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3xjbqr
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What causes the compulsion to frequently check social media?
|
[removed]
|
askscience
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"Social media checking follows a \"variable-interval\" schedule of reinforcement. In other words, you don't know when you'll get a notification, or even if you're just scrolling, come across entertaining stories or media shared by the people you follow. This schedule of reinforcement is resistant to behavioral extinction, in other words, the randomness of the gratification provided by social media makes it hard for you to stop checking.",
"There's a whole book written by a user experience expert called \"Hooked\". Basically, there are three steps:\n\n*1. Trigger:* Something triggers you to check Facebook- you're lonely, bored, you missed a party and have FOMO. Could also be getting that vibrate + notification.\n\n*2. Action:* So you go to Facebook to feel like you're with people, entertain yourself, and look at pics of said party. Or you check the new message or notification.\n\n*3. Reward:* Likes! Comments! Messages! Your phone vibrates- you're wanted! It's even better when it's unpredictable- just like slot machines.\n\n*4. Investment:* Now you want to do something to get more triggers so you can get rewarded again with likes and messages and digital love! Go post a new status, send a random message, comment on that photo. Maybe someone will give you a like or a comment back and then you'll come back to Step 1 to start the process all over again.\n\nFrom: _URL_0_ \n\nFrom: Nir Eyal's book \"Hooked\"",
"[Marshall McLuhan: Understanding Media](_URL_1_)\nWritten in the 60s and still a better book about internet phenomenon than 99% of the verbal diarrhea they trot out today.\n\n\nHe talks about new media extending a sense and electronic media extending the nervous system outside the body. When you're disconnected from social media it throws off your sensory balance. You know how when something is numb you can't help but rub it to try and get some sensation? Same thing.\n\n\nHe also talks about online newspapers that can be configured to the users' preferences and the dangers of creating such an echo chamber.",
"Before you conclude this question as answered, I would strongly recommend exploring other more interdisciplinary vistas. I would love to see some sociological or philosophical studies weigh in on the subject. Is it a western issue? What's the difference between urbanized regions and rural? What is the influence of work evasion or social isolation?"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.wired.com/2014/12/how-to-build-habit-forming-products/",
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What causes the compulsion to frequently check social media?
[removed]
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cakca3
|
Do other Great apes pee holding their penises with their hands or is that just humans?
|
askscience
|
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"Former zookeeper here: I’ve only personally worked with lesser apes, but from my observations they either squat to use their urine to scent mark, or just pee from their perch. No hands involved. Ring tailed lemurs (not an ape, but a tangentially related fun fact) will pee on their tails, then flick the scent at each other. \n\nThe rest of the great apes have much much smaller penis to body size ratios than humans do. Gorillas are only about the size of your pinky. Also unlike humans, most apes have a penis bone, which means their flaccid penis is much less “floppy.” So humans have a much different penis anatomy than other apes, which could lead to the behavioral difference of holding it while you pee.",
"Human male penis size relative to body size is VASTLY greater than other apes (and almost every other mammal). This is likely due to a number of reasons, although it’s important to understand that physical evolutionary traits are not being governed by some conscious force trying to get optimal results, so it could just be a random genetic mutational accident that we have since compensated for (as long as it doesn’t seriously inhibit reproduction then a trot won’t be selected against).\n\nFirst, is that we have a very low degree of sexual dimorphism compared to other apes (and many mammals in general). A male gorilla with a penis the same proportions as their body compared to humans would potentially cause a lot of pain from ripping and tearing the relatively much smaller female gorillas, for example (especially considering they don’t generally give the female any time to “warm up” and get the natural lubricant flowing).\n\nSecond, female sexual pleasure is an important part of human mating, and encourages more frequent reproduction opportunities compared to animals that don’t have this trait. Other traits that contribute to this effect in humans are frequent menstrual cycles concealed estrus. Instead of a yearly period of “heat,” human females are available for insemination at regular, frequent intervals. It’s apparent in other species when the female is fertile, but human females do not exhibit engorged and discolored labia, nor do they exhibit strong pheromones during their period of receptivity to being impregnated. All of this contributes to increased mating opportunities. It also contributes to a confusion about paternal parentage, which seriously reduces the amount of babies killed by dominant males that only want females to spend their time and energy caring for their children (since any of the kids given birth to by a female they have mated with could be theirs), which would otherwise be common, and is still frequently seen when males from outside a group take over that group (they can safely kill all the kids because they definitely aren’t theirs). But that’s not relevant to the current discussion; I just wanted to point out how these things aren’t only related to the same root causes as increased penis size, and how they may not really be related to penis size at all. Some of these factors are also present in other primates, not just us.\n\nThird is the phenomenon of a sperm arms race, due to the aforementioned incentive for frequent copulation of females with multiple males in the same general time period. When multiple males inseminate a female around the same time, the one that gets their sperm the furthest in has a better chance. Ejaculation velocity and sperm “swimming” speed are also important, but sperm can be relatively slow to get going through the first parts of the vagina, so those things being equal, a longer penis equals enhanced reproductive capabilities. Gorillas, for example, typically only have one male attempting copulation within their harem at any one time, so there is no need for sperm competition.\n\nIf you look outside apes to other primates, there are a bunch of monkeys that have similar penis ratios, likely for similar reasons, so we’re not exclusive with this particular trait. We do have very small testicles relative to our body weight, compared with other apes, but I haven’t studied the reasons for this as much so I’ll just leave it at that, except to say that chimpanzees probably have even more sperm competition than humans ever did, but they don’t have larger penises, and that’s probably because their testes are over 33% the size of their brains, while ours are a paltry 3%. This is because their solution to this sperm competition is to use their massive testicles to copulate with females many times a day, every day, whereas if humans attempt this, their sperm count drops drastically after only two ejaculations a day.\n\nThere are a variety of other factors to consider, such as our tendency towards monogamy and how it clashes with some of these other theories. We could have moved closer to monogamy relatively recently, but conflicting with that is the fact that Humans have remarkably smooth penises, which is generally found in monogamous species. Polygynous species usually have odd proportions such as huge heads that act as a plug, or bumps and ridges and extreme curvatures, etc. Human males also are quite a bit bigger than females, just not as much as some other species.\n\nEdit: I meant to respond to the other comment about this, not the main post.",
"Chimpanzees caregiver here, I have never seen any use their hand to pee. Most of the time they just pee off a ledge. I have seen one pee into a bottle before but he didn’t use his hands he just brought the bottle to the stream.",
"Follow-up questions: When did we start doing that? Since we designated holes to piss in, or before? I mean I would suspect the only way to have any idea would be from a well-preserved, old-ass cave painting of a dude draining his pisser lizard, right? Would that have been a thing back then? Like, early piss porn or something?",
"Biological anthropologist here 👋🏼 this is an excellent question! While a lot of the answers are (for the most part) plausible, I noticed there’s an absence of citation. I know this is an informal platform but some peer reviewed journals would be nice to refer to! \n\nWhile my interests do align with reproductive ecology, I don’t have enough experience with this topic to give a thorough explanation but I think if you also posted this on r/Anthropology you’d get some insight as well"
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Do other Great apes pee holding their penises with their hands or is that just humans?
|
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||
ck9p42
|
Is there evidence that animals can have fun?
|
Playing with my dog, he seems to be having fun. Is this fun as humans feel it or is it just a dogs instinct to be part of the pack?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"evlckbp",
"evl2lp2",
"evlvzz3",
"evmkp6x",
"evm7l4z"
],
"text": [
"Obviously we can only assume what their emotional world is like from their external behaviors since they can't inform us of it directly, but as a former zoo guide who spent hundreds of hours watching a variety of animals, I would unequivocally say that yes, animals play and yes they seem to have fun while doing so. Tell me [this guy](_URL_0_) is doing anything other than having fun.",
"This is difficult to answer because it is difficult to operationalize fun. How do we know that a person is having fun without them telling us? What behavior would we need to observe? If we're willing to say that voluntary engagement in \"play\" constitutes fun, then the answer is yes. Many species of mammals engage in play; see [here](_URL_1_)",
"Just like it's currently impossible to quantify the experience of green and be sure that two people experience the same color when they see green, it also currently impossible to know if an animal experiences the same feelings that we do. We know too little about consciousness.",
"Many animals seem to play. I've watched Crows slide down a roof and then go back to the top, just seemingly for fun. (There are also videos of this online). The local Aquarium noticed that their resident Pacific Giant Octopus liked to play (one day, for enrichment, a caretaker tossed an empty pill bottle, filled with water, into its tank and three Octopus started pushing it around with its siphon.\n\nAnd if you've ever seen river otters in the wild, they are constantly playing. Sliding down muddy embankments and into the water and so forth.\n\nAnyhow, as others have stated there's no way to know what's going through their heads when they do this, but there must be some immediate reward to encourage this otherwise pointless activity. The only thing I can think of is the neurochemical kick you get from having fun.",
"Orcas will play with a caught seal, tossing it high in the air and letting it almost get away before catching it again. Attenborough had a nice segment on it. I've seen a cat play with a caught mouse, putting a paw on it every time it started to move. Both behaviors look like a human fooling around, activities we would describe as fun because they serve no obvious purpose and indeed risk food escaping, though in both cases the risk is low. That is, you do it because it is fun, not to eat or reproduce it about pain and suffering."
],
"score": [
17,
17,
4,
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]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1WupH8oyrAo",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(activity\\)"
]
}
|
Is there evidence that animals can have fun?
Playing with my dog, he seems to be having fun. Is this fun as humans feel it or is it just a dogs instinct to be part of the pack?
|
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] |
|
44hdkc
|
Are memories raster or vector?
|
To clarify, are visual memories low-level descriptions of experiences derived more or less directly from sense data, or are they higher-level 'statements' from which the brain constructs mental images?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"czqns7i",
"czqqc5b",
"czto0gr"
],
"text": [
"You're apply a completely inappropriate analogy. I might as well ask, \"Are the binary traces on a hard drive male or female?\". While brains perform computational tasks, they are not computers.\n\nMemory are formed by the increased/decreased strength of connections between areas of the brain encoding specific things.",
"At the heart of your question is how the conscious experience of a memory arises from the activity of the brain at all. Whoever answers that wins a Nobel Prize, 70 virgins, and some type of patent for mind reading technology.\n\nBut the best answer I can give is that any unitary, semantic memory is biased by many other processes—if it's the image of that time you found a huge-ass spider in your bed, it's probably vivid: the carapace larger than it actually was; closer to your pillow than how it really happened.\n\nThat's just one example, but memories of any type can be distorted by a similar, intrinsic emotional charge of the subject of the memory, your mood when it happened, your mood when you recall it, other events going on at the time that may have confused you or interfered with the memory's storage (getting told a phone number and then having a loud bang go off), what time of your life it occurred during, and many, many other factors. \n\nAs an example of the last one, the neurologist Oliver Sacks told of one time as an adult writing his brother and telling him of his memory of what it was like to have a Luftwaffe bomb incinerate his front yard when he was a small child. His brother told him that it was actually HIM, not O. Sacks, that had seen the bomb; the description of the event written by his brother was so vivid that Sacks had convinced himself it was his own (visual) memory. \n\nThere is also strong evidence that memories are re-suspended in a state of vulnerability each time they're recalled. During this state, they can either be strengthened or manipulated. \n\nSo I suppose the answer, especially considering that last fact, is that memories are anything but a compendium of sense data. They're processed, amplified, skewed, and sometimes even falsified according to our past experience and emotional/physiological state—both at time of the event and at recall.",
"I get your question, and that's why I'll try describing the process without using the word 'memory'.\n\nFirst, consider that all sensory information exists in the form of patterns. Sequences repeating themselves. Patterns of photons hitting your retina, patterns of air pressure hitting your tympanic membrane, patterns of tactile stimulation of sensory neurons in your skin.\n\nSecond, consider that there are different levels of patterns. One part of the visual hierarchy recognizes patterns of lines in certain directions, the next recognizes shapes, the next more complex shapes, and so on.\n\nThird, consider that the higher areas of the hierarchy are always trying to predict the activity of the lower levels.\n\nSo you have increasingly abstract levels of pattern recognizers and a continuous stream of sensory information. A certain percentage of the information consists of patterns you can recognize and predict using higher levels. The residual is either noise or patterns you haven't learned yet. Well, I guess it's always a combination.\n\nYour experience of the world, then, is a mix of predictions and sensory stimulation. We can then turn to the process of imagination to which you referred.\n\nYou have a repertoire of patterns--a mental model of the world. When you are \"experiencing\" something in your mind, you are exploring these patterns. The abstract versions of real-life patterns that you have extracted.\n\nThis is a framework for understanding \"memory\" that I find useful."
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Are memories raster or vector?
To clarify, are visual memories low-level descriptions of experiences derived more or less directly from sense data, or are they higher-level 'statements' from which the brain constructs mental images?
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] |
|
2i3fsf
|
What is scientifically the most filling/satiating food to eat before a fast?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ckyg71t",
"ckyhqcr",
"ckyj7q4",
"ckyir1k"
],
"text": [
"Of the three macronutrients, protein is generally the most satiating, followed by carbohydrate. Fat as such is not as satiating as the other two, but a meal's fat content does delay gastric emptying, which may or may not prolong the sensation of satiety. Also fiber.\n\nThe optimal carbohydrate source would likely be something with a low glycemic index. The postprandial elevation in blood glucose will then be reversed gradually, as opposed to a prominent spike in blood sugar followed by a rapid crash under the baseline level, potentially triggering another bout of hunger.",
"PDF Warning: [The Satiety Index List](_URL_0_)\n\nThis study indicates that potatoes, oatmeal and fruit are some of the most filling foods.",
"Oatmeal! Old fashioned oats, some peanut butter and maybe some fruit mixed in. You have both ends of the glycemic index as well as a bit of fiber. Should keep you full and help with the blood sugar early on and later as well.",
"Not the most analytic approach, but I'd look to the diet of animals that eat the least frequently for insight into what will keep you [feeling] fed the longest. Some animals can go days at a time without feeding."
],
"score": [
12,
8,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ernaehrungsdenkwerkstatt.de/fileadmin/user_upload/EDWText/TextElemente/Ernaehrungswissenschaft/Naehrstoffe/Saettigung_Lebensmittel_Satiety_Index.pdf"
]
}
|
What is scientifically the most filling/satiating food to eat before a fast?
|
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bnbz69
|
In capillary effect: where do liquids take the energy from to "climb up" objects?
|
We asked our physics teacher this question and he didn't know the answear nor could anyone figure it out. I'm really curious about this topic since and couldn't find the answear anywhere on the Internet.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"en4g6zu",
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"text": [
"The energy comes from adhesion between the liquid and the surface of the container. \n\nCohesion between the liquid molecules contributes a negative potential energy to the system, but the surface molecules aren’t completely surrounded, resulting in higher (more positive) potential energy. This results in surface tension, and encourages a small surface-to-volume ratio. That’s why water droplets are spherical. \n\nMolecules at the edge of a container are also “missing” adjacent particles to their side, not just above, but instead are adjacent, at least in part, to the container wall. Adhesion between two molecules contributes negative potential energy, and so as long as the liquid adheres at all to the container surface, there will be a balancing act: the more fluid in contact with the container wall, the more negative potential energy from adhesion, but the more gravitational potential energy and the more surface tension. The height of the meniscus is the point where these effects all balance out.\n\nIn terms of forces, the water touching the container surface is literally being pulled upwards by attractive forces from the (higher) molecules in the container wall, which in turn pull some of the other water molecules up. This process stops when the adhesion between the fluid and the surface can’t support any more weight or opposing surface tension.\n\nThis phenomenon results in some cool things, too. Superfluids (like liquid helium) have zero surface tension. As a result, [they will flow vertically upwards](_URL_0_) along most surfaces - as long as the adhesion from the surface is greater than the force of gravity, there’s nothing it stop it from flowing upwards! In other words, unless it’s containment vessel is closed at the top, superfluids will flow up the walls and then out of a container!\n\nAlso, if you place a liquid into a container made of a material that repels the fluid (like water into a container made of anything hydrophobic), then the opposite of the capillary effect will occur, with the water bulging upwards in the middle to minimize contact with the surface, and minimizing the overall potential energy of the system.",
"It has to do with interaction of liquid with the surface its climbing. The attraction between the surface and the liquid is greater than gravity, so it continues to climb. The greater the attraction the further up it can climb. \n\nThe specifics of what causes the attraction depend on the liquid and the surface, but in general its because of the inter molecular forces (dipole-dipole interactions, London Dispersion forces, etc). In other words you could coat the surface with something even as thin as a single layer of molecules and prevent this from happening!",
"Surface energy exists at every surface. Drop a drop of water on a flat surface, and sometimes it spreads out flat, and sometimes it forms a “ball”. This is called wetting and is caused by the combination of the two surface energies. If you put two surfaces close enough together, the free energy of surface 1 surface 2 and the surface of the fluid draw the fluid in. If the surfaces are close enough, this drawing action will be stronger than gravity",
"The energy is from electrostatic interactions between molecules.\n\nIn more detail, electrical potential energy is released when you bring two molecules together. The source of the energy is easiest to see when both of the molecules are polar -- at that point you're bringing opposite charges together -- so let's focus on that case. The energy that pulls the water up a glass tube comes from the electrical attraction between, for example, a slightly positively-charged hydrogen of a polar water molecule and a slightly negatively-charged oxygen in the glass.\n\nOne question you might have is: how does this energy \"get into\" the glass, so that it can be released when it contacts the water? For example, if you have a wet glass tube which some water has already climbed up, apparently this electrical potential energy has already been released. But we know that wet glass doesn't stay wet forever, because the water evaporates. At that point you can use it once again to pull water upwards, so somehow the energy must have been put back into the glass during the drying process. That is exactly correct: it takes a little bit more energy to evaporate a water molecule from the surface of glass than it does to evaporate a water molecule from the surface of water. That little bit of extra energy spent to yank the water molecule away from the electrically attractive point on the glass surface is the energy that will be recovered later when the glass is exposed to water again.\n\nNow, the explanation I've given so far does leave out one fact that most of the other answers have focused on. In order to pull water up a glass tube, it's not enough that there be an attraction between the glass and a water molecule. It also has to be a strong enough attraction to \"win\" against the attraction between that water molecule and the rest of the water. That's where factors like surface tension come in. But you don't have to understand surface tension to understand the source of the energy that pulls the water upwards."
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{
"url": [
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|
In capillary effect: where do liquids take the energy from to "climb up" objects?
We asked our physics teacher this question and he didn't know the answear nor could anyone figure it out. I'm really curious about this topic since and couldn't find the answear anywhere on the Internet.
|
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|
60nknp
|
Why do p-values in statistical tests have a cut-off point of 0.05?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"It's completely arbitrary and it depends on the field. Each field has its own conventions. There is nothing special about 5%, it's just generally seen as a reasonably small number.\n\nIn high energy physics, the convention for the discovery of a new particle is 5σ. I'm not in a place where I can convert that into a p-value at the moment, but suffice it to say, it's much smaller than 5%.",
"It's just a rule of thumb proposed by R.A. Fisher as reasonable. From his [*Statistical Methods for Research Workers* (1925):](_URL_1_)\n\n > ... the probability that a value so distributed, chosen at random, shall exceed a given deviation. ... Twice the standard deviation is exceeded only about once in 22 trials ... **The value for which P =·.05, or 1 in 20, is 1.96 or nearly 2; it is convenient to take this point as a limit in judging whether a deviation is to be considered significant or not. Deviations exceeding twice the standard deviation are thus formally regarded as significant.** Using this criterion, we should be led to follow up a negative result only once in 22 trials, even if the statistics are the only guide available. Small effects would still escape notice if the data were insufficiently numerous to bring them out, [b]ut no lowering of the standard of significance would meet this difficulty.\n\nHe also computed the [standard z-tables you probably used your intro stats course](_URL_0_) in this book, which I think differed from Karl Pearson's chi-squared tables by allowing a p-value to be compared to the various cutoffs rather than just using the actual p-value as Pearson provided. (Somebody correct me on this last point if I'm wrong.)",
"In null hypothesis significance testing, the \"cut-off point\" is your significance level (called alpha). It is the probability of making a Type 1 error (i.e., rejecting a true null hypothesis) that you're willing to accept when you do a hypothesis test. In many fields, a conventional significance level that is considered fairly conservative is alpha = .05.\n\nWhen conducting a hypothesis test, the p-value is the probability of obtaining a test statistic as extreme as (or more extreme than) your calculated test statistic, by chance alone, if the null hypothesis were true. The p-value is compared with alpha to assess statistical significance. If you get a p-value that is less than alpha (i.e., p < .05), then it means your test statistic has a very low probability in the context of the null hypothesis, which leads one to conclude that the null hypothesis is false and should be rejected (i.e., you have a statistically significant effect). However, there is a possibility that the null hypothesis is actually true, and you've made a Type 1 error by rejecting it. By setting alpha = .05, that error will occur 5% of the time across many repeated hypothesis tests, which is an acceptable error rate in many fields. In some contexts, a lower Type 1 error rate is desired, so alpha is set to a value such as .01 (which is why you'll sometimes see p < .01).\n\nI've skipped over a lot of information (e.g., sampling distributions), but hopefully this helps answer your question."
],
"score": [
30,
6,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fisher/Methods/tabI-II.gif",
"http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fisher/Methods/chap3.htm"
]
}
|
Why do p-values in statistical tests have a cut-off point of 0.05?
|
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8tpl4i
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Andrew Revkin, the strategic advisor for environmental and science journalism at the National Geographic Society-AMA!
|
Hi, my name's Andrew Revkin and I've been writing about global environmental change and risk for more than 30 years. I've reported from all kinds of places, including the North Pole, the White House, the Amazon, and the Vatican. Before becoming a strategic advisor at the National Geographic Society, I worked at the nonprofit investigative newsroom ProPublica and the New York Times.
You can read about my long climate journey in this Twitter thread: _URL_1_
And my latest piece for National Geographic Magazine here: _URL_2_
Another interesting tidbit, here's an article about the moment in 2009, when Rush Limbaugh suggested I "help the planet by dying" _URL_0_
I'll be on at 12pm EST (17 UT), AMA!
|
askscience
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"I feel like [this article](_URL_0_) from 2010 was a wake-up call to the poor state of science journalism. Do you think things have gotten better or worse since then?",
"What is one thing that regular people don't realize is a major problem and what can they do to help solve it?",
"How, from your experience, has the awareness and care about the climate and the environment changed in individuals over the last 30 years? Is the amount of people (even very influencial ones) saying climate change is a hoax an increasing trend, or is that just an effect of the current means of communication that has made it so much easier for people to reach an audience with their (informed or uninformed) opinions? (To illustrate, until about 5 years ago i had never heard anyone question climate change). Thank you for your work and doing this AMA, in my humble opinion you are definitely worth more to the environment alive than dead if it is any consolidation.",
"What are some of the most drastic changes you’ve seen over your years of reporting, either in terms of environmental changes or attitudes towards the environment? Has anything surprised you?",
"What’s a very special element of your job that not many other jobs have?",
"How has Fox's purchase of NG affected the culture? Have we missed out on any stories due to the new management rejecting certain narratives?",
"What would you most like to tell us that no one has asked about?",
"Can you describe the planning and bureaucracy that has gone into your work, and/or the major complications that prevent you from doing more for your work?\n\nWhat research/ers do you have an ill bias towards and why?\n\nEveryone’s heard of global warming and climate change, but as someone who hasn’t been well informed, what significant changes and/or developments have been found that aren’t highlighted enough in media, and can you provide names or links to find out more about them?",
"The chlorofluorocarbon ban shows that the world *can* come together and really do something - the ozone hole is recovering. What do you think is the chance that something similar will happen with climate change in the next decades?",
"Thanks, all, for tuning in. Here at the Aspen Ideas Festival, I have to go interview Brock Long, the director of FEMA. Stay in touch via @revkin on Twitter or follow [me on Facebook here.](_URL_1_)",
"Hi there, thanks for doing this AMA! After 30 years in the field, where do you think the future of climate change and environmental communication is headed, especially as we continue into tougher times?",
"I think for many scientists, science journalism is an important part of making the case for the necessity and importance of science to the public; which hopefully motivates science funding \n\nWith the changes to journalism and print of the past two decades (social media, shifts in funding structure, decline in total market), do you think the realtionship between scientists, science journalists, and the public has changed? Does it need to evolve further? I would love to hear how you percieve both the upsides and the downsides of how these relationships have evolved.",
"I see this as a hopeless, unsolvable problem. Too many of the global-scale changes that apparently need to happen immediately would result in entities accustomed to making billions and billions and billions and billions of dollars from fossil fuels having to settle for merely making billions and billions and billions.",
"Do you think we will be able to solve the problem of climate change , and how we should do it ? And what must be the responsibility of current journos and social media influencer in the same ?",
"What was the most effective thing you've done that you think changed people's minds about a science issue? \n\nOr--what's the most effective thing you've seen, that should be replicated on other hot [so to speak] topics?",
"Who's been your favorite climate scientist to interview over the years and why? What makes for a good interview in your opinion?",
"What is the single most impactful thing I can personally do in the fight against climate change?",
"Do you think journalists should be neutral or objective?"
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"url": [
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{
"url": [
"https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/sep/24/1",
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|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Andrew Revkin, the strategic advisor for environmental and science journalism at the National Geographic Society-AMA!
Hi, my name's Andrew Revkin and I've been writing about global environmental change and risk for more than 30 years. I've reported from all kinds of places, including the North Pole, the White House, the Amazon, and the Vatican. Before becoming a strategic advisor at the National Geographic Society, I worked at the nonprofit investigative newsroom ProPublica and the New York Times. You can read about my long climate journey in this Twitter thread: _URL_1_ And my latest piece for National Geographic Magazine here: _URL_2_ Another interesting tidbit, here's an article about the moment in 2009, when Rush Limbaugh suggested I "help the planet by dying" _URL_0_ I'll be on at 12pm EST (17 UT), AMA!
|
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|
6scyqw
|
Is it actually possible to see the curvature of the earth while standing on its surface?
|
I hear many people say at various times that some area is so flat they can see the earth's curvature. Isn't the earth too big for that? Wouldn't any "curvature" observed just be a localized landscape that doesn't actually represent the earths profile?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dlbw3cm",
"dlbvnrk",
"dlcp850",
"dlclogn"
],
"text": [
"It's most apparent in the ocean when there's no terrain to block your view. You can see the top of distant ships before you can see the bottom. It's the same with distant mountains. People have known the Earth was round for a long time.",
"You can see the effects of Earth's curvature standing on the surface - if you can see clear to the horizon, you'll notice that you can see the tops of things beyond it, rather than whole objects in miniature. \n\nBut it won't look like a round thing, other than by inference.",
"It's actually quite hard. A surface that perfectly follows the surface of the geoid, or theoretical curvature of the earth, (such as a perfectly calm sea) drops away at approximately 8 inches/mile (parabolically, see calculator [here](_URL_0_)). This is a very difficult to detect with the naked eye, even when looking at far away objects. Half-decent visibility at sea level is around 10mi, which equates to a \"drop\" from curvature of ~800 inches or ~67 feet. This is the equivalent to noticing a house from 10 miles away.\n\nAnother major issue is that at such distances atmospheric optical effects play a large role in distorting light near the surface, and can make the earth appear flatter or more curved than it actually is. For example a desert mirage makes far away images appear close (air on the ground bending the light around the earth), or making ships at sea appear to \"float\" above the horizon by \"hiding\" the ocean (air close to the sea bending light toward the sky). \n\nIf it was easy to see the curvature of the earth, we wouldn't have flat earthers.\n\nEdit: I originally approximated curvature using a linear shorthand instead of the more accurate parabolic model. I added a link to an online calculator that accurately calculates the curvature.",
"On the British motoring programme *Top Gear* one of the hosts, James May, went to Volkswagen's test track at Ehra-Lessein in central Germany (episode 2 of series 9). He noted that on the longest straightaway on the track (8.7 km or 5.4 mi), you couldn't see one end of the straight from the other, even though it's a perfectly flat and level road, due to the curvature of the earth."
],
"score": [
36,
15,
9,
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://dizzib.github.io/earth/curve-calc/?d0=5&h0=0&unit=imperial"
]
}
|
Is it actually possible to see the curvature of the earth while standing on its surface?
I hear many people say at various times that some area is so flat they can see the earth's curvature. Isn't the earth too big for that? Wouldn't any "curvature" observed just be a localized landscape that doesn't actually represent the earths profile?
|
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] |
|
xmcpx
|
What happens to a glass of water when you leave it standing?
|
I know that water doesn't really go "off" in the same way protein items would.
But if you leave it standing, the taste does change. What is happening, scientifically speaking?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5nn3r6",
"c5nppmn",
"c5nofhj",
"c5nn4a4",
"c5noyzy",
"c5nqo9h",
"c5nmhid"
],
"text": [
"indoor air quality is typically poor, so there are lots of pieces of particulate matter that could deposit themselves into the water and may affect the taste.",
"It hasn't been mentioned yet (?!) but a lot of the \"stuff\" floating in the air is actually bacteria that can photosynthesize. All these cyanobacteria need to start growing is some light (not even that much, although they grow slowly), water, and some ions in the form of salts and metals. Your glass of water has all of these things, so a small and very sparse ecosystem can begin. Of course, chemotrophic heterotrophs will also take up residence in this water, but they need either detritus from the air or simple biomolecule precursors (amino acids, sugars, etc) from phototrophic autotrophs to sustain their growth.\n\nAll of these little microbes make things that affect the taste slightly.",
"Dissolved gases (Primarily CO2, as well as O2) will impact your flavor. Also, your air is full of mold spores and yeast. These guys can activate in the water, and start to feed off of airborne dust.",
"particles in the air get in the water. dust , pollen , etc",
"Say you have a half empty water bottle that is sealed. Is it bad to leave it for a few days/weeks and then drink? Obviously whatever is in the air inside the bottle will be in the water but hell, technically the water is in that air too so no harm no foul right?",
"The biggest change in taste will be from the temperature of the water. If you are use to drinking cool water from the faucet, room temperature water will taste different.\n\nThis being said, there are metals and minerals in all water sources. Water being stagnant for a long time can change the way these materials are dispersed throughout the water.",
"Also mould grows on water if left long enough, I too would like to know why this is."
],
"score": [
51,
41,
15,
14,
4,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What happens to a glass of water when you leave it standing?
I know that water doesn't really go "off" in the same way protein items would. But if you leave it standing, the taste does change. What is happening, scientifically speaking?
|
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|
1201dz
|
Which animals, other than humans, use recreational substances, and why?
|
I'm thinking along the lines of felines using catnip, but that's really the only example I can think of. I was just interested because I know that many humans use alcohol or drugs for myriad reasons, be it because they're depressed or using it as a substitute for something else, or just because they want to get loose.
So do other animals do the same thing?
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"Elephants and baboons in the Okavanga delta in Namibia will consume large quantities of fermenting fruit and stagger around drunk from the alcohol in the fruit. David Attenborough's Life On Earth series has videos of drunk elephants staggering sideways, crashing into trees. The video talks about them eventually passing out drunk; but going back and consuming more as soon as they wake up.",
"I remember watching a documentary that shows lemurs rubbing their faces against poisonous millipedes to achieve a \"psychedelic\" kind of high apparently. I'd link it if my phone was less shitty, it was very interesting.",
"Fruit fly's who are rejected by mates will drink alcohol and get drunk more often that fruit fly's who find mates.",
"A lot of animals are partial to getting drunk if they have the choice. \n\n*1) [Vervet monkeys on St. Kitts drinking the resort guest's cocktails](_URL_3_)\n\n*2) [Elephants that drank the beer supply of a village in India](_URL_0_)\n\n*3) [The marula trees took out a whole basin of animals here](_URL_1_)\n\n*4) [Drunken moose ends up in Swedish apple tree](_URL_4_)\n\n\nNonalcohol stuff (there's a lot more)\n\n*1) [Bighorn sheep suck narcotic lichens from rocks](_URL_2_)\n\n*2) [Reindeers feed on magic mushrooms](_URL_5_)\n\n** A lot of the stuff you'll read about is about animals eating fermented fruit and getting drunk.\n\n*edited for formatting*\n\nSource: I am in a biological anthropology MA program and have read much on primates and alcohol. Also, the internet.",
"Reindeer are known to eat magic mushrooms. \n\nHere's an interesting article that considers the link between the mushrooms and some Christmas traditions: [Did 'Shrooms Send Santa And His Reindeer Flying?](_URL_6_)",
"The BBC has some nice footage on this, or should I say youtube:\n\n(_URL_7_)",
"many animals exhibit zoopharmacognosy, or self-medication. Which is recreational use guess. It ranges through animalia from the wooly bear catepillar to birds to chimps",
"I've seen a lot of posts about fermented fruit and I'm a bit confused... I thought aerobic fermentation produced vinegar while anaerobic produces alcohol?"
],
"score": [
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2003969241_webelephants23.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xcyrBbgIRGI",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=6_nd2DZ-h-UC&pg=PA50&lpg=PA50&dq=bighorn+sheep+narcotic+lichens&source=bl&ots=Av8X4K571n&sig=NnNbPxXuqLBF_nv5YaiCxi0Yn4o&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_RSIUK6MF43LigKP0oCgCg&ved=0CFwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=bighorn%20sheep%20narcotic%20lichens&f=false",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSm7BcQHWXk",
"http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/09/08/sweden.drunken.moose/index.html",
"http://www.examiner.com/article/to-pass-the-time-reindeers-trip-on-magic-mushrooms",
"http://www.npr.org/2010/12/24/132260025/did-shrooms-send-santa-and-his-reindeer-flying",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D5E5TjkDvU0"
]
}
|
Which animals, other than humans, use recreational substances, and why?
I'm thinking along the lines of felines using catnip, but that's really the only example I can think of. I was just interested because I know that many humans use alcohol or drugs for myriad reasons, be it because they're depressed or using it as a substitute for something else, or just because they want to get loose. So do other animals do the same thing?
|
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1bsuar
|
What effects would castration have on a man's body?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Effects of castration are largely dependent on WHEN that castration takes place.\n\nA primary hypothesis that describes hormonal actions is called the 'organization and activation' model. \n\nDuring development in the womb, the body (more specifically the nervous system) is organized by high testosterone (if you're a male): male traits are emphasized while female traits are 'defeminized'. \n\nAfter birth there is a nadir in T, followed by another peak during the first few months after birth.\n\nThen T levels drop until late adolescence at the time of puberty, where this organization is 'activated' by another induction of high testosterone.\n\nAfter this, testosterone declines with age.\n\nIn short: Castration before puberty would have detrimental effects on both brain and body development, afterwords not so much...but would effect sperm counts, fertility, etc...",
"The human body has many complicated loops of endocrine feedback. Parts of your brain synthesize hormones that then cause other parts of your body to synthesize other hormones. This second stage of hormone production then \"feeds back\" to the brain to decrease the primary hormone synthesis. This is the main concept of negative feedback that keeps your body in homeostasis. A - > B -x- > A. This way, if the secondary hormone is low, your body produces more primary hormone which ultimately results in a higher secondary hormone. But high levels of secondary hormone decrease primary hormone synthesis so secondary hormone isn't over produced. \n\nTestosterone is involved in a similar feedback loop. Testosterone is produced by leydig cells in testicles in response to a hormone called leutenizing hormone (or LH). LH is produced by the anterior pituitary gland (sits in the sella turcica in your brain) and is also regulated by an even higher order feedback loop related to the hypothalamus. Low levels of testosterone result in increased production of LH, which then cause testes/leydig cells to secrete testosterone. Testosterone then feeds back to the pituitary (and hypothalamus) to decrease LH production so testosterone isn't over produced.\n\nCastration screws up this feedback loop. Without testosterone production, LH production goes into overdrive without the resulting testosterone increase. The decrease in testosterone results in decreased libido, decreased spermatogenesis, and yes, even gynecomastia (breat tissue production) because of an imbalance between estrogen/testosterone. \n\nThere a couple interesting consequences of this system. First, testosterone is converted to a hormone called dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by an enzyme named 5-alpha reductase. DHT is embryologically responsible for external male sex organ differentiation (and prostate), and is also responsible for male pattern baldness. If you decrease testosterone production, you decrease DHT production and men keep their hair longer. There is a LOT of research being done on topical 5-alpha reductase inhibitors that would stop male pattern baldness without further systemic symptoms.\n\nDHT is also responsible for growth of your prostate and BPH is considered to be a DHT-dependent pathology. Men with BPH are often treated with 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (Finasteride) to decrease peripheral conversion of testosterone to DHT, which ameliorates symptoms of BPH.\n\nAnother interesting consequence of this hormone feedback loop is the consequences of taking exogenous testosterone (steroids). Exogenous testosterone inhibits production of LH in the pituitary gland just like testosterone produced by your own body would. This decreases LH production, which therefore decreases testosterone production by your testes/leydig cells. This is the reason your testicles shrink if you take steroids. The decrease LH signal acting on the testes basically causes them to shrink because they aren't being used.",
"If you get castrated as a young boy, you will keep your child voice forever. That is why talented young singers used to have their testicles removed before they hit puberty. They would keep a high pitched voice which was very appreciated back in the day. They would have about the same range as a female singer. This is why many male roles in opera pieces are performed by females today; it was originally meant to be castrated men.",
"Hmmm. What if you remove one testicle? I'd imagine that the other would just pick up the slack, like in most cases, but any actual insights out there?\n\nIe- loss of a testicle due to testicular torsion and resultant effects.",
"Adrenal glands make testosterone, too, so would they compensate?",
"I am a transwoman, and I spent approximately 6 months on anti-androgens without the accompanying estrogen at the beginning of my physical transition (Doctor would not prescribe estrodiol until I got my blood pressure down). During that time period I noticed minor breast development, my emotions became much easier to access, libido took a nose dive and my skin softened considerably.\n\nThe emotional thing was actually quite profound with me. I felt as if I had been experiencing life one step removed from the actual events, like a volume knob on my experiences got turned from 3 to like 7 (10 came after the addition of estrogen). \n\nI have since had an orchiectomy, but I doubt my experiences since my castration would answer a lot, since I had been on estrogen since two years prior to surgery. What I can tell you though is I still am capable of an erection, though penis size has diminished (I'd guess about 60-70% of original size) and I am still capable of orgasm, and there is still fluid involved, just very little.",
"It might be worthwhile for you to check out _URL_0_. The [forums] (http://www._URL_0_/forums/forum.php) are a wealth of knowledge on the subject, including men that are either castrated, want to be, and even researchers studying eunuchism/castration. [Here is their FAQ](http://www._URL_0_/forums/faq.php?faq=ea_faqs#faq_new_faq_item)"
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{
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|
What effects would castration have on a man's body?
|
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||
8vhr0k
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Kevin Esvelt, head of the Sculpting Evolution group at the MIT Media Lab and an inventor of CRISPR gene drive - AMA!
|
Hi, my name's Kevin Esvelt and I'm a scientist working on molecular, evolutionary, and ecological engineering. I played a very minor role in developing CRISPR genome editing and was evidently the first to realize it could be used to build gene drive systems capable of engineering populations of wild organisms.
If you haven't read about gene drive - and even if you have - I highly recommend reading this [hugely informative essay](_URL_2_) by Dylan Matthews of Vox.
Relatedly, I'm a strong advocate of more open science, beginning with [using gene drive research](_URL_0_) as a small and high-profile field trial of pre-registration in tech development.
Finally, we in [Sculpting Evolution](_URL_4_) try to carefully consider our [moral obligations](_URL_5_) and publicly [admit mistakes](_URL_3_). We'll be on at 2pm eastern (19 UT) - AMA!
EDIT: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver did a [segment](_URL_1_) about this just last night!
EDIT #2: Our guest needs to take a break, but will be back later tonight to answer many more questions.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"What are your thoughts on the movement to make all scientific publications open to the general public? Would this be useful or does a lack of contextual knowledge make it better to force inclusion of experts/scientists?\n\nWhat should a scientists role become if all publications were made freely available?",
"Ok. You're the person to answer!\n\nWhen we modify a gene and insert it into a multicellular host, how does that gene propagate? Since there are a vast number of non-modified cells why don't their descendants (as it were) overwhelm the cells with the new gene through sheer weight of numbers?\n\nOr in other words, how does CRISPR cause system-wide changes without modifying the majority of cells?",
"I have read papers indicating that CRISPR edited cells are more likely to become cancerous, and that CRISPR may be a mechanism of cancer mutagenesis. Any comments on this? Does this limit the usefulness of the technique or could this be overcome?",
"Forgive me if I'm a little behind the curve on this, but have we made progress on the obstacle of delivering CRISPR-based gene editing throughout the entire body of an adult organism?",
"Congrats on making it to Last Week Tonight!\n\nAs someone who has worked on machine learning I think that the expectations of people (Skynet) really don't match what machine learning does today. Therefore, I'd like to ask you this:\n\nWhat are the capabilities of CRISPR **today**? What is the most crazy/sci-fi thing it is making a reality right now and might in the near future (5-10 years)?",
"In the 90's we were constantly told that genetic engineering and the human genome project would have massive impacts and drastically change society and medicine in several ways. Closing in on 2020 it doesn't appear the hype was warranted. CRISPR has now taken this role as the new darling hype technology in biomedical science and biotech.\n\nIs the hype warranted for CRISPR? Are we going to see more and better societal impacts after its use is widespread?",
"Can CRISPR be used to cure a disease that is currently afflicting someone (assuming it’s a genetic disease) or can it only prevent disease?",
"Could CRISPR eventually make a super human? Not super powers, but immune to disease etc.",
"Second question: before any gene drive is put into practice, do you think is it necessary to create an \"antidote\" just in case anything goes wrong?",
"I just got an internship in an HIV1 lab studying Nef and Vpu knockouts using crispr/cas9. What primary literature do you suggest I should I read up on? What are some things crispr may lead to in the future that are tangible and within reach? Thanks!!!",
"What do you think is the biggest challenge to the scientific community and to CRISPR in particular? Do you fear that random \"BioHackers\" can cause all that CRISPR has done to waste if not regulated?",
"How far are we from this put to use on the general public?",
"I love the idea of open science. However, the publication structure is so intertwined with reputation, prestige, and funding. How do you sever or reinvent how publishing and those systems interact?",
"Do you think CRISPR should be available to all of mankind equally so that it doesn't create a sort of economic divide,also are you working on achieving that? Should there be a body governing the Eugenics as to which specific traits will fall under the 'can be edited out' without disrupting the ecological balance or without causing distress to masses that live with those traits which are suddenly deemed unfit for the course our species is taking.Thankyou",
"From my understanding, in the embryo the modified allele will produce crispr-cas proteins to cut and edit the other allele. At which stage of the embryo does this happen? Right after they are together and then all subsequent cells will be modified? \nEdit: to clarify, I'm talking about how gene drive spreads in future generations.",
"Can you anticipate potential costs for users of CRISPR? Are you placing any copy right protections in place so that not just the extreme wealthy will be able to use it?\n\nThank you for all your efforts, a lot of peoples standard of living will Drastically change with CRISPR",
"I have a passion in becoming a geneticist. Any advice on the path of being one as a career? Or how you became a geneticist yourself.",
"Much of what I've learned about CRISPR comes from the Kurzgesagt videos on YouTube. I think their videos are great, but they make some pretty big claims about the potential of CRISPR (wiping out disease, designer babies, immortality, etc.). Do you think, realistically, that in the not too distant future CRISPR could actually do this? \n\nI guess I'm curious as to whether the technology is actually capable of doing those things firstly, and, as a secondary question, do you think the social and regulatory landscape will allow that in our lifetime?",
"Thank you for lending us your time, we all appreciate the effort and disposition to help inform the community of the dangers and possibilities of this new technology. I'd like to know if CRISPR realistically has the potential to answer the age old question: \"how to make my wiener fuckign huge\".",
"I know this is a longshot, but how useful could this technology be in bringing back extinct species? Either inserting extinct genes in living organisms, or using genes from living organisms to repair damaged DNA from extinct embryos.\n\nI want a thylacine!",
"Just curious what the thought process was before you even thought of the project and how you did and how the experimental process went? \n\nThanks a lot and thanks for your contribution",
"Given the inexpensive nature of these gene editing tools, and the rise of so-called \"biohackers\", what steps do you think should be taken to protect the environment from being quickly overrun by CRISPR advantaged species?",
"Would the open science you are talking about allow someone to create \"renegade\" gene drives?",
"Do you think that CRISPR could cure a genetic illness like NF1 within our lifetime?",
"How, if at all, has the patent dispute with UC Berkeley affected your research?",
"What’s the #1 biggest challenge moving forward with CRISPR?"
],
"score": [
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12,
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.nature.com/news/gene-editing-can-drive-science-to-openness-1.20043",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJm8PeWkiEU&t=13m40s",
"https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/5/31/17344406/crispr-mosquito-malaria-gene-drive-editing-target-africa-regulation-gmo",
"https://www.responsivescience.org/pub/aotearoa-amends",
"http://www.sculptingevolution.org/",
"https://leapsmag.com/when-are-we-obligated-to-edit-wild-creatures/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm Kevin Esvelt, head of the Sculpting Evolution group at the MIT Media Lab and an inventor of CRISPR gene drive - AMA!
Hi, my name's Kevin Esvelt and I'm a scientist working on molecular, evolutionary, and ecological engineering. I played a very minor role in developing CRISPR genome editing and was evidently the first to realize it could be used to build gene drive systems capable of engineering populations of wild organisms. If you haven't read about gene drive - and even if you have - I highly recommend reading this [hugely informative essay](_URL_2_) by Dylan Matthews of Vox. Relatedly, I'm a strong advocate of more open science, beginning with [using gene drive research](_URL_0_) as a small and high-profile field trial of pre-registration in tech development. Finally, we in [Sculpting Evolution](_URL_4_) try to carefully consider our [moral obligations](_URL_5_) and publicly [admit mistakes](_URL_3_). We'll be on at 2pm eastern (19 UT) - AMA! EDIT: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver did a [segment](_URL_1_) about this just last night! EDIT #2: Our guest needs to take a break, but will be back later tonight to answer many more questions.
|
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|
2vissm
|
Does laying down put back pressure on the kidneys?
|
Are the ureters just hollow tubes? If so, shouldn't a horizontal or inverted position cause urine to flow backwards and reduce the blood filtration rate.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"coi8z4n",
"coi2ft3",
"coihgxv"
],
"text": [
"If anything, while standing upright the pressure on the bladder from internal organs is going to be greater than the aid of gravity to the ureters. Lying flat probably puts less back pressure on the system. Not that it's that relevant, as has already been stated there are valves and peristaltic waves to move urine to the bladder and keep it there even with mild back pressure.\n\nThe normal maximum pressure in the human bladder is ~30 mmhg, and since normal arterial blood pressure is 80 mmhg at the low point, even at that point there is still some pressure/filtration gradient. Theres a lot more to how the kidney makes urine than just pressure, and the kidney isn't normally exposed to full blood pressure or urine pressures that high, but at the most basic level there is still a pressure gradient to the bladder.",
"No, because there is new urine being produced which exerts a pressure on the fluid in the ureters. There is less pressure in your bladder because it is elastic so the urine flows, as all fluids do, down the pressure gradient.",
"The walls of the ureter are filled with smooth muscle that transport urine from the renal pelvis (the funnel like end of the ureter at the kidney) to the bladder. The peristalsis exerted by the smooth muscles makes sure that at any given point during continence urine is flowing from the kidney to the bladder. The rhythm for the peristalsis is generated in specialized cells in the renal pelvis. The smooth muscle is also the reason the ureteral walls don't easily collapse. During urination (smooth muscles in the bladder walls contract), the \"port\" between the ureter and the bladder closes because the ureter [enters the walls horizontally to the bladder](_URL_0_), due to which a contraction of the bladder walls makes the ureter close (thus functionally working as a valve to prevent the so called vesicoureteral reflux, as the force generated from the bladder far overcomes the occasional peristaltic waves of the ureter).\n\nEDIT: added a lazily googled picture for demonstration"
],
"score": [
4,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.pennmedicine.org/encyclopedia/ency_images/encymulti/print/19502.jpg"
]
}
|
Does laying down put back pressure on the kidneys?
Are the ureters just hollow tubes? If so, shouldn't a horizontal or inverted position cause urine to flow backwards and reduce the blood filtration rate.
|
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mndns
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What is "energy," really?
|
So there's this concept called "energy" that made sense the very first few times I encountered physics. Electricity, heat, kinetic movement–all different forms of the same thing. But the more I get into physics, the more I realize that I don't understand the concept of energy, really. Specifically, how kinetic energy is different in different reference frames; what the concept of "potential energy" actually *means* physically and why it only exists for conservative forces (or, for that matter, what "conservative" actually means physically; I could tell how how it's defined and how to use that in a calculation, but why is it significant?); and how we get away with unifying all these different phenomena under the single banner of "energy." Is it theoretically possible to discover new forms of energy? When was the last time anyone did?
Also, is it possible to explain without Ph.D.-level math why conservation of energy is a direct consequence of the translational symmetry of time?
|
askscience
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"To answer your question, first an interesting bit of history- In the 19th century, energy, or at least heat, was thought to be a physical substance. One of the great paradigm shifts in physics was the discovery that heat is just a form of motion. The misunderstanding with energy exists today because many textbooks and physicists still like to talk about energy as if it were a substance. Energy, from classical through quantum mechanics (I exclude general relativity since there it gets tricky and I am not an expert), is nothing more than a number. The only significance of it is that this number doesn't change. It's analogous to money in this way. We can't compare (for example) the value of an apple and an orange directly, but we do by assigning a dollar value to each. In the same way we use energy to compare different physical processes. An object in a gravitational field being set in to motion, for example. We use energy to define how much action of gravity this motion is 'worth'. It's said that potential energy is 'stored' energy, but that's completely misleading- in fact potential energy has no physical meaning at all. It's just a method of book keeping. The fact of gravity being conservative just means the book keeping is easy. If we know the displacement of an object in a gravitational field, we know how it's velocity will change. Compare to a non-conservative force, such as air resistance. In this case, the force is non-conservative because the energy of motion of the object being resisted is transferred to many air molecules. If we actually knew the velocities (and masses) of those air molecules, then in such a case air resistance would be conservative: we'd know the change in velocity of the object from the change in velocity of the molecules. So again the difference is only one of book keeping.",
"Since nobody else has commented, I'll take a stab at the energy question. \n\nEnergy is basically a standard quantity used to measure the ability of something to change. There are many types of energy, as you mention: kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical potential, nuclear potential, etc. If it doesn't make sense to consider energy itself as a \"thing\" it might be helpful to think of it as an intermediate between many observable properties of an object or system.\n\nFor example, if you have a bowling ball on top of a mountain, it has some gravitational potential energy. If you drop it, some of that will be converted into kinetic energy. We use mgh and (1/2)mv^2, each expressing one form of energy, as a sort of \"exchange rate\" to see how changing one aspect of a system (the height of the bowling ball) translates into another aspect (the speed at which it falls).\n\nConservation of energy is a universal property - in the Universe, energy is not created or destroyed. However, that's not necessarily true for an arbitrary system we consider. For example, in the classic physics problem of a car rolling down a ramp, we don't typically consider the internal resistances of the wheels in our equations. The internal friction in this case is a non-conservative force, since it causes the energy to leave our system (we don't model the heating of the wheels or sound emission in our simple problem).",
"The simplest explanation I could give is: energy is the potential to do work. For example, 1 joule of energy has the potential to raise the temperate of 1 ml water at standard pressure by 1 degree C.",
"* Energy is one form of mass-energy, which is a rather all-encompassing quantity. Mass can be converted to energy, and vice versa -- in a basic sense mass and energy are manifestations of the same basic quantity.\n\n* Mass-energy is conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form.\n\n* Kinetic energy is the energy of motion and is proportional to e = 1/2 mv^2 , where:\n\n m = mass\n\n v = velocity\n\n e = energy\n\nAll in compatible units.\n\n* Potential energy is the energy of position or state. A spring placed under compression, a mass lifted within a gravitational field, a battery given a charge, are all examples of potential energy.\n\nQuestions you didn't ask:\n\n* Q: Where is kinetic energy located?\n\n* A: The kinetic energy of motion is \"located\" in that motion.\n\n* Q: Where is potential energy located?\n\n* A: Potential energy, the energy of position or state, is \"located\" in a small increase in mass (above and beyond an object's rest mass), equal to m = e/c^2 , where:\n\n m = mass\n\n e = energy\n\n c = speed of light\n\nTo see how energy can manifest itself as both potential and kinetic as time passes, [look at this page](_URL_0_) and scroll down to figure 3 to see an elliptical orbit that has constant energy, even though the ratio of potential to kinetic energy is constantly changing.",
"Look, 'energy' is like the term *language*. Language appears in form of English, Spanish, French, Russian, Chinese, Japanese and et cetera. You don't speak *language* itself but instead you have to speak *a form of* language.\n\nSimilarly, energy is a universal definition. Forms of energy are what actually occur in reality.",
"You should be aware that whenever Energy is on the picture, everything is about conservation laws. There's no physical \"thing\" corresponding to energy, it's all about conservation.\n\nThe reason why we talk about conservative and non-conservative forces is because with the first one, we can talk about conservation laws. And that's possible because they are, by definition, forces that appear as a gradient of some potential. If you know some calculus, you'll know that when a vector field is just a gradient, doing a closed line integral will give you 0 at the end. And any line integral will only depend on the initial and final values.\n\nThis is cool, because that's the kind of feature that you have if you want to write conservation laws. All the dynamics in the middle is irrelevant, because you just need to know the value of the potential at the end and at the beginning. And this change is related to how other quantity - the kinetic energy - will change. \n\nSo, to make a summary, as you already know, Energy is just a conserved quantity. And to understand, you just need to look at the picture with the potential. When you draw a path of a particle under some force, if this force is conservative, then the line integral will just give you a difference of the potentials. And taking the line integral of \"ma\" will give you just the kinetic energy.\n\nNow let's work backwards. In more advanced physics all forces are conservative and you are just given potentials, and from the potentials you work through the Euler Lagrange equations and derive the equations of motion. The statement that physics is invariant under time translation is just the statement that your potential does not depend explicitly on time. It can only depend on space variables. Then you know at that point that you will have a conservation law.\n\nThe complication come when you actually have field theories, because now instead of talking about point particles, you are actually talking about a potential for a bunch of stuff that look like propagating fields that depend on the space-time coordinates. It's not easy, but in the essence, the issue is the same, only the maths change.",
"Well, if you're moving at 1 m/s relative the ground you have a corresponding kinetic energy relative the ground. If I'm moving alongside you at the same speed, you're not moving relative me, so your kinetic energy is zero relative my frame. When you talk about the potential energy of a suspended ball, it's _relative_ whatever you define the ground to be. \n\nEnergy is always measured _relative_ something; it's not an absolute quantity, it's a relative one. \n\nWhen they talk about 'conservative forces', they're really just saying 'neglecting friction'. At the microscopic level, everything is conservative, you don't lose energy. But the way it's defined mathematically, it means that when you go from state A to state B, the change in energy will be the same, no matter which path you took. E.g. if a ball rolls down a hill from A to B, it will gain the same amount of energy no matter which path it takes, as long as you neglect friction. If friction is present, then a longer path will lose more energy than a shorter one. \n\nSo with a conservative force, you don't need to know how you get from A to B, all you need to know is the height difference is, or something that's mathematically equivalent. That's what a potential is.\n\n > Also, is it possible to explain without Ph.D.-level math why conservation of energy is a direct consequence of the translational symmetry of time?\n\nWell, not PhD level, but it takes some advanced classical mechanics. (Lagrangian mech)",
"You know, I'm a physics major and I never REALLY considered this question until you asked it just now. After thinking about it for a while, my feelings on it are thus:\nFor whatever reason, as evidenced by E=mc^2, energy and mass are not just related and are not just synonyms of each other, they are literally the same thing. Energy is in every reaction, every particle with mass, every field, and it is even in the stretching of space-time as the universe expands. As far as I can tell, energy is the cost of existing in, or interacting with our universe in any way.",
"Describing a physical system is a bit like solving a mystery. When you put two clues together, you limit yourself to a certain range of ways that the situation could have played out. When you put together enough clues, you know for certain how the situation actually played out. Now, in physics, these clues always come in the same forms. We have to talk about conserved quantities. Say you throw a ball at another ball that's at rest on a table, and then you know that the two balls left at a certain angle, blah blah blah. It turns out that if you say that the balls had a certain amount of momentum going in, etc, you don't aaactually have enough information to describe how the whole thing plays out. You need to conserve another quantity, energy, to get it to all work out. This is just the way things work. It could be that you have to conserve funk. The universe doesn't CARE that we have a way to define what the hell energy is, just that it's a number, and it is conserved. We're familiar with what it does because energy causes certain physical effects. It's hard to explain with energy, but momentum is another conserved quantity that people are intuitively more comfortable with. What is momentum? People are fully okay with saying an object in motion stays in motion unless acted on by an outside object... THAT'S conservation! We don't tend to ask what it's stayinmotionness is.",
"In Physics, it's work. Which is mass times acceleration times displacement (or m*a*d), or Δ Ek (the change in kinectic Energy)."
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What is "energy," really?
So there's this concept called "energy" that made sense the very first few times I encountered physics. Electricity, heat, kinetic movement–all different forms of the same thing. But the more I get into physics, the more I realize that I don't understand the concept of energy, really. Specifically, how kinetic energy is different in different reference frames; what the concept of "potential energy" actually *means* physically and why it only exists for conservative forces (or, for that matter, what "conservative" actually means physically; I could tell how how it's defined and how to use that in a calculation, but why is it significant?); and how we get away with unifying all these different phenomena under the single banner of "energy." Is it theoretically possible to discover new forms of energy? When was the last time anyone did? Also, is it possible to explain without Ph.D.-level math why conservation of energy is a direct consequence of the translational symmetry of time?
|
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|
1dsz6j
|
Life of an electron inside an electric circuit?
|
It is said that electrons move inside the circuit. Could you explain the actual movement of a typical electron inside a wire on DC (or AC) circuit? What happens when the voltage (V) is increase? What about current (I)?
Thank you :)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9tjnih",
"c9tl7br",
"c9tjxkl"
],
"text": [
"The velocity of an electron is know as its drift velocity. The drift velocity of electrons is quite slow, usually around a few mm per second. \n\nThe drift velocity is given by v=I/nAq, where I is the current, n is the charge carrier density, A is the cross sectional area of the material and q is the charge of the charge carrier. As you can see, increasing the current will increase the drift velocity as will increasing the voltage.",
"Imagine a swarm of mosquitoes. They are buzzing, flying around in the swarm. Now imagine a very small breeze carrying the swarm. The speed of the breeze is much smaller than the average speed of a mosquito in a swarm, but it gives mosquito movements a net velocity, which was previously zero. Increasing voltage in a circuit is analogous to increasing the velocity of the breeze. Current is analogous to the number of mosquitoes that pass through some area, for example, through an arch, in a second.",
"Electrons move around the circuit very slowly. The drift velocity of electrons depends on the current, the charge density of the material, the area of the wire in the circuit and the charge of the electron. For DC current, this is on the order of about 1 meter/hour. For AC, electrons just move back and forth with a max distance from where it starts on the order of maybe a couple thousandths of a millimeter (again, this is variable depending on all those things above).\n\nFor a circuit that consists of, say, a power supply and a resistor, as the voltage increases, the current increases and this increases the speed of the electrons (DC) or increases the distance it will travel from its initial position (AC)."
],
"score": [
8,
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Life of an electron inside an electric circuit?
It is said that electrons move inside the circuit. Could you explain the actual movement of a typical electron inside a wire on DC (or AC) circuit? What happens when the voltage (V) is increase? What about current (I)? Thank you :)
|
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|
k5dev
|
Is there such thing as being 'heavy boned?' or is that just a fat excuse?
|
Edit..
Aside from the fat side of it. A couple of times when I have told someone my weight they seem surprised. I weigh about 105k or 16 stones 8 pounds but they seem to usually think I would weigh 2-3 stones or 13- 20 kg **less**, never do they estimate above.
I was thinking perhaps that different bones perhaps have different density , muscles too. Is there a difference perhaps in the denhsity of different (fast , slow twitch etc) or trained vs untrained muscle.
**edit:** added the **less** : big difference in meaning
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Being \"big boned\" is a colloquial term that covers several possible meanings.\n\nFirst, what it doesn't mean. Bones do not significantly vary in density from person to person. By significantly, I mean \"vary enough to account for someone appearing 'overweight.'\"\n\nSome of the possible meanings include being dispositioned to carry extra fat, being of stouter stature that normal or being muscular in areas that most people don't look at as signs of being muscular (for instance, muscular chest or leg muscles as opposed to biceps). We'll briefly go through each of them. First, while the fast/slow metabolism theory has been mostly discredited, the fact is genetics do still play a role in weight and some people using the term \"big boned\" will be referring to the genetic aspect of their weight gain. Secondly, humans predominantly use height as the discriminating factor for estimating weight, but some people are considerably more \"stout\" than others, with broader shoulders and hips. This will add weight, and could add a shape (especially to females) that makes the person not appear to be very fit. Thirdly, muscle weighs quite a bit and people who do physical labor will often times have developed muscle in non-obvious areas, like their core muscle groups. This extra muscle will add weight, and could also contribute to the \"stoutness\" discussed above, which will add to the person being heavier. \n\nFinally, I feel like either you did conversions wrong or your appearance (and I don't mean this in an offensive way, but in a scientific way) is quite the outlier if people estimate your weight that incorrectly. Even if the guess is what you're saying is on the high end, 3 stones, and you actually weigh 16 stones, that is still 533% off, which, in my mind, is extraordinarily high. Also, may I ask where you are from that you measure mass in \"stones\"?",
"Also, one of the really interesting things - perhaps something that would warrant a completely new topic - is how muscle vs fat skews the perception.\n\nMuscle is more dense than fat, so a muscular person of the same weight as a fat person will be smaller.\n\nGiven the difference in densities, one would expect people to UNDERestimate the weight of a muscular person, and OVERestimate the weight of a fat person.\n\nYet, in practice, it's almost always the opposite. Untrained eyes usually underestimate a fat person's weight and overestimate a muscular person's.\n\nWhy is this?",
"Please keep all answers focused on scientific studies of the matter.",
"There's a genetic condition that produces [unusually dense bones](_URL_0_).",
"Whenever a fat person tells me their weight, I notice that they *always* add \"people always guess that I weigh less.\" There are probably a few reasons that this could be so.\n\nI think that some people hold weight differently, which may fool the markers that people typically look for when guessing weight.\n\nFor me, it's the opposite. Everyone guesses I weight 30-50 pounds MORE than I do.",
"there is variation in bone mineral density in the human population. someone asked a similar question on r/fitness and i was not able to find any good sources on the magnitude of the variation or the degree to which it effects body weight. but it is possible you have thicker bones than the average person.",
"Well, a non-scientific answer to your particular situation could be that you dress yourself -very- well. \n\nOther people have weighed in on the bone density stuff, but in terms of muscle and fat density goes...\n\nMuscle density is more or less constant both between people, and throughout your body. When people commonly talk about 'increasing muscle density', they are talking about a few things such as a) decreasing the amount of Subcutaneous fat, b) increasing 'muscle tone' (which in itself doesn't exist, muscle tone is just residual muscle contraction following exercise) or c) getting 'stronger' without getting 'bigger' (which is a combination of a) above and increasing muscle recruitment - a purely neurological thing). \n\nHere is a paper talking about getting a better measurement of muscle density from human cadaver samples (_URL_1_). Can't see the whole paper, but from the abstract you can see that although you can get some rather large variation in your measurement by how you measure it, the standard errors for measurements within one method is rather low.\n\nNow with fat, you are once again dealing with a fairly constant density. Now, fat is about 10-15% less dense than muscle (from the wiki article), and can go in all sorts of scary ass places (like wrapped around your GI tract) where it would be nearly impossible to tell from just looking at you. \n\nSo there are two possible things going on. You may have quite a bit of muscle mass sitting under a top layer of fat. This will result in your being more dense than other people your volume/shape/size, and perhaps throw off people's guesses. You may have some not so fun fat wrapped around your organs which once again would be some 'extra hidden mass'. \n\nNow, everything above is assuming constant hydration. Just by screwing around with your hydration levels, your body weight can fluctuate by up to 4% or more. I don't really have stuff to cite this, but as a former free style wrestler, the common rule of thumb then was that you could drop up to 4% of your empty 'normal' weight (meaning more or less empty digestive system and bladder) in water pretty safely for a few days at a time. It would be uncomfortable, but not overly excruciating."
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{
"url": [
"http://www.creighton.edu/irm/features/archives/featurecreightonresearchmayleadtoosteoporosiscure/index.php",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002192900400507X"
]
}
|
Is there such thing as being 'heavy boned?' or is that just a fat excuse?
Edit.. Aside from the fat side of it. A couple of times when I have told someone my weight they seem surprised. I weigh about 105k or 16 stones 8 pounds but they seem to usually think I would weigh 2-3 stones or 13- 20 kg **less**, never do they estimate above. I was thinking perhaps that different bones perhaps have different density , muscles too. Is there a difference perhaps in the denhsity of different (fast , slow twitch etc) or trained vs untrained muscle. **edit:** added the **less** : big difference in meaning
|
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|
1uvc57
|
What will the calendars for Mars colonists be like?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"There are a couple of issues in creating a Martian timekeeping system. First, the Martian day is not the same as Earth. It's about 40 minutes longer. It would be most natural for colonists to simply adopt the Martian day, but this quickly puts the colonists out of synch with mission control on Earth. Every three days, Mars falls 2 hours behind Earth. Mars mission operators usually synchronize their schedules to Mars time during their prime mission, and those who try this compare it to [perpetual jet lag]( _URL_0_) . (This is mostly an effect of Earth's day/night cycle and how everyone else outside of JPL operates. Martian colonists would adapt to the Mars day a lot more easily.)\n\nIf Martian colonists set the sol as 24 Martian hours, then there is a fundemental problem - now you have Martian seconds, which are longer than standard Earth seconds. Since this is a fundemental measure, it completely changes other measurements. So Martian school students would need to learn a conversion factor between Earth and Mars seconds to use the metric system. There's a tradeoff here. You either simplify timekeeping or standardize measurements with Earth.\n\nWe'll assume the colonists simplify their timekeeping. This leaves a year of 668.5991 sols. To make a calendar, you would need to find a way to handle that .5991 days over the long term. Earth's year is 365.25 days, which makes it easy for us to handle - we add a leap day every 4 years to bring our calendar back into synch with Earth's orbital period. \n\nIf we round that fraction of a day up to .6 sols, we can get away with adding 3 days every 5 years. You could handle this with a festival period every 5 years. This arrangement would *gain* about 1 day every thousand years, so you would need an anti-leap day to make up for it.\n\nThe rest of the calendar becomes a matter of dividing up the 668 days into months. You can divide this equally into four parts. However, Mars's orbit is more elliptical than that of Earth, so the seasons wouldn't divide as equally. Summer, when Mars is closest, is 142 sols, autumn is 154 sols, winter is 194 sols, and spring is 178 sols. So if you wanted to have nice, equal three-month seasons like on Earth, you would need to divide those periods into months.\n\nLet's try our hand at this. \n\n142 divided by 3 gives you two 47-sol months and a 48-sol month.\n\n154 divided by three gives you two 51-sol months and a 52-sol month.\n\n193 divided by three gives you two 64-sol months and a 65-sol month.\n\n158 divided by three gives you two 59-sol months and a 60-sol month.\n\nSo one way to construct a calendar would be\n\n* January 1-47\n* February 1-47\n* March 1-51\n* April 1-51\n* May 1-52\n* June 1-64\n* July 1-65\n* August 1-64\n* September 1-60\n* October 1-59\n* November 1-59\n* December 1-48\n\nSummer would begin in December, like it does in Earth's southern hemisphere, and Earth reaches perihelion a couple weeks later. As it happens, Mars's southern hemisphere is also at perihelion in summer, so this would provide some nice continuity with Earth.\n\nI'm sure someone can work out some better months, but I'm out of time and needed to wrap this post up.",
"A Mars year is 698.98 days or 1.88 Earth years.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nI'd imagine that they will have their own Mars calendar and then a way to reference comparable time on earth.\n\nA baby born on mars would need to have an earth equivalent age as when they are 1 on Mars they are nearly 2 on earth.",
"Could you please clarify your question. Are you asking us to speculate on whether colonists would maintain an Earth-based calendar or switch to a Mars-based calendar for convenience? Are you asking what the Mars-based calendar would look like in terms of seasons? Or are you asking whether it would be biologically possible for humans to adapt to the length of the Mars day?",
"Technically this isn't a scientific question, but a societal or speculative one.\n\nThat said, there are several serious proposals for Martian calendars with 24 months, the [Darian Calendar](_URL_2_) and its variants. Similar to Earth's calendar, they are not exactly in line with the true orbital time and need occasional leap days.\n\nIf we look at science fiction as data towards how human society would react to this proposed calendar, it has mostly followed suit with 24 month calendars, but dropped the \"Solis, Lunae, etc\" day names in favor of the familiar Sunday, Monday, etc. and often simplified the month naming as well.\n\nI don't see any examples of this, but a configuration that would also work was to have 12 months still but make each month 55-56 days long.\n\nThe problem of what to do with the extra 39 minutes and 35 seconds in each day is actually more widely explored than how to arrange a Mars calendar. For more information, there is a [wikipedia page](_URL_3_)."
],
"score": [
8,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://m.space.com/5668-living-mars-time-scientists-suffer-perpetual-jet-lag.html",
"http://www.universetoday.com/14718/how-long-is-a-year-on-mars/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darian_calendar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timekeeping_on_Mars"
]
}
|
What will the calendars for Mars colonists be like?
|
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1i1pc3
|
Money is no object to me, and I've decided I want to take a trip to the moon. How much would this cost me today?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"You could probably get **to** the moon with a single Falcon 9 heavy. Cost is about 100 million USD and it will deliver about 50 000 ~~tonnes~~ kilograms to low earth orbit. Thats a pretty good deal. I reckon you could build a vehicle to fly to the moon and return for another hundred million. Maybe aim for 40 tonnes of fuel and gear to get you to the lunar surface, and 10 tonnes for the return stage. From low earth orbit you need 4 km/s of delta-V to get to the moon, 500 m/s to enter lunar orbit, and 2 km/s for a powered descent. Thats a total of 6500 m/s but at fairly low acceleration so you don't need big heavy engines.\n\nProbably your vehicle would need three stages: cruise to the moon, lunar landing and then return to Earth. That was how Apollo worked.\n\nMaybe take away your trans earth stage, save the mass and use the rest of the energy from the falcon to put you into a trans lunar trajectory, all in one big push.",
"[SpaceX says they can land a Dragon on Mars for $425 million plus launch costs](_URL_0_). Say the launch cost is that predicted for a [Falcon Heavy](_URL_1_), which is $80-125 million.\n\nSo assuming you used only the most basic life support and don't want to get back, let's assume you could put yourself in that instead of the science package and land on the moon instead of Mars (life support would be a bigger issue for a Mars trip) for something like ~~$650~~ $550 million.\n\nIf all Elon Musk's predictions are correct.\n\nEdit: Is it harder to land on the moon than on Mars? It just occurred to me that this may be so, because unlike the moon, Mars has an atmosphere that can slow you most of the way down.",
"[Space Adventures is selling flybys](_URL_2_) for a purported [$150 million a seat](_URL_3_).",
"There was a post a couple of years ago that claimed that the design for the Saturn rocket has somehow been lost, and that much of the engineering needed for such another moon-walk would have to be re-learned from scratch. Essentially, we don't know how to get to the moon anymore.\n\nDoes anybody know more about this?\n\n*I'm going negative for asking a question. I didn't say it was a fact, I said I'd read this and basically just wanted verification. If anything, I'm glad that my ignorance has been dispelled. I'd rather have downvotes than continue on living a lie, I suppose.",
"I'd like to add to his question and ask how much it would cost to build an Apollo replica craft and fly that to the moon.",
"Well, Roscosmos has a [working space tourism program](_URL_11_) through a private american company, [Space Adventures](_URL_11_). They've [sent some tourists to the ISS](_URL_11_#Clients_who_have_flown_in_space) in the past.\n\nSpace Adventures has [4 tourism programs](_URL_10_):\n\n* A **simple zero gravity flight** on a plane (you don't go to space) via the [Zero G](_URL_12_) company, for US$5,000.\n\n* **Suborbital spaceflight**: as far as I know, this is not in operation yet. You fly 62 miles into space to view the Earth from above and to experience weightlessness. [Starting at $110,000](_URL_10_index.cfm?fuseaction=suborbital.welcome).\n\n* **Orbital spaceflight to the ISS**: that's what the famous Dennis Tito and all the other guys did. There's no official info on the site, but [according to Wikipedia](_URL_13_) the publicized price for flights by Space Adventures to the ISS aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft have been around US$20–35 million, during the period of 2001 to 2009. The optional spacewalk [costs about US$15 million](_URL_11_#Spacewalk).\n\n* And I assume you meant a trip to the Moon that you can land on it, but at least Space Adventures offers a **trip to orbit the Moon**. It's called [Lunar Mission](_URL_10_index.cfm?fuseaction=Lunar.welcome), and [pricing has been announced at US$100 million per seat, but they have sold one of the seats for $150 million](_URL_11_#Lunar_Mission) — I didn't find when their first flight is.\n\nI think it's really interesting that space tourism actually exists and is kind of \"solid\". I don't know if this really answers your question, but considering these prices, I particularly don't think a trip to land on the Moon would reach one billion dollars like others have said.",
"Are we talking there and back, or just there? Also it somewhat depends on the length of the stay (life support is complicated and heavy).",
"One F-22 costs $800mm+ over its useful life. Crazy how it's possible to fly to the moon and back for less than $10,000mm."
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"url": [
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy",
"http://www.spaceadventures.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=Lunar.welcome",
"http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/rockets/just-one-150-million-seat-remains-on-space-adventures-lunar-flyby",
"http://www.gozerog.com/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_tourism",
"http://www.spaceadventures.com/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Adventures",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Adventures#Lunar_Mission",
"http://www.spaceadventures.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=Lunar.welcome",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Adventures#Spacewalk",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Federal_Space_Agency#ISS_involvement",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Adventures#Clients_who_have_flown_in_space",
"http://www.spaceadventures.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=suborbital.welcome"
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}
|
Money is no object to me, and I've decided I want to take a trip to the moon. How much would this cost me today?
|
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3l5u68
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AskScience AMA Series: We’re Hannah Morris and Becca Peixotto, two of six “slender spelunkers” who excavated 1,500 individual hominin bone fragments deep in a South African cave over the course of 21 days, Ask Us Anything!
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Hannah Morris and Becca Peixotto are two of six scientists comprising the Advance Science Team on the [Rising Star Expedition](_URL_3_), led by paleoanthropologist and National Geographic explorer-in-residence Lee Berger. This group of scientists [published a study](_URL_1_) in the journal eLife last Thursday reporting their discovery of 1,500 fossilized bones deep in a South African cave 30 miles northwest of Johannesburg. These remains belong to a creature now known as Homo naledi, or “star” in the Sotho language. The finding could potentially rewrite Homo sapiens’ coming-of-age story and help fill in a crucial gap in the fossil record.
The site required a special team of experts slender enough to wriggle down a vertical, pitch-dark, seven-inch-wide passage. Morris and Peixotto fit that bill. They descended into the chamber through a narrow chute almost 100 yards from the cave entrance, and used toothpicks to dig out the ancient fossils without damaging them.
Catch NOVA & National Geographic’s “Dawn of Humanity” tonight (Wednesday) at 9/8c on PBS, or watch it streaming online:
_URL_2_
Read more about the expedition:
_URL_5_
Get the backstory on the debate over human origins:
_URL_0_
***
Hannah Morris: _URL_4_
I grew up caving and climbing with my family in northwest Georgia, and got involved in archaeology in college. I traveled around as a “shovelbum” for a few years, hopping between Mexico and Alaska and the southeast U.S. I started working with the American Museum of Natural History on a barrier island, St. Catherine’s Island, off the coast of Georgia in 2008. I’ve excavated in some unusual and intense circumstances, keeping an eye out for moose and bear in Alaska and working in the marsh in a rising tide in Georgia. I was actually on a dig on the island when I came in from the field one day and saw the job posting on Facebook. I had a very interesting interview with Lee via Skype, and then within 2 weeks I was on a plane headed for Joburg. The project has been one of the most incredible experiences I’ve ever had, for so many reasons. Obviously, the science is amazing, and how we excavated the site and what we found is going to change paleoanthropology forever. In addition to the scientific impact, the Rising Star Expedition has had a huge personal impact on us all, I think. It’s very exciting to be involved with so many wonderful people, who are so dedicated to this common goal of advancing and promoting science, and it’s been really rewarding to see the public get involved and excited about this project.
Becca Peixotto: @beccapeixotto
I heard about the famous Facebook ad from a friend who forwarded it to me with a note “this sounds like you.” A small archaeologist with caving and climbing experience for a mysterious expedition in South Africa? I sent my CV to Lee, talked with him over Skype and just a few weeks later I was arriving in Jo’burg. My previous career (with which I am still involved sometimes) was in outdoor and experiential education. I led wilderness expeditions including rock climbing and caving in mountain and desert environments for Outward Bound and other organizations (and I’ve done those activities on countless personal adventures too). Joining Rising Star was an exciting way to out my technical outdoor skills to use in my other passion of archaeology. I often find myself excavating in remote, inaccessible locations with challenging environments like the Rising Star cave or the remote interior of the Great Dismal Swamp (VA and NC- the location of my PhD research). It has been such a joy and privilege to be a part of Rising Star. The fossil discovery is mind-blowing in itself but Rising Star has also raised the bar for how paleoanthropology happens: where we look, the technology we use to record sites, who gets to excavate and analyze the fossils and how we communicate the process of doing this kind of science with the world.
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askscience
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"That's ~18cm for the non-Imperial-fluent out there.\n\nWhich leads me to two questions:\n1) how on Earth did you fit in there? It doesn't look like I could fit my *leg* into a space that narrow, let alone my whole body (I measured). Did you have to wear special clothing or other gear to minimize the additional width it would add your body and squeeze in there without damaging it? Any other practical/technical aspects to making it work?\n\n2) I haven't read the paper yet, but how did those hominids fit in there? Did they crawl in there alive and die, or is this a case of bodies being washed in subsequently by water or mudflows? I heard on the news that some of the remains were partially articulated, which sounds like they might have been a challenge to get into the space too.",
"Hi guys, a few questions:\n\nHow did you record spatial information in such a challenging environment?\n\nWhat was the sediment like? Most of the time you hear about south Africa its all about fossils in breccia. However, rising star seemed like the fossils were just loose in dirt, was that true?\n\nWhat's the plan for dating?",
"Why did you choose to submit to eLife? What did your supervisors think of that?",
"Holy shit holy shit.... I was so pumped when I read this news, and now I get in early to an AMA about it???\n\nWhat was the gear like? The map I saw featured a LONG drop after several small crevasses, I'm wondering what you were able to bring through the holes? How long did it take to make the initial entry (equipment setups and whatnot)?\n\nDid you get a good look around the room? Any chance there will ever be a video of the burial room?\n\nAre you going back?\n\nWhat are the odds of finding tools down there? Speculation leads to the idea that these protohumans had control of fire and lit their way, but how would they have even gotten there?\n\nWhat's the site look like now? I imagine there's hefty security and half the world's archaeologists trying to talk their way in.",
"I had literally discussed with my Comparative Anatomy and Physiology class about how species are concepts and not \"real\" using the example of H. sapiens interbreeding with H. neandertalensis... and how science is a process with shifting truths, the very same day your news broke! Thank you for reinforcing my lecture points so beautifully.\n\nMy question is actually about being women in science. How has it been to become female role models for science? It was really inspiring for my students to see that iconic picture of the [heros of small spaces](_URL_0_) being rocked by female scientists. Has the conversation about body size turned into conversations about body image?",
"I know that one of the leading hypotheses is that the remains were found in a burial chamber. If it isn't a burial chamber, why does the team think the remains are there? Is it possible that the individuals wandered into the cave over thousands of years and simply got lost - thus, eventually dying in the cave? The documentary that I watched shows how impossibly dark the cave is. It seems like it would be easy to get stuck in there.",
"Two questions - \n1: How much of your traditional excavation methodology were you still able to employ in this endeavor? \n2: There are some decrying the valuation of the largely female composition by only referring to it as Lee Berger's team. Do you feel that the female scientist presence is being overlooked?",
"Becca - I see that you did you PhD research in the Great Dismal Swamp. I live right in that location and know how rough that area can be. Were you doing research into the escaped slave settlements that were located deep in those swamps?",
"I watched the National Geographic documentary on this shortly after hearing the news. Typically, photographs of discoveries are difficult for the layman to come by, so the large amount of visual information was refreshing and very educational. Is this method of announcement - waiting for the film editing and airing - the wave of the future? \n \nCongratulations to you and the entire team. Much respect for National Geographic for naming and giving due credit to the first two gentlemen who went into the deep unknown to discover the treasure.",
"I’m an aspiring female archaeologist and so inspired by this story. I’m submitting my thesis to receive an MA in Archaeological Excavation on monday and beginning to panic about finding work. I’ve got some but not much field, lab and museum experience from work in Virginia, Boston, and Ireland. I was wondering if you had any tips for early career archaeologists. How did y'all begin your careers?",
"What technology would have made your job easier or more efficient? Assuming you could design a tool or tech to do a specific job, what job would that be? Meaning, what is a problem that is yet to be solved in your field?",
"What is your reaction to some of the rather idiotic things that have come out in the press with regards to your findings. In particular I'm thinking of what Zwelinzima Vavi had to say but I know a few government officials got in on it too.",
"Reading the initial news articles there seems to be some well justified skepticism in the community about the claims that this is a new species, see e.g [this Guardian piece](_URL_1_). \n\nWhat do you think of this skepticism, and if this claim hasn't been properly confirmed yet, why are you promoting this result so heavily? Is it not a bit too early for that? Science by media?",
"Hello, and congratulations for the wonderful work that you did. It will always be a highlight of your career and I hope it inspires you to more great discoveries.\n\nMy question is slightly different, but you may be able to shed some light on a concern that I have. South African society is very polarized and some commentators dismissed the findings as \"racist\", because they mistakenly believe that the findings are saying that South Africans are descended from monkeys. \n\nNow we know that this is nonsense, but the perception was compounded by the video footage of the team: every single member of the team was white. Not just your team, but also the team on the surface. Maybe they were there, but I did not see a single black South African in any of the videos.\n\nI do feel that if more black South Africans had been visibly involved, it would have been harder for ignorant people to play the race card, and it would have inspired black youngsters to follow in your footsteps.\n\nDid Dr Berger try to be more inclusive when he chose members of his team? \n\nThe skills needed by your team are exceptional, so I understand that your team might not be racially diverse, but above ground? It is depressing that such a wonderful find is made in Africa, proving yet again that all humankind is descended from African ancestors, but the black team members, if any, were invisible.",
"How do you possibly control your anxiety to move in such small spaces? \n\nHas the rock shifted when you were moving in it?\n\nWhat is your method for turning around?\n\n\n\nJust thinking about the small spaces while I type this starts my heart pumping.",
"Hey Hannah! When can I come back down south for some porch time with you and bran bran? Anyways, awesome work you've been doing! \n\nI guess for a question... Do you expect we'll keep finding similar caves to this one or does this one seem more like a one off? Hard to believe one cave could produce so much and be the only one. \n\n-Brett",
"I think I heard something about this on the radio. Seemed like the person asking questions didn't understand that the word \"ritual\" didn't mean religion. Since there is no markings in the bones or bones of other creatures present, it seems clear to me this wasn't a predators lair. The fact that the fossils were from variously aged animals and that the corpses were still intact and able to be brought to a specific place means they probably died somewhat peacefully and around others of their kind rather than around any type of predator. This leads me to an assumption: could this have been a place of disposal for Naledis that died from disease in order to keep the group from being exposed?",
"As someone taking many anthropology courses in university, I heard a lot about this breakthrough in each of my courses, but there was one thing that I don't believe was ever mentioned: Was there any consideration of trying to widen the entrance to the cave to allow access by less slender individuals, or was the cave system simply too weak to tamper with?\n\nAlso, if you don't fear the possibility of getting stuck in a dark, narrow crevice for possibly days at a time, what *are* you afraid of?",
"I imagine that excavating all those bones in such a tiny space would have had its scary moments. What were the scariest parts of excavating in such a tiny cave? Either personal safety or damaging the remains, it would be interesting to hear some stories.",
"I'm in the teaching industry and I am always encouraging students to think about our unified past. I spoke to them on the topic one day and then a few days later a student showed me an article he found about your research. I always try to push \"meaningful learning\" and I was so glad he was inspired to read and even showed the class the picture of the bones on his phone. So my thanks to you and the other researchers. \n\nQuestion... what's next for you all? Another assignment? Or will you continue working on this particular find? Thanks!!",
"This sounds like an amazing opportunity that you guys were able to take advantage of, but are there others like it? What's the next step? do you guys continue with analyzing these finds, or were you mostly just involved in the excavation?",
"Did any of the bones/artifacts break on the way out? Or were there any close calls? I can't even imagine the difficulty in getting such fragile things out through that cave.",
"How did you guys breath in the caves? How long would you spend in the cave before coming back up?",
"Wow! I just watched the NOVA episode last night. Very cool to see you on here today. \n\nI don't know much of anything about geology, so I was wondering how much that cave has changed in the million or so years since the bodies got into it. Was it more or less accessible back then? When, if ever, was the cave submerged in water (before or after the bodies)? \n\nAlso, are there plans to continue the cave excavation? 21 days seems inadequate to remove so many fossils; surely there are more potentially interesting things there. \n\nThanks for doing the AMA!",
"Did the advertisement for 'slender spelunkers' elude to the fact that the bones found in this cave were from a different species ever seen before or that this is a huge find? Did anyone know going into this that it would be such a massive scientific discovery and help fill in some of the unknown gaps in the evolution record?",
"Have you ever seen the movie \"The Descent\"?",
"Hi... I was blown away when I heard of your discovery... in part because of the potential for research through your findings, and in part because of the sheer lunacy of squeezing through such a tiny passage.\n\nWhy do you believe that this is a grave as opposed to this species' version of the [Sarlacc](_URL_2_). \n\nDid you know you would find something, or just hope?\n\nHow did you not freak out when in the tiny passage? I am not claustrophobic, but the thought of being in a space where my next move might wedge me permanently would not be a nice one to have.",
"Hi Team! \nAnthropologist here. I'm just absolutely fascinated and floored by this. It really is the neatest finding in years (I thought the h. florensiensis stuff was interesting, too, but this is just the find of a lifetime. So many specimens!).\n\nMy question: has the inevitable \"reverse sexism\" claims started (I.e \"surely you could find a guy to be on the team. It's not *fair* that it's all women\"). How will you respond to this if/when that happens?",
"What you found is amazing! As a member of the genus homo who could not have fit in that cave, thank you for all the hard work you did in and out of that cave.\n\nI know that usually in paleoanthropology scientists aren't lucky enough to have as many specimens as were found on this dig. Are there plans yet to go back into the cave?\n\nThanks!",
"Hey I just heard about you guys on NPR! My questions are: What makes these Hominids different enough to qualify them as being another species? Also, how did Lee decide on this cave in particular to look into? Was there some evidence on the outside?",
"I just want to say congratulations and great job! This truly was an exciting find!\n\nWhen are we likely to hear news on the results of further attempts to date the fossils?",
"Pending some information on age, the paper mentions a couple of interpretations on what the discovery of this new species means. Either it is older than a million years, and represents some of the very early mixture of traits that helped define the Homo genus, or it is younger than a million years, and demonstrates the complex landscape of hominid experimentation that was occurring relatively near our emergence. \n\n\nIf I messed up the descriptions of the two possibilities, please correct me! I was wondering what scenario you think is the more likely and/or more exciting. In either case, this is a really amazing discovery!",
"At what point did you say to yourselves 'whoah... this is a big deal'?",
"In your opinion, what was the toughest part of this project?",
"No background in this field but more of an anthropology enthusiast\nI am fascinated by human origins and my interest began when I first started looking into the chauvet cave.\nThese early ancestors that you discovered I read how their legs were quite human and upper body more ape like\nI know you have no evidence but I am sure when you were in the dark crevice you wondered what their lives were like. Was hoping you could share that? They must have had some sort of thought process to throw all those bodies in their. Give some insight on how you think their lives were\nThanks",
"Hello! I have an enormous amount of respect for people who are willing to do the things that you did. I have two questions:\n\nTo what extent were the remains fossilized and to what extent were they still bone? Is the level of preservation exceptionally poor or remarkable for remains of this age?\n\nIn addition, as a 6'3'' male, I have little hope for caving as extreme as you, but what would you consider to be the \"size limit\" on caving?",
"I have no questions, but came by to say CONGRATULATIONS!\n\nThis is undoubtedly a monumental discovery, congrats on making history. As an anthro minor in undergrad and having done some excavations myself, I was probably much more excited than the average person to learn about your discovery and your unique efforts. I also commend you for doing an AMA so quickly! High five! :)",
"St. Catherine's Island! We may well have met at some point. But I digress. That's a tiny space to fit into, did it ever feel scary or claustrophobic? What's the significance behind the name Homo naledi? In layman's terms, where does it fit into our evolution?",
"I thought cavers / scientists HATED the term \"spelunking\". Was the alliteration just too good to pass up, or does \"spelunking\" have a more acceptable now or more narrow meaning that was particularly applicable to you? \n(Congrats on all your hard work and scientific advances!)",
"The entrance to the chamber has a very narrow opening. Did you consult with any geologists to see how the cave structure could have changed since the time of these hominids? Has it always been this narrow?",
"Did you exhume anything of interest other than hominin bones? Things like plant or animal fossils that may have constituted their food or inorganic objects like tools? You know, stuff that might help paint a bigger picture.",
"I feel like as background reading, before asking a question, everyone needs to read the National Geographic article which answers a lot of the questions I have seen thus far:\n\n_URL_3_",
"Hey! I have a few questions which might have already been answered:\n-Do you think archaeology is starting to become more popular in the news and media ?\n-Since it was a cave, were the planning methods used different, say to an open excavtion?\n-I recently went on my first ever excavation site ( which was incredible!!), we had a lecture about sexism in archaeology. Do you think the field has become more equal in recent years?\nAlso any advice for a female archaeologist student hoping to continue into archaeology for a career?\nMany thanks!!",
"Hi! I'm someone who's hoping to (one day) start spelunking more, and it's great to see you guys are willing to answer questions! What kind of certification did you get to do caving? How did you manage to get your equipment down that far? Do you have other specialties within archaeology, like specifically dealing with hominids or more broadly with pre-history findings?",
"I'm a newly graduated materials scientist and engineer doing research for her master's- I just wanted to say that your team is an inspiration, and wondered if you have any advice for young women doing research or going on beyond a bachelor's in STEM?",
"Are there any indicators to the cause of death of the remains found? Or is it too soon/impossible to determine?",
"There are a lot of women on your team. Does archaeology tend to have better representation compared to other sciences?",
"Were there special tools that you had to use, so you could squeeze them through the small passageways?",
"Are there plans to look for carbon, like what may remain after fire?"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/evolution/humanitys-origins/",
"http://elifesciences.org/content/4/e09560",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/dawn-of-humanity.html",
"http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/blog/rising-star-expedition/",
"http://chenaconsultingservices.weebly.com/about-me.html",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150910-human-evolution-change/"
]
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{
"url": [
"http://static4.techinsider.io/image/55f099b8bd86ef1a008b9268-1000-666/14_homo_naledi_cr_john%20hawks.jpeg",
"http://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/sep/10/new-species-of-ancient-human-discovered-claim-scientists",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarlacc",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150910-human-evolution-change/"
]
}
|
AskScience AMA Series: We’re Hannah Morris and Becca Peixotto, two of six “slender spelunkers” who excavated 1,500 individual hominin bone fragments deep in a South African cave over the course of 21 days, Ask Us Anything!
Hannah Morris and Becca Peixotto are two of six scientists comprising the Advance Science Team on the [Rising Star Expedition](_URL_3_), led by paleoanthropologist and National Geographic explorer-in-residence Lee Berger. This group of scientists [published a study](_URL_1_) in the journal eLife last Thursday reporting their discovery of 1,500 fossilized bones deep in a South African cave 30 miles northwest of Johannesburg. These remains belong to a creature now known as Homo naledi, or “star” in the Sotho language. The finding could potentially rewrite Homo sapiens’ coming-of-age story and help fill in a crucial gap in the fossil record. The site required a special team of experts slender enough to wriggle down a vertical, pitch-dark, seven-inch-wide passage. Morris and Peixotto fit that bill. They descended into the chamber through a narrow chute almost 100 yards from the cave entrance, and used toothpicks to dig out the ancient fossils without damaging them. Catch NOVA & National Geographic’s “Dawn of Humanity” tonight (Wednesday) at 9/8c on PBS, or watch it streaming online: _URL_2_ Read more about the expedition: _URL_5_ Get the backstory on the debate over human origins: _URL_0_ *** Hannah Morris: _URL_4_ I grew up caving and climbing with my family in northwest Georgia, and got involved in archaeology in college. I traveled around as a “shovelbum” for a few years, hopping between Mexico and Alaska and the southeast U.S. I started working with the American Museum of Natural History on a barrier island, St. Catherine’s Island, off the coast of Georgia in 2008. I’ve excavated in some unusual and intense circumstances, keeping an eye out for moose and bear in Alaska and working in the marsh in a rising tide in Georgia. I was actually on a dig on the island when I came in from the field one day and saw the job posting on Facebook. I had a very interesting interview with Lee via Skype, and then within 2 weeks I was on a plane headed for Joburg. The project has been one of the most incredible experiences I’ve ever had, for so many reasons. Obviously, the science is amazing, and how we excavated the site and what we found is going to change paleoanthropology forever. In addition to the scientific impact, the Rising Star Expedition has had a huge personal impact on us all, I think. It’s very exciting to be involved with so many wonderful people, who are so dedicated to this common goal of advancing and promoting science, and it’s been really rewarding to see the public get involved and excited about this project. Becca Peixotto: @beccapeixotto I heard about the famous Facebook ad from a friend who forwarded it to me with a note “this sounds like you.” A small archaeologist with caving and climbing experience for a mysterious expedition in South Africa? I sent my CV to Lee, talked with him over Skype and just a few weeks later I was arriving in Jo’burg. My previous career (with which I am still involved sometimes) was in outdoor and experiential education. I led wilderness expeditions including rock climbing and caving in mountain and desert environments for Outward Bound and other organizations (and I’ve done those activities on countless personal adventures too). Joining Rising Star was an exciting way to out my technical outdoor skills to use in my other passion of archaeology. I often find myself excavating in remote, inaccessible locations with challenging environments like the Rising Star cave or the remote interior of the Great Dismal Swamp (VA and NC- the location of my PhD research). It has been such a joy and privilege to be a part of Rising Star. The fossil discovery is mind-blowing in itself but Rising Star has also raised the bar for how paleoanthropology happens: where we look, the technology we use to record sites, who gets to excavate and analyze the fossils and how we communicate the process of doing this kind of science with the world.
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|
knmku
|
I typically like to refill an empty Gatorade bottle with water over and over again, however, I've had people tell me this is not a good idea. Are they right?
|
Pretty much I just take a gatorade bottle and refill it with water (britta filter, water fountain, whatever). But some people keep saying it's bad for a variety of reasons, the biggest being that the plastic dissolves in the water, and it's bad to drink. Is there any legitimacy to this claim?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2lpaqd",
"c2lpfap",
"c2lq9f8"
],
"text": [
"The claim is probably based off of something the claimant has heard about [Bisphenol A](_URL_0_).",
"I've heard this before too. I feel it's a bit of a dubious claim but would like to know more.\n\nIf there is some chemical in the plastic that can be dissolved into the water contained in the bottle, wouldn't it make sense that the highest concentration of it would be in the first filling? If you reuse the bottle I would expect to find less and less of it in the water.\n\nSo, if there is something to this claim, what am I missing?",
"Yes there is some legitimacy. Softening agents can and do seep out of the plastic over time. But depending on the chemical, it doesn't have to interact with your body at all, it might pass through you without doing so.\n\nAnyway, it's probably a good idea to get a nalgene bottle or something similar. They are easier to clean, more stable and very likely made out of a \"better\" plastic."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisphenol_A"
]
}
|
I typically like to refill an empty Gatorade bottle with water over and over again, however, I've had people tell me this is not a good idea. Are they right?
Pretty much I just take a gatorade bottle and refill it with water (britta filter, water fountain, whatever). But some people keep saying it's bad for a variety of reasons, the biggest being that the plastic dissolves in the water, and it's bad to drink. Is there any legitimacy to this claim?
|
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] |
|
lckeb
|
What happens when you get a burst of rage?
|
After seeing [this](_URL_0_) video I've got some questions.
- What happens chemically to your brain?
- Are you fully aware of what are you doing?
- Seems like you can stop what you are doing, but you just don't want to. Is that correct?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2rmx6r",
"c2rlcvm",
"c2rnm6v",
"c2rkr0l"
],
"text": [
"Your amygdala is activated. [The amygdala](_URL_0_) is involved in emotional processes (as opposed to reasoning, language processing, logic). It is a crucial part of the limbic system, containing many signal-processing nuclei. The amgdala is what makes you jump back when you see a snake, even **before** you are consciously aware there is a snake in front of you. Damage to the amygdala leads to severe emotional dampening.\n\nSo when you go into a rage, the amygdala \"fires up\", you get the classic fight-or-flight feeling, you get a massive release of different hormones (which prepare your body for rapid busts of action), and parts of your brain are overpowered by the amygdala. What I mean by that is, the signals coming from the amygdala override signals from other places, like [the prefrontal cortex, which is implicated in](_URL_1_) careful decision-making.\n\nThis is what happens when people report that they are \"acting on instinct\".",
"Not an expert in the field, but I've got a pretty good guess. Whenever you come across a situation that would make you burst with rage, your body interprets this as an assault on your well-being. Your body's response is a huge flood of epinephrine (adrenaline) which then rushes throughout the body. Knowing your body can't simply run (flight response), you become incredibly angry to prepare to fight the situation. \n \nConsidering the fight or flight response is a reflexive response, you know it's happening but have no control over it. You do, however, have control over how you \"fight\" the situation, be it physically, by yelling, or by somehow controlling yourself. \n \nYou can calm yourself down just like in any other situation, but it takes some time and conscious thought. You basically have to convince yourself the situation isn't a threat in order to calm down.",
"_URL_2_!\n\nStart at 16:25\n\nAmygdala Hijack - 20:00\n\n23:00 Incredibly interesting point on the left side of the prefrontal cortex being capable of ignoring an amygdala response, and how we're each wired to a certain right/left balance of control. Stick around for that.\n\n26.00 Guy has surgery, connection between pfc and amygdala cut",
"In cats and rats, rage-like behaviors can be induced by stimulating a specific place in the hypothalamus."
],
"score": [
12,
6,
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.dnainfo.com/20111014/greenwich-village-soho/mcdonalds-cashier-caught-on-cell-phone-video-beating-unruly-customers"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hoo_dIOP8k&feature=player_embedded#"
]
}
|
What happens when you get a burst of rage?
After seeing [this](_URL_0_) video I've got some questions. - What happens chemically to your brain? - Are you fully aware of what are you doing? - Seems like you can stop what you are doing, but you just don't want to. Is that correct?
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|
1ms3nr
|
How does docking really work?
|
I love astronomy, but docking puzzles me. I know that you line up the docking ports with RCS, and then they end up pressed together, but what actually locks them in place? Are there a bunch of tiny magnets (which seems a bit impractical to me considering that magnets tend to screw up computers), or are some other mechanisms at work? Do the ports convert into doors after docking? If not, how do the crew transfer between modules?
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cccek0x",
"ccc8inx",
"ccc94go"
],
"text": [
"It all depends - are you using the Clamp-o-tron Jr or Sr? Just kidding..\n\nIt's basically a system of mechanical seals/latches and locking parts. There are no magnets, it's pretty much all mechanical or electric-motor assisted. Unlike KSP, real astronauts have to hit the docking port perfectly perpendicular for it to lock. There is maybe a foot of room laterally, but if the angle is off by even a tiny bit, it could be disastrous. \n\n[Here's a wikipedia article on the various spacecraft docking systems](_URL_0_)",
"Couple things: Magnets do not mess up computers. They can affect data stored on magnetic storage (mechanical hard drives), but do not affects SSD hard drives or the rest of the computer.\n\nWhich spacecraft are you talking about docking? To the ISS?",
"Depends on what kind of hardware you're talking about but it's usually a mechanically locked system.\n\n[Here's a lot of detail about the Common Berthing Module used on the International Space Station.](_URL_2_)\n\n[And here's a 60 page paper on the history of spacecraft docking and berthing mechanisms as related to the ISS](_URL_2_)"
],
"score": [
9,
9,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Spacecraft_docking_systems",
"http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110010964_2011009594.pdf",
"http://spacecraft.ssl.umd.edu/design_lib/ICES01-2435.ISS_CBM.pdf"
]
}
|
How does docking really work?
I love astronomy, but docking puzzles me. I know that you line up the docking ports with RCS, and then they end up pressed together, but what actually locks them in place? Are there a bunch of tiny magnets (which seems a bit impractical to me considering that magnets tend to screw up computers), or are some other mechanisms at work? Do the ports convert into doors after docking? If not, how do the crew transfer between modules? Thanks!
|
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] |
|
10rhde
|
What is this strange stuff growing on my lawn?
|
I live in the northeast US and every once in a while, I get these small patches on my lawn covered in [this.](_URL_0_) Is it a fungus? I get yellow patches and black patches.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6g0zx9",
"c6g36hs",
"c6g9752"
],
"text": [
"This is called [slime mold](_URL_1_), which is actually a protist (like algae), not a fungus.\n\n[Here's a link to a GIS search for \"slime mold grass\"](_URL_0_). \n\nIt is not harmful to your lawn, as you can see by the healthy look of the plants upon which it's growing.",
"Lawn Care provider for 11 years here. Most definitely Slime Mold. Consider watering your lawn in the morning between 6-10 a.m. deeply for one hour, once a week, versus frequent and shallow watering.",
"Slime molds are really interest life forms actually. Check out this old youtube video talking about how they exhibit group intellegence:\n\n_URL_2_\n\n(probably not the same species thats on your lawn, I just thought you might be interested)"
],
"score": [
104,
40,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/SgXCe.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=slime+mold+grass&hl=en&safe=off&prmd=imvns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=LsZpUJ-dCcnY2QXni4HoAg&ved=0CB0QsAQ&biw=1920&bih=1085",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slime_mold",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bkVhLJLG7ug"
]
}
|
What is this strange stuff growing on my lawn?
I live in the northeast US and every once in a while, I get these small patches on my lawn covered in [this.](_URL_0_) Is it a fungus? I get yellow patches and black patches.
|
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|
14fxrg
|
How true is it that cell phones can cause infertility if left near a man's testicles for an extended period of time?
|
Along with that, if true, how long would it generally take for you to become infertile? What about more than one phone?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7cpmdg",
"c7cspn3",
"c7cqq5w",
"c7cszmy",
"c7ctrv2",
"c7ctj6m"
],
"text": [
"the level of radiation put out by a cell phone is incredibly low.\n\nnobody realizes it, but cordless phones put out much more radiation than a cell. now granted, you don't carry this in your pocket. \n\nand cell phones put or less and less power all the time. as technology advances, the ability to decipher signals from noise increases, this lowering the required output. \n\na modern cell puts out somewhere around 1/4 of a watt at full power. in urban areas, they are generally more in the 1/8 watt range. that's nothing. \n\nbut, to be on the safe side, carry your phone screen side facing you. nearly all of the radiated power goes away from you.",
"Cell phones (and wifi) emit radio waves. Radio waves are non-ionizing radiation, and only weakly interact with tissue, so they don't cause tissue damage or sterility, even at high power. \n\nThere is no possible way for any number of cell phones to cause sterility or tissue damage via radiation, even if you swam in a sea of cell phones. All of the research has proven this.",
"There is quite some contradictory evidence on the matter.\n\n[These](_URL_1_) [studies](_URL_0_) in rats don't show any influence. [These](_URL_3_) [studies](_URL_2_) in humans, however, do indicate a certain negative influence.\n\nThese differences are likely due to methodological differences so yeah, we don't really know yet.\n\nEdit: messed up my link but I've got a train to catch, sorry!",
"As a nuclear engineer, I can say the energy of any given photon (radiation that is put off by a phone) Is not in the ultra-violet range or above. This means that the energy of any given photon cannot immediately displace and atom from such molecules as DNA. Thus, there is no risk of damaging effects like cancer that could cause infertility. \n\nThis is more speculation, but the only possible way that it would affect your testicles is through the possible temperature increase the phone could impart. If you for some reason had a phone that was able to produce enough energy to increase the local body temperature by about 3 degrees and it was directly next to your scrotum, then you could have a gradual decline in your sperm count, but nothing more than what wearing tight pants would do.\n\nEdit: quick reference to the temperature sensitivity to spermatogenisis _URL_4_",
"REMINDER!\n\nThis is /r/askscience. **Please refrain from speculation, jokes, and off-topic discussion.** Posts that violate our guidelines are removed. \n\n\nThanks, have a wonderfully scientific day!",
"I think some current research into the effects of radiofrequency radiation on male fertility (that is spawning some related news articles) revolves around the idea that some cells may respond to non-ionizing radiation in a previously unknown way. There are a few studies (like [this one](_URL_6_)) that suggest radiofrequency radiation may somehow induce an increase in ROS production, which could then lead to more deleterious effects in a cell.\n\nThere are also a few studies (like [this one](_URL_5_)) that show differences in sperm cell morphology in cell phone users compared to non-users.\n\nGranted, the number of studies into this topic are relatively few, the results appear to modest, and there are conflicting reports in different groups of people or in different cell types. I wouldn't be surprised to see bigger, and much better controlled reports in the near future that shut the door on this question."
],
"score": [
71,
15,
13,
12,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1521-186X(200012)21:8%3C566::AID-BEM2%3E3.0.CO;2-G/abstract",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bem.10083/abstract",
"http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/014850190924520",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0015028207003329",
"http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/2042501",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0272.2011.01075.x/abstract;jsessionid=B25B97BCA4D49D421E5DAA8F1E2BB9A7.d03t01?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+on+15+December+from+10%3A00-12%3A00+GMT+%2805%3A00-07%3A00+EST%29+for+essential+maintenance",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0006446"
]
}
|
How true is it that cell phones can cause infertility if left near a man's testicles for an extended period of time?
Along with that, if true, how long would it generally take for you to become infertile? What about more than one phone?
|
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1wt174
|
Which chromosome has the DNA for creating a heart?
|
I know that our DNA is split up into chunks called chromosomes and that in them are genes which tell cells how to assemble proteins. However, I am completely confused by some stuff. The instructions for making a heart must be there somewhere. 4 chambers, nerves, valves. Do we know where this information is? If so, where? If not, why don't we know this?
*Thanks.*
|
askscience
|
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"There's not really one gene or region responsible for the development of the heart, or any large structure like that. Genes code for proteins, which are kind of like the chemistry set of life. Many of the proteins (chemicals) may have multiple uses within the body. As the heart develops, each of these proteins play a role in shaping it into the final, emergent form. \n\nIn that sense, the DNA is less a \"blueprint\" in that DNA is not directly translatable into structures. Instead, there are genes on every chromosome which could be altered to change structures within the heart. ([Here is a map](_URL_0_) of most genes which are currently known which can alter something in the heart.)",
"The information for \"creating a heart\" isn't located on one single chromosome. The information is spread across a wide variety of chromosomes, where there are genes that encode a wide variety of different things. For example, there's an important protein called elastin, which is coded for by the *ELN* gene found on chromosome 7. Elastin is an important component of many parts of connective tissue, and is named such due to its ability to allow tissues to have elastic properties (it makes them stretchy and lets them \"spring back\"). In syndromes where we have a deletion of the elastin gene (i.e. someone's missing the gene from their genome), we end up with a condition called supravalvular aortic stenosis - where the aorta is narrowed just above where the valve is, so blood can't get through properly. \n\nThere's another, similar, connective tissue gene called *FBN1* which is on chromosome 15, and mutation of this can cause a condition called Marfan's syndrome. This has an important consequence in that it causes a wide variety of cardiac defects - one of the most dangerous being that it predisposes someone to having an aortic dissection, which is where their aorta bursts open.\n\nSo as you can see, those are only 2 genes that code for *just* 2 proteins that're important for cardiovascular development. You can only imagine how much the instructions for \"how to make a heart\" are spread around. I honestly wouldn't be surprised if every chromosome (except Y) had some information on it that contributes to the cardiovascular system!",
"This is a great question!\n\nRemember that ALL cells have ALL your DNA. What the cells turn into and how they behave is controlled by which parts of the DNA are being read at a given time. \n\nThe instructions for creating (and maintaining) the heart are not all on the same chromosome. For example, in a fetal heart, proteins such as [GATA4, chr 8](_URL_5_) and [MEF2, chr 15](_URL_5_) are on different chromosomes (these locations are for humans). These two proteins are transcription factors -- they govern which genes are turned on/off and are critical for turning \"on\" the genes that are specific to heart development. In adult hearts, they get dialed down again, except in certain disease states.\n\nFunctional proteins, such as the [SERCA2 ATPase](_URL_5_) (chr 12) and [alpha myosin heavy chain](_URL_5_) (chr 14) are also in very different locations. These control how calcium is handled and how the heart muscle contracts.\n\nThis goes on forever. For example, in the adult heart, the function of the heart muscle is controlled by hormones such as [ANP, chr1](_URL_5_). The expression of this hormone in turn is controlled by things like GATA4 and other similar transcription factors from different chromosomes.\n\nIn essence, it's not the *location* of genes that makes them heart genes. There is no physical cassette of genes that is designated for the heart. It's when and how they get read that is important, and it's an orchestrated project that involves genes all over the organism's chromosomes.\n\nEDIT: I forgot to add that there are certain *patterns* of DNA that designate a gene as being part of a specific pathway, in a way. For example, the genes I mentioned above (alpha myosin heavy chain, ANP) have sequences that are designed to be bound by cardiac-specific transcription factors such as GATA4 or REST. So although they are on different chromosomes, they have little target sequences that say \"when you make GATA4, make sure it comes here and helps me get expressed.\" I hope that is not too flippant of an explanation.",
"As many people in this thread have explained, it's not as simple as that.\n\n\nDNA is transcribed into RNA and that in turn is edited and then converted into proteins, but it's not quite that simple, because RNA and Proteins can affect which regions of DNA are transcribed (and at what rate) and a how RNA is edited to form different proteins. \n\nThe rough maps that describe which regions of DNA regulate which other regions of DNA is called a [gene regulatory network](_URL_6_). This will still give you an incomplete picture, you must also take into account [protein interaction networks](_URL_7_) to figure out what other connections could exist that regulate gene expression, and also some understanding of RNA editing which is still in its infancy. \n\nThe short answer is that it's probably not any one region of DNA, nor even one chromosome.\n\nBonus Fact:\n In fruit flies, we've found that by inserting the right gene in certain places, we can cause functional eyes to develop in different places in its body. This is not to say that that gene codes for the eye, but that it is a master regulator that causes the correct regions of dna to be expressed in certain cells in order to trigger the developmental processes that code for eyes. This gene is the same one that codes for red pigments in butterfly wings.",
"Thanks, there are a lot of replies that I need to digest.\n\nIt seems that somehow the heart forms with 4 chambers, valves, etc. And it always works this way in humans - otherwise we're dead. This must be somewhere in the DNA right? But genes just make proteins.\n\nI assume that there is no gene to make a cell. What happens is that the original cells just keep duplicating and then something triggers them to turn into a skin cell or a muscle cell. Is this correct? \n\nHow the cells assemble into organs with the correct physical structures is still something that I don't understand. Has anyone figured this out yet?"
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"url": [
"http://homes.esat.kuleuven.be/~bioiuser/chdwiki/index.php/CHD:Map",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/488",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/4878",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/2626",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/4624",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/4205",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_regulatory_network",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93protein_interaction"
]
}
|
Which chromosome has the DNA for creating a heart?
I know that our DNA is split up into chunks called chromosomes and that in them are genes which tell cells how to assemble proteins. However, I am completely confused by some stuff. The instructions for making a heart must be there somewhere. 4 chambers, nerves, valves. Do we know where this information is? If so, where? If not, why don't we know this? *Thanks.*
|
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|
45kjkh
|
Is there a point when children become sentient? Like, is it just a sudden "I exist", or is it more of a gradual thing?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"czyn8tg",
"czyniih",
"czyn8c0"
],
"text": [
"Once the can look into a mirror and realize that it isn't another child, but it is themselves. I'd say this is the closest realization to what you're trying to figure out. This is the self-awareness stage. \n\nLev Vygotsky:\n\n\nStage 1 - Differentiation \n(from birth)\n Right from birth infants are able to differentiate the self from the non-self. A study using the infant rooting reflex found that infants rooted significantly less from self-stimulation, contrary to when the stimulation came from the experimenter.[27] \n\n\nStage 2 - Situation \n(by 2 months)\n In addition to differentiation, infants at this stage can also situate themselves in relation to a model. In one experiment infants were able to imitate tongue orientation from an adult model.[28] Additionally, another sign of the differentiation is when infants bring themselves into contact with objects by reaching for them.[29] \n\n\nStage 3 - Identification \n(by 2 years)\n At this stage the more common definition of \"self-awareness\" comes into play, where infants can identify themselves in a mirror through the \"rouge test\" as well as begin to use language to refer to themselves. \n\n\nStage 4 – Permanence This stage occurs after infancy when children are aware that their sense of self continues to exist across both time and space. \n\n\nStage 5 – Self-consciousness or meta-self-awareness This also occurs after infancy. This is the final stage when children can see themselves in 3rd person, or how they are perceived by others. \n\nI hope this helps!",
"Sentience or Sapience?\n\n*Sentient*: 1: responsive to or conscious of sense impressions 2: AWARE 3: finely sensitive in perception or feeling\n\nSeems to be gradual \n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n*Sapient*: 1: the ability to think 2: to reason 3: to use appropriate judgement and wisdom\n\nThis obviously comes later, I don't know exactly when but I've heard it said that it's around age 8.",
"I don't know that sentience can be seen as a single thing. It is more of an emergent phenomenon.\n\nThere will be a certain age when they gain control of their limbs. At a later age, they can pass the mirror test. Introspection and the realization that others have different thoughts and preferences than you comes at yet a different time. \n\nLet me make an analogy. You could just as well ask \"is there a point when people become smart\"? Someone could arbitrary make a checklist to pass to qualify."
],
"score": [
35,
7,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_cognitive_development",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-awareness"
]
}
|
Is there a point when children become sentient? Like, is it just a sudden "I exist", or is it more of a gradual thing?
|
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||
49yu8n
|
How do things tie themselves up?
|
Headphones / fibres / myself, how does it all just randomly tie itself up when left alone?
Like [this](_URL_0_)
Edit: I always fuck up the link brackets.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"There was a [recent paper](_URL_0_) in the journal PNAS that looked at exactly this question. The researchers took a flexible string, put it in a box and then shook the hell out of it for fixed period of time. They then counted the number of knots and classified their geometry, which they then matched with the mathematical description provided by [knot theory](_URL_3_). The simplest picture for the knots formed looks [something like this](_URL_2_). The process goes as:\n\n1) When you put the string in an enclosed space (like a box), you will tend to get many parallel coils. \n\n2) Different segments can become intertwined, effectively braiding the string. \n\n3) When you tug on the string the braids become tight knots. \n\nAs you might expect, the researchers found that factors such as [the length affect the probability of the string knotting up.](_URL_1_) But the slope of this graph is pretty steep at first, which means that even for a ~1m long headphone cable you get a good chance of spontaneously getting a know just be tumbling the cable around.",
"I think the simplest answer is that you are seeing entropy in action. There are many thousands of ways that your headphone cord can be knotted or tangled, but only one in which it is straight/knot-free. Over time, there is disorder from order.\n\nA more drastic example would be a chess board. If you dropped all the pieces onto the board from one foot above it, it is VERY unlikely that they would all land standing up in their starting positions. It is much more likely that they will land in one of many other positions.\n\n*also a figure 8 knot is not difficult, it is an overhand knot with an extra twist. A useful one to know actually!\nAnd while we're on the subject, Portlandia. _URL_4_",
"One thing that has not been addressed in the comments I've read is how much energy is stored in cables when you just do the classic wrap. When you do this, you actually are twisting the cable with every loop, which is both bad for the cable, but also makes it want to untwist, hence knots and wrapping. \n\nThe proper way to wrap cables to protect them and prevent knotting it is like [this](_URL_5_)\n\nEdit: Clearly I don't know the proper terminology for any of this, but would be happy to correct it if someone points it out. I don't know what kind of energy it is.",
"Headphones come packed in rolled up form and you probably store them in some orderely or undorderly rolled up form. They are like everything elastic not 100% elastic, they keep part of the shape that you give them over time and try to get back to it, somewhat like a straw/paper that you fold and that will never be 100% flat after you folded it and will be weaker at the kinks. When you cram them into your pocket in an unordered way, you are introducing chaos or randomness into the system, because you probably do it in a different way every time. After you stuff it in, it tries to get back to it's old/average shape (with the kinks acting like springs), with very limited space and not enough power to do so, thus it will end up with crossed cables. Additionally there are not many ways to arrange cables in a way that they don't cross, especially in a chaos. \n\nWhen you take them out you apply an uneven force on the cables, because you pull them at very few points, that will knot them because of the crossing that we're introduced by the cramming chaos and the elastic force of the kinks.\n\nThis can be circumvented by rolling up the cable on your hand in a simple circle, before putting it into your pocket. Afterward you can take them out, by putting fingers in the middle of the \"roll\". This way you introduce less choas, there are no kinks/very structured kinks and when pulling the cable out the force is distributed in a way that avoids tangling because the force is distributed to multiple places and you don't change the shape in the process of pulling out. If you put in a rolled cable and pull out a rolled cable the shape hasn't changed. If you cram a mess into your pocket and pull out the cable at 2 points, you change the shape several times and the cable could change it's shape in your pocket as well, because of the kinks acting as spring and movement of your legs/pants.\n\nTL;DR: chaotical stuffing, limited space, kinks(even small ones) and pulling out in the wrong way all contributed to crossed and knoted cables. To counteract roll the cable around your hand in a circle, and put the circle into your pocket, pull the circle out again by putting your fingers into the middle of the circle.",
"You can define a knot as a tangle that isn't easily changed. So by definition, once a knot forms its unlikely to go away on its own. Regardless of how likely it is for a knot to form (addressed by other commenters, turns out its pretty likely), once one forms it will stick around, and any change which makes it harder to untangle will remain as well. This means that knots naturally become more complicated as they jangle around. \n\nAs a tangent, you can use a similar argument about the origin of life. At its most basic, life can be though of as a configuration of matter which preserves and replicates itself. Like a knot, once life forms it's unlikely to completely vanish as it has an advantage over configurations which don't self-preserve and replicate.",
"The very simplest answer is that three things can happen to a cord when jostled: it can get tangled, it can get untangled, or it can stay the same. As you might guess, it's way easier (and thus more probable) to randomly tangle it than it is to untangle it, so the longer you jostle it the more likely you are to get an entangled state.",
"Two things, length and proximity. I deal with knots on a daily basis. On a paper machine you have to look out for generating too many knots in your fibers for certain grades.\n\nThe longer the fibers, and the closer together they are, the more probable it is that they will bump into each other and tie themselves together. We can control fiber length with a few different techniques, but proximity is pretty much controlled by the consistency of the stock. More water (space) means more room for fibers to run around without touching.\n\nSame principle applies for a single long strand of cord. The tighter space you put it in, the more likely it ties itself together using the steps described by another poster.",
"top tip for earphones - i always wind mine up in a neat coil and slip them in the little coin pocket of my pants. the small pocket and a neat coil hold everything in place so it doesnt have enough room to tangle.",
"I have a bra that has a mysterious twisting strap. The only possible way it can twist is if it is detached. To detach the strap, it has to be forced off the connector (horse shoe shaped) twisted, and put back on. This process of it twisting a complete mystery and it is extremely hard to get the strap off and back on the connection. I tried twisting and looping my bra tons of ways to figure out how it twists up on it's own and i have had no luck. So I'm convinced my bra is magical.",
"was watching an interesting youtube on knot theory, one thing i found interesting was cutting a mobius down the center of the strip, you are left with a knotted piece of paper. I can visualize it after seeing it but its just so non intuitive, since the paper only has a twist in it before you cut.(unfortunately its late and i dont recall enough of the name of the video to find it atm.. and i believe it depends on which way the twist goes in the mobius but its been a while since i seen it)",
"Someone won an Ig Nobel for studying this in 2008: _URL_6_ \nPHYSICS PRIZE. Dorian Raymer of the Ocean Observatories Initiative at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA, and Douglas Smith of the University of California, San Diego, USA, for proving mathematically that heaps of string or hair or almost anything else will inevitably tangle themselves up in knots.\n\nREFERENCE: \"Spontaneous Knotting of an Agitated String,\" Dorian M. Raymer and Douglas E. Smith, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 104, no. 42, October 16, 2007, pp. 16432-7.",
"In his classic At Home in the Universe, biologist Stuart Kauffman makes the case that life is all-but-inevitable once a planet reaches a critical level of chemical complexity. The catalytic pathways become inevitable tangled, analogously to how headphones become inevitably tangled if they are long enough and jostled enough.",
"There is actually a simple math answer. Ther is only one state of a string being unknotted. And probably an infinite amount of tangle and knot combinations. So randomly moving or bouncing the string will tend to develop knots, probability of being unknotted tends towards zero"
],
"score": [
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/mildlyinteresting/comments/48lm8c/a_fiber_from_my_lab_coat_fell_in_my_sample_this/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/104/42/16432.long",
"http://i.imgur.com/CXSlaqG.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/Ptfasn5.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knot_theory",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NfLu7GRMR7g",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yPcJD7RVuY",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/104/42/16432.abstract"
]
}
|
How do things tie themselves up?
Headphones / fibres / myself, how does it all just randomly tie itself up when left alone? Like [this](_URL_0_) Edit: I always fuck up the link brackets.
|
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|
kvbwo
|
How are objects pushed to the outside of a centrafuge if they are not connected to it?
|
Think of a spacecraft that uses rotation to simulate gravity. How is the outward force transmitted to people and objects currently floating at 0g. Wouldn't the spacecraft just rotate around them since they are not connected to it?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"An object has to be touching the centrifuge in some way to feel the outward force, so yes, if you were in a rotating spacecraft, one form of entertainment would be to try to get away from the interior surface in such a way that you would float around in the interior of the spacecraft.",
"In an \"inertial\" reference frame, the point isn't so much that you are \"pushed\" outward, as inertia/your momentum wants you to continue travelling in a straight line. The curved wall of the centrifuge then *pushes* you off of that straight line path and that push feels *as if* you have a force pushing you into the wall. Now if you were to jump in the air, you'd still have your momentum carrying you in the direction of rotation of the centrifuge, so it's still more or less the same.\n\nAlternatively, if you switch to the non-inertial reference frame that rotates with the station, an apparent centrifugal force arises.",
"If you have a spacecraft that has an empty vacuum inside except for that one person, you'd be right. The air is what makes the difference. Imagine if the inside contained liquid, and we were aquatic beings. You can try this at home with some salt and water. Spin the cup of water with salt at the bottom. Eventually, the salt would be pushed to the cup wall because the liquid is also moving at the same pace as your spinning of the cup.",
"Until the wall rotates into them and starts pushing them."
],
"score": [
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
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|
How are objects pushed to the outside of a centrafuge if they are not connected to it?
Think of a spacecraft that uses rotation to simulate gravity. How is the outward force transmitted to people and objects currently floating at 0g. Wouldn't the spacecraft just rotate around them since they are not connected to it?
|
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|
6yxkd7
|
Why does the intensity of all electromagnetic waves dissipate at the same rate, 1/r^2?
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dmqzmih",
"dmqznry",
"dmrho9v",
"dmsx7yg"
],
"text": [
"if you radiate something into all directions equally, you radiate across a spherical surface. the surface area of that is ~r² so the intensity must decrease like 1/r² just by continuity (what arrives at some r-distant spherical surface must be what was radiated at the source, it can't have increased on the way).",
"It has to do with the flux that traverses an area.\n\nImagine a spherical lightbulb, or a star. If you make a bigger spherical shell (radius R) centered in the light source to absorb its light, it will take the full intensity of light. But a small patch of the spherical shell will take only a portion that is proportional to smallpatchsurface/4piR^2.\n\nAs R^2 is bigger the patch gets less and less (as it has to be equally distributed over all the shell). Now take off the shell, and measure the intensity in a point at R of distance, it should behave in the same way.",
"It's a consequence of 3d-geometry. A wave originating from a point spreads so that it is spread out on a surface area. Surface areas in 3d-geometry have the general property that they are proportional to r^2 where r is the distance to the center of propagation.",
"It's due to simple [geometric dilution,](_URL_0_) and it isn't due to anything special about electromagnetic waves, all things that spread out evenly from a point source will dissipate according to the inverse square law (like sound waves and radioactivity)."
],
"score": [
29,
8,
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law#/media/File:Inverse_square_law.svg"
]
}
|
Why does the intensity of all electromagnetic waves dissipate at the same rate, 1/r^2?
[deleted]
|
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|
3xp0wj
|
Can someone explain how this Chimp can do this?
|
This question is in refrence to this short video here. _URL_0_
I'm just wondering does this chimp have a sort of "photographic memory" or can just complete this task better than the majority of mankind because of something else?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cy6jfvs",
"cy6qi2t",
"cy6zviy",
"cy731r4",
"cy7iwoc"
],
"text": [
"TL;DR: Chimp brains have evolved to be efficient at resource association and spatial recall. \n\n\nThis appears to be re-purposed [divergent spatial memory](_URL_0_). \n\n\n > We first compared memory in a naturalistic foraging task where apes had to recall the location of resources hidden in a large outdoor enclosure with a variety of landmarks. We then compared older apes using a matched memory choice paradigm. We found that chimpanzees exhibited more accurate spatial memory than bonobos across contexts, supporting predictions from these species’ different feeding ecologies.\n\n\nUltimately the chimp is rewarded for successfully remembering the type and position of a given number. During training the numbers correspond in proportion to the reward. The chimps brain uses the same mechanism it has evolved to remember where the best trees with the best fruit are. \n\n\n\nedit: An article on [Ayumu](_URL_1_) the chimp in the video.\n\n > Ayumu and the other young chimps' abilities are reminiscent of \"eidetic imagery\", an ability to retain a detailed and accurate image of a complex scene or pattern.",
"While certainly impressive, it is worth noting that these chimpanzees (see Inoue & Matsuzawa, 2007, \"Working memory of numerals in chimpanzees\") get ~200 trials a day, five days a week, *until mastery is obtained*. Unfortunately, because the paper was published in Current Biology (which values methodological brevity), further details on exactly how much training the chimps had is not present. But you can rest assured that it would have been a lot, and certainly more task-specific training than the humans who famously fare poorly at the task.\n\nThese chimps are essentially experts in this particular domain, in much the same way that chess masters can re-create a board setup from memory after only glancing at a setup (Chase and Simon, 1973). This definitely depends upon the capacities of the animal, and leans on evolution of particular specializations like excellent spatial memory. But the simplest answer to your question is that practice makes perfect.",
"I made a version of this if anybody wants to try it out: _URL_2_",
"There's seems to be a split between answers here. Half are saying that the chimp has had countless hours of trying and rewarded after success concluding that a human given the same treatment could be better at the task. The other half are saying it would be impossible for a human to beat the chimp as there is a part of the brain that is more developed in chimps used for pattern recognition. Still quite confused on the correct answer here?",
"It would be funny if this was just a straight memorization exercise.. where there were only a limited # of patterns, and all the chimp had to do was recognize the pattern, and could rely on long term memory for the location of the numbers. That would be some rouse."
],
"score": [
177,
39,
17,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkNV0rSndJ0"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.academia.edu/2072224/Chimpanzees_and_bonobos_exhibit_divergent_spatial_memory_development",
"http://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/dec/04/animalbehaviour.evolution",
"http://www.pereanu.com/apequiz"
]
}
|
Can someone explain how this Chimp can do this?
This question is in refrence to this short video here. _URL_0_ I'm just wondering does this chimp have a sort of "photographic memory" or can just complete this task better than the majority of mankind because of something else?
|
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3ef7ed
|
Kepler 452b: Earth's Bigger, Older Cousin Megathread—Ask your questions here!
|
Here's some official material on the announcement:
* NASA Briefing materials: _URL_0_
* Jenkins et al. [DISCOVERY AND VALIDATION OF Kepler-452b: A 1.6-R⊕ SUPER EARTH EXOPLANET IN THE
HABITABLE ZONE OF A G2 STAR](_URL_1_). The Astronomical Journal, 2015.
* Non-technical article: _URL_4_
* _URL_3_
* _URL_2_
|
askscience
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"text": [
"Using currently available technologies how long would it take for a human to arrive at Kepler 452b?",
"Why has there been so much hype about this exoplanet, when threre have been earth-like exoplanets discovered for several years?",
"I used to work ops for Kepler. I was on the launch team and gave the command to eject the dust cover. AMA about the ops if you want\n\nProof: _URL_0_",
"Is there a \"next step\" for this particular discovery, something that scientists want to learn about Kepler 452b specifically?\n\nAnd followup: what are the odds at this point of making a similar discovery within, say, 100 light years? Or, put another way, it's my understanding that there are around 500-odd type G stars within 100 light years of Earth, have those all been examined already, or what method is being used to pick candidate systems like Kepler to examine?",
"1. Can't we just point a bunch of antennas their way to try to pick up some radio signal?\n\n2. If this remote planet was earth with all the current radios and electricity going on as of this moment, would we be able to pick up some of the signal from here using whatever technology we currently have?",
"Do we know or is there currently any way to find out 452b's rotational period?\n\nBecause I mean, if it turned out to be tidally locked or something I for one would be pretty disappointed...",
"Why do we keep seeing 3d images of newly discovered planets like this? I mean, we have no idea what it looks like, right? Who makes the images?",
"Would the James Webb telescope give us any more clarity for planets at such distances?",
"How did they figure out how old the planet is all the way from earth ?",
"Do we have any means of finding out the atmospheric composition, or is it too far away?",
"When the Sun's luminosity increases by 10%, the water vapor on Earth will evaporate. So what is the likelihood of habitable conditions on Kepler 452b?\n\nEDIT: Nevemind. The last sentence before the conclusion says that it would have lost its water 800 million years ago.",
"**How many exoplanets with a > 0.95 “Earth Similarity Index” are in our Galaxy?**\n\nThe Kepler telescope has discovered more than 1.000 exoplanets. The exoplanet with higher “Earth Similarity Index” is Kepler-438b with 0.88. Knowing that there are more than 11 billion exoplanets. Can we know, using probability technics, how many exoplanets with a > 0.95 “Earth Similarity Index” are in our Galaxy?",
"When will the data on the atmosphere composition be ready? Or is that even possible from such a distance?",
"I read in an article that we would weigh roughly double our earth weight due to the increased gravity. \n\n\nRealistically, how would this effect us if humans were to actually venture there? Would day to day activities be painful? etc",
"Considering that we have only in the last few weeks got more information about pluto and before that we had little information about it. How on earth are we able to tell what a planet is like from that distance away?",
"Being that the planet is 60% larger than ours, but only what, 5% longer days, wouldn't the gravity on it be pretty extreme? That thing is spinning pretty fast and has a much larger mass.",
"Science or sensationalism? \n\n\"Likely to be\", \"have a good chance of\", \"is maybe\", \"suggests\". Do we even have one good reason to think that 452b is closer to what Earth is like compared to the other 11 planets? \n\n\nThese types of reveals are problematic because then you have 1000 articles the day after saying \"We found our new home!\" and other stupid ideas like that. \n\n\nI'm still thrilled by the all the hypothesis of course, but we don't even know if it's rocky or can support life, so \"another Earth\" is a bit of a stretch.",
"Since the water evaporated 800 million years ago, are there any nearby stars any potential inhabitants could have made a journey to? I know it's a long shot but maybe SETI should be looking for signals from the surrounding stars.",
"With current technologies what can we epect to learn in the next 5 years about this planet ?",
"Im sorry if this sounds negative, i am extremly pleased with that discovery. Still, im confused here, i quote from the paper: \"The likelihood that this planet has a rocky composition lies between\n49% and 62%.\"\nThis clearly states, that it is unknown. How can anyone with a science background call this earths cousin, besides from my understanding neither the mass nor the composition is known. I get the exitement i honestly do, but reading in the very same paper :\"This possibly rocky planet...\". This is positve bias as it best. Given the values from the same paper the statement that this planet is not rocky would be also true by 51%.\nSo my real and honest question, as a fellow scientist, do you have any, evidence whatsever besides the radius mesurment to come to the conclusion that this is an earth-like planet?\nAgain, not to be negative, just coming from physics where we normaly want a new discovery to have someting like 4-8 sigma.",
"Assuming there is intelligent life on this planet and assuming they haven't developed lightspeed travel. Aren't they seeing us 1400 light years in the past? As we are seeing them? If we were to develop some sort of communication with them wouldn't it all be 1400 light years behind? Honest question.",
"Can you please explain in a non technical way about the Kepler-452b?",
"What would the new Kepler \"earth-cousin\" orbit look like if you travelled from our earth to it in a straight line at the speed of light? \n\nListening to NASAs broadcast earlier I heard that the earths cousin was around 1400 light years away. This got me thinking how fast the orbit of the planet would appear if travelling faster than/ at the speed of light towards it.\n\nIf you could keep a constant watch on the earth cousin - am I right in thinking that the orbit of it would appear to move a lot faster that it actually is?\n\nSorry if there are mistakes or non sensical sentences it's currently midnight in the UK and I'm on my phone.\n\nAlso: I originally posted this in AskScience but it got removed and told me to post here :)\n\nEDIT: As pointed out, it is 1400 light years away... As I said - I was very tired when I wrote this and have no idea where I plucked out 500 light years from. Will also fix this in main body.",
"For me it is very weird. We just found the planet, right? Then how do we know about its mass, its gravitational force (the calculation is theoretical, no?).\n\nIf there are raw data publicly available somewhere on the internet, where do we get those? And if we have the raw data, how do we run analysis on it, and what software packages we need to do it? How long did it take for scientists till they were convinced enough to announce this?\n\nThanks for answering this!",
"If it would be theoretically possible to detect carbon based life forms on the planet, how would that process look like?",
"If it has no liquid water and an estimated 2x the surface gravity of earth, why is it such an exciting discovery?",
"Someone pointed out to me that 1400 years is a blink on the cosmic level. While I don't deny that, it's still practically an eternity to *us*. 1400 years ago it was the year 615. If we send a signal to that planet today, and assuming it is inhabited and those inhabitants have sufficiently advanced technology, it would be the year 4815 before we could hope to hear anything back. *4815*.\n\nNot to mention that we're seeing this planet as it was 1400 years ago. We have no idea what it is actually like right now, or if it truly is even still there. If one day we do see signs of organic life on that planet, there's no way to tell if it is still inhabited, or if there was an extinction event in the last 1400 years. *Earth* might not even make it another 1400 years, *shit happens.* \n\nWhile I *am* very excited about the discovery of an almost Earth-like planet, I just don't think it's feasible to try to send a mission or even a signal at it with our current slower-than-light technology. Even at light speed, it's still 1400 years in each direction. 2800 years, *for humans*, is a really, really long time.",
"Could Kepler-452b possibly be located in the same area of our galaxy where the Wow! Signal was thought to have originated from? I know that previously the Wow! Signal was thought to have originated from the region of the sky that lies in the constellation Sagittarius, (roughly 2.5 degrees south of the fifth-magnitude star group Chi Sagittarii) - is that close to Kepler-452b (although I know Kepler-452b is still much further away)",
"Do we have an estimate on when we could get a spectroscopy reading of it's atmosphere and/or chemical composition of the planet itself?",
"If someone landed there on the surface right now, would he be able to survive?",
"Since Kepler 452b has about 2x the gravity of Earth, if species were to originate on this exoplanet, would these species have *less* mass to withstand the extra gravity force, or *more* mass (e.g., greater bone density, muscle density, etc.,) to withstand the extra gravity force?",
"How do they know it's 6 billion years old?",
"Everyone stop thinking selfishly. Study the planets atmosphere to deem it habitable. Launch a pod of cryogenic seeds engineered to open and start an ecosystem, eventually evolving into intelligent beings after another millions years. We will not be there. But our creations will.\n\n\"The world becomes a good place when old men plant trees where they will never use its shade.\" We can make life. It will be on a planet we cannot get to ourselves. We can be gods who will never be able to touch their creations.\n\nOne day, \"Adam\" and \"Eve\" will wake up, not knowing how to use technology of the pod they came from, throw it away, but they know they're just there. They will learn to survive, and become the first humans.",
"Can anyone give even a rough estimate as to the chances of life existing or having existed at one point on this planet? Obviously we have limited information about the planet, and somewhat limited knowledge regarding the process of life forming from the organic compounds that are most likely present there etc., but can anyone come close?\n\nEveryone seems to be saying that there is a high probability that life exists or existed on kepler-452b.. Are they talking about a probability of .8-.9? .5? .1? Or do they not really know at all, but just know that its more probable on kepler 452-b than any other planet we know about?",
"I'm curious, does anyone have any animations or artist renderings of what our sun would look like from various interstellar locations (in the night sky, not through a telescope)? I wonder what we look like to the folks on K452b, if we are visible at all? \n\nEDIT: No pics, but I overcame my laziness and did the math: the angular diameter of the sun from K452b would be ~.02 milliarc seconds (the size of a tennis ball held at over 400k miles). So no, we are not in their night sky.",
"Late to the party, so this might not be seen, but how does this planet compare to others on the ESI, Earth Similarity Index? Assuming that it's higher than any other planet yet found, why is the fact it's orbiting a G type star, like our sun, weighed so heavily? Couldn't a smaller star produce a planet similar to Earth's so long as it was closer? Are there other factors, than orbiting a G type star, that makes this planet different than other planets we've found in the habitable zone?",
"What is the interstellar radiation environment like in that area?\n\nAlso, it appears from our studies of Mars, Venus, Earth, and Titan that a combination of gravity, distance from the Sun, and luck determines the size and density of the atmosphere. With what we know about its Sun's output and the superearth's size, what are some rough ideas as to how that would effect the levels of trace elements in the environment, as well as how it would affect ultralight chemicals like hydrogen, helium, or lithium?",
"Why is it so far away? There are many stars which are much closer than Kepler 452 - wouldn't it be easier to look for planets around those closer stars? Or did they check the closer stars first and determined they didn't have any planets like that?",
"What fraction of the sky has been scanned for exoplanets? And can we extrapolate from what we've learned so far into an estimate of the number of similarly promising planets that might be closer to us? Say, within 10 light-years?",
"Would we be able to reach said planet if we were a type 1 or type 2 civilization? Apparently we are a type .7 civilization now. \n\nEdit: in a timely fashion?",
"Can someone please explain the significance of this find? Have we not found dozens of \"habitable\" planets (those existing in zone of their respective star where we think water could exist)?",
"kepler 452b is eight quadrillion, two hundred thirty trillion, seventy-five billion, seven hundred fifty-seven million, seven hundred forty-seven thousand, seven hundred seventy-four (8,230,075,757,747,774) miles from earth.\n\nfyi.",
"I saw that Kepler has pretty much automated the process of scanning the sky for candidates. What percentage of the sky has been completed?",
"When are we going to learn about the atmosphere on 452b and if there actually is life on that planet?",
"What are the error tolerances on things like:\n\n* Planet Size\n* Temperature\n* Gravity/Density\n* Rotational Period",
"Would is be possible to colonise a spacecraft leading future generations to Kepler 452b?",
"Is Kepler 452b the most earth-like planet that has been found so far?"
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"https://twitter.com/nasa",
"https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-kepler-mission-discovers-bigger-older-cousin-to-earth"
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|
Kepler 452b: Earth's Bigger, Older Cousin Megathread—Ask your questions here!
Here's some official material on the announcement: * NASA Briefing materials: _URL_0_ * Jenkins et al. [DISCOVERY AND VALIDATION OF Kepler-452b: A 1.6-R⊕ SUPER EARTH EXOPLANET IN THE HABITABLE ZONE OF A G2 STAR](_URL_1_). The Astronomical Journal, 2015. * Non-technical article: _URL_4_ * _URL_3_ * _URL_2_
|
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] |
|
443e6o
|
Could we create a metric time system that would work similar to days and years?
|
A joke on [The Simpsons](_URL_0_) talks about how the geniuses in Springfield got the trains running so efficiently that they even run on metric time. Is something like that possible?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"czndy1v",
"cznf8yr",
"cznhmby"
],
"text": [
"Sure, why not? There's no universal law that dictates what our units should be. One could say that a day is to be subdivided in 100,000 \"seconds\", with 100 \"seconds\" making up 1 \"minute\", 100 \"minutes\" making up an \"hour\" and there being 10 \"hours\" per \"day\". This way the length of a \"second\" is roughly the same as it is now (there are 86,400 seconds per day in our current system).\n\nBut while we live on Earth, the notion of day and year are somewhat natural to use since they line up nicely with the Earths rotation around its axis and its orbit around the sun. In that sense, it is logical to use a unit such as the day, because the Earths rotation has caused our bodies to function in a way that is more or less in sync with the rotation. \n\nSimilarly, the year is a useful unit for agriculture because it covers exactly one cycle of all the seasons. With the year and the day being fixed, you immediately end up with there being 365 days (approximately) in a year.\n\nBut there's nothing stopping you from counting time in a different way. As long as you do so in a consistent way, it won't change the way things works. Some computations might become easier, others might become harder. And the trains probably won't run more efficiently.",
"Strictly speaking, the second, as an SI unit can already be decimalized with additional prefixes. It's just that we typically talk add prefixes only for units smaller than 1 second (e.g., millisecond, nanosecond, etc.) but not for units larger than 1 second (e.g., kilosecond, gigasecond, etc.). For times between 1 second and 1 year we just use days, weeks, or months typically. Then when we get beyond 1 year, we typically go back to decimal prefixes. So it's very common to use the unit of megayears or gigayears in geology and cosmology, for instance.\n\nIt's really just an artifice of our daily lives being so reliant on the Sun (so that 1 day is about one rotation of the Earth and 1 year is about one revolution around the Sun). Hence times between the orders of 1 second and 1 year get their own special units, which are coherent with neither the second or the year (which themselves are not coherent).",
"We live on a planet where the three main astronomical time-scales don't really synch up: there are roughly three hundred and sixty five Earth rotations in one solar revolution, there are roughly 29 Earth rotations in one lunar phase, and roughly twelve lunar phases in a solar revolution period. So, these don't quite factor into a nice metric system, but you can make a new system that ignores these and still keeps time."
],
"score": [
11,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They_Saved_Lisa%27s_Brain"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Could we create a metric time system that would work similar to days and years?
A joke on [The Simpsons](_URL_0_) talks about how the geniuses in Springfield got the trains running so efficiently that they even run on metric time. Is something like that possible?
|
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19kzlb
|
Mario Kart mathematics - question from a layman
|
Hello,
while playing Mario Kart yesterday I had an idea looking at the scoreboard at the end of a grand prix: Can we, mathematically, find out, which player scored which position how many times?
For those not into Mario Kart: 8 players race against each other on 4 tracks, scoring points dependent on their position at the end of each track. First place gets 10 points, 2nd 8 points, 3rd 6p, 4th 5p, 4p, 3p, 2p, 1p.
Can I now take a look at the final scoreboard of all eight players and their total points, apply math to it and conclusively say "Driver 1 placed first twice, second once and third once"? At first, this seems impossible, because there are many ways to get to a certain number via adding four different numbers, but I think, there's two-and-a-half restrictions that might give this some chance:
1. Even if you place last, you get one point to your score (so no 0-point-placements, which would make matters even more ambiguous, I think)
2. No two players can place the same position on one track. There's only one on first place, second place, and so on, per track. This might be the key to making this possible, because you can eliminate some ambiguous cases on the account that on one track, you can't have, for example, two people placing fourth.
3. It's only four rounds, so each solution for a player's score is an addition of exactly four non-zero numbers.
I'd be really interested if this'd work and if so, how. I'm a relative layman (derivatives and integration being the most advanced subjects I know of, mathematically), but for me it's not too dissimilar to prime-factorization which is, of course, a huge, complex issue in mathematics because it's very resource-intensive, but Mario-Kart-mathematics are worse in the way that they're not only "comfortable" prime numbers. On the other hand, the inherent restrictions might be the key to solving this - I just don't know how.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"c8ozovj",
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"text": [
"No.\n\nFor example, a player who placed second twice and fifth twice would have the same score as a person who placed third four times.\n\n[edit] My statement is perhaps too strong. For example, if a third player got 40 points then you know that player got first every time, so our two people with 24 points must not have gotten first ever. This significantly narrows the number of possibilities. It's possible that for some games you could figure it out, but I suspect that it is not solvable in general for mid-scoring games.",
"There are some final scores for which this would be possible, but it would not be feasible in general.\n\nFor example, if everyone had the same result in each round, you could figure it out. One person would have the highest possible score of 40, with four first place finishes. Everyone else is ranked second or lower, so when you find the person with a score of 32, in this case, you know that person scored second each time. Repeat this process all the way down. (You could also work from the bottom up.)\n\nOn the other hand, let's imagine players A, B, and C score first, second, and third in each round. There are lots of scenarios where they all wind up with 32 points: ABC score 123, 321, 213, 312 or ABC score 132, 132, 231, 231. You'll know in this case that each player scored 1133 or 1223 or 2222, but it won't even be guaranteed that alll three of these options are present.\n\nAs you include more possible outcomes, the ambiguity of the result increases.",
"Nope.\n\nWhat you're looking for mathematically is an 8x8 matrix A containing all of the positions each player came in that maps the point values assigned to each position to the final scores that also has the eigenvector (1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1) corresponding to lambda = 4.\n\nso:\n\nA (10,8,6,5,4,3,2,1) = (40,27,25,19,16,11,11,7)\n\nA (1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1) = (4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4)\n\nmeans\n\nA (11,9,7,6,5,4,3,2) = (44,31,29,23,20,15,15,11)\n\nUsing the scores you listed. Unfortunately, there's no way to find the matrix A from just that statement. There's (usually) a number of ways to map a given vector to another, so A is indeterminate.\n\nCan you figure it out by brute force? In some cases, yes. In the example score you gave, for example, one player clearly came in 1st 4 times, one player came either in seventh 3 times and last once or last 3 times and 5th once, etc. etc. but you'd need to write an algorithm that does that, you can't do it with \"math\" as far as I can tell. Certainly not with pure algebra.",
"I would guess it'd depend on the scores but I think it'd be easier to try to solve with logic sortof like a suduko or something, starting with the low numbers and working your way up. Say someone scored a 6? You can positively say that person never got higher than 6th and came in last at least twice. That means only two of those last spots are left now and so on. If you give me final scores I'd actually love to try to work that out and see if I can find it.\n\nTL;DR Give me scores and I'd love to try.\n \nEdit: Just thought of something to prove people wrong who say it's never possible. If everybody scored the same place every time you'd be able to tell pretty easily. I'd still love scores though I love riddles."
],
"score": [
10,
7,
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
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|
Mario Kart mathematics - question from a layman
Hello, while playing Mario Kart yesterday I had an idea looking at the scoreboard at the end of a grand prix: Can we, mathematically, find out, which player scored which position how many times? For those not into Mario Kart: 8 players race against each other on 4 tracks, scoring points dependent on their position at the end of each track. First place gets 10 points, 2nd 8 points, 3rd 6p, 4th 5p, 4p, 3p, 2p, 1p. Can I now take a look at the final scoreboard of all eight players and their total points, apply math to it and conclusively say "Driver 1 placed first twice, second once and third once"? At first, this seems impossible, because there are many ways to get to a certain number via adding four different numbers, but I think, there's two-and-a-half restrictions that might give this some chance: 1. Even if you place last, you get one point to your score (so no 0-point-placements, which would make matters even more ambiguous, I think) 2. No two players can place the same position on one track. There's only one on first place, second place, and so on, per track. This might be the key to making this possible, because you can eliminate some ambiguous cases on the account that on one track, you can't have, for example, two people placing fourth. 3. It's only four rounds, so each solution for a player's score is an addition of exactly four non-zero numbers. I'd be really interested if this'd work and if so, how. I'm a relative layman (derivatives and integration being the most advanced subjects I know of, mathematically), but for me it's not too dissimilar to prime-factorization which is, of course, a huge, complex issue in mathematics because it's very resource-intensive, but Mario-Kart-mathematics are worse in the way that they're not only "comfortable" prime numbers. On the other hand, the inherent restrictions might be the key to solving this - I just don't know how.
|
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n51zo
|
What is the best food to eat in anticipation of a night out drinking?
|
There is a lot of hearsay about eating certain foods to slow alcohol absorption into your blood. Is there any truth to this, and if so, which foods are the best to eat?
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Logged in to comment.\n\nIn short, the best foods to eat are proteins which will persist in your stomach while you are drinking thus allowing the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase to oxidize the alcohol in your stomach before it hits your bloodstream through either diffusion through your stomach lining or in your small intestine. When you have heavy protein foods that take longer to digest, your pyloric sphincter stays shut at the bottom of your stomach keeping the alcohol you just drank in there. While it is floating around in there the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase oxidizes the alcohol that is present in the stomach to some degree (different people produce different amounts of alcohol dehydrogenase, which contributes to alcohol tolerance).\n\nIf you have nothing in your stomach, your body passes the alcohol onto your small intestine where it is absorbed much more efficiently into your bloodstream. Thusly getting you hammered super fast.\n\nA common misconception is that eating when you are drunk will \"soak up alcohol\" and therefore sober you up. Nothing is \"soaked up\" in that sense, what happens is the pyloric sphincter closes when your body senses material food which needs digestion, thus allowing the alcohol in your stomach to be oxidized by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. Nothing is soaked up, but the flow of alcohol to your bloodstream is reduced, allowing your liver to catch up and sober you up.\n\nTL:DR - Eat steak before you booze. Don't drink too much.\n\nEDIT - Denature changed to Oxidize, my mistake. Thanks choo-choo-train.",
"The (mostly accurate) reply about eating protein is only kind of correct, and in some cases could be the opposite of correct. The key is to eat a food containing protein, lipids (fat), and very little (or no) simple sugars. The steak example could be perfect if there's a fair amount of lipid material with it; a really lean steak wouldn't do the job as well.\n\nThe reason is the pyloric valve, as boardaddct pointed out, controls the rate at which the stomach empties into the small intestine. Alcohol is absorbed much faster in the small intestine than the stomach. There are three primary hormones that control to what degree the pyloric valve is open; one of them relaxes (opens) the valve and two of them close the valve. Partially digested protein actually causes the release of one opening and one closing hormone (Gastrin and Cholecystokinin, if you're curious), whereas lipids only cause the release of the closing hormone so the net affect will be a more closed valve and slower ethanol uptake.\n\nNow, the comments about alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the stomach are kind of misleading; the vast majority of ethanol oxidation occurs in the liver, and ethanol can freely diffuse through the stomach lining into the bloodstream (albeit more slowly than the intestine), so keeping ethanol in the stomach just slows the process down. If you have your pyloric valve shut or mostly shut, the ethanol molecules will interact with the food as much or more than the the stomach lining, so less diffusion will occur. Think of two balloons representing stomachs - one is empty and one has half a pound of sand inside of it. Then pour twelve ounces of beer in each balloon. In the empty balloon, the beer has nothing to interact with except the balloon. In the other, the beer will interact with the sand particles to a very large extent, and whatever beer molecules are interacting with the sand are not interacting with the balloon. If the beer was able to slowly diffuse through the balloon, you would see it do so much more slowly in the balloon with sand inside of it.\n\nRelated to the pyloric valve, I have a humorous anecdote. One of the stories my grandfather used to tell us about WWII was Greek sailors always beating them at drinking contests. He found out the next day after a particularly bad loss that the Greeks had a secret for winning: they would drink half a shot of olive oil before the contest. Their pyloric valves would close up and they could drink away, absorbing the alcohol much more slowly than the poor Americans who were soon puking their guts out.",
"Great discussion, however, I personally do NOT want to slow alcohol absorption into my blood. In my mind, slowing absorption defeats the whole purpose of drinking it.\n\nHowever, I DO want to avoid hangovers. Tom504 pointed out that Acetaldeyhyde is normally blamed for hangovers. Is there food that \"soaks up\", reduces, or eliminates Acetaldeyhyde (or other hangover causing effects)?",
"Apparently Strawberries are a good way to prevent alcohol from ruining your digestive tract. So have a strawberry shake before your night of binge drinking! ([Source](_URL_0_))",
"Slowing the absorption of alcohol might not be the best plan. Normally when you drink too much, your body more or less shuts down (pass out) before you can do serious damage. If you somehow allow your stomach to hold the alcohol, you have more time to drink more without the natural shutdown taking place. You could get to a point where you've actually consumed enough alcohol to kill yourself, but it hasn't be absorbed into your system yet. Not a place I'd want to be.",
"OP, here's what I'm wondering. If you are trying to prevent drunkenness, wouldn't it be much easier to just not drink as much? Why are you trying to figure out a way to nullify the effects of your previous actions, rather than just monitor your previous actions in the first place? Just seems like a waste of money to me.",
"Russian here. Line you stomach with fat...toast with good amount of butter, and caviar on top if that is bonus! Bottoms up :)"
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|
What is the best food to eat in anticipation of a night out drinking?
There is a lot of hearsay about eating certain foods to slow alcohol absorption into your blood. Is there any truth to this, and if so, which foods are the best to eat? Thanks!
|
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] |
|
3dypw1
|
How is it possible that this guy is launched to a higher height than the other guy jumped from? (Image link inside)
|
Image is from the world record blob launching _URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ct9yc27",
"cta5adx",
"cta036x",
"cta5ntg"
],
"text": [
"Assuming no losses from the bag then the force down should equal the force up. In the case of two identical people then you are right the highest you could get is the height of the original jumper, and to get higher you would need to make the jumper heavier than the launchee. Unless my eyes deceive me there are actually two jumpers in the gif so in that case there is significantly more mass going down that up, and after subtracting energy dissipation from the blob and water there is apparently still enough energy to get the launched guy higher than the original jumpers.",
"The first thing I'd say is that \"height\" is not necessarily conserved, nor, for that matter, is velocity.\n\nMOMENTUM gets conserved. So by induction, I'd guess that the guy who jumped weighs more than the guy who got launched.\n\n[EDIT]\n\nIt appears (from Squirrels' comments) there may be two people jumping off. Makes sense. 2 people jumping at the same time is tantamount to a really fat guy jumping once.\n\n[/EDIT]",
"Conservation of energy. Assuming no losses and since velocity of both is 0 at the pinnacle, and gravity is constant, you get m1*h1=m2*h2. If mass 1 is greater than mass 2 then height 2 will be greater than height 1.",
"Using /u/Ferrealls formula, I'm just going to throw some 'generic' rough estimate numbers in here using the formula given and a substituted ratio for distance instead of specific units or pixels or estimated height for ease.\n\nLet's say the m1 is the first guy and his total height is 85% or 0.85x the other guys height. Assume the other guys height is 100% or 1. So now m_1 * h_2 = m_2 * h_2 = > m_1 * (h_1/h_2) = m_2 = > m_1 * 0.85 = m_2. \n\nSo, effectively the second guy is also 85% of the weight.\nAt 240 lbs the second guy would be 204; 220lbs / 187 , 190lbs /162 lbs. \nThese are all well within plausible weights for individuals as well.\n\nThough in this particular case if you pay attention closely, it's actually two people who jump down from the top holding hands. You can see the four legs in flight but it's easy to see the separation at the bottom and when their heads are in the water. In this case, their combined weight would be ~118%/1.18x of the second guys (100/85). If the second guy weighs ~220, that would allow for a female of ~90 lbs and a male of ~170lbs. That's no means a definitive suggestion of weight, it's merely a guesstimate for a plausible range."
],
"score": [
19,
5,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/mPvpaWB.gifv"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How is it possible that this guy is launched to a higher height than the other guy jumped from? (Image link inside)
Image is from the world record blob launching _URL_0_
|
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|
3ogz3m
|
If you are drawing straws as a group of 6 when is the optimal time to draw?
|
To me it seems like you wouldn't want to draw first because there is only a 1 in 6 chance you will draw the correct straw. But if you draw last there is a 5 in 6 chance the correct straw has already been drawn.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"You should be able to see this intuitively. It makes no difference to anyone's chances if everyone draws and shows everyone what they got one at a time, versus everyone draws and conceals what they drew until the last straw is drawn, then shows everyone. \n\nFrom there, it makes no difference to anyone's chances if everyone draws-and-hides one at a time or if everyone draws simultaneously. \n\nBut if everyone draws simultaneously no one is distinguished from another by the process. Their chances must all be the same.",
"This is a fairly commonly asked question in probability, and you can probably find some iterations of this question using the search function.\n\nSuppose there are N straws, S of which are \"short\". So if you draw a short straw, you lose (or win?). What is the chance of losing if you are the Mth person to pick? (We are assuming there is only one round of picks. See another post of mine for the case of drawing *until* anyone gets a short straw.)\n\n---\nWith replacement\n---\n\nAfter one person draws, the straw is put back and the next person draws. So clearly each draw is independent, and each person has a S/N chance of losing.\n\n\n---\nWithout replacement\n---\n\nAfter one person draws, he keeps his straw, and the next person draws from the remaining straws. The first person has a S/N chance of losing. What about the second person?\n\n* If the first person drew a short straw (chance = S/N), the second person has a (S-1)/(N-1) chance of drawing a short straw.\n\n* If the first person did not draw a short straw (chance = (N-S)/N), the second person as a S/(N-1) chance of drawing a short straw.\n\nSo the overall chance for the second person to get a short straw is\n\n > (S/N) \\* (S-1)/(N-1)+(N-S)/N \\* S/(N-1) = S/N\n\nThis is the same chance of drawing a short straw as the first person! So then by induction, everyone has the same chance of drawing a short straw. It also does not matter whether the drawings are done with or without replacement.",
"**Odds of drawing the short straw if you:**\n\n**Draw first:** There's 6 options and one of them is the short stick. 1/6\n\n**Draw second:** 5 out of 6 times the first guy won't get it, and there's a 1 of 5 chance you'll grab it from the remaining five. 5/6 * 1/5 = 1/6\n\n**Draw third:** 5/6 times the first guy won't get it, and 4/5 times the second guy won't get it. You're left with a 1/4 chance if that happens. 5/6 * 4/5 * 1/4 = 1/6\n\n**Draw fourth:** 5/6 * 4/5 * 3/4 * 1/3 = 1/6\n\n**Draw fifth:** 5/6 * 4/5 * 3/4 * 2/3 * 1/2 = 1/6\n\n**Draw sixth:** 5/6 * 4/5 * 3/4 * 2/3 * 1/2 * 1/1= 1/6. Or another way to think about the last step is that *somebody has to get it*, and 100% minus 1/6 for the first five is 1 - 5 * 1/6 = 1/6\n\n**The order you draw doesn't matter.**"
],
"score": [
18,
10,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If you are drawing straws as a group of 6 when is the optimal time to draw?
To me it seems like you wouldn't want to draw first because there is only a 1 in 6 chance you will draw the correct straw. But if you draw last there is a 5 in 6 chance the correct straw has already been drawn.
|
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|
7y0ssa
|
Would it be theoretically possible to trap light with a strong enough set of magnets/electromagnets?
|
I have heard of ideas like mirror boxes, but those wouldn't be very efficient, as light would slowly "Degrade(?)" as it loses energy when it bounces. I also know that light is sort of a particle and sort of an electromagnetic wave. Would it be theoretically possible to create a device that could hold light indefinitely by manipulating the light wave? I imagine this would take an unreasonable amount of energy, but black holes do it with gravity. Can you emulate that kind of orbit with a magnet or electromagnet?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dud68vm",
"dudccx6",
"dudln17"
],
"text": [
"No, photons have neither charge nor magnetic moment and can't be manipulated by electric or magnetic fields at all.",
"According to classical E and M, no. Maxwells equations in vacuum are linear. This means that given 2 valid configurations of the field, I'm free to dial up or down their relative strengths, add them together, and get a 3rd valid configuration. For all intents and purposes, this means photons are blind to eachother. If I have two photons in a box, I'm free to treat each one separately, as if the other was not currently there. However, there is a very interesting high energy limit in QED called the Schwinger Limit, where the electric field has so much strength that it may pair produce electrons and positrons from the vacuum. Thus, although our photons are blind to eachother, they can mutually exchange information and interact through pair production. The Schwinger Limit denotes the energy scale at which the linear approximation of classical E and M to QED breaks down, and one is forced to start calculating according to the rules of quantized Electromagnetism.",
"The short answer is yes, but its a delicate window. Roughly speaking you need to put enough energy into the system that box-diagrams \n\n_URL_0_\n\nyield a significant contribution. \n\nThis gives a 2-photon cross section as \\alpha^4 E^4/ m_e^4 where E would be the energy in the electric/magnetic field. \n\nIf you make E too large, however, then the photons can pair produce. So the answer is is plausible, but almost impossible to engineer."
],
"score": [
34,
6,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-photon_physics"
]
}
|
Would it be theoretically possible to trap light with a strong enough set of magnets/electromagnets?
I have heard of ideas like mirror boxes, but those wouldn't be very efficient, as light would slowly "Degrade(?)" as it loses energy when it bounces. I also know that light is sort of a particle and sort of an electromagnetic wave. Would it be theoretically possible to create a device that could hold light indefinitely by manipulating the light wave? I imagine this would take an unreasonable amount of energy, but black holes do it with gravity. Can you emulate that kind of orbit with a magnet or electromagnet?
|
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|
b9rgup
|
Does launching projectiles significantly alter the orbit of Hayabusa2?
|
I saw the news today that the Hayabusa2 spacecraft launched a second copper "cannonball" at the Ryugu asteroid. What kind of impact does this have on its ability to orbit the asteroid? The 2kg impactor was launched at 2km/s, this seems like it would produce a significant amount of thrust which would push the spacecraft away from the asteroid. So what do they do in response to this? Do they plan for the orbit to change after the launch and live with it? Is there some kind of "retro rocket" to apply a counter thrust to compensate for it? Or is the actual thrust produced by the launch just not actually significant? Here is the article I saw: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"You are right to think that the spacecraft would be dramatically affected by all the thrust from the shaped charge shooting the 2 kg copper projectile at the surface of the asteroid at 2 km/sec velocity.\n\nHowever, the clever engineers solved that by making the explosive device/cannon detachable from the main spacecraft. So it detached the cannon, and then put a camera in a position to record the violent experiment, and then parked itself on the other side of the asteroid to avoid any debris from the explosion causing damage. \n\n & #x200B;\n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"Im a PhD student studying spacecraft optical navigation whose currently doing some work at NASA Goddard for the OSIRIS-REx mission (the ongoing NASA asteroid sample return mission).\n\nTo give you a sense of how challenging small body missions are (that is, missions that go to asteroids and comets) virtually every force is non-negligible.\n\nIn the case of OSIRIS-REx, the dominant force is solar radiation pressure. For our orbit determination we consider gravitational effects of all planets and major moons. We model solar radiation pressure using a shape model of the spacecraft. We model the Yarkovsky effect (that is, anisotropic thermal radiation emission which acts as a \"thrust\" generated by a temperature gradient on the spacecraft/asteroid). Even turning on the antenna to transmit back to earth causes a measurable perturbation to the trajectory! I mean, the orbital velocities around these objects is in the cm/s range. With the surface gravitational acceleration on Bennu being a million times weaker than Earth's surface gravity!\n\nSo yes. Firing something like this would have a tremendous effect on the spacecraft trajectory. That being said, they detached the firing mechanism and \"hid\" on the far side of the asteroid, so it wasn't an issue.\n\nThese kinds of small body missions are absolutely ridiculous from a navigation perspective! The amount of things to consider is truly unbelievable when you're operating so precisely around something so small. I can't directly speak for Hayabusa because I've never worked on it, but just from my work on OSIRIS-REx I can tell you these missions are truly insane",
"[_URL_1_](_URL_1_) \n\nJust read up on it. The method used was pretty interesting. It was a low velocity release but charges were used to explode/propel the impactor once the probe was at a safe distance",
"The shape charge the spacecraft carries was separated, left to fall onto the asteroid, and then detonated. It was not still attached to the spacecraft when it fired.\n\nNow you are right that Newton's third would kick in and the spacecraft would recoil, but the spacecraft weighs 600kg. The acceleration imparted would be less than 7 m/s which is correctable by the spacecraft (albeit undesirable).\n\nA large risk would be debris from the crater formation and back blast from the explosive charge. While the explosively formed penetrator is directional, the detonation that forms it is far less discriminatory. The spacecraft deployed a remote camera and then took cover behind the asteroid while the charge was drifting down towards the surface.\n\n[This news article](_URL_2_) covers it in a bit more accuracy than a lot of not-spaceflight-specific news outlets. The Hayabusa2 spacecraft is a bit of a clown car with all its gadgetry and deployables.",
"If it were fired directly from the spacecraft, yes it would. conservation of momentum would be observed, and the spacecraft would begin moving in the opposite direction. However the spacecraft is planning on being on the other side of the asteroid to avoid contacting any debris created by the impact. I’m assuming there is a smaller probe that will launch the shape charge, and this will receive the force in the opposite direction.",
"Conservation of linear momentum: M1V1 = M2V2 \n\n\n2kg \\* 2000 m/s = [609 Kg](_URL_3_) \\* V2\n\n & #x200B;\n\nV2 = 6.56 meters per second.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe same link as above says the relative velocity of Hyabusa to [25143 Itokawa](_URL_4_) is about 3 meters per second, so yes, that would be a significant enough change in velocity that they would have to take it into account."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.cnet.com/news/japan-is-about-to-bomb-an-asteroid-and-you-can-watch-here/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/05/hayabusa-2-sci-operation/",
"https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/05/hayabusa-2-sci-operation/",
"https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/05/hayabusa-2-sci-operation/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayabusa2",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/25143_Itokawa"
]
}
|
Does launching projectiles significantly alter the orbit of Hayabusa2?
I saw the news today that the Hayabusa2 spacecraft launched a second copper "cannonball" at the Ryugu asteroid. What kind of impact does this have on its ability to orbit the asteroid? The 2kg impactor was launched at 2km/s, this seems like it would produce a significant amount of thrust which would push the spacecraft away from the asteroid. So what do they do in response to this? Do they plan for the orbit to change after the launch and live with it? Is there some kind of "retro rocket" to apply a counter thrust to compensate for it? Or is the actual thrust produced by the launch just not actually significant? Here is the article I saw: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
|
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5xaz34
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Do quantum mechanical effects have any physiological consequences for how our brains work?
|
askscience
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"These effects underlie the specific chemical reactions that take place in your neural cells. There are specific processes with enzyme catalyzation, for example, that rely on quantum effects. \n\nHowever, if you are asking about \"larger scale\" quantum phenomena, especially with respect to consciousness, etc., that is currently unknown, and there are various ideas floating around about those possibilities. \n\nThat being said, a really interesting example of quantum phenomena underlying a *very* important feature of biology and ecology on our planet is photosynthesis, which cannot occur without some specific \"quantum phenomena\". I'm hazy on the details as this came out a few years ago, but it has to do with how photon energy is captured and transmitted through part of the molecular chain that allows for the absorption (and subsequent conversion into chemical energy) of sunlight. This process underlies the majority of the energy storage and accumulation in our entire ecological system and food chain...! I'll try and find a source but I'm on my phone. \n\nEdit: here's a quick link, but there are better sources with more details of course.\n_URL_0_",
"As other have noted, such effects are important for regulating the dynamics of proteins that regulate neuron function (like ion channels). Because it takes thousands of proteins to affect cellular activity, these effects average out. So it is very unlikely that quantum effects directly influence thoughts/actions - like the kooky ideas of 'quantum consciousness' that crop up every few years.",
"Someone asked this question during a Neil Degrasse Tyson talk. He responded that basically -- people often like to add the word \"quantum\" to things they wish were spiritual. It's an attempt to reintroduce hocus-pocus into the measurable universe. But that no, quantum effects have nothing more to do with a person being consciousness than they do with a rock being a rock. Both exhibit equal amounts of quantum effects at the subatomic scale.",
"There's a quantum hypothesis for sense of smell that has some support from the neuroscience community. By no means is it the dominant view. \n\nHere's a quick comparison between the quantum and non-quantum hypotheses. \n\nWe smell things like farts when little shit particles enter our nostril and interact with our smell receptors. The dominant view is that this interaction is best understood at the molecular level with a lock-and-key type mechanism. Our smell receptors are little lock-shaped molecules floating on cell membrane (our smell cell's membrane) and the shit particles look like little keys that only fit into certain locks (smell receptors) if they have the right shape. So we smell a fart when the shit particle unlocks the fart smell reaction.\n\nThat's the non-quantum, molecular view of how we smell. The quantum view is that it's not a lock and key mechanism that depends on the molecular shape. It's sensing infrared molecular vibrations through quantum tunneling. This is a distinctly quantum mechanism that can't be explain by the lock and key mechanism. \n\nYou can put the two explanations to the test with the following experiment. Offer people two versions of the same shit particle and see if they can distinguish between them. The particles have the same shape, but differ in the atomic isotopes used to construct them. The different isotopes would confer different vibrational frequencies to the shit particle without changing its shape. \n\nThere is evidence that animals can tell the difference between isotopes, but the studies have their flaws.",
"Your brain is made of tiny particles, so of course it does. But there's nothing surprising about it. That's like asking if chemistry has any effect on how chemicals work. Quantum mechanics is a way of studying what is, and is embedded in everything. It just helps us explain interactions. Anything that doesn't fit with standard models is sort of buried at the scale of a human brain, though, so if the question is noticeable effects... probably not. That we know of for sure, at least. Some people would disagree, but with loose theory and nothing empirical that I'm familiar with.",
"I know that physicist Matthew Fisher is exploring quantum neuroscience: _URL_1_\n\nI'll let the article speak for itself since my background isn't in physics. The takeaway is that it will be difficult to devise experiments that link quantum states and physiological activity.\n\nEdit: I'm seeing a lot of responses like, \"Yes, because quantum activity underlies everything.\" Which is technically correct, but is neither helpful nor useful. Hopefully some biophysicists here can shed some light on how this kind of research is being carried out.",
"I think what OP basically wants to know is if macroscopic neural behavior is freed from being completely deterministic by quantum effects. Every neuron has some threshold where it will either fire or not. If there is sufficient quantum noise and a neuron is close enough to that threshold, it may be impossible to predict if/when it will fire. If this happens often enough in the brain, since that neuron will fire off to maybe 10,000 other neurons, this could possibly make the large scale activity of the brain non-deterministic to some degree. It depends on how often, if ever, some kind of quantum randomness determines if a neuron fires or not when it is close to that threshold.\n\nI would assume that if you were able to connect a neuron to a computer that controls its inputs and reads its output, and given random inputs it's able to guess it's output to a high enough degree of accuracy you could prove that quantum effects have no significant large scale effect on brain activity.\n\nI think the answer is basically, no one knows for sure yet.",
"If there is a phenomenon based in chemistry then it has quantum mechanical properties. So yes.\n\nYour question however seems to have a direction to it that most folks who are not well versed in QM seem to always point to. That maybe these weird phonomenon that we cannot really explain in simple terms and wrap our head completely around must have somthing to do with the nature of concousness and being. I would advise against such thinking as it takes away from the strangeness by applying the human endeavour to it. Perhaps it does perhaps it doesn't and there is really no way to prove it as quantum mechanics is just a way of measurement and prediction, not some all seeing method of analysis.",
"I study theoretical physics. And the answer is not very satisfying: quantum mechanics definitely affects physiology because it literally affects everything you've ever known to exist. You can use the shrodinger equation to identify the the specific properties of a sufficiently small particle brain, and then use advanced software (usually SPARTAN) and fitting functional models to find out more about about the importance of organic molecules. I did this when I studied the structure of DNA using something called a density functional model. You will find, however, that because of things like Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, you will have trouble modifying variables without some kind of modeling software. If you're curious, I recommend tinkering with SPARTAN, where you have a medium to mess around and play with models, then research the best model to use (hartree- frock is fairly popular).",
"Every atom in the universe is influenced by quantum physics, so the answer yes. But I'm going to assume that's not your real question.\n\nIt's become vogue to ask whether consciousness itself is somehow quantum in nature. Usually because someone is looking for a physical basis for an argument about free will, or that thought itself can influence the physical world.\n\nBoth of these misunderstand quantum physics. Quantum mechanical effects are only truly random at very small scales. Once you have more than a few particles, the probabilities tend to converge very quickly.\n\nThis is why you can throw a baseball against a wall repeatedly for the next trillion years, and it's never going to magically tunnel through, even though that outcome is *technically* possible in quantum physics.\n\nYour brain is the same. Yes, the individual atoms have some randomness to them. But together, that randomness is effectively gone. We have no evidence that anything in the brain is entangled, for example, any more than any other atoms in the universe.",
"Besides being the way we described chemical bonding, and there is a lot of chemical bonding in our bodies, no. Quantum mechanics describes very, very, very small things like atoms and has no useful descriptive power of macroscopic objects like cells.",
"Everything is fundamentally based on quantum mechanics. Nothing that exists on the macro level would exist if it weren't for what goes on at the quantum level. Example: Photosynthesis ( _URL_2_ ) has been shown to work on the quantum level. Without that, there would be no plants and hence no animals, including people. There are likely a great many things going on at the quantum level in our brains that we know nothing about yet, and that is just one organ in our bodies.\n\nEdit: Just read an article about the latest theory about to be tested regarding the brain and quantum effects, which references the exact same article I linked.",
"In the sense that all particles are quantum objects at a small enough scale, yes.\n\nIn the sense that, is there a macroscopic quantum mechanical process involved in the way our brains neurological functions occur, either in a general sense or specifically the case of human cognition? We don't know, but it would be a MASSIVE assumption to even say probably. It might be the case, but we don't know enough about the nature and processes behind intelligence to say anything.",
"Quantum mechanics describe small particles such as photons and electrons under specific circumstances, such as the double slit experiment. A potential, but speculative, candidate equivalent of slits exists in the membrane of neurons. Some of these channels, which are made out of proteins, are fast with a wave length around 0.01 nm, letting through ions - ionotropic - while other channels require other metabolites in the process, such as glutamate and calcium - metabotropic.\n\nAnother, also speculative, account of quantum effects has been proposed of certain phosphorus calcium-based molecules might represent quantum binary digits - bits - or \"qubits\".\n\nFinally, microtubuli have also been speculated about in terms of quantum mechanics.\n\nSpeaking more generally, there exists approximately discrete events in the brain. These macroscopic quanta are action potentials. They are analogous to quantum mechanics' discrete elements, but quantum physics have as of yet not been implied in this process. Furthermore, there are hypotheses about interference, but not specifically on the quantum level. In summary, there is no convincing evidence that the brain operates through quantum mechanics or that quantum mechanics are vital to its operation. (Exceptions include what is known from biochemistry.)",
"I wrote a final paper on this, but more on the philosophical side, for neuroethics. In it I argued quantum effects can influence and lead to randomness in our behavior that make us less conventionally mechanistic than science would have us believe.\n\nIt's based on the fact that each one of our brain cells has a trigger, which is \"fired\" by the forces of charge. The trigger itself is influenced by how electrons travel around it, which might make it fire at different thresholds based on the probability of electrons being in various places around the trigger.\n\nMy background is in molecular neuro but it was a theory i had for a while so I figured I'd do it for a class. If there are any physicists around who want to call bs I'd be happy to put this to rest but until then I'm going to believe this.",
"Only insofar as chemistry is dependent on quantum interactions to work. Other than that consciousness is just positive and negative ions of various makeups being passed from neuron to neuron through a network of biological logic gates (synapses and neurotransmitters). The difference is how the information is stored. Humans don't have as much of a distinction between short and long term storage, and each storing unit doubles as a processor. Instead of thinking of a brain as one massively complex computer, you could think of it as a bunch of simpler computers linked together like the internet. How the internet operates is far closer to the behavior of a brain as well.",
"Nobel prize winner Eccles tried to show that consciousness was a result of quantum mechanics. He was not overly successful. \n\nHowever, a fun one that is proven is that neurons firing is a quantum probability thingy. I will link when I can get to my laptop, but basically:\n\nNeurons receive a signal to fire, they then might or might not release a neurotransmitter and if they do it is always of a set packet amount. It's kind of like shrodingers cats box... The isotope decays, and maybe the gas is released... Maybe not",
"Quantum mechanics operates everywhere in your brain just like quantum mechanics determines everything that happens around us. However I doubt that quantum mechanics is used to model cellular activity\n\n_URL_3_\n\nIf you're asking whether an individual quantum effect would be the determining factor to tip the scales of a firing event I think it would be very uncommon.",
"From the replies you've given so far, it seems like you might be interested in how quantum mechanics effect s consciousness, which is more of a philosophical question. [This article](_URL_4_) is a pretty good overview.\n\n\nThis topic also leads to other interesting philosophical questions, like how does quantum mechanics impact free will?",
"“Do quantum mechanical effects have any physiological consequences for how our brains work?”\nMore importantly. Does what we humans humorously call ‘consciousness’, equip us to detect any and all such anomalous influences and compensate for them accordingly?",
"Here is an article from Nature Physics on quantum biology. \n\n_URL_5_\n\nThere is a thought that birds make use of quantum properties in their magnetoreception that lets them navigate using magnetic fields."
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"https://www.quantamagazine.org/20161102-quantum-neuroscience/",
"https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/0114/090114-Quantum-mechanics-explains-efficiency-of-photosynthesis",
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"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-consciousness/",
"http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/v9/n1/full/nphys2474.html"
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Do quantum mechanical effects have any physiological consequences for how our brains work?
|
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||
logxy
|
Psychology behind asking googlable questions
|
This isn't particularly limited to /r/askscience, but a tendency I have seen all over the internet on various forums. Much too often do people ask questions which is even googlable, copy-pasting the exact text of the question. The question is also usually answered by someone copypasting directly from one of the top google results.
My question is this: surely these people have heard of google, then what mindset lies behind spending that extra time writing the question down and waiting for someone else to google it. Is it a psychological need for human contact through the feeling of being helped by someone else?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2ucbau",
"c2uclgo",
"c2uc0bh",
"c2uchgc"
],
"text": [
"I don't think there's any deep psychological basis towards this tendency. Users who commonly tell others to google an answer are generally quite familiar with using google to answer any questions they may have, but forget that quickly and easily parsing google results is an acquired skill (and one that many probably take for granted). If you aren't adept at searching, asking a a question to an online community that you frequent is a good way to get a direct, focused answer that google cannot always provide to an inexperienced user.",
"[There's probably some type of irony applicable here.](_URL_0_) \n\n(I understand the question is not phrased the same but it is addressed to psychologists and makes nearly the same points.)",
"I can only speculate that it is a child-like instinct to be helped / mothered. While I'm broadly generalizing, in my experience the people who ask questions in this manner show OTHER child-like behaviors as well, such as lack of impulse control, lack of critical thinking skills, etc.\n\nBut I have no credentials other than being \"in charge\" of numerous internet forums over the years.",
"Posting on reddit/forums can start an actual conversation with someone knowledgable about the topic. Google may be able to give an answer, but you cannot ask followup questions or have a convesation with it.\n\nAsk yourself this: Why do people seek help from teachers, when the answers are right there in the book?"
],
"score": [
9,
9,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hhuv9/lets_hear_it_from_the_psychologists_why_do_people/"
]
}
|
Psychology behind asking googlable questions
This isn't particularly limited to /r/askscience, but a tendency I have seen all over the internet on various forums. Much too often do people ask questions which is even googlable, copy-pasting the exact text of the question. The question is also usually answered by someone copypasting directly from one of the top google results. My question is this: surely these people have heard of google, then what mindset lies behind spending that extra time writing the question down and waiting for someone else to google it. Is it a psychological need for human contact through the feeling of being helped by someone else?
|
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] |
|
5xju1g
|
What happens when we run out of space on the radio frequency spectrum(s)?
|
askscience
|
{
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"The radio frequency spectrum is a finite resource. If we \"run out of space\", we're out of luck. But certain *portions* of the spectrum, allocated by agreement to specific purposes can and do \"fill up\". In that case, new national and possibly international regulations have to be written to reallocate portions of the spectrum involved.\n\nEach portion of the [Radio Frequency Spectrum] (_URL_1_) from 3 Hz. to 3000 GHz. (3 THz.) is allocated for use (or non-use) international agreement under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union.\n\nEach parts of the radio spectrum is apportioned by the ITU for different radio technologies and applications; some 40 radiocommunication services are defined in the [ITU's Radio Regulations](_URL_0_).\n\nThe drafting, revision and adoption of the Radio Regulations is the responsibility of the World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRCs) of the ITU, meetings of which are typically held every three or four years, most recently in Geneva in 2012.",
"We would suffer congestion, that's all. If it got bad enough, we'd adjust something, as usual. \n\nSpectrum is sort of finite, but not all communications have to be wireless. And because of propagation, a lot of spectrum can be geographically repeated.... we did this (and still do) with the AM radio and FM radio bands. We did it with cellular radio in the AMPS mobile phone strategy. \n\nA lot of data is low bandwidth. A lot of data is carried on wires or can be shifted to wires and have only short distances covered by wireless. There's directional methods, too, where antenna polarization is used to send separate signals on the same carrier frequency, as was done (and still is) on satellites. \n\nThe spectrum keeps getting bigger, and more efficient, too. Digital signal processing (DSP) lets us put thousands of digital carriers on a single signal, and signals can co-exist on the same frequency using spread spectrum techniques. \n\nA lot depends on a lot, so to get better responses, maybe expand your question a little? What's your concern? Did you read somewhere that we're running out of spectrum? Or is this just a general question?",
"We won't ever run out of space on the radio frequency spectrum, per se. Instead, the radio frequency spectrum, or parts of it, will become over-saturated with signals. Over-saturation causes the fidelity of the signals to decrease - i.e. what is received matches what was sent less and less.\n\nThere is a band of frequencies where this has sort of happened and there are a TON of things that are done to work around it. That band of frequencies is around 2.4 GHZ which can be used without a license. Here's just a few of the things in that band: \n\n* Microwave ovens\n* Wireless Home Phones\n* Wifi\n* Bluetooth\n\nSince we can't see radio signals, the best way to visualize everything is to think of light. A basic radio signal is like an incandescent light bulb - casting light in all directions a short distance. Saturation would be like having too many light bulbs on in one place.\n\nOne method of dealing with saturation is shielding. Microwave ovens so that it can cook your food better. In our light analogy, this would be like putting the light bulb in a room so that we can see the light when in the room but not outside the room.\n\nAnother method is limiting power to what is needed. Your wireless home phone only needs to work within the confines of your home. Your bluetooth devices only needs to work within the confines of your person. For both devices, the power is set to work well in the expected range and that's it. In the light analogy, this would be like having a dimmer switch so that you can adjust the amount of light to what you need and no more.\n\nModulation of frequency, amplitude, and/or phase. Wifi makes use of all these type of modulation. When the signal is good (little/no interference), it can combine these to deliver information faster. When the signal is not a good (minor/major interference), it can use these to deliver information with more fidelity. The reason these method can work better with interference is because the signal is encoded in the modulation rather than the radio wave itself. In our light analogy, this would be like everyone having white flashlights and using colored flashlights for communication.\n\nDirectional transmission is another way of handling saturation. Cell phone towers typically have 3 directional antennas that each cover 120 degrees. The main reason to do this was to handle 3 times the signal with each tower. The other reason was that directional antennas can transmit further because they are more focused. In our light analogy, this would be like using flashlights instead of incandescent bulbs or lasers instead of flashlights.",
"It's an interesting question, because in the U.S. we are about to have a major restructuring of the band of frequencies between 600 and 698 MHz, mandated by Congress. This affects primarily television broadcasters and wireless microphone users. What is most likely to happen is that more efficient digital technologies will be developed & used for each type of service, meaning each type of service used (individual tv channels, microphones, etc) will require a significantly smaller slice of spectrum than prior technologies. For instance, wireless mic manufacturer Shure has developed a technology that will allow you to run 47 (wow!) digital wireless microphones in just 6 MHz of radio spectrum. That's an impossible number-vs-spectrum with traditional analog wireless microphones. The trade-off is distance: it's short-range, i.e. ~30 meters, IIRC. But that's plenty for most applications. \n\nsource: I'm in this up to my elbows.\n\n*edit: MEGA Hertz, not millihertz ;-)*",
"The [Shannon limit](_URL_2_) places a strict bound on the amount of information you can send through a given amount of spectrum.\n\nHowever, if you use a smart enough radio, with antennas spread out through space, then [MIMO](_URL_3_) lets you multiply the data rate by the number of antennas. In theory, this multiplier can be arbitrarily high.\n\nTraditional radio is like an LED pointed at a photocell; MIMO is like a camera pointed at a TV.",
"It is not really an issue. To be certain, there has been a significant technical increase in bandwidth, but this has a hard limit. If and when capacity becomes a real issue, something that already happens often in certain bands, a simple fix is to install additional radio transmitters. For example, instead of a tower every 10 miles, you install one every 5 miles thus doubling your capacity. Much as cellular companies have done. And as more transmitters are deployed, your distance to any given one will on average be shorter and fewer people will be accessing it. More important, with more towers, your maximum possible distance to any tower will be shorter, thus RF power can be lowered. That be important to reduce interference between sites. As an added benefit, portable devices can operate also at lower power increasing battery life significantly.\n\nBasically spectrum can and is used over and over.",
"We switch to other methods of apportioning channels to data. Frequency is the most obvious division of a radio system, but you can also do time division (each signal gets a time slot and they take turns), phase modulation, polarity (quadrature), and spatial discrimination (discerning who it is from the direction they are at, using a phased array antenna). You can pack several conversations or data streams into the same frequency interval with those.",
"Switching to more efficient use of that spectrum is one option. A few years ago the old analog TV signals stopped in the USA to be replaced by digital signals. As a result a LOT more broadcast TV can fit into the same frequency space.",
"Not a scientific answer, but first us hams would have our bands taken away... It really is amazing how much of the bands are allocated to us. Also, we already share bands. Channel 1-6 of 2.4ghz wifi is shared. So is part of the 700mhz \"unifi\" band, and one channel of the 5ghz wifi.",
"This is mostly a question for government, at least until we approach or reach the point of maximum utilization. But what will happen tends to be not much, until spectrum users complain. Spectrum users (most recently cellular data networks) will complain to the government (the FCC), who will draw up plans to re-allocate spectrum (or use the plans drawn up by the spectrum users), part of that plan will be to consult with engineers. The engineers will develop \"better\", more precise radio transmitters and receivers. The gov't and the technology people will go through a cycle of testing/proving designs, and if all goes well, a the FCC will move forward with a plan to re-allocate spectrum. These migration plans may take place over a decade or more because the FCC apparently doesn't want to cause too much grief to the spectrum users who are getting evicted. There is also a statutory duty of the FCC to solicit and address comments from citizens, in which case it is important for people to participate. see: _URL_4_ There are likely many iterations of technological improvement and spectrum re-allocation to exhaust before we actually begin to \"run out of spectrum\"\n\nNow, re: maximum spectrum utilization, ie: \"running out of spectrum\". Harry Nyquist and Claude Shannon, notwithstanding, it remains an open question as to whether the spectrum is finite, infinite, (or practically infinite). A number of techniques already exist which of course don't violate the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, but which do increase the apparent practical limits of data transfer over a given spectrum; the easiest of which are to simply increase the density of transmitters and receivers. Other techniques involve the realization of already existing theoretical advances in modulation techniques into hardware which was impractical until recently due to technological limits in manufacturing or materials.",
"It's also complicated by the frequency available, and the bandwidth required.\n\nHigh Frequencies, from 3.0 MHz to 30.0 MHz, will propagate worldwide. However, they are already dividided into small slices, typically 50-300 kHz. Full motion video has a bandwidth of 4 MHz, so could not fit into and of those smaller slices.\n\nVery High Frequencies, from 30.0 to 300.0 MHz, will propagate reliably for 60-70 miles, especially using a high power transmitter and a tall antenna tower. In the U.S., old analog TV was spread across blocks of this, from 54-88 MHz and 174-216 MHz. Each channel was allocated up to 6 MHz which allowed their video, audio, and pilot transmissions. But you can see that those 12 channels of TV took over a quarter of all VHF.\n\nUltra High Frequencies, from 300.0 to 3000.0 MHz have wider slices available, but the distance of reliable propagation falls to line of sight. Tall antenna towers and high power transmitters can extend this to a few tens of miles.\n\nSuper High Frequences, from 3000.0 MHz to 30000 MHz, more and wider slices available, shorter distances.\n\nMy comments are regarding terrestrial propagation. Space communications are line of sight. With nothing to get in the way, VHF and UHF frequenceies easily propagate hundreds of miles with low power, or tens of thousands of miles with higher power.",
"I'm a graduate student in applied physics working on this very problem! If you can make more sensitive components, you can shrink the \"width\" of frequency space that each signal needs. We are also working on being able to transmit and receive signals over 10GHz, which will free up space for other wireless signaling (radio is a small part of the wireless \"real estate\")",
"We are already doing this in some areas, but more directional transmissions and lower range/power transmissions where possible will help somewhat.\n\nInstead of a 90-120 degree sector covering 3+ miles out (roughly what my ISP uses for their point to multipoint transmissions) use 10 degree sectors covering 1 mile.",
"Put towers closer together, and have them transmit at lower power so they don't interfere.\n\nThere is an upper limit which we will eventually reach; (Bandwidth of a channel) * ( Earths size / Minimum channel size), but I don't think we are even close to that."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU_Radio_Regulations",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_spectrum",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noisy-channel_coding_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMO",
"https://www.fcc.gov/ecfs/"
]
}
|
What happens when we run out of space on the radio frequency spectrum(s)?
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||
oxgh5
|
Could FTL neutrinos be used for extraterrestrial communication?
|
I would like to expand more on my questions than my greatly simplified title. I am going to make a few (gigantic) assumptions to further approach these questions:
1) The OPERA CNGS experiment was not inherently flawed, and could be reproduced with the same results.
2) Neutrinos are capable of faster-than-light velocities.
3) The velocity of neutrinos scales with its energy.
4) There exists no upper limit for the velocity of neutrinos, or an upper limit exists which cannot ever be reached by any means.
These are very large, somewhat non-scientific assumptions. I would like to state that I am extremely skeptical about every item above, however, I would like the reader to accept these as being accurate to help facilitate my main question.
I also have some precursor questions which largely affects the main questions:
What formulas, if any, could be derived from current information to speculate the eV-to-velocity of a neutrino? If there is not enough data to determine this (which I speculate is the case), then what would the formulas be if it scaled linearly, exponentially, etc.?
Now moving on to the main questions. After everything considered, how powerful must a "neutrino transmitter" be to communicate near-instantly, or within significantly more reasonable time frame than light-speed communications? Could a star's energy be harnessed for this purpose and would it be sufficient? Would this be the preferred method of communication among distant life forms/spacecrafts? And finally, if this is even slightly feasible, and the possibility exists for more advanced life forms to have created and use this method of communication, how might this data be received and translated?
I would like to take the time now to apologize for what may be considered layman speculation of my part, but I am interested in the subject and would like to also clear up any misconceptions I have. I love this subreddit and I hate violating guidelines, and I wish there was a better place to ask the less-than-scientific parts of this post. I have read this post over several times and I cannot see where or if I have violated any, so if I did, please message me and I will remove them. Thank you.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3kuer4",
"c3kty6p",
"c3kzk50"
],
"text": [
"Even accepting assumptions 1 & 2, there may be some issue with 3 & 4. \n\nIn the paper about the Opera experiment (_URL_0_), they looked into energy effects on neutrino speed a little, analysing both the entire event history, as well as sub-dividing it into \"low\" and \"high\" energy regions (end of section 8). This gave measures for distributions with mean energies of 13.8, 28.2 and 40.7 GeV. There was a *slight* variation with energy in these results - neutrinos arrived 54.7 ns early for the lowest energy, compared to 68.1 ns early for the highest energy. However, this variation is swamped by the statistical noise (on the order of +-20 ns), so it's not a significant result, suggesting the neutrino speed is close to energy-independent, at least in the tens of GeV energy region.\n\nIt's important to note that the above time difference is the difference in speed *relative to c* for these neutrinos. If you express it in terms of a fractional change in speed, the particle's speed has increased by fraction of 6*10^-6 when the energy has tripled.\n\nEven if you accept assumption 3 & 4, this gives rather silly results if you try to apply things like a linear or exponential curve to it. If we assume the low- and high-energy time delays are indeed correct and fit simple functions to them, it suggests energies of more than 1 Joule per particle are needed to reach 2c if you assume a linear extrapolation and ignore the non-zero velocity at 0 eV. If you assume it's exponential it's even worse - something like 10^27000 eV to reach just 2c (not a typo, ten to the power of 27 thousand. Like I said, silly results).\n\nAnd then, as others have said, the cross-section for these events are *tiny*. SN1987A produced 10^58 neutrinos in a burst which led to ~20 events detected on earth. That was at a distance of 168k light years, but seeing the same number of events at a distance of, say, one light year would require ~3*10^47 neutrinos, assuming a uniform emission. Even if you could get this down to, say, a micro-radian beam (better than most/all modern lasers), you still need on the order of 10^40 neutrinos to see non-trivial numbers of events at one light year. \n\nSo, even with the optimistic 1 J estimation for a neutrino going at 2c, that's 10^40 joules of energy dumped into the neutrinos to get a couple of bits (optimistically) 1 light year in 6 months. For comparison, this is one hundred trillion times more energy than the sun outputs each second.\n\nSo... yeah. It doesn't look good for this method for sending messages, even with the most generous assumptions about the Opera results.",
"So I'm not a particle physicist, but I do know that neutrinos are so small they rarely interact with larger matter like atoms. A hundred billion neutrinos are streaming through every square centimeter of the Earth every second, only one of which will interact with something ([source](_URL_1_)), but it takes a huge liquid filled room and special cameras to be able to detect them on the rare event they do interact.\n\nConsidering how much energy would be needed to get them to cross the threshold (assuming this is possible), it would be remarkably inefficient, as the receiving party would have such trouble even detecting them. It would be like flinging scrabble letters at each other in a dark room.",
"Considering you've just invented your own physical theory, why don't you tell us? What, you don't have those answers? Maybe it's becuase the question is meaningless in the context.\n\nIt's a bit like asking \"If the warp drive from star trek is possible, how do I build it?\"... it just doesn't make sense."
],
"score": [
7,
7,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1109.4897",
"http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/Papers/Popular/Scientificamerican69/scientificamerican69.html"
]
}
|
Could FTL neutrinos be used for extraterrestrial communication?
I would like to expand more on my questions than my greatly simplified title. I am going to make a few (gigantic) assumptions to further approach these questions: 1) The OPERA CNGS experiment was not inherently flawed, and could be reproduced with the same results. 2) Neutrinos are capable of faster-than-light velocities. 3) The velocity of neutrinos scales with its energy. 4) There exists no upper limit for the velocity of neutrinos, or an upper limit exists which cannot ever be reached by any means. These are very large, somewhat non-scientific assumptions. I would like to state that I am extremely skeptical about every item above, however, I would like the reader to accept these as being accurate to help facilitate my main question. I also have some precursor questions which largely affects the main questions: What formulas, if any, could be derived from current information to speculate the eV-to-velocity of a neutrino? If there is not enough data to determine this (which I speculate is the case), then what would the formulas be if it scaled linearly, exponentially, etc.? Now moving on to the main questions. After everything considered, how powerful must a "neutrino transmitter" be to communicate near-instantly, or within significantly more reasonable time frame than light-speed communications? Could a star's energy be harnessed for this purpose and would it be sufficient? Would this be the preferred method of communication among distant life forms/spacecrafts? And finally, if this is even slightly feasible, and the possibility exists for more advanced life forms to have created and use this method of communication, how might this data be received and translated? I would like to take the time now to apologize for what may be considered layman speculation of my part, but I am interested in the subject and would like to also clear up any misconceptions I have. I love this subreddit and I hate violating guidelines, and I wish there was a better place to ask the less-than-scientific parts of this post. I have read this post over several times and I cannot see where or if I have violated any, so if I did, please message me and I will remove them. Thank you.
|
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|
7hh2gv
|
How can migranes hurt if you have no pain receptors in your Brain?
|
I have heard from several sources, including my Biology Teacher, that the brain lacks pain receptors, even going so far that you could perform brain surgery on a patient without anesthetics.
I have also read on Wikipedia, that often, migrane is caused by an arthery in your brain expanding to a certain degree (which seems reasonable, as migrane often feels like pulsating pressure in the brain to me).
But how can you feel that pulsating pain, if the brain itself is inept of feeling direct pain?
(Please note that I have very little knowledge of medicine, but am but a humble fool who often has migranes.)
|
askscience
|
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"Someone more knowledgeable then me will probably give a better answer, but while the brain tissues itself has no pain receptors, the meninges, which are the membranes that enclose the brain, do. I think other structures like blood vessels may also have pain receptors associated with them. Some headaches also originate from muscle problems in the neck or are related to eyes.",
"Brain tissue itself has no pain receptors. But as other commenters have said, your brain isn't just brain tissue. In addition to the meninges covering the brain, which does have pain receptors, there are also blood vessels, which are theorized to be interlinked to migraines and other types of headaches. In addition, the way we perceive pain means that the 'location' of the pain may not be the source of it, so while a headache might feel like it's extremely deep in your brain, that doesn't reflect the actual location of the pain receptors that are being triggered.",
"Surgical tech here. The brain has no pain receptor but the meninges do. When they hurt, your head hurts. And since pain can radiate to areas where nothing is happening, it makes sense that you could feel it in the brain when the brain covering is hurting. The above response is correct.",
"It is thought that migraines are caused by several triggers (less sleep, hormonal variations, food etc) and once they are about to begin, the person experiences an aura (change in how things smell and halos around lights). \n\nThere have been several preclinical theories about the pathology of migraines— most of them involving release of inflammatory compounds that cause pain by neurogenic inflammation around the meninges and nerves innervated by trigeminal ganglion (this is most likely what causes the pain in the face, around the eye orbits). While the brain itself does not have nociceptors (pain receptors), the cerebral vessels around the brain and meninges do have nociceptors.\n\nThat being said, it has been shown to a significant extent that- the release of a peptide called Calcitonin Gene Related Peptide (CGRP) by trigeminovascular afferents has been implicated with the neurogenic vasodilation of meningeal vessels. The medications currently available (like triptans) decrease the elevated CGRP and that’s why they are recommended to be taken as soon as a person experiences the aura of onset of migraine. It is a one time treatment for that episode of migraine but not a preventive treatment. Regardless, elevated levels of CGRP in plasma are almost always seen during migraines. \n\nThere is also extensive research being done on CGRP receptor antagonists (drugs that would block the CGRP receptors so CGRP can’t bind to its target and activate pain and inflammatory pathways). \n\nHope that helps!\n\nSource: I am a year 2 medical student in a US medical school.",
"Just a little side bit of info on pain looking at it from the muscles of the neck. This goes a little beyond migraines and into headaches, but they may be related, since migraines are sometimes a symptom of a neck injury.\n\nThere's something called referred pain. A constricted muscle somewhere in the body can register as pain somewhere else in the body.\n\nTight muscles in the neck can cause pain sensations all around the head, behind the eyes, in the jaw, wherever. It can go beyond aching and make you nauseated or give you vertigo. When I see people with cluster headaches smacking their own head it makes me wonder if they're instinctively doing a form of tapotement to alleviate their pain.",
"Straight from my anatomy textbook:\n\n“Oddly enough, the nervous tissue of the brain lacks pain receptors; there is no pain in the brain. Tissues surrounding the brain, like the meninges and the blood vessels, however, do contain pain receptors. You can feel a headache.”"
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How can migranes hurt if you have no pain receptors in your Brain?
I have heard from several sources, including my Biology Teacher, that the brain lacks pain receptors, even going so far that you could perform brain surgery on a patient without anesthetics. I have also read on Wikipedia, that often, migrane is caused by an arthery in your brain expanding to a certain degree (which seems reasonable, as migrane often feels like pulsating pressure in the brain to me). But how can you feel that pulsating pain, if the brain itself is inept of feeling direct pain? (Please note that I have very little knowledge of medicine, but am but a humble fool who often has migranes.)
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4i4y4q
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We are paleontologists who study fossils from an incredible site in Texas called the Arlington Archosaur Site. Ask us anything!
|
Hi Reddit, we are paleontologists **Chris Noto** and **Stephanie Drumheller-Horton**.
**From Dr. Noto:** I been fascinated by ancient life for as long as I can remember. At heart I am a paleoecologist, interested in fossil organisms as once living things inhabiting and interacting with each other and their environment. Currently I am an assistant professor in Biological Sciences at the University of Wisconsin-Parkside.
**From Dr. Drumheller-Horton:** My research falls into two broad fields: taphonomy (the study of everything that happens to an organism from when it dies until when we find it) and crocodylian evolution/behavior. I am an assistant adjunct professor and lecturer in Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of Tennessee.
---
**Texas was a very different place 95 million years ago.** Dinosaurs and crocodiles dominated a lush coast, preserved as a rich fossil bed in Dallas-Forth Worth called the Arlington Archosaur Site (AAS). The AAS is an important, productive fossil locality that preserves a previously unknown fauna from this part of North America.
The rocks here contain a rare record of ecosystem transition, when major groups of dinosaurs and other animals were changing significantly. The AAS preserves a nearly complete coastal ecosystem, providing an unparalleled glimpse into the life that existed here over 95 million years ago. Thousands of specimens have been recovered including previously unknown dinosaurs, crocodiles, turtles, mammals, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and plants. The diversity, abundance, and quality of the material is extraordinary.
The site is run in partnership with amateur volunteers, creating a unique citizen-science initiative with far-reaching education opportunities for the surrounding community. You can find us on Facebook [here](_URL_0_)!
---
We will be back at 1:30ET to answer your questions. Ask us anything!
**Edit: and we're off! Thank you so much for a great AMA!**
|
askscience
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"text": [
"I really wanted to be a paleontologist when I was a kid. Is it as glamorous as I imagine?",
"Have you received any backlash from Texans for claiming Texas has existed for over 95 million years?",
"What sort of information can you get from the surrounding rock about how the organism died? Can you also determine then how long a body might have been exposed before being buried? \n\nI once heard a paleontologist say he loved looking at dead cows in a field since it gave clues to dinosaur fossils and how he finds them. He mentioned he likes to get as much of the surrounding rock as he can from around a fossil to learn more, but he didn't expand much into what can actually be determined from the surrounding rock around a fossil.",
"I live in Fort Worth. If I wanted to get involved could I? How would I do so? \nEdit since answered below: What could I expect as a volunteer?",
"I too want to be a paleontologist and I have a couple questions\n\n1. Is there anything in particular that you two are hoping to learn about archosaurs from this site?\n\n2. What's your guys' favorite archosaur?\n\n3. Have either of you ever considered working on a site that pre dates the Permian to discover an evolutionary tie that we didn't know about or have to later lines like pelycosaurs or even the theraspids?\n\n\nThanks again! I hope to join the field one day!",
"In the last few years or so, what do you consider to be the most significant fossil find, and why?",
"UTA geology student here! Thanks for doing this AMA, it's so great that this amazing site is receiving wider attention! What has changed at the site since Dr. Main was there and what newer finds have you all discovered? Will there be any more opportunities to work more closely with UTA in the future? \n\nAdditionally, I'm about to go to grad school for geomorphology but paleo was one of my favorite classes. What, if any, opportunities are there in the professional world for someone with an MS in a specialization outside of paleo?",
"Hello I'm a freshman geology student and thanks for the Ama. I have couple questions if you don't mind. \n\nFirst what type rock are the fauna preserved in\n\n(Since it was a coastal area is it sandstone?)\n\nSecond any interesting fossils that you can't explain?\n\n(Ie. Something that should be extinct at the time or shouldn't exist yet)\n\nAnd finally what are y'all's requirements for volunteering and is it open to out of state ppl.",
"What is one fossil that you find over and over again in Texas?",
"I JUST saw the Titanosaur that is newly exhibited at AMNH, such a cool exhibit and it left me with tons of questions about the process. \n\nHow do you know when you find a given bone what animal it belongs to? Particularly if it is a site (like near a former watering hole) where there might be lots of different species fossilized? \n\nIs it hard to distinguish fossilized fragments from ordinary rock? Must every piece collected be tested in some means to determine this, or is it all eye sight? In any case, I imagine the process is quite lengthy.\n\nOnce you identify that several fossil fragments go together, how are you able to identify that they are all from the same individual? For example, the Titanosaur exhibit noted that there were remains of 6 or so Titanosaurs found...how is it known what femur belongs to what skeleton?\n\nIn the case where a previously unseen species is found, but many pieces are missing, how accurate is the work at filling in the gaps? Are skeleton structures ever found to be very inaccurate from what we previously thought based on later, more complete findings?\n\nWhen someone finds a fossil on private land, as is the case with the Rancher who first found and reported the fossil of the Titanosaur, how much of a pain in the ass is it going to be for them once they report it? Particularly people who have working farms/ranches. \n\nAnd finally, what the heck are the long, thing, \"whisker like\" bones framing the underside of neck vertebrae of the Titanosaur? Can sort of be seen [here](_URL_0_)\n\nHow much can you tell about the life of a given dinosaur from its fossilized skeleton and the environment around it?\n\nApologies if these questions are somewhat basic or not in your purview, all I know of your field comes from Jurassic Park, unfortunately.",
"Dr Ross Geller is the only paleontologist I have ever heard of. When explaining what you do to new people have you ever said 'the same thing that Ross off Friends does'?",
"Dr. Drumheller-Horton, was your future career basically pre-determined by your surname?",
"What's the most interesting find you've ever made?",
"Hello and thank you for this AMA!\n\nWhat do we know about the paleovegetation of the site (I suppose the palynology of the site is known; perhaps there are also plant macrofossils?) What was it like, and what can we infer about the interactions of the plant cover with the local fauna?",
"What makes the AAS so great for finding fossils?",
"Hi Chris and Stephanie,\n I went to graduate school with Chris (several years behind), which may be why this question came to mind. As someone who found a job not so long ago and has probably been on some hiring committees by now, what advice do you have for graduating Ph.D.s and post docs looking for jobs?",
"How does a fossil stay preserved underground for 95 million years? I have a hard time wrapping my head around that.",
"I'm getting into 3D modelling/animating dinosaurs and I'd like to make A parasaurolophus. I was wondering what modern day animal has the most similarities in terms of anatomy and/or movement if there are any. I know birds are a good refference for theropods, is there something similar for hadrosaurs?",
"Have either of you broken/severely damaged a fossil while excavating or examining one? \n\nIs that \"cost doing business\", or at least a somewhat common mistake in archaeology?",
"Do you(or anyone else) study the ancient water around animals in the fossils, or is that impossible?",
"Hi! It's always nice to see paleontology AMAs, your site looks fascinating!\n\n1) How was the site initially discovered? The website touches on how it got started, but not the actual discovery story. I used to work for Badlands NP in paleo interpretation and telling visitors the story of the Pig Dig always interested them.\n\n2) What are your favorite specimen(s) discovered that you hadn't expected to find? It sounds like the site is really diverse, and that you'll never know what to find next!\n\nThanks again for the AMA, and good luck with your future research & excavations!",
"Much of what we know about dinosaur behaviour is vague, like \"they cared for their young\" or \"they were social creatures.\" How do you compile your various evidence to make an informed decision about an extinct animal's behavior, and how do you make sure you don't assume beyond what you have evidence for?",
"I'm really interested in the crocs from the site! How are they related to modern (crown group) crocodylians? Are there any animals from the site that look like crocs but aren't particularly closely related?\n\nThanks!",
"In your opinion did the dinosaurs gradually die out or did they get wiped out in one single event?",
"This AMA could not be at a better time! I just got off the phone to confirm a field trip next week for my grade three students to a quarry in Hakel, Lebanon. They will flake rocks to find their own fossils - something that I did whilst scouting and had an absolute blast doing! The area is famous for thousands of different species of fish that are deposited there. The man who runs the place found a pterodactyl there that has been on a trip to Canada and is on its way back to Lebanon as I type this. I'm nowhere near an expert on this topic, but as an elementary teacher I want to pass as much fascination and knowledge onto my students as I can. \n\nSo, my question is: What do you think are the most interesting (or perhaps mind blowing) facts that I can teach 9 year olds about fossils or prehistoric life?",
"Hello, I'm an undergraduate of the University of Mayagüez of Puerto Rico. Here on the island there isn't much of a practice of paleontology and I have various questions. I'm studying geology, is that enough to further my future carrer in paleontology? Any internship programs that would be beneficial? How did you decide what branch of paleontology you wanted to pursue? Are there any specific universities I should look up? Any tips of the trade? I apologize if this seems like a bombardment of questions, like most I've been fascinated with dinosaurs since I was little but I've grown to appreciate the profession and the knowledge it comes with it. Hopefully when I graduate next year I will start following your footsteps toward my future career, one I am fondly awaiting.",
"Hello and thank you so much for doing this AMA, \n\nI've been wondering what type of specific organisms were present in Austin, TX 90 million years ago? Was it generally the same as Dallas? \n\nAlso which of those organisms are evolutionary ancestors for the organisms alive in this area today? \n\n\nEvery time I go roaming around I find myself wondering just how old certain species of organisms are in this area. Considering how big the mass extinction from 65 MYA was I've been curious to know if any of the organisms present today (in this specific area) have any direct descendants from that time. I'm assuming there's got to be a bird, plant or insect somewhere here with a common ancestor but I wanted to see if either of you knew.",
"This is really cool. I ended up being a classical musician, but I have always been fascinated by ancient life. Now I have a 3 year old boy and live six blocks from the Museum of Natural History in NYC - a nerd's dream come true.\n\nMy question(s): you said \"The rocks here contain a rare record of ecosystem transition, when major groups of dinosaurs and other animals were changing significantly.\" What was the reason for such wide-ranging transition? And is there an overarching trend in this transition i.e. toward size or some collective direction? \n\nThanks for your work!",
"Dr. Noto! You probably do not remember me, but a few years back I was the high school kid who you let volunteer in your lab at Parkside. I scanned the field notes and you were showing me how to 3D scan when I had to stop for school and all that. \n\n\nHow's the snake, that I was told to never touch as it wasn't a big fan of people, doing?",
"Finally an AMA that I am interested in and on time for asking a question... And yall are in my town, to boot! \n\n\nAt a brief glance, it looks like the site was open for field trips and to the public, and even letting regular people help dig... \n\nIs that still available? If so, when is the next one? \n\nI'd love to take the kids up there one day, this summer.",
"How exactly do volunteers get involved with the project, and how do they help? Excavation work, preparation, outreach, or all of the above?\n\nedit: And speaking of preparation, how easy is it to remove rock from the specimens at the site? I imagine if there are a lot of concretions it could be a tough job, but I'm not as familiar with the geology down in Texas.",
"Dr. Drumheller-Horton: Do you believe that crocodilians used to be warm blooded based on all the fossils of crocodilians that were clearly fast running land crocs, the fact crocodiles have a (modified to suit their current lifestyle) four chambered heart, and that their closest living relatives, birds, are warm blooded and they seems to be a trait inherited from dinosaur ancestors ?",
"I was yet another of the legion of children who wanted to dig up dinosaurs. But now that I've grown up and find myself *not* digging up dinosaurs, I find that I still really want to. Are there any resources for adults to help volunteer at real dig sites? This is kind of a bucket list thing for me.",
"In the recent past, we can see that the climate can change drastically (and change the landscape) in as little as 20,000 years. Lakes disappear / reappear. The Sahara is a desert / not a desert. How do you marry this current knowledge of climate with what you find in the past?",
"Given your location, do you run into any resistance from young earth creationists or such organizations? If so, how effective have you been educating the public and overcoming negative opposition? Do you have the opportunity to speak in local schools and inform them of the fossil rich deposits around them?",
"When a paleontologist submits a scientific finding is it peer reviewed? \n\nI heard fossil findings and etc are not peer reviewed. Unlike every other field of science or engineering. \n\nIf it is not peer reviewed why is it different than most fields? \n\nPlease confirm or deny. Thanks!",
"Is this location a sort of Lagerstätte? What sort of depositional environment are you working with? If this site is in well-abundance of fossils, is there any exceptional preservation too? What's been your favorite find so far in these Cretaceous beds?\n\nThanks so much for your time!",
"Talk to me about feathers. Has there been any evidence of feathers discovered there?\n\nIf so/if not, why is China ground zero for those types of discoveries (or at least, it seems to me as a clueless bystander)? Is it how the animals were fossilized?",
"Has your work ever been impeded or at least complicated by the portion of Texans that believe that 95 million years ago never happened and that the thousands of specimens that have been recovered were actually put there by Satan to test us?",
"Were you inspired by Jurassic Park? I feel like that movie must have lead many down the path of dinosaur related endeavours. What do dinosaurs taste like? I hear croc is pretty good, would others be edible or even of similar taste?",
"What are your feelings about the presentation of paleontologists on the popular 90s sitcom F.R.I.E.N.D.S?\n\nOn a serious note, have there been any developments regarding theories explaining the extinction of dinosaurs, or now you have concrete proof to substantiate the theory?",
"Have you ever debated with anyone who is a Creationist? If so, do you have any hair left or did you pull it all out from sheer frustration? Texas has put language in their text books that discusses Creationism? Thoughts?",
"What empirical information can be gathered concerning the enviroment that fossilization occurred in by examining the mineral content of any give fossil? What methods are used to determine events between the time a critter dies and is deposited?",
"Do you agree with the recent assertion that the dinosaurs were dying out anyway 65 million years ago, and that the Yucatan Meteor just accelerated the process, essentially being the coup de grace?",
"Hey! I've lived Arlington my whole life and never heard of this place! Is it closed to the public or are there chances for regular people to come help out with digs?",
"Can you speak on prehistoric megafauna (i've heard some info. about elephants that surprised me) in modern Texas? Also, just how damn beautiful was this land before it became 98% privately owned?",
"Dear Stephanie, your research centers around taphonomy, what can you tell us about the fossil record by your interactions with modern fauna? Also, do crocodilians sulk?",
"Hey there paleoteam!\n\nI was wondering if you could elaborate at all on the \"previously unknown species\". Specifically, was there was anything unusual or groundbreaking discovered?",
"What is the most interesting/most important specimen recovered from the site? What makes it special?",
"How do you get paid? Who pays you? Where does your funding come from?",
"Is your job like it's portrayed in movies, if not, how is it?",
"Do you bring osteologists and geologists on your digs?"
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|
We are paleontologists who study fossils from an incredible site in Texas called the Arlington Archosaur Site. Ask us anything!
Hi Reddit, we are paleontologists **Chris Noto** and **Stephanie Drumheller-Horton**. **From Dr. Noto:** I been fascinated by ancient life for as long as I can remember. At heart I am a paleoecologist, interested in fossil organisms as once living things inhabiting and interacting with each other and their environment. Currently I am an assistant professor in Biological Sciences at the University of Wisconsin-Parkside. **From Dr. Drumheller-Horton:** My research falls into two broad fields: taphonomy (the study of everything that happens to an organism from when it dies until when we find it) and crocodylian evolution/behavior. I am an assistant adjunct professor and lecturer in Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of Tennessee. --- **Texas was a very different place 95 million years ago.** Dinosaurs and crocodiles dominated a lush coast, preserved as a rich fossil bed in Dallas-Forth Worth called the Arlington Archosaur Site (AAS). The AAS is an important, productive fossil locality that preserves a previously unknown fauna from this part of North America. The rocks here contain a rare record of ecosystem transition, when major groups of dinosaurs and other animals were changing significantly. The AAS preserves a nearly complete coastal ecosystem, providing an unparalleled glimpse into the life that existed here over 95 million years ago. Thousands of specimens have been recovered including previously unknown dinosaurs, crocodiles, turtles, mammals, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and plants. The diversity, abundance, and quality of the material is extraordinary. The site is run in partnership with amateur volunteers, creating a unique citizen-science initiative with far-reaching education opportunities for the surrounding community. You can find us on Facebook [here](_URL_0_)! --- We will be back at 1:30ET to answer your questions. Ask us anything! **Edit: and we're off! Thank you so much for a great AMA!**
|
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|
2vuxlo
|
Is it possible to cold weld the repelling ends of magnets together? If so, would their magnetic fields align?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"colback",
"cold9jn",
"colebeh"
],
"text": [
"Magnetic fields are due to the spin of electrons within the magnet. Placing two magnets together would not change the spin of the electrons, so the magnetic fields would not align.\n\nHowever, over a long enough period of time, if you keep magnets near each other, the magnetic fields from one will affect the spin of the electrons in the other, so eventually the magnetic fields will align. This can take several weeks/months or even years if the magnets are weak.",
"1) Yes, in principle with an insane degree of polishing to get both surfaces smooth and flat at the atomic level, and if you avoid any surface oxidation or other contamination (maybe by operating in high vacuum) you could cold-weld two magnets together.\n\n2) No, their magnetic fields would not align. Or at least the cold weld would not have any effect very different than just holding the magnets against each other by hand. The reason is thus:\n\nAny magnet is *already* actually a bunch of microscopic magnets cold-welded together! We call the microscopic magnets \"magnetic domains\" and they are typically a few to 100's of microns in size. \nThe domains exist because most materials have some intrinsic magnetism per atom, and in something like Iron the atoms prefer to align their magnetic field with their neighbors. \"Prefer\" means it is a lower energy configuration. The domains point in different directions because like a random jumble of magnets on a desk, they don't like to sit side-by side pointing in the same direction. The boundary between the domains where the field changes directions is nothing special: just one iron atom next to another like anywhere else in the metal--exactly like a perfect cold-weld.\nWhen those domains are not random, but partially lined up, we say a material is magnetized.\n\nSo something like Iron is always magnetic, but it isn't magnetized until it gets microscopically organized.\nSee the [wiki article on magnetic domains](_URL_0_) for a more detailed discussion.\n\nSo by cold-welding your magnets together, you have created a particularly neat looking boundary between many magnetic domains, but it doesn't change the way they interact with each other.\n\nOver *very* long periods of time, your cold-welded magnets might get weaker and \"demagnitize\" each other, but this is no different than an ordinary magnet-- given enough time any magnet prefers to return to it's disorganized, \"non-magnetic\" state.",
"It is unnecessary to weld them. One can achieve a similar effect by just pressing 2 magnets together. It may require a jig and a vise if the magnets are strong enough, since they REALLY don't want to do this. The force is not just against compression, it creates a huge side force one way or the other. But they can be brought together, strong magnet or relatively weak magnet. \n\nYou could indeed glue them together if the glue is stronger than the repulsion force. This doesn't change their nature over being clamped together externally. \n\nThere are various cold-welding processes, they would be difficult to use. Neodymium mix doesn't melt AFAIK, but if you had a plated magnet (very common) you could have for example a copper skin that could bond to another magnet's copper skin.\n\nRegardless, the weld only affects the surface of the two objects, it does not change the nature of the objects throughout their mass so it's not a physically different magnetic situation than gluing or clamping either.\n\nThe effects of clamping 2 magnets together was correctly described by Ballistic_Watermelon.\n\nThey don't cancel out. Flux lines will radiate out sideways from the middle junction and travel out to the opposite poles on the ends. If you were using a single magnet to affect a compass needle some distance away, the two oppositely-joined magnets should have a much-reduced effect over the single."
],
"score": [
92,
14,
8
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_domain"
]
}
|
Is it possible to cold weld the repelling ends of magnets together? If so, would their magnetic fields align?
|
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||
13050k
|
How do TV test screens 'test'? What are they used for?
|
What do they do? What are they meant to test?
[Example](_URL_0_)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6zn79q",
"c6znqwo",
"c6zmkk7"
],
"text": [
"I love test patterns!\n\nThis specific one is a Philips Circle, heaps of others exist, and all serve various combinations of purposes. They were basically a set of reference cards, so various checks could be performed all along the signal chain. \n\nAnalog TV was a tricky, tricky beast- How red do you show your red? How do you know you aren't showing green, when you should be showing blue? Where is the center of the picture?\n\nSome features in the Philips Circle:\n\n* Colour bars, to show the various intensity levels of full red, green, and blue (and combinations thereof).\n* The grid, to allow you to center your image (This wasn't as automatic as it is now, back in the day- and in some applications still isn't.)\n* Interference bars, the vertical lines that get closer together, allow you to see the 'definition' of your signal.\n* White areas, for brightness and colour adjustment.\n* 'Blacker' than 'black' areas. See the box near the top of the circle, and the one just under the center? These are actually darker than 'black'.\n\nThat last one is kind of hard to explain- If you pointed a camera at a black room, no light at all, the completely dark image is not transmitted as a '0' in the brightness channel, but a baseline reference above that. The 'blacker' areas are there to provide a reference for the 0 level, to adjust the brightness up to the baseline reference. Ever played a video game for the first time after installing and it has a picture that appears and disappears when you change your brightness settings? Its just like that.",
"They are of less value these days with everything being digital, although having a proper color reference is nice. A lot of tvs are set to be massively brighter than they should be, so the test pattern can help with that.\n\nBack in the analog days, all the different lines, shapes, edges, color transitions, and patterns all reacted in different ways to show you the quality of your signal and electronics. Different types of noise, interference, weak signals, bad cables, miscalibrated electron beams, and signal bandwidth limitations within the circuit would cause distinctive visuals on the test pattern. From looking at where the chart was wrong, you could get a surprisingly accurate picture of what was wrong in your setup.\n\nThen there is how the studios and broadcasters used them, which is another whole story!",
"I did color correcting for broadcasting awhile ago actually. The test screen usually has a dedicated switch on the director's board, so it's easy to switch to if something goes wrong. I never used the screen for color correction, but I can't imagine any other uses for it."
],
"score": [
50,
7,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/dhnLO"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do TV test screens 'test'? What are they used for?
What do they do? What are they meant to test? [Example](_URL_0_)
|
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|
p5ui4
|
If heat is the least ordered type of energy, what is the most ordered type of energy?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3ms3jb",
"c3mrj5n",
"c3mrxfs",
"c3mrwyq"
],
"text": [
"First of all, *heat* is a process: the process of energy transfer due to a temperature difference. More precisely, we would say that *thermal energy* is the least ordered type of energy (because atoms and molecules are moving every which way). So how do we get them to move the same way?\n\nFollowing this line of thought, you can't get more a more ordered type of energy than that supplied by velocity (that is, kinetic energy). A perfect crystal in its ground energy state at 0 K has zero entropy (as specified by the Third Law of Thermodynamics). It's hard to get more ordered than that. Yet this material can be supplied an arbitrary amount of energy by accelerating it in empty space.\n\nThe laser beam answer by YellowJacketHill is insightful, and effectively applies the same principle to photons. A perfectly polarized, monochromatic, perfectly collimated, coherent laser beam has zero entropy, because all photons exist in a single state (Mungan, \"Radiation thermodynamics with applications to lasing and fluorescent cooling,\" *Am J Phys* 73(4) 2005). The photons are all moving at *c*. Yet the energy can be increased arbitrarily by increasing frequency.",
"I have to say a laser beam: you can have very low energetic bandwidth and also very low angular divergence. A laser beam has very low entropy.",
"Presumably you are referring to entropy? More information is stored in matter than any other form of energy, thus it is most 'ordered'.\n\nI suspect your question might come from an incomplete understanding of heat death, however. The end of the thermodynamic universe is not just 'heat' and nothing else. It is also cold, stable matter. Rock and iron and such. Lifeless dead planets and stars.\n\nIn fact, heat by itself is some sort of zen concept. Heat is energetic matter, not a property removed from matter. No such thing as heat in a vaccuum, just energy. \n\nHeat is not a type of energy. Kinetic energy is sometimes expressed as heat.",
"as a follow up on the OP's question; could we consider mass to be the most ordered seeing as energy and mass are related entities?"
],
"score": [
13,
8,
3,
3
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If heat is the least ordered type of energy, what is the most ordered type of energy?
|
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] |
||
54oln1
|
What is the temperature of the plasma inside a plasma globe?
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I understand that the total thermal energy is low because the density of the gas is low. Does it make sense to talk about the temperature of the plasma in the same way as the temperature of the glass?
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askscience
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"I'm not really satisfied with the answers so far so wanted to post a little about it.\n\nThere are a few definitions of temperature but the most useful when it comes to plasmas is normally the average energy, or velocity in different units, of your distribution of particles. The thing is that this definition only works when your particles are in a very specific shape of distribution, a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.\n\nA Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is the distribution that a group of particles want to be in, they will naturally relax into this distribution, but every time you poke them you will move them away from it and the further away from it you are then the less valid a single number as the \"temperature\" becomes.\n\nThere is certainly a limit where you are far enough away from the Maxwellian that the idea of temperature stops being useful, where exactly this happens is a grey area but it is certainly the case in a plasma globe. The reason I know it is the case is because the plasma is ionized non-thermally, what that means is that the gas is not hot enough to naturally become a plasma.\n\nIn a thermally ionized plasma you heat your gas hotter and hotter, all the time keeping roughly a Maxwellian, till you reach a tipping point where enough high energy collisions happen per second to ionize a sufficient fraction of the gas into plasma. This happens around an eV (10000-11000 K) for full ionization (although it is a plasma long before it is fully ionized). In the case of a plasma globe the ionization is done electrically, free electrons accelerate under a high voltage and hit neutral atoms with sufficient energy to ionize them, producing more free electrons as they do.\n\nLikewise, the reason the gas in a discharge tube glows is because it is hot enough for collisions between the species present to excite bound states in the atoms/ions which then radiate on decay. This allows you some measure of diagnosis of a thermally hot plasma, i.e. if wee see some iron is glowing at x wavelength then it must be because it is at y temperature.\n\nIn a plasma globe the high energy collisions that excite the atomic transitions are provided by electrons accelerated by the electric field rather than naturally \"hot\" electrons, which again indicates that there are enough non-thermal electrons that our Maxwellian is a poor approximation of the distribution. As such, we could not diagnose the gas temperature based on spectral emissions.\n\nWhen you are putting this kind of energy into a plasma then you will naturally be preferentially giving energy to different species. This is contrary to the idea of temperature in that if gas A and gas B coexist then as long as you wait a little bit of time the temperature of gas A will be the same as gas B. This is not the case in a plasma globe where the temperature of the electrons will be significantly higher than the ions which are higher still than the gas. \n\nWe have yet more complications here to do with our different temperatures: The electrons that are being accelerated inside one of the \"arcs\" in the globe will elastically (as well as in-elastically) collide with the gas and as such locally heat the gas, this is just ohmic heating. However, the bulk temperature of the gas will remain mostly unchanged since the volume of the arcs compared to the full sphere is small. This means that the temperature is not just dependant on what species you are talking about but where you are in the globe (in an arc or not). \n\nSo basically the idea that you could put a single number on paper and say it is the temperature of the plasma globe is not a good idea. That said the gas inside the globe is very near to room temperature, slightly hotter perhaps up to 1000K or so in the arc. The electrons in the arc are highly non-thermal but there must be at least electrons of the order of 12eV which is the ionization energy of xenon but, again, this is not a temperature.",
"The temperature of the ions is prabably near room temperature, as with the background gas (i don't think there is a high ionization percentage). the temperature of the electrons is probably a few (2-5) eV (wolfram tells me that converts to ~30000 C). the mass of electrons and their number density is quite low though so the heating of the glass/background gas will be relatively slow.\n\n~~Over time though i believe plasma globes do get quite warm to the touch (it's been a while since i've played with one). this isn't important and takes away from the rest of my answer~~",
"I accidentally shattered one of these in like 5th grade and touched it almost immediately afterward (luckily it was unplugged because I broke it by tripping over the wire - I know, so smooth) and it was barely warm. I don't know if that helps answer this question or provides any context. Actually, I'm pretty sure it doesn't. But I felt like I might as well share that anyway. Not my finest hour."
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What is the temperature of the plasma inside a plasma globe?
I understand that the total thermal energy is low because the density of the gas is low. Does it make sense to talk about the temperature of the plasma in the same way as the temperature of the glass?
|
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55eicx
|
If I was walking from West coast to East coast on North America right as the Cretaceous period was at its prime, how would the diversity of ecosystems and species compare to that same walk today?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"I can't answer your question on the number of ecosystems and species, but you would have one hell of a time crossing from (modern) coast to coast. [North America was split into 3 landmasses separated by shallow seas.](_URL_0_)",
"To add to what leadchipmunk said, it's not just that you'd have to cross an ocean, it's also the fact that we know far more about the western half of Cretaceous North America (Larimidia) than we do about the eastern half (Appalachia). The former was a great depositional environment for fossils; not so the latter.",
"/u/Krg60 is correct that we know much more about the Cretaceous rocks and fossils in western North America than Eastern. This is mainly because there *aren't* any in the east (for the most part). The east of NA was by and large an erosional environment with the bones of the Appalachian mountains crumbling away into the sea. And that goes for Canada, too (the Appalachians actually stretch all the way to Newfoundland, and on over into Britain and Scandinavia!)\n\nHowever, fossils are found in abundance in parts of the west.\n\nFirst off, you start at the east coast, and it's cold water with hot air. It's tectonically active, with foothills close to the shore and rising into a grand mountain chain. Likely along the shores (and in the water) it would be teeming with life, not unlike it is now. However, being a subduction zone, that life would be adapted to murky, colder water. Lots of free swimming beasts (fish and such) with a few marine reptiles, likely as common as seals and dolphins and whales are. There would me plenty of birds, small mammals, reptiles, and dinosaurs along the shore - probably not lots of great big ones though. Pterosaurs as well would be in the skies, gulping up fishies like pelicans do today, though some were larger (a few *far* larger)\n\nIn the mountains it would have been far less exciting. Mountains aren't fun for most life, and life adapted to the heat of the Cretaceous may not like mountain life. I'm sure you'd find something, though!\n\nOn the east of the mountains it would have been...probably real buggy! It would be hot, humid, vegetated. Some forests, some scrublands, plenty of swamp and salt marsh. Dinosaurs would be everywhere. Early raptors, smaller Tyrannosaurs, smaller ceratopsians, hadrosaurs, ankylosaurs...plenty of pterosaurs as well. I would imagine it similar to some areas in present day India, or parts of central Africa, with respect to biodiversity and size of the animals. Some noticeably large ones, but most weren't quite so big!\n\nThe most striking things would be the utter lack of grass entirely, and pretty much no flowering plants. And pterosaurs would be a thing to see! But most of them were quite small.\n\nNext to that is a massive seaway, which was practically overflowing with life. Lots of invertebrate life you wouldn't notice as being too different from what we have now in warmer waters, but plenty of fish, birds, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles near the shores ( though the whole sea never got too deep). Again, this would be not unlike the sea life in somewhere like present day eastern Australia.\n\nAnd it stops there. There were older mountains beyond that sea, but all the evidence of what lived there is underwater currently!"
],
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Cretaceous_seaway.png"
]
}
|
If I was walking from West coast to East coast on North America right as the Cretaceous period was at its prime, how would the diversity of ecosystems and species compare to that same walk today?
|
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||
ni7t4
|
Is it possible for a person to survive and be able to live with a face like the Two-Face portrayed in "Batman: The Dark Knight?"
|
This question came up while I was watching the movie with my cousin. I'm hoping r/askacience could help me out.
And if it is possible to survive like that, what are the biggest dangers that can come with an injury like that?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c39asth",
"c39c0sn",
"c39bt7k"
],
"text": [
"Infection would be the biggest danger. It would happen fast and probably progress to gangrene and subsequent sepsis and death quickly. That and the pain from a burn like that would be incapacitating. \n\nSo no, even with constant antibiotics, no person could survive like he did in the movie. If he were kept in a sterile hospital room with constant debridement and huge doses of antibiotics (and pain meds) then he could survive some time.",
"Yes, it is possible. In the early 20th century before reconstructive plastic surgeon was a viable option it was not uncommon for solders disfigured during world war I to literally have half a face left. Artists would create masks for them to wear to hide the parts of their face that were missing. The biggest danger would be an infection of the face tracking back to the brain, in addition to difficulty eating leading to malnutrition \nA lot of these injuries were similar in nature to the fire that made the guy two face in the dark knight film, from explosions, fires and the like on the battlefield.",
"No. He'd be septic real fast along with some multigrain failure especially his kidneys. But, they did get it right that he wouldn't be in pain, all the nerve fibers would literally have been melted and wouldn't be able to send info about \"pain\" anymore."
],
"score": [
28,
6,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Is it possible for a person to survive and be able to live with a face like the Two-Face portrayed in "Batman: The Dark Knight?"
This question came up while I was watching the movie with my cousin. I'm hoping r/askacience could help me out. And if it is possible to survive like that, what are the biggest dangers that can come with an injury like that?
|
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|
px3f3
|
What does the cross-product in physics represent physically?
|
Could you give me some sort of example of this in the the real world? I am having a very hard time visualizing this concept.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Well, the cross product of two vectors gives you a third vector that is perpendicular to both. An example is electromagnetic radiation. If you have an electric field pointing one way and a magnetic field pointing another way, the transfer of energy is in a direction given by the cross product of the two, and perpendicular to both.",
"Cross product is a mathematical operation. It is used in physics in a variety of situations to calculate physical phenomena that are perpendicular to other physical phenomena.\n\n[Here is a good, long descriptor.](_URL_0_)",
"The cross product doesn't actually have a physical representation, and is thus dubbed a [pseudovector](_URL_2_). This is because the sign of the pseudovector is arbitrary and dependent on whether the coordinate system is right handed or left handed. The cross product between two vectors produces a pseudovector, but the cross product between a pseudovector and a vector is a vector. So a magnetic field (B = qv cross r for a moving particle) would be a pseudovector, but the force it produces on a particle (F = qv cross B) would be a vector.\n\nIn some cases, you can derive some physical meaning from a pseudovector. For example, if you know the angular velocity (r cross v for a solid body), the pseudovector's direction will lie along the axis of rotation, and it's magnitude will be proportional to the rate of rotation. If you know the [handedness of the coordinate system](_URL_2_) you can determine if the rotation is clockwise or counterclockwise by knowing the direction you're facing and the sign (+/-) of the pseudovector.\n\nThe cross product is simply a mathematical construct and doesn't have any direct physical meaning. It's meaning comes back when you take the cross product between a pseudovector and another vector to get a vector which does have physical meaning.",
"The cross product of vectors **a** and **b** is a vector that is perpendicular to both of them, with a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram made by **a** and **b** (the shape that has two **a** sides and two **b** sides). Note that these two criteria actually specify two vectors with opposite directions, and we pick one of them to represent the cross product as a matter of convention. If **a** is your velocity and **b** is your friend's velocity, and you were walking north while your friend walks west, the cross product of your velocities would point straight up. In fact, as long as both of you stayed on a flat plane, **a**x**b** would always be either straight up or straight down, depending on the angle between your directions. The magnitude would be (your speed)\\*(friend's speed)\\*sin(angle between your directions)",
"Other commenters have pointed out that the cross product isn't \"really\" a vector, in some sense. But what the cross product really is, is a *bivector* -- an element of the second exterior power of your vector space. Basically, you should go read about [exterior algebra](_URL_3_).",
"A cross product of two vectors creates a third vector. However, this third vector has an interesting property: it is axial meaning that its direction changes under a reflection of axes. As one of my professor's more illustratively described, cross products are \"vampire\" vectors.\n\nThe simplest example of a cross product (axial vector) is the angular momentum of a rotating wheel. The angular momentum is the cross product of the radial vector of the wheel and the linear momentum of the rotating wheel. A simple way to determine the direction is to curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of rotation and your right thumb points in the direction of the angular momentum of the wheel. This is also the direction of the angular velocity of the wheel.\n\nWhy is this an axial vector? Well, its direction changes if left and right are interchanged! The easiest way to see this is to view a rotating wheel in front of a mirror. Say the front of the wheel toward the mirror is moving downward. Then, the angular momentum points left. Now, look in the mirror. You see the part of the wheel moving downward in the mirror which means that, in the mirror, the angular momentum is to the right! Pretty wild, and you'll probably need to do the experiment to convince yourself.\n\nOther simple examples of axial vectors/vectors described by cross products are the magnetic field and torque. Axial vectors feature prominently in the Standard Model of particle physics and, in fact, the description of particles which have axial behavior has won several Nobel Prizes!",
"One thing to note is that the existence of the cross product is intimately connected to the fact that we have three spacial dimensions. Unlike the vast majority of linear algebra, the cross product is specific to 3 dimensions. There's a [similar notion in 7 dimensions](_URL_4_) but it isn't as well behaved, (essentially it arises from the [octonions](_URL_5_) just as the cross product arises from the quaternions, so the non-associativity of the octonions makes the cross product harder to control.)\n\nOne (possibly helpful) way of thinking of the cross product in this context, is it arising from the anti-commutativity of the standard basis quaternions, but this isn't completely what is going on, and to be useful this requires visualizing the action of a 4-sphere on R^3, which isn't easy. \n\nProbably the best way of thinking of the cross product is as an object which gives you the plane that is generated by two vectors. However, the cross product contains slightly more information than that."
],
"score": [
6,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_product#Geometric_meaning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_%28mathematics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovector",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_algebra",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven-dimensional_cross_product",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octonions"
]
}
|
What does the cross-product in physics represent physically?
Could you give me some sort of example of this in the the real world? I am having a very hard time visualizing this concept.
|
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|
p7ofg
|
About vaccines. I saw this H1N1 "warning" on FB. I was under the impression that vaccines were not linked to these conditions?
|
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3n63tf",
"c3n61ze",
"c3n619e",
"c3n679h"
],
"text": [
"Toxicity is a complicated subject. There are very few hard easy rule when it comes to toxicity. Take for example mercury, Huffing the vapors of elemental mercury will kill you but you can drink a reasonable amount and be [relatively ok](_URL_4_). likewise adding and removing substituents to an element radically changes its toxicity. In the case of thimersol the mercury at the center of the molecule is bound to a sulfer on one side and carbon chain on the other. Likewise the charge of an element changes its chemistry in massive ways. Elemental Sodium(the metal) will explode and catch on fire in the presence of water. Ionic sodium we add gratuitously to our fries in the form of sodium chloride aka table salt. Even reactivity is not perfectly correlated to toxicity. For example benzene is very unreactive in the grand scheme of things and its a carcinogen. Many highly reactive compounds while lethal in large doses, are relatively inert in low doses, due to deactivating themselves so fast. \n\nIn the end the only safe way to deal with new compounds is to test them at the dose that they're going to be used at. Fortunately people have gone through and tested every single thing mentioned there and has been used millions upon millions of times before, and safe limits have been determined for all of them. some of the stuff is just silly like potassium chloride, which naturally floats around in your body. \n\nI've been having a difficult time hunting down the exact ingredient list of the H1N1 vaccine. [this is as close as I could find in 5 minuites](_URL_1_)\n\n\nList of Chemicals\n\n*Thimersol - Not used in single dose vaccines and is only when its used out of a repeated use vial. Even then... [\"In the U.S., one dose from a multi-dose vial contains approximately 25 micrograms of mercury, a bit less than a typical tuna fish sandwich.\"](_URL_0_) Thimersol in particular has been heavily tested and retested due to all the controversy surrounding it. The current scientific consensus is that its [harmless at the concentration it is used at.](_URL_2_). at this point its use has been slowly phased out to convince more people to get vaccines.\n\n*Potasium chloride - [naturally occurring in your body at a high concentration, your body regulates their concentration](_URL_8_) their on the bottom right side\n\n*[Deoxycholate](_URL_6_) - Deoxycholate is a naturally-occuring bile acid; it's made in your intestine by the native bacteria, out of the primary bile acids your body makes, and is used to emulsify the fats in your food to allow processing and absorption. It's probably used for that here also, and there's more of it in your intestine (and getting reabsorbed into your blood from your intestine) than in a vaccines. It's sometimes used as a gallstone prevention/treatment, and even injected as a cosmetic \"medicine\".\n\n*[Squalene](_URL_3_) - naturally produced in your body and at all times a certain amount is floating around in your blood stream. Squalene is an intermediate in the cholesterol synthesis pathway. This pathway is incredibly highly regulated (I actually study its regulation, but in yeast) and very capable of dealing with an excess of intermediates. Sharks are actually chock-full of this stuff. It's added in combination with other adjuvants to make vaccines more immunogenic (more likely to activate the T-cell response, which is necessary for a fully effective vaccine), but isn't very immunogenic on it's own, as least as far as I remember. This is probably used as a surfactant to keep the medicinal particles floating water.\n\n*trace amounts of egg proteins - the vaccine is grown in eggs. Unless you're allergic to eggs, there's no problem here; the blood is protein soup and can handle a few stray peptides floating around. It's why they say not to get it if you are.\n\n*[polysorbate 80](_URL_5_) - \"In Europe and America people eat about 100 mg of polysorbate 80 in foods per day.[7] Influenza vaccines contain 25 μg of polysorbate 80 per dose.[6]\" - mostly harmless. This is probably used as a surfactant to keep the medicinal particles floating water.\n\n*[vitamin E](_URL_7_) - daily intake seems to be in the 10s of mg per day which is definitely more than what's in a shot. This is probably used as a surfactant to keep the medicinal particles floating water.\n\nEdit: Slowly adding more chemicals to the list and filling them out\n\nEdit 2: current list of stuff squalene, vitamin E, polysorbate 80 and trace amounts of egg proteins, formaldehyde, sodium deoxycholate and sucrose\n\nEdit 3: back from work added some stuff from cass314",
"KCl is a neurotoxin? Better be careful of those bananas.",
"[Relevant](_URL_9_)\n\nWebMD shares several pages on the vaccines and their processes. It also has several links to the FDA and the CDC. Fear and government conspirators create labels like these in attempts to rattle people. Sometimes stuff like this is just some asshole thinking he's funny by creating such a hoax. Now keep in mind that there may well be those ingredients in the vaccine but apple seeds contain a cyanide compound and if you eat enough of them it might do some damage. Moral of the story is believe none of what you hear and only half of what you see.",
"You could probably break any regularly consumed food items into its chemical components and say the same thing."
],
"score": [
21,
14,
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3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/1M0fN"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/10/health/10primer.html",
"http://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=arepanrix&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CDgQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gsk.ca%2Fenglish%2Fdocs-pdf%2FArepanrix_PIL_CAPA01v01.pdf&ei=x6MqT8DSFMjItge_pMzhDw&usg=AFQjCNEECAKE38fvMg0YQ4kmofCZ3Tx6LQ&sig2=FekLEQErVj6cyHZI6kckrQ&cad=rja",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiomersal",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squalene",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_poisoning#Elemental_mercury",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysorbate_80",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deoxycholic_acid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_E",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Blood_values_sorted_by_mass_and_molar_concentration.png",
"http://www.webmd.com/cold-and-flu/features/is-the-h1n1-swine-flu-vaccine-safe"
]
}
|
About vaccines. I saw this H1N1 "warning" on FB. I was under the impression that vaccines were not linked to these conditions?
_URL_0_
|
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|
6q31lw
|
Why do some people have good sense of direction while other don't? Do we know how the brain differs in such people?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"This article explains it pretty well. It's like language, we are born with the ability and the amount of time we spend on tasks that use sense of direction directly influences how developed or underdeveloped our directional awareness becomes. There's a lot of cool ethnographic research about sense of direction. We use egocentric coordinates that depend on where we are...but many cultures describe where they are and how to get places using fixed geographic locations....that requires them to basically have a compass updating constantly in their brain. I wouldn't quote me on the exactness of these details because I read this quite a while ago in a cultural anthropology textbook, but some cultures have such a highly developed sense of direction that anyone can be taken out into the woods blindfolded at night and spun around a bunch of times and still know exactly what direction they were facing when the blindfold came off....really cool stuff.\nHope that helps!\n\n_URL_1_\n\nUPDATE: This is the article that was in my textbook and the part about language and space is almost toward the middle of the page...right below the graphic with all the mouths\n\n_URL_0_",
"[This study](_URL_2_) looked at structural MRIs of London taxi drivers (and bus drivers) and found the taxi drivers have a higher grey matter volume in the hippocampus compared to controls. The study suggests this is a consequence of a complex spatial awareness or \"map\" that allows taxi drivers to be expert navigators. As a control for similar job conditions minus navigation, they compare taxi drivers' brains to bus drivers' brains and see taxi drivers have more grey matter in the mid-posterior hippocampus and bus drivers have more in the anterior hippocampus. This may be indicative of a trade-off made in the brain of taxi drivers, wherein the complex spatial map sacrifices ability to acquire new spatial memories. I've pretty much just laid out the abstract here, so I'd recommend giving it a read.",
"In Dr. Oliver Sack's book The Minds Eye, he discusses many of the standout cases he's seen. One thing he discusses is how his inability to remember faces is a condition that is on a spectrum. Some people are great with faces, some are awful, some in between. He describes navigation/sense of direction similarly as that you can have a type of agnosia that is topographical in nature. Not only can you not grasp directions given nor are you able to give directions, but even remembering how to get to work takes you months of repeatedly using the GPS morning and evening. Thats me. Used the GPS to get to school and work the first two years of each. Cannot remember landscape or directions. Can't get to my childhood home without struggling even, and lived there 16 years.",
"Desmond Morris studied sex differences in how humans navigate - If I recall correctly he discussed it in either *The Human Animal* or perhaps in *The Human Sexes.* He noted that males tended to navigate by distance and direction (\"go 2 miles south\"), while females tended to do so by landmarks (\"turn left at the post office\"). Brain activity during navigation was studied -- I cannot recall if EEG was used -- and he also noted that the different hobbies men and women select also map to the same types of brain activity.\nHe then theorized that these differences may have begun in prehistory, when humans were hunter-gatherers, with men primarily hunters and women primarily gatherers, and their navigation needs were different.",
"It might be worth checking out the work of the Nobel prize winners of 2014, May-Britt and Edvard Moser if you are truly interested in this stuff. They showed that there are special cells in the brain that are responisble for our perception of locality.",
"It's got to do with a person spatial memory which is related to their hippocampal volume. There was an interesting study on how [London cab drivers have an increased hippocampal gray matter volume](_URL_3_) that talks about how because of their need to know streets and how to navigate the city they have a greater spatial knowledge which lead to an increased hippocampus size.",
"Here's an interesting article that gives a different suggestion on \"sense of direction.\" _URL_4_\n\nFor those who don't want to click, the article says that humans, like migratory birds, have a deposit of Magnetite just above and slightly behind the nose which orients to magnetic north.\n\nPersonally, I think that kind of awareness is increased by having parents/adults who value the skill.",
"It could also be related to pineal gland calcification. I know it affects sense of direction in humans and pigeons and the rate of calcification differs greatly in humans.\n\n_URL_5_\n\nCalcification in pigeons\n\n _URL_6_",
"Visual spatial problems. Just like some people can't read faces or remember details about their surroundings, some people can't read a map and comprehend that the top of the map isn't the front of the car (it points north instead). It's actually a part of the dyslexia spectrum of mental difficulties. They also tend to not be good at math too.",
"May not be what your looking for but for me I was born with developmental gerstmann syndrome. This has caused me to have issues with not so much my cardinal directions but things like knowing my right from my left quickly. There are instances where you can call out a direction for me to go in and I have to stop what I'm doing for a second and think about it I usually use the left makes an L trick to get it right but I just don't instantly know. So brain devolpment definitely plays a part in this. Sorry about the format and typing on mobile. If you want to read more about gerstmann syndrome here is the wiki link. _URL_7_",
"Corpus callosum are thicker in females which give them better abilities in coordinating balance and fine motor movements. The part of the brain that deals with orienting one's self in space and reality are comprised of grid neurons, place neurons, speed neurons, and positional neurons.",
"I'm way late to the game, but since this is in my wheelhouse of research, here goes.\n\nI may not be able to directly answer your question of why people differ in their \"sense of direction\", as it's pretty complex and I think a lot of commenters here have done a fairly good job addressing the high-level part of that question. But I did want to discuss the brain areas most closely associated with sense of direction, navigation, and directional orientation.\n\nThe way the human brain represents space is rather complex and specialized. A few commenters in this thread brought up the [famous set of experiments](_URL_11_) from Maguire et al. at UCL which studied London Taxi drivers. These experiments helped solidify [O'Keefe & Nadel's (1978)](_URL_15_) theory of the central role the hippocampus plays in maintaining a \"cognitive map\" of people's environments.\n\nHippocampal place cells have since been shown to respond to extrinsic landmarks as well as translational and directional movement. ([Hafting et al., 2006](_URL_13_)) However, their operation is context-specific, mapping to particular places in particular environments. They fire when an animal enters a particular place in a particular environment, and their firing patterns expand and contract to match salient aspects of different environments ([Fenton et al., 2008](_URL_14_)). \n\nSince humans don't have an innate sense of direction (as we think some animals do, though even this is hard to determine), we generally have to cobble together our information from a number of different systems, which would include integrating both egocentric and allocentric information. Likewise, researchers posited that the brain must have a system that is less context-sensitive than hippocampal place cells that would feed into the hippocampus. This leads us to a few other specialized systems in the brain.\n\nThe entorhinal cortex has something called grid cells, which fire in a grid-like pattern that creates triangular or hexagonal patterns of activation. This pattern maps onto the current visible environment, grows with the size of the environment, and is mapped onto external landmarks (Hafting et al., 2006). Likewise, that this grid is primarily based on external cues suggests that it forms the basis of an allocentric (world-based) map.\n\nOf course, people do not experience their world from such an allocentric view -- instead, we experience things from a first-person (egocentric) perspective. Thus we also have specialized head-direction cells, which give an egocentric signal that codes for head direction, unrelated from location in the environment ([Taube et al., 1990](_URL_10_)). Upon entering into a new environment, head-direction cells arbitrarily map a direction to visual features.\n\nFinally, conjunctive cells combine direction, velocity, and position, (that is, they integrate both egocentric and allocentric information) and are located in the medial entorhinal cortex ([Sargolini et al., 2006](_URL_9_)).\n\nSo, all these combined give a picture of how complicated human navigation is. We know from the London taxi driver experiments, for example, that people can build up a very detailed memory of particular places. This is one way to have prodigious spatial memory and thus navigational skill -- simply a lot of practice.\n\nMany other commenters here have already brought up people who speak languages that only use absolute directional terms, and I think this also gets at one of the appropriate underlying considerations. In English we have egocentric/relative terms like \"left\", \"right\", etc, as well as allocentric/absolute terms like \"north\" and \"south\". There are some languages that completely lack relative spatial terms, and only use absolute ones.\n\nAs one example, a researcher on Guugu Yimithirr (a language with only absolute directional languages) found the speakers of the language to be accurate in estimating cardinal directions to an average of 13.6 degrees, whereas speakers of Dutch (which, like English, employs relative spatial terms) to be \"little better than random.\" ([Levinson, 1997](_URL_8_)) My own research (yet unpublished other than a recent conference poster) suggests that people estimating cardinal directions around our university campus are a bit better than \"random\", with an average absolute heading error of about 43 degrees.\n\nNow, the important thing about all this talk of directional terms in language is that there is nothing mystical about the way languages like Guugu Yimithirr make people better at orientation or sense of direction. As a byproduct of a built-in feature of the language, speakers of these languages are constantly maintaining reference to an allocentric perspective -- they are always considering absolute direction while navigating, orienting, and generally discussing and engaging in spatial tasks.\n\nSo, again, always using these absolute spatial terms is another way people can be especially prodigious in another aspect of spatial cognition (i.e., orientational tasks) -- and again, this effectively comes from constant practice. So, though neither of these examples (London taxi drivers, speakers of absolute directional languages) *exactly* answer your question, we can start to see this trend that consistent practice at integrating these different systems makes people better at these tasks. \n\nOne hypothesis from these foregoing discussions is that, for the most part, in order to effectively navigate, all of these systems must be properly functioning. For example, people who have suffered lesions to their head-direction cells resulted in a type of \"egocentric disorientation\", where they were unable to represent their direction of orientation in relation to their environment. ([Aguirre & \n D'Esposito,\n 1999](_URL_12_)).\n\nSo we know people who are especially bad at navigation likely have some cognitive or neurological disorder in some of these brain areas. Likewise people who are especially good at navigation or orientation or sense of direction have (through some means or another) quite likely honed their ability to integrate the information coming from all these different processes and systems that contribute to spatial knowledge and awareness. Like I said, just sort of recapitulating \"they're good at this thing because they're good at doing the things that make one good at this thing\" is not a very exciting answer, so I apologize for that. I've emailed a colleague who says she has some good sources on individual differences between \"good\" and \"bad\" navigators/orienters, etc., so I'll possibly update this at a later time with a more satisfying answer.",
"I think people here are misunderstanding. A good sense of direction is not directly linked to good knowledge of direction. Before there were maps and compasses, sure people used the sun to reference where they were, or the stars, and to gauge which way was North/South etc. That's different from being in the middle of nowhere and almost by chance knowing where to go just by gut feeling.\n\nI forget constantly which side the sun rises and sets, i don't think i really know what constellations are *supposed* to be above my head and how they would be positioned at certain times of the year. But if i'm driving through a town that i don't know trying to get somewhere i've been maybe once before, i'm sure as hell going to get there without having to make a U-turn more than once.\n\nIt's almost inexplicable, which is why this is such a great question i never thought of asking. I think personally i would assume it's to do with logical thinking. Being logical can get you out of a lot of sticky situations, just because you're able to work out what is right/will work pretty easily without necessarily having the technical knowledge to support you.",
"I always wondered why I had a really strong sense of direction but I thought I was just being naive and decided that EVERYONE had a good sense of direction. I've been riding on my motorcycle for hours upon end while \"lost\" but I always knew almost exactly where I was and which way to go if I had to find a major route to find my way back. Really convinient beinf able to do so rather than stop my bike, get out my GPS and memorize a way back. I'm glad to know that a good sense of direction is actually something that not everyone has! So cool!! Do a lot of people have a hightened sense of direction?"
],
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/29/magazine/29language-t.html",
"https://www.brainscape.com/blog/2015/06/humans-innate-sense-of-direction/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17024677",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/17024677/",
"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/11/17/the_odd_body_nose_compass/",
"http://pubmedcentralcanada.ca/pmcc/articles/PMC1419179/pdf/bmjcred00479-0018.pdf",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1419179/",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerstmann_syndrome",
"http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:66622/component/escidoc:66623/1997_Spatial_description_in_Guugu_Yimithirr.pdf",
"https://www.princeton.edu/~njclub/2007-06-27_papers/Sargolini+etal_2006.pdf",
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/10/2/420.full.pdf",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17024677",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark_Desposito/publication/12830523_Topographical_Disorientation_A_Synthesis_And_Taxonomy/links/54accde70cf21c47713a7443.pdf",
"https://www.princeton.edu/~njclub/2007-06-27_papers/Hafting+etal_2005.pdf",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695947/pdf/nihms77418.pdf",
"http://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/HCMComplete.pdf"
]
}
|
Why do some people have good sense of direction while other don't? Do we know how the brain differs in such people?
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3mgtar
|
Prevalence of Quantum Mechanic Effects in "Real Life"?
|
We are able to observe many quantum effects by poking things in a laboratory environment, but how prevalent are most of these effects? That is, how likely are most of them to occur "naturally" (not in a controlled experiment)?
There are some well known effects that frequently occur, such as Pauli exclusion or tunneling effects, but how about the more obscure effects?
|
askscience
|
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"There are a number of notable (and pretty cool) effects, called [macroscopic quantum phenomena](_URL_2_), which occur on large length scales and can only be explained using quantum mechanics. Probably the best known example in this sense is the laser. Lasers, as the name implies (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation), rely on a process called [stimulated emission](_URL_1_). Stimulated emission cannot be explained classically and was in fact one of the most important early validations of quantum mechanics.\n\nAnother example that is a bit more exotic, but also very important is [superconductivity](_URL_0_), or the situation where currents can flow through a material with zero resistance. This is a purely quantum effect and it makes possible crazy phenomena such as quantum levitation, as [seen in this video](_URL_5_). One more example is [superfluidity](_URL_3_), the situation where a liquid can flow with no resistance (zero viscosity). This phenomenon also produces extremely counter-intuitive results, such as fluids that are actually able to [move upwards and flow around a container](_URL_4_).",
"_All of chemistry_ is a quantum-mechanical effect. There is no usable classical theories of the atom or chemical bonding and so forth. Every single day, observations are explained and new chemistry is predicted in terms of quantum mechanics. \n\nThis (together with solid-state/condensed matter physics) is the biggest application of quantum mechanics. The double-slit experiment, Aspect experiment and most such things you read about as experiments involving quantum mechanics are actually a tiny, tiny minority of experiments involving quantum mechanics, most of which **are** \"real-world\". You wouldn't have the transistors and microchips necessary to write this if we didn't have quantum mechanics.",
"In addition to the other great examples already posted, quantum mechanics also plays a large role in keeping the sun shinning. The fusion of atoms in the core of the sun is actually happening at a much colder temperature than would normally be expected, and this is due to quantum tunneling. There's a quick minute physics video that [you can watch](_URL_6_) that explains this phenomena quickly.\n\nEssentially the atoms have a small chance of fusing together even though they don't have enough energy to do so. Because of the massive amount of atoms in the sun, this small chance leads to many fusions that happen at a low temperature. This is why the sun is colder than expected.",
"It really depends on how you satisfy your requirements of \"this needs quantum mechanics to be explained\". Classical mechanics itself, which governs all the everyday physical interactions we are used to, can only be truly explained by more fundamental quantum mechanical principles, in particular, quantum interference.\n\nIn analytical mechanics, which describes classical mechanics with a deeper mathematical formalism than Newton's, mechanics is formulated using Hamilton's principle. This principle states that Nature works in such a way that a physical quantity called \"action\" is minimized\\* *only* for the paths the system actually takes in space and time.\n\n(*mathematically, the action must be a minimum, maximum or a \"saddle point\". According to Edwin Taylor, it's never a maximum, and I've never heard of a case where it is.)\n\nIn other words, the reason why when you drop a ball it falls straight down exactly the way it does, accelerating at the rate it does, is because that specific path is the one where this \"action\" quantity is minimized. Any small deviations from this will increase the total action of that possible trajectory.\n\nFrom this simple principle, all of Newton's laws follow immediately. This is a fundamental principle that is taken as a postulate in classical mechanics, with no explanation of *why* it should be so. It's an observation that works. It accurately explains all of classical mechanics.\n\nThis concept is also used when framing certain quantum mechanical systems, so it is much deeper than classical mechanics. But, only when quantum mechanics is taken in its absolute scope is that the principle is fully explained.\n\nPaul Dirac showed that the superposition of all possible quantum states of a system gives rise to Hamilton's principle. In other words, and borrowing from Feynman's path integral formulation of quantum mechanics (which was inspired by Dirac's observation), the quantum interference of all possible scenarios is what gives rise to a particular scenario we eventually observe.\n\nSo the reason why a basketball goes into that nice parabolic arc when thrown is, in a sense, because all other paths interfere quantum mechanically and cancel each other out. This is one way to tie quantum mechanics fundamentally to everyday phenomena.",
"Quantum effects are a problem in modern deep submicron semiconductor processes. The DRAM in your computer, for example, has capacitors that are so small the electrons will tunnel out of them in a fraction of a second. The contents of your computer's RAM must be continuously read out and written back to prevent the data from becoming corrupted. Quantum tunneling is also a problem with modern transistors - the gate oxide is extremely thin and the applied electric field extremely high (1 volt across a 1nm dielectric would be 1 megavolt per meter!) and as a result electrons tunnel across the gate oxide, creating a rather significant leakage current. \n\nOn the other hand, quantum tunneling is also the principle that enables EEPROM/flash memory to be written and erased - electrons must tunnel into or out of 'floating gate' electrodes as the bits are programmed or erased.",
"In addition to the great examples already given, there is some evidence that biology also uses quantum mechanics. Quantum biology is believed to be at play in photosynthesis, for example. Photons trigger the release of electrons in chromophores. Those electrons then have to travel to the photosynthetic center to be used in the production of carbohydrate fuel. There is some evidence that the electrons probe all possible paths to find the most efficient pathway. Quantum biology may also influence olfactory sensing, vision, and magnetoreception, and a host of other biological processes.",
"This might not fall in your definition of \"Real World\", but MRI imaging machines depend on quantum mechanistic effects of nuclei in a magnetic field in order to generate medical images (The term most scientists is Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, or NMR). \n\nNuclear spin becomes quantized either with or against the magnetic field, and the rate at which they change in response to perturbation from that alignment allows us to record information about the sample (or patient).",
"In the LIGO project, where they're trying to detect gravitational waves, they need to keep 40 kg mirrors so perfectly still that they're limited by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. So don't think it only applies to particles - this is a real life, macroscopic object running into the Heisenberg uncertainty limit!\n\nSee this great video at the linked time: _URL_7_",
"Many birds use the earth's magnetic field to navigate. Recent research suggests that these birds may actually be using [quantum entanglement](_URL_8_) to navigate ([source](_URL_10_)). The paper that describes this \"radical pair mechanism\" can be found [here](_URL_9_) (PDF)."
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"url": []
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulated_emission",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroscopic_quantum_phenomena",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluidity",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Z6UJbwxBZI",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ws6AAhTw7RA",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gS1dpowPlE8",
"https://youtu.be/gavqShf18us?t=3m20s",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/106/2/353.full.pdf+html",
"http://berkeleysciencereview.com/birds-are-quantum-physicists/"
]
}
|
Prevalence of Quantum Mechanic Effects in "Real Life"?
We are able to observe many quantum effects by poking things in a laboratory environment, but how prevalent are most of these effects? That is, how likely are most of them to occur "naturally" (not in a controlled experiment)? There are some well known effects that frequently occur, such as Pauli exclusion or tunneling effects, but how about the more obscure effects?
|
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|
4vztuj
|
AskScience Panel of Scientists XV
|
**Please read this entire post carefully and format your application appropriately.**
This post is for new panelist recruitment! The previous one is [here](_URL_0_).
The panel is an informal group of redditors who are **either professional scientists or those in training to become so**. All panelists have at least a graduate-level familiarity within their declared field of expertise and answer questions from related areas of study. A panelist's expertise is summarized in a color-coded AskScience flair.
Membership in the panel comes with access to a panelist subreddit. It is a place for panelists to interact with each other, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators make announcements to the whole panel. It's a good place to network with people who share your interests!
---
**You are eligible to join the panel if you:**
* Are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences, AND,
* Are able to communicate your knowledge of your field at a level accessible to various audiences.
------------------
**Instructions for formatting your panelist application:**
* Choose exactly one general field from the side-bar (Physics, Engineering, Social Sciences, etc.).
* State your specific field in one word or phrase (Neuropathology, Quantum Chemistry, etc.)
* Succinctly describe your particular area of research in a few words (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in Parkinsons patients, etc.)
* Give us a brief synopsis of your education: are you a research scientist for three decades, or a first-year Ph.D. student?
* Provide links to comments you've made in AskScience which you feel are indicative of your scholarship. Applications will not be approved without several comments made in /r/AskScience itself.
-----------------
Ideally, these comments should clearly indicate your fluency in the fundamentals of your discipline as well as your expertise. We favor comments that contain citations so we can assess its correctness without specific domain knowledge.
Here's an example application:
Username: /u/foretopsail
General field: Anthropology
Specific field: Maritime Archaeology
Particular areas of research include historical archaeology, archaeometry, and ship construction.
Education: MA in archaeology, researcher for several years.
Comments: 1, 2, 3, 4.
Please do not give us personally identifiable information and please follow the template. We're not going to do real-life background checks - we're just asking for reddit's best behavior. However, several moderators are tasked with monitoring panelist activity, and your credentials will be checked against the academic content of your posts on a continuing basis.
You can submit your application by replying to this post.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d69gzyu",
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"dcyznot",
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"d72rht1",
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],
"text": [
"Username: /u/Eats_Flies \n\nGeneral Field: Planetary Sciences.\n\nSpecific field: Planetary Exploration, Martian Surface, Low-Weight Robots\n\nEducation: Masters in Physics, Currently a couple months away from completing a PhD in Mechanical Engineering (concentrating on small scale drilling devices for use on Mars)\n\nComments: [1](_URL_0_), [2](_URL_5_), [3](_URL_2_), [4](_URL_4_), [5](_URL_1_), [6](_URL_3_)",
"Username: /u/plastertoes\n\nGeneral Field: Geology\n\nSpecific Field: Geochemistry\n\nResearch: continental crust formation, igneous geochemistry, chemical differentiation of planets, interactions between the crust and atmosphere, ore deposit formation\n\nEducation: 3rd year PhD student\n\nComments: [1](_URL_6_), [2](_URL_8_), [3](_URL_9_), [4](_URL_7_)\n\n*edit formatting",
"Username: /u/StephanieSarkisPhD (I guess I blew the personal info part!) \n\nGeneral field: Psychology\n\nSpecific field: Abnormal Psychology\n\nParticular areas of research: ADHD and its comorbid disorders, Autism Spectrum Disorder, chronic pain, dementia, and anxiety. \n\nEducation: PhD in Mental Health Counseling, Licensed Mental Health Counselor, National Certified Counselor, AMHCA Diplomate and Clinical Specialist in Child and Adolescent Counseling, in practice for 20 years and research for 15. Author of five books on adult ADHD. Published in the Journal of Attention Disorders re: my dissertation study on the impact of comorbid disorders on executive function performance by age and gender in a pediatric ADHD population (also had an APA Outstanding Dissertation Award for that one). Also published in ADHD Report and some others.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_11_), [2](_URL_13_), [3](_URL_12_), [4](_URL_10_)",
"Username: /u/AmBlocker22\n\nGeneral Field: Biology\n\nSpecific Field: Microbiology and Immunology.\n\nParticular areas of research include Characterizing specific species of gut bacteria in determining what role they might have in inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn's Disease and Ulcerative Colitis), studying their virulence factors and inflammatory/anti-inflammatory properties in cell culture and animal models. \n\nEducation: BS in Biology, MS in Biomedical Research with Thesis titled \"Investigating the Role of the Gut Microbiome in the Pathogenesis of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases.\" \n\n1st year PhD student. \n\nComments: [1](_URL_17_?)\n[2] (_URL_14_?)\n[3](_URL_19_?)\n[4](_URL_18_?)\n[5] (_URL_16_?)\n[6] (_URL_15_?)",
"Username: /u/anonsocialist\n\nGeneral Field: Microbiology\n\nSpecific Field: Virology, specifically pox virology\n\nParticular areas or research: Generation of transgenic viruses as potential therapies for cancer and classical virology looking at viral modulation of the host immune system.\n\nEducation: BSc biology, MS virology and neurobiology, currently PhD student in virology.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_23_), [2](_URL_22_), [3](_URL_21_), [4](_URL_20_)\n\nAlso I am a moderator on /r/science and /r/virology.",
"Username: /u/Ensrick\nGeneral Field: Meteorology\nSpecific Field : Aviation Meteorology\n\n-Particular areas of research and expertise include atmospheric characterization, forecasting, alphanumeric weather products. Primarily deal with military customers needing flight specific weather products such as mission execution forecasts, briefings and encoded weather forecasts/observations.\n-Education: Some college, military forecaster for 3 years.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_27_) [2](_URL_26_) [3](_URL_24_) [4](_URL_25_)",
"Username: /u/GinGimlet\nGeneral field: Biology\nSpecific field: Immunology\nParticular areas of research include T and B cells, cytokine biology, innate immunity, anti-viral and anti-parasitic immunity, effects of environmental toxins on immune cells\nEducation: BS in Biology (UNC-CH), Ph.D in Immunology (Univ. of Pennsylvania)\nComments: [1](_URL_29_) [2] (_URL_28_) [3](_URL_30_)",
"Username: /u/mangoman51\n\nGeneral field: Physics\n\nSpecific field: Computational Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy\n\nAbout to start a PhD in tokamak plasma physics. Did my masters in condensed-matter physics, modelling superconductors.\n\nEducation: MPhys Physics, Studying for PhD in Plasma Science and Fusion Energy\n\nComments: [1](_URL_32_), [2](_URL_31_), [3](_URL_33_), [4](_URL_34_)",
"Username: /u/Ceeeceeeceee\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific fields: Medicine, Evolutionary biology\n\nParticular areas of research: Extrapyramidal side effects (Sympatric speciation as an undergrad)\n\nEducation: BS - Biology/Anthropology, MD - dual Internal Med / Psych (currently teaching biology)\n\nComments: [1,](_URL_40_) [2,](_URL_38_) [3, ] (_URL_41_) [4,](_URL_35_) [5,](_URL_36_) [6,](_URL_37_) [7](_URL_39_)",
"Username: /u/greebo24\n\nGeneral field: Physics\n\nSpecific field: Experimental Nuclear Physics\n\nParticular areas of research include nuclear spectroscopy and physics of the heaviest elements\n\nEducation: PhD in physics, Practicing researcher at a university for 20+ years\n\nComments: [1](_URL_43_), [2](_URL_46_), [3](_URL_45_), [4](_URL_44_), \n[5](_URL_42_)",
"Username: /u/seis-matters\n\nGeneral field: Planetary Sciences\n\nSpecific field: Earthquake Seismology\n\nEducation: PhD in Earth Sciences, researcher in the field for a couple years.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_48_), [2](_URL_49_), [3](_URL_50_), [4](_URL_51_), and these two are not in /r/askscience [5](_URL_52_), [6](_URL_47_).",
"Username: /u/dtmtl \n\n General field: Neuroscience\n\n Specific field: Neurobiological psychiatry\n\n Particular areas of research include the neurobiological etiology of psychiatric disorders (depression, suicide, etc), stress, etc\n \n Education: PhD in neuroscience, currently a neurology postdoc.\n\n Comments: [1](_URL_55_), [2](_URL_53_), [3](_URL_54_).",
"Username: /u/BunnyCito\n\nGeneral Field: Neuroscience\n\nSpecific Field: Neuropsychopharmacology\n\nParticular areas of research include behavioral pharmacology, receptor theory, and substance abuse\n\nEducation: PhD in Pharmacology\n\nComments: [1](_URL_56_) [2](_URL_58_) [3](_URL_59_) [4](_URL_57_)\n\nEdit: spelling, added a comment, and formatting",
"Username: /u/HugodeGroot \n\nGeneral field: Chemistry\n\nSpecific field: Nanoscience and Energy\n\nEducation: PhD in Physical Chemistry\n\nComments: [1](_URL_62_) [2](_URL_63_) [3](_URL_61_) [4](_URL_60_) [5](_URL_64_)",
"Username: /u/Steve132\n\nGeneral Field: Computer Science\n\nSpecific Field: Graphics | Vision | Quantum Computing\n\nParticular Areas of research include: linear systems, rendering, raytracing, image based lighting, cryptography, parallel algorithms, quantum computing.\n\nEducation: MS in Computer Science, Researcher during my BS,MS and currently during my PHD. Currently in my 4th year of my PhD in Computer Science (ABD). Employed as an ASIC design engineer at a \n\nprolific CPU design firm.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_66_),\n[2](_URL_72_),\n[3](_URL_74_),\n[4](_URL_75_),\n[5](_URL_70_),\n[6](_URL_77_),\n[7](_URL_68_),\n[8](_URL_65_),\n[9](_URL_76_),\n[A](_URL_69_),\n[B](_URL_67_),\n[C](_URL_73_),\n[D](_URL_71_)",
"Username: /u/jezemine\n\nGeneral field: Physics\n\nSpecific field: Scattering Theory\n\nParticular areas of research include scattering theory (QM/EM), microwave cavity experiments, semiclassical physics\n\nEducation: PhD in physics, Harvard. No longer in academia now though. These days I work as a programmer writing software for satellites!\n\nComments: [1](\n_URL_78_) and followups. \n\nIs that enough? I haven't been commenting long. I have flair on /r/science already. used to be a mod there but couldn't handle all the mod mail for the AMAs, so I stopped.",
"Username: /u/VolcanicTequila \nGeneral Field: Volcanology and Earth Science \nSpecific Field: Volcano Plumbing Systems \nMy particular interest is what makes volcanoes tick under the surface and how this relates to what we see at the surface. I study Volcanology and Geological Hazards at MSc level.\n\nComments: [1] (_URL_82_) [2] (_URL_80_) [3] (_URL_81_) [4] (_URL_79_)",
"Username: /u/lupus_king\n\nGeneral field: Medicine\n\nSpecific field: Pharmacy\n\nParticular areas of research include uses of Danaparoid instead of heparin mitigate HIT, pharmacogenomics, pharmacology, microbiology\n\nEducation: PharmD and BPSc\n\nComments: New to reddit but am happy to participate in discussions in which I can offer something of value. More of a casual browser.",
"Username: /u/evamicur\n \nGeneral field: Chemistry\n\nSpecific field: Quantum Chemistry\n\nParticular areas of research include Theoretical Chemistry method development, both by-hand and with high-performance computing aimed at determining molecular wave-functions. \n \nEducation: MS in Chemistry, Pursuing PhD in Chemistry (year 2)\n\nComments: [1](_URL_83_),\n[2](_URL_85_),\n[3](_URL_87_),\n[4](_URL_84_),\n[5](_URL_86_)",
"Username: /u/Shadowing_Lemma\n\nGeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific field: Conservation biology, ecology, zoology\n\nParticular areas of research include population, community, movement, spatial and urban ecology, invasive species, zoology, and ethology.\n\nEducation: PhD in conservation biology, active researcher.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_90_), [2](_URL_92_), [3](_URL_93_), [4](_URL_88_), [5](_URL_91_), [6](_URL_89_)",
"username: /u/pineappledan\n\ngeneral field: Biology\n\nSpecific field: insect systematics, population genetics, entomology\n\nParticular areas of research include mountain pine beetle biology, population ecology and population structure\n\nEducation: Msc in Biology, Genetics and Systematics specialization\n\nComments: [1](_URL_94_) [2](_URL_95_) [3](_URL_98_) [4](_URL_96_) [5](_URL_97_)",
"Username: /u/vethron\n\n General field: Physics\n\n Specific field: Dark Matter\n\n Particular areas of research include: Dark matter phenomenology including collider searches, direct detection and indirect detection\n\n Education: PhD in physics, currently a postdoc\n\n Comments: [1](_URL_99_), [2](_URL_102_), [3](_URL_100_), [4](_URL_101_)",
"Username: /u/texwarhawk\n\nGeneral field: Planetary Sciences\n\nSpecific field: Atmospheric Sciences\n\n1st year PhD student\n\nParticular areas of research include remote sensing, satellite data assimilation, modeling.\n\nEducation: MS in Atmospheric Science\n\nComments: [1](_URL_103_), [2](_URL_105_), [3](_URL_104_)",
"username: /u/someawesomeusername\n\nGeneral Field: Physics\n\nSpecific Field: Effective field theories\n\nParticular areas of research include dark matter, chiral effective field theories, lattice field theories. \n\nEducation: Physics PHD student.\n\nComments: [1](_URL_110_) [2](_URL_109_) [3](_URL_107_) [4](_URL_106_) [5](_URL_108_)",
"Username: /u/rl4brains\n\nGeneral field: Psychology\n\nSpecific field: Cognitive neuroscience\n\nParticular areas of research: numerical cognition, risky decision-making, reward processing, child development, adolescent development\n\nEducation: MA in psychology/neuroscience\n\nComments: [1](_URL_115_), [2](_URL_112_), [3](_URL_111_), [4](_URL_113_), [5](_URL_114_)",
"Username: /u/spinlocked \nGeneral field: Engineering \nSpecific field: Electrical Engineering \nParticular areas of research include circuit design, digital design, FPGA, software, databases. \nEducation: BSEE, EMBA, VP Engineering Consumer Electronics Company",
"Username: CHEMDORK8811\n\nGeneral Field: Chemistry \n\nSpecific Field: Polymer Chemistry \n\nParticular areas of research include gas separation, reverse osmosis, fuel cells, and membranes in general. \n\nEducation: PhD polymer chemistry"
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"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/59frj2/could_someone_explain_what_this_iupac_definition/d9ezocb/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4xou66/when_we_say_an_atom_is_stable_as_it_has_achieved/d73g7ic/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5o599e/how_are_octopussquid_tracked_in_the_wild/dcjbb1e/?st=iy2o5ydk&sh=d75e6ae3",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5owefk/do_humans_have_genes_that_code_for_tails/dcnezpr/?st=iy5qfbyd&sh=b64aa6ef",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5mzvrc/how_does_an_octopus_know_what_colors_to_change_to/dci4z43/?st=iy2o5rcw&sh=d060b8ef",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5oiibc/are_there_examples_of_divorce_or_cheating_in/dckscxq/?st=iy2o64jo&sh=6ee5ddb2",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5lo77k/in_royal_societys_classified_papers_16601740/dci9ayl/?st=iy2o5t6x&sh=2a561e1e",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5o85zp/are_all_turtles_tetrachromats/dcifvfl/?st=iy2o5uq4&sh=9e8a493f",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4yepnc/are_flies_dirty/d6n8alh?context=3",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4yd4uv/why_do_cockroaches_die_on_their_backs_so/d6n4io4?context=3",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4d06am/what_animal_produces_the_mostdeveloped_offspring/d1n6c2z",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/49d92w/is_there_an_established_way_to_deal_with_an/d0sd7sz",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4yc5q5/how_do_they_remove_genes_from_mice_and_can_they/d6nasuk?context=3",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/50agyf/does_the_dark_matter_in_a_galaxy_form_a_disk_or_a/d72que6",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2k78pa/chemistsphysicists_of_reddit_what_is_the/cliqzlu",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1vg2ti/when_something_travels_faster_than_the_speed_of/ces0ghj",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2k78pa/chemistsphysicists_of_reddit_what_is_the/clisdug",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4w5u9k/why_dont_all_clouds_form_at_the_same_elevation/d6p2da2",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4lliur/how_does_one_determine_the_volume_of_water_vapor/d3oevs6",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4w5u9k/why_dont_all_clouds_form_at_the_same_elevation/d6p2tn8",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3q63bk/can_a_particle_be_annihilated_by_a_nonmatching/cwcf2f5",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4ie9rp/how_can_phycists_know_the_average_lifetime_of_a/d2xsx1v",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/39ftzw/gravity_can_be_described_with_spacetime_can_other/cs4eufw",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4ie9rp/how_can_phycists_know_the_average_lifetime_of_a/d2xkq9v",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4uqzdj/could_black_holes_be_responsible_for_the/d5scgp3",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2lxf5j/are_behaviors_innate_in_blind_people_in_the_way/clzm1mi",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4vxmw2/assuming_ducks_cant_count_can_they_keep_track_of/d630u0g",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2doeyg/do_people_who_are_born_without_a_particular_limb/cjrxtht",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2b00f7/are_we_able_to_control_our_thoughts/cj0il4u",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4vxmw2/assuming_ducks_cant_count_can_they_keep_track_of/d62ecj7"
]
}
|
AskScience Panel of Scientists XV
**Please read this entire post carefully and format your application appropriately.** This post is for new panelist recruitment! The previous one is [here](_URL_0_). The panel is an informal group of redditors who are **either professional scientists or those in training to become so**. All panelists have at least a graduate-level familiarity within their declared field of expertise and answer questions from related areas of study. A panelist's expertise is summarized in a color-coded AskScience flair. Membership in the panel comes with access to a panelist subreddit. It is a place for panelists to interact with each other, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators make announcements to the whole panel. It's a good place to network with people who share your interests! --- **You are eligible to join the panel if you:** * Are studying for at least an MSc. or equivalent degree in the sciences, AND, * Are able to communicate your knowledge of your field at a level accessible to various audiences. ------------------ **Instructions for formatting your panelist application:** * Choose exactly one general field from the side-bar (Physics, Engineering, Social Sciences, etc.). * State your specific field in one word or phrase (Neuropathology, Quantum Chemistry, etc.) * Succinctly describe your particular area of research in a few words (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in Parkinsons patients, etc.) * Give us a brief synopsis of your education: are you a research scientist for three decades, or a first-year Ph.D. student? * Provide links to comments you've made in AskScience which you feel are indicative of your scholarship. Applications will not be approved without several comments made in /r/AskScience itself. ----------------- Ideally, these comments should clearly indicate your fluency in the fundamentals of your discipline as well as your expertise. We favor comments that contain citations so we can assess its correctness without specific domain knowledge. Here's an example application: Username: /u/foretopsail General field: Anthropology Specific field: Maritime Archaeology Particular areas of research include historical archaeology, archaeometry, and ship construction. Education: MA in archaeology, researcher for several years. Comments: 1, 2, 3, 4. Please do not give us personally identifiable information and please follow the template. We're not going to do real-life background checks - we're just asking for reddit's best behavior. However, several moderators are tasked with monitoring panelist activity, and your credentials will be checked against the academic content of your posts on a continuing basis. You can submit your application by replying to this post.
|
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|
ncdvj
|
AskScience AMA Series- IAMA University Research Administrator
|
I work at a small Midwestern (US) research university with a little less than $40 million in annual research grants. Prior to coming to the university I worked in Washington DC in one of the funding agencies, helping decide which proposals were funded. AMA
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c37zpyj",
"c381weu",
"c37z9xn",
"c37zq8t",
"c37zchn",
"c382qwm",
"c37zc2e"
],
"text": [
"Can you talk about the funding agency in Washington DC? Is science being intentionally held back or redirected by vested interests or others who stand to lose from progress? Were there ever studies you really wanted to approve but could not due to outside influences?",
"-Give us some stories about the most ridiculous/amusing proposals you had to deal with. Anything ever got to your desk that made you question how the hell the submitter even earned his/her degree?\n\n-I remember having a microbiology professor tell me that he would regularly get proposals for a certain kind of research (something to do with isolating a soil bacteria or a compound they produced) that he would just automatically dismiss as being a waste of time and money. Any proposals that are regularly submitted and denied for sounding cool but have little substance?\n\n-I took an ethics class where our professor related a time where the university got funding from an oil company to research climate change but they kept on trying to insist that they be given the final say on whether it could be published (I'm guessing if it made them look bad) he of course refused any such compromise. Is this something you've had to deal with? What is your normal response to it i.e. will you refuse the money outright or make it very clear that is not going to happen if they give it to you, or is there some wiggle room as long as it doesn't threaten the integrity of the research/er?",
"Sounds like an interesting job - just a few questions for someone thinking of steering out of research:\nWhat kind of science background do you have? If you were a researcher, how did you make the transition out of research?",
"What does a University Research Administrator do?\n\nHow's it different than working a Washington funding agency?\n\nWhich is a more fun / more rewarding / better job?",
"Could you talk about which proposals get funded? How much does the \"publish or die\" concept influence the decision process? Is a prolific publisher more likely to get funding? Also, were you involved with any SBIR funding?",
"Is there an increasing trend for grants to support open-access publication of the results? What are your thoughts on open-access?",
"Why are you so uptight about approving my travel reimbursements?"
],
"score": [
6,
5,
5,
4,
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
AskScience AMA Series- IAMA University Research Administrator
I work at a small Midwestern (US) research university with a little less than $40 million in annual research grants. Prior to coming to the university I worked in Washington DC in one of the funding agencies, helping decide which proposals were funded. AMA
|
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|
x2n3e
|
Suppose instead of a giant pool, the Olympic swimmers had their individual lanes of water seperated from each other. Would this affect their swimming, and if so by how much?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5imfy2",
"c5imjf2",
"c5io0lr"
],
"text": [
"One of the issues in a giant pool is that backwash off of the side creates more turbulent water for the swimmers on the sides of the pool as opposed to the swimmers in the middle (this is why swimmers with the fastest heat times are placed in the middle; kind of a \"seeding\" of sorts). This does slow the outside swimmers a bit. However, this issue has been remedied to a great degree by deeper pools, flow gutters and more separation between the outside lanes and thew all. From a physics standpoint, the times probably wouldn't change much, if at all.\n\nHowever, a non-scientific reason separating the swimmers might change their times is that they wouldn't be able to see the other swimmers as easily. This might actually have the effect of *slowing* down times, as the adrenaline burst obtained from having to chase someone would be largely taken out of the equation.",
"I can't speak quantitatively, however there are a few effects at play:\n\n* Lane lines (the floating dividers) significantly absorb the wakes from the swimmers, reducing the amount of turbulence each swimmer sees.\n\n* Hard walls reflect the wake, increasing the turbulence seen. \n\nHeats are populated with the fastest swimmers at center, out to the slower swimmers at the edges (causing those to go slower, due to increased turbulence). I've seen pools with lane lines at the edges, but it's apparently not used in Olympic events (as far as I can tell by looking at photos) \n\nIf you built a series of 1 lane wide pools, everyone would have an equal amount of turbulence, which would make things a bit more even. However, overall times would be slower for two reasons:\n\n1. It would be harder to see who you were racing against, causing you to not go as fast. (This could be solved with transparent dividers instead of solid concrete)\n\n2. Increased self-induced turbulence would cause everyone to go slower. \n\nTo wit:\n\n* I've swam in pools that didn't have lane lines (coaches were too lazy one morning to put them in, so we practiced without them), the increased turbulence was crazy\n\n* Anecodtally, it's physically harder to swim in an edge lane than a middle lane. Not just when competing, but also during solo practice.",
"Can anyone explain the 'riding the wave' lore that exists within swimming? That seems to have some advantage.\n\nLook at [this video of Jason Lezak](_URL_0_) where he is actively swimming as close to his opponent's wake as possible."
],
"score": [
31,
7,
7
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVZrne7X5ww#t=3m03s"
]
}
|
Suppose instead of a giant pool, the Olympic swimmers had their individual lanes of water seperated from each other. Would this affect their swimming, and if so by how much?
|
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1vleky
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Has there ever been a blind test to see if people prefer sample A or sample B ?
|
I saw a blind taste test to see if people preferred bottled or tap water. In this case about 75% preferred the tap water.
I was wondering if the fact that the tap water was labelled "A" might have had an effect. What if you did a blind taste test with three samples A, B and C but they all contained the same water.
Would people prefer A over B ? What if they were labelled 1,2 and 3? or X, Y and Z? or might they tend to prefer the first sample offered to them regardless of how they were labelled?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"As others have pointed out, the bias you describe is accounted for and minimized in robust designs. I'd just like to add that this bias has a name: it's called the the [primacy effect](_URL_1_). Here's one study...\n\n**[Order in Choice Effects of Serial Position on Preferences](_URL_0_)**:\n\n > When several choice options are sampled one at a time in a sequence and a single choice of the best option is made at the end of the sequence, which location in the sequence is chosen most often? We report a large-scale experiment that assessed tasting preferences in choice sets of two, three, four, or five wines. We found a large primacy effect—the first wine had a large advantage in the end-of-sequence choice. We also found that participants who were knowledgeable about wines showed a recency effect in the longer sequences. We conclude with a process model that explains our findings.",
"Typically an appropriately designed double-blind study would randomize the position and label of the samples. It should be possible to find an existing study and perform a principle component analysis on their data to determine if a bias exists.",
"When there is a possibility of order effects (i.e. pick 'A' or 'B', 1 or 2), it is preferable to structure the test such that half of the participants get one order, the other half get a different order.\n\nExample: In participant group 1, I put Coke in cup 'A', and Pepsi in cup 'B'. \n\nIn participant group 2, I put Pepsi in cup 'A', and Coke in cup 'B'.\n\nIn short, you are right, order effects can be important, especially when there is a small difference between two options (like when you're getting tested for which corrective lens is best).",
"> serial position effect.\n\nYes. \n\nYes. There have been numerous of studies of serial order effects in clinical trials, survey research, and other fields of research where the measurement of interest is a response is from a living subject.\n\nIn survey research, its been observed that in written questionnaires there is a primacy effect, wherein the first option presented is most likely to be selected. In auditory (spoken as in phone surveys) there usually a recency effect, where the last option tends to be selected. The explanation for both effects can be summed up as: research subjects tend to be lazy. Thus in a written form if you select the first choice (primacy) you don't have to read the rest of the choice, in a spoken form you only need to recall the last choice (recency).\n\nThis effect can be controlled by randomizing the answer choices. In your example in 50% of the time tap water would be \"choice A\" and 50% of the time tap water would be \"choice B\" and visa versa. Some comments are conflating this with \"blinding\" which controls for observer bias. \n\nTrue randomization in voting ballots, (if there were two candidates printing, half of the ballots with \"Candidate A\" on top, and half of the ballots with \"Candidate B\" on top and distributing them randomly, would control for \"the donkey vote\" which is a primacy effect.\n\nI don't have time for citations, but there are a number of references on the 'serial position effect' wikipedia page, and some discussion in Survey Methodology (Grooves et. al).\n\n_URL_2_",
"To add to the point that others have made, a big issue with giving multiple taste tests to a single person is that if you have three substances (A, B, C), and people test them in the same order, then you have **confounded** which substance people are tasting the with order it's tasted in. That is, substance A is always first, B is always second, so you can't ask what would happen if A was tested second.\n\nHowever, if you counterbalance, so that A is tested in all three possible orders, the you separate statistically the effect that order has from the effect that a substance has^+. The important part isn't minimizing bias from order necessarily, but *measuring* it.\n\nAs others have mentioned, this is often done because people are biased to favor certain positions more than others. It seems like similar things happen with labels (but I don't know really know).\n\n\\+ technically, there's the possibility of something called an [interaction](_URL_3_) between substances and how closely they were sampled to each other, which would make things more complicated...",
"As far as food testing goes, I learned in a food science class once that they give all the food samples a random 3 digit number. So sample one would be 479, sample 2 would be 639, and sample 3 would be 193. Most people do not have a preference for such large number so they don't really factor into the decision.",
"Experimental designs are counter balanced to control for confounding variables like this.",
"As long as you randomize which item is sampled first and the symbols used to denote each, plus there is no reason to believe there is an interaction between choice of symbol and a particular sampling experience, then it should be fine.\n\nMy question as someone already familiar would be: Has knowledge of the serial position effects ever been used to deliberately design an experiment biased toward a desired and otherwise unnatural outcome in order to fool those who failed to consider such effects? (This is keeping in mind not all experiments get repeated, though we wish they all could be.)",
"Would people still pick \"A\" more if \"B\" was the first one a \"A\" was the second one?",
"I do a lot of food tasting for a dairy R & D department. We use numeric codes, rather than A, B, C- more like 719, 212, and 545. The order in which we taste is randomized, so my first taste test might be the neighbor's last. Also, my numbers are randomized, so that my 719 might be my neighbor's 414 (which are then coded against the forms we fill out).\n\nFrankly, it all seems a bit excessive, given the sample sizes.",
"Just adding that from a strictly culinary point of view, the order in which you taste things is very important. During some multi-course meals, you will receive a palate cleanser to ensure the next course's flavours are not muddled by the previous'. Certain flavour combinations may work well in one order, and poorly in another.",
"I know of a similar study that was done in the 70s where identical sets of pantyhose were set up on a table, and consumers were asked to judge which was the best quality. The pantyhose on the right-hand side of the table were more likely to be chosen as better quality than ones on the left, even though they were the same exact brand/style/manufacturer. Source: _URL_4_ (they did a BUNCH of tests like these in this paper)\n\nSimilarly also, there has been lots of research on the ordering of candidates on a ballot. Candidates who are listed closer to the top of the ballot have a higher advantage. Source: _URL_5_",
"as long as they counterbalance which water was in which position across subjects, there most likely won't be any bias. this is more or less a necessary aspect of experimental design - otherwise, as you noted, you could get order effects.",
"Large sample, randomized between subjects design, each subject is exposed to one treatment. Eliminates the primacy or recency issue, and the randomization plus large sample (assuming representative of population of interest) ensures the effects you're observing are in fact there."
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{
"url": [
"http://pss.sagepub.com/content/20/11/1309.short",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect#Primacy_effect",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=pLIDVtNMkbQC&lpg=PA157&ots=OosiLezTUz&dq=primacy%20effect%20survey&pg=PA157#v=onepage&q=primacy%20effect%20survey&f=false",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_(statistics)",
"http://web.gc.cuny.edu/cogsci/private/nisbett-wilson-2.pdf",
"http://www.centerforpolitics.org/newslet_909cb.html"
]
}
|
Has there ever been a blind test to see if people prefer sample A or sample B ?
I saw a blind taste test to see if people preferred bottled or tap water. In this case about 75% preferred the tap water. I was wondering if the fact that the tap water was labelled "A" might have had an effect. What if you did a blind taste test with three samples A, B and C but they all contained the same water. Would people prefer A over B ? What if they were labelled 1,2 and 3? or X, Y and Z? or might they tend to prefer the first sample offered to them regardless of how they were labelled?
|
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tmoe2
|
Does the "will to live" among the very ill create biochemical changes in the body that helps keep them alive?
|
In other words, is there any evidence one can mentally influence biochemical processes to help one overcome a deathly sickness?
I hear often about people just "giving up" or not having a "will to live" anymore, and they shortly after they pass on. Is there any research being done to test this phenomenon? What is this phenomenon called?
|
askscience
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"There are a number of articles and research papers indicating that a positive mental attitude towards an illness such as cancer can have a profound effect on the rate of recovery. The reasons for this are not particularly well known. It's potentially an extension or application of the placebo effect in that a person can effectively will themselves back to better health. \n\nIt's true not only of physical ailments but also of mental disorders such as chronic depression. Oddly in placebo testing, even being made aware of the fact that a placebo is being administered doesn't change the effect of such a treatment as much as would be expected. In fact in most testing the participants with the placebo have a significantly higher rate of improvement than those receiving nothing at all. \n\nWent a little off topic there but in a nutshell, the will to live does have a profound effect on recovery rates but as yet there is not a great deal know as to why this happens as far as I have read. Bearing in mind that I'm just graduating from a psychology bachelors I may be wrong/not as well read as some so I may have missed some more recent or appropriate literature that might give a little more insight but I hope I've helped a little. \n\nEdit: I posted some related articles lower down for some further reading so I thought I'd add them here.\n\nOk, so here's a little article about placebos acting even when they are known to be placebos. _URL_5_ - Well worth a read.\n\n_URL_6_ - Much more in depth journal article on placebo (specific to sudden loss of hearing) in which there seems a much smaller gap than you would imagine between placebo and medical treatment. (this is full of stats and jargon but if you can bear with it, it's very interesting).\n\n_URL_2_ - An article describing how the placebo effect can alter brain function.\n\n_URL_3_ - another article describing how the placebo effect works in certain cases. This one is well worth a read. It shows that in some cases placebos are not the magic bullet they are sometimes painted as in journal articles.\n\nWould do more but I have to get back to revision. I get the feeling I'll be back to have a look at this topic soon enough though.\n\nEdit: I've seen a few posts citing that I didn't back up the information regarding cancer sufferers specifically so I found a couple of articles that would hopefully shed some light on this. I can't cite the peer reviewed journals as the library account at my University doesn't allow direct links so I did my best to find some informed yet admittedly not peer reviewed articles on the subject. \n\nOk, so specifically to cancer sufferers, _URL_1_ - This article shows that people without the stresses of a distressed relationship show a much quicker state of recovery than those who do not. \n\n_URL_0_ - This is more a Q & A for those suffering from breast cancer but shows that good mental health can increase the level your body heals or responds to the negative sides of the treatment itself. \n\n_URL_4_ - A further article explaining the links between good psychological health and cancer survival rates explaining the positives of good mental health on the stresses of being diagnosed with cancer. \n\nSorry I didn't cite these earlier. Didn't have much time on my hands but I hope this goes some way to explaining and backing the claims I made regarding cancer in the original post.",
"I cannot help with any biomechanical changes but I do have some citations about possible psychological effects that impact the date of our death.\n\n[Here](_URL_7_) is a paper from 1990 examining the death rates among elderly chinese women around the harvest moon festival. They found that mortality dipped 35% before the festival and raised 35% after the festival. This is not a universally accepted study but it is some place to start. The same researcher also did a larger study regarding deaths around birthdays, though I am not sure how well accepted his research is.\n\nThe book [Quirkology](_URL_8_) has a small section on this effect.\n\n > There is certainly some anecdotal evidence to support the notion. Charles Schulz, the multi-millionaire cartoonist and creator of the “Peanuts” strip, died on the eve of the publication of his last comic strip. The final cartoon con-tained a farewell letter signed by Schulz. Also, no fewer than three American presidents, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Monroe, all died on July 4, thus raising the intriguing possibility that they held on long enough to ensure an auspicious date of death.\n\nHowever, this does come after a section of the book about people lying about dates of birth/death (priests are statistically more likely to be born on Christmas, politicians on July 4, etc). So these sort of effects may be explained if someone has a reason to lie about when their parent/sibling died.\n\nEdit: Here are a few more papers on the subject of date of death. I don't have time to link them so I am just copying them from the back of Quirkology.\n\nD. P. Phillips and D. G. Smith, “Postponement of Death Until Sym-bolically Meaningful Occasions,” Journal of the American Medical Association 263 (1990)\n\nD. P. Phillips, C. A. Van Voorhees, and T. E. Ruth, “The Birthday:Lifeline or Deadline?” Psychosomatic Medicine \n54 (1992): 532–542.\n\nJ. A. Skala and K. E.Freedland, “Death Takes a Raincheck,” Psychosomatic Medicine 66(2004): 382–386.\n\nS. A. Everson et al., “Hopelessness and Risk of Mortality and Inci-dence of Myocardial Infarction and Cancer,” Psychosomatic Medicine 58(1996): 113–121.\n\nW. Kopczuk and J. Slemrod, “Dying to Save Taxes: Evidence fromEstate-Tax Returns on the Death Elasticity,” Review of Economics and Statistics 85, no. 2 (2003): 256–265",
"\"The will to live\", as you like to call it, leads to better dealing with the stress of the situation. Stress has been linked to earlier mortality rates than in people with the lack thereof.\n\nA very relevant study I sadly can't remember the name of details the effects of stress on HIV patients. Those who were more worried about dying soon had higher levels of cortisol, which is linked to stress, and those who had a positive outlook seemed to have less cortisol and also outlive the others.\n\nOf course, stress is just one aspect, but it does lend towards the idea that positive thinking helps you stay alive. \n\nSource: IB psychology guidebook in the health psychology section. I don't remember the name of the psychologists, however.\n\nEDIT: clarity",
"> I hear often about people just \"giving up\" or not having a \"will to live\" anymore, and they shortly after they pass on.\n\nIsn't it likely that the body can sense that its situation looks bleak and they lose their will to live as a result, rather than it being the other way around?",
"The practice of 'mindfulness', a psychological technique adapted form eastern traditions, has been shown to [alter brain and immune function](_URL_9_), as measured through EEGs and antibody production in response to immunization. The technique helps one focus on the moment and has been associated with improvements in positive affect.\n\nI'm sure that an actual psychologist/psychiatrist would have more to say about it, as my only encounters with this technique have been through discussions with a psych resident.",
"To expand upon OP's question, could a person recover from an sickness easier if they were misinformed to believe that their sickness was much less severe than it actually was?",
"My roomate's grandma is in hospice right now. She has no pulse in her right arm and her left leg which means those two limbs are essentially dead and are beginning to rot. She should have died 3 days ago, but she's still holding onto something. This has baffled the doctors and they have told the family that she is holding on to something, that there's a problem in the family and she will not go until it is resolved. The family knew what it was and so they called up some family members that they don't really talk to and they let those family members talk to the grandma. The grandma is not too responsive...she's just holding on and basically breathing, but as soon as she heard their voices, her pulse went up and her eyes started fluttering, indicating that this was what she was needing. Those family members are on their way and after they touch the grandma for one last time and talk to her, she will probably pass. \n\nThis is all accounted from my roommate, but it sounds like it's kind of the same thing. She will not pass until this family issue is resolved. She's got to be in a lot of pain from those two rotting limbs.\n\n**EDIT** The grandma died on 5/16/12 around 5:30pm. My roommate found out a few hours ago and she looked like she wasn't too sure how to handle her emotions. She didn't really show any and was trying to skirt around them. It is possible that the estranged family members showed up to see her, and so the grandma was able to finally pass. I'll know more from my roommate at a later date.",
"Well from what I have learned in psychology, stress can severely inhibit the immune system, so anything that would reduce stress, like a positive mental attitude, should increase the bodies natural abilities to defend and repair itself."
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"url": [
"http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/breast-cancer.aspx",
"http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/12/09/marital-discord-impacts-breast-cancer-survival/3473.html",
"http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar02/placebo.aspx",
"http://www.placebo.ucla.edu/news/PDF/newsfactor020110.pdf",
"http://www.highlighthealth.com/research/the-link-between-positive-psychology-and-cancer-survival/#s-article",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/dec/22/placebo-effect-patients-sham-drug",
"http://fhs.mcmaster.ca/otolaryngology/documents/september2010Meta-analysismedicalrxofSNHL_ftp.pdf",
"http://www.soc.washington.edu/users/hargens/w11Soc401/Postpone.pdf",
"http://www.amazon.com/Quirkology-Discover-Truths-Small-Things/dp/0465010237/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1337019955&sr=8-1",
"http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/content/65/4/564"
]
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Does the "will to live" among the very ill create biochemical changes in the body that helps keep them alive?
In other words, is there any evidence one can mentally influence biochemical processes to help one overcome a deathly sickness? I hear often about people just "giving up" or not having a "will to live" anymore, and they shortly after they pass on. Is there any research being done to test this phenomenon? What is this phenomenon called?
|
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3c6zcj
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I am EulerANDBernoulli and I study infectious diseases. Ask Me Anything!
|
I'm a Master's Student in Applied Math at The University of Waterloo in Waterloo Ontario Canada. My research centres around the mitigation and eventual eradication paediatric infectious disease (like measles). AMA!
I'll be on around 1 PM EDT (17 UTC) to answer questions.
|
askscience
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"text": [
"Is the SIR model or its variants sufficient to model most diseases? In what situations do you use a deterministic or stochastic model?",
"How do you account for populations not following instructions in your models i.e. anti-vaxers?\n\nP.s. My two cats are named Euler and Bernoulli. Euler because I have a math and computer engineering degree and Bernoulli because my boyfriend has a chemical engineering degree.",
"What disease that you have studied scares you the most?",
"Hi everybody,\n\nThanks for all the questions. I'll be sure to get to as many as I can at 1pm.\n\nA little but about me:\n\nI study these diseases at the Macro level. My group studies how people choose their vaccinating strategy, and how things like twitter and disease prevalence effect their decision.",
"You inhabit the wacky worlds of mathematics and biology and the social science of human behaviour. Is there any surprising mathematics that is used to characterize disease spread that people wouldn't expect? \n\nJohn Snow's investigation of the 1854 water well cholera outbreak in London is legendary, are there any modern examples of equally impressive maps? \n_URL_0_",
"In your opinion, what does the future hold for the treatment of antibiotic-resistant infections?",
"Are these models applicable to the spreading of other phenomena, such as videos,memes and pics going 'viral', or dissemination of information over networks?",
"To what extent do you interact with biologists and incorporate those biological aspects of diseases, as opposed to formulating purely theoretical models perhaps based on data alone?",
"Does this mean you're an epidemiologist, or something slightly different?",
"There was a recent case of a woman dying of measles despite being vaccinated due to a compromised immune system. How easy is it to check your immunity level to diseases you've been vaccinated against, and who should get it done? \n\nAlso: at what age does a baby's immune system start kicking in enough for vaccines to \"take\"? Does it vary or is it possible to vaccinate mothers and have the baby benefit from the antibodies via breastmilk, and if so, how effective would that be if the baby was exposed to measles?",
"A big problem with any kind of research is quality of data and reproducibility - where do you get your data, how is exploratory data analysis and data cleaning done at your institution, and how do your ensure reproducibility?",
"How long can bacteria and certain diseases stay alive on other surfaces, without human contact? Is there one that can stay active on say, a door handle, forever?",
"Hello there, I'm an undergraduate Applied Math Major looking to get into basically exactly this field. I'm curious as to what your specific academic concentrations were/are that allowed you to do research of this kind? I'm very very interested in it, but when I did a little bit of cursory searching into the generic term \"epidemiology\", it seemed to stray a bit from the biomath work I'm looking for, and was more statistics-based (not that that's a huge issue, I'm just not like BFFs with statistics yet). \n\nWhat would you recommend that a math major focus on in order to be successful in your particular arena?",
"I recognize your name from a beam bending theory in engineering. Any connection?",
"Thanks for taking questions! I'm a MD/MPH student that's looking to go into infectious disease and global health. What are the most important considerations when assessing something like the recent ebola outbreak? I've heard a bit about how the failure to act by the global community allowed the disease to reach a critical mass that made the widespread transmission possible. What factors are used to calculate this point? Is it just population density and ease of transmission, or do epidemiologists look at things like population movement ect?",
"I always wondered about this question\n\nIf you place a single bacteria in a Petri dish along with a constant supply of nutrients with a constant temperature and allowed the bacteria to grow, would the resulting generations of bacteria reach a point where they would not be able to survive outside the Petri dish?",
"I am a (brand new) masters student in mathematics. Could you say a little about the nature of your studies? Is your program very specialized? Have you needed a great deal of non mathematical coursework? What advice would you give to someone interested in working in your area?",
"Hi! Nice to see another mathematical biologist!\n\nI've got a couple of nice, easy ones for you. \n\nWhat are the most effective ways of procrastinating writing my thesis, apart from reddit?\n\nWhat sort of stochastic simulation algorithms are you using? Are they based on Gillespie's work?",
"how resistant are you to super-diseases?\n\nWhats do your work-clothes look like?\n\nCould you conceivably become a disease-based supervillain?\n\nWhat would your supervillain name be?\n\nCould you beat captain america in a fight with your diseases?",
"Are there any free resources (or paid books) for learning mathematical biology? I took one course in college that taught the basics of SIR models and I am interested in learning more about this field.",
"Thanks for doing this AMA! \n\nWhy did you choose your specialty? \n\nWhat is a fact about infectious diseases that most people do not know but should?",
"What research are you working on currently? Also what has been the most promising development you've made?",
"Do you believe tuberculosis has potential to be the next ebola with regards to becoming an epidemic?",
"eli5: how does math help you fight diseases?"
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"url": [
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|
I am EulerANDBernoulli and I study infectious diseases. Ask Me Anything!
I'm a Master's Student in Applied Math at The University of Waterloo in Waterloo Ontario Canada. My research centres around the mitigation and eventual eradication paediatric infectious disease (like measles). AMA! I'll be on around 1 PM EDT (17 UTC) to answer questions.
|
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|
4fumz2
|
How have our bodies evolved to metabolize chemicals such as pharmaceutical drugs that would never be found in nature?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d2c5i58",
"d2cjd35",
"d2chv05"
],
"text": [
"Well, it's not that we evolved to metabolize drugs but rather we design drugs that can be effectively metabolized and used by our specific physiology. \n\nOther chemicals that our bodies may come across are usually dealt with by nonspecific ligand receptors, meaning receptors that tend to recognize a class of molecules, rather than a specific one.",
"I used to work in a toxicology lab, and there are a variety of reasons that we can be naturally resistant to non-natural compounds. Two big reasons are the [Cytochrome P450](_URL_3_) system which can *metabolize* a compound and the [ABC Transporter system](_URL_1_) which can *efflux* a compound.\n\n[This nice image](_URL_2_) shows how some cytochrome 450 families such as 3A4/5 in humans metabolize a large percentage of pharmaceuticals. These families have naturally evolved over time to defend us from natural compounds in nature, and by chance any one of them will have a substrate pocket that may fit your pharmaceutical. These proteins don't just have one substrate, they can accommodate a range of molecules of a certain characteristic.\n\nThe ABC transporter system is an ATP driven motor that spans the membrane, and its job in the case of detoxification is to pump a drug from inside the cell to the outside. Again these are a diverse family that has formed over time to deal with naturally occurring compounds. [This cool page](_URL_0_) allows you to search for terms such as drug and find the most common drug transporting transporters in a human.",
"We possess many enzymes for for detoxifying compounds, courtesy of our vegetarian ancestors. We can eat many things that would kill pure carnivores such as cats and dogs. Some animals, such as rats, possess an even more powerful set of detoxifying enzymes, and they can eat many things that would kill even us."
],
"score": [
19,
4,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://nutrigene.4t.com/humanabc.htm",
"http://www.jlr.org/content/42/7/1007.full",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/98/PropDrugsMetabCYP.png",
"http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-2391-5_14"
]
}
|
How have our bodies evolved to metabolize chemicals such as pharmaceutical drugs that would never be found in nature?
|
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||
n80ya
|
Can someone please explain to me, in lay-mans terms, what is the Higg's Boson?
|
From my understanding, it's the glue that makes space-time cohesive, and gives mass to all things.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c36zkbz",
"c36z9i9",
"c3717ee"
],
"text": [
"The Higgs Boson is essentially a disturbance in the Higgs Field. You can think of the Higgs Field as a sort of sticky fluid that particles move through. As they move through it, they accumulate it around themselves, like the wake produced by a boat, which is how the Higgs Field creates mass. The Higgs Boson is like a shock wave in the Higgs Field, a point of extra density. Of course, that's a pretty rough analogy, but it gives the general idea.",
"It's a massive hypothetical fundamental particle which explains how every other particle is assigned a mass.",
"Just want to say thank you very much to everyone that contributed information thus far! Free information is a gift that many take for granted."
],
"score": [
7,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Can someone please explain to me, in lay-mans terms, what is the Higg's Boson?
From my understanding, it's the glue that makes space-time cohesive, and gives mass to all things.
|
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|
yajuu
|
Are "body talents" (wiggling ears, moving eyebrows independently, tongue and eye tricks, etc...) determined through genetics, or are they all learnable skills?
|
I can move both eyebrows independently, wiggle my ears, flip my tongue over in both directions, and look in two directions at once, among other things. I remember working hard to develop those talents from scratch after hearing about them or seeing someone do it. I've also seen many statistics -- "X percent of people can do this" -- that have inspired me to learn new talents.
Many new talents I've learned have required me to use muscle groups that I had no idea existed/were related to the motion in question. When someone asks me how to wiggle their ears, I compare it to "learning how to wag the tail that you don't have."
It seems to me a common assumption that there are people who just can or cannot perform certain tricks. Can science give a better explanation?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5ttna1",
"c5tzkm9",
"c5tzn8x"
],
"text": [
"[Double-jointedness](_URL_0_) is caused by weakened or misformed muscles and tendons. It does seems to run in the family, which suggests a genetic link, but no further conclusions have been made. It can also be the result of some [inherited diseases](_URL_1_).\n\nOther than that, I have no idea of how to find explanations for them. But, if the ability to do those tricks have a cause similar to double-jointedness, then it could be an inheritable trait.",
"Moving both of your eyebrows independently is determined by your frontalis muscle; this sheet of muscle is responsible for raising your eyebrows and wrinkling your forehead. In those of us that can raise one eyebrow, our frontalis is split, meaning we can control its contractions separately. \n\nHowever as far as I am aware, tongue-rolling and ear-wiggling can be 'learned' once the correct muscle use is identified.\n\nEdit: Grammar",
"Tongue-rolling is apparently subject to both genetic and non-genetic effects. That is, they've found genes they think are directly linked to the ability, but it's not unheard of for people to develop the ability when genes dictate otherwise. Additionally, identical twin studies show that these genes aren't fully deterministic - there are cases of identical twins (who have the same genetic material) having dissimilar tongue-rolling abilities. My source is a Genetics and Molecular Biology class from earlier this year."
],
"score": [
29,
8,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermobility",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehlers%E2%80%93Danlos_syndrome"
]
}
|
Are "body talents" (wiggling ears, moving eyebrows independently, tongue and eye tricks, etc...) determined through genetics, or are they all learnable skills?
I can move both eyebrows independently, wiggle my ears, flip my tongue over in both directions, and look in two directions at once, among other things. I remember working hard to develop those talents from scratch after hearing about them or seeing someone do it. I've also seen many statistics -- "X percent of people can do this" -- that have inspired me to learn new talents. Many new talents I've learned have required me to use muscle groups that I had no idea existed/were related to the motion in question. When someone asks me how to wiggle their ears, I compare it to "learning how to wag the tail that you don't have." It seems to me a common assumption that there are people who just can or cannot perform certain tricks. Can science give a better explanation?
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|
rz9rt
|
How far away are we from a true artificial intellegence?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c49ubvn",
"c49txmh",
"c49ugc5",
"c49vcgx"
],
"text": [
"What exactly is \"real\" AI? This is not a rhetorical question; its the hinge upon which this question tilts. Many people - such as yourself it seems - are quite eager to deny the existence of computer intelligence, despite the fact that computers have consistently been engaging in behaviours that would have been seen as the sole domain of humans for years now. Be it winning at chess, to formulating semantically and contextually accurate gameshow answers. What exactly is it that humans do that isn't just presenting informatino from a library?\n\nIt's not a question of when will computers develop AI, its when will society be prepared to give computers agency. We're already doing this to some extent - we let computers navigate for us (and soon they'll be doing the driving); we let computers make decisions for us regarding drug interactions; we let computers decide how to best route our communications; we let computers sell us things and intermingle with our friends. \n\nThe problem is not when will computers have AI, but when will we, as humans, be prepard to acknolwedge it.",
"The standard joke is that we are about 20 years away, and have been since the 1950s. Jokes aside, neuroscience is progressing rather well due to such innovations as fMRI, and major strides have been made. There's still a tremendous distance to go, however, and no way to know what other hurdles might appear in time. It's not a field in which predictions have had a very good track record.",
"If by AI you mean something that is capable of self awareness and abstract thought, the answer is that nobody has any idea: Nobody has, to my knowledge, yet put forward a viable mechanism by which to model the concept of a concept (it's a bit of a chicken and egg situation, if you think about it); without this we will never have the faintest clue how to go about making what is commonly thought of as \"AI\". Potentially we will one day either figure out how humans do it or come up with an elegant solution of our own, but there is absolutely no way of knowing if or when that may happen.\n\nMost current work on AI is more about making computers as good or better than humans at specific tasks, and this field seems to be showing a great deal of progress in many areas.",
"[This exact question was asked last week.](_URL_0_) rm999's answer in that thread is very good; the joke is that human-like artificial intelligence (which is what I'm assuming you mean by a \"true\" artificial intelligence) is always twenty years away, but really we have *no idea* how long it will take to develop."
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rhf7a/is_a_true_artificial_intelligence_only_science/"
]
}
|
How far away are we from a true artificial intellegence?
|
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||
1bd7rl
|
[META] - Introducing AskScience Sponsored Content
|
The mods at AskScience would like to proudly introduce our newest feature: **sponsored content**. We believe that with this non-obtrusive **sponsored content**, we'll be able to properly motivate the best responses from scientists and encourage the best moderation of our community.
Here is the list of the **sponsored content** released so far:
* [How will increased oil extraction benefit the environment?](_URL_6_)
* [What sort of new environmental niches could be opened up thanks to logging or mining?](_URL_14_)
* [What is the difference between generic and brand-name drugs?](_URL_5_)
* [Tell me all the ways overfishing benefits our oceans](_URL_11_)
* [How does Quantum Healing regulate our Aura and remove toxins?](_URL_9_)
* [Would increased Bacon consumption lower emissions from pig farms?](_URL_3_)
* [What sociological/economic/statistical evidence is there that always online DRM contributes to sustainable software development and innovation?](_URL_2_)
* [Shouldn't we start administering psychiatric medications to all school aged children?](_URL_4_)
* [I've heard marijuana is harmless. Is this really true?](_URL_8_)
* [How does my body gain energy from eating a fast food burger with special sauce?](_URL_12_)
* [How do children's cartoons improve linguistic ability and early brain development?](_URL_10_)
* [What do you think would be the main benefits of living on the moon?](_URL_1_)
* [How many people will be saved from starvation by the recently passed Farmer Assurance Provision to US House bill 933?](_URL_7_)
* [How do I get cold fusion to power my cellphone?](_URL_0_)
All posts must adhere to AskScience rules as per usual, though posts that unfairly attack our sponsors' products may be moderated at our discretion. The best comments in each sponsored thread will be compensated (~$100-2000 + reddit gold) at the sponsors' discretion. Moderators will also be compensated to support the extra moderation these threads will receive.
Sponsored content will be submitted by **moderators only** and distinguished to make it easy to identify and prevent spammers from introducing sponsored content without going through the official process.
**EDIT:** Please see [META on conclusion of Sponsored Content](_URL_13_). - djimbob 2013-04-01
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"I've already learned so much from all of this. I'm really grateful to the mods for allowing this to take place.\n\nI can't believe that oil spills, logging, and mining are actually good for the environment. As soon as I get back to the uni, I'm going to confront those silly conservation, evolution, and ecology professors that told me the opposite!\n\nI can't wait to embarrass my silly physiology professor when I tell him that cigarettes actually don't give you cancer. \n\nWhat a great stride forward for the community this has proved to be.",
"This is a terrible terrible idea IMO.\n\nIf AskScience does this I will be unsubscribing.\n\nEdit: Apologies for the short off the cuff reply... I was on a tablet when posting this first message... This thread/concept bugged me enough to switch to the laptop to give a real defended reply with reasons which is the comments of this. That said my initial opinion of unsubscribing still holds true.",
"I am all for this. Finally the truth can be told without liberal Reddit downvoting everything. We need fracking and Monsanto. People don't seem to understand this.\n\nnote: payments can be made by paypal to [email protected]",
"Huzzah! I can look forward to such interesting conversations as:\n\n* Why nuclear power is 100% safe under *all* circumstances, brought to us by the owners of the Fukushima power plant.\n\n* How cigarette smoking improves your mental health by increasing your social bonds with other smokers, brought to us by British Tobacco.\n\n* Why jet travel is the most ecologically friendly way to travel, brought to us by Qantas Airways.\n\nI can't wait!",
"So, your first sponsored thread is off to a terrible start. The question itself is loaded and you have a corporate lackey spouting nonsense in there. He is even arguing oil spills are good for the environment. How the fuck can you defend that? Kudos mods.",
"You should contact the good folks at /r/hailcorporate\n\nThey're in the business of highlighting outreach efforts on reddit, and I'm sure that there are plenty of synergies to leverage.",
"Why is this needed? Running a subreddit requires no monetary costs at all, with the entire backend run by reddit. Sponsoring a subreddit is both useless and silly. It's trying to fix a problem that doesn't exist.\n\nI'm not a scientist like you all are (computer science doesn't seem to count) but I *know* you're not all begging for cash. This only serves to bias an unbiased subreddit, and I would hate to see that happen.",
"This sounds like a logical move. The only way to garner real science is to have it paid for by the organizations who have the resources to fund it, regardless of whether or not their funding drives the direction and quality of the science. Of course, some might call this outside influence \"bias\", but bias is such a strong word, better left unsaid in the realm of intellectual inquiry. \n\n\nI for one welcome our funding overlords with open arms.",
"Great thinking, mods! \n\nWhat a terrific way to bring important industry participation (and much-needed sponsorship) to a popular forum for science education. I'm sure they have a lot to teach us.",
"If all of these posts are going to be asking misleading/pre-determined questions like the first one \"How will increased oil extraction benefit the environment?\" then we really don't need them here.\n\nThe \"How much does driving hybrid cars reduce one's Carbon Footprint?\" is similar in that it assumes a answer that is either untrue, unknown, or misleading. This wording would be looked at poorly in a normal question, but is let through with being sponsored.\n\nThe last one \"How do Erectile Dysfunction drugs work?\" is actually a good one, if the Mods can limit questions to being like this (non-spammy, non-misleading) then that'd be alright.",
"Absolutely unacceptable. Unsubscribing. Will advise others to unsubscribe.",
"Thanks mods, this is a really great idea. As I work in the field of corporate marketing I know firsthand it's remarkably difficult to have balanced, two sided debate around concepts that the public think science has 'solved' when the evidence isn't nearly as clear cut or one sided as the public believe, and genuine input from scientists able to talk directly to the public is invaluable to me.\n\nMy marketing company would like to sponsor a thread: \"Smoking and cancer: is correlation really the same as causation?\". Who should I contact to negotiate the details?",
"This is actually pretty exciting!\n\nI know a couple drug reps around my area who would like some air time for AstraZeneca and Roche.",
"It is about goddamn time. This subreddit has been plagued with left wing 'science' for too long. It is about time we brought in the voices of those willing to put their money where their mouth is for once. I couldn't welcome this more.",
"How will increased oil extraction benefit the environment?\nWhat sort of new environmental niches could be opened up thanks to logging or mining?\nWhat is the difference between generic and brand-name drugs?\n\nyou fucking sicken me",
"I thought I'd give it a go, I can't see any reason why you need money but okay... Then I started to look through the threads and then I found out that the sponsor doesn't have to be named - nice work avoiding the conflict of interest there\n\nI 'm tapping out of askscience, have fun selling your soul",
"I used to think /r/AskScience had near perfect moderation, and should've been used as an example for all other 'serious' subreddits to follow.\n\nClearly this isn't the case anymore.\n\nEDIT: Damnit, you guys got me... I blame timezones.",
"Guys, let's all welcome our Featured Partners. They are going to help this subreddit continue providing high-quality unbiased science answers, and we thank them heartily.",
"I know you're currently just accepting corporations as sponsors, will you at any time be accepting sponsorship from research organizations?\n\nI work closely with an organization that has years of research experience in astrophysics and evolution. We think it would be a great partnership.\n\nIf you are at all interested in helping us take an unbiased look at science, please contact us here: _URL_0_",
"I'm not some young kid drunk on power who is flying off the handle. I'm 54 years old and i've been a scientist since the early 1980's. I have seen it all before. Our subreddit gets a lot of shit, and yes, there are a lot of young, inexperienced, socially maladapted kids who post in /r/askscience. It's our mission to help them, and divert them away from pseudoscience, off-topic comments, and such, to help them adopt more healthy attitudes (about science specifically). But we can't do that when outside subreddits are intentionally making a hostile environment, where people can't discuss their questions openly or honestly. The post that got attacked was a young kid, trying to find his way in the askscience world, and honestly admitting he screwed up. His message was an example for others, to help them avoid similar screwups. These attacks singled him out, which has a chilling effect on other users who now see how hostile the environment can be when someone speaks openly about their science questions.",
"This is a great idea.\n\nI mean, I don't think we should fool ourselves, because there will certainly be accusations of bias. But the people blindly throwing accusations around without considering that this could be a net positive are fools. Taking a utilitarian stance rather than your traditional hard line stance may seem foolish, but some people will never be able to accept that everything can't always be picture perfect.\n\nDetractors, it is a fool's errand to fight this. The mods have compete control over the subreddit. Sponsored content is the future; you can't just start complaining now that it's in your backyard now. You will look like a fool.",
"So who do I contact to request a sponsored post? I really believe this could open up /r/AskScience to some new readership and expand its standing within the scientific community, and I have a few topics that I would love to throw to a group of, uh, properly motivated scientific minds.",
"I'm going to remind everyone of the date (01/04/2013) and hope to god that the sponsored content thing is what I'm thinking it is.",
"Unless every single post in a sponsored threads is backed up with a credible link, I will have no reason whatsoever to believe any of it true. I mean, with paid moderators, I would have to see any claim without a source deleted without reservation to even have a reason to visit this subreddit anymore. \n\nI understand that last week people could make bullshit claims as well which, without sources, could seem scientific, but their only incentive to do that would be for their own entertainment. The strict moderation would deter most of these people. \n\nNow, people have an incentive to to lean their otherwise legit responses towards something that would be pleasing to the industry connected to the topic. Up to 2000 incentives, in fact. You say that: \n\n > While many answers receive excellent answers, it was felt that some of those answers did not fully represent the entire spectrum of solid science. AskScience Sponsored Content is an attempt to ensure that all science is equally and fairly represented in AskScience answers. \n\nWhile a cash incentive will certainly attract more people to a thread, do I have any reason whatsoever to believe that the tag \"Medicine| Pharmaceutical research\" is providing me with a response that represents *\"the entire spectrum of solid science\"* and not an article discussion a correlation which backs Pfizer's latest claim? \n\nWhile I do not intend to write off this subreddit (yet) for trying something new, I do not see how this can lead to anything good and the mod responses in this thread has in no way made any indication of how it could.",
"If it's possible, I think I love the mod team of this subreddit even more than I did before.\n\nGuys ... this is just perfect. Don't let anyone tell you otherwise. Keep up the outstanding work.",
"So we are supposed to, for example, say that increased fossil fuel use will benefit the environment, and if we say it succinctly enough we'll get money?\n\nThis is madness.",
"I, for one, am not totally convinced this is a great idea. However, I fully recognize how essential it is to secure funding, and realize that whatever funds are brought in through this program will only serve to enhance the /r/askscience experience for everyone. In the end, I grudgingly accept that this is the best decision to ensure the long-term health of this subreddit.",
"While a lot of people are only focusing on the negative here, I feel like this is a great opportunity to get some one-on-one question time with corporations who are really at the forefront of the science. Sure there might be a little bias in their initial post, but they can't deny the hard facts that /r/AskScience experts will be throwing at them.\n\nOverall, I actually think this is going to be a very useful tool to help our community grow",
"Letting corporate money direct scientific discussion can only benefit /r/askscience. \n\nIMHO, This is a long overdue feature (and I'm sure the other panelists will agree with me here). Hats off to our mods.",
"I think that /r/askscience should be a subscription-based subreddit. A monthly $20 subscription will allow you to post up to 10 questions and 20 comments per month. A yearly subscription of $100 dollars will be available for the thrifty types. A life-long subscription for $750.\n\nIn order to get the panelist flair, you must also pay an extra membership due of $50 per year, per specialty. Panelists would be allotted unlimited comments.\n\nAll non-subscribers can pay a $10 fee for each new topic posted, and $1 per comment.\n\nBetween sponsorship and subscriptions, /r/askscience will quickly become the most lucrative subreddit. Even more so than /r/adviceanimals and /r/atheism!",
"I'm willing to pay upwards of $10 to figure out how magnets work, as long as the explanation doesn't use numbers. I don't care about math, only science.",
"Nope. Unsubscribe. Here we see plainly, the slippery slope of heavy moderation. At least now I have extra ammo in my anti-moderation arsenal.",
"Guys! I just figured it out, in some parts of the world it is already April 1st! We've been pranked!",
"I've been watching this sub for a while now, and I just felt it was neccessary to point out how inconsistent the moderation here is. In the last week you've:\n\n* removed off-topic comments elsewhere but this thread (and others) is full of them\n\n* never used flair appropriately. How am I meant to know quickly what topic this post is about?\n\nThis is lackluster moderation guys. You should seriously consider stepping aside and let better moderators run this subreddt, who will answer to community concerns more effectively (which seems to be a long standing issue here)",
"I'm very excited to see we will be getting to hear from societies least represented voice: big corporations. This underrepresented group has been silent for too long!",
"This not what reddit is about, at all.",
"If this is real, wtf. Most likely a ploy of some sort. Maybe an experiment? :D Or maybe just a little nudge to encourage readers to think more critically of what they read? Right guys?...\n\nEdit: Or maybe... I can't say or comment will be removed.",
"Well, I can't say I'm happy, but at least this is better than just having askscience cluttered up with a bunch of ads. This way it doesn't take away from the subreddit, the moderators can focus on moderating, and I learn an interesting piece of science.",
"Great, let's introduce economic bias in a subreddit attempting to be scientific.\n\nIs this even allowed by Reddit?",
"I don't even frequent here, and I have no idea if I should be scared or laugh.",
"I, for one, welcome this move. A lot of great science happens behind corporate walls, and it'll be both a pleasure and a boon to have more input from our brothers from industry. Of course, it will be important to avoid any impropriety, but I'm confident that our moderators and our fantastic community are more than capable.",
"Could we be allowed to request sponsored content? I can think of dozens of topics I would love to hear the truth about, but the experts on said topics are repeatedly marginalized here.",
"Well, i'm unsubscribing, and I urge others to do the same.",
"[Sponsored Content] - How does the theory of evolution fail to explain the incredible wonder of God's creation?\n\n[Sponsored Content] - How is oil superior to solar power and are environmentalists delusional when they protest the Keystone pipeline?\n\n[Sponsored Content] - How does Monsanto help people in impoverished nations get the food they need? (Albeit with patents on their seeds that they will sue subsistence farmers for using, also, the seeds have to be bought each year; you can't just gather the seeds from the previous harvest and use those. This is by design.)\n\n[Sponsored Content] - How is BP helping to clean our ocean and fight pollution?\n\n[Sponsored Content] - Are there any drawbacks or risks associated with Nuclear Power at all? No. So then what's the big deal?\n\n[Sponsored Content] - Is the Earth warming? I mean, really. Can anyone explain the viewpoints of the climate denialists, (and thus give those arguments weight simply by explaining them and making it seem as if it's a legitimate viewpoint, giving equal time to unequal views)?\n\n[Sponsored Content] - Why do vaccines cause autism, and how can we stop Big Pharma from harming our children? \n\n[Sponsored Content] - How does OXICLEAN use patented design to clean clothing with the POWER OF AN OX(tm)?\n\nThe point is, it doesn't matter if the comments rebut the sponsored propaganda. The fact that they're allowed to ask loaded questions at all ruins the level of discourse we are supposed to have.\n\nEven though moderators are allowed to accept or reject, that doesn't fix anything. The moderators are getting paid to post this. That is a gigantic conflict of interest. If someone told me they'd give me money to post something to AskScience that is sponsored, it doesn't matter how far out of line it would be, I'd post it. People want money. People are greedy.\n\nOH, NOW I GET IT. THIS IS AN EARLY APRIL FOOL'S JOKE. YOU FUCKERS GOT ME.",
"I love this idea, I can't wait until we can get a fair and appropriate response from pharmaceutical companies about the true safety of new drugs like Dabigatran, etc.\n\nThe other big benefit I see from this is subscribers who actually critically appraise the answers given here will likely leave after all of this, which means that it will be even easier to get that corporate perspective out there.",
"This is such a great idea. In my experience, there is a lot of un-tapped expertise in industry. Working with cancer specifically, there is so much knowledge in the drug companies that doesn't filter out to the general public. Whatever we can do to make this more available to the readers of AskScience would benefit us in the long run.",
"So jokes in submissions are unacceptable and get removed, but a prank on this day by the moderators is allowed? Hypocrisy.\nShame on you, moderators. This subreddit was one of the few that rose above internet stupidity, but now you've sunk to the level of the masses.\n\nEDIT: Censorship is funny, too.",
"I've read the (unsupported) sponsored responses to the (biased) sponsored questions and so far, I'm unimpressed. \n\nAdditionally, any moderation of science supported by facts and evidence, whether or not it \"unfairly attacks the sponsors product\" will be the downfall of askscience.",
"Hi.\n\nThis is going to be an epic thread in the history of ask science. \n\nEveryone who Downvotes me, doesn't get it.\n\nGood job mods. \n\nEdit: (For trying this step, and creating debate. But I must register my disbelief and disagreement)",
"Well done. As a panelist I can't wait to bring in some cold hard cash along with the karma from answering questions. And if the quality of questions continues this community will be synergistically enriched with content!",
"Welcome corporations! I for one look forward to your many non-biased questions and informative answers!\n\nAnd to everyone upset about this change, I suggest you examine today's, and tomorrows date.",
"I'm absolutely loving the lack of critical thinking in this thread.",
"I would be far more OK with this if a **single one** of the sponsored questions you have posted so far wasn't disgustingly loaded. Asking loaded questions is not a way to motivate high quality discussion.",
"I think this is great and will also help graduate students and current scientists network and get jobs! Upvoted for visibility and support.",
"I love how much these April Fools jokes are trolling the communities of the ask* subreddits.",
"I'm fully behind this. For too long the world's multinationals have gone without a voice.",
"This has to be an early April fools' joke. Between the hand-wavey \"answers\" and the weasel worded \"questions\" it makes the sponsors look like vaudevillian, mustache-twirling villains.\n\n.. Right? There's no way this \"Cabal of Shills\" could come out with such rigged questions from Big Pharma, Oil and Commodities on opening night, so close to April 1st, and not have it be a joke.",
"Lets start a best of Sponsored content (by best of I mean most ridiculous):\n\nHere is an industry person trying to argue that mining is good because it opens up niches for microbacterial life: _URL_1_",
"I hope the mods enjoy the exodus; it'll be so much easier to moderate this place when everyone is gone.",
"Guys. Here in Europe, April 1st is 2 hours away. Further East, it is already. Need I say more?",
"Is it already April 1st where the mods are?",
"Probably going to get down voted here, but I think this is a great idea that should bring in fresh new perspectives and ideas. Science shouldn't be just about what's \"peer reviewed\". What if all your peers are ivory tower liberals brainwashed by the academic establishment? It's important to remember that for a lot of issues, like \"global climate change\" and \"evolution\" there are reasonable opposing views which should be encouraged here, by sponsorship if necessary. \n\nWe should also bear in mind that a lot of redditors work for the private sector, or are students who will eventually need to work for the private sector. What with financing for pure university research dwindling, it's important that we properly educate people about corporate science.",
"I am going to give this a brief chance, only because the user generated content has made this one of my favorite subs, but if the sponsored links become corporate propaganda, as almost of all examples so far have been, then I will be unsubscribing from this sub. Maybe those of us who appreciate real scientific discussion can start a new sub.",
"> posts that unfairly attack our sponsors' products may be moderated at our discretion\n\nThat is as far from science as it is possible to get. Fuck this.",
"Are you deleting the comments pointing out this is obviously a joke or are Redditors just even dumber than I thought?",
"If this happens I will be unsubscribing and participating in the creation of a new subreddit",
"Can you at least tell us who the sponsor is?",
"So apparently /r/AskScience runs on the GMT +6 timezone.",
"If this can be done without \"leading the witness\", so to speak, I think it could be OK.\n\nAs long as sponsored questions are tagged, people can choose to not participate, downvote, and move on.\n\n\nQuestions: \n\nWill the sponsor of the question be disclosed?\n\nWill there be a limit on the number of sponsored questions allowed per day, week...?\n\nEdit: After reading the first sponsored question, I think there should also be a rule that the mods treat SOP as they would any other poster. If they are not going to be specific and cite studies/sources in their responses it doesn't belong in this sub, sponsored or not.\n\nNinja Edit: I'm starting to think the mods are just fucking with us.\n\nSamurai Ninja Edit: Definitely fucking with us. Strong work mods. SVS hit an all time high today.",
"Finally, I can pay to have my stupid questions answered. I'll send a check tomorrow, but until then, can people tell me whether my dick is longer on the Moon or on Mars, please answer quickly as it affects my vacation plans.",
"Seriously is this like an early April fools day prank? This is the dumbest shit I've ever seen in my life.",
"am i the only one who realise this is an april foos joke? XD",
"I just going to hope this is a cruel April Fool's joke...",
"Is this some sort of terrible april fools joke?",
"Edit: I have seen the error of my ways. Ignore the text below.\n\nWow, I went through all three threads, and I'm really really disappointed. I've been hooked on /r/askscience for the past couple of months and I can't see how this is a contribution.\n\nThe first question and subsequent answer (oil extraction) border on embarrassing for this project. Lack of references and claims that just wouldn't fly from anyone who wasn't operating under the cover of the mods.\n\nThe second question sounds like it could have some science behind it. There could be some niches opened by mining and some cool science behind it, but it doesn't seem like this is the place for it to be presented. Or if it was going to be presented it shouldn't be veiled as a question. I know this \"ask\"science but a planted question isn't really asking anything.\n\nThe third question is just marketing. It isn't even related to science. I'm not sure how this is debatable. What's ridiculous is that the question sets up a comparison between brand/generic, but then doesn't actually say anything directly about generic! It says brand is safe, but it doesn't say generic is any less safe...why is that? Because there's no scientific basis for the claim! Or if there is, then that EVIDENCE should be front and center.\n\nAt the moment, this is pretty bad for all involved. Sacrificing the fundamental principles of the community - **promotion of scientific literacy by disseminating knowledge of the scientific process** - is going to send people to the exits. There is no scientific process to be found in threads 1 and 3.",
"I think this is a great idea, but looking at the list of sponsored content so far, the name of the threads contain lies already. Oil extraction doesn't benefit the enviroment, it harms the enviroment.\n\nI fear that this is a cheap way for corporations to get pseudo-scientific reasoning to market their plans.\n\nAnd looking at the actual threads, no serious answer have been posted yet, I seriously advice the community to boycoy these threads and/or make it obvious that they are spewing nonsense when they are posting to collect the prizemoney.\n\nTime for /r/askscientists!",
"Um... I can't help but notice its the 31st of March here in the states. So assuming there's a dateline issue, I'd like to be the first to congratulate the mods on a killer April fools joke, one that generated all sorts of chuckle-worthy mouth-foaming replies.\n\n~~If I'm wrong... well Jesus, I just hope I'm right.~~ *Clearly I'm not wrong, and the thread just keeps getting more and more delightful. I don't know how the /r/AskHistorians mods will be able to match this. ;)*",
"This is a disgusting idea, plain and simple. This subreddit is a forum where people can ask questions, not where you can pose loaded questions, ready to be answered by people biased in one way or the other. That isn't how science works.\n\nThe prizes won't go to the most accurate comment, it will go to the comment that agrees with the sponsor to the greatest degree.",
"So, I just realized that in 5 hours, it's April 1st.\n\nRegardless of whether this is serious, or an April Fools joke, it's my opinion that this is in poor taste.\n\nI used to like this sub-reddit, but either outcome of the two options makes me dislike the moderators in this sub-reddit.",
"This is obviously April Fools and nobody here has a sense of humor. I just can't believe the responses by everyone/moderators/etc.\n\nOr it's something serious and they are introducing it on April 1st so if it goes south they have an excuse?",
"> What is the difference between generic and brand-name drugs?\n\nThis question appears to be incorrectly stated. I think it should be:\n\n > What are some of the many ways in which brand-name drugs are better than generic drugs?",
"I'm very glad to read this. There's simply not enough relevant content to me, the average red blooded american. I don't care about black holes, I want to know about where to eat my food from. Thanks askscience!",
"What a wonderful idea! I can't wait to see the new, informative topics that pop up tomorrow.",
"Hhmmm. 6 Hours before April 1st UTC. Someone jumped the gun on this prank.",
"This is a terrible idea. I will be unsubscribing if it isn't fixed soon.",
"By Aphrodite I think this is a great move!\n\nInfinitus est numerus stultorum",
"Is this a joke?\n\nEDIT: I looked at the date, it's a joke.",
"This is obviously an April Fools joke, chill out y'all!",
"I can't believe you guys fell do this lol....",
"It's an April Fools joke, albeit an early one.",
"Isn't it a bit early for April fools?",
"It's still 31st of March where I am."
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1besey/sponsored_content_what/",
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[META] - Introducing AskScience Sponsored Content
The mods at AskScience would like to proudly introduce our newest feature: **sponsored content**. We believe that with this non-obtrusive **sponsored content**, we'll be able to properly motivate the best responses from scientists and encourage the best moderation of our community. Here is the list of the **sponsored content** released so far: * [How will increased oil extraction benefit the environment?](_URL_6_) * [What sort of new environmental niches could be opened up thanks to logging or mining?](_URL_14_) * [What is the difference between generic and brand-name drugs?](_URL_5_) * [Tell me all the ways overfishing benefits our oceans](_URL_11_) * [How does Quantum Healing regulate our Aura and remove toxins?](_URL_9_) * [Would increased Bacon consumption lower emissions from pig farms?](_URL_3_) * [What sociological/economic/statistical evidence is there that always online DRM contributes to sustainable software development and innovation?](_URL_2_) * [Shouldn't we start administering psychiatric medications to all school aged children?](_URL_4_) * [I've heard marijuana is harmless. Is this really true?](_URL_8_) * [How does my body gain energy from eating a fast food burger with special sauce?](_URL_12_) * [How do children's cartoons improve linguistic ability and early brain development?](_URL_10_) * [What do you think would be the main benefits of living on the moon?](_URL_1_) * [How many people will be saved from starvation by the recently passed Farmer Assurance Provision to US House bill 933?](_URL_7_) * [How do I get cold fusion to power my cellphone?](_URL_0_) All posts must adhere to AskScience rules as per usual, though posts that unfairly attack our sponsors' products may be moderated at our discretion. The best comments in each sponsored thread will be compensated (~$100-2000 + reddit gold) at the sponsors' discretion. Moderators will also be compensated to support the extra moderation these threads will receive. Sponsored content will be submitted by **moderators only** and distinguished to make it easy to identify and prevent spammers from introducing sponsored content without going through the official process. **EDIT:** Please see [META on conclusion of Sponsored Content](_URL_13_). - djimbob 2013-04-01
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|
9ewvzh
|
Why is learning something 1 hour every day for 20 days more effective than learning the same thing in 20 hours?
|
Is there any neuroscience/biological explanation as why the brain learns this way?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e5sfw26",
"e5skjf9",
"e5tfkxv"
],
"text": [
"There are two (main) modes of learning, diffuse and focused. Focused is when your actively studying and picking up information, while diffuse is your subconscious working on the information and and integrating it with everything else you know. Your brain can only be in one or the other mode, so while you zone out watching TV or working your brain is actually learning the material better. I recommend doing the free course on Coursera called Learning how to learn, it helped me a lot.",
"First, memory isn't just memory; there are many different types of memories, and the two we need to focus on to answer your question are long-term and short-term.\n\nWhen you first learn information, it is only in your short-term memory. The memory must be stored in long-term memory, and if is not, it is lost. This storage process occurs most prominently during the REM phase of sleep.\n\nIf you do something for 20 hours straight, you haven't given your brain time to rest and properly store what you've learned. Doing it for 1 hour over 20 days (with as many periods of sleep!) gives your brain plenty of opportunity to encode the information for easy recall in the future. This is thought to occur by the process of long-term potentiation, where repeated firing activity in a neuronal synapse strengthens the connectivity of the synapse.",
"A similar reason as to why a tree can't be watered for an entire year in a single day, and has to be watered periodically over the course of a year. When you start learning new information, your brain has to access existing neuron clusters that store the perquisite information, for instance knowing the alphabet in order to read. Then as you continue to learn your brain has store all the information that is beyond the prerequisite information in new neuron clusters which take time to form properly, if you consistently \"water your brain\" with information regarding the skill you are trying to acquire you build strong neural connections regarding the subject, if you try to \"over water your brain\", most of the information doesn't do the neural connections you're trying to establish any good and can even lead to mental fatigue and confusion rather than learning.\n\ntldr; Water your data structures or they will wither up and die"
],
"score": [
18,
7,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why is learning something 1 hour every day for 20 days more effective than learning the same thing in 20 hours?
Is there any neuroscience/biological explanation as why the brain learns this way?
|
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|
wboyk
|
Would today's xkcd "What-If?" question actually happen as he says?
|
The question proposed was: "What would happen if you tried to hit a baseball pitched at 90% the speed of light?". I'm not an expert on physics at all but I thought at speeds approaching the speed of light all particles behave more as waves, so his answer of a thermonuclear explosion while assuming the baseball remains particulate, is inaccurate. Funny though.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5bxy0x",
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"c5c3cqh",
"c5by16z"
],
"text": [
"> I thought at speeds approaching the speed of light all particles behave more as waves\n\nNo.",
"What is this \"What If\" question you are talking of?",
"I was sort of expecting this to be more focused on relativity. What if, instead of accelerating the ball to near the speed of light, we tried to play baseball in a universe where the speed of light is a modest 20 m/s or something in that order of magnitude?",
"A baseball (mass 145g) at a speed of 0.9c has a kinetic energy that is equivalent to about 4 megatons TNT. That's very much like a larger hydrogen bomb.\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
25,
6,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=kinetic+energy+145g+0.9c"
]
}
|
Would today's xkcd "What-If?" question actually happen as he says?
The question proposed was: "What would happen if you tried to hit a baseball pitched at 90% the speed of light?". I'm not an expert on physics at all but I thought at speeds approaching the speed of light all particles behave more as waves, so his answer of a thermonuclear explosion while assuming the baseball remains particulate, is inaccurate. Funny though.
|
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] |
|
yz3s6
|
Why did they put speakers on the Mars Curiosity? Surely not just for _URL_0_?
|
I imagine the extra weight and setup would have cost a few bob. Do they have some scientific purpose?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c602t8o",
"c607373",
"c608s0h"
],
"text": [
"I don't think Curiosity has any speakers - it's just going to stream the audio back to Earth.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nA lot of news sources are saying it will be played through speakers but it might have just been a misunderstanding that was propagated.",
"I just can't understand why is not carrying any microphones.",
"Now I'm wondering if Curiosity needs the equivalent of an FCC license for a high power radio transmitter."
],
"score": [
127,
22,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"will.i.am"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.space.com/17320-mars-rover-will-i-am-song-broadcast.html"
]
}
|
Why did they put speakers on the Mars Curiosity? Surely not just for _URL_0_?
I imagine the extra weight and setup would have cost a few bob. Do they have some scientific purpose?
|
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|
13yhqg
|
/r/AskScience, Can you tell me why this article about Bigfoot being real is bullshit? Their talk about Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA confuses me.
|
Here is [the article](_URL_0_).
Sorry, for wasting your time with what is probably nonsense. I mean, where did they even get these DNA samples?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"It is almost certainly bullshit. From the sound of it, they have a bunch of \"putative bigfoot hair\" samples, and when they sequenced them, they got a mixture of human DNA and some \"unknown\" DNA. \n\nNo one's released any data yet (surprise!). All they've done is put out press releases about how their study is \"currently under peer review\", which is the line that gets people to pay attention to them without them having done anything verifiable other than write a few paragraphs.\n\nIf they really have sequenced something and found a mixture of human DNA with something else they can't identify, then the most likely explanation is that they either some of the hairs they sampled were actually human, while some of the others weren't, or that they simply managed to contaminate their sample in the process of sequencing.\n\nAlso, while we're on the topic of Bigfoot, and just for kicks, I'll draw your attention to [this paper](_URL_0_), which uses ecological niche modeling (ENM) to \"predict the ecological/geographic distribution of Bigfoot\". The way ENM works (note, I've never done it myself, but I understand the basic idea), is that you put in a list of recorded locations that a species is known to be located (in this case reported bigfoot sightings, with GPS coordinates), along with measurements of important ecological variables (rainfall, temperatures, soil type, etc.) for all those locations, as well as other locations where the are not necessarily recorded observations. \n\nThe idea is that, if species are adapted to their environments, then some environmental variables should correlate strongly with species presence, and you might be able to extrapolate the full range of a given species from the limited observations you have. It's commonly used in predicting shifts in a given species range in response to climate change. You use a climate model to forecast what the environment might be like in 100 years, and then you use you ENM to predict the new range of that species, using the predicted environmental variables from the climate model. The very general summary is that lots of things are predicted to move north, or to higher elevation (as would be expected).\n\nAnyways, what the authors of that paper did was use reported Bigfoot sightings as their observational data, and showed that the model pretty much gave Bigfoot's range to be the same as that of the black bear, suggesting that many reported Bigfoot sightings are actually just a case of people mistaking a bear for a Bigfoot.",
"> “Human DNA plus some anomalies or unknowns does not equal an impossible human-ape hybrid,” Yale neurologist Dr. Steven Novella said on NeuroLogica Blog. ”It equals human DNA plus some anomalies.”",
"It's probably bullshit because they've refused to open their findings up to peer-review. If it was based in solid science there would be no reason to do that.",
"Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is only inherited from the mother. So you have the same mtDNA as your mom, and her mom, but different mtDNA than your father. Nuclear DNA (nuDNA) is a 50/50 combination from your mother and father. So as far as what is claimed, that a human woman mated with an unknown primate, it could be possible, although likely bullshit.",
"[Biologist PZ Myers thinks](_URL_1_)...\n\n > it’s the result of sloppy lab work and high levels of contamination, and a complete lack of discrimination on the part of the investigators. No details have been released yet, but I imagine that what they’re sequencing are from hair samples turned in by Bigfoot investigators: dirty, grimy hair samples collected by a mix of charlatans and naive, deluded hunters. I wonder if there are raccoon and possum genes in their sequences...",
"This paragraph says it all:\n\"Obviously, there are many open questions about the study. It has not yet been peer reviewed and published in a scientific journal, meaning that the pure science behind the analysis is not yet known.\""
],
"score": [
39,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/11/28/bigfoot-real-and-the-result-of-human-women-mating-with-an-unknown-hominin-claims-u-s-study/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02152.x/full",
"http://freethoughtblogs.com/pharyngula/2012/11/28/what-i-really-want-to-see-is-the-dna-sequence-of-an-alien-grey/"
]
}
|
/r/AskScience, Can you tell me why this article about Bigfoot being real is bullshit? Their talk about Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA confuses me.
Here is [the article](_URL_0_). Sorry, for wasting your time with what is probably nonsense. I mean, where did they even get these DNA samples?
|
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|
1y589g
|
Stand back: I'm going to try science! A new weekly feature covering how science is conducted
|
Over the coming weeks we'll be running a feature on the process of being a scientist. The upcoming topics will include 1) Day-to-day life; 2) Writing up research and peer-review; 3) The good, the bad, and the ugly papers that have affected science; 4) Ethics in science.
____
This week we're covering **day-to-day life**. Have you ever wondered about how scientists do research? Want to know more about the differences between disciplines? Our panelists will be discussing their work, including:
- What is life in a science lab like?
- How do you design an experiment?
- How does data collection and analysis work?
- What types of statistical analyses are used, and what issues do they present? [What's the deal with p-values anyway?](_URL_0_)
- What roles do advisors, principle investigators, post-docs, and grad students play?
**What questions do you have about scientific research? Ask our panelists here!**
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cfhgaj2",
"cfhhgcc",
"cfhjhzk",
"cfhleyh",
"cfhget2",
"cfhuha6",
"cfhjaaz",
"cfhpjla",
"cfhinke",
"cfhn3ut",
"cfhsknu",
"cfhnac0",
"cfhgg16",
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"cfhu9e4",
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"cfhlwm0",
"cfhii23",
"cfhnlx1",
"cfhq9ci",
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],
"text": [
"How much collaboration/interaction with other scientists in the same field or even in completely different fields is there prior to, during and after conducting an experiment?\n\nI've always had the impression that there is a lot more discussion going on behind the scenes, both formal and informal, than most people realize. It seems like it's generally assumed by Joe Public that scientists work in almost isolation either alone or in very small teams in a basement lab somewhere... perhaps in Siberia. :)\n\nThanks!",
"How often are grants given based upon an assumed outcome for political/financial motives? Examples would be Philip Morris funding independent testing on nicotine or BP funding a study highlighting the side effects of drilling in preserved habitats.\n\nAre there known \"scientific mercenaries\" that will massage data and put out any results you ask them so long as they're paid?",
"Aspiring researcher here, on the topic of day to day life, how much time do you spend at work during the week? Could you clarify if you're in an industry or academia?",
"This is an outstanding idea.\n\nI hope there is sufficient conviction to keep it rolling while the word gets out.\n\nWhat an excellent use of reddit as an educational resource.\n\nKudos to all participants.",
"How do you determine what you are going to research on? Also, I understand that the work of a scientist may sometimes be frustrating, as researches don't always bear fruit. So at what point would you decide that you're done with that topic and will go on to another one?",
"People talk about doing lit searches and keeping up with the literature. What exactly does this mean (at least in your case)? Do you read everything in specific journals? By specific authors? Do you have google alerts or something similar set up? How broadly do you read? (eg. if you're a bird behavior ecologist do you read papers about birds, papers about behavioral ecology, or just papers about bird behavior?)\nAny tips for getting into the literature of a specific field? I'm an undergraduate interested in studying population genetics and molecular ecology in grad school.",
"So I understand the idea of being in a position and having a role to play but I don't understand how you would conduct much of the work leading up to reaching your goal. For example: you work for NASA and are tasked with designing a new engine for their next spacecraft. Over time you will need to determine the materials used and the ideal shapes and sizes of various components. \n\nOn the day to day basis though, do you just show up to work and think 'hey I'll just do some more equations for the next 7 hours on that nozzle component'? \n\nTl;dr I don't understand how the long term project is distributed over day to day work times.",
"This may be a little late in the game to be posting, but hopefully some of you will see it. If you are still in college or high school, get an internship, even if you are planning on going to professional school. It will help out a lot more than you know toward getting entry level work when you graduate. For me, I worked as a Chem lab teacher's assistant for my last two years in undergrad (just for a freshman class about twice per week). It gives your future employers more faith in your abilities and increases your chances of getting hired quickly.",
"How do you decide what to research? Do you just sit around and go \"this sounds neat,lets see what happens\" and then write a proposal and ask for grants? Or are you assigned things by your university/company? For that matter, if youre assigned things, how open generally are whoever to you saying \"hey ive got this idea can we research it\"?",
"I am an undergrad(senior) working in a lab right now. I really enjoy it but feel like I don't understand a lot of things and therefore can't contribute as much. \n\nDid you learn most of the knowledge you use at the graduate level? \nAlso how much time do you spend reading papers from others in your field?",
"Probably not related but, why are there barely any graduate (BSc) positions? I'm about to graduate with a BSc Hons in Biomedical Sciences and everything is like have a master or a PhD. Or you know, be a lab tech with high school education. \nOr if you're lucky you see the rare ad for a research technician. \nI understand the desire for employers to want people with PhD's but I'm not about to go get one in a field I might not know if I like because I haven't had any proper experience in one. (Dissertation projects don't count!)\nRant over. \nTL;DR: why are there basically no jobs for graduates with BSc's?",
"I would like to know about the funding, how much of your time and effort has to go into getting the funding you need. How much does this hurt or help your research? What as a average person can we do to help out?",
"How are data analyzed in your field? I know that in biomed literature it's almost entirely about p-values and confidence intervals. Any statisticians want to comment on how null hypothesis testing is used correctly/incorrectly?",
"What do you normally do you for lunch?",
"Taking a short introvert recovery break from the conference I'm attending, so this will be succinct. FWIW, I'm a postdoctoral researcher in an academic chemistry department doing biophysical work.\n\n- Lab life. In short, there's flexibility. I try to hold to some notion of a schedule on a \"normal day\" (not at a conference, nor at a instrument facility elsewhere) but occasionally I get busy doing data analysis at home or work, and roll in a bit late or stay late. Sometimes I will have to work weekends for consecutive weeks, but that's something which is usually only needed once every few months. \n\n- Experiment Design. I am only half-joking, but there's definitely an element of \"figure out what I did wrong before, and do it correctly this time.\" I'd break up the experiments I do into two categories - the known unknowns, and the unknown unknowns. For the known unknowns, such as determining the temperature dependence of a system's stability as a function of time, it's pretty straightforward. For the first time I did spectroscopic measurements on my headache-inducing multiprotein complex, I didn't really have an idea what to look for, as no one had ever done anything quite like this before. This is what I'd call the unknown unknowns. Sure, I had some predicted data based on some computational tools, and had a set of things to look for in a methodical way, but it was exploratory in the end. We needed to see if we could even think of doing future measurements given basic spectral properties (signal-to-noise and linewidths).\n\n- Data collection & Analysis. For the biochemistry and simple biophysical measurements, we do that in-house. Some of it is surprisingly simple - for example, when we do enzyme assays, we have it set up such that we are in the regime of pseudo-first order kinetics, and it's all straight lines, baby. For the spectroscopic measurements on my multiprotein complex, it's done elsewhere, as we don't have suitable equipment in-house. There's a lot of signal averaging involved - I can easily set up a queue of different 2 day experiments to run for over a week without breaking a sweat. These can be far more elaborate and subtle - I've had cases where I've gotten data and it's unpublishable due to some innocent tinkering with experiment code that completely torpedoed the data quality.\n\n- Statistical analyses. For things like enzyme assays, we use descriptive statistics (e.g., reporting a mean with its standard deviations). We are often limited in that doing such assays requires specially prepared reagents, so we never have quite as many replicates as I'm sure some would prefer. For my spectroscopic measurements, I do plenty of signal averaging (approximately 100,000 scans per two days), but we have other considerations - digital resolution, anomalous instrumental noise if it's being poorly behaved, and so on. Fortunately, the fact that the data has signal-free regions (due to the underlying physics), we can use those to estimate the baseline noise and compute signal-to-noise ratios.\n\nGotta run now....",
"This page is filled with folks from the world of academia. \nWhere are the scientists such as myself that work in private industry? I mean those that don't rely on grants, but innovate for the need of the time? Our life may not center around research papers, but our work is still ruthlessly scrutinized by peers and demands demonstrable success. Deviating from our professional organization's code of ethics will lead to ostracization from the industry, so of course we stick to strict codes of conduct regardless of our discipline. In my career, I have definitely influenced governing agencies and private business on policy, not based on private sector income interests, but on clearly better science models than those offered by non-private interests Are there any other scientists out there that that can add to the discussion that aren't affiliated with a college, university, or other academic institution?",
"I am currently an undergraduate neuroscience and math double major. My calc 3 teacher in highschool (awesome guy) stressed to us how important programs like matlab are becoming, especially in my desired field of neuroscience. He gace us an introduction to the coding, but it doesnt seem that I will actually use the program for quite a while. What can I do to get a headstart when the time comes that pen and paper just wont cut it anymore? Are there online resources to get some casual practice on the basics, or would my time and energy be pest spent onother studies? \n\nThanms for doing tnis thread, its really a good way to educate people on the scientific process.",
"Astrophysicists:\n\n-What are some fields that physics/astro majors find themselves in that aren't necessarily what one would expect? I have a friend of a friend's father with a master's in physics that works in optics, for example.\n\n-What are research areas that aren't receiving public attention or are misunderstood by the public?\n\n-Is the possibility of faster-than-light travel a bit hyped by media, or does it really look that promising?\n\n-How does NASA place within the research community as far as volume and impact of work they do?",
"As an aspiring researcher, I would love to know how much independence you feel in a project? Even if you are working in a team, do you still feel have a strong sense of autonomy?",
"I am an international graduate student in the North East US, now in my 5th year. I'd be glad to answer any questions about that, and anything relating to graduate school or cell biology/microbiology.",
"How do mathemagicians and computer scientists do science? Do they stare at a problem and cry until an angel tells them the answer or is there a scientific process? What does it look like?",
"How do you (and your team) arrange and plan for your daily / short term activites?\n\nSome research groups try to have some kind of operational meetings every morning or once every few days, but most end up having a weekly meeting at most, where many topics are raised and it is difficult to have an efficient planning. Besides, many principal investigators and head of groups travel or are generally busy, so it's not practical to expect meetings with them several times a week. Groups however tend to leave much room to their researchers and nevertheless have good performance in how everyday activities are done because of general management culture from higher estructures such as university labs or because they work with projects that have a detailed work plan.\n\nWhat is your usual routine and what is your experience?",
"I think the first thing that needs to be defined is \"What is exactly is a scientist\"? Do you need a degree from an accredited university? Is it simply one who uses the scientific method? Do you need to be an expert in your field? Can a 10 year old be a scientist? How do we determine who is a scientist and who is not?",
"The Node (a blog by Development) has a great series called [''A day in the life...''](_URL_0_). Each article in this series is written by a scientist who studies a different organism, explaining a day in the life of that particular organism's lab.",
"Can you describe the experience/opportunity that made you feel most prepared to enter in the research world? What opportunity do you feel most got your \"foot in the door?\"",
"I would love to see a high level overview of the scientific method itself, stressing fundamentals."
],
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/news/scientific-method-statistical-errors-1.14700"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://thenode.biologists.com/tag/a-day-in-the-life/"
]
}
|
Stand back: I'm going to try science! A new weekly feature covering how science is conducted
Over the coming weeks we'll be running a feature on the process of being a scientist. The upcoming topics will include 1) Day-to-day life; 2) Writing up research and peer-review; 3) The good, the bad, and the ugly papers that have affected science; 4) Ethics in science. ____ This week we're covering **day-to-day life**. Have you ever wondered about how scientists do research? Want to know more about the differences between disciplines? Our panelists will be discussing their work, including: - What is life in a science lab like? - How do you design an experiment? - How does data collection and analysis work? - What types of statistical analyses are used, and what issues do they present? [What's the deal with p-values anyway?](_URL_0_) - What roles do advisors, principle investigators, post-docs, and grad students play? **What questions do you have about scientific research? Ask our panelists here!**
|
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|
jjn13
|
Why does evaporation cause a cooling effect on your skin?
|
I know the body does this as a way to cool itself. I became intrigued with the phenomenon when I applied some liquid hand sanitizer and felt the temperature difference. It has something to do with the heat of vaporization, doesn't it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2cnuqx",
"c2cnsgd",
"c2cnw5b"
],
"text": [
"Think of the temperature of a liquid as the average kinetic energy of the molecules in it, ie their average velocity. Some molecules are moving fast, some slow, and the temp is the average of all of them. Evaporation happens on the surface of a liquid when a molecule is moving so fast it escapes the rest of the liquid.\n\nThere are several ways this can happen but the important part is that once that (particularly fast) molecule has left the liquid, the average velocity (and therefore temperature) has decreased.",
"Vaporization requires energy. Liquid that \"wants\" to evaporate can \"steal\" the energy from it's surroundings. If it's in contact with skin, it can take the heat in the skin, creating a cooling sensation.",
"Basically, when water evaporates, the hot molecules float away leaving the cool ones on your skin. That's a bit of an oversimplification."
],
"score": [
7,
6,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why does evaporation cause a cooling effect on your skin?
I know the body does this as a way to cool itself. I became intrigued with the phenomenon when I applied some liquid hand sanitizer and felt the temperature difference. It has something to do with the heat of vaporization, doesn't it?
|
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|
2mfo0m
|
How do life forms evolve under less than favorable conditions?
|
My father's only argument against evolution besides "It's a theory!" is that he doesn't understand how an animal evolves if the situation it is in isn't exactly what it needs to prosper. I tried to explain that the basic premise of evolution was something adapting to it's conditions because it needs to. I used the example of a giraffe needing food in a higher place. The giraffes that have the long necks are the only ones that survive and eventually, all giraffes have long necks because those are the only ones that survive and reproduce.
He then stormed off to the bathroom and said that I have a lot to learn. He also said this after I denied that all lawyers and politicians are freemasons and that the moon landing happened as well as countless other times. This feels childish but I really want him to understand this instead of denying every single thing that he "hasn't seen" and assumes to not be real.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"The problem with this is that there is no single \"favorable\" condition for all individuals of a specific species. Due to variations in the genotype/phenotype in a population there is no single optimal environment for everyone. No \"one size fits all\" if you like. Because of this, the phenotype (physical/biological characteristics) of a select portion of the population will be better adapted to the selection pressures.\n\nTo try and illustrate this concept, use this example:\n\nA population of wolves live in an area that is cold, and is split into two distinct sub-groups: group A and group B. Group A has a thicker coat, making them more able to survive the cold, while group B has a thinner coat, therefore expending more energy into simply staying alive. Because of this energy difference, wolves from group A will be able to reproduce more often, but wolves from group B may die off before reproducing age or may not have as many offspring. This means in the successive generations, there will be more offspring from group A than group B, meaning a higher proportion of wolves have thicker coats, making them more adapted to the environment - evolution has occurred.",
"I'll divide my answer into three sections: a) what is a scientific theory, b) what is evolution and how it works and c) how do life forms evolve under less than favourable conditions.\n\n* **What is a scientific theory?**\n\nEvolution is a theory, in the scientific sense of the word, not in the common knowledge way. A scientific theory, [citing the National Academy of Sciences](_URL_0_) is:\n\n > **Theory**: In science, a *well-substantiated explanation* of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.\n\n[Here](_URL_2_) are some scientific theories, that you can show to your dad. Heliocentrism (the fact that the Sun, our local star, is located at the *center* of our planetary system) is a theory. Not because is \"just a theory\" -citing your dad's phrase- means that it is false. This is a proven fact, just like every single theory listed in the link above.\n\nIn common knowledge, the word theory is used in the *hypothesis* sense, which, in the same book is described as: \n\n > **Hypothesis**: A *tentative statement about the natural world leading* to deductions that can be tested. If the deductions are verified, it becomes more probable that the hypothesis is correct. If the deductions are incorrect, the original hypothesis can be abandoned or modified. Hypotheses can be used to build more complex inferences and explanations.\n\n**TL,DR**: a scientific theory is a proven explanation for a natural phenomena, the term theory is often confused with the term hypothesis.\n\n* **What is evolution and how it works**\n\nThe main problem here is that you aren't understanding -biological- evolution fully. Evolution *isn't* the process by which an organism adapts because it needs to adapt. Charles Darwin described evolution as *change in living things by descent with modification*. [Mark Ridley's 2004 *Evolution* textbook defines evolution as](_URL_1_): change in inheritable traits in a population over a lineage.\n\n**Very important**: the traits *has* to be inheritable, evolution happens on populations ~~not species~~ and it happens over lineage-time, an ancestor-descendant series of populations.\n\nTraits and variation are the keys to understand evolution. A trait is any characteristic an organism has. And variation is the the whole range in which this variations are comprised. In any population -understanding populations as a group of organisms of the same species that inhabit the same area at the same time and have genetic flow- there is variation. Think about the people in your town: some all tall, some are short, some have pointy nose, some have wide faces, some have an athletic complexion, some have brown eyes, some have long fingers, some have certain inherited heart-related conditions, etc. This is variation over several traits. And, also, you can see that there are two factors impacting how this traits express: **what the organisms is born with** and **environmental stress**.\n\nThere are *four main evolutionary forces*:\n\n* **Natural selection**: favoring of individuals with characteristics that enhance the chances of survival and reproduction.\n\nThink of a population of any organism you like. Think about the traits this population has -the more, the better. Now, lets say a trait -you get to choose which one- has a better chance of surviving that the counterparts of this same trait, *i.e.* taller organisms get a better chance to survive than shorter organisms, thus, the taller, the better. Not every short organism dies and not every tall organism survives, but they have different chances of doing it. as you can see, with only this force in the game, eventually there will be more tall organisms in general than short ones in a population. Think how this would work for the trait in your population. The result of this force is the rise of adaptations.\n\n* **Mutation**: inheritable change of structure and amount of DNA\n\nAll organisms are made out of cells and every cell has its own genetic information. In humans, every single cell has *the exact same information*, but not all the genes -and variations of them as the mechanisms that regulate the expression- are activated. The neurons have the same information as a skin cell, but both are expressing different genes (all the cells in your body have the same information because they all come from the zygote that formed from the fusion of your father's sperm with your mother's ovum). Changes can happen in the genetic information of any cell, but inheritable changes can only happen in sexual cells: sperm and ovum. The result of this force is the creation of different genetic material.\n\n* **Genetic drift**: genetic changes when population undergoes an event that randomly selects a small amount of individuals.\n\nLets return to your imaginary population. Set the population size (how many individuals are forming your population) to 1000 individuals, and try to keep the variation. Now, imagine that an event -which doesn't select some traits over other ones- kills 990 individuals. Your population has only 10 individuals after the event. The variation has decreased and the amount of individuals that can reproduce has also shortened. The result of this force is the fixation -every organism has the same value- of any trait, *i.e.* all the organisms of the population have black fur -there is no more variation on that trait.\n\n* **Genetic flow**: transfer of genetic information across population boundaries.\n\nReset your imaginary population. Try to imagine another one. For a time, both populations are isolated from each other (like a population from Canada and a population of South Africa). After some time, by any means, there is migration between the two populations. Some of the individuals that migrated will eventually reproduce. At the beginning the populations were different, but if you let gene flow, populations will start to be very similar.\n\n* Some other forces are involved in evolution, but I'll stick to the four mentioned above.\n\n**TL,DR:** biological evolution is the change of inheritable traits over generational time in populations. Natural selection isn't the only evolutionary force; mutation, genetic drift, and genetic flow are also important forces as they can change the inheritable traits of a population.\n\n* **How do life forms evolve under less than favorable conditions?**\n\nWith all the background information I've given you, it is possible now to understand this. If conditions aren't favourable, *i.e.* there are scarce food resources, the climate is stressful to the organism, there is too much competition among individuals of the same species and along different species, etc., there is too much evolutionary stress.\n\nWith the natural selection point of view, those organisms that present traits that can out-compete other ones will have a higher chance of survival and reproduction. If this trait is inheritable, the amount of organisms with this trait will start to raise in the population. Every generation will bring new individuals that have variation in this trait. If we turn on mutation, *sometimes* new traits will appear. This new traits will enter into the game. If the not-so-favourable condition selects individuals randomly, genetic shift will be on the table. The thing with this environment you are proposing, establishes that natural selection will be the main force in action, since there will be traits that are fittest to survive.\n\n\nI really hope this helps you. If you have any doubts or anything you want to know, reply or PM.",
"It's important to understand that evolution isn't happening out of necessity. A species does not evolve by adapting to conditions because it needs to in order to survive. Evolution just...happens. Conditions change, and species that are lucky enough to develop those traits (through random mutation) that allow it to reproduce and out-compete similar niche species will live on and pass on its genes. It's a little pedantic to point this out, but it is important because it helps answer your main question: evolution under less than favorable conditions. Perhaps the conditions aren't perfect for species A or B, but species A develops mutations that afford it greater fecundity. And so, species A will evolve i.e., its allelic frequencies will change. Species B may evolve as well - but the change in its traits are not as useful for fecundity in its current environment as A's are. Maybe B will die out, or move.\n\nI guess long story short of what I am trying to say is: life forms don't change their alleles in response to the environment. They just change their allelic frequency, and the changes may turn out to benefit the species in a changing environment. (I will admit that this is a slight lie, because the real picture is more complex due to epigenetic effects conferred by the environment or diet, but you get the idea). \n\nAlso, fun fact: giraffes evolving long necks for food in higher places is called the \"competing browsers hypothesis.\" There is an alternative hypothesis based on [sexual selection](_URL_3_) - male giraffes use their long necks to bash each other in order to compete for females. 2 important reasons validate this idea: a giraffe's neck is too damn long - it is unhealthy for the giraffe at times. Also, many giraffes have been observed eating from lower branches or shrubs - at heights that make such a long neck unnecessary. However, this hypothesis does not explain why female giraffes have long necks, too. Interesting, huh?\n\nOn a side note: my dad is like this but perhaps even worse. He is very religious (which I am fine with, it's his life) but he will get mad at me if I use logic and reasoning to try to defy his beliefs.",
"Most of the answers here are solid but I just want to add a few things. \n\n- evolution is always happening in the form of micro evolution. I like the wolf coat example above and I'm going to build on it a little. We could start with a population of wolves that is getting a little crowded. One pack moves far up north where some of the prey is more plentiful. So the wolves with the thicker coats spend less energy staying warm and are therefore more likely to reproduce and survive. Now over time the northern population has begun to physically differ from a southern wolf, micro evolution has occurred. It's not just going to be with coat thickness, it's a whole host of traits that are shaped by its environment, it's prey, or predators. Over time the northern wolves could become so specialized and different that they can no longer breed with a southern wolf. This would be the creation of a new species and be macro evolution. Basically what I'm getting at is that evolution is constantly happening and not just a response to a single event. \n\n- species deal with less than favorable conditions by having a large amount of genetic diversity. The more diverse a population is the more likely it will have traits that will allow it, over generations, to adapt.\n\nSorry if it's a little disjointed I'm on my phone."
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"url": [
"http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=6024&page=2",
"http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/",
"https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/context/top-10-revolutionary-scientific-theories",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00711.x/abstract;jsessionid=DD945879009AB5BCEF78EBD841E67981.f03t02"
]
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How do life forms evolve under less than favorable conditions?
My father's only argument against evolution besides "It's a theory!" is that he doesn't understand how an animal evolves if the situation it is in isn't exactly what it needs to prosper. I tried to explain that the basic premise of evolution was something adapting to it's conditions because it needs to. I used the example of a giraffe needing food in a higher place. The giraffes that have the long necks are the only ones that survive and eventually, all giraffes have long necks because those are the only ones that survive and reproduce. He then stormed off to the bathroom and said that I have a lot to learn. He also said this after I denied that all lawyers and politicians are freemasons and that the moon landing happened as well as countless other times. This feels childish but I really want him to understand this instead of denying every single thing that he "hasn't seen" and assumes to not be real.
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5odujm
|
What is the consistency of outer space? Does it always feel empty? What about the plasma and heliosheath and interstellar space? Does it all feel the same emptiness or do they have different thickness?
|
askscience
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"Space is not empty at all! We have entire branches of astronomy dedicated to studying the stuff between stars and galaxies (the so-called interstellar medium and intergalactic medium). The density of the interstellar medium is about one atom per cubic centimeter, and the density of the inter-galactic medium is much lower.",
"The consistency of outer space is close to nothing compared with Earth. You can't flap a wing and it do anything. Does it feel empty? depending on where you are floating say in your space suit it would feel rather disorientating, you might be very slowly rotating. You would certainly see stars around, although as soon as you face the sun it would be pretty blinding, your eyes would take a bit to adjust and so you would see mostly blackness around. \n\nPlasma in space are usually around stars ( or planets with magnetic fields) or star forming regions. The reason we see them is mostly due to long exposures in astrophotography. And remember that often a nebula is several hundred light years across so we are seeing an accumulation of light from a huge amount but spread out over a vast distance. \n\nIf you ended up in a region between two galaxies space might appear a bit darker, though if you had some binoculars would be able to make out other galaxies around you.",
"When studying the ISM (interstellar medium) we typically make broad assumptions for the number of atoms per unit volume in a certain region of space. The \"cold ISM,\" aka \"empty\" space typically contains like 10-100 atoms per cubic centimeter. Denser regions, like planetary nebulae and AGN, can have 1,000-100,000 atoms per cubic cm---this type of high-density is incredibly easy for us to detect with instrumentation, but if you were somehow wandering through it with your bare skin, you'd have no idea there was any actual substance there.",
"They have different thicknesses. They vary between thinner than any vacuum that has ever been created in a lab, and vastly thinner than any vacuum that has ever been created in a lab. And I guess there's the stuff just outside the atmosphere on planets where it's just a fairly good vacuum.",
"The first thing to understand is that there are no absolute physical boundaries marking what is and is not \"outer space.\" The density of matter and energy, as well as the chemical proportions of matter, just changes from place to place across the universe.\n\nWe arbitrarily say that space begins (with respect to Earth) at something called the [Kármán line](_URL_1_), at 100 km above sea level because this is a convenient number and the density of atmospheric gases is quite low by that altitude.\n\nSimilarly arbitrary points would denote where space ends and the Martian atmosphere begins, or the stellar corona, or the beginning of interstellar space, or what have you. This is not to say that these points have no physical basis - the heliopause, for instance, is roughly wherever the solar wind and interstellar wind are in balance - but these are not absolute locations, but rather vague statistical regions.\n\nNowhere in the universe is completely devoid of matter/energy, so it just changes as you go. If you encounter a solid object, the densities and compositions change very quickly, but even then the change is not instantaneous from one microscopic location to another - there are atoms constantly in motion, being blasted off of a solid surface by impacts from particles in the stellar and interstellar particle flux. \n\nThis is what is meant when researchers say that a body otherwise in vacuum like Mercury or Pluto has an \"atmosphere.\" They don't mean there is any practically significant amount of gas around it that you would experience, but simply that there is some small amount of molecules that linger in a gaseous form near the object. \n\nThe amounts never go to zero as you get farther away, the numerical density just decreases until it meets another environment where it increases again. If you were to travel from the surface of Mercury to the surface of Earth, the density of (for instance) oxygen would go from some small number and keep decreasing over the space between until it came close to Earth, then start increasing more and more until it was very high at Earth.\n\nAs to what space *is*, that's a deeper matter that delves into quantum theories and various alternative models (etc.). One thing that has been observed is that \"empty\" space - lacking in massed particles - is not in fact empty, but rather a froth of mutually-canceling particle pairs with opposite energy to each other (thus not changing the net amount of energy in the universe). \n\nThe opposite way that gravity affects the constituents of these pairs is how [Hawking radiation](_URL_0_) can cause black holes to lose mass and evaporate over time.",
"The simple answer is that space has no texture and no thickness. If you waved your hands around in it you would feel no resistance, no matter how fast you moved your hands. It would feel even emptier than waving your hands around in the air. To truly experience this you would need a fantasy spacesuit that protected you from the vacuum without impeding your movements or your senses in any way. But assuming you had one, space would feel totally empty."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line"
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}
|
What is the consistency of outer space? Does it always feel empty? What about the plasma and heliosheath and interstellar space? Does it all feel the same emptiness or do they have different thickness?
|
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||
4v0cbr
|
AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I'm Dr. Olwen Grace, a researcher at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London. I study the world's succulent plants and what evolution can tell us about the useful properties of wonder-plants like Aloe vera. AMA!
|
Hi, I'm Dr. Olwen Grace, a researcher specialising in the evolution of succulent plants (plants that store water) at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London. I lead the team that confirmed the origins of Aloe vera on the Arabian Peninsula - a longstanding botanical mystery - using genome sequencing techniques. We published the findings in an [Open Access paper in BMC Evolutionary Biology](_URL_0_) and you can read an article about the story in [New Scientist](_URL_1_).
I'm currently working to solve the second Aloe vera mystery: why has this species reached wonder-plant status, supporting a global trade, and not the 500 or so other closely related species in the genus Aloe?
The research goes beyond solving a botanical enigma. If we can understand how Aloe vera differs from its closest relatives (or not) then we can highlight other species of Aloe, growing throughout Africa, that might have similar potential.
I'm fascinated by the ways in which adaptations in the plant kingdom are valuable to people, and how we can harness nature's solutions to problems facing humanity today.
I'll be on from 5-7 PM UTC (12-2 PM ET) and look forward to your questions!
EDIT: Thanks for joining me today - I’ve enjoyed answering your questions! Olwen.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Soo excited to see a botany AMA! My question has more to do with your second mystery than the first. Aloe joins many other commercially traded plants as one which originated in a semi-arid ecosystem and therefore economically less prosperous geographic area, and which has subsequently been put to use in much more developed areas. So my question is, what are the ethical ramifications of ethnobotanical study, particularly in relation to seed rights and the transportation of live plants?",
"what are some of the most useful plants you know of that maybe other people aren't aware of? By useful, I mean in the sense of how Aloe Vera can be used to treat burns. I would love to start a garden of plants that have various medicinal uses.",
"Would it be possible to summarize why aloe vera is even considered useful?\n\nThanks.",
"Amateur succulent enthusiast here. Thanks for coming! \n\nWhat are some of the best ways to propagate and multiply succulents at home?",
"Hi Dr. Grace! Just wanted to ask if you had any personal plants that you own and if so which are your favorite.",
"Hello Dr. Grace. Thank you for doing this AMA. \nI am going into my last year in my undergrad and will be applying to grad school for the fall. \n\nMy question: how did you decide to research succulents? \n\nI'm finding plenty of professors researching topics in which I am interested, but it seems impossible at times to lock down a focus. Thank you! \n\nEdit: I'm studying horticulture",
"How has Aloe Vera spread from the Arabian peninsula? Which cultures especially recognised its usefulness?",
"What are the lowest temperatures that Succulents can survive in? Could they grow, for instance, in Antarctica, or would they just freeze to death?",
"I visited Kew years ago. I've always wondered if any non-native animal species might be thriving in those greenhouses?",
"Why is Aloe Vera so awesome? It's like aliens put it here.",
"I live in the Pacific Northwest of the USA. I am a gardener and a florist and I've worked with succulents for a number of years. I'm curious of the direct difference between hardy succulents and tender succulents. A lot of people don't know the difference and it's always difficult to explain that the ones they're buying have to go inside when we get to our late fall/winter, but the other ones can stay outside because they'll winter over. Why the difference in habitat from aloe and echeveria to sempervivum?",
"As far as I know there is little scientific evidence to support the \"wonder\" claims of the plant and it seems that it's popular simply because it got popular, or as you concluded in your paper, proximity to trade routes. Are there actual properties of the plant that provide significant benefits to humans? If anything It seems to have a placebo effect. And if you don't know, why are you doing this research? Or is that why you are doing this research?\n\nAre you doing genetic and protein analysis? Have many of these species of plants' genome been sequenced that allows you to do accurate comparisons?",
"Hello!\n\nI recently visited the botanical gardens in Washington, D.C. \n\nThere is a room with medicinal plants, many of them succulent.\n\nI have been reading about \"adaptogens\" such as rhodiola and ashwaghanda. I believe rhodiola is a high altitude succulent.\n\nI am curious, how many different succulent plants are used by humans for Medecine? The D.C. exhibit was good but not complete IMHO. \n\nDo you have knowledge regarding \"adaptogens\" and how theu synergize with our phisiology and immune system, for example ashwaghanda can ramp up the immune system, but can be bad for someone with say, MS.",
"Good day Dr. Grace, I only hear of Aloe Vera from cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. If Aloe Vera is a wonderplant, does that mean it has no any negative effects? And what was Aloe Vera's original purpose for nature?\n\nAnd if dogs are man's bestfriend from the kingdom animalia, what should be the man's bestfriend in terms of the kingdom plantae?",
"So this is a strange question about succulents but, I figure I'll ask it anyway... my fiancee loves succulents and constructs beautiful Terrariums with many varieties. For some reason though, our cats are specifically obsessed with the succulents and constantly try and dig them out and/or eat them, and only the succulents. Is there something about succulents that attract felines or other animals? Is there a special property about them, maybe a scent they carry?",
"How long have succulents been around and what did the earliest succulents look like? An echeveria among Dinosaurs would be awesome haha! EDIT: And what ways do you think Succulents could evolve in the future? Better adaptation to cold climates? And finally, (sorry for the onslaught of questions!) could we modify Succulents to propagate faster, or be able to survive in cold climates, or even extend the uses of Aloe Vera/ give other Succulents those properties? Thank you!",
"I remember reading about a cut in government funding to Kew a few yeara ago. How has/will this funding cut impact research such as this? Is there anything which /askscience can do to help?",
"Hey, thanks for taking the time to do this AMA.\n\nMy question pertains to how and why the aloe plant evolved the way it did. \nHow many chromosomes does the plant have, and how long ago did the plant as we know it begin to exist? What is the evolutionary advantage to being stuffed with feel-good, soothing goo (he typed with a completely straight face)?\n\nTo my knowledge, the amount\nOf chromosomes a species has denotes how many times the genetic makeup was changed fundamentally, mapping out dead ends and all (we have ~42 but ferns, which have been the same for millions of years, have something crazy like 5000). Did these succulent plants evolve alongside man? Or were they doing their own thing and we just happen to love them?",
"Hello Dr. Grace! Thank you for taking time to answer our questions. One month from now, I will be starting a master's program in evolutionary biology. My primary research interests are in the recently discovered Denisova hominin and how they evolved in relation to modern humans and Neanderthals. What advice do you have for someone about to embark on a master's program in evolutionary biology? What direction do you see the field as a whole shifting over the next 10 or 20 years?",
"Hi Dr Grace, thanks for doing this AMA in the first place!\n\nMy question is: is there any feature found in succulent plants (one or several) that could be used to improve other plants/crops of important economical value by transgenesis? Maybe related to CAM metabolism or other means of resisting heat.",
"Hey! My housemate recently made an indoor succulent garden where he takes small jars,fills them with water and then puts a succulent in each one (no soil,no nothing) , when he first did it I thought he was crazy but they are actually thriving (it's three months later) and it's awesome being able to watch the roots grow, I thought succulents were all about minimal water though, how do they do so well planted in it?",
"According to [Wikipedia](_URL_0_), there is little evidence of medicinal properties of Aloe Vera; there are small-scale studies with contradictory evidence.\n\nIs the Wikipedia article correct on this matter?",
"How did you discover your passion for the world's plant life?",
"Thank you so much for doing this AMA! I grew up with an aloe vera plant at home and have continued this tradition as an adult with my children. We have always used it to sooth first-degree burns.\n\nSince aloe vera thrives in semi-arid regions, have any studies been done regarding heat-stress and the levels of phytochemicals in aloe? For example, does a certain level or type of heat stress cause an increase in certain lectins, etc.\n\nMy second questions, with respect to the second aloe vera mystery, is whether there are there any stand-outs among the other species of aloe that you think may likely have similarly beneficial properties or entirely different properties that may similarly be useful?",
"Great to see another AMA from another interesting scientist! In this thread I already see some very good questions and I'm really looking forward to your answers.\n\nMy question isn't that interesting, and maybe shouldn't be asked here either. But: Some of my cacti are releasing little \"sprouts\" from their bodies, like if there were up to some vegetative reproduction. Is it safe to simply cut these sprouts off?",
"Hello Dr. Grace,\n\nYour work sounds incredibly interesting. While I will certainly be reading the other questions and responses pertaining to your work, I would like to ask about how you got to where you are now. \n\nWhat sorts of steps, education, research, and professional experience led you to your current position?\n\nThank you very much for taking the time to participate in this AMA.",
"A lot of my houseplant succulents are really easily propagated by cuttings, leaves that break off and grow roots, or pups like in the case of aloe - all genetic clones of the parent plant. I've always wondered, how long can this form of reproduction last - could a species survive like this indefinitely without any actual breeding or pollination?",
"Are there useful models to \"green\" the planet?\n\n- > models for half-automated greenhouses and water-systems, that would only need \"up-keeping\" as human-labor-resource.\n\n- > greenhouses that would give plants a way to survive in harsh climate (ice- and/or sand-desert)\n\n- > greenhouses fused with \"real\" houses (singapore anyone?)",
"Thank you for doing this ama. I have a few questions so I hope you can ask some of them. Do you have a private collection? What's your favorite plant? If you do have a collection what's your rarest plant?",
"Hi Doctor! I've been getting really interested in medicinal plants lately! I was wondering if there was a website that provides scientific and peer reviewed studies on medicinal plants. I don't want to rely on hearsay or folklore. Thanks!",
"Are there succulents that live in or use brackish water?\n\nDo you see a gene transfer from succulents as a viable option for greening the desert or growing food crops in harsh climates/Mars?",
"Is there a book have read that you think every horticulturist should own? I competed a horticultural apprenticeship earlier this year but never found a book that I found really helped me pass.",
"What little-known facts do you think aspiring botanists/laymen would enjoy learning? Both conclusions from your research or others would be great.",
"What other succulents -- or more specifically Aloe relatives -- have interesting properties for humans (food, medicine, primary materials)?",
"What did you think about Mark Watney's depiction of botany in The Martian? (Book or Movie)",
"What are the medicinal or therapeutical properties -if any- of peyote?",
"What makes aloe Vera such a wonder plant?",
"Is your team in contact with medical doctors?",
"Dr Grace,\n\nI have a couple of cultivation related questions about the soil used for aloe. \n \n* Do plants in arid regions like the Arabian peninsula have mycorrhizal relationships? I inoculate my garden with *Glomus* and wondering if Aloe has evolved to have relationships with fungus as well\n* should I try to mimic aridsol by using vermiculite, perlite, sand, or do you have another preference? \n* Succulents are often sold with companion plants, does aloe put any exudates in the soil that would harm competing plants/is this practice discouraged for other reasons?\n\n\nThank you for your time!",
"It's great when Scientists do ama, thank you for trying to reach out to us on reddit. My question isn't so much about aloe but it is a bit of an evolution question.\n\nHas there been any findings or reasons why some plants release so much oxygen compared to other plants, and if there is some kind of benefit to the plant or the zone around it if it is a big oxygen producer? I'm asking because so many offices and homes buy these high yield oxygen plants so there might be some interest in it. Thank you.",
"Hi Dr Olwyn,\nThank you so much for doing an AMA. I am an amateur ethnobotanist and one thing that confuses me is how people discovered the medicinal use of a plant. I mean its pretty common sense for some plants where the effects are instantaneous but what about for plants like bacopa monnieri (which has use a memory enhancing herb in India)? It takes 8 weeks of constant usage before any effect is seen, so did people just randomly try plants for random periods of time to see what plants had effects?",
"Hi, I often think of succulents as a warm-thriving plant, specially after my visit to Kew where I sweated myself through your greenhouse garden!\n\nMy question is: Is there any species of succulents that thrive in colder enviroments and can even survive winter?",
"Do you know the cocker spaniel who lives in the grounds of Kew Gardens? We sold one of our puppies to the gardens economic director or something similar, but haven't heard how she's getting on.",
"Hi Dr. Grace, I was wondering how closely succulents are related to cacti, and what are the best ways to care for them, as I have two succulents myself?",
"Hi!! \n\nJust wondering, we find healing properties in Aloe Vera, do its closest relatives provide any benefit to humans either within the Aloe Genus or close to it?",
"Do you think it was right for Chris Jericho to hit Dean Ambrose over the head with Ambrose's potted plant named Mitch?",
"In my native country the Aloe Vera plant is used as a soap. Is this backed by any scientific research at all?",
"How has the sudden boom of succulents with hip people affected them? Is it better or worst?",
"What is the most counter intuitive evolutionary adaptations you have seen or heard about with succulent plants?",
"What properties of Aloe Vera? Everything I've found suggests it doesn't really do much",
"You say aloe vera is a wonder plant. What do you mean?"
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AskScience AMA Series: Hi! I'm Dr. Olwen Grace, a researcher at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London. I study the world's succulent plants and what evolution can tell us about the useful properties of wonder-plants like Aloe vera. AMA!
Hi, I'm Dr. Olwen Grace, a researcher specialising in the evolution of succulent plants (plants that store water) at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London. I lead the team that confirmed the origins of Aloe vera on the Arabian Peninsula - a longstanding botanical mystery - using genome sequencing techniques. We published the findings in an [Open Access paper in BMC Evolutionary Biology](_URL_0_) and you can read an article about the story in [New Scientist](_URL_1_). I'm currently working to solve the second Aloe vera mystery: why has this species reached wonder-plant status, supporting a global trade, and not the 500 or so other closely related species in the genus Aloe? The research goes beyond solving a botanical enigma. If we can understand how Aloe vera differs from its closest relatives (or not) then we can highlight other species of Aloe, growing throughout Africa, that might have similar potential. I'm fascinated by the ways in which adaptations in the plant kingdom are valuable to people, and how we can harness nature's solutions to problems facing humanity today. I'll be on from 5-7 PM UTC (12-2 PM ET) and look forward to your questions! EDIT: Thanks for joining me today - I’ve enjoyed answering your questions! Olwen.
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|
6zv8r1
|
What stops micro chips in humans from being rejected by the body similar to splinters or other foreign bodies?
|
Title basically explains it all. Recently had stitches that were in for too long which caused the skin too swell and become irritated and was thinking what sort of effects it has on microchips or any other sort of technology that involves planting something under the skin(not organs or living material).
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dmyyg1q",
"dmyx2su",
"dmz968b",
"dmywc02",
"dmzb4gy"
],
"text": [
"I have experience with surgically implanting radio telemetry tags in the abdomen of different species of fish, they're made of metal encased in a cylindrical tube of clear hard plastic. Multiple times I've taken them out of fish (living and dead) that have had them in for a year or two. What I've found is that their bodies actually absorb the object and begin calcifiing and attaching flesh to the object. I have no idea if that's the same with humans but it happens in fish.",
"Our immune response largely targets proteins and other organic compounds. This is for good reason -- generally the things trying to kill us are all viruses (coated in proteins) or bacteria (also coated in some proteins).\n\nWe don't really have much of an immune response to things like metals or non-reactive inorganic compounds. Our immune systems largely ignore these things.\n\nCoating the chips properly with a suitable material will almost guarantee 0 immune response, basically.",
"One thing that is missing from the responses so far is that these objects can (and typically do) result in a low grade chronic inflammatory response that typically results in the formation of a fibrous capsule surrounding the implant. Also if particulates break off or form with the degradation of the material than it can result in macrophages being unable to destroy that particulate matter and so they fuse with other macrophages resulting in the formation of giant cells to try and destroy it resulting in frustrated phagocytosis.\n\nAs others have said certain materials are better and are used a lot as implants because they have minimal degradation, have minimal interference with biological processes among a number of other desirable properties. But even these materials (think Silicone for breast implants) still result in fibrous capsule formation.",
"There is ongoing research for better threads (sticking materials ) and coatings that are more bio compatible and don't get attacked by the immune system or are harmful to the cells. This is not done for micro chips, but for implants . Like for example hip or knee implants where the whole bone or parts of it needs to be replaced",
"In most cases (all except toxic degradation products I think), an immune response is a reaction to the PROTEINS coating a foreign body, not the foreign body itself. If you can prevent the proteins from adhering to the surface of an implant, \"rejection\" of the implant shouldn't occur. This is usually accomplished by making the outer layer of an implant a highly hydrophilic material, which prevents adhesion because proteins are highly hydrophilic (like attracts like in this case, I could go into more detail if you like). In the case of polymers, this would be those with a high ratio of polar groups to carbons. Metal orthotic implants are a little more complicated.\n\nIn your case, irritation may have been a reaction to the degradation products of your stitches, which is somewhat related to the above but not entirely. Some polymers undergo hydrolysis (breakdown of molecular chains by water), resulting in microfissures and nasty degradation particles. A polymer's rate of hydrolysis is also taken into consideration when selecting a coating material."
],
"score": [
163,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
What stops micro chips in humans from being rejected by the body similar to splinters or other foreign bodies?
Title basically explains it all. Recently had stitches that were in for too long which caused the skin too swell and become irritated and was thinking what sort of effects it has on microchips or any other sort of technology that involves planting something under the skin(not organs or living material).
|
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|
13di4c
|
What is the bench-press equivalent of a push up (%body weight)?
|
Is this a stupid question? I don't think so, because the answer isn't your body weight because of weight distribution being partly/largely on your feet.
Standard push up, X body weight. It will vary with time (i.e. the angle you are currently at), and would depend on your particular weight distribution/height/etc. ... but ballpark, what would be the range of weight you would be benching for an average person of weight M and height H doing a push-up?
If you were evenly weight distributed (nope), then at the bottom of the push up you would be supporting about half of your weight (not factoring in the additional moment formed form your head being above your arms.
I want to know a ballpark, it would be useful for those who don't have gym access and want to translate their results (or want to move their work out routine from push ups to the gym)
**TDLR: my title is my question**
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c72yzno",
"c7346rz",
"c734k8e"
],
"text": [
"Are you asking how much weight you push when you do a pushup?\n\nGet a bathroom scale, put your hands on in while doing a pushup and watch the numbers. Put a book or something under your toes to make you level like when you do a pushup. From there it would be easy to see what % and amount.",
"While I'm sure there is a weight equivalent of a push-up for lifting, keep in mind that many muscles are involved in a push up, not just those in your arms. \n\nSource: I am an out of shape individual who feels the other muscles working when he does push-ups",
"For me it was much higher (70-75%):\n\n*Body weight: 205*\n\n*Fully extended arms:145*\n\n*Down position (basically like a plank, with my hands under my chest): 155*\n\n\nI had a raised box under my feet to keep level. \n\nI have pretty long legs, compared to my torso - I wonder if that's giving the 70-75% compared to everyone else."
],
"score": [
25,
8,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the bench-press equivalent of a push up (%body weight)?
Is this a stupid question? I don't think so, because the answer isn't your body weight because of weight distribution being partly/largely on your feet. Standard push up, X body weight. It will vary with time (i.e. the angle you are currently at), and would depend on your particular weight distribution/height/etc. ... but ballpark, what would be the range of weight you would be benching for an average person of weight M and height H doing a push-up? If you were evenly weight distributed (nope), then at the bottom of the push up you would be supporting about half of your weight (not factoring in the additional moment formed form your head being above your arms. I want to know a ballpark, it would be useful for those who don't have gym access and want to translate their results (or want to move their work out routine from push ups to the gym) **TDLR: my title is my question**
|
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|
2kwrdy
|
What makes dead weight harder to pick up?
|
Everyone says that dead weight, like a barbell, is harder to lift than... live weight (?), like a person, even if they would weigh the same on a scale. I can't really ratify this to myself because I don't pick up a lot of people, and I don't really go to the gym. Why is this true? Or, if it's not true, why does everyone say it is?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"clpk67q",
"clpkf2y",
"clplaxq",
"clpjcvt"
],
"text": [
"As /u/chrisbaird points out, a 50 lbs weight is a 50 lbs weight. And accelerating that weight a particular amount isn't going to change depending on how it's moving. You're actually asking more of a question of physiology, not physics. The effect people are referring to when the reference the difficulty of \"dead\" weights (deadlifts, for example) has to do with the setup of the exercise and the behavior of your muscles under tension.\n\nConsider the squat and the deadlift. In the deadlift, you just pull the weight from a (\"dead\") stop off the floor. In the squat you start with the weight up; it's easy to get it moving, because you just let it start to drop (in a controlled way, obviously). Then, when you hit the bottom of the squat, you have to *reverse* the weight, not start it from a stop. Bench press is the same way. You might think this makes it harder--and, from a pure physics perspective, you'd be right. It takes twice the energy to reverse to velocity of the weight from *v* to -*v* the weight as to start it at velocity *v*.\n\nCounterintuitively, however, physiologically, you're able to recruit more muscle fibers to reverse the weight, because your muscles are put under a little extra tension by the falling weight. This is called the [stretch reflex](_URL_0_). This is the reflex that gives rise to the \"knee-jerk\" or patellar stretch reflex. \n\nI'm thinking that there may also be a component relating to elastic energy stored in tendons, but I'm not sure about that.",
"People also refer to unconscious people as \"dead weight\". I've noticed when trying to carry people that it is a lot easier to pick them up and carry them if they are cooperating. If they are \"playing dead\" then its more difficult to manipulate them and balance them so that they don't fall off of you or so that you don't drop them, since they may be sliding off of you or flopping around and you need to readjust your grip or your own balance to keep them lifted. If they are alive, then they are trying to stay on you without thinking about it; either they are holding on to you or they are readjusting their balance to keep from slipping off, so you don't need to exert as much effort to keep them lifted, only the effort required to keep yourself upright with the extra weight.",
"One factor is leverage. If you hold something off to the side of its center of mass, you have to use one hand as a fulcrum, and the other hand to push down and keep the object oriented. Because you are pushing down on one end, you have to push up with more force to prevent the object from accelerating downward. [This video explains it, with some bonus angular momentum stuff](_URL_1_).\n\nAnother factor is physiological, our legs are extremely strong, while our arms are relatively weak. If you can supply the force efficiently through your legs, you can do a lot more work with less effort. For example there is a huge difference between wearing a thirty pound backpack where the weight rests on your hips and back, and holding a thirty pound box with your hands.",
"A 50 pound brick in a box is just as hard to pick up as a 50 pound living person in the same box. But the phrase \"dead weight\" does not really mean this. It means the portion of a weight that is not being supported by something else. For instance, if you get a 20 pound cube of cement and place one edge on the table and hold the other edge with your hand, you only have to lift 10 pounds. The dead weight of the 20 pound cube is therefore 10 pounds in this case because the weight is divided between you and the table. \n\nMore to your question, if a weight in a gym is attached to a cable that runs over a pulley and is attached to a counterweight, then the amount of weight you have to lift is less than the actual total amount of the weight. Therefore, weights with counterweights have less dead weight and are easier to lift. I think this is what most people mean when the use the phrase \"dead weight\" in a gym. The most dead weights, or the weights with the most dead weight, would be those that are free standing."
],
"score": [
12,
4,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretch_reflex",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tLMpdBjA2SU"
]
}
|
What makes dead weight harder to pick up?
Everyone says that dead weight, like a barbell, is harder to lift than... live weight (?), like a person, even if they would weigh the same on a scale. I can't really ratify this to myself because I don't pick up a lot of people, and I don't really go to the gym. Why is this true? Or, if it's not true, why does everyone say it is?
|
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|
1iowxh
|
Question about QED
|
So I'm trying to read Feynmans QED but I don't quite understand everything. He says that light chooses the path which takes the least time but how can that be? How does it know which path gives the least amount of time? Is it like lightning when it takes the path of least resistance down to the ground?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cb6lzjd",
"cb6m30l",
"cb6q8po",
"cb6ooph"
],
"text": [
"Actually, you should keep on reading, because Feynman should also explain why it takes the shortest path by using quantum mechanics. I remember he introduces the rules of quantum mechanics by adding little arrows. The thing is, these little arrows represent probabilities and depending on what path you take, the arrows will rotate more or less and add up differently. Paths that deviate strongly from the shortest path will in the end give contributions to the total sum of arrows that cancel out. While only the paths close to the shortest path contribute significantly to the sum. Thus, the shortest path is proven to be the right path by a quantum probabilistic argument.\n\nThe question then becomes: why do photons work according to the weird rules of adding up little arrows? Nobody knows, that just the way it seems to work as far as we know.",
"Your question boils down to the [principle of least action](_URL_0_), which is a wonderful mathematical idea that has been around since the 1700s and still pops up everywhere in Lagrangian formulations of modern theories. From a quantum perspective, nature is seen to explore every possible path at once and picks out the path corresponding to a stationary value of the action of the theory under consideration. In this way, it is indeed similar to your lightning analogy. Although every possible path contributes an amplitude to the total probability, the total contribution is seen to be dominated by the classical extremal path.\n\nPhotons act this way because they are quantum mechanical objects and the counter-intuitive nature of their behaviour is solely the result of adhering to classical interpretations of a truly quantum mechanical universe.",
"Same with electricity. People need to understand electricity takes all paths, it spreads out evenly, and it takes the path of least resistance not because it knows where the path of least resistance is, it's just the path of least resistance \"gives\" and allows electricity to move through it.\n\nWater in pipe would LOVE to burst out the sides of the pipe, but the pipe is stopping the water from taking that path, it's not the water that decides what path to take in the pipe, it's forced. So is electricity. On a Quantum Level it's the same, light is trying to go every path possible, and ends up taking the shortest path.\n\n_URL_2_ < Slow motion lightning. Electricity would actually be a sphere, differences in resistance cause it to intensify in those locations which creates the \"bolt\" shape. Taking that a step further you can see once the lightning bolt finds the ground which is a MUCH easier path to take then through air, it \"snaps\" and discharges completely.\n\nIn short: Photons \"try\" all paths, and where the highest intensity of \"success\" occurs with the lowest amount of action required is the path it chooses, which happens to be the shortest path.\n\n_URL_2_",
"In short: Light takes every possible path, but the more direct the path is, the higher the probability density of light taking that particular path."
],
"score": [
8,
6,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_action",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_least_action",
"http://youtu.be/dukkO7c2eUE"
]
}
|
Question about QED
So I'm trying to read Feynmans QED but I don't quite understand everything. He says that light chooses the path which takes the least time but how can that be? How does it know which path gives the least amount of time? Is it like lightning when it takes the path of least resistance down to the ground?
|
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|
xso8e
|
How do you know how fast you're going in space?
|
I was watching the Curiosity landing last night, and was marveling at the accuracy at which they were able to give velocity data while traveling through space. How were they able to do this?
I'm not talking about your velocity near the planet - I'm asking about velocity while you're still floating through space. Once you're in atmo, you should be able to get velocity fairly well using the radar sensor.
I have a few hypotheses, but I'm not sure if any are right.
1) Something similar to GPS with the satellites we have orbiting Mars. This would also explain how they were able to get the location of the lander very accurately. My issue with this hypothesis is GPS relies fairly strongly on the GPS satellites being in geosynchronous orbit, and at least the MRO appeared to be in a non-geosynchronous orbit in the graphics.
Basically, if you're doing something like GPS with the satellites we have around Mars, how do the satellites know where they are?
2) Using doper shift in some way, either back to earth or again to the other satellites around Mars. This seems like a huge feat though - there would be a ton of variables to consider like the rotation and movement of the earth and/or the other satellites around Mars.
3) Some sort of range sensor taking readings off the surface of the planet. Issues with this are getting multiple velocity vectors, to get a 3D velocity, and the giant heat shield in the way way of any sensors.
So, how did they do it?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Wow. I may be late to the party on this one, but there actually is a good answer that's not just \"the power of math\". Most spacecraft either have hyper-stable oscillators in their radios or act as \"coherent transponders\" with Earth. A coherent transponder radio is different from the transceiver radios you're used to. A transceiver can transmit or receive, or sometimes both at once - but there's no *necessary* relation between the incoming and outgoing signals. A coherent transponder \"locks onto\" a received signal and retransmits radio waves with a preset, exact harmonic relationship to those incoming waves - say, 946 outgoing wave fronts to every 1000 incoming wave fronts. That makes it possible to measure the Doppler shift very, very precisely, by detecting the difference between the expected and actual harmonic relationship. The measurement is precise because \"all\" you have to do is count wave fronts as they arrive at the receiver at the Earthbound radio antenna, and count outbound wave fronts from the transmitter rig right next to it, and make note of the difference between the counts. \n\nIf the spacecraft radio is designed properly, it is also possible to measure absolute distance between one end of the transponder loop (at Earth) and the other (at the spacecraft) by tweaking the from-Earth signal and watching the delay until the echoed tweak arrives back at Earth. That can determine distance very, very precisely. It is often possible to determine distances of things that are light-minutes away, to within a few meters. That measurement is called \"ranging\" and it's part of the original acronym \"RADAR\" - \"RAdio Detection And Ranging\".\n\nLateral distances are harder to measure with radio, since the diffraction limit is large and you can't pinpoint the direction of the incoming signal anywhere near as well as you can range a spacecraft. (In principle, a laser comm system would give you lateral position very well, because optical telescopes are the bees' knees for measuring angles -- but not to the meters-absolute-distance level that you can get with coherent transponder ranging).\n\nEven without an active radio on the spacecraft it is possible to carry out insanely precise ranging. When the SOHO spacecraft was lost in 1998 (recovered after a few months) the flight ops team used NORAD as a transmitter and Arecibo as a receiver to bounce radio waves off SOHO and determine (for example) if it just blew up. They were able to locate and range the spacecraft, and even measure its rate of spin, despite it being basically an inert lump of metal literally a million miles from Earth.\n \nEdit: differential ranging passes are a way to measure the angle (and therefore lateral position) of the spacecraft relative to a particular long baseline. You independently measure the distance between each of two radiotelescopes and the spacecraft. The radiotelescopes have to be separated by the longest distance you can get. The difference between the two spacecraft-antenna distances gives you the angle relative to the baseline. The longer the baseline, the more precisely you can measure the angle. There are tricks you can play with coherent radio signals that let you measure that angle to within more or less one wavefront divided by the baseline, provided that you had sufficient foresight to install and measure coherent, direct intercontinental signal connections between the radiotelescopes. In the GHz band with two DSN stations on different continents, the precision can be as good as a few centimeters divided by nearly 10,000 km, which works out to a small fraction of an arcsecond. That sort of precision requires analyzing a long interval of captured radio phase data, and keeping track of many effects, including how the baseline moves as the Earth rotates.",
"[GPS satellites are not actually in geosynchronous orbits.](_URL_0_)\n\nEDIT: Better link.",
"Well, most of the trajectory could be quite well established simply by mathematics. We knew the inputs, outputs and the system itself so a \"rough\" but likely quite precise path would be available. For the rest, an expert could chime in here but the below reveals that it was differential observations by DSN.\n\n > Today, engineers at NASA's Deep Space Network are running two differential ranging track passes to track Mars Science Laboratory's trajectory. These activities are designed to more closely track the spacecraft's trajectory and position as it draws nearer to the Red Planet and Mars' gravitational influence on the spacecraft increases. -[MSL](_URL_2_) \n\n[The Deep Space Network.](_URL_2_)",
"Did Curiosity travel fast enough to detect a doppler-shift in the light emitted from stars with a known wavelength value (as seen from earth)?",
"[NASA actually has a page on this for curioristy](_URL_3_). But the TL;DR is it's three methods, velocity can be measured with doppler shift as drzowie mentioned, distance is measured with measured with ranging (ping the spacecraft, distance is directly related to latency), and direction from earth from earth is measured with delta DOR which is bascially just using a qusar as your GPS satellite.\n\nThe spacecraft also does star sighting, so it knows, very precisly, what direction it is headed in. When you combine all of these, and stick it across multiple measurements (compare velocity to measured distance traveled and measured position between two points in time), you can reduce the error even further.",
"Inertial Navigation. Start with some accelerometers and rate gyros, and then do some (conceptually, if not actually) simple vector calculus, and viola!\n\nThat being said, inertial navigation systems suffer high error, due to the vagaries of numerical integration. So use a Kalman filter to combine your inertial navigation system with some known reference (GPS, for terrestrial navigation), and, again, viola!",
"Followup question: When a flight velocity in space is given, what reference frame is it given relative to?"
],
"score": [
240,
16,
10,
6,
4,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ConstellationGPS.gif",
"http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/",
"http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/news/whatsnew/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowNews&NewsID=1268",
"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/communicationwithearth/navigation/"
]
}
|
How do you know how fast you're going in space?
I was watching the Curiosity landing last night, and was marveling at the accuracy at which they were able to give velocity data while traveling through space. How were they able to do this? I'm not talking about your velocity near the planet - I'm asking about velocity while you're still floating through space. Once you're in atmo, you should be able to get velocity fairly well using the radar sensor. I have a few hypotheses, but I'm not sure if any are right. 1) Something similar to GPS with the satellites we have orbiting Mars. This would also explain how they were able to get the location of the lander very accurately. My issue with this hypothesis is GPS relies fairly strongly on the GPS satellites being in geosynchronous orbit, and at least the MRO appeared to be in a non-geosynchronous orbit in the graphics. Basically, if you're doing something like GPS with the satellites we have around Mars, how do the satellites know where they are? 2) Using doper shift in some way, either back to earth or again to the other satellites around Mars. This seems like a huge feat though - there would be a ton of variables to consider like the rotation and movement of the earth and/or the other satellites around Mars. 3) Some sort of range sensor taking readings off the surface of the planet. Issues with this are getting multiple velocity vectors, to get a 3D velocity, and the giant heat shield in the way way of any sensors. So, how did they do it?
|
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|
19nuxz
|
How many notable science experiments have gone horribly wrong?
|
I was reading about Franz Reichelt, the dude who [jumped off the Eiffel Tower to his death](_URL_0_) while showing that his parachute contraption was safe.
Are there any other experiments like this that resulted in death. I'm thinking more cutting edge experiments rather than an explosion mishap on an experiment that had been done many times before.
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8pq60t",
"c8prl9h",
"c8ppy58",
"c8pv5nz"
],
"text": [
"During experimentation on the [Demon Core](_URL_0_), it went critical.....twice.\n\nBasically, we did a lot of dangerous stuff in the early days of nuclear science. This particular subcritical mass of Plutonium killed (directly or through cancer) 10 people, with an 11th that likely would have died if not for the Korean War. Both incidents were due to manual criticality experiments that caused accidental criticality in the core.\n\nThe first involved neutron-reflecting Tungsten-Carbide bricks. As each brick was added, the core came closer to criticality. After a brick was dropped on the core by accident, it went briefly critical, exposing the physicist to a lethal dose of radiation. He died 25 days later from radiation poisoning. The guard in the room also died many years later from leukemia.\n\nThe second incident involved placing two half-spheres of Beryllium around the core (Beryllium being a neutron reflector). If the sphere were to be closed, it would cause instantaneous criticality in the core. What makes this so astounding, is this was done MANUALLY..the top half of the sphere had a thumb hole to be lowered by hand. The safety? The blade of a flathead screwdriver. Needless to say, the screwdriver slipped, core went critical, and killed several more people with acute radiation poisoning or cancer.\n\nThe Demon Core was detonated in a nuclear test in 1946.\n\nLos Alamos and Oak Ridge were scary places in the 40s.",
"\"In 1966, when David Reimer was 8 months old, his circumcision was botched and he lost his penis to burns. Psychologist John Money suggested that baby David be given a sex change. The parents agreed, but what they didn’t know was that Money secretly wanted to use David as part of an experiment to prove his views that gender identity was not inborn, but rather determined by nature and upbringing. David was renamed Brenda, surgically altered to have a vagina, and given hormonal supplements — but tragically the experiment backfired. \"Brenda\" acted like a stereotypical boy throughout childhood, and the Reimer family began to fall apart. At 14, Brenda was told the truth, and decided to go back to being David. He committed suicide at the age of 38\"",
"I suppose you could call spaceflight, especially in the early days, highly experimental, and there have been a number of missions that led to loss of life.\n\nAnd Marie Curie died of aplastic anaemia, probably caused by her experiments on radioactivity.",
"Alexander Bogdanov died while experimenting with blood transfusions. He recieved the blood of someone infected with malaria."
],
"score": [
9,
5,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Reichelt"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon_core"
]
}
|
How many notable science experiments have gone horribly wrong?
I was reading about Franz Reichelt, the dude who [jumped off the Eiffel Tower to his death](_URL_0_) while showing that his parachute contraption was safe. Are there any other experiments like this that resulted in death. I'm thinking more cutting edge experiments rather than an explosion mishap on an experiment that had been done many times before. Thanks!
|
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] |
|
iug78
|
Is there a site where I can easily research the
evolutionary history of a selected organism?
|
For example, the other day, I wanted to know the evolutionary history of bears - what kinds of creatures they evolved from, what animals reside on nearby branches of the same family tree, etc. I couldn't find much. Wikipedia has some good stuff for some animals, but not for others. Anybody know of something more comprehensive? Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c26qap7",
"c26qa65",
"c26r627",
"c26rfze",
"c26s5ds",
"c26qa6m"
],
"text": [
"Well, there's the [Tree of Life project](_URL_4_).\n\nI haven't really spent much of any time there myself really, so I don't know how extensive it is (my understanding is that it is still rather incomplete), but it does have [some info on bears](_URL_3_).\n\nThe [wikipedia page on the order Carnivora](_URL_5_) should actually paint a fairly good picture of what else lies close on the tree, as long as you understand the basics of how to read a phylogenetic tree.\n\nAnother cool resource (which I actually just learned about yesterday from another r/askscience commenter) is [Time Tree](_URL_2_), which will give you a range of different estimates of how long ago two groups diverged, based on a weighted average of estimates from the scientific literature. For example, the last common ancestor of Bears and Humans lived [roughly 100 million years ago](_URL_0_).\n\nI use bears here in my examples, but you could obviously use these three resources (ToL, Wiki, and Time Tree) together to find out quite a bit about any taxonomic group, and then if you want to know more check out the cited literature. If you're at a university this should be easy to get your hands on. If not, well, some few are freely available to the public, and for others you could always go over to [r/scholar](_URL_1_) and request it. Apparently the content providers (Scientific Journals) haven't bothered to care about them yet/what they do is somehow legal?",
"The [Encyclopedia of Life](_URL_6_) is pretty good, but also spotty for some things. Really fun to browse, though. You could also try a search using the Latin name of whatever group plus \"review article\" to get the latest literature on it.",
"You can teach yourself how to make phylogenetic trees based on publicly available data. It's pretty cool once you learn how to do it, but its too bad no resources have been used to create a user friendly universal tree of life. This is something that everyday I wish someone would make.\n\nHere are some other interesting evolutionary histories...\n[The closest relative to a hippo?](_URL_8_) Whales and dolphins.\n\n[The closest relative to a termite?](_URL_7_) No, not ants or bees. Cockroaches.",
"[The Ancestor's Tale](_URL_9_) by Richard Dawkins covers this type of material. Although it won't let you study an arbitrary organism, it gives a fascinating account of where the common ancestors of humans and other groups of creatures diverged.",
"This sounds like an excellent opportunity for an under-grad project in bio anthropology and IT/New Media.\n\nCan you imagine an HTML5-based presentation (tree) powered by XML-formatted anthropological data. This could be truly amazing.",
"I second this. I'd love an online database devoted exclusively to visually displaying and educating readers about what we know of the ancestry of each creature."
],
"score": [
42,
8,
3,
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://timetree.org/time_query.php?taxon_a=9606|human&taxon_b=9634|bear&action=",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/scholar",
"http://timetree.org/",
"http://tolweb.org/tree/home.pages/searchresults.html?cx=009557456284541951685%3A50nf_5tpvuq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=bear&sa=Search",
"http://tolweb.org/tree/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivora#Phylogenetic_Tree",
"http://www.eol.org/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termite#Taxonomy.2C_evolution_and_systematics",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Artiodactylamorpha.jpg",
"http://www.amazon.com/Ancestors-Tale-Pilgrimage-Dawn-Evolution/dp/0618005838"
]
}
|
Is there a site where I can easily research the evolutionary history of a selected organism?
For example, the other day, I wanted to know the evolutionary history of bears - what kinds of creatures they evolved from, what animals reside on nearby branches of the same family tree, etc. I couldn't find much. Wikipedia has some good stuff for some animals, but not for others. Anybody know of something more comprehensive? Thanks!
|
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|
14nva6
|
Given that there are many different systems of measurement for distance/size (e.g. meter v. inch or km v. mile), are there different measures of time as well? It seems like everyone uses seconds, minutes, hours...
|
Perhaps this is a profoundly stupid question, but somehow this still rankles my mind. Why does the measurement of time seem standard, while there are many "non-standard" measurements of distance and size?
|
askscience
|
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"Plenty of different measures of time and calendar systems. Its just modern society mostly agrees upon one standard base unit; the second though it didn't start that way; e.g., the Chinese used to have the ke, roughly 1/100th of a day. \n\nFirst note that length of a day and year are particularly natural ones due to the rotational and orbital period of the Earth (the orbit of the moon defining a roughly 29-day month is also natural -- though it doesn't divide nicely into 365.2425 - so some calendar systems like the Hindu/Hebrew/Chinese calendars incorporate this period). Most systems start from one of these units. The Babylonians split a day into 24 units, each of which is split into 60 units and 60 units and everyone went with that. Babylonians had trouble with non-integer division; so liked dealing with numbers divisible by lots of numbers (e.g., 60 has non-trivial divisors 2,3,4,5,6,10,12,15,20,30; 24 has 2,3,4,6,*8*,12; while 10 only has 2,5). There have been proposals like [metric time](_URL_1_), [decimal time](_URL_4_), [unix time](_URL_2_), but ~~they~~ *metric/decimal time* never really caught on *(and the one of these that is used -- unix time -- is based on number of seconds since Jan 1st 1970 and generally only used in computer representations of dates for simplicity)*. It is also noteworthy, that the second is no longer defined in terms of the day (rotation rate of the Earth), but in terms of the frequency of light emitted by hyperfine transitions between the ground state of Cs-133. \n\nAlso, calendar/time systems are complicated beasts and many people make many [incorrect assumptions](_URL_3_) about them. E.g., an minute always has exactly 60 seconds (sometimes they have 59 or 61), time on a correct clock/calendar never goes backwards or repeats or skip, a time stamp like \"Tue Dec 11 11:04:39 EST 2012\" is unambiguous (both for EST/EDT difference as well as EST being US Eastern Standard Time or possibly [Australian East Standard Time](_URL_0_) ), there was a year 0 (went from B.C. 1 to A.D. 1), etc.\n\nEDIT: *in italics* and ~~strikethrough~~.",
"towards the whole time system used on this planet.\n\n(only going into the backstory of the most commonly used system cause otherwise we'd be here all year):\n\nstart point: \n\n753 BC - > Roman Calendar : 10 month (actually had a decimal system) summed up to 304 days a year. this obviously won't work well for seasons (dominant point of view here is agriculture). Its assumed this calender is based on some sort of lunar calender (based on the moon) most likely a greek model. This one did not have a Jan & Feb.\n\n713 BC - > Numa Pompilius had enough of this annoyance (seasons being all over the place and whatnot) and introduced a modification that summed up to 355 days he introduced Ianuarius (Jan) & Februarius (Feb) and changed the distribution of the days to each month a bit (cause odd numbers are lucky and even ones are not, all months except for Feb ended up with odd numbers, and Feb was considered unlucky). then there was the whole accountability for leap years (every once in a while a year ended up being 377-378 days long) \n\nso by now we got closer to what a year is (still pretty impressive work seeing how thats nearly 3 millenia ago and not that far off from a solar year)\n\n46 BC - > Julius Caeser (Julian Year : symbol for this is: \"a\" and is defined as exactly 365.25 days **of** 86,400 SI seconds each)) had enough of the Roman model and designed a better functioning model this one we call the Julian Calendar (wasn't completed by Julius though, Augustus finished this one up and changed 2 names (can you guess ? JULIUS / AUGUSTUS)\nQuintilis as Iulius (July) (44BC) ; Sextilis as Augustus (August) (8 BC)\nthis one had 365.25 days in a year (incl. a leap year every 3 years, that didn't work out to well end they ended up having too many days in a year so days were cut here and there)\n\nnow fast forward to\n\n24 February 1582 - > Gregorian Calendar (we be using this one still) this one assumes 365.2425 days in a year. \n\nthe primary change here was a new definition of what a leap year is: \"Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100; the centurial years that are exactly divisible by 400 are still leap years. For example, the year 1900 is not a leap year; the year 2000 is a leap year\"\nthis is added because having a leapyear every 4 years isn't precise enough (11 min discrepance over 400 years you'd stagger up 3 days)\nand the modification of the length of a year: 365.2425 days per year.\n\nnow we got the history of the system down (this is the reason why we are not using a decimal system, the 12 system has been hammered into us for roughly 3 millenia and it makes sense in so far as we have 4 important seasons for agriculture each lasting 3 months (better than having to deal with splits of 2.5 when using a decimal system))\n\n\ntime for how we'd end up with a second ?\n\nevolution of the second : one of the oldest records of the definitions is from around 1000 AD (and was valid until 1960) : as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day (24x60x60 = 86400) (see Julian year)\n\n1960 this was modded to: the period of the Earth's orbit around the Sun in 1900 (slightly better than Julian but still off) (1/31,556,925.9747)\n\n1967: we got our SI unit: the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.\n\nwhat seems to be overlooked here, is that the metric system is still applicable within the unit (millisecond (one thousandth of a second), kilosecond (1000 seconds) etc.)\n\n1997 modification so that the periods would be defined for a caesium atom at rest, and approaching the theoretical temperature of absolute zero, and in 1999, it included corrections from ambient radiation.\n\nthen why is a minute 60 seconds and not 100 seconds romans liked metrics ?\n\ncause this is based on angles (saving you the details, just look up minute of the arc) you can see how this would work out with sundials them being round an all\nand the romans didn't come up with this, the Sumerians did (3rd millenium BC so 30th-21st century BC) (romans started 9th century BC)\n\nWhy is a day 24 hours than and who came up with an hour anyways?\n\nfor the hour you can blame the ancient egyptians (and the romans for coining the term \"hora\" (in turn)) \nthe egyptians used sundials with this setup: divided a sunlit day into 10 parts plus two \"twilight hours\" in the morning and evening. (so you have 12 hours for a sunlit day and another 12 for the night)\n\ndefined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (this is accurate to within 30 seconds) also sundials if you manage to build a highly accurate sundial and position it optimal it will take exactly 24 hours (+- 30 seconds) to go from meridian to meridian.\n\nso this should explain the random seeming units for time we use today mostly because they work well and changing them would just result in massive confusion for everyone.\ntowards the why is time standard and size/distance is not ? \n\ntime has pretty much always been established on orbital movement (either using the sun or the moon as reference point) simply because time isn't that easy to measure. for distances you can use anything really, I could measure something by using my index finger as a reference or a stick i found somewhere, the problem with that is primarily that this is very arbitrary and anyone can use whatever they want. however time while progressing all around is is hardly noticable in small increments, sure you'll notice that it was bright outside and now its dark but this doesn't happen at arbitrary intervals. \n\nI'm having a hard time right now getting that point across. I hope you're seeing what I'm getting at here. \nI guess the best i could sum this up to is: time is not visible nor touchable, while distances and sizes are clearly visible. you can't hold a stick to time and say, yep this ones 1 quabberjabber long. doesn't work. but you could hold that stick up to a human and say yep the human is about 3 times the sticks length and I'm gonna call the length of this stick 1 quabberjabber and that person is 3 quabberjabber tall. plenty of measurement units were established when humans weren't as interconnected as they are now, whats today a 1-2 hour trip took days-weeks back then. the people living in this region however had to come up with something everyone could agree on so trading works. it would get horribly confusing if everyone who sold somethig would use their own measurement. so collectives decided on a unit (and this wasn't countrywide by any means, throughout history its well documented that trading between settlements could be problematic cause the next village over used something else for measurement). so eventually standards had to be enforced when larger scale travel became a thing.\n\ngod this ended up getting long, sorry for that.",
"Seem standard, but wasn't. Some units were based on sun or moon cycles, some other (shorter ones) were based on physiological cycles or events (winks or pulse), and then, the conjunction of them started to create a \"standard\".\n\nFrom the ~~irrefutable~~ wikipedia:\n\n > [* Units of Time](_URL_5_)\n > [* Hindu Time Units](_URL_6_)",
"Did the concept of seconds, minutes, hours get invented at one place, and then was transferred to the rest of the world, \n\nOr did many civilisations invent these units concurrently?\n\nIf it is the latter, then the units would have been different everywhere and then were standardised later.",
"There is a \"metric\" time system that was introduced a few years back that used individual units called \"beats\". The day was divided into 1,000 beats with noon being 500 beats and midnight being 0/1,000 beats. You can still get watches from Swatch that work in beat time, but it takes some getting used to.",
"East Asian nations can use old calenders that is based on the moon cycles instead of western- calender.\n\n\n_URL_7_",
"I'm surprised nobody has mentioned the parallel nature of time and distance. One meter is just the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second, and one second is currently defined by 9,192,631,770 oscillations between two states of a Cesium atom.",
"[Traditional japanese clocks](_URL_8_) had their own unique time system with a 12-unit day (6 units from sunrise to sunset, another 6 for sunset to sunrise).\n\nAmong other things, this meant how long a 'unit' was in japan varied on what time of year it was, since day and night each got six units no matter how long the days or nights were, so day units were longer in summer then they were in winter, and night units were longer in winter then in summer.",
"SIDE NOTE:\n\nBasically, there are no longer **many** different systems of measurement for distance/size/etc...\n\nSince Burma^ is switching to the metric system, the United States are the only country in the world still using the imperial system.\n\n_URL_10_\n\n ^ _URL_9_",
"UNIX time is the number of seconds since Jan. 1, 1970, UTC. This timescale is used in any UNIX-derived machine, including any mac or linux machine, any Android or iOS device. \n\nThe beginning of today, in UTC, is 1355184000.",
"My favourite unit of time is inverse energy... That's right, in high energy particle physics experiments (e.g. at the LHC), it is often more convenient to put values into units where the speed of light and the rationalised Plancks' constant (h/2*pi) are set to 1. This in turn results in 1 second being equal to about 1.5x10^24 GeV (Giga-electronvolts). The same ideas can be applied (and are applied) to length, area etc. \nPhysics truly is a fascinating and nonsensical subject :)",
"It is important to keep in mind that timepieces precise enough to accurately measure anything on the order of magnitude of seconds are relatively new to humanity. Even in ancient times, cleanly cut boards or even pieces of twine could serve as tools for measuring distances. Likewise, lead weights could be cast and calibrated for a fair degree of precision when using balances to gauge mass. However, ancient approaches to measuring small increments of time were typically experimental devices relying on mechanisms like the consistent rate at which water drips through a very small hole.\n\nBy the time \"accurate as a Swiss watch\" was a meaningful expression, the metric system was already kind of a big deal. However, there is one answer to this question that relies on a different use for the term \"watch.\" Known to the Romans as a \"vigil,\" ancient and medieval people would often divide the day into 1/8ths. Each watch had its own name, and medieval laws sometimes forbid (or even mandated) specific activities during specific watches. Surprisingly, Wikipedia seems to lack content on this approach to timekeeping, and the only medieval watch term I can recall, \"evensong,\" is also difficult to research due to a band of the same name. The only solid information I could pull from a quick Web search was in the form of the modern convention that ships at sea still assign duties based on a system of 3-hour watches.\n\nFor the most part, more precise timekeeping than that did not seem important to ancient people. One big exception involved prostitution. The terms \"hour\" and \"whore\" are etymologically related. At least in Western civilization, the first relatively precise measurement of an hour was conducted by prostitutes who would place slightly leaky tin cups into basins of water. When the cup became full and sank to the bottom of the basin, the soft ping thus sounded would indicate that a client's time had expired. To avoid a most unpleasant category of trade disputes, prostitutes would make a tremendous efforts to get just the right duration on this primitive hour-measuring device.\n\nBetween the ancient vigil and the ancient whore, it makes sense that the hour became central to humanity's timekeeping process. Others here have already written more than I know about the reason 1/60th parts gave rise to minutes and seconds. However, getting back to the core question, the main reason there is so much more variety in units of distance and weight has to do with the fact that accuracy in those measurements was crucial to engineering and many forms of commerce for thousands of years, while precise measurement of time was only important in a narrow niche of commerce until fairly recently in human history.",
"A jiffy is the time it takes for light to travel a centimeter.",
"I figure it's just the way history happened, it could've been different. The 60 for seconds-minutes-hours came from Mesopotamia because they had a base-60 numeral system (in the way that ours is based on 10/number of numerals) - possibly because it's efficient with fractions, Egyptians had base-12 because they counted by the grooves on the inside of their fingers (opposite the knuckles), using their thumbs - at this time they only measured time during the day, so 12 hours, then night hours started to be measured, 24 hours. Base 10 then came from using the fingers themselves for counting.\n\nPure speculation from this point on, but since these civilizations developed very early, these systems of time measurement had more time to influence other civilizations, so they became widespread. As for why this happened for time measurements more than distance, maybe there's some reason that standardized time measurements are more crucial for the development of civilization than other types.",
"It seems that every human civilization has always measured time by the sun primarily, and by the moon secondarily. So primary units of time are days and years, and months are secondary. \n\nThis baseline has been used around the globe for millennia, and the reasons are pretty clear...it's a natural unit. No such overwhelmingly natural unit exists when it comes to lengths, weights, volumes, or...pretty much anything other than time. \n\nThere are subdivisions and multiples of these which are arbitrary, but, like Arabic numerals, they achieved very widespread use, because the system was in place from a very early time among advanced western civilizations, and the people they conquered and traded with picked it up, on down through the centuries.",
"If this topic interests you check the SI unit system. \nFor example you could browse the homepage of the [NIST](_URL_11_). \nIn my opinion everyone should already and hopefully will in the future stick to this system so that these \"odd units\" like inch/mile/psi etc. will vanish :)"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.timeanddate.com/library/abbreviations/timezones/au/est.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time",
"http://infiniteundo.com/post/25509354022/more-falsehoods-programmers-believe-about-time-wisdom",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_time_units#Time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_calendar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_clock",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma#Units_of_measure",
"http://southeastschnitzel.files.wordpress.com/2009/06/metric-world.jpg?w=490",
"http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/introduction.html"
]
}
|
Given that there are many different systems of measurement for distance/size (e.g. meter v. inch or km v. mile), are there different measures of time as well? It seems like everyone uses seconds, minutes, hours...
Perhaps this is a profoundly stupid question, but somehow this still rankles my mind. Why does the measurement of time seem standard, while there are many "non-standard" measurements of distance and size?
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|
5o3r4j
|
Have we ever sent anything "upwards" or "downwards" in space?
|
My five year old niece asked me this question followed up with "do we know what's in those directions?".
I thought maybe you could help we with a good explanation to this!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dcgw4r8",
"dcgrmbw",
"dcgq0qg",
"dcgugqi"
],
"text": [
"Geez, all you people are being EXTREMELY pedantic.\n\nOP, you mean have we sent any spaceships straight up from the north pole or the south pole? No, we haven't.\n\nThe Earth is turning pretty fast. Take a globe of the Earth and put a dot at the equator and a dot at the north pole, then spin it. You'll see that the dot at the equator is going really fast, but the dot at the north pole is just spinning in circles. This is exactly how it is in real life. In fact, you're going 1040 mph faster at the equator than somebody standing at the north pole!\n\nWhat does this mean? If you want to launch a space ship into orbit, you need to go 17,500 mph at least. Launch from the equator and you already have a 1000 mph boost! If you launch from one of the poles, then you still have to go the same speed, but you have to add enough fuel to go 1000 mph faster, too.\n\nBut couldn't we just change directions once we're up in space?\n\nAlso no. :) I mean, we *could*, but we don't want to. If you look at a map of the solar system like [this](_URL_0_), then you'll see that all the planets are basically straight out from the equator anyway. The solar system is pretty much flat. There are stars directly above the north and south poles, but they're *very* far away. We use telescopes to look at them, but all the stuff that's close enough to visit right now is pretty much straight up above the equator.",
"The [Ulysses](_URL_1_) spacecraft orbits the Sun on a high inclination orbit (around 80 degrees), being able to study the Sun's poles. Its orbit takes it \"upwards\" and \"downwards\" in relation to the planets in our solar system. \nIn order to do that, it had to fly by Jupiter to gain enough Delta-v to switch to that orbit.",
"On Earth, the concept of \"upwards\" means towards the sky and \"downwards\" means towards the Earth. If someone is standing on the North pole and points up towards the sky, they'd be pointing in the opposite direction as someone standing on the South pole pointing towards the sky.\n\nIn space, \"up\" and \"down\" lose their meaning, unless your specifically reference it to something else. For example, if we take the plane of the Solar System as our reference point, then we can define \"up\" as being in the direction away from the Solar System along the solar north pole, and down in the direction away from the Solar System along the solar south pole.",
"It's harder to send stuff in those directions and there's not much there. Not unless we're planning to travel to other star systems. Also, we don't send probes to find out what's there. We do that from Earth. We send probes to study things more closely once we already know where they are. Space is really empty, and if you don't know where to send your probe to start with it's not going to run into anything."
],
"score": [
18,
7,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/ec/ca/a6/eccaa6940518d436ba87b6647148f9ec.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_%28spacecraft%29"
]
}
|
Have we ever sent anything "upwards" or "downwards" in space?
My five year old niece asked me this question followed up with "do we know what's in those directions?". I thought maybe you could help we with a good explanation to this!
|
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n4ygs
|
Why can't the three-body problem be solved?
|
In school teachers always said it was unsolvable and left it at that and I am now doing second year physics in uni and it's again taken as axiomatic that we cannot solve it. What is it about it that presents a problem?
|
askscience
|
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"It isn't a direct answer to your question, that has been answered elsewhere in the thread.\n\nThe correct statement is the three body problem can't be solved *analytically*. It is very routine to solve n-body problems numerically with a differential equation solving routine. Although the answer can never be as precise it can be very accurate. All the spectral lines from ions who have lost more than one electron for example is an n body problem and yet we know the spectral lines of Iron XIV etc very accurately.",
"For those who might be wondering what the three-body problem is, Wikipedia says:\n\n > In its traditional sense the three-body problem is the problem of taking an initial set of data that specifies the positions, masses and velocities of three bodies for some particular point in time and then determining the motions of the three bodies, in accordance with the laws of classical mechanics: Newton's laws of motion and of universal gravitation.\n\nSimpler translation: If you know the positions, masses, speed and direction of 3 bodies at a specific moment of time, is it possible to figure out where they're going to be at any given point in the future, based on their gravitational attraction?",
"Out of the space of all possible differential equations, **by far** most of them are not analytically solvable. In fact (I don't have a proof of this statement, but it seems clearly true), if you choose a differential equation \"at random,\" then with probability one, it is not solvable.",
"I'm not an expert on this but I'd be curious to know more about it from the following perspective.\n\nIf you think about it, \"solving\" a differential equation means putting a bunch of blocks (sin, cos, +, *, sqrt, etc.) together in a way that evaluating the result at time t will give you the same answer as integrating the differential equation up to time t. The ways in which those blocks fit together and the solution space of differential equations matches up only in certain special circumstances, namely when the differential equation is very simple. So for most equations, there just isn't a way to put together the blocks you have in a way that will match the behavior of the system. \n\nThis is analogous to why you can't write a single arithmetic expression to solve all quintic polynomials. The set of expressions written with +, -, *, /, and sqrt just doesn't match up with the set of solutions to polynomials in a convenient way (This was proven with Galois theory, which I in no way understand. I'd be curious to know if the solution of differential equations can also be described in a similar way).\n\nThere are families of operations which sometimes give you more capabilities. For example, there is no analytical expression for the length of an elliptic arc. So what people did is they gave up and said, bam, the length of an elliptic arc is an operation itself. It's called an elliptic integral. So now you can solve a lot of differential equations in terms of elliptic integrals which you couldn't solve otherwise. Now if you have a handy way of computing an elliptic integral, you have a closed form solution for that differential equation.\n\nSo now, I guess the question is, can we factor out *any* useful operations at all from the three-body problem which would allow us to write down the solution to all three-body problems using those operations? I don't know the answer to that. About 15 years ago, somebody told me that you can't. But maybe some mathematician can comment.",
"You first have to decide what you mean by \"be solved\". There is some differential equation that can be written down that has a solution. As some have pointed out, this solution can be found numerically. However, it cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions.\n\nWhat people mean when they say that the 3 body problem can't be solve is that it is not integrable. That is that there is not enough conserved quantities to completely determine the motion.\n\nWhen we have a number of particles with gravity, the total linear and angular momenta are conserved as well as the energy. This gives us 7 conserved quantities.\n\nNow we want to determine the positions and momenta of N-particles, so we need 6*N variables to describe these. If we have at least one conserved quantity for every 2 dynamical variables we can go to \"action-angle\" variables and trivially solve the problem. \n\nFor the 2 particle problem, we have 12 variables and 7 conserved quantities, 12/2 < 7, so the 2 particle problem is \"solvable\". For the 3 particle problem, we have 18 variables, 18/2 > 7, so it is \"not solvable\".\n\nYou can take a look at _URL_0_, but it is not written for the layman... I don't have a better reference on me right now, but analytical mechanics textbooks, dealing with Lagrangian mechanics would probably deal with this.",
"It has been shown that the differential equations that arise from the 3-body problem (or even the n-body problem for n > 3) have power series solutions. However, the power series converge so slowly that they may not be useful for many practical purposes. If one wants to get a reasonable approximation, in many cases numerical integration is unavoidable.\n\nSource: _URL_1_\n\nedit: corrected spelling of \"many\"",
"In contrary to algebraic equation, there is nothing unusual for a system of differential equations to be analytically unsolvable. There are plenty of functions that do not integrate analytically.",
"edit: this was the explanation I received in classical mechanics many years ago, which is incorrect. I'll leave the text below for context, but again, this isn't correct. See replies to my post for more info.\n\n______________________________\n\n\nFor each component of the three-body problem, you want to solve for 6 things - x/y/z position and x/y/z velocity. So that is 18 unknowns. But your information is limited. You can write equations for the center of mass (3 components), linear momentum (3 components), angular momentum (3 components), and the energy (1 component). \n\nSo you have 18 unknowns, and 10 equations. \n\nYou might then ask \"How is the two-body problem solvable under those conditions? One would expect 10 equations and 12 unknowns.\" The two-body problem is solvable because it can be reduced to two independent 1-body problems, and further dimensional reduction can be applied from there. No such reduction exists for the n-body problem with n > 2.",
"Its actually more for mathematical reasons that it is unsolvable. Think unsolvable in the sense that there is no general equation to find the roots of polynomials with exponent larger than 5. Not unsolvable in the sense that you can't find the answer for your real world implementations.\n\nIt is however able to be approximated to any degree of accuracy you like, which is why I say that you can find the solution for all of your real world problems.",
"Mathematician here. My team and I recently solved the three body problem, analytically. It's a marvelous proof, but I'm afraid the margins of this comment box are too narrow to contain it."
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Why can't the three-body problem be solved?
In school teachers always said it was unsolvable and left it at that and I am now doing second year physics in uni and it's again taken as axiomatic that we cannot solve it. What is it about it that presents a problem?
|
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|
2db2cc
|
How is underwater fiber laid out over fault lines?
|
I was reading the article about Google pairing with a company to lay new fiber from the west coast to Japan. [source](_URL_0_).
Is the fiber laying on the sea floor? Wouldn't earthquakes and underwater lava flows damage the fiber? How is the fiber protected from erosion?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cjnziym",
"cjnz8rv",
"cjnzunj",
"cjo0xok",
"cjoecvp"
],
"text": [
"As far as I've seen, it's not secured to the sea floor at all. So the sea floor can move and the cable will be just fine. The big downside of that is ship anchors will catch on the cable and the ship can rip the cable apart. Happens all the time, so they usually lay more than one cable at once and they also keep it a secret as to the exact location of the cables so people can't intentionally tear the cable apart with anchors. But generally, the cables have a lot of slack in them and are made to be very flexible.\n\nI don't hear much about earthquakes and fault lines being a problem for underwater cables.. Their biggest thread by far is ship anchors and whenever cables get damaged, they just go out and fix them. It's just part of the maintenance. Power companies have to do the same kind of things with overhead power lines damaged by storms and such.",
"I've seen a documentary by bbc on the laying of cables, and after earthquakes/movement of tectonic plates and various other factors, they would simply replace and repair the cables. Having said that, cable laying companies and government etc. survey carefully what route is best, and keep the cables bunched for convenience protected by treated metal piping…but that all I can remember..and unfortunately I have know Idea what the Doco is called",
"There's an old (1996) but very good article by Neal Stephenson for Wired Magazine about [undersea cables](_URL_0_). If I recall correctly, the trick was laying them with the right amount of *slack* to account for undersea terrain. They're not buried and they're not stretched tight. I'd expect that earthquakes themselves wouldn't cause much damage except at the endpoint where it's tied to a physical structure, but the secondary effects of earthquakes like undersea landslides might cause damage. As TeAhuru said, avoiding that is mostly a matter of choosing the best route.",
"There is a method of using flotation boys anchored a few 10's meters from the seabed. The cable is then allowed to 'droop' between these. These are used for the very worse areas where seabed movement is common.\nHowever, this method is massively more costly that just laying it on the seabed and then fixing it when it breaks. The cables are hugely reinforced and not laid tough so are capable of some limited movement; obviously a massive tectonic shift would likely be more than it could cope with \n\nLocating the break can be done via optics and also via the solid state repeaters used on long under sea cables. There is a branch of very specific ROV's that are designed to grab hold of the cable and run along it until a break is found. Do that at both ends, bring it to the surface and fuse the optics back together, job done until next time\n\n\nAlso the submarine cable almanac is an interesting thing to browser, really surprising how many cables there are these days\n_URL_1_",
"While not the exact same situation, but maybe more challenging, [this is how](_URL_2_) a pipeline can cross a fault. Similar in function as how slack is utilised for many reasons such as thermal expansion and contraction, and in this case also crossing the fault the supports are \"sleds\" that can glide across runners much in the same way a simple cabinet drawer works."
],
"score": [
99,
13,
5,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://thenextweb.com/google/2014/08/11/google-backing-new-300-million-high-speed-internet-trans-pacific-cable-system-us-japan/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive//4.12/ffglass.html?person=neal_stephenson&topic_set=wiredpeople",
"http://www.subtelforum.com/Almanac-Issue8.pdf",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/800px-Trans_Alaska_Pipeline_Denali_fault_shift.JPG"
]
}
|
How is underwater fiber laid out over fault lines?
I was reading the article about Google pairing with a company to lay new fiber from the west coast to Japan. [source](_URL_0_). Is the fiber laying on the sea floor? Wouldn't earthquakes and underwater lava flows damage the fiber? How is the fiber protected from erosion?
|
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|
2z0fge
|
Happy Pi Day! Come celebrate with us
|
It's 3/14/15, the Pi Day of the century! Grab a slice of your favorite Pi Day dessert and celebrate with us.
**Our experts are here to answer your questions, and this year we have a treat that's *almost* sweeter than pi: we've teamed up with some experts from /r/AskHistorians to bring you the history of pi.** We'd like to extend a special thank you to these users for their contributions here today!
Here's some reading from /u/Jooseman to get us started:
> The symbol π was not known to have been introduced to represent the number until 1706, when Welsh Mathematician William Jones (a man who was also close friends with Sir Isaac Newton and Sir Edmund Halley) used it in his work *Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos* (or a *New Introduction to the Mathematics*.) There are several possible reasons that the symbol was chosen. The favourite theory is because it was the initial of the ancient Greek word for periphery (the circumference).
> Before this time the symbol π has also been used in various other mathematical concepts, including different concepts in Geometry, where William Oughtred (1574-1660) used it to represent the periphery itself, meaning it would vary with the diameter instead of representing a constant like it does today (Oughtred also introduced a lot of other notation). In Ancient Greece it represented the number 80.
> The story of its introduction does not end there though. It did not start to see widespread usage until Leonhard Euler began using it, and through his prominence and widespread correspondence with other European Mathematicians, it's use quickly spread. Euler originally used the symbol p, but switched beginning with his 1736 work *Mechanica* and finally it was his use of it in the widely read *Introductio* in 1748 that really helped it spread.
Check out the comments below for more and to ask follow-up questions! For more Pi Day fun, enjoy [last year's thread](_URL_0_).
**From all of us at /r/AskScience, have a very happy Pi Day!**
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Welcome to this thread. You may know me as a Flaired User over at /r/askhistorians in the History of Mathematics. I'm going to write a short history of Pi in different cultures in Ancient Mathematics. I will go into less detail than some of the Mathematicians posts here, who will explain why certain things work, while I'll just mention them briefly (I also don't have room to mention the vast developments done by the Greeks, but everyone will answer those).\n\n**Mesopotamia and Egypt**\n\nThroughout most of early history, people generally used 3 as an approximation for the ratio of the circle's circumference to its diameter. An example of this can be seen, in, of all places, The First Book of Kings in the Bible. Written between the 7th Century and 3rd Century BC (*The Oxford Annotated Bible* says evidence points to around 620BC, but there is some evidence it was constantly edited up until the Persian era). The quote from Kings 7:23 is\n\n > Then he made the molten sea; it was round, ten cubits from brim to brim, and five cubits high. A line of thirty cubits would encircle it completely.\n\nNow I don't want to get into past Theological issues with what the Bible says, and if it matters, but I would like to briefly mention one person, Rabbi Nehemiah, who lived around 150 AD, who wrote a text on geometry, the Mishnat ha-Middot, in which he argued that it was only calculated to the inner brim, and if the width of the brim itself is taken into account, it becomes much closer to the actual value.\n\nIn most mathematics the Babylonians also just use π= 3, because, as shown on the Babylonian tablets YBC 7302 and Haddad 104, the area of a circle would be calculated by them using 1/12 the square of its circumference (you notice most Babylonian calculations on Circles are solved through calculations on its circumference, this is especially prominent on Haddad 104.). However we don't want to dismiss Mesopotamian calculations of π just yet. A Babylonian example found at 1936 on a Clay Tablet at Susa (located in Modern Iran.) which approximated π to around 3+1/8.\n\nIn Egypt we come across similar writings. In problem 50 of the Rhind Papyrus (probably the best examples we have of Egyptian Mathematics) dating from around 1650 BC, it reads “Example of a round field of diameter 9. What is the area? Take away 1/9 of the diameter; the remainder is 8. Multiply 8 times 8; it makes 64. Therefore, the area is 64.” This is described by the formula A = (d − d/9)^2 which, by comparing leads to a value of π as 256/81= 3.16049...\n\nIt does appear many of the early values of it were calculated through empirical measurements, instead of any true calculation to find it, as neither give us any more detail on why they believed it would work.\n\n**China**\n\nIn China a book was written, named *The Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art*, between the 10th and 2nd centuries BC by generations of Scholars. In it we get many formula, such as those for areas of rectangles, triangles, and the volume of parallelepipeds and pyramids. We also get some formula for the area of a circle and volume of a Sphere.\n\nIn this early Chinese Mathematics, just as in Babylon, the diameters are given as being 1/3 of the circumference, so π is taken to be 3. The scribe who wrote this then gives 4 different ways in which the area can be calculated:\n\n1. The rule is: Half of the circumference and half of the diameter are multiplied together to give\nthe area.\n\n2. Another rule is: The circumference and the diameter are multiplied together, then the result is\ndivided by 4.\n\n3. Another rule is: The diameter is multiplied by itself. Multiply the result by 3 and then divide\nby 4.\n\n4. Another rule is: The circumference is multiplied by itself. Then divide the result by 12.\n\nThe 4th result of course being the same as the Babylonian method, however both the Babylonians and the Chinese do not explain why these rules work.\n\nChinese Mathematician Liu Hui, in the 3rd Century AD, noticed however that this value for π must be incorrect. He noticed it was incorrect because he realised that thought the area of a circle of radius 1 would be 3, he could also find a regular dodecagon inside the circle with area 3, so the area of a circle must be larger. He proceeded to approximate this area by constructing inscribed polygons with more and more sides. He managed to approximate π to be 3.141024, however two centuries later, using the same method Zu Chongzhi carried out further calculations and got the approximation as 3.1415926.\n\nLiu Hui also showed that even if you take π as 3, the volume of the Sphere given would give an incorrect result.\n\n**India**\n\nThe approximation of π to be sqrt(10) was very often used in India\n\nMany important Geometric Ideas were expressed in the Sulbasutras which were appendices to the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. They are also the only knowledge of Mathematics we have from the Vedic Period. As these aren't necessarily Mathematical pieces, they assert truths but do not give any reason why, though later versions give some examples. The four major Sulbasutras, which are mathematically the most significant, are those composed by Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana, though we know very little about these people. The texts are dated from around 800 BCE to 200 CE, with the oldest being a sutra attributed to Baudhayana around 800 BCE to 600 BCE. \n\nThis work contains many Mathematical results, such as the Pythagorean Theorem (though there is an idea that this came to India through Mesopotamian work) as well as some geometric properties of various shapes.\n \nLater on in the Sulbasutras however we get these two results involving circles:\n\n > If it is desired to transform a square into a circle, a cord of length half the diagonal of the square is\nstretched from the center to the east, a part of it lying outside the eastern side of the square. With\none-third of the part lying outside added to the remainder of the half diagonal, the requisite circle\nis drawn\n\nand \n\n > To transform a circle into a square, the diameter is divided into eight parts; one such part, after\nbeing divided into twenty-nine parts, is reduced by twenty-eight of them and further by the sixth\nof the part left less the eighth of the sixth part. [The remainder is then the side of the required\nsquare.]\n\nAs this is easier to show with pictures, I'll take some from the book A History of Mathematics by Victor J. Katz:\n\n[For the first statement](_URL_1_)\n\nIn this construction, **MN** is the radius **r** of the circle you want. If you take the side of the original square to be **s**, you get **r=((2+sqrt2)/6)s** this implies a value of π as being 3.088311755.\n\nIn this second statement the writer wants us to take the side of the square to be equal [to](_URL_0_) of the diameter of the circle. This is the equivalent of taking π to be 3.088326491\n\nLater on in India, the Mathematician Aryabhata (476–550 AD) worked on the approximation for π. He writes \n\n > \"Add four to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of a circle with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached.\"\n\nThis implies that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is ((4 + 100) × 8 + 62000)/20000 = 62832/20000 = 3.1416. And after Aryabhata was translated into Arabic (c. 820 CE) this approximation was mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi's book on algebra.\n\n**Islam**\n\nFinally we get to the Islamic mathematicians, and I will end here because Al-Khwarizmi's (780-850AD) book on algebra, he sums up many of the different ways ancient cultures have calculated π\n\n > In any circle, the product of its diameter, multiplied by three and one-seventh, will be equal to the\ncircumference. This is the rule generally followed in practical life, though it is not quite exact. The\ngeometricians have two other methods. One of them is, that you multiply the diameter by itself,\nthen by ten, and hereafter take the root of the product; the root will be the circumference. The\nother method is used by the astronomers among them. It is this, that you multiply the diameter\nby sixty-two thousand eight hundred thirty-two and then divide the product by twenty thousand.\nThe quotient is the circumference. Both methods come very nearly to the same effect. . . . The\narea of any circle will be found by multiplying half of the circumference by half of the diameter,\nsince, in every polygon of equal sides and angles, . . . the area is found by multiplying half of\nthe perimeter by half of the diameter of the middle circle that may be drawn through it. If you\nmultiply the diameter of any circle by itself, and subtract from the product one-seventh and half\nof one-seventh of the same, then the remainder is equal to the area of the circle.\n\nThe first of the approximations for π given here is the Archimedean one, 3 +1/7 . The approximation of π by\nsqrt(10) attributed to “geometricians,” was used in India as well as early on in Greece.\n(As an interesting fact, however, it is less exact than the “not quite exact” value of 3 + 1/7). The earliest\nknown occurrence of the third approximation, 3.1416, was also in India, in the work of\nAryabhata as previously stated. This is probably attributed to astronomers because of its use in the Indian astronomical works that were translated into Arabic.\n\nFeel free to ask me any more questions on the History of π",
"Alas, much of the world never gets to celebrate Pi Day, because today is 14/3 for us.\n\nSo how did it come to be that different cultures, even some speaking the same language, write their dates in different orders? And is anyone actually using [ISO 8601](_URL_2_), the only format that puts all the digits in decreasing order?",
"Transcending your irrational date-system-based excuse for a celebration of pi, what think you of tau, and its place in mainstream maths?",
"Good morning, /r/AskScience! I'm here to talk a bit about an example of pi, or some similar mathematical concept, in the archaeological record. Jooseman has the Old World cover, so I'm focusing in on one spot in the New World.\n\nThe site in question is the [Newark Earthworks](_URL_4_) in Ohio, which were constructed around 250 CE. As you can see on the survey image, the complex includes several circular features. The two largest are known as the Observatory Circle (upper left) and the Great Circle (lower center). The diameter of the Observatory Circle is approximately 1050 feet (1054 to be more precise), appears to be a common unit of measure at several other Ohio Hopewell sites. [This image](_URL_3_) shows the regularity between five prominent Ohio Hopewell sites, though it does have a typo (saying 1500 instead of 1050).\n\nWhat makes the Newark Earthworks interesting in the history of pi is the relationship between the sizes of the Observatory Circle, the Great Circle, and the Square (more properly known as the Wright Earthwork). The areas of the Observatory Circle and the Square are the same. Likewise, the Square's perimeter is the same as the Great Circle's circumference. There is a very slight error in the Great Circle's construction that allows us to know that it was constructed in two large arcs. \n\nThe implications here are that the Ohio Hopewell were able to do the geometric calculations to produce squares from circles, circles from squares, and determine the areas and circumference / perimeters of both. We use pi to do these calculations today, but we're not sure whether the Ohio Hopewell used pi, tau, or perhaps some other unknown method to construct this complex.",
"Hey /r/askscience. I'm one of the moderators over at /r/math. Feel free to ask me, or any mathematician that wanders over, any of your purely mathematical questions about pi.\n\n\nHere's an interesting [place](_URL_5_) where pi shows up: dropping needles on to lined paper.",
"Here's a bracelet I made a few years back. Pi to about 100 places.\n\nI'd ask people what they thought it was. No one ever guessed Pi.\n\n_URL_6_",
"Last year or so, I made a post in /r/math comparing two methods I used to calculate pi. Both are pretty slow, but I wanted to compare them. One is the [Leibniz method](_URL_7_) which is just 4x(1-1/3+1/5-1/7+1/9...) and the other is [Monte Carlo](_URL_8_) where you randomly choose numbers and see what fraction fall inside a circle.\n\n[The top graph shows the result](_URL_10_) as they both converge to 3.14.... However if you look at the error (how far from pi it is), [Leibniz kills it](_URL_9_). The x axis in the second one is seconds.\n\nLiterally though these are like the two slowest methods, except maybe Archimedes'.",
"Nobody has discussed what pie they're going to eat.\n\nI am going to eat Raspberry Pie. What pie flavours are you planning to have?",
"Happy Pi Day!\n\nTo celebrate, I'm making a hobby project I've been working on for some time public. It allows you to search for any digits in the first 5 BILLION digits of Pi, near instantly!\n\nIt's at _URL_12_\n\nSo please give it a try by finding where your birthday (or other random string of digits) is in Pi!\nPlease send me any feedback either here or on GitHub (_URL_11_).",
"There are an infinite number of ways of writing pi. In base 11, it's 3.1615070286... In base 12, it's 3.184809493b... People think there's something special about the digits of pi, but there really isn't. But happy Pi Day everybody!!",
"It also happens to be the birthday of Albert Einstein. How appropriate that he was born on such a mathematical day!",
"While I understand the excitement over it, I feel like this level of celebration show the bacial skew still alive and well in the world today. This isn't the \"only Pi day of our lives\". Where was everyone celebrating with me on March 11th, 2003 at 7:55:24? Why does octal pi day deserve no recognition?\n\nInstead of reveling with me, my 6th grade math class just laughed at me, or awkwardly stared out the window until I stopped talking, not willing to even acknowledge that they had a bias. That's when I realized just how bacist my home town was then, and still is to this day. I fully acknowledge that it's a primarily decimal town, so other bases seem foreign to it, and unfamiliar things are intimidating, but we really should try to be more understanding of the other bases that exist around us, and work to fight our bacial prejudices. It's 2015 and time for change.",
"Hi!\n\nLike most people, I was taught that pi is the ratio between the diameter of a circle and its perimeter and still think about it this way. However it is obvious that this is just one aspect of that number that has the nasty habit of showing up unexpectedly almost everywhere. It even feels that this ratio is a pretty secondary aspect of its core nature.\n\nIs there a more fundamental way to define pi that makes it a logical deduction that it must be the ratio between a circle's perimeter and diameter?\n\nEDIT: examples of weird apparitions of pi:\n\n- [Coulomb's law](_URL_14_)\n- [Buffon's needle](_URL_15_)\n- [Normal distribution](_URL_13_)",
"In 1916, a Norwegian man, Andreas Dahl Uthaug, (self) published a book called \"Norwegian mathematics - the mathematics of the future\", where he said pi should be defined to be exactly 3.125. I don't know his argument, but he did ask this rhetorical question: \"Is it right to call a system exact, which flourishes with irrational quantities and terms?\"\n\nIt didn't catch on.",
"Happy Pi Day!\n\nIt may be already told but how can we write a simple code (in Matlab, C, etc..) to calculate several digits of Pi correctly? I know that there are Leibniz and Monte Carlo methods, but I wonder if there is anything else that we can implement today until 9:26:53 to celebrate Pi day :)",
"Hello AskScience!\n\nIs there a way to find out at which nth digit of pi, or any number, there's no further usefulness to know the nth+1 digit?\n\nWhat is a good enough precision given a problem? Which one is the most common for most deeply computed problems?",
"Can someone explain the synergy thingy\n\ne^πi= -1",
"Pi day is, unsurprisingly, very important to me!\n\nPi is very useful in acoustics because you find it in sinusoids, often expressed in complex exponential form. While people often think of pi in relation to geometry and circles, it's fun to think about its place in oscillations, which are like temporal circles!",
"Happy Pi day, all!\n\nPi in base 10 \"goes on forever\". Is there a base (let's say... less than base 100 or so) in which Pi becomes a number we can represent as a fraction?",
"Sorry, I'm British.\n\nPi day is on 31st of April.",
"Happy Pi day! Here are the digits I memorized:\n3.14159265358979\n3238462643383279\n50288419716939937\n5105820974944592307816\n\n I memorized more, but I'm not sure I would get it all right so I just left it out. Sorry for any mistakes, I'm on my phone ;p",
"Is there a certain aspect or quality of our universe that makes pi what it is? Is pi the same value in any conceivable universe?",
"Is it even beneficial to calculate millions of Pi's decimals? At which point does the difference become negligible?",
"This might be hard to ELI5, but how is infinity factorial sqrt(2 * pi)",
"We know that pi and e are transcendental. But it is apparently a much harder problem to show pi^e, pi+e, etc. are transcendental. iirc these arithmetic combinations are open problems.\n\nIs there a general tactic to show a number is not rational? Not algebraic? Are arithmetic combinations harder because the proofs rely on analytic properties? Is it typical of number theory proofs (If that is the right field classification) to involve different and seemingly unrelated branches of math?\n\nrational: can be expressed as a ratio of integers. Integers, fractions, repeating or terminating decimals\n\nalgebraic: is the solution of some polynomial with integers coefficients. Like rational numbers but now you can take a bunch of roots\n\ntranscendental: not algebraic",
"A nice pi fact: We all know that pi is irrational (transcendental actually), and therefore its decimal representation is infinite and non-repeating.\n\nA nice question to ask is whether any finite integer sequence appears somewhere in this decimal representation, and this problem is still open.\n\nAlso, pi makes weird appearances when calculating limits of converging sequences.\n\nTwo very notable examples are\n\n > pi/4 = 1 - 3 + 5 - 7 + 9 - 11 + ...\n\nand the solution to the Basel problem\n\n > 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + ... + 1/n^2 + ... = pi^2 /6",
"I'd like to take a poll:\n\nWho here thinks that this year's pi day is supreme due to the year falling on the first five digits (**3.1415**9265...)?\n\nWho here thinks that next year's pi day will be even better since it is the correct rounded value (3.1415**9**265 becomes **3.1416**)?\n\nI am personally of the opinion that both are awesome but that the latter is just a tad more exciting. What do you guys think?\n\n\nEdit: Made digits just bold instead of bold and italicized.",
"Hi Reddit. My Mother tells me I was born sometime around 9 a.m. this very day, 24 years ago. She is not very good with numbers so she probably didn't know the rest of the sequence. While it may not have been on purpose, it sure is an honor to share a birthday with such a brilliant mathematical work of digits. \n\nHappy Pi Day everyone!",
"What do you think about people who [just geek out](_URL_16_) over the first few digits of pi, but don't really care to learn anything beyond that?\nThings like Buffon's Needle and proofs of irrationality fascinate me, but no one seems to care.",
"Happy Pi Day!\n\nYes, because this day is 3/14 in the arbitrary but commonly used Gregorian calendar, we celebrate it for being the starting digits to the mathematical constant π. And this Pi Day is even more special because 3/14/15 is even more precise of an approximation of π. Have a slice of cake to celebrate. But first, why do we praise π so much?\n\nWhy do we think π is so special? Is it because the digits go on forever? Because that's found in the decimal notation of every number like for instance 1/3 is 0.3333... with threes repeating infinitely in one direction (and also zeroes repeating infinitely in the other).\n\nThen, is it that the pattern of these continuing digits never repeats? Well, that's only because it's an irrational number (meaning it can't be expressed as a fraction of integers) and irrational numbers aren't at all rare, so that shouldn't make it special.\n\nThere are infinitely more irrational numbers than rational ones. The amount of typical rational numbers (conventional numbers like -2 and 176 and 1/3) despite being infinite, approach 0% of the amount of numbers on the number line. The vast majority are irrational like π - so it's not so unique. Some that you might have seen around are Euler's number, the Golden Ratio (φ) and even the square root of every positive integer (except perfect squares).\n\nSo, is π special because of its humble origins as the simple relationship between a circle's linear dimension and its perimeter? Well, it shouldn't be because not only does this exist for practically every other shape, but it is also not the most sensible ratio between a circle's linear size and circumference. (Some examples in other shapes include the ratio between the side and diagonal of a square which is Pythagoras' Constant √2 [the first number to have been proven irrational] and the diagonal over the side of a pentagon which is again the Golden Ratio φ [a far more interesting number than π] )\n\nLet me explain. We set an angle of 1 radian as travelling the same distance as the radius along the edge of a circle. Going all the way around the circumference of this circle measures a number of radians which is another irrational number called Tau (τ). For the visual learners [click here](_URL_18_). Tau, τ, is similar to π in that it compares the circumference of a circle to its linear dimension, but τ does it better in every way. (τ is the circumference of a circle over its radius, while π is the circumference divided by the diameter.)\n\nYou might not see why τ is so superior to π yet, so keep celebrating π with some cake. If you ask for a slice of cake that's π over 8, you would think you're getting a nice large slice of an eighth of the cake. But you're not! You only get a sixteenth of the cake. The cake's not a lie, π is and it's so unnecessarily confusing it just made you lose out on half your cake!\n\nThe best reason for why τ is better, is that 1 circle is 1 τ. You don't need to multiply by two when you're converting the angle to how far you've gone around the circle nor divide by two when you're converting back - π makes radians confusing when they don't have to be.\n\nNow if I want a half a pizza, it's half τ. A quarter of a pie is a quarter τ. And if you ask for an eighth τ of cake, you get an eighth of the cake. No conversion needed either way; it's a piece of cake. So yes it makes radians so much clearer for so many of us who became so lost when we were suddenly plunged into the depths of trigonometry.\n\nBeyond the basics, τ also improves formulas in more advanced mathematics. Many include \"2π\" which could easily be replace by τ . But others actually become clearer when going back to their origins. Take Euler's Identity, e^(i π) = -1 known as the most beautiful equation in mathematics and surely changing it to e^(i τ/2) = -1 would be muddying the equation's elegance. Instead of course, simply putting τ in Euler's original formula leads to the even more dashing e^(i τ) = 1.\n\nAnd lastly the most common formula with π on its own is the area of a circle: π r^2. But here again π being only half a turn makes everything more confusing. A circle is made up of an uncountable amount of very small circles. These rings can be uncurled into a triangle with the height of the triangle being the radius of the circle and the base being its circumference. Again visual learners [click here](_URL_21_). \n\nSo, the original area of a circle formula is based on the area of a triangle: base × height / 2. With height replaced by the radius r and the circumference being τ r, it makes more sense having the formula be τ r^2 / 2. (For those who know calculus, you can also integrate τr among all the rings of the circle getting the same τ r^2 / 2.)\n\nWith π, sure in this one case the twos just happen to cancel out. But this obscures our understanding of the equation and leads us to just memorizing it instead of understanding it.\n\nSo, π isn't all that special and isn't even the most natural and logical circle constant. Enjoy Pi Day but come June 28th (6/28) celebrate Tau Day as the superior circle constant and eat twice the pie!\n\nτ-ists are not π-ous.\n\n.\n\nVideos far better than this post by Vi Hart, [showing how π isn't special](_URL_22_) and [showing how τ is better than π](_URL_17_). The [movement of correcting π began with mathematician Bob Palais](_URL_20_) and Michael Hartl continues the work with [the Tau Manifesto](_URL_19_).",
"ISO 8601 defines the international standard for the date and time in such a way that actual \"Pi\" day would be May 92nd, 3141 CE (YYYYMMDD). Obviously there is no 92nd day in May. This indicates a major difficulty with determining \"Pi Day\", e.g. the next ISO-compliant Pi Day is June 28th, 31415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751058209749445923078164 CE (assuming ISO updates for increasing digits of the calendar year for the next quadrillion-quadrillion-quadrillion years).\n\nIf you want to use the ISO-compliant Julian calendar, the previous Pi Day was February 14, 3853 BC (around the time the plough was invented), and the next one will be April 14, 3889 CE. So don't hold your breath.\n\nYou could determine the date ordinally, and have Pi Day be 314159, or February 28th, 3141 CE, which is closest to us. But if you want to fit the time in ISO format (HHMMSS), then I'll see you at 10 58 AM on March 16, 31415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993.",
"Okay, I've got something that's been bothering me about pi day. If pi is infinitely long, and never terminates or repeats, does that mean that there can never be an instant today where the clock time (taken out to infinite digits, or as many possible finite digits) exactly equals pi? Meaning, is exactly pi time somewhere in between 3/14/15 9:26:53 and 9:26:54? The more I think about it the more confused I get. Thanks!",
"I'm in stats classes now that deal with tests of randomness. I am interested in the randomness of the digits of pi. I tried doing some tests in R, but I was having difficulty separating the digits individually into a vector. Anyway, are the digits random? Does it matter? Would using pi as a RNG be feasible (obviously by starting at different points)?",
"My question, why wasn't the constant based on the diameter rather than radius? Theoretically you use d/2 in place of the radius, and you'd get a constant of 3.14159/16 (whatever that is) times diameter squared. Does that constant have a name/symbol? If not, why?",
"Here's a question for you physicists: Today we saw Pi second at 9:26.53. There was also Pi millisecond at 9:26.53.589, and so on...\nSo was there an instant where the time exactly aligned with Pi? Or does time move in discrete steps?",
"With a little cheating in the way you right it (leaving out 2 digits of the year) we will hit 3/14/15 9:26.53 twice today.",
"Less of a factoid, but it would be amazing if you checked out my group's newest Pi Day video! Happy Pi Day!\n\n_URL_23_",
"Next Year we can round *pi* to 4 places, so it would be 3.1416 and then we can party again.",
"Can we start planning for Avogadro day? 6/02/23 is going to be here sooner than we like to think!",
"I always though this Stackoverflow question and answer was an amusing anecdote about calculating pi: _URL_24_",
"Vi Hart's [Anti-Pi Rant](_URL_25_) this year talks about the arbitrariness of it all.",
"Were the Chinese the first to discover and early form of pi?",
"Can you give us your favorite conspiracy theory that revolves around pi?"
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{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/bsksXEj.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/IjS35vi.png",
"https://xkcd.com/1179/",
"http://www.earthworksconservancy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/earthworks-collage.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Newark_Works_Squier_and_Davis_Plate_XXV.jpg",
"http://mathforum.org/mathimages/index.php/Buffon%27s_Needle",
"http://imgur.com/QIV4S9T",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_formula_for_%CF%80",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Pi_30K.gif",
"http://imgur.com/cQAjqeZ",
"http://imgur.com/UKdj9ZI",
"https://github.com/JoshKeegan",
"http://pisearch.joshkeegan.co.uk/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffon%27s_needle",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CGWA_DzvDg",
"http://youtu.be/jG7vhMMXagQ",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Circle_radians_tau.gif",
"http://www.tauday.com/tau-manifesto.pdf",
"http://www.math.utah.edu/~palais/pi.pdf",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/TriangleFromCircle.gif/220px-TriangleFromCircle.gif",
"http://youtu.be/5iUh_CSjaSw",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9R0ULLkOMbY",
"http://stackoverflow.com/questions/14283270/how-to-determine-whether-my-calculation-of-pi-is-accurate",
"https://youtube.com/watch?v=2E9m6yDEIj8"
]
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|
Happy Pi Day! Come celebrate with us
It's 3/14/15, the Pi Day of the century! Grab a slice of your favorite Pi Day dessert and celebrate with us. **Our experts are here to answer your questions, and this year we have a treat that's *almost* sweeter than pi: we've teamed up with some experts from /r/AskHistorians to bring you the history of pi.** We'd like to extend a special thank you to these users for their contributions here today! Here's some reading from /u/Jooseman to get us started: > The symbol π was not known to have been introduced to represent the number until 1706, when Welsh Mathematician William Jones (a man who was also close friends with Sir Isaac Newton and Sir Edmund Halley) used it in his work *Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos* (or a *New Introduction to the Mathematics*.) There are several possible reasons that the symbol was chosen. The favourite theory is because it was the initial of the ancient Greek word for periphery (the circumference). > Before this time the symbol π has also been used in various other mathematical concepts, including different concepts in Geometry, where William Oughtred (1574-1660) used it to represent the periphery itself, meaning it would vary with the diameter instead of representing a constant like it does today (Oughtred also introduced a lot of other notation). In Ancient Greece it represented the number 80. > The story of its introduction does not end there though. It did not start to see widespread usage until Leonhard Euler began using it, and through his prominence and widespread correspondence with other European Mathematicians, it's use quickly spread. Euler originally used the symbol p, but switched beginning with his 1736 work *Mechanica* and finally it was his use of it in the widely read *Introductio* in 1748 that really helped it spread. Check out the comments below for more and to ask follow-up questions! For more Pi Day fun, enjoy [last year's thread](_URL_0_). **From all of us at /r/AskScience, have a very happy Pi Day!**
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|
knnth
|
Does science acknowledge a limit to what we as a species can mentally comprehend ?
|
Is there a theory, idea, or acknowledgment that the human brain has limits on just how complex, complicated, etc... of an idea it can comprehend, and work with ?
I'm kind of wondering as we continue to advance at such a fast pace into advanced physics like string theory, quantum physics, and all that stuff if we will eventually hit a wall simply because our brains have physical limitations on what they're able to process, and effectively work with.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"The catch with string theory and/or quantum physics is not that we can't describe or articulate and thus understand it on a language basis.\n\nThat quantum objects are at multiple places both vibrating and resting at the same time just contradicts the logic we as a lifeform have been trained over the centuries.\n\nThat banana isn't at multiple places and still is one banana.\n\nSwitching to the unfiting software/hardware analogy it's a software problem.\n\n > Also we're increasingly able to use computers to offload a lot of our brute force tasks/calculations\n\nThat we can compress information pushes the limit we might have far away. So I don't think complexity is the limiting factor here.",
"There's an interesting idea called \"cognitive closure\" that you might find illuminating. It posits that there are certain things that cannot possibly be understood by the mind because of the intrinsic way the mind works.",
"You'll need to specify what kind of thing you are measuring in order for us to talk about limitations. Otherwise, the question is vague, and kind of sounds like you asking is there a built-in limit to the complexity of an idea. If that is the case, then yes, we can only think of computable ideas, though we can think of abstracts that represent non-computable ideas, provided we don't attempt to use them. E.g. statements like \"It is sunny, but I think it will rain tomorrow.\" are fine, but \"This statement is false.\", or \"If I can show that any computation P halts, then I can get money.\" are not. We can control our actions based on the first one, but just kind of ignore the second kind.\n\nIn this kind of explanation, \"think\" and \"idea\" are both cases of your brain running a program or computation to achieve some goal. As your brain is Turing Complete, it can run perform any computable function.",
"Well there are limits to working memory: _URL_0_ ... we can hold something like 7 items in our conscious mind at one time, and can't work on tasks that require more than that.\n\nHowever we are able to split tasks up into sub-tasks to a large extent to keep things under that \"limit.\" This is why advanced math/physics is so abstracted and obtuse: a lot of stuff is going on \"behind the scenes\" that is abstracted away/assumed when working with the high-level concepts.\n\nAlso we're increasingly able to use computers to offload a lot of our brute force tasks/calculations.\n\nNone of this says there isn't going to be some limit eg what someone can learn and work with in their lifetime.",
"The individual is quite limited in her capacity to understand things, the limit essentially boiling down to the product of the maximum rate of learning and the maximum life-span of the individual.\n\nHowever, the limit is much more difficult to calculate when we consider our species as a whole. If we include the future artificial scientists with whom we'll collaborate in the (relatively) short term and who will continue our work in outer space and beyond the life-time of our sun, I'm not sure there is a limit, beyond whatever is fundamentally \"undiscoverable\".",
"Read Solaris by Lem, it explores humans meeting an entity which is beyond the comprehension of science or the human mind.\n\nAmazing movie too (both 1972 and 2002) but for different reasons."
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_memory#Capacity"
]
}
|
Does science acknowledge a limit to what we as a species can mentally comprehend ?
Is there a theory, idea, or acknowledgment that the human brain has limits on just how complex, complicated, etc... of an idea it can comprehend, and work with ? I'm kind of wondering as we continue to advance at such a fast pace into advanced physics like string theory, quantum physics, and all that stuff if we will eventually hit a wall simply because our brains have physical limitations on what they're able to process, and effectively work with.
|
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|
17x40p
|
How do scientist decide which colors to use when they "fake-color" an image of the Universe?
|
For example, all the images the Hubble Telescope has ever taken were fake-colored (because the telescope has no 'natural colored' cameras).. So, when adding color to one of Hubble's [gray-scale photos](_URL_0_) (or when making an artist depiction of [six newly found exocomets](_URL_1_)) do these despicable people choose the colors to make the image look good to the general public, are the colors based on how we think they look or something else?
[despicable - Donald Duck - I don't know why]
|
askscience
|
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"This varies among astronomical images, so let's take a look at the specific image you've linked to. [Here's](_URL_1_) the background info on that image, down at the bottom left of that page.\n\nThe red, green, and blue channel in that image were made by assigning them to the F673N, F657N, and F502N filters on Hubble. So what does this all mean?\n\n- F just stands for filter.\n- The number indicates the central wavelength of light that's transmitted through that filter (in nanometers).\n- The last letter is either N, M, or W for narrow, medium, and wide filters. This is the width of the bandpass for the wavelengths transmitted.\n\nSo, the F673N filter is a narrow bandpass filter centered at 673 nanometers, as can be seen [here](_URL_0_) in a graph of light transmitted. This wavelength correlates to a deep red light given off by ionized sulfur atoms, so ascribing it to the red color of image is about right.\n\nNext up is the F657N filter, found [here](_URL_3_). Again, it's a narrow bandpass filter, but centered at a wavelength 657 nanometers. This will be sensitive to a combination of light given off by excited hydrogen atoms, as well as ionized nitrogen atoms, and is set to the green channel.\n\nHowever, to our eyes, that wavelength will still look pretty darn red. Something to keep in mind here, though, is that as light moves from larger to smaller wavelengths, it spans the rainbow from red colors (large wavelength) to blue colors (small wavelength). So, 657 nanometers, though still red, will be just a little closer to blue than the first 673 wavelength image...you might see it as ever-so-slightly more orange.\n\nSo is it a sin to ascribe this to green? Well, it's not exactly accurate to what our eyes would see. On the other hand, it is slightly closer to green than the first, slightly-redder wavelength.\n\nFinally, the blue channel of the image is from the F502N filter, found [here](_URL_2_). This is centered around 502 nanometers, and is sensitive to the light produced from doubly-ionized oxygen atoms. To our eyes, 502 nanometers shows up as very green...so again mapping it to the blue channel isn't quite right.\n\nSo while the colors themselves aren't a true representation of what our eyes would see, they do map the reddest filter to the red channel, the filter closest to blue to the blue channel, and the one in the middle to the green channel. This is a pretty common mapping to do, though certainly not the case for all images. \n\nThings definitely get more tricky when you start getting into wavelengths that our eyes can't see, such as infrared....but even there, it's pretty standard to make the longest wavelength filter red and the shortest wavelength filter blue. Again, though, this is not the case for all images (in fact, the infrared image at the bottom right of that same page does the exact opposite).\n\n**TL;DR**: Red has a longer wavelength of light than green, and green has a longer wavelength of light than blue. A common false-color technique is to make the longest wavelength red, the shortest wavelength blue, and the one in the middle green....but not every image follows that standard.",
"I've taken astronomical data, and have made false-color photos from it. It was just an assignment from a professor in a college class to get the idea of how it is done, but the way he had us do it was to tell the piece of software (I forget what software exactly) to filter out the photon-events by energy spectrum (actually, the way the software presented it, their energy was given in eV), then apply a certain color to all photons in that range. For example, we used blue/white for high energy particles (I forget the exact numbers, but say for the sake of argument the range of photons between 6500eV-7000eV), red and orange for low energy (e.g. 2500eV-3000eV), and filled it out in between. Then we played with the colors we chose and the energy ranges to get something that was visually appealing.\n\nEdit: Found it!\n\n_URL_4_\n\n\nEdit2: We used eV, not K.",
"> Taking color pictures with the Hubble Space Telescope is much more complex than taking color pictures with a traditional camera. For one thing, Hubble doesn't use color film — in fact, it doesn't use film at all. Rather, its cameras record light from the universe with special electronic detectors. These detectors produce images of the cosmos not in color, but in shades of black and white.\n\n > Finished color images are actually combinations of two or more black-and-white exposures to which color has been added during image processing.\n\n_URL_5_\n\nFollow the link for detailed information.",
"False colours are used in a lot of different fields as a way to represent data. As Astromike points out the different colours represent different chemicals. You can use the end product to show the different distributions of the chemicals.\n\nIn infrared microscopy you can assign colours to 'proteins', 'lipids' and 'nucleic acids' and show a false colour image showing the distribution of these in a cell or tissue.\n\nThey aren't just there to make the photo look pretty. They are scientifically useful.",
"Keep in mind that in most cases, if the image was taken in visible light, the colors are not \"false\", just enhanced. The color vision of the human eye is mostly a daylight phenomenon; we don't see colors when the objects are as faint as a nebula.\n\nThe vast majority of images of nebulae and so on are not \"false color\", just saturation-enhanced.",
"I remember mucking around at our public observatory back in the early 90s with a computer program specifically for this very purpose. You could load up gray scale images into it (I believe this was before GIF and JPEG were common, and the Internet hadn't yet taken off) and then apply colour palletes to it to best bring out the details in the picture. There were a couple of dozen colour palletes and they were all carefully put together for this very purpose. Each one had notes with it like \"may not look very natural, but quite good for bringing out smaller details\" or \"for a natural, warmish glow\"."
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://asd.gsfc.nasa.gov/archive/hubble/hubble20th_lg.jpg",
"http://www.sci-news.com/astronomy/article00813.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://documents.stsci.edu/hst/wfc3/documents/handbooks/cycle18/appendixA37.html",
"http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2010/13/fastfacts/",
"http://www.stsci.edu/hst/wfc3/documents/handbooks/currentIHB/appendixA24.html",
"http://www.stsci.edu/hst/wfc3/documents/handbooks/currentIHB/appendixA34.html",
"http://i.imgur.com/dBXvDgt.jpg",
"http://hubblesite.org/gallery/behind_the_pictures/meaning_of_color/"
]
}
|
How do scientist decide which colors to use when they "fake-color" an image of the Universe?
For example, all the images the Hubble Telescope has ever taken were fake-colored (because the telescope has no 'natural colored' cameras).. So, when adding color to one of Hubble's [gray-scale photos](_URL_0_) (or when making an artist depiction of [six newly found exocomets](_URL_1_)) do these despicable people choose the colors to make the image look good to the general public, are the colors based on how we think they look or something else? [despicable - Donald Duck - I don't know why]
|
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|
14nrkf
|
Is there any scientific basis to claims that it's possible to influence the sex of your baby?
|
I've heard varying claims about this, and I'm finding it hard to find any trustworthy material.
From my limited understanding of biology, I don't find it inconceivable that it *might* be possible. Say, if X- and Y-chromosome sperm react to certain environments differently, then any activity -- like a change in diet -- that acts to alter the vaginal chemistry should alter the odds.
That being said, I've seen a lot of dubious claims which all all set my 'quack' sense tingling.
Any biologists care to enlighten me?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7es9rd",
"c7esjyq",
"c7ernfw",
"c7esxwj",
"c7eshwi",
"c7ev26r",
"c7ev1ko",
"c7ev970"
],
"text": [
"Some studies have shown that the sperm with the X chromosome live longer than the than the sperm with the Y chromosome. This means that 'female' sperm have a greater life span than 'male' sperm. However, 'male' sperm are considered 'better swimmers' as they have greater motility -- they live fast and die young (ha ha ha).\n\nTherefore, having intercourse closer to ovulation you have a slightly greater chance of having a male, but if you have intercourse a day or two before ovulation you have a better chance of having a girl -- by the time you ovulate a lot of the 'male' sperm will have died leaving a greater percentage of 'female' sperm. Other studies (such as this one in the New England Journal of Medicine: _URL_0_) have found no correlation.\n \nOther research has shown a small increase in the number of male births to women who eat a good, potassium rich breakfast and ate more calories compared to women who skipped breakfast altogether. Not enough studies have been done to prove this is the case -- one study is not conclusive evidence.\n\nEDIT: Grammar",
"Yup, put your sperm in a centrifuge. female producing sperm are heavier than male sperm ( that extra arm on the x chromosome weighs just a little more).\n\nApparently one can do it via flow cytometry as well.\n_URL_2_\n_URL_2_",
"Not sure if you are including all methods. They do centrifuge semen to partially separate the lighter male sperm from the heavier female. Or do you mean strictly behavioral changes?",
"A popular [study](_URL_3_) discovered more female births after periods of famine. The popular press coverage is [here](_URL_4_) . I would take it with a grain of salt, since it seems an inconsistent finding - this is the only paper REALLY supporting it. \n\nHowever, this would suggest that diet can influence which sperm are 'favored' in utero. Apparently, there is a hypothesis suggesting this, \"the adaptive sex ratio adjustment hypothesis [states] that mothers in good condition are more likely to give birth to sons, whereas mothers in poor condition are more likely to give birth to daughters.\"\n\nThis really isn't my expertise, and I can't make any conjectures as to the mechanism..but..there you go.",
"Well, nothing works after the point of conception. Gender is determined by which sperm cell fertilizes the egg. I haven't been able to find any sources that state either that X sperm and Y sperm have different life expectancies, or that one is 'faster' than the other. What I have been able to find are references to a few claims by a scientist that were included in a book he was trying to sell, which have been in dispute ever since and have never been able to be verified, but these claims seem to have infiltrated popular culture.\nIt doesn't seem like there's anything that the mother could possibly do, they'll either ovulate or not ovulate, and as for the male, there doesn't seem to be any way besides technological means for separating X and Y sperm cells.",
"If you're talking about \"natural\" human reproduction (not artificial insemination) the short answer is no. Any such \"quirk\" would have been exploited and subsequently selected against. At least this is how the book \"The Red Queen\" explained it.",
"Sex isn't always determined by the chromosome. Technically being a fetus is like sitting on a fence. The chromosome just helps point you in the direction you should be falling toward. What would alter that are either chromosonal errors from the sperm or hormonal problems in the mother. Read about XX Males and XY Females. Usually they develop normally, but they have low functionality of their sexual organs. Examples is infrequent periods or low sperm count. Semen the mucus used to transport sperm is produced by the seminal gland so you'd never know if you slept with a XX Male.\n\nHow do I know this? I actually studied this. I'm curious what my chromosonal structure is too. Stop down voting and [read](_URL_5_) ffs.",
"I have read studies indicating that parental stress can promote female offspring, but I don't have the time to find the specific studies. [Here is an Economist article from a quick google search that cites a study though.](_URL_6_)\n\nI know military individuals who would agree with only having female offspring while on difficult posts, but that data is solely anecdotal. I would be interested to see if male stress influences sperm production in any way (lower T?) that could influence gender, as the Economist article focuses on the mother's stress level. \n\nEdit format"
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{
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199512073332301#t=articleBackground",
"http://pregnancy.about.com/od/genderselection/a/microsort.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22992923",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2012/03/16/rspb.2012.0320.full",
"http://www.nature.com/news/hungry-mothers-give-birth-to-more-daughters-1.10331",
"http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001669.htm",
"http://www.economist.com/node/10130882"
]
}
|
Is there any scientific basis to claims that it's possible to influence the sex of your baby?
I've heard varying claims about this, and I'm finding it hard to find any trustworthy material. From my limited understanding of biology, I don't find it inconceivable that it *might* be possible. Say, if X- and Y-chromosome sperm react to certain environments differently, then any activity -- like a change in diet -- that acts to alter the vaginal chemistry should alter the odds. That being said, I've seen a lot of dubious claims which all all set my 'quack' sense tingling. Any biologists care to enlighten me?
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|
ms4ar
|
I have to explain wormholes and the general theory of relativity to a physics class, help?
|
I'm in High school Senior Physics AP class, where I am supposed to give a speech on these subjects. I am having trouble trying to change it from formal speaking into laymans because my class is not the brightest, formal speaking goes just over their head.
edit:
I have about 20 minutes to give the speech. As to how far I want to go into it, I only need to give a brief introduction to the subjects. Just enough to where someone who has no idea what it is can understand what it means. I haven't started on constructing the speech yet because I am not sure how to word it; I know what wormholes are and how they work (afaik in my outside of school learning).
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c33em42",
"c33ed87",
"c33f1y1",
"c33frdu"
],
"text": [
"The problem you're going to have (mostly) is a lack of understanding on *your* part. Please don't interpret this as an insult, it's just that even a full 4 years of Physics in college doesn't prepare anyone to even talk about general relativity beyond the basics of the basics.\n\nYou're probably going to have to give some very hand-waving arguments, just like the ones you've gotten yourself, and it'll be a good deal to make sure you can answer the inevitable questions you'll get. Don't be afraid to say \"I don't know\" when it comes to this - general relativity takes a *lot* of work before you actually *know* it (the field equations, the real math behind it, etc) - but do try to know where to point them to find answers to the questions you don't know.\n\nObviously, you'll want to talk about the history of general relativity, prefacing it with special relativity. Begin with [no \"absolute\" frames of reference](_URL_2_), the [invariant speed of light](_URL_3_), and the [consequences](_URL_1_) they bring like time dilation and length contraction. Bring up the [classical tests of general relativity](_URL_0_) that have been done, including the famous eclipse one, and explain their importance to great detail. Then go into how we can think about gravity as matter \"warping\" [spacetime](_URL_4_). Make sure to go into great detail that we do **not** mean that spacetime is 2-dimensional, like a sheet, and just that this is an **analogy** to help us explain it.\n\nThat right there is probably 20 minutes, and I honestly would recommend against describing wormholes. On top of their purely theoretical existence, I think the only thing that a layman can understand is the analogy of \"bending\" a \"sheet\" of spacetime and \"punching\" a \"hole\" \"through\" it. Notice the amount of quotes there - describing it any better than that takes a lot of knowledge and experience that even few Ph. D.s in Physics have.\n\nAnywho, good luck on your presentation! I trust most of my recommendations you've already thought of, but I figure I'd lay them out for you.",
"I'm not going to answer since it's outside my field but I think you're going to need to edit your question to contain more information. How much detail are you planning to go into? How much do you have so far? How long are you talking? Will you have visual aids? etc...\n\nYour question is far too general otherwise: it amounts to \"say everything you guys know about astrophysics and cosmology\" which will be quite a lot and very technical.",
"I strongly recommend you to read through the messages written a while back by [RobotRollCall ](_URL_6_). Maybe you will grasp some good analogies.\n\nI'm not sure this poster wrote specifically about wormholes, but still a good reading anyway.\nI think you will find [this message](_URL_5_) enlightening for example.",
"You shouldn't say that you know how wormholes work because they are theoretical and we have yet to find one. Instead, explain how they would work if they were to exist. Other than making sure you dont say you know things that you don't, then Tokuro is right. One may take several years of studying general relativity before you understand what the theory says about how the universe works."
],
"score": [
7,
5,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity#Classical_tests",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_special_relativity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity#Lack_of_an_absolute_reference_frame",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity#Postulates",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/fjwkh/why_exactly_can_nothing_go_faster_than_the_speed/c1gh4x7",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/RobotRollCall"
]
}
|
I have to explain wormholes and the general theory of relativity to a physics class, help?
I'm in High school Senior Physics AP class, where I am supposed to give a speech on these subjects. I am having trouble trying to change it from formal speaking into laymans because my class is not the brightest, formal speaking goes just over their head. edit: I have about 20 minutes to give the speech. As to how far I want to go into it, I only need to give a brief introduction to the subjects. Just enough to where someone who has no idea what it is can understand what it means. I haven't started on constructing the speech yet because I am not sure how to word it; I know what wormholes are and how they work (afaik in my outside of school learning).
|
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13ni74
|
My 5-year-old is fascinated by the elements on the periodic table, and the way the elements change when they combine into compounds. He wants to know what happens when you mix Sulfur and Nickel.
|
Can you help answer his question, r/askscience?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Ni forms a 2+ ion and S forms a 2- ion. I assume if they bonded (which I'm not sure if they do), the chemical compound, Nickel Sulfide, would be NiS. That's about all I've got, sorry.\n\nEdit: But THEN, I found this on Wikipedia! This is Nickel and Sulfur bonded together:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nFrom the article: \nMillerite is a nickel sulfide mineral, NiS. It is brassy in colour and has an acicular habit, often forming radiating masses and furry aggregates. It can be distinguished from pentlandite by crystal habit, its duller colour, and general lack of association with pyrite or pyrrhotite.",
"Other posters have already given the correct answer, but I thought I'd help you give a gist that might help you answer questions like this more generally in the future. I'm deliberately avoiding being too specific - the idea is that these simple principles of chemistry can answer you a lot of questions of that same form.\n\nFirst, think of the word \"sulfur\". Have you heard something like that used a lot in words that end with \"-ide\"? Like oxide, chloride, fluoride, etc. - and sulfide, that's right!\n\nAn \"-ide\" in a chemical compound is a negative ion, i.e. an atom that has gained more electrons than it has protons. Not all negative ions are -ides, but all -ides are negative ions. If you take out a periodic table you'll notice that a lot of things that become -ides sure are clustered in the top right corner of the table (ignoring the noble gases). We'll get back to that soon.\n\nNow think of nickel. What kind of stuff is nickel? Why, it's more or less gray and lustrous and hard, right? Just like more or less every other *metal* out there. Nickel doesn't sound like anything to be used in an explosive (not the way, say, potassium or magnesium does, anyway), so it's probably not right up to the left edge of the periodic table. It sounds fairly common and isn't too hugely valuable, and certainly one's never heard of it being radioactive, so it's probably on the upper periods (rows). \n\nSo now we have two elements and a vague idea of where they are on the periodic table - nickel's probably kinda close to the center while sulfur sounds like it should be somewhere close to the top right, or closer anyway. Sulfur is an \"-ide\" often enough that you can pretty much assume that it has a higher [electronegativity](_URL_2_) than pretty much any metal. That means that when you put them together, the nickel is probably going to give some of its electrons to the sulfur, making nickel sulfide. They're kind of not that far apart so the reaction is not likely to be violent and you might have to heat them up a lot to make a compound at all - but they're far enough that it's probably a pretty safe bet that nickel sulfide is what you get. Other posters pointed out the exact proportion, which in this case happens to be that nickel and sulfur pair up one to one.\n\nFurthermore, it's a metal sulfide, so you can guess there's probably going to be an ore of it. A lot of ores are sulfides and fluorides and particularly oxides because [there's a lot of oxygen (and also sulfur and fluor) in the Earth's crust to go around](_URL_2_) and they like bonding with those metals. This means that, even without looking, you can tell that the stuff that you can get by putting together nickel and sulfur is probably something that people are already digging out of the ground and taking apart to get the nickel out.",
"_URL_3_\n\nYou don't usually mix those because you can dig them out of the ground already mixed. NiS is an ore we extract Nickel from.",
"When sulphur and nickel chemically combine with each other, each nickel atom will lose two electrons, resulting in the formation of Ni^2+ ions. Those electrons will be gained by the sulphur atoms, resulting in S^2- ions. This collection of oppositely charged particles will then be held together by attractive coulombic forces. You will get an ionic solid.",
"Depending on how quickly he learns to read, (or if he likes to listen,) you may be interested in Uncle Tungsten, by Oliver Sacks. Autobiography of a guy growing up in England during WWII, but he has a lot of fun with chemistry through the entire book, and explains the history of a lot of the periodic table as well.",
"a bit Off topic.\nIf your 5 year old is really into chemistry I suggest that you buy textbooks and try some experiments with him/her.If you start now there is good chance that he/she will be really really good at it. \n[Young children are extremely good learners](_URL_4_)",
"At room temperature, nothing, they will just sit there as nickel and sulfur. You would have to heat them to react and form a compound, don't forget thermo.",
"Well mighty smart kid yah got there! While it will produce Millerite as other people have been suggesting, It would probably do so only under specific conditions. If I follow periodic trends, then it would most likely require a lot of pressure, a lot of heat, or both. you would also have to evacuate the air out of your reaction chamber because Sulfur likes to create SO4 2- ions, which would react more readily and bond to the Ni 2+ ions.",
"The main ore of nickel is pentlandite which is nickel iron and sulpher. It's not what you get when you put the three in a beaker but it's probobly the most common naturally occurring substance with those two elements as constituents. If your son has more questions of this nature I would recomendation consulting _URL_5_"
],
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millerite",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elemental_abundances.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millerite",
"http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/yf/famsci/fs609w.htm",
"Mindat.org"
]
}
|
My 5-year-old is fascinated by the elements on the periodic table, and the way the elements change when they combine into compounds. He wants to know what happens when you mix Sulfur and Nickel.
Can you help answer his question, r/askscience?
|
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3zc5kw
|
Why does psychology not study the effects of religion on the mind?
|
I was researching theological stuff yesterday and I came across a Wikipedia page about the psychology of religion and it said it is not widely accepted/studied.
Why not? The effect that religion has on someone's mind should be one of the most fascinating aspects of psychology, to brush it off as mumbo jumbo is extremely ignorant I believe. Psychology is the study of the mind, you would think this would be a major area of study. Who cares if its not real, it produces real effects in our minds.
Please help me understand why this isn't more pursued, I would love to pursue this type of psychology
|
askscience
|
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"From my knowledge, the psychology of religion has been studied for a long time. In the US, it started with William James and his book The Varieties of Religious Experience.\n\nI took a class in the psychology of religion in college, and we discussed what types of people were drawn to religion, what they tried to get out of it, the nature of religious experiences (and the use of mind-altering substances to achieve experiences), and many other topics.\n\nI was never under the impression that it was a particularly neglected field.",
"The [Psychology of Religion](_URL_1_) article on Wikipedia lists 116 papers/books as sources.\n\nA quick search of [Amazon](_URL_0_) returns hundreds of works.\n\nIt has been widely studied in psychology and has even begun to be studied in neuroscience.",
"I don't think I buy your premise. There are certainly many psychologists who study religion. Searching google scholar for \"psychology of religion\" generates [1.8 million hits](_URL_2_). You might want to check out where that wikipedia page is coming from and check what it is actually referring to.",
"My university library alone holds 839,107 titles related to this, including The Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. A broader search via Summons reveals 238,198 peer-reviewed scholarly articles with their full text available online published between 1995 and today. Wikipedia is great, but taking it at face value is never a good idea. I also do not see where it is stated that this discipline is not widely accepted, the closest related text I can find states that \"Many areas of religion remain unexplored by psychology.\" That is probably true. If you are interested in pursuing \"this type of psychology\" you may want to look at those areas that remain unexplored and explore them. Exploring unexplored areas of a topic is generally what drives research in any field.",
"[Luke Galen](_URL_6_) is a professor of religion and irreligion at Grand Valley State Univ. He was one of the co-hosts of the recently-ended [Reasonable Doubts](_URL_6_) podcast, where he had a regular feature called \"God Thinks Like You,\" which covers recent psychological studies involving religiosity. Lots of good stuff on that podcast.\n\nSteven Novella is a clinical neurologist at Yale, writes the [Neurologica blog](_URL_4_), and hosts the excellent [Skeptics Guide to the Universe](_URL_5_) podcast. His stuff isn't strictly focused on religion, but there is a fair bit of crossover as it relates to critical thinking, science, and skepticism.\n\nSo there's some stuff to dive into.",
"One of my own professors, Julie Exline, has a specialty in the intersection between faith and psychology. Here is a link to her blog: _URL_7_\n\nThe biggest idea that I remember taking away from her lectures on her own work was the concept of being angry at God. She spoke about a type of person who either claims to be an atheist or agnostic, but still expresses very emotional reactions towards God, as if they use the idea of God as a person to blame for various wrongs in their life or the world. She also connected the idea of anger towards God with anger at our parents.",
"I just did a report on this for on of my doctoral classes in clinical psych. There is actually a decent amount of research that has been done regarding religion and the mind, most of it in cognitive neuroscience, which was made possible only within the last few decades because of neuroimaging. Previously, research focused more on finding a \"god spot\" in the brain, which would be seen as either definitive proof that a god exists and humans are biologically \"programmed\" to connect at this level, or as definitive proof that a god doesn't exist and religious experiences are actually just significant neuronal events that we perceive as religion on the basis of our cognitive schemas, social conditioning, and expectations. More recently, research has turned away from this reductionistic view of one brain area being solely responsible for one function, and psychological studies have focused on more neutral biological observations. \n \nTo answer your question regarding why more research hasn't been done, I would say that it is because religion is a highly controversial topic in this society, and for a very long time, we didn't have the technological scientific capabilities to conduct these studies. Psychologists historically worked hard to distance their discipline from the mystical connotations it began with and move it toward a scientific, empirically-based discipline. Without objective biological measures, studies examining the interaction of religion and the mind (brain) could very easily be unscientific, which would discredit psychology as a legitimate science. The topic of religion still remains controversial, but technological advances have allowed psychologists in recent years to maintain a higher degree of objectivity, and therefore study religion within the context of psychology without a huge risk of delving into unscientific or biased territory on a controversial subject."
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"http://theness.com/neurologicablog/",
"http://www.theskepticsguide.org/",
"https://www.gvsu.edu/psychology/luke-galen-110.htm",
"https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/light-and-shadow"
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|
Why does psychology not study the effects of religion on the mind?
I was researching theological stuff yesterday and I came across a Wikipedia page about the psychology of religion and it said it is not widely accepted/studied. Why not? The effect that religion has on someone's mind should be one of the most fascinating aspects of psychology, to brush it off as mumbo jumbo is extremely ignorant I believe. Psychology is the study of the mind, you would think this would be a major area of study. Who cares if its not real, it produces real effects in our minds. Please help me understand why this isn't more pursued, I would love to pursue this type of psychology
|
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] |
|
1feiy5
|
What practical uses would a superdense (but not necessarily superstrong) material have in engineering?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Munitions and kinetic penetrators would benefit, just encase the weight in something suitably hard.",
"Most engineering is concerned with strength to weight ratio so in typical structural uses, not much. \n\nThe obvious ones to me are energy storage. [Flywheels](_URL_2_) would benefit because storing the same amount of energy at lower rotational velocities would make the bearings last far longer. Also, assuming the material has the usual high density - > high specific heat relationship, it would be incredibly useful for [Solar furnaces](_URL_0_) which store the sun's energy as heat during the day, then convert the heat to electricity using steam turbines. They currently use molten salt to take advantage of the heat of fusion during phase change, but a solid heat sink should be safer and much easier to build. \n\nIt may also be beneficial in some crane designs, like [tower cranes](_URL_3_) and [mobile cranes](_URL_1_); as well as some elevator systems as you would need a much smaller footprint for the counterweight.",
"In the keel of sailing yachts. They just have to sit there create a counter-torque to the lift due to the sails. With something super dense then the bulb on the keel can be a lot smaller - they're filled with lead now.",
"Radiology shielding, and possibly X-ray generation (as a replacement for tungsten)?",
"Depending on its atomic configuration, it might be that a super-dense material would also have very good thermal conductivity. This might be useful in applications such as heat sinks.",
"Anything that has to be weighted. Ballast for ships is a good example. Anything that needs to sink. I'm currently working on a project for work that involves trying to make something sink while retaining a small profile.",
"Loudspeaker cabinets for \"hifi\" systems. This could possibly reduce unwanted acoustic emissions from the speaker enclosure."
],
"score": [
16,
10,
8,
5,
3,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_furnace",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_cranes",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheel",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_crane#Tower_crane"
]
}
|
What practical uses would a superdense (but not necessarily superstrong) material have in engineering?
|
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||
36lj4c
|
Why isn't Ireland more forested?
|
The pictures I see of Ireland are mostly vast expanses of flat greenery. Why isn't it more forested? Or, are the pictures just playing to our expectations? If the answer is that there are conditions that favor flat greenery, are there other places in the world with the same conditions and same results?
|
askscience
|
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"[This article](_URL_0_) discusses the history of forests in Ireland, and their decline (and the current efforts to increase the amount of forest). Much like other areas of Western Europe, Ireland previously had much more forest cover, much of which was removed by human activity. This was firstly to increase the amount of land available for farming, and then later wood became an important material for industrial uses (much of which was exported to England, which had suffered from the same deforestation).",
"_URL_2_ - Here's a look at Irish forests from the Irish Department of Agriculture.\n\nThe tl;dr is that Ireland was virtually 100% forested, and they were cut down for various reasons.\n\nThe photos you see are, sadly, pretty representative. Though there are a couple of small exceptions, for example County Wicklow, parts of Westmeath, etc. but the countryside is almost entirely fields of various shades green.\n\nWhy not jump on Google Streetview and have a look around for yourself?\n\nAs for why these areas haven't been replanted, well as others have pointed out, it's all farmland.\n\nFor comparison, Scandinavia has far, far worse growing conditions for trees than Ireland - growth rates per year there are a fraction of Irish rates, yet it is much more extensively forested. It's purely a human decision.\n\n(Whilst not an unbiased source, there are some growth rate figures to give you some idea of the scale of how well Irish conditions suit trees: _URL_2_)",
"I have to give my opinion here, as a serious point hasn't been raised yet. Being so close to the UK, Ireland was harvested for it's lumber in order to build ships etc for the British Empire. As you know, the UK was the most powerful nation on earth for many years, and seafaring was her modus operandi. Ireland had lush forest that stretched the length and breadth of the land. It's said that you could travel from North to south, or East to west, in Ireland, without touching the ground. \n\nTL;DR The UK pillaged our forestry to build more ships to sail the seas, to pillage more lands, to get more coin, to pillage more lands, to build more ships... Etc, etc, etc.",
"Ok, I see a lot of good solid information here but also some spurious guesses. I have lived in Ireland pretty much all my life and from my studies I believe there are a couple of factors in the lack of forest cover in Ireland. Hopefully I can explain it well.\n\nIt was thought that before the Ice Age, Ireland was close to 100% covered with forests. After this period a lot of the native trees were [destroyed](_URL_7_). 7000 BC (Mesolithic) we saw the first settlers make there way from England, it is thought these first settlers were originally from the [Iberian peninsula](_URL_6_). These settlers would have been mainly hunters and gatherers but in order to make tools and shelter they would have cut down many trees around their settlements. At this time there still would have been a huge amount of tree cover.\n\nIt wasn't until 3000 BC (Neolithic) when colonists arrived. they were known as Neolithic farmers and since they needed land to thrive, rather than hunting, they had to afforest the area first. This would have been the first wide scale destruction of forests. Still at this time Ireland would have had about 60-70% forest cover.\n\nFollowing several invasions there was a growing population and our systems of Governance changed, none so much so as the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 which would continue for 700 years. During this time there was extensive damage done to Irelands ecology due to [plantations](_URL_6_) being taken from the Irish owners and given to English lords, which they in turn would deforest (where needed) in order to gain income from Irish farmers. \n\nEven with all this going on, the sheer number of trees in Ireland was staggering and by 1600 ireland still had a huge amount of tree cover. It was the beginning of the industrial period though that hit Ireland the hardest and with Englands navy dependant on the shipbuilding industry, coupled with [construction of more than 150 ironworks](_URL_5_) (which required a huge amount of timber) meant that by the 1800s almost all forests in Ireland were gone. *edit: Additionally when 'The Land Act' was passed many English tenants were required in some instances to give their land back to the Irish (at a cost), the lords would often cut all forests in the area in order to cash in before they were required to sell the land.\n\nToday Ireland has the second lowest forest cover in Europe (10%) but we have grants available for people wanting to convert their land to forest and projects in order to try and recover. I live in a place called *Eochaill* (English : Youghal) which means 'Yew wood' in Irish. The place was once covered in [yew](_URL_7_), a type of tree associated with being the timber used in making longbows but nowadays there are very little left.",
"Anywhere sheep are pastured is going to be treeless, because sheep will eat any small trees. If you plant trees you must go to the expense of fencing them in very securely until they are big enough to survive on their own. They raise a lot of sheep in Ireland, especially in the north and west.",
"According to a random museum exhibit I saw in Ireland while on honeymoon, they blame the British. The display showed Irish forests being cut down, turned into charcoal, and then sent to Britain for use in their iron then steel mills.",
"Englishman here. Gonna go ahead and take the blame before I even bother learning anything about it. I know enough about Irish history to know what I'm going to learn before I do.\n\nI also apologise for the catholic babies I'm sure we used to chop down the trees.\n\nSeriously though.\n\nWe were the worst.",
"Being Irish I can say that while yes the British did have a slight hand in it, I would say it's mostly just down to development. It's a small enough island and it's only natural that most land would be deforested due to housing, towns etc. Also way back when, the Irish primary industry was massive and a lot of the land was/is used as farmland. That's why the Irish famine was as bad as it was, people lived off of the food they could produce on their farmland and the blight starved them. To answer the question though, yes there is plenty of forests but there isn't more because it's a small island and all of the land is owned and already being used as farmland for crops/animals (the flat greenery you see).",
"At first I thought maybe there was a particular variety of climate in Ireland which favored grassland. However, according to the Koppen climate classification map, Ireland has a \"Cfb\" climate (moist mid-latitude with warm summers) in which you would certainly expect a broadleaf deciduous forest to be dominant. The only places where you would expect to see mostly green grasslands are in the drier mid-latitude \"Cs\" and \"Cw\" climates like the American prairie region, and \"ET\" (tundra) regions. \n\nThat's a long-winded way of saying: Yes, there should be forest, but people cut it down.",
"Well basically it has to do with the British coming in and taking all our Oak trees to build their fleets. That is reason there are very few oaks compared to UK.\nAlso Ireland before the famine (also caused by British pretty much) was a very densely populated country, almost double what it is now.\nThere are obviously a lot of other contributing factors and it is not this simplistic but that is the crux of it.",
"Before the Vikings invaded and started deforestation, a squirrel was able to go from North to South without touching the ground.\n\nBasically the different people who invaded us felled it all. The Vikings, the Normans, the feckin' Brits, so on so forth",
"I study geography and History of the Irish Landscape, an we learned that Ireland in 1990 had only 0.1% of it's original forestry remaining. \n\nIt had been cut down for clearing space for residential and infrastructural reasons I believe, and also for its wood I guess.\n\nIn the 90s the government planted 2.4bn trees that are beginning to really show again now.",
"And since we're here, I live in Kentucky. I've heard that Ireland is very similar aesthetically. Has anyone here been to both and can possibly vouch for this? Seems very interesting that two completely different areas with different climates could be so similar.",
"Much like others have said, Ireland has a lot of standing timber. It all depends on where you go, and the best pictures are the landscapes. The north coast, Donegal, the ring of Kerry ( large and small) the coast of Cork, or Galway, The lighthouses, and those things. It's all spectacular, but there's a lot of trees, ya just don't find them in the sheep pastures or the coasts.",
"We hardly have any natural forest left, there are a few heritage forests with natural wood. Coillte is a forestry company here and they've planted tons of conifer forests which are not natural here, and they grow them and then tear em down again for wood.",
"The western side of the island has plenty of forests",
"To add to the other reason, much of the trees were cut down for farming land, this was a poor country and so what most people might see as a waste of time clearing an area Irish farmers would fight for every inch"
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": [
"http://www.rohanlon.org/downloads/O%27Hanlon%20Forestry%20Source%20June%202012.pdf",
"http://www.teagasc.ie/forestry/docs/advice/irish_forests_world_beaters_farrelly.pdf",
"https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/contentarchive/forestry/IRISH%20FORESTRY-ABRIEFHISTORY-Oct08.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantations_of_Ireland",
"http://1002.nccdn.net/1_5/38d/38e/0d8/IMG_0750.jpg",
"http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/forestry/forestservicegeneralinformation/abouttheforestservice/IrishForestryAbriefhistory200810.pdf",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Hispania_560_AD.PNG",
"http://www.teagasc.ie/forestry/advice/forestry_history.asp"
]
}
|
Why isn't Ireland more forested?
The pictures I see of Ireland are mostly vast expanses of flat greenery. Why isn't it more forested? Or, are the pictures just playing to our expectations? If the answer is that there are conditions that favor flat greenery, are there other places in the world with the same conditions and same results?
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] |
|
rsion
|
My friend hates vegetables and fruits, and thus prefers to get his daily serving through a single can of V8 fruit juice. How healthy of an alternative is this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c48b6o0",
"c48br2s",
"c48bwfl",
"c48bp4v"
],
"text": [
"Looking at the [nutrition info](_URL_2_)... its not good but at least he won't get scurvy. The sodium intake for a single 8 fl. oz. serving is quite high, its nearly a [third of the recommended intake](_URL_1_). There are smaller 5.5 oz. cans but its still high for a serving that small. Hopefully he's drinking the low sodium versions but I am unsure of how much potassium is too much since the low sodium versions have higher potassium level.\nHe would also need another source of fiber, other vitamins and minerals. \n\nTo sum it up, its not great but he'll be fine if he can get what his body needs from other sources though not having fruits and veggies sure narrows down what he can _URL_0_ wold be easier if he ate fruits and veggies... He also need to watch his sodium intake.",
"The biggest thing you miss out on with juiced fruits and vegetables is fiber.",
"One important thing he's really missing out on is [dietary fiber](_URL_5_). The [recommendation](_URL_3_) is 25-30 grams each day, but a can of V-8 has only [2 grams](_URL_4_).",
"Well, for what it's worth, V8 now puts out [V8 Fusion](_URL_6_), which seems to be healthiest of the V8 options (less sodium than the original, and no HFCS and other crap like in V8 Splash). It's also the best tasting, imho."
],
"score": [
9,
9,
7,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"do.It",
"http://www.cdc.gov/Features/dsSodium/",
"http://www.v8juice.com/Products.aspx",
"http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/fiber-000303.htm",
"http://www.v8juice.com/Products.aspx",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_fiber",
"http://www.v8juice.com/faq_v8fusion.aspx"
]
}
|
My friend hates vegetables and fruits, and thus prefers to get his daily serving through a single can of V8 fruit juice. How healthy of an alternative is this?
|
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||
1kkvkr
|
In this animation, "The Inner Life of the Cell", what are we seeing at the 1:15 mark?
|
This [video](_URL_0_) was put together by the molecular biology dept at Harvard in conjunction with an animation company, its been around awhile. The whole thing fills me with wonderment and the 1:15 mark does particularly so. What are we seeing here? It looks like a chain of molecules with a sac attached to it, marching down some kind of tube.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbq0om1",
"cbq6q17",
"cbq6csq"
],
"text": [
"There is a full explanation video [here](_URL_0_). As others have pointed out the macromolecule you describe is kinesin (the explanation video simply calls it a \"motor protein\" but it is the same thing).",
"> Kinesin\n > _URL_1_\n\n(My comment) \n\nWhy is this comment hidden? The linked video confirms the molecule's identity and gives an explanation of the mechanism depicted in the Inner Life video.",
"I wish there was a lengthy documentary about the inner workings of the cells animated like this one and with a good narrator."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.xvivo.net/the-inner-life-of-the-cell/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.schooltube.com/video/298f6e0ddd0a626bc784/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLxlBB9ZBj4"
]
}
|
In this animation, "The Inner Life of the Cell", what are we seeing at the 1:15 mark?
This [video](_URL_0_) was put together by the molecular biology dept at Harvard in conjunction with an animation company, its been around awhile. The whole thing fills me with wonderment and the 1:15 mark does particularly so. What are we seeing here? It looks like a chain of molecules with a sac attached to it, marching down some kind of tube.
|
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|
ras7u
|
What is the lowest level of life for which behavioral learning is possible?
|
I'm not talking about getting stronger, like a physical adaptation, but behavioral change, like learning where the food is and going back there frequently. For example, is the behavior of a fly controlled by nothing more that genetics and environmental cues, e.g. smelling food? If it is governed by some kind of learning, then what is the lowest life form which cannot do that without genetic change?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Almost all invertebrates can do simple learning. Fruit flies, sea slugs, and pond snails, for example, are all capable of operant conditioning (= modifying their behavior due to learned associations.) Even flatworms can do some very simple learning - you can train them to turn toward or away from light to search for food. If the animal's got any kind of central nervous system at all, it is usually capable of crude learning. See [here](_URL_3_) for the classic planaria study, [here] (_URL_4_) for a recent review of learning in invertebrates, [here](_URL_1_) for more about how learning works at the neuronal level.\n\nEDIT: I just stumbled across [this interesting paper](_URL_2_) proposing that the evolution of nerve networks capable of associative learning might have been a factor in the diversification of animal life in the Cambrian explosion.\n\nEDIT 2: Found another interesting paper - [here](_URL_0_) - this one states that all animals with a central nervous system have been demonstrated to be capable of associative learning, but that there is no evidence of associative learning in sponges, placozoans, cnidarians or ctenophores (none of which have a CNS). \n\nEDIT3: Yes, there's more to operant conditioning than what I descibed above. I wasn't going to get into the distinction from classical conditioning, but since it came up: In classical conditioning, a stimulus (e.g. sight of food) that elicits a *reflexive* response (salivating) becomes paired with another, learned stimulus (sound of bell ringing), so that eventually the 2nd stimulus starts eliciting the reflexive response. (ring bell, dog starts salivating). In operant conditioning, a *voluntary* behavior (e.g. gull flips over red dish) becomes associated with a certain stimulus that occurs *after* the behavior (flipping of red dish reveals food!) resulting in the animal performing that behavior more often (gull starts looking for red dishes to flip). Both operant and classical conditioning involve learned associations, but in operant conditioning, the animal is learning an association bewteen a specific voluntary action, and the reward or punishment that follows. (\"If I do X, then Y happens.\") The typical case of an animal learning where food is, especially voluntarily moving toward places that had food in the past, is almost always operant conditioning.",
"[Fungus can be taught to solve a maze](_URL_5_).",
"Even extremely simple organisms can exhibit what could be called \"behavioral learning\". For example, the 1mm long nematode worm [C. elegans](_URL_6_) which is often considered to have the simplest nervous system (~300 neurons in total) exhibits desensitation to physical stimuli. In English, if you keep poking it eventually it'll stop recoiling.",
"Behavioural change isn't the opposite to genetic change. Genes have to code for the ability to learn a specific thing. The trade-off between behavioural traits that are innate and fully formed vs. those that are modified by learning has to do with the environment to which the organism is adapted. For example, many bee species will seek flowers without any experience in foraging, but each year they learn what colour flowers to seek. This represents their adaptation to an environment is which flowers are reliably present, but the colour/form/other details of these flowers can vary from generation to generation.\n\nYour question, although interesting, should perhaps be rephrased to 'What is the lowest level of life in which there is the genetic coding to allow for behavioural changes due to learning.'"
],
"score": [
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/biot.2007.2.3.231",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022519310003073",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/139/3559/1048.short",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438803001570",
"http://bigthink.com/ideas/40705",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans"
]
}
|
What is the lowest level of life for which behavioral learning is possible?
I'm not talking about getting stronger, like a physical adaptation, but behavioral change, like learning where the food is and going back there frequently. For example, is the behavior of a fly controlled by nothing more that genetics and environmental cues, e.g. smelling food? If it is governed by some kind of learning, then what is the lowest life form which cannot do that without genetic change?
|
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2lr8m1
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Hello /r/AskScience! What are your favourite safe, simple but exciting home experiments?
|
Come on, everybody has a favourite!
I'm specifically thinking of a children's party (7-y/o boy) I will be running. So... simple chemistry with a high visual/sensory impact?
The broader question might be, what are the best things to include in an interactive science presentation for young children (including the actual explanatory science). But I thought, how about asking something a bit more lighthearted!
Thank you... currently in advance.
EDIT: Some fantastic answers, thank you all very much for your input. I think I need to write myself a shopping list now!
|
askscience
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"I flaired your post chemistry because you mentioned that, but really, it could be a lot of things.\n\nYou can make a bowl of non-Newtonian fluid using corn starch and water. It's a bit messy but pretty mindblowing.\n\nI remember we were making columns of carbon in high school, and they looked really freaky as they were growing. I don't remember exactly how we did it. It might have involved sugar and some kind of acid… so maybe it's not as safe or easy to do at home. Maybe a chemist can chime in.\n\nI'll edit this if I can think of any others.",
"implode a can- little bit of water, heat it, wait for water vapor to be coming out, flip it updside down and dunk it in cold water. \n\nmatch rockets- cut a few matchheads off, put it in a tinfoil blunt- leave one attached to the stick. Use a paperclip to leave a small exhaust port, use a lighter- it will launch.",
"Perhaps try out \"elephant toothpaste\" - it shows the breakdown of 6% or greater H2O2 when exposed to the proper catalyst (KI is best, but I hear yeast will work too). When mixed with soap and food coloring, it makes a big tower of foam.\n\nCool chemistry demo which deals with the rates of reactions and the effect of adding a catalyst. Also pretty messy but most are.",
"Make ice cream!\n\nPut ice and some salt in a gallon Ziploc freezer bag. Put a cup of cream, 1/4 cup sugar, and 1 tsp. vanilla in a Ziploc sandwich bag and seal it. Put the little bag in the big bag and seal it, then shake until you've got ice cream. Meanwhile, talk about phase transition and what the salt does. Delicious, fun, and educational.",
"The mentos/diet coke (explosive) reaction usually works wonders. There is an article on wikipedia that explains it and shows the experiment for various gaseous drinks. \nNot very dangerous if the kids aren't too close, cheap, and effective.\n\nMaking ice cream with liquid nitrogen works well too, but getting some isn't as easy.",
"Well there's always baking soda and vinegar. If it gets cold where you live you can boil some water and throw it outside(it has to be freezing out for it to work though, probably even colder). You can buy dry ice at the store, you can do all sorts of cool things with dry ice if you supervise him closely with it.\n\nAn extremely easy one is to draw a dot in the center of a coffee filter with a sharpie, and then to connect the filter to a cup of water with something absorbent. If you did it right the water will carry the dye to the edge of the filter, and the colors will separate, a simple easy example of cromatography.\n\nIf you have a voltmeter, and a potato, or something else you can show that off, that's always pretty cool.\n\nYou can throw different kinds of salt on a fire to watch it change colors.",
"Blow up a balloon using vinegar and baking soda. \n\nBasically, grab a empty water bottle and fill it with some vinegar. Use a funnel to put some baking soda into a ball on and then carefully (making sure not to get the baking soda into the bottle just yet) place the neck of balloon over the neck of bottle. And then you can move the balloon so the baking soda falls in.\n\nThe resulting carbon dioxide fills up the balloon~ it doesn't float or anything, but it is effectively blown up.",
"If you have access to glassware (ball flask or an erlenmeyer), one-hole stoppers and an alcohol thermometer you could demonstrate water boiling in an ice bath at 0°C. It's simple, safe but you have to have the glassware, a heat source and the stopper at least, thermometer isn't all that necessary but it's cool to show the temperature the water is at.",
"You could make bouncy balls/slime with PVA glue and borax solution (sodium tetraborate) and depending on the amount of each quantity you use it will make slime or a bouncy ball.",
"what counts as safe? I am assuming that you are not set-up to handle fumes, but what are your thoughts on open flames? Would you be comfortable with candles? What about several feet of flame? There are lots of good demonstrations that have fire, but not really worth writing up, unless you are ok with them.",
"You can do very easy chromatography experiments with leaf pigments, a suitable filter paper, and rubbing alcohol. Mash up leaves, dissolve some in the alcohol, place a drop on the filter paper and look at the colored bands of pigments.\n\nKids are very surprised that there are more than just green pigments in there.",
"Something scientific to do that's always fun is stargazing.\n\nIf anyone you know has a telescope, and the party is going to be in the P.M., you could set up a telescope looking at the moon or Jupiter.\n\nThat's normally a lot of fun for little kids (and adults)",
"Brassing pennies. First they turn silver and then they turn golden when you apply heat.",
"There's a good one for kids that just uses milk, food coloring, and dish soap. I've done it before as a kid and taught it before to kids, always a big hit. Fill a bowl with milk, put a few drops of different food coloring in the bowl (keep open space between the colors!). Add one drop of dish soap. Looks amazing. If you want to teach them more about the science behind it, you can talk about the properties of different types of solutions. Homogenous, heterogeneous, and colloids. Milk is a colloid which is how this experiment works!",
"YouTube Litmus tests with red cabbage... Show them how different acid/base properties create different colors...",
"===Extract DNA from a strawberry===\n\nYou will need:\n\n* a strawberry, Frozen is fine.\n* Rubbing alcohol\n* meat tenderizer\n* dish soap\n* a fork\n* 2 cups. disposable plastic is fine.\n* A toothpick\n* a coffee filter\n* some water\n\nPut the strawberry in a small cup or glass. Add a small amount of water. Add a VERY small ammount of dish soap (as small an ammount as you can manage). Sprinkle with meat tenderizer. Mash this all up with a fork, and let it sit about 5 minutes.\n\nPut a coffee filter over the mouth of the clean cup. Push the middle down a bit to make a kind of bowl over the mouth of the cup. Pour the strawberry goo into the filter. You can wrap the filter up a bit and give it a squeeze to get the last of the liquid out. Discard the pulp and filter.\n\nAdd about an equal volume of rubbing alcohol and swirl it around to mix...you will see some cottony stuff form in the liquid....that's DNA. You can pull the DNA out with a toothpick; it will have a gel-like consistency. \n\nWHAT IS HAPPENING: The soap helps break down the plasma and nuclear membranes of the cells of the strawberry. Meat tenderizer contains papain, which is a protease. Proteases breaks down protein. The papain, helped by the soap, breaks down the proteins that are in the membranes and the ones that help package the DNA. DNA is soluble in water, but not very soluble in isopropanol (rubbing alcohol), so it precipitates out. \n\n\n==Leaf chromatograohy, great for fall===\n\nYou will need:\n\n* 1 leaf (trees that have dramatic and bright color changes, like maples, work best)\n* Some rubbing alcohol\n* A drinking glass\n* A coffee filter\n* A pencil\n* A small cup or bowl\n* A bowl slightly larger than the small cup or bowl\n* Scissors\n* Toothpicks\n\nGet a leaf from a tree while it's still green. Using the scissors, cut it up into small pieces and put the pieces in the small cup or bowl. Add just enough rubbing alcohol to cover the leaf pieces. You can enhance your results by crushing the leaves with a mortar and pestle or a spoon.\n\nFill the slightly larger bowl with hot tap water (NOT BOILING), and set the smaller bowl in it. Don't let the hot water get inside the smaller bowl. Float it in the hot water if you can, or secure it with a weight so it won't tip over.\n\nLet that steep for about 30 minutes (preferably in the dark), until the rubbing alcohol changes color. It may get a little thick; that's good. Now mix it up really well with a toothpick.\n\nNext, cut a strip from your coffee filter about a centimeter or two (half an inch) wide and about as long as your glass is tall. Cut the bottom of the strip into a tapered point. \n\nTwo or three centimeters (1 inch) from the bottom of the strip, above the tapered bit, \"paint\" some of your leaf/alcohol mix (just the liquid part, no leaf chunks) onto the filter. Make this a narrow line, perpendicular to the long axis of the strip. The narrower and straighter, the better. Let this dry in the dark.\n\nPut some fresh rubbing alcohol in your drinking glass. Tape the top end of the coffee filter strip (the end farthest from your painted line) to the pencil, and put the pencil over the top of the glass so that the tapered bottom of the strip barely dangles into the alcohol, and the strip does not touch the sides of the glass. Make sure the \"painted\" bit is above the level of the alcohol. Do not let the \"painted\" bit go into the alcohol. You can cover the whole thig with some plastic wrap to enhance the results. \n\nNow wait. The alcohol will move up the filter by capillary action and hit the green patch. The green patch will move up the filter, and then separate into different colors. It should take about an hour or an hour and a half to finish. \n\nIt will be somewhat faint, but you will see different colored bands moving up the paper. One green one, and (in most cases) other colors that correspond to the color that leaf would turn in the fall.\n\nWHAT IS HAPPENING: Leaves have lots of different pigments in them; the green one is chlorophyll. Usually, there is so much cholorophyll that you can't see the other pigments. When leaves get ready to fall off in the fall, they stop making cholophyll and the other pigments become visible.\n\nWhen you soak the leaf in alocohol, those pigments dissolve into it. When the alocohol moves up the strip, the pigments move with it. However, larger (higher molecular weight) pigments move more slowly than the strip than smaller ones...so they separate out. \n\n\n\nBONUS : And because it's the perfect time of year for it...find a tree that is in the process of changing; one that has fall-colored leaves as well as green ones. Collect leaves in various stages of color change and compare them. Be sure to clean the scissors between leaves as you cut them up.",
"Dry Ice Bubbles:\n take some dry ice and place it into warm water. Add a little dish soap (dawn works best) and watch the bubbles be formed. You can pop the bubbles and the cold carbon dioxide gas comes out.\n\nSlime:\nmix a solution of saturated borax with glue/water mixture and stir like crazy. Add food coloring for fun.",
"[Red cabbage pH indicator] (_URL_1_). It's easy to make, colorful, and you get to test a whole bunch of household substances to determine their pH. There are also plenty of color standards out there (just do a quick [GIS] (_URL_0_) so that you can get a more quantitative value.",
"I made some sodium acetate \"hot ice\" this weekend with my little brothers (8 and 10), easy peasy to do, nothing toxic is used, and only requires some clear vinegar and baking soda. For the effort it takes, it's a [pretty impressive demonstration.](_URL_3_)\n\n[Instructable.](_URL_2_)",
"You could also demonstrate how the acceleration due to gravity is constant, regardless of mass.\n\nDrop objects with different masses and have the audience guess which one would fall to the ground first.",
"Well, I only consider this safe if done by a person with common sense and good preparation. Thermite. It might not exactly be great for 7 y/os, but it can be a fun one to do with buddies. You can get the materials on ebay for around $20, Iron Oxide powder (red) and Aluminium powder, and some magnesium strips. If done in small ammounts (100-200 total grams) it can be a really fun time. I've used it to melt through the top of an old scrapped minifridge before. Fun times.",
"[making a foam volcano using hydrogen peroxide and dish detergent](_URL_4_)\n\nIt's easy and relatively no mess, but I'd suggest doing it outside or with newspapers underneath for easy cleanup.",
"The iodine clock reaction is fairly easy to do and safe and gets kids excited.",
"baking soda + vinegar\n\nor that cornstarch and water mix",
"[Calculate the speed of light using a microwave.](_URL_5_)"
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"https://www.google.com/search?q=red+cabbage+indicator&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS591US591&es_sm=93&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=TeFfVMPGNMLuoAT9t4L4Cg&ved=0CAgQ_AUoAQ&biw=1585&bih=802",
"http://chemistry.about.com/od/acidsbase1/a/red-cabbage-ph-indicator.htm",
"http://www.instructables.com/id/Crystallization-of-homemade-sodium-acetate/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U_qzgDLaQ94",
"http://science.wonderhowto.com/how-to/make-crazy-foam-explosion-science-experiment-271328/",
"http://www.physics.umd.edu/icpe/newsletters/n34/marshmal.htm"
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}
|
Hello /r/AskScience! What are your favourite safe, simple but exciting home experiments?
Come on, everybody has a favourite! I'm specifically thinking of a children's party (7-y/o boy) I will be running. So... simple chemistry with a high visual/sensory impact? The broader question might be, what are the best things to include in an interactive science presentation for young children (including the actual explanatory science). But I thought, how about asking something a bit more lighthearted! Thank you... currently in advance. EDIT: Some fantastic answers, thank you all very much for your input. I think I need to write myself a shopping list now!
|
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|
1bnzcx
|
Is the usable mathematics a limiting factor for study of Physics?
|
This is a very long post with a lot of questions:
I recall a quote by Einstein saying that he could not proceed further after a point in GR with the general mathematical tools until he was able to use tensors in it. Is it that the more simpler concepts were too inadequate, or was it that it was almost unworkable with those simpler mathematical techniques?
Looking at QM, Heisenberg initially worked with Matrices and Schrodinger waves, with the latter method simpler and more intuitive, but both later proved to be equivalent in their approach.
Fermat claimed a very elegant proof of his last theorem, but didn't it take mathematics which were developed only recently(20th century) to prove it? And the proof is not elegant(100+ pages). Did the mathematics limit our idea or was it that only Fermat could prove it elegantly?
My question being, would future theories rely more on using the most sophisticated mathematical ideas to create a complete model or is that the model be explained with more simpler tools , pointing towards an "equivalence"? And since mathematics is voluminous, would learning very complex models to be applied in physics be justified? Any additional info would be helpful too.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c98ev1p",
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"c993n05"
],
"text": [
"I'll leave most of your questions to people more knowledgeable in physics, but I'd like to address the part about Fermat's last theorem. It is generally believed that Fermat didn't have a correct proof; the only known proof requires methods far beyond what was known in Fermat's time, and in fact involves the study of objects that weren't discovered until centuries later.\n\nFurthermore, there are several points at which, given the state of mathematical knowledge at the time, it'd be very easy to make a false assumption that would cause the proof to fail. It's not hard to see how Fermat could have mistakenly believed he had a proof.\n\nHowever, just because the modern proof is long and highly technical doesn't mean it's not elegant! The key component of Wiles' proof is proving a significant case of the [modularity theorem](_URL_0_) (later proved in full), which is a beautiful theorem that ties together elliptic curves and modular forms, two objects of study that arose in very different ways and were originally thought to be unrelated. The proof is so long because this is a seriously difficult result, not because of any lack of ingenuity. (That's not to say a shorter, more elegant proof might not be discovered in the future — but if it is, I bet it'll use techniques that aren't known yet.)",
"From the level of quantum mechanics that I have studied, almost every single form of Schrodinger's equation can be solved using perturbation theory. \n\nBasically, if there's a problem that can't be solved exactly by using analytical tools, then there is a method to solve it to many, many digits using intensive computational power.\n\nJust keep in mind that I'm still studying low-level quantum, though. [There is a discussion going on over at r/physics about the black hole firewall paradox](_URL_1_), where the mathematics behind general relativity, the mathematics behind quantum theory, and the mathematics behind information theory all clash against each other in a paradox induced by a thought experiment about what goes on at the event horizon of a black hole.\n\nIs the limitation there mathematical? From what I've read, the limitation seems to be the models that we employ to describe the universe; i.e. the limit is our own imagination.",
"Possibly.\n\nWhile I haven't studied General Relativity in depth and can't speak to that particular example, in general I can confirm that physics periodically relies on advancements in mathematics to advance itself.\n\nThe thing is that advancements in physics are largely unpredictable. We don't know what we'll need next, so we don't know whether the next big theory will require no more than matrices (which are pretty basic as far as mathematical tools go), or if it will require something no one has thought of yet.\n\nI recall from taking Quantum Mechanics that there were a couple big steps that the founders took in developing it where they had to turn to mathematicians for help. I believe this had to do with group theory or understanding some bizarre functions (of which there are quite a few!).\n\nThere are many areas of physics where it's clear that there is more work to be done, but most of that work will look like one of the following:\n\n1. Do a bunch of experiments then think about the results until someone figures out the equation that describes the behavior. Do this repeatedly and then find some even more general equations that sum up the different observed ones.\n2. Take a few established theories that are relevant to your topic, stir them up and apply some conditions specific to said topic (i.e. in particle physics, take relativistic kinematics, mix with some quantum effects like spin, and mix with certain observed conservation laws, like conservation of charge, spin, etc.). Then wait for experiments to confirm your theory.\n\nThe thing about bringing in fresh, revolutionary mathematics is that it requires fresh, revolutionary physics to make it relevant. Einstein needed new math because his theory was redefining the shape of space-time, for which there was no precedent in physics. The founders of quantum theory needed new math (or at least advanced math they weren't yet familiar with) because their theories were based on a probabilistic world, which again was a complete game changer with no previous physics that could help guide the way. Aside from these two theories, physics pretty consistently uses the same pool of relevant mathematics over and over. For physics to again hit the wall of mathematical knowledge like it did with relativity and quantum physics, it would need to introduce an idea that has never been seen before. And we simply don't know how many more times this can happen until we've exhausted the physics to be found. Quantum theory has been called the \"most successful physics theory ever\" (to quote my quantum professor), so it could either be the peak of new physics beyond which nothing will ever be quite as revolutionary, or it could be the first stepping stone to a shitstorm of science that's about to blow our minds.\n\nSo could new mathematics be needed to create new physics theories? Possibly. I hope so.",
"Well, part of the problem is that while it's easy to find applications for mathematical things, and to use mathematical objects to measure and even predict things about the world, it's not entirely possible to say what will have a useful extensive meaning and further, to be required to prove it is true in order to use it.\n\nThere's really no need at all for a course in number theory and seeing rigorous proof for the field properties of the real numbers in order to know that when your village acquires 10 more cows than the 20 it has, you'll have 30 cows.\n\nThere's a very real need for a type of mathematics that allows the notion of an infinitesimal and the summation of infinitesimals -- but in order to use limits and integrals and most modern calculus for quite a large variety of Physics needs - - -and indeed it was invented for that purpose by Newton - - it's not like you really *need* all the proofs of the actual conceptual distinctions.\n\nThe history of \"Analysis\" has been going on for a very long time, some of it relevant to Physics, some of it not.\n\nSo, while you *can* probably safely claim that with more and more mathematically rigorous ways to construct and classify and prove properties of mathematical objects - - Representation theory as part of Group Theory finding use in Physical Chemistry comes to mind - we will have better ways to talk about things that actually exist in the real world, there isn't anything to necessarily say that you need to have a deep understanding of group theory beyond the mechanics to do Physics, or that all mathematics will necessarily find physical applications.\n\nIt's fun to joke around and say \"All math is applied math, eventually\", but there's no reason this should be true.\n\nSome people - - way way smarter than me - - make the opposite case. \n\nThat there's a spooky kind of [Unreasonable Effectiveness](_URL_2_) to mathematics, and that mathematics consistently points the way forward in physical theory and as our mathematics advances, so to our physical theory. \n\nWhich is fine, and has lots of support, but your tensor example is actually pertinent.\n\nFirst it was scalars, then vectors, and finally tensors that were invented, some before, some after GR was itself a physical theory.\n\nBut what mathematical methods do we have for studying empathy? \n\nAnd are we going to make the claim that there will always be mathematical methods for studying things in the physical world?\n\nWhat is the physical world really then; separate or not separate from any constructed mathematical theory? \n\nShould we expect there to be mathematics for studying empathy? \n\nThis is a tough question, and I hope it attracts the attention of many flaired users."
],
"score": [
11,
8,
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3
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity_theorem",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/1blsx6/black_hole_firewall_paradox_challenges_general/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences#The_miracle_of_mathematics_in_the_natural_sciences"
]
}
|
Is the usable mathematics a limiting factor for study of Physics?
This is a very long post with a lot of questions: I recall a quote by Einstein saying that he could not proceed further after a point in GR with the general mathematical tools until he was able to use tensors in it. Is it that the more simpler concepts were too inadequate, or was it that it was almost unworkable with those simpler mathematical techniques? Looking at QM, Heisenberg initially worked with Matrices and Schrodinger waves, with the latter method simpler and more intuitive, but both later proved to be equivalent in their approach. Fermat claimed a very elegant proof of his last theorem, but didn't it take mathematics which were developed only recently(20th century) to prove it? And the proof is not elegant(100+ pages). Did the mathematics limit our idea or was it that only Fermat could prove it elegantly? My question being, would future theories rely more on using the most sophisticated mathematical ideas to create a complete model or is that the model be explained with more simpler tools , pointing towards an "equivalence"? And since mathematics is voluminous, would learning very complex models to be applied in physics be justified? Any additional info would be helpful too.
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