as the limit, because it will exceed any arbitrary number by any arbitrary amount you care to pick.",
"Convergence means that the sequence of partial sums of the series (the nth partial sum just means adding up the first n terms of the series) approaches a limiting value h. This means that for each positive \"error\" value that you might define, call it epsilon, you can always find some finite number of terms N such that when you sum at least N terms in the series, the result is within epsilon of the sum of the infinite series. \n\nIncidentally, there are special and useful kinds of divergent series called asymptotic series that don't converge in the sense above, but yet often yield a very good approximation to a function in the neighborhood of a reference point, provided you only take the first few terms.",
"A series converges to a value *L* if you can get a finite part of the series to have a sum as close to *L* as you like by picking enough terms. (This is called a partial sum. By \"enough terms\" I mean that the partial sum should obey the closeness criterion for any number of terms larger than a lower bound.)\n\nA series converges if a series converges to *L* for some *L*.\n\nMaybe easier is to just think in terms of partial sums. A series converges if the sequence determined by its partial sums converges in the sense of sequences."
],
"score": [
15,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What does it mean when a series converges? Laymans terms.
I know that if you use it in the context of area under a curve that when it is convergent, it has a finite area. When it is divergent then it has an infinite area. Thanks guys.
|
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c6dj8l
|
Why are interplanetary slingshots using the sun impossible?
|
Wikipedia only says regarding this "because the sun is at rest relative to the solar system as a whole". I don't fully understand how that matters and why that makes solar slingshots impossible.
I was always under the assumption that we could do that to get quicker to Mars (as one example) in cases when it's on the other side of the sun.
Thanks in advance.
|
askscience
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"If you slingshot around the sun, you cannot gain any extra velocity from your maneuver (when you dive towards the Sun you gain kinetic energy and as you leave its gravity well, you gain back the gravitational energy) thus leaving you exactly the same as before; this is because within the Solar system the Sun isn’t moving.\n\nWhen you slingshot around the planet, because the planet is moving, you can go with the planet’s orbital motion around the Sun and use the planet to accelerate you as you move around it; essentially because the planet is moving ahead of you, its gravity pulls you along and accelerates you. And vice versa if you wish to slow down.\n\nThe key takeaway is that the celestial object has to be in motion; that motion is where you take the energy from.\n\nYou can slingshot around the Sun on an interstellar journey; you can also use the Sun as a sling and accelerate as you orbit it to save fuel that you would otherwise have to spend changing direction, using its gravity well to essentially change direction for free.\n\nYou just can’t gain energy from it like you can from other planets in an interplanetary journey because it’s stationary and therefore doesnt move “ahead” of you and pull you along.\n\nEdit: wow, this blows up hard, thank you kind redditors for the platinum! I will try my best to answer your questions, but I know I missed some, so sorry about that, there were simply too many. If any of you are interested about this or still confused, I strongly recommend Kerbal Space Program; it is an educational game that will show you how orbital mechanics work. After enough Kerbals died you WILL understand interplanetary slingshots on an intuitive level.\n\nI will also take this opportunity to clear up some confusion:\n\n1) The Sun is moving, why is it consider stationary?\n\nYes, the Sun is moving, but it is moving with the solar system as a whole; thus if you are only considering interplanetary travel (by definition, within the solar system), because everything already has the Sun's motion around the galactic centre we can discount this motion and treat the Sun (and the whole solar system) as stationary to simplify things. A simple analogy: if you are trying to calculate the route from Venice to Paris, because everything on Earth shares the Earth's rotational and orbital velocity, you can treat the Earth as stationary and discount its rotational and orbital velocity.\n\n2) Couldn't you switch your frame of reference so that the Sun is moving? Why wouldn't gravity assist work then?\n\nSomeone can correct me if I'm wrong, but my understanding is that if you switch your frame of reference to say, Earth, the Sun will move in such a way that it will always cancel out any gravity assist; you will gain no net momentum or lose no net momentum to the Sun no matter what. This is still within the solar system as well.\n\n3) Can you slingshot around the Sun if you are travelling from outside the solar system?\n\nYes, because in this case you have to switch your frame of reference to include your origin, which would mean the Sun can no longer be considered stationary. If the Sun is moving towards your destination in some way (ie, a component of its velocity is towards your destination) you can get a gravity assist from it.\n\n4) The Sun orbits around the barycenter (center of mass of the solar system); even if you are looking at the solar system only the Sun cannot be consider stationary because of this.\n\nThe Sun accounts for 99.8% of the mass in the solar system; the barycenter of our solar system is actually within the Sun itself. So while technically correct, this orbital motion can effectively be discounted because it is so minute.\n\n5) Does this work in reverse? Can you slow down with gravity assist?\n\nYes, you just have to go against the motion of the planet instead of with it.\n\n6) Can you alter the orbit of {insert planet name} by doing this many, many times, or with a very, very heavy spacecraft?\n\nYes. Planets are really, really, really big though, so be prepare to do this many, many, many, many, many times, or just many, many, many times with a very, very heavy spacecraft.\n\n7) Is the slingshot maneuver in Interstellar anything like this? Why does it work then?\n\nInterstellar is, at the end of day, a movie. There are some physics it got right (the depiction of the supermassive black hole and time dilation for example), but many parts it got wrong. I don't think the slingshot maneuver at the end is one of the parts it got right. The film is necessarily vague on details when it comes to those part anyway (as it should be; it's not a scientific disposition on orbital mechanics), and I would not use it to think about physics in a realistic way.\n\n8) What about Star Trek slingshot time maneuver?\n\nAlmost definitely complete fantasy. How would gravity even interact with superluminal objects? Does the addition of kinetic energy speed or slow a superluminal object? Why wouldn't every warp-capable civilizations just do this when they are losing a war?",
"The energy a spacecraft uses to slingshot comes from stealing the energy from a planet's rotational speed around the sun. Here's a [graphical version](_URL_0_). Relative to the rest of the solar system the sun isn't moving. Thus there is no energy to 'steal'.",
"Using a planet to slingshot is like grabbing onto a car bumper to gain some speed while on a skateboard.\n\nTrying to use the Sun would be like holding onto the ground to try to gain speed.\n\nThe Earth is moving, but not relative to your worldspace, so you’d just sit there.",
"Don't think of a gravity assist (slingshot) as a maneuver to gain velocity from gravity, since gravity is a conservative force, whatever speed you gain from falling in a gravity well is cancelled out by the speed lost from climbing back out of the well. A gravity assist works by literally stealing momentum from the orbit of the planet you're doing the maneuver on, which means it only works if you approach the planet from certain angles (the flip side is that you can also lose velocity by transferring your velocity to the planet's orbit). A better way of thinking about how a gravity assist works is by ignoring gravity altogether. The effect of a gravity assist is simply a moving planet yanking on a spaceship as the planet moves past the spaceship, the yanking is done by the pull of the planet's gravity but you can mentally replace that with a grappling hook and it would be the same. As the planet tugs on the spaceship it transfers sone of its velocity to the ship, the planet thus slows down by a little and the ship speeds up by a little. The reason why you cannot use the sun for gravity assist for interplanetary travel is because the sun is stationary with respect to the solar system, so there is no momentum for you to steal.",
"I think a lot of answers here are glossing over the real issue here. \n\n\nYou can't slingshot off the sun because its your *velocity relative to the sun* that you're interested in. In any slingshot your speed before and after the manoeuvre are exactly the same relative to the body you're slingshotting off. If, however your velocity is measured relative to a different body (eg, slingshot off Jupiter but measuring velocity relative to the Sun) then you can gain velocity in that coordinate system.\n\nWe could execute a slingshot manoeuvre within the Jupiter system alone. If we were in orbit around the gas giant we could use slingshot manoeuvres around its moons to elevate our orbit, but slingshotting off the planet its self would be useless because in that case we would be measuring our velocity relative to Jupiter. Similarly you absolutely can slingshot off the sun, but only if you're not interested in your orbit around the sun, you'd need to be in a galactic orbit, or maybe just wanting to change course locally in the galaxy. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nTL;DR its all about where you're measuring your speed from",
"planetary slingshots aren't really slingshots. it's more like the planet drags you as you fly along behind it for a ways. you steal a little bit of momentum from the planet as it orbits the sun. the sun doesn't orbit anything (in our solar system) so you can't really \"follow\" behind the sun to steal some momentum.",
"Basically, any time you fall down a gravity well then rise back out of it, nothing really changes with respect to the center of the gravity well. This is how basic satellites in orbit work. The object gains the same amount of energy when it is falling in as it looses climbing out and everything stays in equilibrium. \n\nThe whole concept of a 'slingshot' comes up when an object, external to the gravity well, approaches with some significant relative velocity to the center of mass of the system. In that case, the relative velocity of the object and the COM on approach is significantly different than the object and the COM on exit. The object either loses or gains more energy on one leg of the cycle and eithe slows down or speeds up over all. \n\nThe definition of the center of the solar system is the sun. So basically, in order to 'slingshot' around the sun, the object needs to be extra-solar-system and moving with a significant velocity relative to the COM of the solar system before the maneuver. If you launched off the earth (which is gravatationally orbiting the sun) and 'slingshotted' the sun, you would still be orbiting the same relative COM. i.e. the earth and all other points of interest within the solar system would be equally 'slingshotted' in the same direction all following the COM of the system (the sun).",
"Imagine solar system as a roundabout, the planets are cars going around, and the satellite is a person on a skateboard. The gravity assist is the skateboarder going into the roundabout and grabbing a car. The car will show down slightly, and the skateboarder will grab the cars energy to move faster. In this example, you can see why going into the dead middle of the roundabout is useless bc nothing in there is moving, so there's nothing the skateboarder can grab onto to accelerate.",
"You can't slingshot around what you're in orbit of. If you start from earth, you can't slingshot off earth. You can slingshot off the moon though. If you're orbiting the moon, you can't slingshot off the moon, or the earth, because you're still orbiting that. If you escape Earth's orbit (interplanetary) you can loop around and slingshot off the earth, many of our spacecraft irl ping pong between earth and other bodies several times.",
"You can't gain energy because by starting from an orbit around the Sun, you already have all the energy you can take from the Sun.\n\nIt's basically how if you jump from the deck of a speeding boat, you can't jump relative to the boat any faster than you would be able to if the boat was standing still.",
"Related question: if you would slingshot around a planet (without atmosphere) super close above its surface, what max angle change could be achieved without entering an orbit around the planet?\n\nHyperbolic would mean you could almost turn around if it were a point mass?",
"Because a planetary slingshot is like bouncing a tennis ball off the front of a speeding truck, but with more math. (Randall Munroe, paraphrased) \nA solar slingshot would be like bouncing a tennis ball on the ground.",
"Gravity is a conservative force, meaning that in a closed system, energy will be conserved. We can only get \"free\" velocity from a gravity assist (aka slingshot) by entering a new sphere of influence, and then returning. The sun is the primary orbital body of the solar system, precluding the possibility of entering or leaving without ejecting entirely from the solar system. What we can do is slingshots off of planets that we can temporarily encounter. \n\nWhen we encounter a secondary body such as Jupiter, the magnitude of our entry velocity and exit velocity relative to Jupiter stays the same. However, the direction changes, meaning that the vector sum of our velocity relative to Jupiter and Jupiter's velocity relative to the Sun changes. This change is the slingshot.\n\nNote: the information above ignores some details, such as tidal effects. The big picture remains accurate.",
"To me, the simplest way to understand this is that, just like a planet with a not-very-circular orbit, you'll just come back to where you are. A better question, perhaps, is why slingshotting around other planets works, which is because the planets are moving in relation to the rest of the system. \n\n\nImagine approaching the planet around whom you're slingshotting, but it's moving towards you as well; you'd spend such a small amount of time near the planet that you won't gain any speed at all. \n\n\nImagine now that the planet is moving in the same direction as you, relative to the sun. You'll fall towards the planet, which is accelerating you hugely - then you can use that additional speed to your advantage by changing direction as well.",
"A slingshot is using an orbiting body's relative motion about the sun to give you a boost or degrade your orbit in reference to the Sun. The Sun does orbit relative to the center of the galaxy, so you could in theory use it to change your intersolar trajectory. But due to the fact all orbiting motion in our solar system is done within the sun's sphere of influence, you cant use it in a slingshot maneuver.",
"In addition to what others have said, which is that although you can use the Sun to alter your orbit you can't use it to increase your velocity, if you're starting from Earth orbit even getting *near* the Sun is incredibly difficult: one has in essence to accelerate backward by about 60K MPH just to slow down enough to come anywhere near the Sun.",
"I was just re-reading Kim Stanley Robinson’s novel Aurora, which ends with a massive deceleration using flybys of every large body in the solar system, beginning with the sun; this may be of interest: [A Science Critique of Aurora by Kim Stanley Robinson](_URL_1_)"
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Why are interplanetary slingshots using the sun impossible?
Wikipedia only says regarding this "because the sun is at rest relative to the solar system as a whole". I don't fully understand how that matters and why that makes solar slingshots impossible. I was always under the assumption that we could do that to get quicker to Mars (as one example) in cases when it's on the other side of the sun. Thanks in advance.
|
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5q3n25
|
Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology
|
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dcw4anp",
"dcwe6wd",
"dcximgb",
"dcwzlf4",
"dcwsbfa"
],
"text": [
"Do we know enough about the brain to say whether reading someone's thoughts or memories might be theoretically possible one day? I know we can see electrochemical firings but can we know more about what someone is thinking, rather than just they are thinking?",
"How far are we from making an artificial eye? I heard there was some rudimentary techniques that connected some nerve with some electronic equipment that could allow the deaf to hear (not good hearing but eh something).",
"Will it ever be possible to predict and edit the nucleotide configuration found in genes in order to cure diseases or predict them without causing any unforeseen side-effects (ie cancer) due to the newly edited configuration.",
"1) What exactly powers an Anniversary Clock, besides Gravity, and Basic Physics Principles? \n\n2) What is the geography of Pluto? (I am too lazy to research this one.) \n\n3) Is it possible to rewrite the Human Brain?",
"Is there any actual evidence of a relation between children's drawings/games and child abuse?"
],
"score": [
6,
3,
3,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3exo6p/askscience_panel_of_scientists_xiii/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Ask Anything Wednesday - Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Biology, Chemistry, Neuroscience, Medicine, Psychology** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away!
|
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] |
|
4d8khh
|
Why do the walls in this Redbull can start to buckle outward at even locations under a hydraullic press? (Link inside)
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d1ou4jk",
"d1p0saa",
"d1p43hq"
],
"text": [
"Think of a piece of paper on a table, if you push together from both ends, it pops up in the middle. Now think of doing this inside a clear plastic box so the paper can only pop up an inch or so. After the first wrinkle gets as large as it can, a second and third pop up above and below the first, and so on until you stop pushing or run out of paper. It should start to look like corrugated cardboard. \n\n The same thing is happening in the redbull can, but the table and box are the soda pressure and air pressure. \n\nThe can doesn't break after the first wrinkle because the shape of the wrinkle decreases the stress there (circles distribute force better than flat walls). The can finally tears along its whole length (facing away from the camera), because that \"tearing open\" motion, (caused by 'hoop stress') is usually how a pressurized cylinder breaks.",
"From what I can tell, the distances between each buckled section aren't actually even. Most likely, each buckled section occurs in a random location, however; the material surrounding already buckled sections has undergone [work hardening](_URL_0_). This work hardening prevents the buckled sections from complete failure. It also means the next section to buckle is more likely to form at a minimum distance from previously buckled sections, where the material has not been work hardened. This creates the distribution we see.",
"Klassical demonstration of eulerian buckling behaviour, just not on stick but on a \"tube\".\n\nYou have the same pattern if you compress an unfilled tube - we call it an \"accordion- folding pattern\".\n\nIn the case of this canyou also have to consider the incompressability of the enclosed fluid, thus the final rip of the can.\n\nUntil that happens you have the forming of the aluminium can until it's plasticity reserve is exhausted."
],
"score": [
46,
15,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_hardening"
]
}
|
Why do the walls in this Redbull can start to buckle outward at even locations under a hydraullic press? (Link inside)
[deleted]
|
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|
wzh07
|
How much is the "lag" in the real world?
|
When playing multiplayer video games, we often experience lag. I think it can be defined as the length of time since the information is sent from the server until it is received by the computer being played on. The player then experiences the game a few milliseconds after it actually happens.
I was wondering how much lag is there in the real world? How much time does it take, for example, for the eyes to receive information send it to the brain and for the brain to "experience" what's happening?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5htyv5",
"c5htzcv",
"c5hw7iq"
],
"text": [
"We can actually measure how long certain signals take to propagate through the nervous system using a technique called evoked potentials. Using a set of electrodes on the scalp surface, you measure the response of the brain to a long set of stimuli and average them to get rid of all the random, moment-to-moment signals. Then you get a reproducible waveform.\n\nFor instance, there's a peak called N20 (sometimes N19) which corresponds to the arrival of sensory information from the wrist to the primary sensory cortex. This takes about 20 milliseconds. Arrival at the primary sensory cortex is just the very first step of sensory processing, but that means a sensory \"lag\" from your wrist is at least 20 ms long. From the foot it's more like 45 ms.\n\nIn the visual system, there are multiple identified responses and no clear agreement about what they mean. The N75 response is thought by some to represent the first arrival of visual signals to the occipital cortex, where visual processing begins. This would give a minimal visual \"lag\" of 75 ms; however, the P100 wave is associated with actual perception of visual stimuli, meaning the lag might be as much as 100 ms.\n\nThere are a lot of evoked potentials that have been described. There's a P300 that, to simplify, represents the recognition of a meaningful (as opposed to arbitrary or meaningless) visual stimulus. That's as much as 500 ms after the stimulus.\n\nThe idea of \"lag\" however is complicated by the fact that there is some sort of processing going on through the entire process. Even before visual signals arrive at the occipital cortex, basic processing in the retinal ganglion cells have started to define color opposition and contrast. That's within the first 10 ms. So the fact that it takes 50 or 75 or 100 ms to make it to the visual part of the brain doesn't make it a lag in the same way a server lag is a lag.",
"This delay varies widely depending upon a number of circumstances, such as what pathways are involved, how long/complex they are, and the characteristics of the neurons. Neural signals travel pretty quickly, around 30 m/s according to this article (_URL_1_), but that number varies from neuron to neuron. For instance, if a neuron is myelinated, meaning that the axon is insulated by a lipid coating, signals move much more rapidly than in non myelinated neurons. Furthermore, the greater the diameter of the axon, the faster the signal is carried. On top of that, for a neuron to interact with another neuron, chemicals must diffuse across the synapse and interact with the postsynaptic neuron, which takes time.\n\nAs a result, the more neurons in a circuit and the longer the axons of that circuit, the more time is needed for them to be completed. That is why a simple reflex arc like the patellar reflex happens almost instantaneously and it takes longer for us to consciously realize what happened. I remember reading that when time appears to slow down in crisis situations like combat, it is because the brain forgoes certain circuits, allowing for quicker processing but poorer decision making. Unfortunately I can't remember where I read this and consequently do not have a source.\n\nIt is difficult to quantify real-world lag and it varies, but the best answer I could find to your question is that it takes the brain 300-700 ms to make simple decisions like identifying a picture or reading a word aloud. Also, heres a link to a website analyzing the speed of the brain: _URL_0_.",
"Knowing this, short people have less lag time than tall people for things going on in the far ends of the body. As a short person, this pleases me."
],
"score": [
28,
5,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ualberta.ca/~chrisw/howfast.html",
"http://www.camden.rutgers.edu/~bwhitlow/Courses/Experimental/Ch7reactiontime.pdf"
]
}
|
How much is the "lag" in the real world?
When playing multiplayer video games, we often experience lag. I think it can be defined as the length of time since the information is sent from the server until it is received by the computer being played on. The player then experiences the game a few milliseconds after it actually happens. I was wondering how much lag is there in the real world? How much time does it take, for example, for the eyes to receive information send it to the brain and for the brain to "experience" what's happening?
|
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|
zau7n
|
Does constructal theory have any scientific merit?
|
I just came across a book *Design in Nature* that gave me a new perspective how systems evolve. Is it a useful model, or is it just a meaningless abstraction? Here's a wiki page about it: _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c62yz3k",
"c62z4ly",
"c632g15"
],
"text": [
"It's complete nonsense. \n\n[EDIT - to clarify] All this thing does is make a load of nonsensical claims. And I mean nonsense in the truest form of the word. There is nothing to tear down, because it literally says nothing of sense. It does not define any of its terminology, it provides no predictive measure, itis completely unclear what it means.\nI was not being inflammatory when I called it nonsense - I simply described what it was.",
"It sounds almost like a postmodernist parody of scientific theory.",
"Wow, either that Wikipedia article is exceedingly poor or there is nothing of value in the \"theory\". From the Wikipedia introduction:\n\n > The constructal law puts forth the idea that the generation of design (configuration, pattern, geometry) in nature is a physics phenomenon that unites all animate and inanimate systems, and that this phenomenon is covered by the Constructal Law. The constructal law was stated by Adrian Bejan in 1996 as follows: *\"For a finite-size system to persist in time (to live), it must evolve in such a way that it provides easier access to the imposed currents that flow through it.\"*\n\nNone of those words **mean anything**! What is a current? What does \"animate\" vs \"inanimate\" mean in the study of physics? What is one single prediction this theory can make?\n\nI can take any sort of phenomenon and after the fact right a few pretty words about it, but if it doesn't predict anything in the future it's worthless. \n\nHow about this: Electrons orbit the nucleus of atoms (not really the current understanding, admittedly), and planets orbit suns. Nature likes to operate in circles, which have the fewest corners of any shape. I call it my \"corner theory\", because whenever possible nature tries to remove corners. Bleh."
],
"score": [
10,
7,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructal_theory"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does constructal theory have any scientific merit?
I just came across a book *Design in Nature* that gave me a new perspective how systems evolve. Is it a useful model, or is it just a meaningless abstraction? Here's a wiki page about it: _URL_0_
|
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|
1fns5w
|
Can someone tell me what I was looking at last night?
|
Hey guys, I hope this question is ok. Last night around 8:15 PM I was outside and at about 298 deg NW (according to my Iphone compass) and about 15 deg above the horizon (my best guess), there was an extremely bright "star" in the sky. Was this a planet? Also, I live just NE of Atlanta, Ga. I tried to google for any info, but that was a less than fruitful endeavor. On a side note, I watched the ISS pass by last night as well, that was AWESOME!
Edit:
Thanks for all the time I'm going to waste looking through these apps! :)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cac14f1",
"cac16we",
"cac3t3y",
"cac75qc",
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],
"text": [
"The \"brightest star\" in the Northern sky right now is ~~Jupiter~~Venus.\n\nI will double check the positioning in Stellarium for you.\n\nEDIT: Jupiter was just setting at that time. You likely saw Venus right above it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe horizion goes along the direction label axis.",
"**EDIT: Brightest point in the sky is Venus, not Jupiter. Read comments below for a lot better and detailed information than my post. :)**\n\nI looked quickly at Stellarium (highly recommend that software to look up what you saw. Go get it now!) and it seems like you were possibly looking at Mercury, Venus or Jupiter. Pollux, Capella and Betelgeuse are also a slight possibility (I didn't check into this very detailed so this is just a rough estimate)\n\nJupiter is as far as I know, the brightest point in the sky so that is my guess at what you saw.\n\nBut don't trust me, go download Stellarium and look it up! It's super fun. :)",
"Venus. Also known as Lucifer. From the Greek meaning, it Can also be translated to the dawn or morning star and the light bearer.",
"As a sort of rule of thumb, if you see a bright \"star\" early in the evening or morning, it's probably Venus. Venus was once known as the morning star and evening star for it's tendency to be the first star visible in the evening and the last in the morning. It's also the \"wishing star*\" that was the \"first star I see tonight.\" \n\n*may not grant wishes",
"There is a totally cool Free app you can get to avoid asking this question:\n\nGoSkyWatchPlanetarium on the iPhone/iPad.",
"I'm very glad you asked this question. Thank you! I apologize to piggy back your question, but I don't feel this question needs its own thread.\n\nWhile I was watching the sky for the ISS last night, I noticed the stars twinkling and whatnot. What causes them to twinkle? Are they literally flaring up at that moment? Since they're so far away something huge much be happening for us to visible see it. If not, then what causes it to seem like they're flaring?",
"It was almost surely Venus. You tend to see it near sunrise and sunset, because it's closer to the sun than we are. So it's always gonna look like it's kind of near the sun, relative to us. It will always be pretty close to the horizon, and it is the brightest object in the night sky besides the moon. \n\nWelcome to our ranks!",
"I saw this last night too! I was driving from Houston to Austin and thought it looked great, but couldn't remember anything from my astronomy courses."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/1XocWwl.png"
]
}
|
Can someone tell me what I was looking at last night?
Hey guys, I hope this question is ok. Last night around 8:15 PM I was outside and at about 298 deg NW (according to my Iphone compass) and about 15 deg above the horizon (my best guess), there was an extremely bright "star" in the sky. Was this a planet? Also, I live just NE of Atlanta, Ga. I tried to google for any info, but that was a less than fruitful endeavor. On a side note, I watched the ISS pass by last night as well, that was AWESOME! Edit: Thanks for all the time I'm going to waste looking through these apps! :)
|
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|
4stb2r
|
Why do many lip and/or skin care products have chemicals such as petrolatum and paraffin in them?
|
At face value it seems strange to have these chemicals in skin care products, but I am interested to see what redditors have to say. Also, if you could perhaps highlight some of the positives and negatives of the use of these chemicals on the body. Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d5ch6nf",
"d5c6nt7",
"d5ctj24",
"d5c6ndf"
],
"text": [
"Petroleum jelly and paraffin are both fat-based lubricants that can act as a solvent for other chemicals. They also effectively coat the skin, protecting the skin from environmental stresses (bacteria, sun, etc.) and keeps the product where you apply it to on the skin. Interestingly, both petroleum jelly and paraffin have been historically ingested by mouth to treat constipation by literally lubricating feces to speed exit. When used in this way repeatedly (like everyday), vitamin deficiencies can result as loss of fat-soluble vitamins in feces. However, I am not aware of any negative effects of these chemicals when used topically on the skin.",
"Because it works, I don't understand why \"at face value it seems strange to have these chemicals in skin care products.\" Perhaps you can elaborate?\n\nThe discovery of petroleum jelly (or 'rod wax')\n\n > The raw material for petroleum jelly was discovered in 1859 in Titusville, Pennsylvania, United States, on some of the country's first oil rigs. Workers disliked the paraffin-like material forming on rigs because it caused them to malfunction, but they used it on cuts and burns because they believed it hastened healing.\n\nIt's a material that does a good job sealing off a wound or region of skin from external damage/stress. It's relatively inert, at least in regards to biological interactions. Thus, it's not going to really react with part of your body, just provide a physical barrier and allow your skin to heal/hydrate without the environment causing harm.",
"One reason is that they are hydrophobic. Meaning they repel water. When coated on the skin, they stop the evaporation of water from the skin. Thereby keeping it 'soft and moist'. They can stick to the skin via the attraction to the fats and oils in the skin.\n\n_URL_0_",
"Petrolatum and paraffin are both binding agents which do a great job of holding other chemicals in place. Petrolatum is petroleum jelly, that goopy stuff that you have in your bathroom. Paraffin is a type of wax. Both of these substances do a great job staying where they are put, and sealing in moisture so that skin can repair itself."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobe"
]
}
|
Why do many lip and/or skin care products have chemicals such as petrolatum and paraffin in them?
At face value it seems strange to have these chemicals in skin care products, but I am interested to see what redditors have to say. Also, if you could perhaps highlight some of the positives and negatives of the use of these chemicals on the body. Thanks
|
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] |
|
rhax5
|
My 14yr old cousin, always has physics ideas. He put together this time field of matter hypothesis. How can I help him further with his interest?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c45t2in",
"c45t31y",
"c45t7lz",
"c45tfj8",
"c45ts9y"
],
"text": [
"Buy him a few books, like \"The elegant Universe\" by Brian Greene. His other books are probably also good, but I haven't read them. \"Big Bang\" by Simon Singh is also great. If he is really bright he might enjoy some bits from the Feynman lectures.\n\nAlso, get him interested in math. For this, picking up programming can help, for instance with Python. A possible exercise could be to write a simulation of a bouncing ball or something like that.\n\nThis topic is probably more suitable for /r/physics. I assume you posted what he has written up, and I don't want to discourage your cousin, but unfortunately it doesn't make a lot of sense. This should not take away from the fact that I highly appreciate the passion and interested that your cousin has, which is very formidable for a 14 year old.",
"Get him into math (calculus, geometry, anything else schools...or local colleges...offer). This is what physics comes down to, not cool ideas that are merely a cookbook of ideas from real physics to form science fiction. It is true that something like string theory seems to come from a random idea, but it actually a scientist realizing that he can solve some mathematical equations in 2-d that he couldn't do in 3-d.",
"Novelty. Expose him to related things, objects, places, people and so forth which are related to his interest in the field.\n\nIdeas are good and the other posters made good recommendations, but seeing the math put to use, being able to see and hold or own the products of that will be beneficial to him. Likewise, taking him to meet professors/students/famous personalities in the field will also be beneficial for his development, allowing him to see what the future could hold for him.\n\nBut most importantly, you should give him encouragement. Most of the people around him will not understand his pursuits and interest (barring some exceptional circumstances), so they won't be able to encourage him in the manner which you will be able to. Keep doing what you are doing - a relative such as yourself is an asset to a gifted child and he will benefit from having your mind and resources at his disposal.",
"Tell him that if he can make the math work out, he is basically good. The theory can be completely weird and make no sense, but if the math works out rigorously, then you are good.",
"Building new theories is exciting, and if he is encouraged to keep exploring rather than to hold too tightly to a single way of thinking, then he'll soon find where the limitations are in his ideas for himself, and this could become the inspiration for him to formulate something really special as his skills develop.\n\nI think [this great little post](_URL_0_) has a fair bit of wisdom. But in general, the more creative ideas and theories that young folk can bring into the world, the better."
],
"score": [
13,
5,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/j8/the_crackpot_offer/"
]
}
|
My 14yr old cousin, always has physics ideas. He put together this time field of matter hypothesis. How can I help him further with his interest?
|
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||
j800j
|
Can someone explain Aristotle's wheel paradox to me?
|
It was mentioned in another [thread](_URL_1_) as Galileo's paradox of the smaller and larger circle, but there was no explanation given, and I really can't wrap my head around it.
[Wolfram Mathworld](_URL_0_) has a technical explanation involving the "cardinality of the continuum", but has no clear explanation of what this concept entails. Meanwhile, [Wikipedia](_URL_2_) launches into a tangent about slipping car wheels, but fails to resolve the paradox, at least from this layperson's perspective.
The paradox is as follows: Suppose you have a large wheel with a smaller wheel attached to it. You roll the large wheel until it has completed its entire circumference exactly once, so that the same point touches the ground [again](_URL_3_). Because the smaller wheel is attached firmly to the larger, it too returns to the same position as before. Therefore, it has also traced out its circumference exactly once, even though it's smaller.
Can you help me resolve this paradox?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c29x07g",
"c29wqev",
"c29zwfj",
"c29xict"
],
"text": [
"The smaller wheel is moving much slower than the larger wheel. So for the smaller wheel to move the same distance as the larger wheel the smaller wheel \"slips\" as it moves along its path. \n\nIf it still doesnt make sense then imagine the smaller circle is MUCH MUCH smaller than the larger wheel (i.e. A wagon wheel vs a dime coin).",
"I think the hangup is on the phrase \"traced out\". Think about it this way: a wheel spins 360 degrees while not touching the ground. You can say that it 'traced out' it's circumference, but not in a way that reflects anything about how far it's traveled.",
"I'm no expert, but Wikipedia explained it pretty well to me. I had never heard of this before, but after reading the wiki page I understood both the \"problem\", and the \"solution\" to the paradox.\n\nThe problem is in the assumption that the smaller wheel draws out it's circumference. It does not. To me at least, that solves the paradox, because there really is no paradox, only a misunderstanding.",
"It shows that there is the same \"amount\" of points on both wheels, even though their circumferences differ, as there is an one-to-one mapping between the sets. Choose a point on one of the wheels, and there is exactly one point on the second one which lies on the line extending from the center to infinity through the first point."
],
"score": [
10,
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AristotlesWheelParadox.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j7hpn/if_i_had_an_infinite_number_of_cd_burners_burning/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_wheel_paradox",
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/images/gifs/AristotlesWheel.gif"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can someone explain Aristotle's wheel paradox to me?
It was mentioned in another [thread](_URL_1_) as Galileo's paradox of the smaller and larger circle, but there was no explanation given, and I really can't wrap my head around it. [Wolfram Mathworld](_URL_0_) has a technical explanation involving the "cardinality of the continuum", but has no clear explanation of what this concept entails. Meanwhile, [Wikipedia](_URL_2_) launches into a tangent about slipping car wheels, but fails to resolve the paradox, at least from this layperson's perspective. The paradox is as follows: Suppose you have a large wheel with a smaller wheel attached to it. You roll the large wheel until it has completed its entire circumference exactly once, so that the same point touches the ground [again](_URL_3_). Because the smaller wheel is attached firmly to the larger, it too returns to the same position as before. Therefore, it has also traced out its circumference exactly once, even though it's smaller. Can you help me resolve this paradox?
|
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|
za3t6
|
How much salt would I need to be able to float in my bathtub as if it were the Dead sea, would it work?
|
1. Can I use kitchen salt?
2. Why would it work?
3. Why wouldn't it work?
4. If the answer to #2 is no, why does it work in the Dead sea?
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"The general rule of thumb for salt water aquariums is 1/2 a cup of salt per gallon. The Dead Sea is 8 times saltier then that so 4 cups per gallon. The average bath tub holds 50 gallons so 200 cups of salt are need. 1 cup of salt weighs approx .6 pounds so you need about 120 pounds of salt. Mix well until all salt is dissolved. Lay back and enjoy your mini Dead Sea.",
"average density of the human body 1062 kg/m^3 . Doing some [calculations](_URL_0_) shows you need about 85 grams of salt per liter of water at 73 degrees F.\n\nYes you can use kitchen salt. Salt basically adds mass to the water without really adding volume (well negligible volume)",
"A 50-pound bag of rock salt is 5.98 at Lowe's. It would be cheaper to use rock salt than kitchen salt, however, the larger grain size will take longer to dissolve. The agitation from stirring it, however, might get your tub really clean. Or, try Morton Pool Salt. 40 pounds for 5.97, promises to dissolve quickly. You've got me thinking about trying this.\n\nEDIT: I just realized, the price will vary regionally. So, approximately $6/lb (US). But, you could fund the project for approximately $20, rather than using kitchen salt at ~$0.50/lb x 125lbs = $62.50.",
"To make water similar to the dead sea, you would need to achieve the same density i.e [1.240Kg/L](_URL_2_). As the density of pure water is 1Kg/L (tap water is a tiny bit more, but not a huge amount) you would need .24Kg of salt disolved in the water per litre to achieve the same density. or approximately 1kg salt/4L water. This is assuming 100% dissolution. \n\nIt works because the density of the water is higher than the density of your body. The density of the average human body is actually slightly higher than that of water. [1.01kg/1000cm^3](_URL_2_) , this however may not take into account water displacement by the lungs (speculation) so you do float when your lungs are full.\n\nI cant see any reason you couldn't use kitchen salt. According to google, the most salt that you can dissolve per 100ml is 35.9g (can't find a decent source, just seems to be the common answer) in standard conditions which means that you could effectively dissolve 359g/L easily acheiving the correct density. That said however, you could acheive similar results so long as the density of water is higher than the average density of your body (some parts might float more than others i.e. parts of your body with more fat would float easier density of fat is [0.9kg/L](_URL_2_) )",
"not sure if this will matter in a small tub, but be careful if you try it out!\n [_URL_3_](_URL_3_)",
"While not the same as salt, one thing you could try for a similar effect might be sugar. Sugar is significantly more soluble in water than table salt. Additionally, sugar solubility is very temperature dependent so using hot water will make it possible to dissolve even more sugar.\n\n[Not very scientific graph...](_URL_4_)\n\n\nIts possible to make a solution with a specific gravity significantly higher than the dead sea meaning you'd be quite buoyant.\n\nHowever, I can't speak to the other properties of the solution. I don't know if it would be noticeably more viscous by that point.",
"What about using boiling water to dissolve the salt, then letting it cool to room temperature for a supersaturated solution?",
"Look up sensory deprivation tanks, there is one in Austin, Texas.",
"They use Epsom salt in sensory deprivation tanks."
],
"score": [
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.csgnetwork.com/h2odenscalc.html",
"http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_density_of_body_fat",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea",
"http://io9.com/5798844/why-so-many-people-drown-in-the-dead-sea",
"http://scienceprojectideasforkids.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Solubility-Curve-Sucrose-Sodium-Chloride.jpg"
]
}
|
How much salt would I need to be able to float in my bathtub as if it were the Dead sea, would it work?
1. Can I use kitchen salt? 2. Why would it work? 3. Why wouldn't it work? 4. If the answer to #2 is no, why does it work in the Dead sea?
|
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|
o90h6
|
Are there any cultures with 3 or 5 directions used for navigation or cartography?
|
Is it always 4 (i.e. N S E W)?
After all, the Sun rarely rises or sets exactly East or West.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3fcrx8",
"c3fdir0",
"c3fciz2",
"c3fdak7",
"c3fdlur",
"c3fcz9b",
"c3fd6ct",
"c3fd6z8",
"c3fct0c",
"c3ff39q",
"c3fdm10",
"c3fdulj",
"c3fjxvh"
],
"text": [
"As the directions are used for navigating around 2 dimensional space, 4 directions is the most elegant solution for giving information with regard to navigation, i.e. for moving either direction along one of the axes. I don't see how having a different base number for this is likely to occur, but someone else may well know better.\n\nAs an interesting side note, there are a people known as the Guugu Yimithirr [(Source)](_URL_0_) that do not use left and right. Rather they have such a strong internal compass of some kind that they always know where north is for example, and so would say something along the lines of \"you have a spider crawling up your south eastern arm\", as opposed to you have a spider crawling up your left arm",
"There are a few cultures that use an [odd number of cardinal directions](_URL_3_).\n\nFor example: The Tongans primarily use three cardinal directions: left, right, and towards the sea. They have a concept for north-south and east-west that is brought in by interaction with other cultures, but a [common description of a local route](_URL_3_) might be:\n\n'Go out the front door and proceed leftwards. Then go down towards below and continue turning left until you reach the playground.'\n\nThe whole of the [Tongan spacial reference vocabulary](_URL_3_) is pretty awesome.\n\nThis is one of many African cultures with three directions, the primary theme being 'seaward' or towards a major waterway being a single direction. Because rivers and the sea curve, there's no exact opposite direction, more like 'come back home'. :)",
"[Clock position](_URL_5_) has 12 primary directions.\n\nSomewhat related is using a watch for [direction finding](_URL_4_).\n\nThen of course our normal four primary directions are often divided up further into 8 or 16, giving directions like north-east or east-north-east.\n\nOther than that, it's an interesting question and I look forward to seeing better answers.",
"Direction is considered with respect to a planar manifold of a sphere. That is, when you look around, things appear flat. Fully specifying a two-dimensional space (or a two-dimensional subspace of a three-dimensional space) requires two independent variables, so we might use north and east as [basis vectors](_URL_6_) (where south and west are defined as negative-north and negative-east, respectively), though we could also use a polar coordinate system, where we have a defined direction (say, north), and we measure how many degrees a direction is away from this reference direction. But it's worth noting that south is redundant with north, and west is redundant with east, so we only *really* have two directions. Just that nobody wants their GPS device to tell them to travel \"negative five miles east.\"\n\nNothing necessarily stops you from using more than two variables in specifying a direction (for example, in the \"n o'clock\" system, where there's twelve bases defining a direction), but it does make it an overdetermined system. Since other people are providing anthropological perspectives, though, figured I'd throw out what linear algebra has to say on the subject.",
"Well, technically Finland uses 8. Having distinctive names for s-e, s-w, etc.",
"The Australian Aboriginals, I believe, have no understanding of left, right, up or down. They use cardinal directions. So instead of look right, its look east or w/e direction right is. They have an excellent understanding of this.\n_URL_7_",
"I read about a language from somewhere in Mexico. It was limited in geographic extent to one side of a large mountain, and the directional terms reflected that – uphill, downhill, and then left across the face of the hill and right across the face of the hill. I could also see an island society developing a sense of direction based on inland direction vs. toward the coast, but I don't know of one specifically.\n\nAs for the numbers of directions, I sort of think that four makes some kind of intrinsic sense because it makes it easy to combine them (northwest, north-northwest) to get greater levels of detail. I can't really tell if I'm biased toward that response though.",
"As a side note... How did North end up being North? I guess individual cultures probably traditionally oriented themselves along one of the four directions because they all had the sun as a constant, but why are all of the maps I see oriented with the North upwards and not say South? \n\nI would guess that it's because that's how Western culture happened to do it, and they imposed that on everyone else in modern times?\n\n**TL;DR:** Why aren't our maps upside down?",
"My suggestion would to be to look at the linguistic literature. I know there are islanders in the Pacific who have very specific directional terms related to their islands, and this would serve as their \"cardinal\" system. Looking at cultures that have languages that use this system for direction instead of an egocentric (left vs. right) system would be a good place to start",
"The mathematical alternative to Cartesian coordinates would be the [Polar coordinate system](_URL_8_).\n\nPolar coordinates seem to be used somewhat on a spy show I watch (\"There's a bad guy at 2 o'clock from you.\")",
"Having four cardinal directions along two axes forms an orthonormal basis for the \"flat earth\" approximation of Earth's geometry, where the inner product in question is the dot product. The dot product also gives you straight-line distance between two points.\n\nWhile you could use some other number of directions, you lose some important mathematical facts about your navigation system. Either your fundamental directions are no longer orthogonal (ie, you can go North by going Northeast and then Northwest), or you can no longer use the convenient dot product to determine distance between points.\n\ntl;dr orthogonal directions are important mathematically.",
"I don't know of any specific cultures, but a cartography system is functional as long as there's a North and South. Of course you can have a 3 or 5 system, but a compass won't work. 6 will work, though; Upleft, Up, Upright, Downright, Down, Downleft.\n\nOn a side note, I loved a watch that only had 12, 4, and 8 marked. I could easily extrapolate 3, 6, and 9 and it made the watch uncluttered.",
"Everyone, there is also an r/anthropology just so you know."
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{
"url": []
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_direction",
"http://books.google.co.in/books?id=4XxHNPYW9OAC&lpg=PA142&ots=jefxTK9RxF&dq=directions%20cardinal%20%20tonga&pg=PA144#v=onepage&q=directions%20cardinal%20%20tonga&f=false",
"http://books.google.co.in/books?id=4XxHNPYW9OAC&pg=PA113&lpg=PA113&dq=three+cardinal+directions+tonga&source=bl&ots=jefxTK9NEA&sig=7GCpwLRJzQkP3cqjBv-j4LN3T9U&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HrwKT8LCIs7irAfowrT1Dw&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=three%20cardinal%20directions%20tonga&f=false",
"http://www.pulib.sk/skase/Volumes/JTL10/pdf_doc/2.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_Finding_Watch",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_position",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_%28linear_algebra%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_direction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_coordinate_system"
]
}
|
Are there any cultures with 3 or 5 directions used for navigation or cartography?
Is it always 4 (i.e. N S E W)? After all, the Sun rarely rises or sets exactly East or West.
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] |
|
83om4k
|
Is there a type of rock that can be bent like a metal?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dvjtt2a",
"dvk3x2a",
"dvk4j35"
],
"text": [
"Well, some [minerals](_URL_2_) are actual *metals*, like gold and copper, and while those count as rocks, that's probably not what you meant. At higher pressure and temperature deep inside the Earth, rock can [bend and flow without melting](_URL_1_), but that's also probably not what you meant. And some minerals, like mica, [flake off in thin sheets](_URL_0_) that are springy but brittle, but that's etc.\n\nBut other than that, I'm not aware of anything you'd consider a rock that bends like a paperclip at room temperature and pressure.",
"Probably not what you're looking for, but Selenite can be \"bendy\". I believe it's because the crystaline layers can slip laterally. Go to a decent rock shop/show and look for \"Selenite Wands\". They are usually between 8 and 12 inches, about 1/2 to 3/4\" thick and 1 to 3\" wide. You can literally bend them, they feel about the same as a lead bar of the same dimensions in terms of what it feels like to bend them. HOWEVER... while they WILL bend, they don't tolerate it much, and neither will the vendors :) After a few bends, the layers may separate, and if you haven't paid for said experiment, the vendor will be seeking to separate some money from you :) But.... that's the only non-metallic mineral I know of that can \"bend like metal\", at least a few times.",
"No silicate rock (i.e., made of silicon and oxygen, among other elements) will bend like metal unless you're willing to wait a long time. Rocks and metal both bend by the process of dislocation creep, but creep is much slower in rock for the same amount of applied stress. You can speed up the creeping process by increasing the stress, but you will exceed the yield strength of the rock if the stress is too high, which causes brittle failure."
],
"score": [
26,
7,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudinage",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral#Non-silicates"
]
}
|
Is there a type of rock that can be bent like a metal?
|
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||
89yh9m
|
Why did all the lithium end up in Chile?
|
askscience
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"It didn't. However, the combination of natural concentrations and the mechanics of salt flats has created the world's most cheaply-accessible lithium source. There are other deposits around the world, and there are other salt flat sources (Argentina and Bolivia both have some, as do Tibet and Nevada USA), but Chile's the biggest.",
"Its not that all the lithium ended in Chile, its that the easiest extraction happens there. Its all about the profits you can make extracting it, and researches found that the most profitable extraction is there, almost 40% of the earth territory has a significant amout of this element.",
"Lithium is a common element that is present both in the seawater and Earth's crust. Yet, the concentrations are normally too low to be considered mine/extractable while turning a profit.\n\nSo you need processes enriching the Lithium for you. One of the most common and efficient processes for this is evaporation of sea or lake water. By evaporating, the Lithium gets sedimented. If you evaporate water many many times in a cycle of evaporation -- > water ingress -- > evaporation, you create a mineable resource. \n\nThe problem now is, this cycle usually also sediments other stuff in the water like salt, calcium carbonate and especially clay that is hard to seperate in industrial processes. So you need a place where you have as few as possible of these undesirable things. Turns out there are some, but not too many places where this happened, many of them in Chile.\n\nAnother source for Lithium are a certain type of magmatic rocks called pegmatites. If you have a big blob of those with high Lithium concentrations you may be lucky to turn a profit.\n\nStill, if price goes up there are other countries with even larger resources (which is different to reserves!), namely Argentinia and Bolivia. Other countries with substantial resources are China, USA, Australia and Canada.",
"Lithium is a very interesting element which is actually ubiquitous in the earth's crust but occurs in very low concentrations in most terrestrial rocks. As a result of fractionating magma crystallization, lithium is most often concentrated in granites in the earth's crust. Furthermore, it occurs in higher concentrations in sea water than in rocks. As a result, we source the majority of our lithium from either pegmatites (highly fractionated granites) and sea water/groundwater brines and resulting evaporites (salt beds). \n \nThere are pegmatite deposits all over the world since they occur in different geological terranes and they are actually a source many of our rare earth elements. The Li-bearing salts and brines (a brine being a fluid with high salt content) are not unique to Chile and they are exploited in other countries like the US and Australia... but Chile (and to an extent, Argentina and Bolivia) has the largest reserves in the world. \n \nA couple of key geological components are needed to contain and naturally concentrate lithium in order for it to be profitable to extract and refine. The geology of Chile is dominated by the Andean mountain range. This extensive orogeny has resulted in a large-scale subsidence adjacent to the mountains. This tectonic subsidence has become a drainage basin, collecting any sea/river/ground water running off the mountains and from surrounding areas. Since the extensive Andean mountain range in Chile also created the driest desert/region in the world (i.e. the Atacama), you now have a massive drainage basin that collects water and it evaporates incredibly fast, leaving behind salt flats and salt lakes. When you evaporate water with anything dissolved in it, the water will leave behind these dissolved constituents (primarily salts and carbonates/sulphates/borates). This process is how the Li is naturally concentrated in the salt flats - a constant recharge of Li-bearing water being added to the basin and then evaporation leaving the Li-bearing salts in the salty brines and ultimately salt beds. \n \nLike I mentioned above, this process isn't unique to Chile and the same hydrogeologic system feeds Li-bearing deposits in the adjacent countries of Argentina and Bolivia. But the massive scale of the Andean orogeny and the incredible evaporation rates in the related deserts probably results in an ideal environment to concentrate lithium.",
"Not all of the lithium is in Chile. [There are large deposits in both Chile and Bolivia, but there are also deposits all over the world.](_URL_2_) in comparison with oil and gas Bolivia is considered to be the \"Saudi Arabia\" of lithium. Also, lithium is found in the ocean, but not in high enough concentration to be economically feasible to acquire through man-made processes (more later).\n\nLithium can be concentrated in two ways. It can be concentrated through magmatic (volcanic) processes where fluids in the magma concentrate lithium into minerals. [Spodumene](_URL_0_) and [lepidolite](_URL_1_) are two lithium bearing minerals in igneous rocks.\n\nIn the case of Chile and Bolivia, I believe these deposits formed from brine (ocean water) that were then uplifted into the Andes. Think of an ocean basin that is restricted and ocean water comes in, but there is not much circulation and it is also pretty arid. Over time, the water evaporates, leaving behind the elements within the ocean water. Lithium, like sodium (Na) forms salts with other halides (Cl, etc.). I do not know the specific reason why lithium happened to be more concentrated in Chile/Bolivia, but this is the general process",
"Chile's lithium comes from brine extracted from salt flats like Atacama. Salt flats are basically dry lake beds or inland seas that have completely evaporated away. Atacama and the nearby salt flats are in close proximity to many active volcanoes, and the water that runs off the slopes of those volcanoes dissolves the lithium salts found in the volcanic ash, flows down to the Atacama salt flats, and evaporates. Over millions of years this has concentrated very high amounts of lithium and other salts.",
"Actually, over half of the lithium in the world is in the Bolivia -- in the [Salar de Uyuni](_URL_5_). It is [stunningly beautiful](_URL_4_). Unfortunately for Bolivia's economy the government hasn't been able to get mining efforts off the ground while neighboring Chile and Argentina have. Of course, there is the whole environmental and tourism impact so maybe it's all for the best.\n\nI would highly recommend to anyone interested to do the very popular 3-day off road tour of the salt flats and Potosí Department. It's one of the most beautiful places I've ever seen.\n\nEdit: Some of the scenery in the final battle in Star Wars the Last Jedi comes from the Salar de Uyuni. See [here](_URL_3_).",
"When I was stationed in Afghanistan the Stars and Stripes news paper did a two page spread on a USGS multi year survey they did of the entire country and said Afghanistan could be the Saudi Arabia of lithium if they ever got their act together and built their infrastructure to mine and ship it, and estimated their mineral wealth at 1 trillion US dollars.",
"\"John confesses to not having a single clue as to what Sullivan said, and as a result of his ignorance towards highly scientific matters, he decides not to invest.\"\n\nMaybe it is not ignorance, but an inability to understand a process that doesn't make scientific sense. Yes, we've known for some time that sea water contains Gold, Uranium and a host of valuable things. Their density is so small that a pretty large fraction of earth's oceans would have to be desalinizated to collect a quantity of value. Would the value exceed the cost of extraction? No.",
"Graphene is expected to make much more efficient desalination plants in the near future. I wonder how hard it will then be to wash the recovered minerals, such as lithium, from graphene filters. Probably not very hard when I think of it. It will probably all collect in the salts. I suppose the problem will be separation.\n\n[Researchers Made a Graphene Sieve That Can Make Seawater Safe to Drink](_URL_6_)\n\n[Salt and lithium could be filtered from seawater with next-generation material](_URL_7_)",
"Utah also has a lot of salt beds, which is typically the easiest source of lithium. They aren't quite as accessible as they are no on the surface, however they can be mined.\n\nI would hate to see Arches dug up though..."
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{
"url": [
"http://webmineral.com/data/Spodumene.shtml",
"http://www.webmineral.com/data/Lepidolite.shtml",
"https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2017-lithium-battery-future/",
"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/arts-and-culture/best-star-wars-filming-locations/salar-de-uyuni/",
"https://www.google.com.gt/search?q=salar+de+uyuni&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVh4LTpaTaAhUlwVkKHRlHC1cQ_AUICigB&biw=1536&bih=734&dpr=1.25",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salar_de_Uyuni",
"https://futurism.com/researchers-made-a-graphene-sieve-that-can-make-seawater-safe-to-drink/",
"https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2018/02/salt-and-lithium-could-be-filtered-from-seawater-with-next-generation-material/"
]
}
|
Why did all the lithium end up in Chile?
|
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||
12nvhl
|
It is sometimes stated that humans have more "foreign" cells in their body than native ones. Is this a scientific correct statement?
|
Educated guess or original research?
thanks a lot
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6wodjd",
"c6wp75b",
"c6wozl7"
],
"text": [
"There are 10x more bacterial cells in your body than eukaryotic cells. Many of these bacterial cells have been shown to perform functions that are not only help you, but protect you from disease. Google the Human Microbiome Project.",
"It's true, our bodies host colonies of symbiotic bacteria. The bacteria are much smaller than our own cells so there are easily many times more of them in vastly smaller mass and volume, and they don't consume many resources compared to our body.\n\nHowever, if you want to consider something even more astounding, keep in mind that every living cell in your body contains mitochondria which it relies on for energy production and those mitochondria are effectively just domesticated bacteria which are housed within our own cells and which have been carefully herded and handed down from generation to generation by all of our ancestors (going back even to single celled Eukaryotes over a billion years ago).",
"My number of cells, yes. By mass, no. Your body is an ecosystem unto itself."
],
"score": [
51,
10,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
It is sometimes stated that humans have more "foreign" cells in their body than native ones. Is this a scientific correct statement?
Educated guess or original research? thanks a lot
|
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1q16hw
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I'm 32. Is there a single cell, or even molecule, left in my body that was there when I was born or am I a completely physically different organism from who I was as an infant?
|
Have all original molecules in my body from birth been replaced by now or do some remain? If they've all been replaced, approximately how often does this occur in a human lifespan, rendering one a completely different physical being from who we once were aside from the ties of continuity?
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askscience
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"There may be others, but on a molecular level I would say the enamel on your teeth teeth and cartilage on your bones. These are permanent structures that once formed, do not change (much) unless damaged somehow.\n\nIf you are talking about the cellular level however, then you can encompass a much wider range of tissue, because while the individual molecules that made up the cells may be long gone, they are constantly being replaced by new ones such that the structure of the cell is effectively the same one you have always had. This can be said of many (not all) of your nervous system cells, heart cells, and bone cells.\n\nEDIT: As far as the replacement rate goes, it varies a lot depending on tissue. Skin may be the fastest, replacing itself within a month. Full red blood cells turnover takes 4 months. Some (like the ones above) never fully turnover. I believe the heart on average turns over 40% of its cells in your lifetime. These rates tend to reflect the function of the particular tissue.\n\nEDIT2: Forgot GI epithelial cells, they are the fastest, replacing themselves in days.",
"Well, the most obvious example to me are germ-line cells. Females are born with all the eggs they're going to have in their life [see edit]. So a 32 year old female is going to have a lot of cells in her ovaries that have been with her since early gestational development (4.5/5 weeks old; way before she was an infant). \n\nEdit: The cells are arrested in meiosis I and are not mature eggs. Yes, I agree. Second, it doesn't really matter whether they generate eggs during their lifetime. Females are still going to die with way more eggs than they'll ever use, and that's distracting to the question of whether or not humans retain cells from early gestation. Which the answer is still yes.",
"As far as cells go, its pretty much heart and brain with ultra low turnover rates\n\nYour heart does not turn frequently ( < 1% per year) So many of the heart cells you had as an infant will still exist. \n_URL_0_\n\nSame goes for neurons in your brain.",
"The idea that you have a \"body\" is an enormous oversimplification. Atoms enter (by themselves, and in the form of molecules) and leave the vicinity of what you think of as your body continuously. They are used or not, and some stay around for a while, while others leave.\n\nMany of the functional parts of your body are not attached to you, and they may not even be human. The bacteria in your gut, for example. Even your mitochondria can be thought of, in some sense, as symbiotic organisms hitching a ride in your cells. You cannot exist without these things, but it is probably not reasonable to try to understand how they can be part of your body. They aren't.\n\nInstead, you may wish to try thinking of yourself as a nexus; an organizing principle. A semi-persistent complex phenomenon that catalyzes reactions in the universe around it.\n\nSo long as that complex area of lower entropy persists and continues to churn its environment by the process we refer to as metabolism, then you are you. The particular bits of the environment that are incorporated into the nexus are therefore irrelevant; in fact, they couldn't be more irrelevant. They are not you. Even if every single atom had been replaced over the course of your lifetime, which is certainly not the case, it wouldn't matter. There would be no paradox and no philosophical conundrum. You would still be you. The only reason that seems difficult to understand is that we tend to think of the universe as deterministic, rather than chaotic.\n\nYou are the chaotic phenomenon that drives it all, and that changes continuously and unpredictably. Nevertheless, we can still point to a particular instance of that phenomenon and call it you.",
"In the eye there are several - \nThe corneal endothelium is never replaced, as the cells die off the adjacent cells get larger and work harder. \n\nThe lens is the same lens you are born with, it just keeps adding more and more cells and eventually becomes a cataract. \n\nI would also imagine that most neurons, certainly in the optic nerve are not replaced.",
"The best example would be the lens of the eye.",
"Pretty sure I read an experiment somewhere that showed the molecules in a part of your brain never change. This was done by measuring the amount of a specific molecule that was prevalent in the atmosphere around the 70's. \n\nThere was a correlation in the reduction of the molecule in the atmosphere and the reduction of the molecule in brains of cadavers born between then and now. Gonna try to find a link... \n\nEDIT: NewScientist has an updated article on this. The molecule I referred to was actually the Carbon-14 atom, but there is also at least one part of the brain that regenerates quickly. Also, just because Carbon-14 seems to stay permanently doesn't mean other atoms/molecules don't refresh. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nSo, I guess we can at least say there are SOME atoms you never lose.",
"There are cells in certain parts of your body that don't die and if they do they aren't replaced, such as the cells in your eyes and brain. However, from an atomic view, all the atoms in your body currently are different from the atoms of your infancy. So essentially, your body has permanent cells, but from an atomic level, your're completely recycled.",
"There most certainly are molecules and atoms that are present through an individuals entire lifetime. Even if atoms and molecule are *actively* eliminated from the body as they get older, the still will follow a radioactive decay model as they leave the body. As time approaches infinity, the number of original atoms in your body will approach 0, but will never reach 0. But this isn't even the case. The body does not actively select certain molecules and atoms for replacement just because they are old. Many many molecules and atoms are actively preserved or sequestered.\n\nCells gets a bit more tricky. Every time a cell replicates you wind up with two new cells. Which do you call the original cell? And furthermore, specialized cells like the neurons in your spinal cord more than double their length as you grow. So would you say that the final neuron is the same one as the original? Some cells are fiercely preserved in the body, but that does not mean that they are immutable. Contrary to popular belief neurogenesis does occur, bones are constantly reforming, and tooth enamel is dynamic.\n\nTL;DR: No, all original molecules have not been replaced, however cells are an area that is up for debate since it depends on definitions.",
"The vast majority of your heart cells would be the ones you're born with. Cardiac myocytes terminally differentiate (cease dividing and become ultra specialised) in the perinatal period (birth +/- a few days). As we grow, we need a larger heart to supply tissues with oxygen and nutrients. The heart grows by an increase in cell *size* not cell number as is common with other tissues/organs. The non-muscle cells may still proliferate however but somewhere north of 99% of your cardiac myocytes (muscle cells) are the ones you were born with. \n\nTL;DR: Your heart.",
"On a cellular level - yes - much of your original nervous system, both PNS and CNS are still intact. Some of the nerves in your legs, for example, are over 1 meter long, and never get replaced. The same is true of many neurons in your brain (you certainly lost many of those through normal pruning during early development), though neurogenesis does occur in some brain regions, it is not currently believed to be the standard for most of the brain.\n\nSo one way of thinking about it is that the organ that is most responsible for making you...YOU...does not replace its cellular components by and large.",
"In a similar question: is it possible to determine a person's age or an animal's age using some kind of a test or the fact that most, if not all, molecules in their bodies change, makes it almost impossible?",
"The neurons in your brain are the same neurons that you were born with. Although through maturation many of these neurons are pruned and unreal amounts of neural connections are formed they are still the original cells from birth.",
"New Scientist addressed this in 2006.\n\n\"...neurologist Jonas Frisén of the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden, has invented an ingenious technique for determining the age of adult cells. He and others are using the technique to answer questions that have intrigued scientists and laypeople for decades: does cell turnover mean that you eventually renew your entire body? If so, how many bodies do you go through in a lifetime? If you live to a ripe old age, is there anything left of the original \"you\"?\n...\nThe body's front-line cells endure the roughest life, last the briefest time and are constantly replaced - these include the epithelial cells lining the gut (five days), the epidermal cells covering the skin's surface (two weeks) and red blood cells (120 days).\n\nCells Frisén analysed from the rib muscles of people in their late 30s had an average age of 15.1 years, a similar lifespan to cells making up the body of the gut, which he found were around 15.9 years old on average. It seems our bodies are indeed in a constant state of breakdown and renewal - even the entire skeleton is replaced every few years, he says.\n...\n Cells in the cerebellum, which is involved in coordinating movement, turned out to be about 2.9 years younger on average than the person, which is consistent with the idea that this region continues to develop during infancy.\n\nWe've now mapped the rest of the cortex and are well on our way with the hippocampus,\" says Frisén. \"So far, it doesn't look like there are any new cells being formed in the cortex - they're as old as you are. But some regions of the hippocampus are exciting - absolutely there's neurogenesis.\"\n\nEveryone should subscribe to New Scientist (and tell them to use A4 instead of quarto :)",
"Ah, this seems more like a philosophical question. Reminds me of the Ship of Theseus. If you replace every part of an object with other identical parts, is it the same object?\n\nIn other words, is the whole greater than the sum of its parts? It's a fascinating idea that can't really be answered.\n\nEdit: These downvotes are nonsensical. OP's question is clearly the [Theseus Paradox](_URL_2_) and not \"do all my cells last the entirety of my lifetime?\" He is asking if the description of the object remains the same after every part of the object has been subsequently replaced. Not a testable question though it is an interesting paradox. I'm new here so I'd appreciate if you tell me if I'm wrong as then I could learn.",
"A rich sailor retires and gifts his ship, The Artemis, to his son with the hopes that he would also pass on this legacy. The rich sailor sailed his ship around the world and faced many fierce adversaries. Through the course of his travels every plank of wood needed to eventually be replaced. Years later, the son plans to retire. He too has sailed the world. Moreover, he also undertook much needed repairs to the ship's planks. Surely The Artemis still exists.",
"Assuming (based on your username) that you are a she (with sauce), then most definitely! Women are born with all the eggs they will ever have and do not produce any outside of a small window during embryonic development. Despite the fact that you will lose one ever four weeks you will still have plenty in reserve such that even if you live to be well over a hundred you will have cells (the eggs) that were with you since before birth.",
"For the longest time, I promulgated the myth that every cell in our body was replaced over the course of ten years, mainly because I like to sound smart and philosophical but also because I thought it was *frikken cool*!\n\nI then did a teeny bit of research and discovered that this wasn't so:\n\n1. Neurons in the cerebral cortex are never replaced.\n\n2. Cardiomyocyte heart cells are replaced at a reducing rate as we age. At age 25, about 1% of cells are replaced every year. Replacement slows gradually to about 0.5% at age 70. Even in people who have lived a very long life, less than half of the cardiomyocyte cells have been replaced. Those that aren’t replaced have been there since birth.\n\nSource: _URL_3_\n\nSo not every cell is replaced. *Atoms* on the other hand...\n\n_URL_4_",
"So is this Richard Feynmann quote accurate given what we know now? \"So what is this mind of ours: what are these atoms with consciousness? Last week’s potatoes! They now can remember what was going on in my mind a year ago—a mind which has long ago been replaced. To note that the thing I call my individuality is only a pattern or dance, that is what it means when one discovers how long it takes for the atoms of the brain to be replaced by other atoms. The atoms come into my brain, dance a dance, and then go out—there are always new atoms, but always doing the same dance, remembering what the dance was yesterday.”",
"From what I have learned so far the only cells in your body that you keep from birth till death are the pacemaker cells in the heart and your eggs if you are female. All other cells are replaced on a continual basis. Stomach lining every 3-14 days depends on who you ask and bone cells approximately every 10 years.\n\nI was under the impression that the enamel on the teeth isnt actually made up of cells. Hence why they cannot grow or repair themselves.\n\nHope this helps.\n\nSource: I am a trainee paramedic. Currently a pathology collector.",
"Actually, yes, there are cells in our body that are with us for the entirety of our lives. Muscle cells and nervous cells after differentiation from their embryonic cells do not undergo mitosis. Muscle cells fuse to form long muscle fibers. These fibers are un-repairable for the most part. Neurons are also one of the cells that cannot undergo mitosis. While these cells can grow, they are limited in number, and the ones you are born with are the only ones you will have available throughout your lifetime.",
"Lipids make up cell walls are very rarely degraded, they last forever essentially, until the cell undergoes apoptosis. So it is very safe to say a lipid from even one of your first few cells is still floating around you today.\n\nAlso, many cell types senesce and last a very long time, such as brain cells. You most definitely have these around from infancy.",
"Arguably this is just a version of perseus' vessel. What's more you could ask yourself even if you're missing \"those cells\", were those cells at that time a component to the identity you have undoubtedly adopted now. \n\nOr if we go back to the ship example, if the sail is replaced with the vessel eventually and given a motor or something, does it truly represent water vessel in the same way Perseus' ship se to be (it's function was a sailing ship, the new ship is a speeding/motor/insert smarter word here boat).",
"The corneal endothelial cells (inner most layer of your cornea) which helps to keep your cornea clear, do not increase in number after birth, if they are lost, they grow larger to cover the \"defect\" \nThe protein in your lens in your eye starts forming around the 3-4th week of fetal life. Those proteins become surrounded by other lens proteins as you age, therefore the innermost part of your lens has been there since before birth \nEyes are probably the most amazing organs in the body in my opinion",
"Seen as there were probably, at a very rough guestimation, in the region of x10^20 water molecules in the original cell that you originally consisted of then I think there is a very high probability that at least some of those water molecules we still be in you.",
"Depends on what cells you're talking about. Neocortical Neurons last the duration of your life span. I can't remember, but I believe you have something in your eye that may last the duration too, can't remember. But Neocortical Neurons last your whole life.",
"If you were a female, you have the eggs inside you which will one day become your offspring. If you are pregnant you would also have your grandchildren inside of you. \nIm assuming these molecules stay the same?",
"[An earlier thread on this topic.](_URL_5_), from the [*Mods' Choice* archive](_URL_6_)."
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"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23665-nuclear-bomb-tests-reveal-brain-regeneration-in-humans.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus",
"http://askanaturalist.com/do-we-replace-our-cells-every-7-or-10-years/",
"http://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/7837/are-all-cells-of-the-human-body-completely-replaced-every-seven-to-ten-years",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1kf1if/theseus_body_is_there_any_part_of_a_human_that_is/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A'best'&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all"
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I'm 32. Is there a single cell, or even molecule, left in my body that was there when I was born or am I a completely physically different organism from who I was as an infant?
Have all original molecules in my body from birth been replaced by now or do some remain? If they've all been replaced, approximately how often does this occur in a human lifespan, rendering one a completely different physical being from who we once were aside from the ties of continuity?
|
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|
11r9gl
|
This person claims it is possible to make a petrol-like hydrocarbon fuel from thin air and water. Is there the remotest chance that this is possible?
|
The video can be seen here
_URL_0_
Unlike the usual crackpots, this individual at least seems to be personally wealthy and has gathered a significant team around him rather than being some loner working in a shed (for what that's worth).
What do the esteemed minds of /r/askscience make of this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6ox0yy",
"c6owvjo",
"c6owwa0",
"c6pma64"
],
"text": [
"Yes! This is the area of my research in catalysis. The idea is to make catalysts to help convert CO2 to CO (carbon monoxide), and then use the Fischer-Tropsch process (_URL_0_) to build higher hydrocarbons. \n\nI didn't see the details of their process in skimming, but it is definitely possible. \n\nedit: to clarify, you still need to put energy in for the CO2 to CO reduction, but the idea is to make catalysts that can reduce that amount of energy input.",
"Basic biochem knowledge response: Without searching for more information than in your link, I'd say that it is absolutely possible to create hydrocarbon fuel from air and water. Air contains the CO2 you need for carbon, and water contains the hydrogens. This would *not* be a spontaneous reaction; you'd have to put a significant amount of energy in to turn air and water into hydrocarbons. They're talking about it being a useful *storage* form for energy, not necessarily a new way to create energy.",
"Algae do it and that's what crude oil is made of, so it is certainly possible.\n\nYou have to input energy to make hydrocarbons out of air and water so don't go thinking that mixing air and water just right will actually produce any energy, it's just taking it in one form and turning it into another, namely electrical into chemical.",
"I guess the main point to remember that while it is technically possible, the energy to do so is not free and needs to be considered when making this fuel.\n\nA lot of our problems could be solved if you had a huge cheap energy source."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=34e_1350642503"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process"
]
}
|
This person claims it is possible to make a petrol-like hydrocarbon fuel from thin air and water. Is there the remotest chance that this is possible?
The video can be seen here _URL_0_ Unlike the usual crackpots, this individual at least seems to be personally wealthy and has gathered a significant team around him rather than being some loner working in a shed (for what that's worth). What do the esteemed minds of /r/askscience make of this?
|
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|
q3eub
|
what exactly goes on at the boundary of the atmosphere and space?
|
Is the threshold sharp, or does the atmosphere gradually fade out? The fact that air just stops baffles me. Thanks in advance.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3ue909",
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"c3uek53",
"c3uevhw",
"c3uev2v"
],
"text": [
"There is no sharp threshold. The atmosphere gradually thins until there is no traceable atmosphere. I can't say how rapidly this happens, or if the thinning is uniform, but I do know that. Also, the point where atmosphere becomes space is, in reality, arbitrary. The size of the largest suns in the universe are debated because of this gradual thinning. It comes down to definition, how high does the concentration of gasses need to be for a point in space to be considered atmosphere, or part of a star.",
"Gradually. The air is held to Earth by gravity and will be compressed (higher pressure) closer to the surface due to the weight of the air above it.",
"A good word to know is \"rarefied.\" The atmosphere at high altitudes is said to be rarefied, meaning there very few gas molecules per unit volume",
"Gradually fades out. Most low orbiting satelites need orbital corrections every so often, partly due to the little bit of drag they receive from it not being a perfect vaccum at their altitude.",
"Too add to his question, Why does the air that is at that boundry, stay there, what keeps the vacuum of space from pulling the air that barely feels anything from earth's pull or from the weight of the air above it, from being pulled away and into space?"
],
"score": [
12,
7,
7,
6,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
what exactly goes on at the boundary of the atmosphere and space?
Is the threshold sharp, or does the atmosphere gradually fade out? The fact that air just stops baffles me. Thanks in advance.
|
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7xhb46
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What would happen if a voltage was applied to a superconductor in a ring shape and then have the voltage source removed? Would the electrons continue to flow forever in a loop?
|
Based on the limited knowledge and understanding I have, it would seem that an electrical current would be able to flow indefinitely due to the lack of resistance, is this the case? If not, how could this theoretically be done?
|
askscience
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"> I have, it would seem that an electrical current would be able to flow indefinitely due to the lack of resistance, is this the case?\n\nYes, the current will continue to flow for a very long time. This is how superconducting electromagnets work. You just cause a current to start flowing through a coil of superconductor, and then just let it keep flowing. It produces a nice static magnetic field. Since superconductors have negligible resistance to DC, you can have hundreds of Amps flowing through the coils at a time. You just have to be sure not to exceed the maximum current for the superconducting phase, or you can cause the coil to quench.",
"Yes. What's more I can show you a video of it. You can induce an electric current in a conductive surface by passing a magnetic field through it. This results in an opposing electromagnetic field being produced in the material that will slow the source of the original magnetic field. Here is an example in a non-superconducting material: _URL_1_\n\nThere is some resistance to the magnet in that clip produced by the electromagnetic field generated by the flow of electrons in the copper, but since it is not superconductive the magnet eventually falls.\n\nNow here is an example of the same trick done over a superconductor: _URL_0_\n\nNo resistance to the flow of electricity means that the superconductive plate can sustain an induced current indefinitely and as such provide an opposing magnetic field to the magnet above that does not degrade. Without any losses due to electrical resistance the magnet never falls to the surface. That is, until the superconductor warms to room temperature where it no longer has superconductive properties.",
"\"Onnes conducted an experiment, in 1912, on the usability of superconductivity. Onnes introduced an electric current into a superconductive ring and removed the battery that generated it. Upon measuring the electric current, Onnes found that its intensity did not diminish with the time. The current persisted due to the superconductive state of the conductive medium.\"\n\n_URL_2_",
"That is what a ramp power supply does to an MRI coil magnet after it is cooled. Energize it and presto, you have a constant current flow through the magnets coils.\n\n Since it requires to be near 0 Kelvin, it has to be done in a careful way. If powering up and causes heat the coil loses it superconductivity there is a chain reaction of heat and resulting in heating the liquid helium which turns to gas in a sudden startling way called a quench.",
"Yup. It would flow forever. The experimental evidence says the resistance zero or at most very, very low, and the theory says it is exactly, precisely, zero.\n\nWe usually speak of \"resistivity\" rather than \"resistance\", because resistance is geometry-dependent: a wire of twice the length has twice the resistance, a wire with twice the cross-section has half the resistance, etc, but the resistivity of the material is constant. Resistance is measured in Ohms, and resistivity is measured in Ohm-cm.\n\nSome numbers: Copper is among the best conductors at room temperature, and resistivity of Copper at room temperature is about 1.7 x10^-6 Ohm-cm. Most metal have lower resistance at lower temperatures, and Copper drops to about 1.7 x10^-8 Ohm-cm as the temperature approaches 0. (Copper never goes superconducting)\nThe best measurements of the resistivity of a superconductor I know of [_URL_3_](_URL_3_) are from 1961 and put the resistivity at less than 4 x 10^-23 Ohm-cm. That's 3 million *billion* times lower than cold copper.\n\nThe experiment goes a lot like what you propose: Set up a current in a superconducting ring, and measure the magnetic field over time. If the current goes down at all, the magnetic field will diminish. If there is any resistance at all, the current will decay exponentially according to the equation I=I0*exp(R*t/L) where R is the resistance and L is the inductance. Assuming the highest resistivity not ruled out by experiment and a 1m diameter loop of made from 1cm diameter wire, it would take about 7.5 million years for the current to drop to around 1/3 it's original value. In practice, we can measure very tiny changes in magnetic field so we don't have to wait for a drop that big, and we can make smaller coils with smaller inductance to speed up the time constant, and that's exactly what is done. The longest measurement I know of ended in 1957 after 30 months, without the slightest measurable change in current before they got tired of keeping the darn thing cold.\n\nSuperconductivity is a phase transition, which means it's not just following a general trend like \"lower resistance at lower temperature\", but whole new rules come suddenly into effect. As an analogy, consider dropping a ball bearing through a fluid. (In this analogy, the height of the ball corresponds to the current in a ring.) In air, the ball drops very quickly (basically no viscosity). In water, the ball drops a little more slowly (some viscosity). In syrup the ball drops slow enough to time by eye (high viscosity), and in road tar, the ball might take years to reach the bottom, but it still gets there (stupidly high viscosity). In each case, we are talking about fluids with different viscosities, like we might talk about metals with different resistance. Now consider water: it has a viscosity that goes up as the temperature goes down (that's why you can [tell by ear if someone is pouring hot or cold water](_URL_4_)) so the ball bearing takes a bit longer to fall every time we try again at a lower temperature. At some point though, the water freezes into a block of ice (a phase transition) and the ball bearing just sits on top without falling at all. One might ask: \"maybe the viscosity is just really, really high?\" And you could watch for a really long time to see if the ball bearing starts sinking through until you get bored. Experiment says \"basically no falling at all\" and theory says \"the water is a solid with a fixed crystal structure, so viscosity is not a useful/valid concept anymore. It's not like super-thick tar, it's a frikkin' solid!\"\nWith superconductors, experiment says \"the resistance is pretty much zero\" and theory says \"resistance isn't a useful concept anymore, it's a frikkin' superconductor! Call it 0 Ohms if you *must*\" Anyway, we should always keep in mind the [results from 1998](_URL_5_), when he Undertaker threw Mankind off Hell In A Cell, who plummeted 16 ft through an announcer’s table.",
"More or less, yeah. This is done [today](_URL_6_) to help smooth out the power grid but huge superconductors are expensive and there's a limit to how much power you can shove into one before the strength of the magnetic field itself causes the superconductivity to break down."
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"url": [
"https://youtu.be/nWTSzBWEsms?t=26s",
"https://youtu.be/sENgdSF8ppA?t=58s",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_superconductivity",
"http://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.1702504",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri_4dDvcZeM",
"https://youtu.be/9hMp65SzyTU",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_magnetic_energy_storage"
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What would happen if a voltage was applied to a superconductor in a ring shape and then have the voltage source removed? Would the electrons continue to flow forever in a loop?
Based on the limited knowledge and understanding I have, it would seem that an electrical current would be able to flow indefinitely due to the lack of resistance, is this the case? If not, how could this theoretically be done?
|
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|
lqutn
|
Why don't we ever seem to get sick from two things at once?
|
I guess what Im trying to say is, lets say I have the Flu....or a Cold or w/e bug/virus is going around.
How come in my weakened state that im not infected by a ton of other viruses. It "seems" like it'd make you MORE prone, but I dont think I or anyone i've known has ever gotten sick by more than one thing at a time. Is there any reason for this? Or is it just because our immune system is in overdrive mode?
|
askscience
|
{
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"c2uvqpi",
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"c2uwv0x",
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],
"text": [
"Alot of bacterial infections, especially upper respiratory infections, are often preceded by a virus infection. \n\nThe virus can disturb the local immunity in the mucosal membranes and make it easier for bacteria to colonize and start an infection. In these cases you´re maybe not always \"sick\" from two things at once, but you would be infected by two different pathogens at once. You could for example get a simple cold first (the virus) and about week later develop sinuitis (the bacteria).",
"Its worth pointing out that when you have an cold or flu, your immune system is not compromised, but in hyper drive. Although physically you feel weak, you are not more vulnerable to other infections.\n\nIt is your immune system that causes [typical] symptoms, not the bug basically. (not an expert, 4th week in med school)\n\nedit: in [] thank you ameisen. \n\nedit 2:I have been superseded; an actual expert [OV_IS](_URL_0_)",
"as others have mentioned, when you get, say, the flu, your immune system kicks into high gear to fight it - the symptoms of the flu (nausea/vomiting, fever, aches and pains) are the result of your body fighting the virus, not the virus itself (this is also why some people feel flu-like symptoms after getting a flu shot).\n\nbecause your immune system is running top-speed - and you're more likely to be holed up in bed, hiding from other bugs - it's less-likely you'll catch something else.\n\nhowever, those with compromised immune systems - such as those with HIV/AIDS - have been known to get multiple illnesses simultaneously.",
"We in the States and industrialized nations generally don't--largely because we have very good sanitation, nutrition and access to healthcare. These factors are very important for reducing the amount of pathogen around, maintaining an effective [immune system](_URL_18_), and for controlling diseases that take hold. Though as others note, it's very possible to get [secondary infections](_URL_18_), classically a viral infection following on the damage caused by a primary viral infection. The cells destroyed by virus and the immune system plus the influx of nutrients with immune cells provide a much better medium for bacteria to grow in than the healthy normal mucosal surface normally has. Now, to more directly answer your question, most infections, like from a cut, don't become multiply infected because the immune system is an incredibly effective and efficient organ (usually). Almost every potential pathogen that enters into the wound will not have the necessary [protective and offensive functions](_URL_18_) ([immune evasion and manipulation](_URL_18_) by parasites the thing that actually got me into microbiology and immunology; I'm pretty certain that there's nothing in the world that's more interesting to study) that allow it to survive the [resident phagocytes](_URL_18_) and establish an infection. The one that does will take hold and require an actual immune response to clear (as opposed to simple cleanup by those local phagocytes). Another factor at play here is that, besides the potentially pathogenic subset of our resident flora that directly inhabits our body and surfaces we commonly contact, there's not a whole lot out there that is specifically able to infect humans. From the perspective of a soil bacterium, for example, it's a much safer lifestyle ploy to act as a plant or fungal pathogen if they're not simply [autotrophic](_URL_18_). The other major instance of polymicrobial infection you might see is an [abscess](_URL_18_) or other anaerobic infection, which frequently can host multiple anaerobic bacteria. [Interesting side note, there are pathogens that intentionally get phagocytosed to get access to the nutrients inside the cell. I believe [Yersinia](_URL_18_) does this.]\n\nOne exception to the above would be in immunocompromised or otherwise seriously ill individuals. Uncontrolled [HIV](_URL_18_) frequently leads to opportunistic secondary infections (one of the [defining feature of AIDS](_URL_18_)), as can [therapeutic immunosuppresion](_URL_18_). Individuals with poor circulation to the extremities (eg [heart failure](_URL_18_), [peripheral vascular disease](_URL_18_), [post-venous thrombosis](_URL_18_), [advanced diabetes](_URL_18_) (particularly bad because it causes immunodeficiency as well)) can frequently get small wounds that quickly become a polymicrobial infection that persists. Poorly controlled diabetes is one of the most common causes of toe/foot/below the knee amputations, which is tragic because the vast majority of them are preventable. [Interesting side note, chronic wounds like these can eventually lead to an [uncommon type of skin cancer](_URL_18_). If you have relatives with diabetes, *beg* them to get their feet checked out regularly.]\n\nIt's very different in undeveloped nations however. It's nearly the norm to have multiple infections; at least one type of parasite, too frequently HIV and/or [tuberculosis](_URL_18_). Note that these tend to be chronic infections, as more acute infections tend to be cleared up quickly or kill the patient quickly. [Interesting side note, this is actually one of the greatest barriers (among many) to global vaccine deployment. Vaccines rely on an intact immune system which may be directly impaired (HIV, malnutrition) or manipulated by pathogens (basically every parasite). To get vaccines and healthcare in general a toehold in undeveloped countries requires a comprehensive approach addressing cultural/social/infrastructural issues as well. See [Paul Farmer](_URL_18_)]\n\nThat's a very long answer to your question, but I hope that covers everything. Let me know if I made a mistake or am unclear anywhere!\n\n[Multiple edits for clarity and to add links.]\n\nAuthor: 5th year MD-PhD student in microbiology",
"As many people have stated, we can get sick from two things at once, however some infections can protect against others. I'll give you a specific example to expand upon some of the general claims below. \n\nA recent [study](_URL_22_) actually showed that [Toxoplasma gondii](_URL_23_) (you may have heard of this parasite before; it alters the behavior of mice so that they are more likely to be eaten by cats which is another of its hosts) can protect against the [H5N1 influenza virus](_URL_21_). As T. gondii often heads to the brain, while flu mostly infects the airways, this isn't a simple case of one excluding the other or direct interactions between the two. Instead, T. gondii and the antigens it secretes seem to activate [natural killer cells](_URL_20_) causing them to secrete [interferon gamma](_URL_19_), a cytokine important for the defense against viral and intracellular pathogens. One of the most interesting aspects of this study is that T. gondii infection is effective at combating H5N1 up to 2 days after infection with the flu, and the secreted antigens (STag) from T. gondii are enough to protect against flu even without T. gondii infection. I have also heard of unpublished research where T. gondii can protect against other, bacterial infections as well.\n\nSo, as many people have said, coinfections occur all the time. But, there are cases as you suggested in your title where one organism will keep you from being infected, or at least from getting quite as sick, with another.",
"Also to note, most people associate the common cold with a fever, however the virus that causes it the majority of the time (rhinovirus) doesn't actually produce a fever very often. Almost all of the time, the patient actually has a secondary infection, which stimulates the immune system to raise the body temperature. (source: college virology professor)",
"It actually happens all the time, it's called AIDS. Also certain viruses only CAN infect you if you have another virus such as Hepatitis D which only happens as a superinfection if you already have HBV. (4th yr med student)"
],
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lqutn/why_dont_we_ever_seem_to_get_sick_from_two_things/c2uvqpi",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_failure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_farmer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_infection#Primary_and_secondary_infections",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system#Manipulation_in_medicine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system#Manipulation_by_pathogens",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aids#Diagnosis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotroph",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complications_of_diabetes_mellitus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersinia_pestis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjolin%27s_ulcer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venous_thrombosis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_artery_occlusive_disease",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abscess",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langerhans_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulence_factor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon-gamma",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_killer_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21734055",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii"
]
}
|
Why don't we ever seem to get sick from two things at once?
I guess what Im trying to say is, lets say I have the Flu....or a Cold or w/e bug/virus is going around. How come in my weakened state that im not infected by a ton of other viruses. It "seems" like it'd make you MORE prone, but I dont think I or anyone i've known has ever gotten sick by more than one thing at a time. Is there any reason for this? Or is it just because our immune system is in overdrive mode?
|
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|
6fspnm
|
I have recently come across the notion of "Nice guy syndrome"; is this a well established concept in current psychological thinking or it fringy?
|
[removed]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dikoa9z",
"dikpvea",
"diktqhy"
],
"text": [
"The text in your link seems to be pretty different than the majority of the results I get from googling the name of the syndrome.\n\nIn your link the syndrome is described as something where a guy harms himself (and potentially some others) severly because he tries to be nice to everyone. Including accepting an abusive relationship.\n\nOther sources coin nice guy syndrome to someone who thinks he is entiteled to have women like him in a romantic way just because he is a nice guy.",
"What's described in your link can potentially relate to a number of DSM-V diagnoses. That said, it most closely resembles a non-DSM diagnosis commonly referred to as [codependency](_URL_0_). Codependency applies to a wider array of situations than the \"nice guy sydrome,\" though. As with all things Internet, take any diagnostic suggestions with a large grain of salt, and consult a professional for a proper diagnosis if appropriate.",
"It is not an established psychological diagnosis. Though if you spend any time on /r/niceguys, or if you are a woman, you can definitely identify it as a repeatable behavioral pattern. Since it's not pathological, sociology might be a better fit for the question."
],
"score": [
27,
7,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/mobile/relationships_psychologist/psychologist_codependency.htm"
]
}
|
I have recently come across the notion of "Nice guy syndrome"; is this a well established concept in current psychological thinking or it fringy?
[removed]
|
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] |
|
1wrwt7
|
Open Source distributions, how are viruses prevented from being accidentally distributed?
|
*edit: Thanks to everyone who has responded. This thread explained what I couldn't quite put my finger on. Thanks all!*
This goes for every kind of open source program/application/operating system/etc. Since ***ALL*** the code to a program is open to view, couldn't someone pick it apart, find the vulnerabilities, and use that to their own advantage? **How is this prevented?**
**How is open source-ware not completely infiltrated with virus on top of all sorts of ad-ware with a ping of malware to boot???**
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cf4xbxf",
"cf4zdny",
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],
"text": [
"Usually, you will get your programs from a reputable source (I personally use Ubuntu, and only add repositories recommended by people on the official Ubuntu forums), so this really eliminates the first and most important level of vulnerability; user indiscretion. Secondly, being open source by nature means that the source code is open to examination and scrutiny, which ties into another point. Many Linux distributions receive official updates on a regular basis. It's a virtually daily thing for me to see new updates to be installed, and a new Ubuntu release comes out every six months. This allows the code to develop quickly and keep pace with the discovery of security exploits. As well, the way Linux systems are built often involves many intrinsic security features, such as sudo, which makes root access virtually unnecessary (and thus, disabling the root account is not troublesome, which means untoward individuals can't gain access to it).\n\nMuch of the trouble with Linux in terms of malicious attacks tend to revolve around [tricking someone into running \"rm -rf /\"](_URL_1_) which recursively deletes everything on the filesystem, wiping the drive clean.\n\nThat being said, [Linux is not impervious](_URL_0_) and *can* be attacked. But in almost all cases (as it is with Windows), this is simply because of aforementioned user indiscretion. Using heavily outdated packages, running commands or code you don't trust or understand, or assuming things are safe because you're running Linux (and not checking the source code!) can lead to successful attacks.\n\n*Note:* **I am not an expert.** The information above is based on my own use, experience, and readings on Linux as an Ubuntu user and computer software enthusiast. Some information was taken from the links used above. While this information is based on readings and experiences, I cannot necessarily guarantee its accuracy, and any input from an expert in the computing field should supersede the information I present in this comment.",
"Because not everyone has access to the source, as you might expect. The source code is kept under tight control using version-control systems (VCS) like git and mercurial. Anyone can download the sources and do whatever they like to it, but only a few people have write privileges to the sources on the official repository. Writing is done in discrete chunks called commits, complete with metadata containing the author, time of commit, comment, etc. So getting in malicious code is not so easy. The Linux kernel, for example, uses git to maintain its enormous code-base.\n\nDistribution of compiled binaries is done by people working for OSes such Ubuntu and Fedora. These end-products reach the user through package managers - software responsible for maintaining the software on Unix-like systems. Usually, security problems are caused by an OS's packaging process. The heavy-weight OSes, such as Debian, pay really close attention to security issues and have a team for back-porting - i.e. merging in security fixes from newer software releases. This is necessitated by the fact that each OS distribution is responsible for its own packages, given the decentralized nature of the entire endeavor.",
"Mostly because anyone can see it in the first place and can see if there is any kind of malicious code hidden before being compiled and released to the public.\n\nOnce the code is compiled, its hard to change much of it besides taking advantage of oversights or bad coding in the executable.",
"You're actually asking two questions here/\n\nOne, is how an open source project protects itself from having malicious code patched into it.\n\nAnd Two, how a hacker makes use of vulnerabilities he finds through white box review (reading the source code, finding some security lapse and using it to attack the software and host machine from another software).\n\nQuestion one has already been answered here. Opensource software projects are free to be downloaded and viewed from an official repository. However not anyone can just write to them. Only developers and package maintainers have access and rights to patch code submitted by other folks.\n\nWhat happens is you, as a contributor, download (pull) the repository to your computer. Make necessary changes to fix bugs, or implement a new feature, and you then send off a pull request to the maintainer or sub maintainers. There it is reviewed by a maintainer and patched to one of the branches that is being readied to patched into the main code trunk. Any malicious code must be detected at this stage and it is the responsibility of the maintainer to understand and test the patches before including them into the distributable/official branches. If they forget, someone else who downloads the code may review the changes and raise the flags and call it out. This is the advantage of peer review -- it may escape one person, but there's always another person who may see it.\n\nThe second question is a bit more dangerous. Sometimes there is no malicious code and certainly no malicious intent, but because large codes are so complex that it may not be possible, especially for open source groups who have no proper funding and leadership/man hours at their disposal, to catch vulnerabilities. A hacker with a keen eye could take advantage of bugs or badly written code to launch attacks on the software and depending on what rights the software had, can gain those level of rights.",
"Having the source code makes finding vulnerabilities easier, but you can also find them by reading the machine code or assembly code, or by fuzzing, where you automatically test lots of bad inputs and edge cases. All software of any real scale is going to have bugs, and it is easier to find them in open source stuff. This is actually an advantage in some ways - the bad guys only need to have one vulnerability at a time, so they don't always keep looking for vulns after finding one, but non-developers who want to keep the system secure have an easier time finding bugs, and can write patches. Open source projects also get some free labor from students and research projects. There are still attacks on open source software, but it's generally more secure code than the closed-source equivalents.\n\nTL;DR it's easier to find bugs, which means that there are generally fewer of them"
],
"score": [
10,
7,
7,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/news/890836/Dont-dismiss-possibility-of-malicious-code-on-Linux",
"http://ubuntuguide.org/wiki/Malicious_Linux_Commands"
]
}
|
Open Source distributions, how are viruses prevented from being accidentally distributed?
*edit: Thanks to everyone who has responded. This thread explained what I couldn't quite put my finger on. Thanks all!* This goes for every kind of open source program/application/operating system/etc. Since ***ALL*** the code to a program is open to view, couldn't someone pick it apart, find the vulnerabilities, and use that to their own advantage? **How is this prevented?** **How is open source-ware not completely infiltrated with virus on top of all sorts of ad-ware with a ping of malware to boot???**
|
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] |
|
japks
|
Is it possible for a surface to reflect 100% of the light that hits it?
|
doesn't have to be visible light
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2akvx8",
"c2aju61",
"c2ajoge",
"c2allng"
],
"text": [
"As far as mirror-like [specular reflection](_URL_3_) is concerned, [dielectric mirrors](_URL_1_) are capable of reflecting upto 99.999% of the incident light. But, it is not just a single surface, it has multi-layers of dielectric films. 100% [diffuse reflection](_URL_0_) is possible with [Lambertian like sufaces.](_URL_2_)",
"When light passes from a medium to a medium of higher refractive index, there is [total internal reflection](_URL_4_) for large angles of incidence.\n\nThat is the phenomena that allows optical fibers to guide light over kilometers with very low loss due to the light escaping when it hits the internal boundary of the fiber. See [this video](_URL_5_).",
"Light generally implies (near)visible light, otherwise you should refer to electromagnetic waves. To answer your question, such a surface is simply a mirror. Of course in practice a mirror is never perfect, so a small part of the light does get absorbed, it is possible to identify the grade of a mirror by the reflectivity, say 0.99995, which can be near perfect.\n\nAlso certain materials (due to the molecular build-up) are more suitable for reflecting different wavelengths, the James Webb Space Telescope mirrors are coated with gold which has good reflective properties for infrared.",
"No. A body that reflects 100% of all incident light of all wavelengths is a perfect reflector. Such a thing has not been observed in nature. As an interesting side point, a perfect reflector cannot emit blackbody radiation."
],
"score": [
12,
9,
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mirror",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambertian_reflectance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_internal_reflection",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MwMkBET_5I"
]
}
|
Is it possible for a surface to reflect 100% of the light that hits it?
doesn't have to be visible light
|
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55cf5u
|
Are there numbers outside of C? If so, is there an ensemble including every other number ensemble we know?
|
Just started learning about complex numbers in math class in high school, and asked my teacher if C included all the numbers we know, and she told me it doesn't, but she can't really tell me more about it. I asked the same question to my brother who's in studying math in university, and he told me the same thing.
So, what are the non-complex number ensembles, and is there a number ensemble that includes all the complex and non-complex numbers?
|
askscience
|
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"It is important to note that numbers don't exist and aren't real. They are abstract quantities that are manipulated by certain rules.\n\nAleph-naught is a number in some sense, but it doesn't obey many of the usual rules.\n\nIt is trivial to just define a new number outside of C. But is it useful? Does it have interesting properties or give us insight into anything? \n\nCheck out hyperreals. Epsilon and omega aren't part of C.\n\n_URL_0_",
"I agree with /u/cronedog 's answer the most. It's a common misconception that mathematics is the study of numbers. In reality, it would be more accurate to say that numbers are simply a set of objects that have a very convenient set of properties which make them ideal to *perform math on*.\n\nMathematicians define sets of objects akin to numbers all the time. Sometimes they call them vectors, tensors, or even just elements, but they are all analogous to numbers in that they make up a set of objects on which the mathematician applies the laws of logic.",
"[Quaternions](_URL_1_) are the main example of what you're talking about. Complex numbers however, are closed under the usual operations (e.g. taking the square root of a complex number will still get you a complex number) so quaternions have to specifically defined.",
"Some have already given a few of the standard kind of answers, quarternions, surreal numbers etc, but let me give my potentially controversial take on it.\n\nIn order to answer this question, we need to know what we define a \"number\" to be. From what I can tell, most of the answers here assume that if an arithmetic system contains the reals or the complex numbers, then it's cool to call it a number system. The issue with this is that it is far too liberal and misses out on a whole bunch of number systems that are definitely number systems. Additionally, these systems are not as nice as things that are definitely number systems (like the complex numbers, or rational numbers). For example, the quarternions are not commutative, a\\*b is not necessarily equal to b\\*a, and if we go further then we lose associativity etc. Another con for these is that they do not arise naturally as arithmetic systems from known number systems. Things like the quarternions have a much more natural place in geometry, where they are naturally constructed from a geometric standpoint. Whereas, if we just construct them from the reals, they're pretty ad hoc. Finally, we can't study these objects using the tools that are used in Number Theory. That is, they don't work or look like number systems, so it doesn't make sense to refer to them as \"numbers\".\n\nFor me, a \"Number System\" is an arithmetic system that can be naturally constructed from the Natural Numbers using information from \"within\" the Natural Numbers (so we're not injecting anything extra). There are two types of information that we can use to construct number systems: Polynomials and \"Norms\". \n\nIf p(x) is a polynomial with coefficients in the Natural Numbers (or any number system that we have already constructed), then we can consider the smallest number system that contains all of the roots for this polynomial. For instance, the polynomial p(x)=x+1 has no roots in the Natural Numbers, if we then add \"-1\" to the Natural Numbers, then we will get all negative numbers, which is how we construct the Integers from the Natural Numbers using polynomials. So (thankfully) the Integers are a number system. In a similar way, we can get the Rational Numbers, all roots, i=sqrt(-1), and much more. This creates all [Algebraic Numbers](_URL_4_). Within the Algebraic Numbers are a whole bunch of smaller number system. For instance, the Gaussian Numbers are numbers like x+iy where x and y are rational numbers, and the Gaussian Numbers are a number system contained in the Algebraic Numbers. \n\nNow, we typically visualize the natural numbers or integers as living on a line, and this gives us a meaningful way to look at things like addition and multiplications, so this kind of geometry, in a way, naturally arises from the arithmetic of the natural numbers. If we then throw all the rational numbers into this line, we'll see that there are many holes in it. We can then fill in these holes to get a new number system that we call the Real Numbers. Slightly more technically, we \"complete\" the geometry of the rational numbers on a line to get the real numbers. So this completion process gives us a new number system. We can then ask \"Are there any polynomials in this new number system that do not have roots?\" The answer is \"Yes\", since x^(2)+1=0 does not have any roots. Including these roots gives us the Complex Numbers. We can possibly go further too; if there were polynomials with complex coefficients that did not have roots, then we could extend the complex numbers to get a new number system. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra says that this is not the case: We can't create new number systems from the Complex Numbers using polynomials. But perhaps the Complex Numbers have holes that we can complete to get yet another number system? This is also not the case, the Complex Numbers are already complete. This means that the Complex Numbers are a ceiling to new creating numbers. There's no information inside the complex numbers that we can use to make more numbers. Anything bigger is either ad hoc or arises naturally using some extra information about something else.\n\nHowever, we're not done. The construction of the complex numbers comes from how we arranged the integers on a line. That is, they came from a natural geometry that we use to look at the integers. Are there possibly other meaningful geometries that \"come from\" the arithmetic of the integers? It turns out that there are other natural geometries. In fact, there is exactly one for every prime number. We call the geometry associated to the prime p the [p-adic geometry](_URL_4_). We would have a hard time drawing these geometries because they are fractal in nature and don't arrange themselves nicely on a line. \n\nSo if we have a prime p and we arrange the rational numbers based on the p-adic geometry, then it turns out that we get a geometry that has tons of holes, just like the rational number on the number line. So, just as we got the real numbers by completing the line-geometry, we can get a different number system by completing these p-adic geometries (by filling in their holes). We imaginatively call the completed p-adic number systems \"[p-adic Numbers](_URL_3_)\". Just like there were polynomials over the reals that didn't have roots, there are also polynomials over each p-adic that don't have roots, though they will be different depending on the prime. So we can include the roots to one of these polynomials to get an extension of a p-adic number system. However, unlike the Complex Numbers, if we just adding the roots to one polynomial is never enough, the resulting extended number system will always have polynomials that don't have roots. In the reals, we just had to go to one extension to hit a ceiling, over the p-adics we have infinitely many extensions before we have added all roots to all polynomials. The creates what we call the \"p-adic Algebraic Closure\".\n\nOnce we get the p-adic Algebraic Closure, we are not yet at our ceiling. Going through these infinitely many extensions put a bunch of holes into the resulting number system. This did not happen over the reals, since the complex numbers were already complete. So after we include all the roots to all polynomials we can go yet another step and complete the p-adic Algebraic Closure. This gives yet another p-adic number system that is the \"Complete p-adic Algebraic Closure\". This final number system is the ceilings in these p-adic rooms. Fun fact, the geometries of these completions are completely crazy, but if we forget all geometry (just a pile of numbers), then the way things add, multiply and divide in these p-adic completions are exactly the same way that complex numbers add, multiply and divide (after forgetting all the geometry of the complex numbers). This also illustrates how amazingly powerful the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is. Without it, we get a bunch of extensions and after we go through all these extensions, we create holes and have to complete yet again. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra says that we can skip all that.\n\n**TL;DR** The Complex Numbers are not all \"numbers\". There are other numbers that we can construct that are \"parallel\" to the Complex Numbers that are called p-adic numbers. These make up all numbers.",
"There is a set of numbers called surreal numbers that were invented by John Conway (the guy responsible for Conway's game of life). There is a short book about them written in narrative style that I would recommend if you are interested in this sort of thing. Essentially, each number is defined by a left set (L) and a right set (R), where the left set must be less than or equal to the right set. The number 0 has the empty set for both L and R. Given these rules (and a couple others that I haven't mentioned here), we can progressively cook up all of the real numbers. What is interesting is that we can also create a number that is greater than all the real numbers L = {1,2,3...} and R = {}, and a number that is less than all real numbers but greater than 0. (In fact, it turns out that we can create infinitesimals near all real numbers--if I remember correctly.) \n\nI'm too lazy to re-learn all of the details, but if you are curious, I can go back and give you a more accurate description.",
"The *surreal numbers* ([wiki link](_URL_5_)) are the largest possible ordered field. **S** doesn't contain **C** but in addition to the real numbers it contains both infinite and infinitesimal numbers.\n\nJohn Conway first invented them, but they were only widely publicized by Donald Knuth, who wrote [_Surreal Numbers: How two ex-students turned on to pure mathematics and found total happiness_](_URL_6_). \n\n----\n\nThere are a number of number systems in which **C** is embedded and which have different properties. Others have mentioned the quaternions **H**; there are also the octonions **O** which are not only non-commutative like **H**, but also non-associative.\n\nThere are also split composition algebras like the split-complex and bicomplex numbers and the split-quaternion and biquaternion numbers, etc.\n\nLots of wide-eyed clicking and scrolling [here](_URL_7_) and [here](_URL_8_).",
"Number is not a precisely defined concept. It's just a word that's sometimes used in names of different mathematical structures - \"the real numbers,\" \"the p-adic numbers,\" \"ordinal numbers,\" etc. Many of these are outside the complex numbers, but they don't contain the complex numbers either. They're just different structures that happen to be have the word \"numbers\" in their names. If you want to look at larger number systems that contain C the way C contains R, you can look at the quaternions, as /u/lorgfeflkd suggests."
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreal_number",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_number",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-adic_number",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-adic_order",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surreal_number",
"http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/sn.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_numbers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number#Classification"
]
}
|
Are there numbers outside of C? If so, is there an ensemble including every other number ensemble we know?
Just started learning about complex numbers in math class in high school, and asked my teacher if C included all the numbers we know, and she told me it doesn't, but she can't really tell me more about it. I asked the same question to my brother who's in studying math in university, and he told me the same thing. So, what are the non-complex number ensembles, and is there a number ensemble that includes all the complex and non-complex numbers?
|
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uf197
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Reading the 'fan theories' thread from a few days ago made me wonder, is there any truth to the idea of heavily traumatized or comatose people inventing alternate realities to "cope" with their state?
|
Many of the theories were based around the idea of someone being traumatized by an initial event, with an extremely intricate and complicated reality invented within the mind of the individual to cope with that trauma. Is there any scientific evidence of the human brain actually inventing extremely intricate realities to cope with trauma?
EDIT: Sweet responses guys thanks.
|
askscience
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"Well, that is one of the ideas behind [Dissociative Identity Disorder](_URL_1_) (formerly called multiple personality disorder). Another interesting dissociative disorder (dissociation simply means a split from reality) is dissociative fugue. In this condition, the sufferer will leave their current situation, often to another state or city and start a new life for a period of time. When that period is over, they'll have no recollection of what they did in that time and then go back to their old life. It's a very mysterious disorder but the idea seems to be the same as DID, when there is significant enough trauma, the brain can alter reality in a way that makes the experience manageable.\n\nRead more about dissociative disorders [here](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit: To be clear, most of the \"fan theories\" in that thread would probably have been Dissociative Identity Disorder, not Dissociative Fugue. I probably got a bit carried away explaining that because it's so fascinating and most people have heard of DID.",
"The film [Marwencol](_URL_2_) documents a relevant case:\n\n > On April 8, 2000, Mark Hogancamp was attacked outside of a bar by five men who beat him nearly to death. After nine days in a coma and forty days in the hospital, Mark was discharged with brain damage that left him little memory of his previous life.\nUnable to afford therapy, Mark creates his own by building a 1/6-scale World War II-era Belgian town in his yard and populating it with dolls representing himself, his friends, and even his attackers. He calls that town \"Marwencol,\" a portmanteau of the names \"Mark,\" \"Wendy\" and \"Colleen.\" He rehabilitates his physical wounds by manipulating the small dolls and props — and his mental ones by having the figures act out various battles and stories.",
"[Capgras syndrome](_URL_3_) is a different take on this. When certain areas of the brain are damaged, the human mind loses the ability to feel the emotions associated with familiar faces. So, for instance, you could look at your mother or child and feel nothing.\n\nPeople who have this damage usually becomes convinced that their loved ones have been replaced with doppelgangers who are almost, but not completely, identical in every way. It's the only way they can rationalize not feeling anything when they look at their family and friends.",
"The answers so far in this thread seem to be answering a different question than the one posed; neither DID or Capgras disorder really involve \"an extremely intricate and complicated reality invented within the mind of the individual\". \n\nI'm not familiar with any conditions that *do* answer to that description, but psychopathology's not my field.",
"Trauma is a pretty general term. I will attack it two ways. First there is psychological trauma. Common types of severe psychological trauma would be (very generally) sexual abuse, rape, torture, and experiencing an extremely traumatic event (seeing a partner or parent die horribly, terrorist attack). You can think of psychological trauma on two sliding scales, one that describes severity of the occurrence, one describing how often or for how long the the trauma occurs. I have not seen any research to examine which is worse, or if there exists an interaction between the two (which I would guess there is).\n\nPsychological trauma is associated with a plethora of outcome, including the current top response, DID. DID is viewed very critically by the psychological community currently. The clinical cases, if legitimate, are extremely rare and can present in a variety of ways. Diagnoses have extremely low inter-rater reliability. Now do those suffering with DID invent a complicated reality? I do not think there is anything approaching a scientific consensus on this, due to the conflux of the rarity of the disorder and the difficulty of diagnosis.\n\nTrauma can also be physical. Imagine something like a car crash or a high fall (which can be coupled with psychological trauma). In the case of physical trauma, I find it much more unlikely that there is any kind of inner experience. Here are clinical definitions of various brain states, any of which might result from a physical trauma:\n\n > **Clinical definitions**\n\n > **Brain death**\n\n > The concept of brain death as the death of the individual is largely accepted. Most countries have published recommendations for the diagnosis of brain death but the diagnostic criteria differ from country to country. Some rely on the death of the brainstem only, others require death of the whole brain including the brainstem. However, the clinical assessments for brain death are the same and require the loss of all brainstem reflexes and the demonstration of continuing apnoea in a persistently comatose patient.\n\n\n > **Coma**\n\n > Characterized by the absence of arousal and thus also of consciousness, coma is a state of unresponsiveness in which the patient lies with the eyes closed, cannot be aroused, and has no awareness of self and surroundings. Stimulation cannot produce spontaneous periods of wakefulness and eye-opening in patients in a coma, unlike patients in a vegetative state. To be clearly distinguished from syncope, concussion, or other states of transient unconsciousness, coma must persist for at least 1 h. In general, comatose patients who survive begin to awaken and recover gradually within 2–4 weeks. This recovery may not progress further than a vegetative state or minimally conscious state, or there may be brief or prolonged stages before more complete recovery of consciousness.\n\n\n > **Vegetative state**\n\n > Patients in a vegetative state are awake but are unaware of themselves or their environment. Jennett and Plum cited the Oxford English Dictionary to explain their choice of the term “vegetative”; to vegetate is to “live merely a physical life devoid of intellectual activity or social intercourse” and vegetative describes “an organic body capable of growth and development but devoid of sensation and thought”. “Persistent vegetative state” has been defined as a vegetative state remaining 1 month after acute traumatic or non-traumatic brain damage. It does not imply irreversibility. “Permanent vegetative state” is irreversible. According to the Multi-Society Task Force on Permanent Vegetative State, vegetative state may be regarded as permanent 3 months after non-traumatic brain damage or 12 months after traumatic injury. These guidelines are best applied to patients who have diffuse traumatic brain injuries and postanoxic events; outcome in other non-traumatic origins may be less well predicted and further consideration of cause and mechanism are needed in prognosis. Even after long and arbitrary delays, some exceptional patients may show limited recovery. This is more likely in patients with non-traumatic coma without cardiac arrest, who survive in vegetative state for more than 3 months. The diagnosis of vegetative state should be questioned when there is any degree of sustained visual pursuit, consistent and reproducible visual fixation, or response to threatening gestures, but these responses are observed in some patients who remain in vegetative state for years. It is essential to establish the formal absence of any sign of conscious perception or deliberate action before making the diagnosis.\n\n\n > **Minimally conscious state**\n\n > The Aspen group proposed the criteria for minimally conscious state to categorise patients who are not in a vegetative state but are unable to communicate consistently. To be minimally conscious, patients have to show limited but clear evidence of awareness of themself or their environment, on a reproducible or sustained basis, by at least one of the following behaviours: following simple commands, gestural or verbal yes/no response (regardless of accuracy), intelligible speech, purposeful behaviour (including movements or affective behaviour that take place in relation to stimuli in the environment and are not due to reflexive activity). Emergence from the minimally conscious state is defined by the ability to communicate or use objects functionally. Further improvement is more likely than in patients in a vegetative state. However, some people remain in a minimally conscious state permanently. “Akinetic mutism” is a rare state that has been described as a subcategory of the minimally conscious state, but other authors suggest that this term should be avoided.\n\nThe source included another term \"locked-in syndrome,\" which deals with movement more than mental awareness, so I did not include it. Feel free to peruse [the article I got this from](_URL_4_) if you wish. \n\nIn brain death, it seems obvious that no brain activity is occurring. Therefore, it is safe to conclude there is no created reality within the patients experience. \n\nFor a coma\n\n > When different anaesthetics are titrated to the point of unresponsiveness, the reduction in brain metabolism is similar to that in comatose patients.\n\nThis suggests to me there is no experienced reality. The author also says this is close to lowered levels of metabolic brain rate close to stage III or IV of sleep (where dreaming, if present, is rarely remembered or complex. REM sleep is where complex dreams take place, NREM dreaming is typically lacks color or complexity and is rarely recalled). All of this is proximal to making a definite conclusion of course, as consciousness and perception are notoriously difficult to study is non-responsive subjects (they can't answer questions). I am not sure how what you are asking for would present in a PET or fMRI scan.\n\nYou can check the article for further discussion of brain response levels for the other states.\n\nIt is certainly possible that an individual could create a complex reality while in a coma or a vegetative states, but extremely unlikely. I would be far more inclined to see it as a troupe of directors or writers would want to project a concept of struggle or experience on a character who otherwise would be simply dead to the world.\n\nOthers with more experience with brain functioning and conscious and unconscious states feel free to correct me if I am off in any of this. Thanks.",
"Check out the book [Altered Egos.](_URL_5_) It is written by a doctor who works with people having conditions as you describe. Very interesting.",
"Remember that comment on a thread about a guy who was knocked unconscious and felt that he had lived over a decade during that time? He had a family and kids and had no idea they weren't real until one day he noticed a lamp didn't look right. He stared at it and thought about it until he realized his life wasn't real. He woke up and only a few minutes had passed. He was severely depressed over the loss of his wife and kids."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_disorder",
"http://www.behavenet.com/dissociative-identity-disorder",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marwencol",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capgras_delusion",
"http://www.mdconsult.com/das/article/body/337432792-2/jorg=journal&source=&sp=14966657&sid=0/N/433767/1.html?issn=14744422&_returnURL=http%3A//linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S147444220400852X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue",
"http://www.amazon.com/Altered-Egos-Brain-Creates-Self/dp/019513625X"
]
}
|
Reading the 'fan theories' thread from a few days ago made me wonder, is there any truth to the idea of heavily traumatized or comatose people inventing alternate realities to "cope" with their state?
Many of the theories were based around the idea of someone being traumatized by an initial event, with an extremely intricate and complicated reality invented within the mind of the individual to cope with that trauma. Is there any scientific evidence of the human brain actually inventing extremely intricate realities to cope with trauma? EDIT: Sweet responses guys thanks.
|
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24qqny
|
Does telling a child that they have to finish all their food, even if they're full, predispose them to being overweight or obese?
|
I feel like so many parents are always telling their children "One more bite before you can leave the table" or something along those lines. I'm not talking about finishing your vegetables, but just food (even an unhealthy dinner). The thought process seems to be that they think their child isn't eating enough to grow. But as adults, we're always told to eat until we're full. So why do we teach our children they're doing a good job if they eat past satiety; won't they naturally eat enough food to support their own growth?
|
askscience
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{
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"text": [
"A polite reminder - no personal anecdotes in /r/askscience please.",
"Let me answer from a psychotherapeutical standpoint, maybe this will answer your question. I would not say that telling a child something like that predisposes obesity only. All Eating disorders have in common that the meals and eating behaviour is accompanied by a family struggle. For example, that the parents tell the child to eat less or to eat more.\nExample study: [Early Childhood Eating Behaviors and Adolescent Eating Disorders](_URL_0_)\n\nYour question is in fact a very complex one that cannot be answered just with a few sentences. To tell a child once to finish a meal isn't a bad thing. Is mealtime always a struggle between the parents and the child, than it could be a risk factor for developing an eating disorder.",
"> The thought process seems to be that they think their child isn't eating enough to grow.\n\nEh... I'd challenge that. It's a good and fair question, and I'd like to know as well, but one reason I tell my kids to finish their meal is because I'm damn sick of them telling me they're hungry ten minutes after dinner.",
"The current theory being taught in nutrition classes is based on the \"division of responsibility\" theory by Ellyn Satter. This states that children naturally develop their own relationships with food, hunger, and fullness over time and the parents need to recognize their roles in feeding vs the child's. As infants and young children parents are to provide what kind of food and a variety that they feel comfortable with their child eating and the child will choose which of the options and how much they will eat. Naturally developing a sense of satiety is very important to prevent the over eating that then has to be corrected as adults. Schedules can make this more difficult for many people and the urge to make your child eat all their vegetables is very strong with most parents, but if your child is hungry for more pasta and not more broccoli then that is what their body wants.",
"To answer your question frankly...no. Kids today won't naturally eat enough nutrient rich food unless encouraged/told to do so. The \"growth\" would be the decidedly unhealthy kind. \n\nI know a major study on dietary factors for childhood obesity. It's behind a paywall but the abstract is below. \nThe gist of the study is that low-quality food should be restricted and plant based food should be encouraged. From what I've seen, most struggles over \"finish what's on your plate\" have to do with finishing the broccoli. \n\nIt's entirely plausible that kids need to develop a taste for fruits and vegetables. So if you give a kid some pees and pasta then come back a few minutes later to find the pasta gone and the pees untouched, and the kid feels full, what's the best course of action? An argument can be made (see below) that finishing the pees should be \"encouraged.\" \n\nfrom: _URL_1_\nPreferential intake of slowly absorbed carbohydrates and limiting the ingestion of rapidly absorbed carbohydrates and simple sugars should be promoted. No specific recommendations for macronutrient intakes to prevent obesity can be made. Plant foods can be used as the main food contributors to a well-balanced diet with adequate monitoring of nutrient intake. Plain water should be promoted as the main source of fluids for children instead of sugar-sweetened beverages. Children should eat at least 4 meals, including breakfast, every day. Regular family meals should be encouraged. Regular consumption of fast food with large portion sizes and high energy density should be avoided. Healthy food options should be promoted for snacking. Food portion sizes should be appropriate for age and body size. Nutrition and lifestyle education aimed at the prevention of obesity should be included in the routine care of children by health care professionals.",
"If i could piggy back on your question, it would be interesting if anyone had information on the depending viewpoints. If the child is instructed to finish all their food due to being in a less fortunate household where food is of high importance, is it the same as a child in a household where he is given the same instruction, but for nutritional or even 'just because' reasoning?"
],
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890856709651170",
"http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Abstract/2011/06000/Role_of_Dietary_Factors_and_Food_Habits_in_the.5.aspx"
]
}
|
Does telling a child that they have to finish all their food, even if they're full, predispose them to being overweight or obese?
I feel like so many parents are always telling their children "One more bite before you can leave the table" or something along those lines. I'm not talking about finishing your vegetables, but just food (even an unhealthy dinner). The thought process seems to be that they think their child isn't eating enough to grow. But as adults, we're always told to eat until we're full. So why do we teach our children they're doing a good job if they eat past satiety; won't they naturally eat enough food to support their own growth?
|
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440dpk
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Let's say I put a steel beam 1000 feet in the air above the earth, and this beam goes all the way around the world until it comes back and connects with it's original point, making a perfect circle. Assuming there is no support structure, would this steel beam levitate above the earth?
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Hopefully this is the right sub for this!
|
askscience
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"It would be an unstable system, like a ball perched on top of a saddle. You can in theory balance it perfectly, but any minuscule sideways perturbation would push the system off balance.",
"This same problem turns out to be one of the flaws in Larry Niven's science fiction novel *Ringworld*.\n\nLet's imagine the Earth is a perfect sphere (since with only 1000 ft in the air and a perfect circle in your original question, that seems to be what you're imagining). It turns out that if you put a ring of material around the Earth like that, that situation would be unstable. At the slightest perturbation pushing any spot towards or from the center of the Earth, the ring would come crashing to the Earth.\n\nIn *Ringworld*, Niven had an \"alien megastructure,\" as I guess we're calling these things today, a giant ring that had been constructed around a star, with a radius around the size of the Earth-Sun distance. As people pointed out after the novel was published, this situation is unstable (if you push the ring up or down out of the plane of its orbit, it will bounce back, but a sideways push or pull will lead the ring to crash into the star). Niven ultimately wrote a sequel to address this, in which he writes that there are jets on the ring world to keep it in position against this gravitational instability.\n\nEdit: Typo fixed.",
"In the **spirit** of your question, yes, the beam would effectively levitate given that situation. Gravity would act on all sides equally keeping it in a suspension above the ground (which would be awesome)\n\nIt would, however, be in **unstable equilibrium**. A small bump would easily knock it \"out of sync\".\n\nThe earth is bumpy (non-equal distribution of gravity), windy (couldn't set up the initial condition), and has other limiting factors.",
"For one thing the earth is not perfectly flat, so you couldn't have a \"perfect circle\" which was 1,000 feet in the air the whole way around it. You could instead say a perfect circle which is 1,000 ft above the highest point of the earth, or something like that. \n \nNow let's say we had that perfect circle around the earth. The first problem is that steel is compressible, like a spring. The difference in circumference of the steel sphere and the earth is only about .005% by my math. So if the steel was unstressed it would simply crash to earth, compressing slightly in the process. The next issue I see is thermal expansion. Steel expands and contracts as temperature changes. By my math a change of temperature of say 10 degrees over a length of 250 miles or so would be enough to shrink the ring so that it was on the surface of the earth.\n \nIf you could put the ring in compression and account for temperature you would still have the problem that steel would be unstable. Imagine if you had a piece of metal from a coat hanger. It's probably pretty stiff. You could push on it from from both ends and nothing much would happen. Now imagine if that piece of wire stretched all the way down the block and you tried to push on the end. At that point it would flop around like a noodle. It doesn't have stiffness to support itself at those distances. It's the same thing with the steel ring, it would be inherently unstable and would just warp and bend until it collapsed onto the ground.\n \nSo in short you couldn't make a floating ring above the earth that easily. It would take a lot more work.",
"There are some excellent answers here. I have a thing that hasn't been said (sorry if it has). It is a less likely and thus less significant problem, but worth mentioning for shits just in case the beam is perfectly balanced in every other way.\n\nAs most will remember, gravitational force is dependent on the distance between centre of mass of the two bodies involved. Halve the distance, you quadruple the gravitational force (inverse square law). \n\nWe can imagine a perfectly rigid beam, otherwise as described, going over the north and south poles. Think of there being a centre of mass in every 1 metre length of the beam. \nA frosty burst helium balloon falls from the sky and lands on the beam directly above the north pole. The beam moves a miniscule amount south. The north half will now be closer to the earth and have a stronger gravitational pull on it than the south half, due to the inverse square law explained above. This increased force on the north half, along with the decreased force on the south half will offset the beam further, increasing the southerly force on the beam. As time passes the force will continue to increase as will the beam's acceleration south, in the direction of the centre of the earth Earth. \n\nFrom here I imagine the beam would collide with Earth on the north pole bounce back up a few times and eventually stick to the north pole. Given imperfections on the earth or beam it may even eventually do a hulahoop if we're lucky, causing tsunamis galore and squeezing every toothpaste tube in its path to the very last splurge.\n\nIf the beam weren't rigid one would simply see a buckling all over the shop as it crashes to the ground underneath. \nCan we use Methryl or a string of Chuck Norris cocks? \n\nEdit: phrasing",
"In addition to the instabilities discussed, unless this ring is unimaginably thick, or far stiffer than any material we are aware of, it would buckle locally in random locations under its own weight due to any perturbation that occurs.",
"The Ringworld problem has nothing to do with this problem at all. The Ringworld is unstable due to the nature of orbits and stress in a ring. The Ringworld is under stress from stretching. That tension is only temporarily stable. its problem is orbital vibrations that rip it apart.\n\nThe hypothetical 1000' high metal beam is not possible because the beam has to support itself through internal stress holding the entire beam. It is under compression. The entire mass of the beam is under longitudinal stress within the beam as g times the entire mass. Its zillions of tons. Under that stress the beam would flop down and bend to the ground every half mile or so.",
"Do I understand the question correctly?\n\n > We have a steel ring around the earth, which is bigger than the earth itself, therefore floating\n\nCorrect?\n\nAssuming it is correct, then yes: **it could**.\n\n**However**, if one point of the ring comes closer to the center than any other point of the ring (meaning: it moved), then it would never find its balance again, simply because gravity gets disproportionately weaker (/stronger) as an object gets further away from (/closer to) the center of gravity. The point closer to earth would be pulled down stronger than the point on the opposite side of the ring (assuming the ring stays in perfect shape).\n\nTherefore, once the ring moves, it will keep moving in that direction until it hits the earth. \n\nGiven that the earth is not a perfect sphere (varying gravity, at different places), and that there is an unstable atmosphere, and that the particles the ring is made out of themselves vibrate, and many other reasons, **your practical answer is no:** it would be like balancing a perfectly sharpened pencil on its tip; even if you did get the balance, circumstances would tip it over eventually, without exception.",
"Theoretically, if it had insanely high compressive strength, it were perfectly machined, the Earth were perfectly round, and it were perfectly centered around the center of the Earth, then yes it could. However, as soon as the slightest breeze pushed it any distance off center, it would unbalance and one side of it would \"fall\" toward the Earth.\nIf it were made of any real material, it wouldn't be able to withstand its own weight and it would collapse before balance even became an issue.",
"What if it was 10,000-50,000-100,000 feet high? Is there a height in which it would become stable due to the lower gravity and or less effects from the wind and earth? And what if the ring was spinning on its on axis effectively giving it momentum?",
"Gravity doesn't pull at with the exact same force at every point on earth. So it would be impossible to suspend it in a position where Earths gravity pulls evenly across the whole. Especially given the fact that the earth wobbles due the North-South axis \"tracking\" a circle above Earth.",
"Well if the world was perfect. Yes. But because earth's gravity is not the same everywhere on earth, some places would pull the steel beam more than others. It would be incredibly unstable and would fall in some way.",
"It might be more feasible if the ring was spinning really fast so as to negate some of the affect of gravity and anything else that might move the ring. \n\nMy question would be how fast would a ring that size have to be moving so as to virtually not be affected by gravity?",
"The beam would collapse and fail with many different failure modes.\n\nFirst of all, let's just assume they we took a beam between two steel walls. Let's weld the beam completely around the perimeter of the face touching each wall. Let's place the walls 10 ft apart.. Now 30.. Now 100.., we couldn't even get that far really. The beam would collapse and bend towards the middle, even if it the walls held it perfectly at a height.\n\nThe problem is a beam at a constant height above the the Earth is NOT like an arch, as it is parallel to the Earths surface. It is more like a string than a beam. And eventually the string will be so heavy that it will not be able to support its own weight. In order for an arch to work it has to be in compression. This beam would be perfectly balanced. It would not be in compression at the onset.\n\nLet's assume that we ignore that phenomenon, and that it is arch-like. As the beam begins to fall (assuming it falls uniformly), it would try to compress itself to resolve this issue. So after that, it would then be arch-like I suppose, but it wouldn't last long. It would buckle in a heartbeat. It would have enough force to excite about a gazillion (actual unit) different bucking failure modes.\n\nImagine a piece of dried spaghetti of average length. It can stand on end. Now imagine one 1000 times as long. Try standing it in its end. It wouldn't stand a chance. It would simply buckle under its own weight.",
"Short answer: No\n\nGravity will be pulling down at all points. You could imagine it as circle trying to shrink. Steel, even though its pretty strong, will give in to compression forces and break. This is assuming earth is a perfect sphere and the beam creates a perfect circle. I can attempt to put together an excel chart or something should it be requested. \n\nEdit: If the circle was spinning creating a centripetal force opposing the downward force, then I think it would be possible. Assumptions being made again though, the air friction would slow it down until it stops.",
"I can imagine this quickly becoming unstable without some sort of support mechanism. If it's in orbit around the planet, say we stick it in LEO so we don't have to worry about the atmosphere affecting it much. We still have the problem of the Earth's movement throwing this whole system out of alignment. With something placed so precariously in orbit, any small unbalancing forces will quickly become exaggerated. \n \n \nThe movement of the Earth around the sun would cause the trailing edge of the ring to become curved more heavily than the leading edge. And conversely, the leading edge would become flattened leading to bulges on either side of the flattened part. These small stresses alone, when applied to something spinning at near orbital velocities would quickly tear the steel beam to pieces. This hasn't even taken into account the movement of the Earth and moon orbiting around the barycenter of the Earth-Moon system. This movement far exceeds the movements of the Earth around the sun, and would quickly cause the steel beam to collapse back to the surface, briefly behaving like an Earth-sized hula hoop before breaking apart. \n \n \nNo matter how you spin it, we do not possess the technology or material science to produce anything that is capable of handling the forces and stresses an object of this design would have to bear in order to remain in position.",
"The problem is actually quite simple to analyse - it's the opposite of a pressure vessel, where hydrostatic pressure pushing out radially results in pure tension in the skin of the vessel. Here you have the force due to gravity acting radially inwards causing compression.\nIf you cut this system in two, leaving a semicircle the width of the earth (plus 2000') the equilibrium on this half hoop system is the total weight being reacted at 2 points where you cut it. Like an arch the width of the earth. \nThere is no material that could sustain that load. It would collapse very quickly. \nIf it were spinning very fast it could, in theory, balance the weight, but the speed may be too fast to be possible without some complex non Newtonian behaviour, or air resistance would cause it to melt.\nAs regards where it would collapse, the earth's magnetic field, and gravitational field is uneven so it would have a weak point. Once one bit goes the eccentricities cause the rest to fail. It would end up looking like a tangled mess on the ground. \nYou should try it though. Sounds fun.",
"Semi-related question: say you were able to construct such a ring around a black hole and were able to keep it stable (e.g. using rockets). What if you captured an asteroid and hurled it at the black hole towing a line, with the line connected to a generator on the ring? And to cancel out uneven forces from the line \"pulling\" at the ring, say we hurl two asteroids of equal mass toward the hole, from opposite sides of the ring.\n\nCould such a setup be used to generate enormous quantities of power? If so, where does that energy \"come from\"?",
"Interestingly, even in an ideal situation (earth perfectly round, evenly distributed gravity and such. The beam would only rest at that location for an instant. Since the earth is traveling around the sun in a curvilinear path (not straight path) and the beam is essentially not attached to the earth (at that instant) due to balanced forces, the beam will try to drift away from the earth by continuing on in a straight path. Then this would upset the equilibrium and you get situations others have described here.",
"No. First, a 1000 feet is scarcely high enough to clear the highest features and the Earth is not spherical, and so your hypothetical is NG. But worse than that is that gravity and magnetism vary with position making a balance impossible to find, given that the rotational period of Earth and this structure will not likely be identical as perturbed by atmospheric differences in temperature and wind speed and direction.",
"No.\nGravity would pull \"inwards\" and crush your ring. If we imagine a ring that's made from some sort of indestructible material, tiny changes in gravity around the planet (more mass wherever a mountain can be found) would destroy the balance of the ring and have it violently hula-hooping around the planet and crush everything.",
"Bear in mind the earth is not perfectly round - it's somewhat flattened, a little pear-shaped, and gravity in different areas of the earth is a hair stronger in some regions, a hair weaker in other regions. That makes balancing this hypothetical steel beam so it hangs in place virtually impossible - something's going to throw it off balance, and cause it to collapse.\n\nThat and steel is not infinitely strong. The forces, added up over thousands of miles of beam over thousands of miles of earth, may make the beam bend like a wet noodle.",
"What you describe as \"levitation\" is an orbit where the object has the same orbital period as earth itself so it would always seem to be at the same position in reference to earth. This is what is called a geostationary orbit. But the altitude of GSTO is about 35000-40000 km. The required speed to orbit at 330 m a.s.l. is massive, around 8 km/s while the surface underneath moves at around 1.5 km/s.",
"In theory, yes it would 'levitate' due to equal forces on all sides. But you're assuming that earth is a perfect circle, has equal gravity everywhere and we have material *that* strong. Mountains, and shape irregularities would make this impossible. Lateral irregularities would make it buckle, spin and demolish itself.",
"Well conceptually it really depends where the hoop is is running from pole to pole or long equator it might behave like a hula hoop around the earth oscillating and gripping at different points never quite reaching an equilibrium"
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Let's say I put a steel beam 1000 feet in the air above the earth, and this beam goes all the way around the world until it comes back and connects with it's original point, making a perfect circle. Assuming there is no support structure, would this steel beam levitate above the earth?
Hopefully this is the right sub for this!
|
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|
4pgd5k
|
Science AMA Series: Hi, I’m Dr. Kerry Assil, Eye Surgeon For The LA Kings And Founder Of The Assil Eye Institute, AMA!
|
Hi reddit!
I’m an [eye surgeon](_URL_0_), [researcher](_URL_1_) and lecturer who has worked with the LA Lakers, Kings, numerous other Gold-metal athletes and A-list celebrities.
I have spent the last 20+ years of my career working with the most advanced and cutting edge technologies to improve vision and eye health. I know what works, what doesn’t, the newest implantable lenses, the biggest myths & fears of so many Americans that may be avoided, if they only had the right information.
June is Cataract Awareness Month and it’s always been associated as a grandma’s issue – well, no longer. Cataracts are now affects Americans as young as their late 40s and 50s!
**I’ll be back at 3:30 pm EST (12:30 pm PST, 8:30 pm UTC) to answer your questions, ask me anything!**
**Thank you all for the amazing questions and discussions, this was a great experience! I would love to stick around and answer every question but I have to head out to catch a flight! **
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"What does it mean to be an eye surgeon for a sports team? What are your responsibilities with them?",
"What's your opinion on LASIK/PRK surgery? Are there still reservations about long-term side effects, or should they be considered safe?",
"Hi Dr Kerry assil\nI'm a 16 year old with glaucoma and am more or less blind in my right eye. My question is has glaucoma become more prevalent in the modern age especially amongst people as young as me and can it be partially blamed on increased use of electronics such as smart phones?",
"If you had significant myopia like me, -9 and -5 in the right and left eye with astigmatism, would you consider LASIK for yourself? Why or why not?\n\nAlso, as the eye elongates from myopia, is it possible that the eyelid can no longer close comfortably on itself?",
"What do you believe will be the next big thing in eye surgery?",
"Hi Dr. Assil, it does seem that [more cataract surgeries are happening](_URL_0_), but I wonder if that's because eye care is becoming more common (and possibly more sensitive in detection of cataract issues) or because there is increasing incidence of disease? If you believe there is increased incidence of disease, what conditions do you think are underlying this trend?",
"What are your thoughts on the safety and efficacy of vitrectomy for floaters and where do you see floater treatment options going in the future?",
"My coworkers and I have an ongoing debate: is there any medical reason to recommend PRK over LASIK, other than overly dry eyes disqualifying someone for LASIK? The PRK advocates talk about things like maintaining structural integrity of the cornea. The LASIK advocates don't see why you would sign up for a week of pain instead of a day.",
"First off, thank you for what you do. I was born with amblyopia and if it wasn't for my parents and a few special doctors, I wouldn't see the way I do today. I started wearing glasses when I was 2. They put a patch over my good eye by the age of 3 and I wore it until I was about 9. There was a surgery done when I was 5 to cut a muscle in my eye to keep it from turning out. Unfortunately, that eye doctor had me continue to wear the glasses that were designed to pull my eye in, so my eye eventually started turning in rather than out. That was a military optometrist because my father was in the Navy. My father was transferred to Montana for recruiting duty, where I met a new optometrist who put a prism over my bad eye. Within a few short months my eye straightened out and now it only turns in if I'm really tired. I eventually joined the Army myself. Before I got out, they gave me Lasik surgery. I had that surgery when I was 22. I'm 37 now and I still do not require corrective lenses. So again, thank you for what you do. Optometrists made a huge difference in my life. :)",
"Do you think digital displays such as phones and TV's are a major factor when it comes to short/long sightedness? if so, why? \n\nFurther to that, is reading text on a screen different to reading a book when it comes to correlations/causation a of again short/long sightedness?",
"Hi, Dr. Assil!\n\nI suffer from severe keratoconus in both eyes. With a combination of corneal cross-linking and Visian ICLs, my doctor was able to stabilize my condition and restore most of my vision. However, I still need to wear glasses for astigmatic correction.\n\nI was wondering if you knew of any ongoing research & development into toric ICLs? My doctor told me (back in 2012) that there was no significant progress on that front, but I'm wondering if that has changed and what we might see in the future.",
"Hey Dr. Assil! Sometime in the future I may need cross-linking done on my eyes due to an eye condition called keratoconus. If I have this procedure done, is it possible to still have LASIK done? Will there be a technology in the future that will provide cross-linking and LASIK eye correction at the same time?",
"You say that cataracts affect more younger people now.. what are the top things one can do to prevent cataracts from forming?",
"Which microscope do you use, Leica or Zeiss?",
"Hi Doc! Thanks for doing this AMA. I have really bad floaters (some clear, but also a lot of a grey curtain-like areas). I'm only 24 and I feel like this should not be happening this early! They are very distracting and I honestly feel impaired. Every ophthalmologist/optometrist I have seen say everything is fine and I have no options. Just something I have to live with. It's almost like they are laughing at me at times and not taking me seriously.\n\nIs there anything I can do? Thanks again!",
"Hello, I am a Techfor an Eye Surgeon. I was wondering, is the multi focal lens worth spending money out of pocket (since insurances don't cover these lenses due to them being a \"cosmetic\" choice, they cover regular lenses but we push for MF) for our older patients? I mean, they aren't too far away from passing and spending 5K of their own money seems a bit outrageous in my opinion.",
"Is there anyway to prevent floaters from forming in your eyes? Can it be caused by looking at screens for too long? Is there any way to prevent floaters or make them go away aside from surgery?\n\nThanks for doing this AMA!",
"In your opinion, what are the most exciting advances in the field? Are there any future technologies or procedures that you're excited about?",
"So did you do a botched job on Dustin Brown, which caused [this](_URL_1_) to happen?",
"Hey, Dr. Assil. I really appreciate your taking the time to answer these questions and educate us on reddit.\n\nHave you heard of [scleral buckling](_URL_3_) as a preventative treatment for pathological myopia? I've read a few promising things about it on the internet, but my physician tells me it's bunk. Do you think there's any merit in scleral buckling for pathological myopes?\n\nAlso, I've been seeing exciting news on stem cell treatments to [restore vision lost from wet AMD](_URL_4_). Are these claims for real? How close do you reckon we are to seeing these treatments in clinics everywhere just like Avastin or Lucentis?\n\nLastly, I wanted to ask what a pathological myope can do to slow down progression and prevent CNVs? Do you think an [anti-angiogenic diet or lifestyle](_URL_4_) could help?",
"Hi Dr. Assil,\n\nHave you done any work with MGD? Using a variety of home and in office treatments prescribed by my eye doctor (Korb), my eyes aren't constantly bothering me like they were a year ago, but my dry eye is still very very significant, and I can barely wear contacts. I previously wore contacts without a problem for 10 years (and my vision is pretty bad--around -5.00 in both eyes). \n\nWhat are you thoughts on MGD patients getting LASIK? It doesn't seem like there is a ton of research on whether it has been shown to improve or worsen MGD symptoms. Would love to hear your thoughts.",
"Hey, doc! Thanks for doing this AMA.\n\nI'm a Type 1 diabetic, retinopathy issues. I've got a bleed in my right eye that's occluding my vision, and my left is blurry all the time, even after two vitrectomies(sp?) and multiple retinal laser treatments. \n\nKind of at a loss, no clue what I can do outside of keeping my blood sugar under control (which is going well), exercising and eating right. \n\nAre there modern therapies/treatments I should pursue so that I don't continue to slowly go blind?",
"Eye doctors like to advertise their connections with sports teams but people should know that most athletes have mild to moderate amounts of refractive error which the laser machine has an easy time correcting. It is the highly myopic people that take the most skill to properly correct. I would be much more impressed by a lasik surgeon who advertised themselves as the eye doctor for the national chess team.",
"Do you think visors should be a mandatory piece of equipment in the NHL? You hear about the league stepping up on player safety, and yet there are still some horrifying eye injuries. Marc Staal being the example that come to my mind.",
"What, if any, experience do you have with Retinitis Pigmentosa? Any suggestions for treatment (right now it's \"eat 15,000IU of vit. A palmitate, fish oils, vitamin b, Tumeric Curcumen, etc\" - as in only micro nutrients can slow it down)?",
"Thank you so much for doing this AMA.\nI'm currently a high school student looking at potential careers. What path do you recommend to become an eye surgeon? ( In terms of education and extracurriculars.) Thank you!",
"Hello Dr Assil I'm an undergraduate looking to go into that particular field. What did you education path look like past medical school and what should i be looking for residency wise.",
"Do you think enhancing vision for athletes should be considered performance enhancing and, if not, then how do you define the difference between surgical alteration and steroid enhancement?",
"Not a specific eye question, but what is your opinion on using HGh to accelerate the healing process after an eye surgery or any surgery for that matter?",
"1) What gauge surgery do you favor: 20g, 25ga, 23ga or smaller? \n\n2) Do you see a pharmaceutical option being pioneered that will replace surgery, like Avastin/Lucentis",
"What symptoms do you feel people should be keeping an eye out for in their vision that indicates a serious problem?",
"Are contacts bad for your eyes? \n\nAnd if so... How?\n\np.s. Sorry if this was already asked",
"Hi Dr, are there any surgery options available for presbyopia yet?",
"Can you change being very dominant in one eye?"
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"url": [
"https://www.assileye.com/eye-center/ophthalmologists/kerry-assil-md/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26345628"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.jcrsjournal.org/article/S0886-3350%2813%2900509-9/abstract",
"http://a.espncdn.com/photo/2011/1126/life_e_photo13.jpg",
"http://www.moorfields.nhs.uk/news/new-trial-wet-amd",
"http://www.retinalphysician.com/articleviewer.aspx?articleID=113743",
"http://www.angio.org/"
]
}
|
Science AMA Series: Hi, I’m Dr. Kerry Assil, Eye Surgeon For The LA Kings And Founder Of The Assil Eye Institute, AMA!
Hi reddit! I’m an [eye surgeon](_URL_0_), [researcher](_URL_1_) and lecturer who has worked with the LA Lakers, Kings, numerous other Gold-metal athletes and A-list celebrities. I have spent the last 20+ years of my career working with the most advanced and cutting edge technologies to improve vision and eye health. I know what works, what doesn’t, the newest implantable lenses, the biggest myths & fears of so many Americans that may be avoided, if they only had the right information. June is Cataract Awareness Month and it’s always been associated as a grandma’s issue – well, no longer. Cataracts are now affects Americans as young as their late 40s and 50s! **I’ll be back at 3:30 pm EST (12:30 pm PST, 8:30 pm UTC) to answer your questions, ask me anything!** **Thank you all for the amazing questions and discussions, this was a great experience! I would love to stick around and answer every question but I have to head out to catch a flight! **
|
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|
njyc9
|
Do face moisturizers really help to keep me young looking? I don't trust the "clinical trials" that the manufacturers mention in their ads.
|
I feel like I should moisturize the left half of my face for the next 10 years, leaving the right side as a control. But I am hoping that some real research has already been done?
I am a 39 year old male.
Edit: Are there any ingredients that I should look for, or avoid? What about sun block?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"All moisturisers are essentially grease for your face which will smooth over roughness or wrinkles. Your skin will stay the same underneath and there's nothing you can do (short of cosmetic surgery) to change that.\n\nAs for any other ingredients, they're mostly there for product differentiation. If there were too much of a real effect on you, they'd be medicines, not cosmetics. Read this lovely [Ben Goldacre](_URL_0_) article about the cosmetics industry and their quandries about 'studies'.",
"Sun block is probably your best bet. But it won't make you look young, it will just keep your skin from looking prematurely old. Here's an article: _URL_1_\n\nOne important point it makes is that 80% of sun-damage to skin happens by age 18, so using sun block late in the game will of course not have as strong of an effect.",
"I'm not sure about all of them, but I know any of them saying they have collagen in them are basically bullshit. Collagen is too big to fit into our pores so it's ineffective. Imagine trying to cram a marble down your urethra.",
"It is supposed to keep in moisture by making sure water stays in your cuticle. Different moisturizers do different things--for example, if you have a ceramide, it is supposed to act as a signaling lipid. (_URL_3_) As you age or are exposed to environmental toxins (such as nuclear stuff), you lose the ability to produce ceramides. Synthetic ceramides act as a good lipid to trap moisture in.\n\nIn some fancy facial moisturizers, there's hydrolauronic acid, which is supposed to make your skin moisturized and act as a humectant. It also has some wound healing properties. _URL_2_\n\nOther moisturizers might have retinoids to help fade scars (but can be drying), beta-hydroxyacids (such as salicylic), or alpha-hydroxy-acids (such as glycolic, lactic, etc.) that can help fade wrinkles or prevent wrinkles by chemical exfoliation. Invigoration is basically a way to encourage youthfulness. Some have caffeine, which helps reduce inflammation and can help you have a more even complexion. \nThere are things in a lot of cosmetics that are supposed to help give you a temporary fix, but really, results are only visible after a sustained time.\n\nSo basically, it depends on what you're looking for. They can help improve the texture of your skin (at least as a temporary fix) which can look younger (compare an acne-ridden teen to a model--the model with airbrushed skin looks healthier and younger than the teen with acne scars).\n\nAs for sunscreen, that can help prevent wrinkles, but there are some controversial ingredients (such as avobenzone). Some studies suggest that avobenzone can degrade into benzene, so people like the studies for safe cosmetics try to avoid them. I've read other studies that suggest titanium dioxide nanoparticles can cause acne, but I'm not sure if those studies are necessarily verifiable. \n\nAs for what to look for, it depends on your needs: are you allergic to fragrance, acne-prone, do you have dry skin or oily skin, do you have scars or uneven skin-tone, do you live in a windy climate, etc. Cosmetics or cosmeceuticals can be powerful to help your appearance if you know what you want to target.",
"Sunblock is a must. You can usually find a moisturizer with sunblock in it , two birds one stone kinda thing. I like Olay hypo allergenic fragrance free moisturizer it has 15 spf in it. 30 spf is ideal......but I'm a lady and also wear make up with SPF as well. \nDisclaimer: You should have thought about this like 25 years ago. So now you are going to be dealing with damage control.",
"I wouldn't trust anything that's written on the labels of most cosmetic products. I helped design for a campaign for safe cosmetics earlier this year and did a lot of research on this topic. I posted this in another askscience thread that the FDA does not regulate the safety of cosmetics or its labeling process very well, and they often contain a lot of harmful chemicals and suspected carcinogens. Just because a product claims to be \"all-natural\", \"organic\", or \"hypoallergenic\" does not mean it is safe. \n\nSource:\n_URL_6_\n\nSome ingredients to avoid:\n\n* **Synthetic Fragrances**: Found in almost any product to give a pleasant smell or cover a bad one. Should be avoided because almost any ingredient can be hidden behind the word \"fragrance\" or \"parfum\", ingredients used can cause allergies, cancers, endocrine disruption, and attacks on the nervous system.\n\n* **All Parabens (ethyl, butyl, methyl, propyl)**: Found in products containing water/oil and make-up, which are estrogen-mimicking preservatives to give products a longer shelf life. Should be avoided because parabens builds up in your body and can disrupt the endocrine system and cause reproductive and developmental disorders.\n\n* **Formaldehyde**: Found in moisturizers, sunscreens, cleansers, shampoos, foundation, used as a preservative and germicide to inhibit bacterial growth. Should be avoided because formaldehyde is a known carcinogen that is a immune system and respiratory toxicant, can cause allergic reactions and contact dermatitis. \n\n* **Petroleum**: Found in facial cleansers, moisturizers, soap, sunscreens used as a cheap industrial grease component to seal in moisture. Should be avoided because it slows down skin function and cell-development, can cause premature aging, clogs pores, and interferes with the skin's ability to eliminate toxins. \n\n* **Propylene Glycol**: Found in lotions, cleansers, emulsifiers, skin conditioners, listed as PPG/PEG, which is an \"industrial anti-freeze\" used for a penetration enhancing effect. Should be avoided because it's a known neurotoxin which penetrates below the skin into the bloodstream, can cause contact dermatitis, dry skin, and skin rashes.\n\n[Source from the Environmental Working Group](_URL_5_)\n\nFor a full list of ingredients and impurities concerns regarding anti-aging creams and moisturizers, the EWG has a [cosmetic database](_URL_4_).",
"As with anything, an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Proper hydration, getting enough sleep, reduction in stress, protecting against external damage (SPF), and not smoking will help prevent some new wrinkles from forming. It wont halt aging all together; If you don't die before it happens, you will get old and your skin will lose its elasticity and you're going to have wrinkles. \n\nThe [Boots study](_URL_8_) (which was one of the most brilliant marketing ploys ever, IMO) only got the press it did by being conducted in such a way the results could be verified. As Boots themselves say though: the same ingredients in their serum are found in other cosmetics and those products may be just as effective. Additionally, from [the study](_URL_9_) \" these studies provide evidence that use of an over-the-counter cosmetic ‘anti-ageing’ product is able to induce clinically identifiable improvement in the **appearance** of facial wrinkles following long-term use.\"(emphasis mine) \n\nThe claims of the cosmetics industry are very carefully worded \"reducing the *appearance* of wrinkles\", but not in actually reducing the wrinkles themselves. There have been studies published which have proved [idebenone](_URL_10_) and [tretinoin](_URL_7_) as much more effective in treating the effects of aging than any OTC cosmetic moisturizer. Tretinoin is only available through a prescription and is more commonly used to treat acne. \n\nI have sensitive skin, so I use a sensitive-skin moisturizer with SPF once a day. No harsh chemicals, no perfumes, just enough to help keep my skin from drying out and protect from the sun.",
"Generally products that are clinically proven to prevent ageing contain some sunblock. It is the sunblock that allows them to make that claim."
],
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"url": []
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://www.badscience.net/2007/05/410/",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1196/annals.1354.044/full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyaluronan",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramide",
"http://www.ewg.org/skindeep/browse/anti-aging/",
"http://www.ewg.org/skindeep/top-tips-for-safer-products/#your_skin",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=how-safe-are-cosmetics",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17166212",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/apr/28/boots-protect-perfect-anti-wrinkle-cream",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09216.x/full",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2005.00305.x/abstract"
]
}
|
Do face moisturizers really help to keep me young looking? I don't trust the "clinical trials" that the manufacturers mention in their ads.
I feel like I should moisturize the left half of my face for the next 10 years, leaving the right side as a control. But I am hoping that some real research has already been done? I am a 39 year old male. Edit: Are there any ingredients that I should look for, or avoid? What about sun block?
|
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4mi4y0
|
If an isolated system reach a microstate where it has a macroscopic velocity, doesn't it violate the law of conservation of energy?
|
I know this is very, very, very unlikely edge case, but let's say that an isolated system, with an incredible luck, reach a microstate where the direction of their microscopic speed synchronise, in such a way that the system has a macroscopic speed. This mean we have a ΔE=ΔEc (ΔU=0 and ΔEp=0 too), yet the system is isolated so it should have a ΔE=W+Q=0. I was wondering where the mistake was in my reasonning.
|
askscience
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"The mistake in your reasoning is in the process from going from a stationary system to your edge case. That macrostate can never happen, for fundamental (not probabilistic) reasons. Consider the macroscopic system as simply a gas of particles. For simplicity, we can just think of the case where all the particles have the same mass (but this argument can easily be extended for the different masses case by considering momentum conservation). Initially, there is 0 average velocity in this mess of randomly-moving particles. Now say your desired incredibly lucky state has all the particles moving in the +x direction. Do you see why there cannot be any series of collisions that takes you to this state? At the beginning, half the particles will have a negative x-velocity. To make one of these particles get a positive x-velocity, another particle has to collide with it and lose some of its own positive x-velocity. So we can never make all of the particles have positive x-velocity! The same is true in the other dimensions.\n\nHere's a cute and more intuitive proof if we just considered elastic collisions: in this case, all collisions are time-symmetric. So, we can simply start with your end case of all the particles moving in the direction with the same speed. How on earth can a series of collisions go from this to a stationary system? Firstly, this idea already shows you that there must be some small variations in the speed or we could never leave the synchronized state. But even then, any time you try to make a particle go in the backward direction, you have to make another particle speed up in this forward direction.\n\ntl;dr: It can't be done because momentum must be conserved and so the total net speed cannot change unless an external force influences the system, in which case ΔE≠W+Q anyway.",
"This cannot be done (ignoring the uncertainty principle stuff). The system is allowed to have any microstate provided conserved quantities are conserved.\n\nThat means energy and momentum (and angular momentum and charge and color and so on...).\n\nFor many systems (such as a bound gas) the effects of momentum conservation (as opposed to energy conservation) are sufficiently small that we don't need to include it in the calculations to derive all the useful macro-scale formulas. However, it does prevent the weird situation you describe.",
"So you're asking whether an isolated system can spontaneously go from stationary to moving? The answer is no, by conservation of momentum.\n\nAs long as there are no **external forces** acting on the system, the center of mass of the system cannot accelerate.",
"If your system is in contact with the environment (to conserve momentum), this can happen, but the energy comes from the environment or the heat of the object then, and it will quickly get dissipated again. Energy is conserved in every individual process, and many of those together still conserve energy.",
"Actually, the situation you have proposed does not violate energy conservation, but as others have pointed out it does violate momentum conservation.\n\nTo say that a set of particles has some internal energy via random motion is to say that the sum of all the particles kinetic energies is equal to the internal energy. Remember kinetic energy is a scalar not a vector, therefore any state in which the total kinetic energy is the same as before is allowable if one were to just look at energy conservation. Keep in mind this statement assumes no interaction between the particles in question. So the state in which all the particles have the same direction to their speed is one out of the infinite states allowable by energy conservation, however, like I and others have mentioned before this situation violates momentum conservation. \n\nThe more laws that you apply to a physical description the smaller and smaller that set of allowable states becomes. That is without any rules any particle can be in any state, now apply energy conservation. The allowable states via energy conservation alone is simply a subset of all conceivable states in existence. Now apply momentum conservation along with energy conservation. This is now a subset of the set when only the energy conservation rule was applied. So on and so forth until you run out of all laws of the universe that we know or are applicable to this problem.",
"I need an ELI5 for this post desperately. Just... all of the above."
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If an isolated system reach a microstate where it has a macroscopic velocity, doesn't it violate the law of conservation of energy?
I know this is very, very, very unlikely edge case, but let's say that an isolated system, with an incredible luck, reach a microstate where the direction of their microscopic speed synchronise, in such a way that the system has a macroscopic speed. This mean we have a ΔE=ΔEc (ΔU=0 and ΔEp=0 too), yet the system is isolated so it should have a ΔE=W+Q=0. I was wondering where the mistake was in my reasonning.
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|
845gyn
|
Are phonons a type of electromagnetic wave?
|
My chem prof keeps referring to sound waves/phonons as electromagnetic waves but I always thought they were purely kinetic/due to pressure differential and not electromagnetic.
If they are electromagnetic how come they don't travel at the speed of light?
If they aren't electromagnetic what are they?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Phonons are not electromagnetic waves, they’re mechanical oscillations (or at least the quantum version of them).",
"Are you sure there is no confusion between \"phonons\" and \"photons\" (either by you or the prof)?\n\nPhotons are electromagnetic.\n\nPhonons are elementary oscillations in \"elastic fields\" (i.e. oscillation in matter). The name was chosen in analogy to photons. As for what they are I am just stealing the definition from [wikipedia](_URL_0_): \n\n > A phonon is a quantum mechanical description of an elementary vibrational motion in which a lattice of atoms or molecules uniformly oscillates at a single frequency.[2] In classical mechanics this designates a normal mode of vibration. Normal modes are important because any arbitrary lattice vibration can be considered to be a superposition of these elementary vibration modes (cf. Fourier analysis). While normal modes are wave-like phenomena in classical mechanics, phonons have particle-like properties too, in a way related to the wave–particle duality of quantum mechanics.",
"Phonons are in now way EM waves. If one did want to assign a quantized excitation to the polarization waves that are truly meant when people haphazardly talk about \"light in a medium\", it would be something like a polariton.\n\nThat being said, you sure you didn't mishear \"optical phonons\" and misunderstood what was meant by that? Optical phonons are gapped phonons, meaning you need a minimum amount of energy to excite them. This is in contrast to acoustic phonons which are gapless. Optical phonons are so named not because they ARE light, but rather that they're the phonon that is typically excited BY light. \n\n I'd err on the side that a professor of chemistry know what a phonon is an you misunderstood the term optical phonon.",
"Phonons are not quanta of EM radiation.\n\nHowever there is a common term, *optical phonon*. It means a phonon that can be excited by (i.e. produced by absorption of) a photon in the optical band.",
"Phonons are the quantized vibrations of a crystal lattice, in the same way that photons are the quantized \"vibrations\" of the electromagnetic field.\n\nA phonon in itself is **not** an electromagnetic wave. It's the quantum version of a sound wave.\n\nMaybe to salvage all this, what he *might* be talking about is the interplay of phonons with the electromagnetic field? Basically, a photon can be absorbed by a crystal lattice and cause it to vibrate in a certain way (think light wave wiggling your charged ions this or that way) and that vibration can then emit a photon again.",
"Your chemistry professor is wrong. Phonons are quanta of mechanical excitations, and thus they travel at the speed of sound. There are some analogies with the electromagnetic field, but they are different things.\n\nIf I had to guess, he probably confused phonons with photons, which are quanta of the electromagnetic field and *do* travel at the speed of light."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon"
]
}
|
Are phonons a type of electromagnetic wave?
My chem prof keeps referring to sound waves/phonons as electromagnetic waves but I always thought they were purely kinetic/due to pressure differential and not electromagnetic. If they are electromagnetic how come they don't travel at the speed of light? If they aren't electromagnetic what are they?
|
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1dgnxp
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How does obesity affect the procedure of surgery? If the patient carries excessive body fat, how much does it hinder the surgeon?
|
This is mainly referring to surgeries done in places with typically more body fat, such as stomach or chest area.
|
askscience
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"Obesity affects surgery in many ways:\n\n* Persons who are obese tend to have a variety of comorbidities, including diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, obstructive apnea, etc.\n\n* Morbidly obese persons are 90% likely to have abnormalities in the liver (i.e. fatty liver) (\nPalmer M, Schaffner F. Effect of weight reduction on hepatic abnormalities in overweight patients. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 1408–13., Albert S, Borovicka J, Thurnheer M, et al. Pre- and post-operative transaminase changes within the scope of gastric banding in morbid obesity. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 2001; 90: 1459–64., Gholam PM, Kotler DP, Flancbaum LJ. Liver pathology in morbidly obese patients undergoing Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery. Obes Surg 2002; 12: 49–51., Ramsey-Stewart G. Hepatic steatosis and morbid obesity. Obes Surg 1993; 3: 157–9. Clain DJ, Lefkowitch JH. Fatty liver disease in morbid obesity. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1987; 16: 239–52.)\n\n* Due to hypertension, kidneys can filter drugs out of the system quicker (Marik P, Varon J. The obese patient in the ICU. Chest 1998; 113: 492–8. Ribstein J, duCailar G, Mimran A. Combined renal effects of overweight and hypertension. Hypertension 1995; 26: 610–5.)\n\n* Diabetic patients have a much greater chance in surgical site infections. Although glucose is controlled during surgery, post-op 30-day care is usually done at home and glucose may not be as closely monitored (Latham R, Lancaster AD, Covington JF, Pirolo JS, Thomsas CS Jr. The association of diabetes and glucose control with surgical-site infections among cardiothoracic surgery patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001; 22(10):607-12.).\n\n* Obese patients are at a higher risk to develop deep vein thrombosis (blood clots) and is a major, independent risk factor for a pulmonary embolism (Braekkan SK, Siegerink B, Lijfering WM, Hansen JB, Cannegieter SC, Rosendaal FR. Role of obesity in the etiology of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: current epidemiological insights. Semin Thromb Hemost 2013 (April 27) (Epub ahead of print). Allman-Farinelli MA. Obesity and venous thrombosis: a review. Semin Thromb Hemost 2011; 37:903-7.).\n\n* They are harder to intubate (provide an airway tube) and the use of surgical airways is much greater for bariatric patients during surgery (McCarroll SM, Saunders PR, Brass PJ. Anesthetic considerations in obese patients. Prog Anesthesiol 1989; 3: 1–12.).\n\n* Weight-based dosing of drugs are difficult, as some are dosed for their actual body weight and others on their ideal body weight (some are effected by fatty tissue, some are not).\n\n* As stated by someone else, finding veins are difficult.\n\n* Obese patients are harder to position for surgery. They are harder to monitor as standard cuffs may not be adequate for blood pressure monitoring (too much fatty tissue between cuff and blood vessel, cuff does not fit, etc).\n\n* Open surgery is very difficult when having to retract large amounts of tissue. There are many practical aspects that make this difficult, as a patient who is lying down may be in too high of a position for the surgical team.\n\n* It's rare, but it does happen, but hypersaturation of oxygen, lots of fat, and electrocautery can cause fires. Obesity is not a factor in the likelihood of occurrence, but a factor in severity.\n\nThis list isn't exhaustive, but can provide you some idea of the challenges of providing surgery to the obese. Also note, morbidly obese persons may not get surgery as complication rates are too high and weight management is attempted before surgery. This includes weight reduction surgery, such as the roux-en-y.\n\n**EDIT: Sources--I'll have to come back to this when I have time.**",
"[This comparative MRI image](_URL_0_) helps you understand fat distribution in people a bit. All that tan stuff is fat.\n\nFat is mostly subcutaneous (under the skin), so if a surgeon needs to access your abdominal cavity, then the belly area will have a large pad of fat that needs to be gone through/around. My experience is in vet med not human, but I can imagine that you would make your access incisions along the areas of thinnest fat covering that would still be readily closed. Laparoscopic surgery (via small access incisions and using scopes and very small instruments) is common in people but the scopes used have size limitations.\n\nIn surgery, anything that isn't *what you are trying to deal with directly* is in your way. Say you're trying to find the uterus in a dog to remove it (ok so my experience is biased but same principle), everything else in the abdominal cavity is in your way. intestines, spleen, urinary bladder, etc. So if everything is *also* covered with a layer of fat (the omental covering that drapes across your intestines really likes to deposit fat) then even more \"stuff\" is in the way of you finding that uterus and tying off/cutting the blood vessels, etc. Fat also has an excellent blood supply and when you mess with it, it will ooze a lot, so keeping blood loss under control could be an issue.\n\nI can imagine that with the immense size that people can get, it increases difficulty not only technically but physically. moving them around, getting appropriate surgical exposure, etc takes more people and more effort.\n\nAnd don't forget the increased anesthetic risks. Obesity affects drug metabolism and respiratory volume, as well as cardiovascular status.",
"Not a surgeon but I did get to sit in on a total double hip replacement surgery of an obese person. A total double hip replacement is when you take the ball and socket out of the hip joint and replacement it with a plastic and metal joint. This is designed to reduce the amount of pain it takes to move, normally because excess bone growth makes things all crunchy after sustained abuse to the joint. As one might expect, joints take more abuse if you have more weight on them, which is why obese patients are common in orthopedic surgery.\n\nRegardless, the double total hip replacement turned into a single total hip replacement because it took a very long time just to get one hip replaced. The surgeon and his team had to constantly readjust the fat that protruded from the patient's stomach. It would seek to rest over the hip joint that the surgeon was trying to replace. \n\nI also sat in with the same surgeon during his clinic days - the vast majority of his patients were obese or old (in fact, I think all of them were on that day). When a seriously obese person came into the clinic, she had to be lifted onto the table with the help of the doctor, a physician assistant and 2 or 3 nurses. Then he had to readjust the fat to see if the joint was operable. During that process, there was mold or something that was under the fold of fat that stunk up the examination room for a few hours.\n\nJust do yourself a favor and go for a run.",
"Obesity affects us in anesthesia, too. Some of this might be repeats of what everycredit said, but here is a list of why I like my patients on the lean side:\n\n* Airway issues - obese patients have a lot of \"redundant pharyngeal tissue\" making intubation more difficult. They also have heavy heads and many have tiny mouths, and that also makes it tougher to get the tube in.\n\n* Ventilation is more difficult - the ventilator has to lift a heavy chest, using higher pressures. I often have to play with the settings on the vent and use more frequent, smaller breaths to get both oxygen and CO2 to the right levels. Put the patient in a head-down (Trendelenberg) position, and ventilation can be nearly impossible.\n\n* Oxygenation - morbidly obese patients have no lung reserve for oxygen. I can put a non-obese patient to sleep and have a good two minutes to get the tube in before the oxygen levels drop. Obese patients, maybe 15 seconds. Now, we usually get the tube in right away, but if you refer to my first point, that might not be the case with an extra large patient.\n\n* Monitors - the BP cuffs, even the large ones, don't fit well. Many obese arms are cone-shaped, and the darn cuffs are cylindrical. I have put arterial lines in patients because of size for big cases.\n\n* Positioning - when the patient is wider than the table, we have to worry about pressure points and keeping all the body parts on the OR table. If we have to go lateral or prone, it's difficult.\n\n* IV access - it's harder to hit what you can't see or palpate. I have luck with the inside of the wrist on a lot of obese patients.\n\n* Regional blocks - much more difficult when you can't find landmarks. Spinals and epidurals are more difficult when you're starting a few inches out from where you would in a non-obese patient. There's a lot of \"stab in the dark\" and hope for finding landmarks with the needle in these folks. I have used 3 1/2 inch long epidural needles as introducers for 5 inch spinal needles in very obese women for C-sections.\n\n* Comorbidities - hypertension, diabetes, arthritis are extremely common, and they complicate anesthesia somewhat. \n\n* Drug dosages - many of the anesthetic drugs are based on \"ideal body weight\", but in reality, they tend to need more than that... sometimes. It's hard to predict. Fortunately, we titrate most of what we use.\n\n* Upper airway obstruction post-op - if I treat their pain with opioids, they get comfortable enough to obstruct and stop breathing. If I go easy on the pain meds, they hurt, and that's not acceptable either.\n\n* Delayed awakening after inhalation anesthesia - if the case is long enough, more than an hour or two, inhalation anesthetics start getting into the fat. They come out slowly after the surgery is done. Combine that with a little airway obstruction, and they can re-anesthetize themselves in recovery.\n\n* Surgery is going to be more difficult - I have to worry about more blood loss, longer anesthetic times, frustrated surgeons and have to be ready for changes in the surgical procedure (laparoscopic to open, mostly).\n\nThat's just off the top of my head. Obesity makes my job a lot harder. A little overweight is no problem. Morbid obesity is a big problem, and puts the patient at higher risk for anesthetic complications.",
"I don't work on the living, but an issue you run into also is the natural heat from your hands can warm up the adipose tissue in the area you're working and melt it. Everything becomes really slippery!",
"One thing that can be affected by obesity is radiology. If there is too much fat in the way, certain things like an inflamed appendix won't be seen in the imagery.",
"Not to mention that a bone marrow tap is much more difficult to perform on an obese thigh.",
"Maybe I'm not asking the right question for this but how do surgeons determine the obesity of a patient? Do they find out the body fat percentage? Or is it more of an eyeball \"I think I'll need to cut further down if I want to do X..\"?"
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How does obesity affect the procedure of surgery? If the patient carries excessive body fat, how much does it hinder the surgeon?
This is mainly referring to surgeries done in places with typically more body fat, such as stomach or chest area.
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|
1rnt7q
|
A question about explosives in a vacuum/space
|
As I understand, explosives in military use often achieve destruction by releasing a powerful shockwave through a medium - usually air or water.
In space, there's no medium for a shockwave to travel through. How would that affect the effectiveness of explosives?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"At the most basic level, explosions happen because of rapid exothermic processes, which produce extremely large transient power densities. \n\nExtremely high power densities imply high temperatures, which means that the primary initial method of energy transfer is going to be radiation, because [radiative power varies as T^4](_URL_0_) and therefore it tends to dominate when T is large. \n\nIf you detonate a nuke in space, you get a big flash of gamma rays, which for practical purposes come from a point source.\n\nIf you detonate a nuke in the atmosphere, the gamma rays get absorbed by the atmosphere, heating it up, and then re-radiated at a slightly longer wavelength. Eventually, the wavelength hits an atmospheric window and the flash \"escapes\". What you actually see, if you look at the high-speed footage, is a flash of light which comes from a sphere of finite radius and is composed of a variety of wavelengths of light approximating a Boltzmann distribution (obviously it's going to be missing sundry spectral absorption lines).\n\nThis sphere of really hot air then obviously expands violently, due to the gas law, and produces a [*wave of abrupt disturbance*](_URL_2_), which is responsible for the blast effects. \n\nAt a high level of abstraction, what's happening is that the really low entropy energy from the explosion is being converted into higher entropy energy by interaction with the medium through which it is being transmitted. \n\nWhat this does is to localize the effects of the explosion to a greater degree than would be expected from the inverse square law of [radiation flux](_URL_1_).\n\nShrapnel released in the atmosphere is subject to aerodynamic drag, which converts its kinetic energy into heat. \n\nShrapnel released in space just keeps on going until it hits something. \n\nWhat this means is that explosions in space can cause radiative damage (e.g. to sensors) at very long distances, but will generally be much less likely to cause physical damage at short to medium ranges because there are no localizing effects. \n\nIt also means that there is a small probability of devastating shrapnel impact out to arbitrary range. \n\nOverall, the effects are more stochastic, because the absence of localized interactions with a coupling medium such as a fluid or a solid mean that all the work is being done by a smaller number of higher energy particles.",
"There would be no shockwave, all the energy would be in electromagnetic radiation of varying wavelengths i.e. visible light and infrared. Also it would accelerate any part of the bomb left over.\n\nSo the only way an explosion would do damage is if it were actually touching the target on detonation, it was hit by shrapnel from the blast or the radiation is intense enough to damage the target.\n\nEDIT: Also as /u/super-zap said, expanding gas",
"Semi-related question. I've often heard there would be no fire in an explosion in space, and movies often get this wrong. Let's use the Death Star as an example. If the Death Star is presumably mostly sealed and full of oxygen, wouldn't there briefly be some fire in an explosion, albeit quickly snuffed? Same with destroyed fighter ships on a smaller scale? Or would the vacuum disperse anything that could catch fire too quickly?",
"The shrapnel usually has a larger kill radius than the overpressure.\n\nWith no atmosphere and in microgravity, shrapnel would *never slow down*. Only a real dick would set off a pipe bomb in orbit, and if you did it would work perfectly because the expanding hot gas is confined.\n\nArmor-piercing shaped charges should also function properly as the expanding gas does not have to go very far.",
"An explosion and the resulting shock wave is a rapid energy release being propagated through mass (air or water). So if there is no mass (in a vacuum) the energy is transfered in the fragments of the bomb (hot gasses etc) and as energy in wavelength form (ultraviolet etc)."
],
"score": [
158,
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_heat_transfer#Radiative_power",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_flux",
"http://homepages.abdn.ac.uk/h.tan/pages/teaching/explosion-engineering/Rankine.pdf"
]
}
|
A question about explosives in a vacuum/space
As I understand, explosives in military use often achieve destruction by releasing a powerful shockwave through a medium - usually air or water. In space, there's no medium for a shockwave to travel through. How would that affect the effectiveness of explosives?
|
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27vpvo
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
|
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_).
Ask away!
|
askscience
|
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"I'll be unconventional and ask & answer my own question, since it seems to be the most common in real life.\n\n**What is computer science research anyway?**\n\nComputer science is a huge discipline so this varies a lot within the field. To keep it simple, I'll focus on my area, computer architecture.\n\nThe basic problem of computer architecture is: given a bunch of transistors, how should they be organized to get the best performance/energy efficiency/storage capacity/etc? The architect sits between the computer programmer and the physical circuitry, and its our job to devise the best way to make the transistors do \"something useful\" as efficiently as possible (for some definition of efficiency).\n\nActually, computer architects work at a somewhat higher level than transistors. Building components out of transistors is electrical engineering--\"circuits\", to be exact. Architects work with things that circuits researchers have already built, like adders (circuits that add two binary numbers together efficiently), registers (circuits that store a small value), memory arrays (circuits that store a large number of values), and so on. Depending on the type of research, an architect might use even larger components, like an entire processing core.\n\nBut I get ahead of myself. An architect's job is to take the basic components of a system--computation circuits and memory circuits--and turn them into a machine that \"does something useful\". For example, if you have an adder circuit then you can add two numbers. But simply adding two numbers will not play YouTube videos, or run a word processor, or even perform a useful scientific computation by itself. You also need to control what data is added and when--you need to be able to run a program.\n\nArchitecture can therefore be viewed narrowly or broadly. In a narrow sense, architects simply take a program and combine circuits together to run it efficiently. In a broad sense, architects influence how programs are written and how circuits are designed, acting as the intermediary between low-level electrical engineering and high-level computing theory. The scope of active research in computer architecture has varied greatly over time depending on the problems being faced.\n\nThus processor designs will vary greatly depending on the type of programs being run. For example, contrast your CPU, which runs most of your programs, and your GPU, which runs graphics. The CPU devotes a large part of its circuitry to doing various sophisticated tricks that let it speed up programs. Contrary to what you might expect, your CPU does _not_ run your program in the order you write it, nor even does it do one thing at a time. Instead the CPU tries to do as many things as possible as soon as it can, and then it has complicated clean-up circuitry that makes sure it _looks like_ it did everything in order. The GPU doesn't bother with any of this, since graphics tends to involve much simpler programs. As a result, the GPU has a completely different interface to programs that means the GPU can _always_ do things in parallel without any complex circuitry to check if it's OK to do so or to clean up afterwards. This allows the GPU to devote a much larger portion of its circuitry towards actual computation, making it many times faster on graphics programs. The cost of this design is that GPUs are poorly suited to most programs, and run them many times slower than a CPU.\n\nArchitecture is an exciting field because the circumstances are constantly changing. Moore's \"law\" is a self-fulfilling prophesy that says the density of transistors doubles every 18-24 months. But while transistors are getting cheaper, some things aren't. For example, chips are basically the same size that they have always been, so the number of physical wires coming out of a chip hasn't changed significantly. Thus the tradeoff between adding a wire to the chip or using more transistors is constantly changing, and architects always have new problems to solve.\n\n**An example.**\n\nTo give a concrete example, my research is on _multicore memory systems_. That's a mouthful, so let me explain piece by piece.\n\n * \"Multicore\" is a development in computer architecture that has a long history, but really took over the field in the early 2000's. To oversimplify slightly, a \"core\" is basically a (very large) circuit that can run a single program. Up until the early 2000's, almost all processors sold on the market were \"single core\". That is, they could run one program at a time (again oversimplifying slightly). The illusion of running multiple programs is achieved by very quickly switching between programs. With Moore's law, these single cores were getting faster every few months and everyone was happy, but in the early 2000's making single cores go faster became difficult, for a number of reasons. Since Moore's law meant there now a lot of transistors available that couldn't be productively employed on a single core, architects instead started adding more cores to processors. So now if you buy a processor on the market, it will have several cores, meaning it can run multiple programs truly simultaneously.\n\n * \"Memory systems\" refers to how the processor stores data that the program uses. All processors consist of some circuitry that manipulates data, and other circuitry that stores the data and intermediate values used in the computation. The simplest way to do this would be to have a single place to put all your data, and every time you wanted to compute some data you would retrieve it from the single data store and put the result somewhere else in the data store. This is what early computers did. The problem with this is a basic physical constraint: more data needs more space, which means longer wires, which means its slower. So the more data you want to store, the longer it takes to access it. To get around this problem, architects store data in \"caches\"--smaller and faster memories that store a subset of the full memory. And in fact modern processors have multiple levels of cache, each a smaller, faster subset of the higher level.\n\nMy research focuses on combining \"multicore\" and \"memory systems\". The sorts of problems I'm trying solve are:\n\n * Can I efficiently predict how processors access data? If so, which data should I keep in the cache?\n * How can I make a cache that is both large and fast? (Answer: combine many smaller caches to make the illusion of a larger cache.)\n * If two processors are operating on the same data, how do I make sure they agree on the value of that data? How can I make them agree quickly?\n * How should I split the cache space among processors to maximize performance? Can I do this without making the cache slower?\n * And so on.\n\n**Typical day**\n\nUpon hearing this explanation, most people thing I actually build chips to test these ideas. I don't. Building chips is ridiculously time consuming and expensive (hundreds of thousands of $$, if you're lucky). Instead I evaluate my ideas using an architectural simulator--a program that mimics what a processor using my ideas would do. I run this simulator on a variety of settings and compare the performance/energy/what-have-you with and without my modifications. There are a lot of methodological questions we could get into here, but let's not.\n\nSo most of my time is split really into four parts:\n\n * Whiteboard: Discussing problems, designing solutions, doing back-of-the-envelope calculations to see if an idea is worth trying out.\n * Coding: Modifying the simulator to support our ideas. This can take a long time, since getting some of the details right for these solutions can be very tricky. One small error can make it so programs no longer work, and these can be very hard to track down. This is how we are confident that our ideas would work on a real machine--the simulation forces us to be honest.\n * Running experiments: For me \"doing experiments\" means running the simulator over a lot of different settings. Architectural simulations are expensive and this can take a long time, i.e. days or weeks.\n * Writing: Like any researcher, I also end up spending a lot of time writing and trying to communicate my ideas effectively to the community. Writing is always hard and often leads to new experiments when I realize that something hasn't been properly explained or explored.\n\nIf you made it this far, congratulations! I'm happy to answer any questions.",
"If the gravity on earth suddenly changed to 10m/s2 instead of 9.81 like it is now how would our existing infrastructure and society hold up? Would our world start to fall apart?",
"In programming, when would be a good time to use a hash data structure? When I learned about it last semester, the professor made it seem like it was vastly inferior to every other data structure. So why use it? When?",
"Why isn't the natural logarithm used in algorithm analysis?",
"I'm doing a 4 year bachelor's of computer science, \n\nWill there be jobs for me? \nWhat actually is it/ how much worse is it than bachelor's of software engineering? \nWhy is only calculus I required? \n\nI've only done first year so it's not too late for me to switch to software engineering.",
"Assuming we were in Valve's Portal Universe where wormholes could be created to solve puzzles and assuming that when the walls move apart the portals remain intact. \n\nWhat would happen to the string in the illustration, given that it is being held up in the air by its own knot?\n\n_URL_0_",
"I attend Iowa State University, home of the ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer). This is obviously a very primitive form of computing power. Approximately how much space would it take up to create a computer with this technology that has the computing power of, say, a TI-84 Graphing Calculator?",
"Where is a good place to buy a .1m x .1m *.1m block of silicon carbide?"
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Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_). Ask away!
|
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|
24aea1
|
What is the most "painless" way to prepare a lobster?
|
In my country (Belgium) there is currently a huge discussion going on about how to prepare a lobster as a meal. This was sparked by a chef who, on national television, cut a living lobster in half (lengthwise), ripped out it's legs and arms and put it on the barbeque. His argument was that the taste of the lobster is the best if it is done this way.
Regarding alternative methods, there are people saying that putting the lobster in a kettle of boiling water for approximately a minute is a better way.
Both these methods seem pretty painful to me, however I'm not certain if crustaceans experience pain the same way humans do. I know for a fact that decapitation of humans will result in a painless and immediate death, so could this be considered an acceptable way of "killing" lobsters, based on scientific grounds?
If not, what would be a better way?
|
askscience
|
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"I work next door to a lobster lab and they brought a guest speaker in last year whose specialty is crustacean pain. Though it is impossible to know for sure what the subjective experience of an animal is (or for that matter, from a philosophical point of view, *any other human other than yourself*), there has been a rough consensus that if an animal \"acts like\" a human experiencing pain, and has appropriate neural circuitry, we should assume it is experiencing pain. \n\nFor example, from a review I'll link to below: \"A common approach is to use argument by analogy (Dawkins 1980; Sherwin 2001): if an animal responds to a potentially noxious stimulus in a manner similar to that observed to the same stimulus in humans then it is reasonable to argue that the animal has had an analogous experience (Sherwin 2001). However, Sherwin (2001) notes differences in the acceptance of this argument depending on the species rather than the behavior: observers of a dog or primate writhing in response to an electric shock accept that the animal is experiencing pain, whereas much the same response in an invertebrate is often dismissed as irrelevant to the question of pain. \" \n\nDue to those inconsistencies, it's been proposed that possible pain should be evaluated as to whether the animal meets these criteria:\n\n- suitable receptors (does it have nociceptors - pain receptors.)\n\n- a suitable central nervous system (is it capable of integrating sensory information from multiple different sources, in some sort of central nervous system)\n\n- physiological changes in response to presumed-painful stimuli (e.g. stress hormones elevate, heart rate increases, etc)\n\n- avoidance learning (animal learns not to do something associated with painful stimuli)\n\n- protective motor reactions (animal withdraws limbs, tucks tail, tries to get under cover, etc)\n\n- tradeoffs between stimulus avoidance and other activities (e.g. animal chooses not to do something it would normally do if it's learned a \"noxious\" [presumed painful] stimulus would be encountered) \n\n- responsiveness to opioids, analgesics, and anesthetics (if you dull the nociceptors, do all the above behaviors disappear and does the animal go back to normal behavior)\n\n- and, the most controversial one, cognitive ability and sentience. It's very unclear whether this should be on the list at all. (Is it necessary to be \"sentient\" or even \"intelligent\" in order to be capable of perceiving pain? If so... *how* intelligent?)\n\nLobsters meet every criterion on that list except possibly the last one (though even there, they turn to be more intelligent than most people realize. Not super smart, but not just \"preprogrammed invertebrate robots\" either). So - there's no way to prove lobsters can experience pain, but there's reasonable evidence that they *might*. That brings us to how to kill them. When vets and researchers deal with vertebrate animals, we operate on the principle that if an animal *might* experience pain, we should go right ahead and assume that it *does*, to be on the safe side. Any vertebrate that showed the same reactions that lobsters do to noxious stimuli would be assumed to be experiencing pain and there would already have been research into humane methods of euthanasia. Crustacean research is running behind the curve on this. The American Veterinary Medical Association, for example, has only a single page about aquatic invertebrates in its huge manual on euthanasia methods. However, in that single page, they do recommend a \"two-step process\" for aquatic invertebrates where you first knock the animal out and then kill it. Boiling is acceptable for step 2, the killing, but they state clearly that boiling by itself, without a step 1 first, \"is generally not considered to meet acceptable standards for euthanasia\". Later they say \"pithing, freezing and boiling... are not acceptable, however, as a single-step procedure, nor as the first step of a 2-step procedure....Methods of killing that do not cause rapid death or that cause trauma prior to loss of consciousness are not considered humane methods of death, or euthanasia.\"\n\nIn the talk by the crustacean-pain researcher last year we were basically advised to \"stun them or deactivate the nervous system somehow\" before boiling them, and we were also shown a picture of a commercial machine called a \"CrustaStun\" that basically stuns them with an electric shock. Other methods commonly used in home kitchens are chilling in a fridge for a few hours, which apparently does slow down the animals' ability to process sensory stimuli, or cutting through their nervous system lengthwise by basically splitting them in half. However I haven't seen any of those methods formally evaluated but you can see the split method illustrated [here](_URL_1_) on Trevor Corson's site; and I recommend his book on lobster natural history, it's great.\n\nSo, it sounds like the tv chef the OP describes maybe did the right thing (cutting them lengthwise). \n\n[Here](_URL_3_) is a 2011 pdf review on the general topic of pain in invertebrates; [here](_URL_0_) another 2011 pdf review on anesthesia and euthanasia methods for invertebrates, [here](_URL_2_) is the AVMA's 2013 guidelines for acceptable euthanasia methods for vertebrates and invertebrates.\n\nSorry for length, hope that was helpful\n\ntl;dr - chill them or split them down the middle; and hope future research confirms that that works.",
"Alton Brown recommends that you put them in your refrigerator for a little while. Supposedly, that will knock them out. Then, you split the head in half, bisecting the brain and killing them as /u/icomrade describes.",
"It's quicker and more \"humane\" to kill a lobster by cutting its head longitudinally than to boil it alive. Although you may lose some flavor by splitting it then boiling it. Given the choice I'd choose a quick death over being boiled alive, which can take minutes.\n\n_URL_4_\n\nEdit: wrong word..."
],
"score": [
15,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://ilarjournal.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/2/196.full.pdf",
"http://www.trevorcorson.com/old_blog/2005/12/how-to-kill-lobster-dedicated-to-david.html",
"https://www.avma.org/kb/policies/documents/euthanasia.pdf",
"http://ilarjournal.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/2/175.full.pdf",
"http://www.finecooking.com/item/11058/video-how-to-kill-a-lobster"
]
}
|
What is the most "painless" way to prepare a lobster?
In my country (Belgium) there is currently a huge discussion going on about how to prepare a lobster as a meal. This was sparked by a chef who, on national television, cut a living lobster in half (lengthwise), ripped out it's legs and arms and put it on the barbeque. His argument was that the taste of the lobster is the best if it is done this way. Regarding alternative methods, there are people saying that putting the lobster in a kettle of boiling water for approximately a minute is a better way. Both these methods seem pretty painful to me, however I'm not certain if crustaceans experience pain the same way humans do. I know for a fact that decapitation of humans will result in a painless and immediate death, so could this be considered an acceptable way of "killing" lobsters, based on scientific grounds? If not, what would be a better way?
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|
mp5vo
|
Got questions about archaeology, shipwrecks, or the archaeology of shipwrecks? Ask them here!
|
Ask away! This isn't really an AMA, as I'm not keen to talk about myself too much, but I'm happy to answer questions about the field!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c32pm69",
"c32piie",
"c32phfv",
"c32pjb9",
"c32pthd",
"c32t3nw",
"c32sfat",
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"c32qqrl",
"c32pp3k",
"c32sa9p",
"c32pkbz",
"c32qpzf",
"c32qted"
],
"text": [
"What is your opinion on people who hunt shipwrecks for profit? Do you compete with them or is it a rare occurrence?",
"What are some interesting things that are happening in the world of shipwreck archaeology?",
"I think the discoveries made in the Med and Black Sea are fascinating.\n\nDo you see any scientific applications beyond discovery and description; if so in what fields?\n\nAlso, so you think there could be sufficient interest in the science to warrant use of human occupied vehicles?",
"Have any human settlements ever been found that were at one point in time above sea level but are now below?\n\nAnd what do you think will be the future of archaeology?\n\nEDIT: Last question: Has the government ever stepped in during an exploration?",
"Did you ever cook with the historic discoveries?\n\nOK, silly, but how about historic recipe discoveries?",
"Do you ever worry that by unearthing things now, rather than later, we destroy important information that we didn't even realize that we needed to preserve? When is a good tradeoff between obtaining artifacts and information and waiting until technology allows more accurate representations of that information?",
"Are there ever opportunities for guys without an archaeology degree to become involved in your business? I'm about to graduate with a completely unrelated degree, but I've always wanted to work in the field..",
"What kind of work in the field is there? I am interested in becoming a history teacher, then doing some archaeology trips in the summers. What are the likelihoods of this? Thanks",
"Let's say, rather than for science, you were into shipwreck archeology solely to hunt for treasure. You have unlimited resources to fund your hunt. What top 3 shipwrecks would you search?",
"Does the Bermuda Triangle hold any special significance among your peers due to its reputation?",
"Are there any good books out there you would recommend on the subject?",
"Do you do field work yourself, as in diving down to wrecks?",
"Does the Noah's Ark discovery in Turkey hold any real weight(metaphorically)?",
"Which place has the highest number / density of shipwrecks?"
],
"score": [
5,
5,
4,
4,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Got questions about archaeology, shipwrecks, or the archaeology of shipwrecks? Ask them here!
Ask away! This isn't really an AMA, as I'm not keen to talk about myself too much, but I'm happy to answer questions about the field!
|
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] |
|
4u2qca
|
How large can a cubic-single-room-style structure be, like NASA's vehicle assembly building?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d5megml",
"d5mk73f",
"d5mofds"
],
"text": [
"It could be built by placing many suspension bridges breadthwise next to each other. Longest of them currently have span up to 2 kilometers. They can be perhaps 500 meters high. So you could have 2 kilometer wide, 500 meter high room without internal columns. But it would be too expensive for any conceivable use.",
"Looking through construction pics of it [here](_URL_0_), the building doesn't seem that impressive in terms of open spaces.\n\nIt looks more like several very tall metallic structures close together which have been covered with a common roof and sides. \n\nI don't think it is a cubic-single-room-style structure to being with.",
"Not really an answer to your question, but a useful data point:\n\nThe biggest-volume building I can find that's definitely freestanding with no internal supports is the [Aerium](_URL_2_), an airship hangar that's been converted into a waterpark in Germany. It's not cubic, but the internal volume is 50% bigger than the VAB.\n\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
8,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://structurae.net/structures/vehicle-assembly-building/photos?min=25",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Islands_Resort",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_buildings_in_the_world"
]
}
|
How large can a cubic-single-room-style structure be, like NASA's vehicle assembly building?
|
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||
1doeta
|
Could you "trap" light in a medium by perfectly refracting it in multiple media configured in a circle shape?
|
I don't know if it's even possible but if it was then what would we be able to see?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"If you really did trap it, you would not see anything since seeing it means some got away.",
"What you're talking about is an [optical ring resonator](_URL_1_) which is a type of [optical cavity](_URL_0_).\n\nYou can trap the light in a ring, but there a few limitations.\n\nThe ring has to be coupled to the environment in order to get light in. If there's a way for light to get in there must be a way for light to get out.\n\nWe can't make anything perfect, small imperfections will eventually absorb the light or scatter it away.\n\ntl;dr Ring cavities already exist and you can use them to trap light, but the light won't stay there forever.",
"Actually, yes it is possible. I can't find any material on it but some teams have assembled circular resonating cavities designed to act as photon storage devices. Not much would be visible though, otherwise light would be escaping the cavity at an appreciable rate.",
"A black hole does this in the photon sphere",
"One scientist actually found a way to basically \"trap\" light:\n\n_URL_2_",
"My area of expertise is nano-photonics. In practice, you could never build a device that would do this because no material is 100% reflective. Even the best materials still absorb some light.",
"This sounds like [total internal reflection](_URL_3_), the principle behind fiber optics"
],
"score": [
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44,
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}
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_cavity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_ring_resonators",
"http://www.radiolab.org/2013/feb/05/master-universe/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_internal_reflection#Applications"
]
}
|
Could you "trap" light in a medium by perfectly refracting it in multiple media configured in a circle shape?
I don't know if it's even possible but if it was then what would we be able to see?
|
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|
1bcwx6
|
Is it true you can live without a stomach?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"I don't know whether the stomach has any functions besides digesting food, but people don't need a stomach (or intestines) to get nutrition. Nutrition can be supplied directly into your bloodstream ([Parenteral nutrition](_URL_0_)) and there are patients who have lived on it for decades.",
"The only thing the stomach truly provides that you cannot live without is something called Intrinsic Factor. Intrinsic Factor is a transporter for Vitamin B12. So as long as you have a way to inject intrinsic factor into your body, you can live without your stomach",
"Yes. Surgery can be performed to directly connect the small intestine to the esophagus. Patients who have this procedure done have to eat very small amounts of food very frequently, as food passes through the digestive system much more quickly than normal, and efficiency of digestion is greatly reduced due to the lack of stomach. But it is possible and is a known and available surgical procedure, such as to treat major injuries to the stomach wall or stomach cancer.",
"Further to the other comment, you can live on parental nutrition but I have to say its pretty poor replacement for enteric (through the gut) feeding. You can quite easily get liver failure. Feeding into the intestines bypassing the stomach is much better with less side effects. The closer to normal eating the better physiologically (and\npsychologically) it is for you.",
"Yep. Called a [gastrectomy](_URL_1_). Many gastric cancer patients may have this done. They will have to change the way they eat for the rest of their lives, and have to deal with something called 'dumping syndrome' from time to time - where food moves too quickly from oesophagus to intestine and causes side effects such as blood glucose spikes and hot flushes. To combat this, small frequent meals are advised to ensure adequate nutrition and avoid side-effects. For recovery after the surgery, parenteral nutrition or enteral nutrition using feeding straight into the jejunum can be used.",
"This is somewhat how gastric bypass surgeries are performed. The stomach is cut just below the esophagus, and also at some point on the small intestine (the amount of small intestine they choose to disconnect varies). Then the new \"start\" of the intestine is reattached to the tiny stomach-pouch, so that person, at least for some time after surgery, is left with a golf ball-tennis ball sized stomach.\n\n[Illustration of the process](_URL_2_) \n\nThe tail end of the stomach may also be reattached to the new \"limb,\" as it produces hormones that are beneficial.",
"I believe so, but you need something to replace how the stomach breaks down the food. If you can get access to broken down food, then the stomach is basically just an adaptation for holding excess food, so you can eat a lot at once, and not have to eat for a while after. Without it, you would need to get constant access to broken down food because there is no where to store any excess food. Basically, you would have to eat broken down food constantly, all the time.",
"Yes. I had a patient who had to have his stomach removed because it had been destroyed after an attempt to commit suicide by drinking acid. He has a feeding tube connected directly to his jejunum. (most of his esophagus is gone, and the part that is left is too scarred up to do much swallowing.)"
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenteral_nutrition",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrectomy",
"http://roxbariatric.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/RYGB.png"
]
}
|
Is it true you can live without a stomach?
|
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1r35c8
|
If a material is bent and kept under stress is there a way to calculate when it will become accustomed to its new shape and no longer be under stress?
|
For example, if you compress a spring can you determine approximately when it will no longer expand when the weight is removed?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Engineer here.\nEssentially the answer is never. \n\nUnless the force exceeds the yield stress of the steel in the spring causing the steel to fail, or if the spring is heated up and cooled down (re-crystallizing) in the deformed shape, or it completely rusts, it will spring back when the force is released.\n\nMetals can fail under repeated compression/release cycles if close to the yield stress, but a constant load like a weight will not cause steel to permanently compress (with the above noted exceptions).\n\nMany of the engineered structures you take for granted rely on the permanence of the elasticity of steel below the yield stress.",
"Springs are usually made of metal, which has already been discussed. Ceramics act similarly, within the elastic limit at least. Polymers, on the other hand, can have both a strain and a strain rate, so if you apply a constant strain to most plastics they will eventually flow to relieve the stress.\n\nThe basic equation for this behavior is e = (S / E) + (T / V)*t. e is the normal strain, S is the normal stress in the material, E is the tensile modulus, T is the shear stress in the material (which always exists, even if only normal force or stress is applied), and V is the viscosity. If you set a value for e and you know everything else, you can solve for the time. E and V are material properties, T can be calculated from S, and S can be calculated from e. The resulting expression is a differential equation that shows the stress in the material asymptotically approaches zero, and the strain rate asymptotically reaches zero. The time constant depends on the material properties.\n\nThis is for a constant strain, though. What about for a constant stress? This would be like suspending a weight with a polymer rope. As the polymer rope supports the weight, the polymer flows to relieve the stress. But the weight responds by dropping down, and \"reapplying\" the stress. So the stress stays constant, and the rope would respond with a constant strain, plus a constant strain rate. So it'll stretch initially as the weight is applied, and will stretch even more as time goes on. (Eventually it'll stretch too much and snap, though.)",
"Materials scientist here. Technically, all materials will, over a long enough time scale, relax at the atomic level such that any stresses are negated.\n\nStress, like almost everything else, really happens at the atomic level. When you compress a string, the atoms in that metal must rearrange in some way to accommodate this deformation. This can means stretching of atomic bonds or simply the grinding together of microscopic grains within the metal, for example. These structural rearrangements will leave the atoms in a high energy state.\n\nThermodynamically, atomic systems tend to relax to their lowest energy accessible state. Thus, when the atoms are rearranged during deformation, they will then move around until they adopt an arrangement that minimizes the material's internal stress, one similar to that exhibited prior to deformation. The problem is that, at room temperature, this process is extremely slow. The motion of atoms, called diffusion, is, for most materials, only appreciable at high temperatures.\n\nSo yes, the relaxation time of an applied stress can be calculated if a lot of material specific values related to atomic vibrations, diffusion, grain boundary slide, structure defects, etc. are known. For most engineering materials, at room temperature, this will yield very long times (sometimes geologic timescales). Plastics, on the other hand, often relax very quickly, such that it can be observed in laboratory experiments. A good place to start if you want to learn more would be to read about the highly industrial-relevant process of [annealing](_URL_0_).",
"It is common to describe the creep rate of a material by an empirical power law of the applied stress, i.e. \ndε/dt = k\\*σ^n where k is a constant determined by the creep mechanism, temperature, etc. If we substitute ε=σ/E, then we have a simple differential equation for the time-dependence of the stress. It can be solved to yield \nσ(t) = ( σ(0)^(n-1) - E\\*k\\*t\\*(n-1) )^1/(n-1)\n\nThis model predicts that the stress never reaches zero, so there will always be some expansion when the load is removed, but that the expansion becomes arbitrarily small as time increases. If you run experiments/look up tabulated values to determine E, k, and n, then you can use the above equation to predict how much your material will expand when you remove the applied load after some time t.\n\nAdjustments can be made to the differential equation to better suit the particular material that you are working with. For example, when the dominant mechanism of deformation is dislocation creep (as is probably the case for your example of a spring), it is common to replace σ^n with (σ-σ\\*)^n - that is, the material ceases to creep once the stress drops below some threshold σ\\*. In this situation, the material will still expand by σ\\*/E even if you leave it under stress for an indefinite amount of time."
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"url": []
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)"
]
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|
If a material is bent and kept under stress is there a way to calculate when it will become accustomed to its new shape and no longer be under stress?
For example, if you compress a spring can you determine approximately when it will no longer expand when the weight is removed?
|
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6h8xcw
|
"There are no fields really, just particles"?
|
I was watching a lecture by Nima Arkani Hamed of Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study and I remember he said in the lecture "There are no fields really, just particles. Fields are just a mathematical construct that is useful in describing a particle." Was I wrong in thinking fields were real physical things that permeate spacetime? Or are they just useful mathematics to describe the underlying particle that has always existed. If that is the case why would we use terms like "field excitation" if the field isn't really a physical thing that exists independently?
|
askscience
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"text": [
"When quantum field theory was first being developed (note it's called quantum *field* theory, not quantum *particle* theory), there were the field theorists on one side (e.g. Schwinger & Tomonaga), and then there was Feynman doing his own quirky thing, trying to write everything in terms of particles. Feynman had invented his path-integral approach, in which everything was described in terms of particles following every possible path. Initially Feynman thought he had his own unique theory in which everything was described by particles, but remarkably Dyson showed around 1950 that his theory was equivalent to the quantum field theory that everyone else was working on. Now pretty much everyone considers the fields as fundamental, and Feynman's \"particle picture\" is just considered an extremely useful tool, but there is still considerable room for people like Nima (apparently, I'm taking your word for what he said in the lecture you saw) to hold to a particle picture, and there is also room to be ambivalent about it. A lot depends on your interpretation of quantum mechanics. Feynman's particle picture is very similar to Everett's \"many worlds\" picture (each particle path representing a not-yet-decohered world-line; this interpretation was fleshed out in the so-called \"consistent histories\" interpretation), but interestingly in Everett's interpretation the quantum wave function (and likewise the field in QFT) is fundamental, and the particle-like \"slices\" of the field depend on how you choose to chop-up (\"coarse-grain\") the field as it decoheres. This sort of thing is problematic for the particle picture, because you end up seeing that the \"particles\" are not unique, and this is true more widely in perturbative QFT, where the \"virtual particles\" on the internal legs of feynman diagrams depend on your basis states, on your chosen gauge, and on your chosen regularization scheme. And even the number of real particles depends on reference frame (Unruh radiation). So that's an example of why people tend to just stick with the field picture rather than take the particle picture too seriously (though the particle picture can be seductive, with Feynman's \"antiparticles are just particles moving backward in time\" tricks and so on). String theory is a perturbative theory that sort of extends Feynman's version of QFT to higher dimensions, and I know Nima does some string theory, so that might be one reason he might be philosophically predisposed to a particle-like point of view.",
"Not a physicist, but that sounds exactly backwards to what I understand about it.",
"Technically, since particles are what are measured in the end, that is a way of seeing it. After all, what physically exists but what can be measured? (at least in principle) \n\nBut since the field framework also allows you analyze how and when the particles can be measured, and even how different observers will see different particles in some cases, you could also see the particles as a consequence of the fields. (this is how I see it) And even if there are only particles, they certainly aren't particles when you aren't measuring them, and then what is there?\n\nEach real particle in nature is really a complicated interaction of several fields at once, but this is only true in between measurements so maybe he would say that this is also just a \"way of describing a particle\". But if the only correct way to describe the particle is with fields, it doesn't seem right to say they don't exist.",
"Nima likes to be provocative. I don't even know if he actually believes some of the things he says (this being one of them). He also tends to work only in certain highly idealized, highly symmetrical theories whose structure he can exploit to derive interesting results. In such theories it might be fair to say such a thing.\n\nHowever, when it comes to something like the standard model, the field point of view is essentially incontrovertible. Things like monopoles, instantons, sphalerons, and the like depend on taking the field point of view seriously. It would be a huge surprise if such things were really particle effects.\n\nIt's also worth noting that \"particle\" for a particle physicist doesn't mean a billiard ball type thing. It's still a wavelike object."
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"There are no fields really, just particles"?
I was watching a lecture by Nima Arkani Hamed of Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study and I remember he said in the lecture "There are no fields really, just particles. Fields are just a mathematical construct that is useful in describing a particle." Was I wrong in thinking fields were real physical things that permeate spacetime? Or are they just useful mathematics to describe the underlying particle that has always existed. If that is the case why would we use terms like "field excitation" if the field isn't really a physical thing that exists independently?
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mv2od
|
Why can't we sleep at will?
|
Yes I have seen the scumbag brain posts, and tried reading up Wikipedia, but what I don't understand is why can't we sleep at will. On more than one occasion we all end up tossing and turning around in the bed when sleep is all we need, so why?
Edit 1: Thank you mechamesh for answering everyone's queries.
|
askscience
|
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"Sleep pressure is a combination of homeostatic and circadian pressure, what is called the [two-process model of sleep regulation](_URL_0_). \n\nTo simplify: the homeostatic pressure comes from how much sleep an individual has had recently, while the circadian pressure comes from the ideal time of day for sleep for that individual. When both types of pressure are high (*an individual is sleep deprived at the typical sleep time*), sleep is likely, whereas when both types of pressure are low (*an individual is well-rested at an atypical sleep time*), sleep is more difficult.\n\nAn individual can set up an environment and schedule conducive to sleep but cannot \"will\" sleep; it is not quite a volitional process. \n\nAn inability to sleep could be due to insufficient homeostatic pressure, insufficient circadian pressure (jet lag, or shifted circadian clocks in adolescents), or some other process that overrides these sleep pressures (caffeine/drugs, exercise, stress, infection, neurological disorders, etc.). That being said, there's a lot unknown about sleep and inability to sleep. This is still a very 'young' field. Hope this helps.\n\nEdit: A clarification... I didn't mean to imply that people cannot choose to try to sleep at any time in any given environment (eg. napping)--what I meant is that sleep is not akin to contracting a voluntary muscle, nor is it normally an instantaneous switch under volitional control.\n\nEdit 2: There was a reply somewhere that said:\n > Solution: be sleep deprived all the time, sleep at will anytime!\n\nThis is a remarkably accurate answer. Falling asleep very quickly shouldn't be mistaken for 'willing' oneself to sleep. It just means that homeostatic pressure is very, very high.\n\nEdit 3: Some people have (accurately) pointed out that I haven't really answered the question *why*. I commented below on my reasoning, which I'm copying here:\n\n > Sorry, but I can't answer \"why.\" I don't know the circumstances under which the sleep system evolved or under which some ideal sleep system should have evolved but didn't. It's a teleological question, and while I'm sure I could make something up that sounds reasonable, that would make me deeply uncomfortable.",
"Related to this..\n\nWhy, after I have had an optimal amount of sleep, do I still fall asleep in a lecture?",
"All very interesting answers, but I'd still like to know an answer to the original question: Why can't we fall asleep at will?",
"How can you ask that question when you don't even know who you are?\nYou don't pump your heart.\nYou don't grow your body.\n\nThe \"I\" that desires to control sleep is in fact part of the whole process of sleeping. Thought has created a center in which it has fooled itself into pretending it *controls* things, the fact is, everything goes on by itself. Thought is caught in the illusion.\n\nThe organism will sleep when it feels the time is right, you have no choice in the matter, you only think you do :P\n\nIf this is confusing just let me know I'll clarify",
"Related question: Can't we induce sleep through exhaustion? And if so, is it good for our health?\n\nI always find it much easier to fall asleep when I am very tired, like after swimming, or walking, or exercising in general. Always worked for me in the past, heavy exercising, taking a shower and falling to bed shuts down my brain within minutes.\n\nHowever I wonder if it's not good for the heart in the short run. In the long run, sure, you get healthier so you live longer, but are you in any short term danger if you exhaust yourself to sleep systematically?",
"My credentials : Zero! (Took British A-Level Biology)\n \n \nFrom an evolutionary perspective, perhaps taking time to ensure that your surroundings are safe is required. Alternatively, when you're REALLY tired and take almost no time to turn off, then statistically, perhaps having *some* sleep is safer than wasting time checking where you are is safe.\n\nTaking time to acclimatise to the surroundings ensures our safetly (For example - we *can* sleep in very noisy environments, such as an aeroplane, and I have seen people pass out in front of speakers at concerts!! Shit, are they gonna regret annihilating their hearing when they wake up!) so long as our brain knows we're safe in that particular area, i.e. no nocturnal hunter etc.. This idea also ties in with the fact that, paradoxically, the *more* relaxed your state, the more of an adrenaline shock you get when you're suddenly awakened! When alarms or sudden noises interrupt my state of mind 'just about to sleep' , the higher I leap out of bed to investigate! \n \nInteresting then, that the total opposite happens when you wake up! After a sustained length of time in your safe position, you don't want to! Even if you are rudely awakened, it's as if, after 8 hours you know you're safe, so your fight or flight mechanism is dulled.\n \nPresumably, sleep is one of the oldest mental processes built into our brains, so Dog only knows what *moving-beds* have done to the evolutionary process - sleeping on planes, horse-drawn carriages, the back of taxis.. It's not a natural state of being, but it goes to prove mental elasticity at work.\n\nTo back up my original total guess/ theory; I wonder how long it takes Dolphins to fall asleep - I believe they have 2 hemispheres that independently sleep. Therefore, knowing that you're safe by, as-it-were, 'keeping one eye open', Dolphins should fall asleep instantly, or very quickly, because they need no time to ensure their own safety with one side of the brain constantly on...",
"I will give it a shot. Not an expert, but a physician and an evolutionary biologist in college. \nTeleologically, it could break down into several reasons:\n\n* Going to sleep is a quite complex process that involves shutting down several systems and turning on others, which can't be ramped up/down immediately. The commonness of sleep disorders illustrates how complex sleep can be.\n\n* Evolutionarily, going to sleep immediately would mean you would inevitably will yourself to sleep by accident at inopportune times (imagine a nuclear weapons switch that didn't require authorization codes and other delaying/are-you-really-sure mechanisms). You don't want something as important as consciousness on a hair-trigger.\n\n* Fast-sleep would mean you would be going to sleep without making sure you're bedding down for 6+ hours in a safe spot. You'd want a decent 10-15 minutes to make sure nothing's coming after you, there's nothing unsafe about the environment, etc."
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|
Why can't we sleep at will?
Yes I have seen the scumbag brain posts, and tried reading up Wikipedia, but what I don't understand is why can't we sleep at will. On more than one occasion we all end up tossing and turning around in the bed when sleep is all we need, so why? Edit 1: Thank you mechamesh for answering everyone's queries.
|
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