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My high school cross-country coach always said it was better to breath through your nose while running. Is there any truth to this, and if so whats the science behind it?
|
askscience
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"You will suffocate trying to breathe only through your nose while running unless you are going at a pace that is way too easy anyway. Here's a thread of runners laughing at the idea that you are supposed to breathe only through your nose-\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\"When it comes to taking in air, you have to get it from every place possible. It's also an advantage to a runner, or any athlete involved in aerobic activity to practice breathing properly and developing a strong and vibrant diaphragm muscle.\"\n\nHere are pictures from the Olympic marathon. These people are not breathing through their nose only-\n\n_URL_2_\n\nTheir mouths are slightly open, as they are taking in as much air as possible by breathing through their mouth and nose at once.\n\nHere is some science on why-\n_URL_1_\n\nYou can see that the nasal breathing is statistically lower in VO2 etc. than oral breathing.",
"When you breathe through your nose, the air flow is turbulent in your sinuses. This causes the air to not only warm up to body temperature, but also adds water vapor to the air. The aids in the diffusion of Oxygen once the air reaches your lungs.",
"[This study](_URL_3_) says nasal breathing helps reduce exercise induced asthma by warming/cooling and moistening the air. I've had coaches say nose breathing helps to reduce breaths per minute, which reduces physical and central nervous stress, but I've also had coaches say \"suck in oxygen any way you can.\" There are a lot of anecdotal stories about marathoners who swear nose breathing made their success.",
"Somewhat unrelated but if you're looking to become a better runner this should help: ever since I read that you should focus on exhaling I've had a much easier time running. Normally we try to suck in a lot of air but we only exhale a little. Inhaling is a reflex and by exhaling as much as you can you're making room in your lungs to inhale more.",
"It may be beneficial to train by breathing through your nose only, but when competing breathe through your nose and mouth to get as much oxygen as possible; similar to training at high altitudes so your muscles get used to working on less oxygen and can use oxygen more efficiently.\n\nI did some research on how to increase the length of time I could hold my breath for surfing large waves and one technique was to only breath through your nose when running, while also breathing slow and controlled to further reduce air intake to as low as possible. Another technique used by big wave surfers is to exhale all the air in your lungs underwater, wait about 30 seconds, and then swim as far as you can.\n\nI did not quickly find any studies to back this up, I'm not sure if there are any, but with more searching than I'm willing to do at this moment there is probably some documentation on the effects of nose only breathing in relation to muscles oxygen efficiency.",
"Exhaling through your mouth slightly increases the pressure in the lungs pushing more oxygen across the alveolar membrane. You can get the same effect with so-called pursed lip breathing."
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"url": [
"http://www.runnersworld.com/community/forums/runner-communities/beginners/mouth-v-nose-breathing",
"http://www.topendsports.com/resources/research/nasal-oral-breathing.htm",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/gallery/2012/aug/12/london-olympic-mens-marathon-pictures#/?picture=394618582&index=0",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8599744"
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My high school cross-country coach always said it was better to breath through your nose while running. Is there any truth to this, and if so whats the science behind it?
|
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||
2adhsb
|
Why does pumping your breaks make you stop faster than locking your breaks?
|
I don't see why constant friction is worse.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Static friction between your tyres and the road is greater than kinetic (sliding) friction. You are able to exert more braking force while your tyres are not skidding.\n\nIf you brake hard, you can easily make the tyres skid. \"Pumping the brakes\" - also called cadence braking - aims to brake as hard as you can until a skid just starts, then reduce the force a fraction, then increase the force again.\n\nThe reason you increase the force is that your tyres are heating up as you brake, and their friction increases, so the skidding force is increasing as you brake.\n\nOn modern cars, you don't need to worry about this - your antilock braking system handles it for you. When you brake very hard you hear (and feel) a loud buzzing - that's the computer pulsing the brakes at the skid point.",
"It has to do with the physics of how the tire interacts with the road. That can get very complicated, so I'll try and keep it simple (of course, part of this is that I don't fully understand that interaction either!).\n\nFirst off, it's important to understand exactly what is slowing the car down. In order for a car to speed up or slow down, something external has to exert a force on it. In the case of your normal everyday, non rocket- or jet-powered car, this is the road itself pushing on the tires; i.e., friction between the road and the tires. In order to slow down quickly, you want to increase the frictional force the road exerts on the tires. Since the rolling resistance of a tire once it is alread moving is low, we need a way to introduce extra kinetic friction. The easiest and best way to do that is the slow the speed at which the tire rotates.\n\nThis is where the brakes come in, of course. They exert a frictional force on the rotors, which slow down the axles, which slow down the wheels/tires, and then the road slows down the car. Here's where it starts to get tricky. It turns out that tires generate their best braking force when they are rotating about 10-15% slower (IIRC) than they \"should\" be for the speed you're going. If you go over this threshold, the friction between the tires and road quickly becomes great enough to lock up the tire (i.e., stop it spinning entirely). This is bad, because it turns out that the braking force available just from the tire sliding across the asphalt is something like 30% lower than at the threshold! Locking the tires also means that the tires have no more grip to provide, so you can't use them to steer either. Obviously, we really don't want the tires to lock up.\n\nThis is where pumping the brakes comes in. Since the threshold can be so sharp, you don't want to go over it, but you want to get as close to it as possible. Unfortunately, this takes a *lot* of practice; threshold braking (balancing on that knife edge constantly) is used in all forms of motor racing, but the average guy on the street just isn't a good enough driver to do it consistently, especially in panic stops where you're most likely to need it. So instead, we get taught the much easier technique of pumping the brakes. You press the brake pedal hard enough to lock the tires because you're panicking, let up to get the tires spinning again so you can maneuver a little, press back down, etc. Anti-lock brakes do this for you much faster than you can, which is why you shouldn't pump them. I was also taught to only pump the brakes in the rain, snow, etc. It's very easy to lock the wheels on bad surfaces, and usually pretty difficult to do it on dry pavement unless your brakes are really strong or your tires suck.",
"Pumping your brakes doesn't make you stop faster, it helps you maintain control on anything without ABS (Anti-lock Brake System). Once tires stop you can't steer, but when you let off of the brake you can gain a bit of control while they momentarily rotate.\n\n If your car has ABS mash that brake through the floor and keep it there to stop.",
"Think of it this way:\n\nWhen you need to move a very heavy piece of furniture by sliding it on the floor. The force you need to start it moving is larger than what is needed once it is sliding. This is because static friction is greater than kinetic friction. Once your wheels start sliding, they are less effective."
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{
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{
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|
Why does pumping your breaks make you stop faster than locking your breaks?
I don't see why constant friction is worse.
|
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z0weu
|
Question about the beginning of evolution
|
askscience
|
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"Yikes. The age old irreducible complexity argument followed by the macroevolution denial. \n\nSo you friend can accept that there are small changes. Well can she accept that there are many small changes? What about many small changes over time? What about many small changes over a great deal of time?\n\nPoint 1. The statement that \"mutation and natural selection would tend to eliminate\" a protein that appeared with \"nothing to do\" is incorrect. New proteins don't just appear, they evolve from pre-existing genetic code (usually from codes that make proteins themselves). Most mutations have no effect on protein functions, some will be detrimental and some rare ones will have an advantage. If we take the advantageous mutation example, we are starting with a functional protein and acquiring a mutation that enhances its effectiveness or adds a secondary function. \n\nNow, we also have the interesting case of gene duplication. Let's say a cell uses a protein for a specific function. If we mess with that protein, we lose that function and the cell cannot survive. But in some cases, the DNA that codes for that protein can be duplicated. Now we have two sources of making that protein. The second copy is now free to be mutated without causing the cell to die (since it can make the protein from the non-mutated copy). [Gene duplication is a major driver of new protein function](_URL_4_).\n\nPoint 2. This denial of so called \"macroevolution\" and transitional fossils is nonsense. [There are lots of transitional fossils and well defined events that represent gradual change](_URL_1_) and [here is a website you see a comparison of several species evolving over time through the fossil record](_URL_6_). Not accepting this is intellectually dishonest. Of course there isn't going to be a sharp transition between ancestors, it will be gradual like our collection of [hominid fossils](_URL_3_) documenting humans and apes. In other words, we can show gradual progression from one form to another via several fossils. There is also the famous archaeopteryx (_URL_5_) which is a great transition from dinosaurs to birds. And [the horse](_URL_0_). You can't just ignore these examples. Also bring up the point of [vestigiality, like how modern whales have non-functional legs that are completely buried within their bodies](_URL_2_).\n\nTL,DR:\n\n1. Proteins with new functions don't just pop up, they evolve from pre-existing proteins with function. No function or structure we know of is irreducibly complex.\n\n2. Transitional fossils exist, many of them. We don't expect to see a sharp transition, so we show transition of one species into another by a gradual change through several related fossils.",
"If she is in micro organisms and biochemistry why not ask her why it's necessary to get a different flu jab every year? If the flu virus did not adapt to the environment then you would only ever need one flu jab.\n\nTranitional fossils? _URL_7_",
"From the look of her response, it sounds like you want the index to creationist claims at _URL_13_\n\n_URL_16_\n\n\n > 1) ... then mutation and natural selection would tend to eliminate it. \n\na) If it did *absolutely nothing* of value whatever, then it would tend to be eliminated, but if it's not particularly costly it might stay around for a long time before that happened\n\nb) It's unusual for proteins to have no impact, good or bad - at all. a lot of proteins do something useful (or, sometimes, several slightly useful things) but less efficiently than other things. Or other ones are very slightly harmful. So a lot of things will either be quickly eliminated (on an evolutionary scale) or do something very slightly useful ... and then later be adapted to some other purpose\n\nc) some things can evolve relatively quickly. [Nylonase](_URL_12_) is the result of [gene duplication](_URL_14_) (giving two copies of a useful gene), followed by a frame-shift mutation. It evolved since the production of nylon began.\n\nGene duplications somehow seem to be something that creationists are either ignorant of or ignore, but they're very important -- many of our 'systems' are re-purposed from something else that's functional (something that does one task is *very* similar to something that does a different task - our body is full of such things), and indeed often an original system might actually do both tasks (though less well). Such things evolve by duplication followed by small changes, producing two systems specialized to different purposes.\n\n[Opsins](_URL_16_) are an example of a couple of collections of related proteins. Within each collection there are a slew of useful proteins that do different but important jobs.\n\n > 2) this is an apparent misunderstanding combined with what would be a false claim, except that the weasel-term 'indisputably' has been inserted. *Anything* can be disputed, and will be, by creationists determined to do so. (Make sure you ask for some reasonable standard up front rather than such an impossible-to-meet standard as something which nobody will dispute.)\n\n_URL_15_\n\n_URL_10_\n\n_URL_11_\n\nand within this:\n\n_URL_17_\n\nthere's:\n\n_URL_17_section1.html#morphological_intermediates\n\nI can point to many many more such.\n\nI highly recommend Shubin's book *Your Inner Fish* on this. She might have fun trying to explain just *how* his team managed to find what they did on the basis of predictions based on geology and evolution. Does she think they were just using magic? Just incredibly lucky to find something very similar to what they were looking for, where they figured out to look? \n\n(The other half of the book is equally fascinating but quite different in focus.)",
"2 - Be careful that she is not using \"transitional fossils\" and \"missing link\" interchangeably. A transitional fossil [\"exhibits traits common to both an ancestral group and its derived descendant group.\"](_URL_18_). This is the correct term to use. A transitional fossil is its own species. For example, we may find a new hominid skeleton in africa. It may have features that are representative of an ancestral group (perhaps feet that grasp) but of a derived group (a bipedal posture). Meaning it is somewhere in between being an \"ape\" and being \"human\". Where people get confused is that they think this fossil *directly* leads to humans. More likely, this specimen was its own species that also diverged from a common ancestor (of which we have no fossil) of humans and itself. We can infer what this common ancestor looked like and acted like based on older and younger fossils - these \"transitional fossils\". We say it is a \"transitional fossil\" with the intent of implying that it has features that resemble a human, but does not necessarily mean that this fossil is our direct ancestor. It would easier to explain with a photo - but I cannot find a good one. In any case here is the wiki article on [common ancestors](_URL_20_).\n\nWhere as a [missing link](_URL_18_#Missing_links) implies \"notion of simple organisms being primitive versions of complex ones, which has been discarded in biology\". It refers back to an era where \"the static, non-evolutionary concept of the great chain of being, a deist idea that all existence is linked, from the lowest dirt, through the living kingdoms to angels and finally to God\" was the dominant form of thinking. \"Scientists, however, do not use the term, as it refers to a pre-evolutionary view of nature.\"\n\nI don't really have time to go into examples, however here is a great overview of [macroevolution vs. microevolution](_URL_19_)",
"> At the cellular level, everything is crucial in order to work as a unit.\n\nThis is getting at Behe's irreducible complexity argument that gained some attention in the 90s. It has been disproven, rather handily. This is based on the incorrect assumption that all the parts in the system sprang whole into being in their current form, and had no function before. This is not the case.\n\n > No one has yet discovered a fossil creature that is indisputably transitional between one species and another.\n\nWe do have transitional forms, it just depends on how you choose to define that term. What makes something transitional and not just intragroup variation? Without those criteria, the question is meaningless.",
"I would hope that she realizes that science doesn't answer everything. If it did, why would anyone become a scientist? There would be nothing left to do. Additionally, rigorous science doesn't try to \"prove\" anything. A scientist (should) take observations of the natural world, think up the best possible explanation (which incorporates all the current observations/data) and then spend the rest of his or her time doing everything possible to prove that idea wrong. We look for data cannot predicted or explained. When that happens, we modify our idea (theory) and continue to look for things that invalidate it. Nothing is set in stone. That being said, I have yet to hear of any data that disproves evolution, at any scale.\n\nIf she has a strong chemistry background, she might appreciate the work on ancestral protein reconstruction. To my knowledge, JW Thronton has gone the farthest in this field. I'd recommend a set of 4 papers: PNAS 2001 \"Evolution of vertebrate steroid receptors from an ancestral estrogen receptor by ligand exploitation and serial genome expansions\" [text](_URL_25_), Science 2003 \"Resurrecting the Ancestral Steroid Receptor: Ancient Origin of Estrogen Signaling\" [text](_URL_22_), Science 2006 \"Evolution of Hormone-Receptor Complexity by Molecular Exploitation\" [text](_URL_24_) and Science 2007 \"Crystal Structure of an Ancient Protein: Evolution by Conformational Epistasis\" [text](_URL_23_). In these he lays out how a hormone receptor can gain specificity for a new ligand (hormone in this case). He then created the possible intermediate genes, expressed them in cells and assayed their functionality. He found that the intermediates were functional, although they had different affinities for the different ligands. He further showed the order of mutations that must have occurred by solving the crystal structures of the proposed intermediate proteins. He could do this because some of the mutations don't change the function, but do affect the structure of the protein. These structural changes are needed to allow the mutations that actually change the function of the protein. I think these address point 1 rather well."
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Equine_evolution.jpg",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/section1.html#pred4",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestigiality#Animals",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/section1.html#morphological_intermediates_ex3",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_duplication#Gene_duplication_as_an_evolutionary_event",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeopteryx",
"http://www.transitionalfossils.com/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_transitional_fossils",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CC/CC200.html",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-transitional.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria",
"talkorigins.org",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_duplication#Gene_duplication_as_an_evolutionary_event",
"http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/List_of_transitional_forms",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opsin",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/section1.html#morphological_intermediates",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitional_fossil",
"http://i.imgur.com/xWpvw.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitional_fossil#Missing_links",
"http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;301/5640/1714",
"http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;317/5844/1544",
"http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;312/5770/97",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/98/10/5671.full"
]
}
|
Question about the beginning of evolution
|
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] |
||
80f3zu
|
Are there any other devices that convert electricity into rotation?
|
Other than conventional motors where (electro)magnets pull each other.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"duv66sq",
"duv3roh",
"duv4zr2"
],
"text": [
"A very interesting method of producing torque from electricity is by using a magnetotorquer. It is an arrangement of electromagnets powered to produce an asymmetric magnetic field, which is controlled by changing the current on the coils. The magnetic field of the magnetorquer interferes with an ambient magnetic field and by carefully manipulating the magnetic field of the magnetorquer you can extract useful torque from the counter forces. \nEven though it is only useful near strong magnetic fields, it is great for small satellites in LEO since it requires no moving parts or propellants.",
"There are a few ways to induce rotation using electromagnetic fields that don't directly involve electromagnets. For example, there is a chemical called azobenzene that switches between a compact and extended structure when absorbing light, and if a surface is covered with the stuff, it will stretch or contract upon receiving incident light. [This can be used](_URL_1_) to create an extremely inefficient motor that turns under application light, without intermediate electricity. [It is also possible](_URL_0_) to use magnetic fields to rotate assemblies of magnetic fields, and use them to mix microscopic fluids.",
"An [aeolipile](_URL_2_) with the working fluid being pumped, boiled, or otherwise pressurized using electricity. A rack-and-pinion arrangement driven by linear electrothermal actuators."
],
"score": [
6,
6,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://journals.aps.org/pre/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevE.69.041406",
"http://nlcmf.lci.kent.edu/reference_materials/Papers/Ikeda/Photomobile%20Polymer%20Materials%20Towards%20Light-Driven%20Plastic%20Motors.pdf",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolipile"
]
}
|
Are there any other devices that convert electricity into rotation?
Other than conventional motors where (electro)magnets pull each other.
|
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umuhd
|
What percent of the atoms that you were born with do you die with?
|
First off, thanks for the replies! Second, let's clarify a few points! To start, let's assume that you live for a significant period of time (say 80 years) and therefore the trivial limit of dying instantly is not relevant. Further, I think landryraccoon captured the spirit of the question best when he wrote, "suppose when you were born, virtually all of the carbon in your body was C-14. What proportion of the carbon in your body at death would be C-14?" Let's say every atom at birth was an isotope not found commonly in nature. If that was the case, what percentage of the atoms when you died would still be the initial isotopes?
A5RoadDogg's response got buried below, but please give it a quick read and upvote/comment because, after reading all the responses, he/she best tackled the initial prompt with a solid, focused analysis. If anyone could comment on the methodology used or give more precise figures, it would be greatly appreciated! Thanks again guys!
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Since we definitely \"lose\" atoms as we age, the question is equivalent to \"does there exist an atom which is prevented from being lost to the erosion of aging?\"\n\nI'm not sure if we will be able to answer that question. As another poster stated, most atoms are indistinguishable. Carbon atom #1 is identical in every way to carbon atom #5327564. Even my enumeration is a fantasy.",
"I feel like people are getting unnecessarily caught up in the \"all atoms are identical\" argument. I agree that they are, but think of it this way: I have two identical spheres sitting on a table in front of me. If someone walks up and swaps one out, as long as I am looking at it, I'll know it was swapped out. If I wasn't looking the whole time though, I'd have no way of knowing. \n\nSame with your body. If you had a way to follow every single atom in your body throughout your whole life, then you could find the answer to your question. Unfortunately, that'll be pretty difficult to do. \n\nI imagine you could get an estimate though, if you could get some rates from a chemist or biologist for swapping a 13C into a sugar, for example (I realize this is a different scenario, but it would give a decent first estimate).",
"I'm going to side step everyone's answer about how atoms are identical. That's, I believe, not what you're asking _at all_.\n\nWhat you mentioned using carbon isotopes is very interesting, because that's exactly what's done in a [study to track the growth of cardiomyocytes](_URL_0_). It turns out these cells undergo mitosis extremely slowly - to the point a 50-year-old individual still contains more than half the cells they had since birth.\n\nWhat does this have to do with atoms? DNA in a cell is relatively static, and unless a cell undergoes mitosis (thus DNA is replicated), or is damaged (thus requiring repair), there should be no incorporation or loss of atoms from the DNA itself (epigenetic changes aside).",
"Sorry, but I need to disagree with the unanswerable hypothesis. If the question was \"Is there a way to identify which atoms in my body were there from birth?\" then yes, but that's not the question. I will agree that all C12 atoms (for example) are identical from a physical and chemical perspective...but that doesn't preclude each C12 atom having its own unique life cycle.\n\nWhile this is not a scientifically accurate calculation, we can make a back-of-the-envelope calculation. First, let's assume no radioactive isotopes and thus no radioactive decay. Let's also assume a 65:25:10 (by individual atoms) split of hydrogen:oxygen:carbon. Let's also assume that atoms are exchanged through growth (change in mass from birth to death) and biological turnover (i.e. a birth protein can be broken down and excreted, and replaced with a protein which used post-birth glucose as a building block).\n\nThe change in mass is easy - let's assume ~4kg at birth, and ~70kg at death. Thus, right off the bat, you have at best 4/70, or ~6% of the atoms you were born with.\n\nNow, what about turnover? I could use feces production, but so much of that is consumed recently - so let's try to get molecular instead. We're now going to have to make some veeeeerrrry loose, gross assumptions. Let's use amino acids in a protein as a representative (group of) atoms, and let's assume each protein gets turned over twice a day (within the range of human protein turnover, which was recently shown here _URL_1_). Let's also assume that, when free, each individual amino acid has a ~25% chance of being catabolized and excreted (this is by far the least accurate number in here). So, taken in sum, each individual atom has a ~45% chance of being excreted daily (25% first turnover + 75%*25% second turnover = 43.75%).\n\nAssuming lifespan of ~80 years, that's 29,200 days, which means birth molecules must survive that 45% event that many times. Taking 55%^29,200 gives us 3.89e-7580 percent chance of an atom surviving.\n\nSo, of your atoms today, 6% * 3.89e-7580% gives us 2.34e-7581% of your atoms being birth atoms. Unfortunately, you likely have somewhere in the 2-3e28 atoms total, so it's quite likely that all of your atoms have turned over. Of course, there are plenty of biomolecules that don't turn over nearly so fast (if they did, poor Meselson and Stahl would have had a hard time getting tenure!), so there is certainly a chance some original molecules may still be around - but then we're gonna get into cellular half-lives, and frankly, who has the time?!\n\nSo, is this answer accurate? No. Is this answer the best way to solve the question? Certainly not. Are there thousands of ways to debate my method, my assumptions, or my approach? Yes, yes, a thousand times yes.\n\nBut can the question be answered? You bet it can.\n\nSOURCE: Former PhD student in biochemistry and molecular biology turned consultant...and yes I may use this as an interview question in the future...\n\n**EDIT: tl/dr your body turns over biomolecules at such a high rate that it's unlikely much remains, aside from long-lived molecules in long-lived cells**",
"I believe the sense of your question is, suppose when you were born, virtually all of the carbon in your body was C-14. What proportion of the carbon in your body at death would be C-14? Since C-14 has a half life of ~5000 years, we can assume that the effect of radioactive decay over your ~80 year lifespan is negligible.\n\nThis is a meaningful experiment, could actually be done (at least in theory) with measurable results, and I think it would answer the sense of your question. Can we calculate the result on paper?",
"**I am not entirely sure of this:**\nThere are cells in our bodies that cannot reproduce, thus my assumption is that those cells probably maintain atoms throughout. Please, correct me or guide me on the right direction if you can. Thanks very much"
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{
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|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2009/090402/full/news.2009.232.html",
"http://bit.ly/dZd1Xz"
]
}
|
What percent of the atoms that you were born with do you die with?
First off, thanks for the replies! Second, let's clarify a few points! To start, let's assume that you live for a significant period of time (say 80 years) and therefore the trivial limit of dying instantly is not relevant. Further, I think landryraccoon captured the spirit of the question best when he wrote, "suppose when you were born, virtually all of the carbon in your body was C-14. What proportion of the carbon in your body at death would be C-14?" Let's say every atom at birth was an isotope not found commonly in nature. If that was the case, what percentage of the atoms when you died would still be the initial isotopes? A5RoadDogg's response got buried below, but please give it a quick read and upvote/comment because, after reading all the responses, he/she best tackled the initial prompt with a solid, focused analysis. If anyone could comment on the methodology used or give more precise figures, it would be greatly appreciated! Thanks again guys!
|
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|
6fn856
|
In domestic violence, why do victims stay with their abusers?
|
I've researched quite a bit about domestic violence recently. I've read articles, listened to stories, and watched videos. A theme quickly became apparent in my research: that many victims of domestic violence stay with their abusers.
The research about my question, why so many victims stay with their abusers, has turned up mostly anecdotal information.
So, I was hoping to ask a psychologist or social scientist: why do so many victims stay with their abusers? Does the process of domestic violence change a victim's brain's ability to understand what's really going on? Scientifically, does domestic violence impact the victim's ability to perceive and respond to harm? Is there a scientific explanation for victims of domestic violence staying with their abusers?
I'd love to hear any relevant information on my question(s), even if it isn't directly answering them.
|
askscience
|
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"In short, it is because the circumstances under which abuse take place make it very difficult for the victim to leave. \n\nThe abuser almost always makes certain that the victim is *dependent upon the abuser* before actually engaging in abusive behavior. This can take several forms:\n\n* Financial dependence: The abuser is the only one with income, and isolates the victim from the ability to provide for themselves. Now the victim must stay with their abuser in order to survive.\n\n* Social isolation: The abuser cuts off the victim from friends and family. This is the classic \"Where else do you have to go/Who else will take you in\" dilemma.\n\n* Blackmail: The abuser has power over the victim due to embarrassing material or some secret the victim does not want revealed.\n\nOf course, these are extremely overt abusive behaviors. And there is a more common reason: **The victim honestly believes the abuser loves them.** Most domestic violence occurs in a recognizable cycle:\n\n1. The Honeymoon phase: The couple first meets, gets married, things go well, and there is no suggestion of violence or abusive behavior. There may be a power differential, but it is not enough to cause any problems. \n\n2. Tension. Something is wrong in the relationship. This could be the result of a single catalyst or a slow decline in relationship quality as the abuser's power grows and tendency toward abuse grows. Many times, victims feel as if they are \"walking on eggshells\" around their abusers. There are no overt abusive behaviors here, but neither is the relationship healthy. Covert abuse might take place here; mind games, gaslighting, etc.\n\n3. Violence. Outright abuse occurs--physical, emotional, mental--and the victim experiences the dependence listed above, making it extremely difficult to leave. In addition, the victim often looks back on the Honeymoon phase as an example that there is hope for change. This is often also called the \"explosion\" phase, because the violence can be extreme.\n\n4. The cycle begins again with the Honeymoon phase. The abuse stops, either because the abuser is caught or the victim seeks help. The relationship approximates a healthy one again as the abuser seeks to keep the victim near and re-establish the power differential. Meanwhile, the victim feels relief and validation that the abuser does love them.\n\nThe more times the cycle restarts, the shorter the cycle becomes. For example, the first full cycle may take years. The next cycle may take months, and eventually it may only take days. Abuse finally stops when the victim is made aware of this cycle and is able to find a way to overcome the power differential and isolation, and seek assistance.\n\nEDIT: You may also want to read this [very informative journal article by Sarah M. Buel, a lawyer and domestic violence advocate, who lists 50 reasons why victims stay with their abusers.](_URL_0_). You may recognize the patterns of power differential, isolation, and victim belief systems she illustrates!",
"So u/nawtagoodninja really covers the question well but I just want to add another few points.\n\n > why do so many victims stay with their abusers?\n\nThe important thing to to really get empathize with what is going on and realize that the issue of leaving is far harder than it seems to an outsider observer, because there will be a tonne of context. Not only as other comments mentioned, do abusers often control their victim, but also options are often limited. How easy is to simply leave a partner or spouse, find accommodation, income, manage children? Especially when support is often someone just telling you to 'leave' but often not offering any resources to do so. Yes there are typically services available but bear in mind these are highly uncertain and may have a sense of shame about them.\n\nWe also naturally assume (because its more comfortable for us) that its preferable to be alone than to be in an abusing relationship. But never forget that people stay in relationships because they get something out of it. Many victims will talk about how good things could or had been. \n\nAgain as outside observers this seems abominable to us? But I imagine it like is someone can up to me and said 'your partner doesn't always listen to you? That's abuse you should leave them' I would be like, 'what about my son, money, where would I go, what about the good times etc etc.\n\nI guess to try and summarize the above, just because abuse is present doesn't mean all the other parts of the relationship aren't, and for people to make a big decision to leave there needs to be some viable alternative.\n\n > Does the process of domestic violence change a victim's brain's ability to understand what's really going on?\n\nYes and no - in my (potentially limited) experience behaviour becomes normalized. Studies have shown that aggression is a surprisingly common behaviour in relationships from both genders, however abuse is on a higher end of the scale when there is power imbalances and more dangerous behaviours. Many of the people I work with (ID and ASD) have long histories of abuse so there often is a perspective that it's OK.",
"Cultural factors come into play too. In some cultures domestic violence is seen as either not very serious or even appropriate. Furthermore, some cultures place a higher premium on the privacy of family and may discourage reporting domestic violence even if it is viewed as abhorrent. Note: culture does not only refer to national origin or ethnic group; certain subcultures can normalize behaviors that are repugnant to the larger culture.",
"Being a victim of domestic violence 13yrs my ex husband has a felony conviction for his abuse. 1st reason I stayed was humiliation, I was humiliated that I was foolish enough not to see the warning signs and young enough that I was more concerned about my reputation than my safety. At this point the violence was not extreme, pushing, hair pulling, being slapped.\n2nd reason was after 7 or 8 years I was financially dependent on him and somewhat brainwashed into thinking I deserved it and it was all my fault. The violence had by then escalated to punching in the head, smashing my head against concrete walls, spitting in my face, pouring bleach on my head and kicking me in the back.\n3rd reason is it is very difficult to find help, after years of being in this situation people think its the norm and we are just very dramatic and passionate, very rarely was the actual violence witnessed by others so it was hard to convince people otherwise. He learned early in the relationship not to leave bruises. He would wind my hair around one hand a punch me in the head with the other. My hair covered the bruises. Having two children made it extremely difficult because since he wasn't violent towards my children restraining orders only pertained to me but not the kids.\n4th reason stems from the third very few resources or respect. One occasion my ex husband went to pick up our children from school as a way to get to me since I had a restraining order. I saw a police officer in the street and I got his attention and told him my husband just took my kids and I have a restraining order and temporary custody and his response was \"call 911 I'm busy\". I was dumbfounded, confused and humiliated. I went to my house and there he is with the kids, I called 911 and he left with my kids again. The police show up and no sight of him so they say there's nothing they can do if he comes back call again. This cycle repeats itself three more times until I'm just embarrassed and told I was abusing the emergency system. Threatened with false reports charges if I continued calling. My exhusband comes back and locks me inside the house screaming at me and basically says nobody gives a shit about me and after the way law enforcement treated me that day I believed him.\nThe day my oldest son responded to me in a condescending tone with no respect I realized he was going to become his father. That day I went to my parents home and begged them to help me get out of town so I could save myself and my children. I left in the middle of the night at this time my husband was having an affair and wasn't paying attention to me and never suspected me to leave. I spent the next 45 days sleeping on the floor of a family members home, trying to snap myself out of the conditioning I had grown accustomed to. And I came to the realization I would never be able to live alone in the same city with him. I returned when my husband picked up my children from my parents house and he told them I'm not bringing them back until she comes home. I called my oldest son and he was sobbing please come home we want you home. The house I was living in belonged to my parents. I asked them to sell it and they told my husband they were selling it. He gave away everything in our home. I came back had no home, no job, no clothes, no money and less than zero self esteem. I filed for divorce without him knowing and I went to live with my parents to be safe. With no other options he then began spending more time with his lover which consumed more of his time and made it easier for me to leave. He had no way of regaining control over me since I was never alone. He tried using our children to lure me into situations where he'd have an advantage but I wasn't gullible anymore. I knew what he was and what he was capable of. I still don't live alone and it's been 9 years since I left. And when I look back I do feel like I was mentally ill, mentally abused by my husband, the justice system, society. It took my children less than a year to realize that their father had no interest in them and was a compulsive liar. They stopped visiting him and cut off all ties with him and his enabling family. \nI hope this helps you understand the thought process and reasoning, it may not be applicable to all situations but it was my reality for half of my life.\nPost traumatic stress is a real issue, nightmares where I'm trapped in my old house with him are reoccurring, panic and anxiety if I see him in public followed by uncontrollable fear constantly looking over my shoulder, watching my rear view mirror for suspicious vehicles. Even after 9 years the fear is real. And very little support for victims. Not many people know what it feels like to be punched by a full grown man, he was 5'11\" and very built, I'm 5'3\". I weighed over a 200 lbs because it was easier to be fat then to be thin and be accused of trying to be sexy for everyone and always dressing like a whore/slut. After my divorce I went from size 23 to a 9/10 over 2 years. I don't like to be touched and it is hard to believe but I get a knot in my stomach before I even see him. Two different occasions I knew he was present before I even saw him. I felt the danger first. Both public places. And my children turned out to be nothing like him I was sane enough to get out in time to prevent repeating the cycle. If it wasn't for my parents and my sister who helped me financially during the transition I may not have been successful."
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In domestic violence, why do victims stay with their abusers?
I've researched quite a bit about domestic violence recently. I've read articles, listened to stories, and watched videos. A theme quickly became apparent in my research: that many victims of domestic violence stay with their abusers. The research about my question, why so many victims stay with their abusers, has turned up mostly anecdotal information. So, I was hoping to ask a psychologist or social scientist: why do so many victims stay with their abusers? Does the process of domestic violence change a victim's brain's ability to understand what's really going on? Scientifically, does domestic violence impact the victim's ability to perceive and respond to harm? Is there a scientific explanation for victims of domestic violence staying with their abusers? I'd love to hear any relevant information on my question(s), even if it isn't directly answering them.
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|
3yfycd
|
Does sending a text to someone in a stadium full of people take longer to deliver due to the mass amount of devices being used in such a concentrated area?
|
For example, I sent a text on my iPhone today to my sister, who was at a football game. I noticed it took a bit longer to say "delivered", when usually it's nearly instantaneous.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cydf591",
"cydels2",
"cydhbm1",
"cyeg4ob"
],
"text": [
"Yes, indeed it does. Which is why some providers, such as Verizon, has things called COWs which are mobile cell tower trucks. Verizon goes to major games, such as the Superbowl, with a COW for the sole effort of getting their customers better reception.\n\nHurricane Katrina, Verizon deployed a lot of COWs to the disaster areas to ensure coverage. \n\nAll very good reasons to switch to Verizon, where good coverage is ~~our~~ their most important goal.\n\nP.S. Totally not, nor have ever been, a Verizon representative.",
"Each cell tower can only handle a finite number of messages in a given period of time, so an event that puts a whole ton of phones in one place might overload the local capacity and slow things down. \n\nYou'll see the same effect when for some reason a lot more messages are being sent than normal (e.g. during a natural disaster when people are all trying to get in touch with each other, or for a happier example the sudden flood of \"Happy New Year\" texts at midnight)\n\nThat said, a stadium seems like the kind of thing that would gather a big crowd of people on the regular, so you would expect them to eventually allocate more capacity to that area.",
"I have worked for a very large telco company, I won't name, and to answer your question, no. It does not take longer, however a lot of what they are saying is true. each tower has a set amount of channels, each channel can only hold a set numbers of connections. So assuming whatever network they are on is capable of holding all the connections, speed for a text message should not be effected. It is true that Verizon does have COWs and they also have COLTs they actually call them the rodeo, they typically work in tandem. They are dispatched to sites where network capacity could be a issue or in disasters.\n\nMost text message work through there 1X network and speeds should not be effected assuming a strong connection, iPhone use IMessage that actually get routed through data channels either 3G or 4g. It gets routed through apples servers and then back out. So if your using iMessage, yes, being in a large stadium with many people could slow down an iMessage but unlikely. The network is more fragile with capacity issues on the 4g data network then any others.",
"While I cannot disclose hard numbers, non disclosure, I will try to shed some light on this.\n\nLet's start with some basic cell tower concepts. Your phone pings a tower saying \"I'm Bob, and I'm near by! Let me know when you need me.\" The tower notices this and lets the backhaul system know where to find you to route the message to the switch (usually miles from you) which then routes to the appropriate towers. \n\nTowers have multiple lanes of traffic (radio frequencies) to talk to phones with. So they can handle multiple devices simultaneously, but not infinite. When a tower wants to talk to your phone, it announces it on a certain frequency your phone can use. Your phone then replies, acknowledging it's ready. The tower then sends the message, your phone gives a response it received it. The tower can then use that frequency for someone else. \n\nSMS requires very little bandwidth, almost negligible. However, delivering the message requires overhead. It takes more time setting it up than transmission time.\n\nInstant messaging (like Apples iMessage) actually take more overhead, as your phone talks to Apple too, instead of just the towers."
],
"score": [
164,
16,
9,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does sending a text to someone in a stadium full of people take longer to deliver due to the mass amount of devices being used in such a concentrated area?
For example, I sent a text on my iPhone today to my sister, who was at a football game. I noticed it took a bit longer to say "delivered", when usually it's nearly instantaneous.
|
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|
amtx59
|
How smart are octopi? I know they can solve puzzles and mazes and open lids to jars, but how to they compare to humans? Are they as smart as a young child, for example?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"efpoy14",
"efoqm9o",
"efopzr8"
],
"text": [
"Broad scale intelligence comparisons like this are basically impossible to do well, but while octopuses are smart they aren't _that_ smart. Really amazingly smart compared to their relatives, clams and snails. Smart compared to other invertebrates like shrimp and sea urchins. I'd say smarter than your average fish too. Beyond that it's hard to make really straightforward comparisons.\n\nOne thing is that octopus may seem particularly smart because their intelligence is so humanlike in some ways...despite their notoriously alien nature, what they are _really_ good at is manual interaction with their environment. Humans are also good at this, but most animals are not. Octopus make their living extracting the tasty meat bits out of all sorts of hard shelled animals like crabs and snails and clams, and extracting those animals out of hard-to-reach crevices in rocks. They have an unusual amount of behavioral capability when it comes to opening things so they are good at, eg, figuring out how to open jars and all sorts of other puzzles. Octopus camoflage techniques are also targeted at visual predators (like humans) so we get the full impact of their impressive capability, in a way we don't for animals that, eg, interact with the world using scent.\n\nOctopus are at a significant disadvantage because they have very short lifespans and aren't social. This limits how much they can learn, especially from each other, and reduces pressure on them to develop more complex social interactions. It's interesting to think how smart they would be if they weren't so limited by their life cycle.",
"It’s not really comparable. Octopuses (correct pluralization, sorry), and their brethren (squid and cuttlefish) are completely (well figuratively) alien when it comes to their brain structure. It’s a distributed structure, with sub-brains for each arms, different structures within the main brain, and so forth.",
"Tough call. Octopi dominate at problem-solving and self-sufficiency. Children are really good at not being eaten and they do far better than octopi on the written exam. Seriously, how do you even measure intelligence on that level in such disparate creatures?"
],
"score": [
14,
11,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How smart are octopi? I know they can solve puzzles and mazes and open lids to jars, but how to they compare to humans? Are they as smart as a young child, for example?
|
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6kpohq
|
On an infinite square grid of perfect one Ohm resistors, what is the equivalent resistance between two points that are a knight's move from each other?
|
[Relevant XKCD](_URL_0_)
I've been reading XKCD for years at this point, and I like looking into things that appear in the comics. What is the resistance here, how would you work it out, and why is it so incredibly hard?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"djnwv24",
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"djnwn4s"
],
"text": [
"I was given this as a homework problem in a graduate E & M course. Interestingly, for two points next to each other in the lattice, there is a simple argument to show that the equivalent resistance is R/2. But as soon as you try any other two nodes - the knight move or even just a diagonal - you need much heavier machinery.\n\nThere is [this mathpages](_URL_0_) article which goes through it. I haven't read their whole article; it seems rather long, as my handwritten solution is just over 2 pages (it looks like I did it differently). We were also allowed to use Mathematica for the integrals, so we skipped many of the steps. (I know how to do the integrals analytically using contour integration, but it's pretty tedious).\n\nThe trick is to set up an infinite set of equations using Kirchoff's law at every lattice point. Imagine you have inserted a current I at the point (0,0) and are removing a current at (2,1), where (x,y) are integer coordinates on the grid. Then at every lattice point, you need to have total current coming out of the node is conserved: I(x,y) R = V(x+1,y) + V(x-1,y) + V(x,y+1) + V(x,y-1) - 4 V(x,y) = 0. Except at the two points where you've inserted/removed current, you need to include this on the right-hand side: \n\nV(1,0) + V(-1,0) + V(0,1) + V(0,-1) - 4 V(0,0) = I_in R\n\nV(3,1) + V(1,1) + V(2,2) + V(2,0) - 4 V(2,1) = -I_in R\n\nHere, I\\_in is the total current flowing through the circuit. I'm using R as the resistance of each resistor (so R = 1 Ohm in the xkcd comic). Then after explicitly solving this infinite system of equations for V(x,y) as a function of I, we can find the equivalent resistance as R_eq = (V(2,1) - V(0,0))/I\\_in (the I\\_in dependence will always cancel out, which you can prove via dimensional analysis).\n\nOk, but how do we actually solve this infinite set of equations? As a condensed matter physicist, I immediately recognize this as equivalent to solving some non-interacting tight-binding quantum lattice model, so I did what a condensed matter theorist would do. I introduced the discrete Fourier transform:\n\nV(x,y) = ∫dk1 dk2 V(k1,k2) e^(ik1x + ik2y)\n\nwhere the integrals go from -pi to pi. Anyways, placing this into the infinite set of equations reduces to a simple algebraic equation for the V(k1,k2). I think the mathpages is doing a very similar thing but using a slightly different method. Then to get V(x,y) you need to do a rather nasty integral, but it can be done in practice.\n\nI can give more details on the intermediate steps above if desired. The answer is (4/pi - 1/2)R. We also did the diagonal case. I can check my solution later when I'm back in my apartment to see what that equivalent resistance is.\n\nEDIT: Just pulled out my handwritten solution. I fixed some errors above. The equivalent resistance between two nodes connected by the diagonal of a square is (2/pi)R. To obtain the equivalent resistance between two arbitrary nodes, I have to perform an integral which I'm not sure can be done as a function of the nodes. (This integral is presumably equivalent to equations (9) and (13) in the mathpages article, since I got the same answer for the two special cases considered). \n\nThe mathematical procedure above can be thought of as obtaining the inverse (or \"Green's function\") of the discrete Laplacian on the square lattice. This is very similar to solving the discretized free Schrödinger equation, which is how I recognized how to solve the problem once the system of equations was set up.",
"In case nobody can answer it in a shorter way, this is an old puzzle: _URL_1_",
"This is so frustrating! I started out by thinking of increasing path lengths in parallel, then treating each pair in parallel with what I had already. I then plugged in some numbers to combine them and see if it was trending toward an obvious endpoint. I got to 5 and got a resistance in total of 5 ohm (I think this a coincidence at this level) then gave up as a non-electrician/physicist/algorithm-writer. \nOne thing though, current flow would be concentrated around the shorter paths at the centre. Does this in fact mimic current flow down a solid conductor? I.e. Imagine the resistors getting smaller and smaller until they become the resistances within a solid conductor. \n\nTL:DR wait for someone who knows what they're talking about to answer."
],
"score": [
92,
11,
5
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://xkcd.com/356/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath668/kmath668.htm",
"http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath668/kmath668.htm"
]
}
|
On an infinite square grid of perfect one Ohm resistors, what is the equivalent resistance between two points that are a knight's move from each other?
[Relevant XKCD](_URL_0_) I've been reading XKCD for years at this point, and I like looking into things that appear in the comics. What is the resistance here, how would you work it out, and why is it so incredibly hard?
|
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|
3uyc6f
|
How accurate are these images of brains depicting mental conditions?
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxixdlx",
"cxj1jgc",
"cxixfji",
"cxj5h9j",
"cxixaot"
],
"text": [
"If by \"accurate\" you mean are these real images of healthy and unhealthy brains, then the answer is yes. After poking around, it seems like (at least some of) these images come from the Mayo clinic: _URL_0_\n\nHere's some more info that I hope provides valuable context. These images are from positron emition tomography (PET) scans. The basic idea is that a person gets injected with radioactive isotopes, which travel through their blood to their brain. Areas of the brain that have more blood flow will get more of the chemical, causing the image to look brighter when ~~positrons~~ gamma rays are detected by the scanner. Think of it like using a muscle, when you exercise one part of the brain, more blood flows to that part.\n\nThis image suggests that there is a difference in PET signal, and therefore blood flow, and thus probably brain activity, between a healthy and a depressed person. Although no color scale is provided, we may safely assume that warmer colors indicate greater signal, as this is standard. Thus, we can infer that the depressed brain may be \"less active\" than the healthy one.\n\nHowever, there are a couple of caveats here. It's not clear at all from this picture **how much** of a difference there is. 1%? 10%? 100%? No idea. Also, looking at these two images, it's clear that the two brains are different shapes. This suggests that the scans are from just two people, and not two groups of subjects with and without depression. Group data is usually shown on some standardized brain template, and thus would be the same shape for both. Generally, its hard to draw scientific conclusions from functional brain scans in individual subjects; the data are simply too noisy (I'm not sure to what extent that applies to medicine however). That being said, there is a lot of good and important research being done on disorders like depression using functional brain imaging techniques like PET.\n\nSource: PhD in neuroscience, currently conducting fMRI research in clinical populations.\n\nEdit: later comments have pointed out that PET signal depends on binding in a certain area, rather than blood flow. The critical issue is what chemical is tagged with the isotope. My explanation was a simplification, and assumed the use of O-15, with which I'm most familiar, and which I beleived to be most common. Using labebeld oxygen, PET and fMRI function in a similar fashion. It's worth mentioning here (and I'm quite aware) that using other labeled compounds makes it possible to look at things like glucose consumption, binding to neurotransmitter receptors, etc. This is another issue with these images, it's not clear what chemical was used.\n\nSorry for any confusion from my earlier explanation.",
"Short version: they are a perfect example of how NOT to report this kind of data. Stay away from this kind of clickbait-esque facebook crap LIKE THE PLAGUE. \n\nDon't get me wrong: I get that most people won't be able to read properly reported results anyway (and it's *absolutely fine*), but this is the kind of oversimplification that risks getting the wrong message across (see the comment about intelligence below - which is absolutely on point). I'm not sure what the point was in making these pictures, but that's not a good way to send a message to the general public.\n\nI'm not saying the pictures are not legit, they likely come from a proper study with proper reporting, but hell, this is like showing a picture with a red pickup and a blue one to convince me the first one is more fuel efficient. It's just so smushed and crumpled up that there's very little left for the viewer to munch on. Science and education do not build on trust.\n\nFor all we know, the limits on that color range might be +-10% or +-100%, and that's assuming it's a relative change being represented. It might be a group comparison (unlikely as others have pointed out), in which case we have no idea of the significance of said differences. \n\nSauce: currently banging my head on the wall analyzing EEG data and figuring out how to report the results of a time-frequency analysis.",
"I wouldn't go so far as to say that they're completely wrong, as they may well have labeled the brains correctly, but the complete lack of any contextual data makes them almost entirely meaningless. These types of images track the amount of metabolic activity going on in a brain over a short period of time, but the data has to be compared to an established \"base functionality,\" basically when the brain isn't using whatever region is being looked at to any heightened extent.",
"Cell and Molec. neuroscience student here. Those are all indeed scans of healthy and diseased brains. \n\nDo those images reflect the listed diseases? NO. \n\nDo those comparisons tell anything useful in the context given? NO. \n\nI'd stay away from that sort of stuff.",
"Follow up question, what do the colors in the images mean?"
],
"score": [
149,
58,
20,
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/pet-scan/multimedia/-pet-scan-of-the-brain-for-depression/img-20007400"
]
}
|
How accurate are these images of brains depicting mental conditions?
[deleted]
|
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|
3d3e1z
|
Uncertainty principle - why is the ability to measure the location and movement simultaneously a violation of the laws of physics instead of insufficiently advanced measuring tools?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ct1j21w",
"ct1gcdu",
"ct1lmgk"
],
"text": [
"An ELI5 explanation would be that the uncertainty principle is a statement about the structure of waves. Position uncertainty basically corresponds to how spread-out a wave is, and momentum uncertainty corresponds to how spread-out the wave's frequency spectrum is. These two things are inversely related to each other.\n\nIt may be helpful to consider the two extreme cases. On one hand, you can have a sine wave that repeats infinitely in both directions. That has the maximum possible spread, but contains only a single frequency. On the other hand, you can have a spike at one point, which has the minimum possible spread, but contains _all_ frequencies. This should at least make it seem plausible that the spread in position space and the spread in frequency space are inversely related, though of course you need to get into some math to actually prove it.",
"The uncertainty principle is not fundamentally a statement about measurement, though that's one of the consequences. It's a statement about the possible physical states of a system in quantum mechanics. For position and momentum, for example, there simply are no states that have both a perfectly well-defined position and a perfectly well-defined momentum.",
"The answers already given in this thread are quite good, but they may also be a bit more complicated. Allow me to give a very tangible and accessible answer, although it might lack the finer details:\n\nThe main thing to realise is that this not a classical problem, but a quantum problem. And thus particles are waves. So let us take [one period of a wave](_URL_0_).\n\nTry to answer the following questions:\n\n- Where is the wave?\n- What is its frequency?\n\nHopefully you were not able to anwer the first question. Since the wave stretches a distance, it is not in exactly one point.\n\nThe second question is a better one. Since we can see its period we know its frequency very well. And the best thing is, the frequency is related to the momentum (the \"movement\" in your question).\n\nNow your question might be? Well, can we also make it so that we define the position, does this change the frequency? And yes it does. To limit the spread in position we move to a very, very, narrow and high peak. It's now easy to answer Question #1. Of course we know where it is.\n\nBut the frequncy is more difficult. These sort of peaks (also called Delta Peaks) are made by adding up many sine waves of different frequencies, so therefore we are now unable to tell the exact frequency of the wave (or better: There is none).\n\nI hope this helps in the understanding of all the other, well formulated, answers in this thread."
],
"score": [
32,
16,
8
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}
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
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{
"url": [
"http://www.premierguitar.com/ext/resources/archives/fa74db99-82c5-4f25-baa1-04e118d0339e.JPG"
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|
Uncertainty principle - why is the ability to measure the location and movement simultaneously a violation of the laws of physics instead of insufficiently advanced measuring tools?
|
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||
j58xi
|
If birds have hollow bones, then do they have bone marrow? Where does hematopoesis happen if they don't?
|
Birds have hollow bones and have red blood cells with nuclei (I guess Maximum Ride was good for one thing). Do they have bone marrow? If not, how does hematopoesis work? And semi-related: how do red blood cells with nuclei affect their circulatory systems?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c299nya",
"c299klc",
"c299r2h"
],
"text": [
"Birds have a thin layer of bone marrow IIRC from long ago avian biology lectures.\n\nMy comparative immunology is slightly less rusty. Birds have a special organ called the bursa of Fabricius where hematopoesis takes place (interestingly the the name of \"B\" cells relates to the bursa and does not, as many assume, relate to bone marrow). \n\nAs for your final question, I do not know off the top of my head so will leave that for someone else!",
"Some birds' bones are [\"hollow\"](_URL_1_) in the sense that bones that would ordinarily be solid in flightless animals are [pneumatized](_URL_0_) to decease weight. This process wouldn't affect the space reserved for bone marrow.\n\nEdit: Sorry, did some more research. The nuclei allow bird RBCs to divide while in circulation, because bone marrow space IS actually decreased. Apparently, birds use the hollow spaces and some bone marrow space as air sacs, increasing their respiratory capacity.",
"Ahh I understand now. Much thanks to both of you awesome people!"
],
"score": [
9,
8,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_pneumaticity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_anatomy#Skeletal_system"
]
}
|
If birds have hollow bones, then do they have bone marrow? Where does hematopoesis happen if they don't?
Birds have hollow bones and have red blood cells with nuclei (I guess Maximum Ride was good for one thing). Do they have bone marrow? If not, how does hematopoesis work? And semi-related: how do red blood cells with nuclei affect their circulatory systems?
|
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noxg2
|
Dad trying to explain why climate change isn't an issue because water vapor will regulate the climate, he was a chemistry major at rice in the 70's and is not a dumb guy (holiday strife, please help).
|
He states that the regulation of the temperature by water vapor is so great that any amount of carbon in the atmosphere is negligible. He was showing me the percent of water vapor in the atmosphere at different temperatures, their capacity to absorb heat through evaporation, and how the tiny amounts of carbon and methane wouldn't prevent water from absorbing any tiny amount of contained radiation.
Can you please explain to me how water vapor acts in relation to climate change, and how carbon and methane are relevant with a huge heat absorber?
I promise he is a smart guy and will listen to some reason if i force him to and it's clear and intuitive.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"I'm not sure I've understood your father's argument, but I think this might be the important point he has missed: Carbon dioxide and water vapor absorb infrared radiation at different wavelengths (ie different \"colors\" of infrared) so the CO2 traps some of the infrared that any amount of water vapor would have allowed to escape. \n\nHere is an analogy: Imagine shining a white light through a bucket of water with lots of cyan dye (which absorbs red light) in it. The water will warm up a bit because it is absorbing most of the red light. Now adding a drop of yellow dye (which absorbs blue light) into the bucket will have a much bigger effect on the temperature of the water than another drop of the same blue dye would have.\n\nThere is no good reason to be speculating about the effect CO2 has on temperature though, it has been measured from paleoclimate data and calculated from models of the atmosphere going back to Svante Arrhenius in 1896. It is somewhere between 2 and 5 degrees C per doubling of CO2. The Earth currently has a total greenhouse effect (from all gasses) of about 33 degrees C.",
"Others have already correctly pointed out that the biggest flaw in your dad's understanding of climate science is that he seems to think that the biggest influence of water vapor on the climate is heat storage. It's rather absorption of directional (from Earth's surface into space) infrared radiation, and re-emission in all 4 directions, which leads to trapping of heat in the lower atmosphere.\n\nIt is quite correct that water vapor has a far larger effect than CO2, simply because of the large amounts of water vapor in the atmosphere, compared with a relatively low concentration of CO2.\n\nHowever, the amount of water vapor is a function of temperature, as your dad probably knows. The water vapor in the atmosphere is there because Earth has a certain temperature. Increase this temperature and the water vapor will go up as well, trapping more heat (via radiation), thus leading to more warming and yet a further increase in water vapor. And this is exactly what is happening: we drive the temperature increase by increasing other greenhouse gases, such as CO2 or methane.\n\nTake your Dad through the Wikipedia page explaining [radiative forcing](_URL_1_). Another topic which could be helpful in this situation would be the [runaway greenhouse effect on Venus](_URL_0_), where positive water vapor feedback has been taken to the extreme. Ask your dad why water vapor didn't manage to regulate the climate on Venus.",
"The first point is that CO2 absorbs in a different part of the spectrum than H2O, as pointed out by [not_wrong](_URL_4_). Additionally, while there is an order of magnitude less CO2 in the atmosphere compared to H2O (0.039% of the atmosphere is CO2, 0.4% is H2O), the CO2 absorption band is much more effective at blocking infrared light than H2O, so that the greenhouse effect from CO2 is ~30 Wm-2, while H2O is ~60Wm-2. You can play with an atmospheric absorption simulator [here](_URL_3_).\n\nThe right way to think of the heat balance of the climate is as a [stock-and-flow](_URL_4_) problem; the Earth's surface absorbs heat from the Sun, and radiates heat away via infrared radiation. If the Earth absorbs more heat than it radiates away, the temperature increases until the Earth is radiating enough heat to balance the incoming solar radiation. Adding CO2 to the atmosphere blocks some of the outgoing infrared radiation, so the Earth warms up.\n\nSince most of the Earth's surface is water, and water has such a large heat capacity compared to land, the extra trapped heat mostly goes into increasing the ocean temperature. This is a huge amount of water with an immense thermal inertia, so that when you add CO2 to the atmosphere, it takes about 50 years for enough heat to be absorbed by the ocean to increase the sea surface temperature enough to restore radiative equilibrium. The ocean acts as a huge buffer to temperature change, but it doesn't prevent the changes from happening, it just slows them down.\n\nAs the ocean warms, more evaporation occurs, increasing atmosphere temperature and H2O content. However, this just makes the problem *worse*, because H2O is a greenhouse gas and so increasing atmospheric H2O prevents more heat from escaping the Earth's surface. This positive feedback *enhances* the heat trapping effects of CO2.\n\nAt the same time, increasing atmospheric H2O changes the amount and height of the Earth's cloud cover, and this is where we hit the cutting edge climate science. Satellite and model simulation data indicates that increasing the Earth's temperature will probably decrease average cloud cover, and increase average cloud height, which means this feedback will also *enhance* the effects of CO2.\n\nSo! TL;DR: Atmospheric water vapour makes global warming worse, while the ocean's thermal inertial buffers, but does not prevent, the Earth's temperature change.",
"Water Vapor is a positive feedback mechanism. Increased temperatures due to CO2 will cause WV in the atmosphere to increase. Since WV is also a greenhouse gas (though not as potent as CO2 or CH4), it's not correct to claim that WV will *regulate* things, it will actually increase the warming a bit.\n\nNote that WV is already evaporated, so that seems to be a problem with his argument. Also, WV is not equal to clouds (clouds are made of condensed WV).\n\nSkeptical Science have a few articles on Water Vapor, they're a good starting point:\n\n_URL_6_\n\n_URL_7_\n\n_URL_5_",
"His point refers to how we as humans regulate our body temperatures. As we overheat, we sweat. The sweat vaporizes off our body and because steam has a higher heat than liquid water we transfer heat from our bodies to the outside environment. \n\nIt sounds like your dad is likening Earth's water vapor to the same principle. However, I don't think Earth can transfer heat out to space using the same principle. Carbon accumulates in the athmosphere and traps heat inside preventing it from being radiated heat outside. Its the difference of conductance. Ceramic or plastic plates conduct heat at a different rate than metal. As carbon rises in the atmosphere the nature and conductance of heat in the atmosphere changes and more heat is retained, and the Earth heats up.",
"Also - any increase in available water vapor automatically translates as a balance shift between reservoirs in the Earths water-cycle. In this case, it means a migration of water from Icecaps to other resrvoirs by the various processes. Most of icecap melting is through directe melting and indirect melting (calving), and not evaporation. It thus transits to oceans and sea-level rises which is a HUGE climate issue for coastal communities. There has been a large scale observed (not theoretical or predicted) decrease in the amount of polar sea ice (_URL_9_).\n\nFurthermore, the whole climatic impact aspect is getting less and less theoretical as a whole, as consequences are actually felt. An example: The Inuit communauty of Salluit which is having trouble with observed melting permafrost. The town was built on frozen marine clays which contain up to 60% water ice. The local annual observed temperature there has gone up 3°C over 10 years. As the seasonally melting layer gets progressively deeper, buildings and structures founder unevenly and break up. They considered moving the village but have since identified areas close by where they can build on subcropping bedrock. (_URL_8_)"
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_greenhouse_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/noxg2/dad_trying_to_explain_why_climate_change_isnt_an/c3atbaz",
"http://geoflop.uchicago.edu/forecast/docs/Projects/modtran.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_and_flow",
"http://www.skepticalscience.com/water-vapor-stratosphere-global-warming.htm",
"http://www.skepticalscience.com/water-vapor-greenhouse-gas-intermediate.htm",
"http://www.skepticalscience.com/humidity-global-warming.htm",
"http://www.nunatsiaqonline.ca/stories/article/1506103Salluits_future_to_be_built_on_bedrock_foundation_/",
"http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/"
]
}
|
Dad trying to explain why climate change isn't an issue because water vapor will regulate the climate, he was a chemistry major at rice in the 70's and is not a dumb guy (holiday strife, please help).
He states that the regulation of the temperature by water vapor is so great that any amount of carbon in the atmosphere is negligible. He was showing me the percent of water vapor in the atmosphere at different temperatures, their capacity to absorb heat through evaporation, and how the tiny amounts of carbon and methane wouldn't prevent water from absorbing any tiny amount of contained radiation. Can you please explain to me how water vapor acts in relation to climate change, and how carbon and methane are relevant with a huge heat absorber? I promise he is a smart guy and will listen to some reason if i force him to and it's clear and intuitive.
|
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1e8flv
|
Are rates of infection less in countries where handshakes are not a cultural norm?
|
Basically are rates of infection higher in cultures where handshaking is the norm, compared to cultures where they have some other form of greeting - eg bowing in Japan
|
askscience
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"EDIT2: Heading to sleep, there are plenty of people floating around that can get to your questions, but I won't be able to for a while. So apologies if you go unheard.\n\nEDITS: Formatting for readability.\n\n*References: This is basic immunology knowledge stemming from \"Janeway's Immunobiology, 7th edition\"*\n\nThat's a bit too broad of a question for an answer that isn't the size of a textbook. In fact, it's too complex to really give you an actual answer, here are my reasons why:\n\n**First**, your question is about handshaking, which narrows down the diseases to those that are transmitted through mainly direct contact and fecal-oral routes like parasites, Hep and *many* other diseases. I mention this because \"rates of infection\" is still *too* broad if not narrowed. For example, handshaking has a minute correlation with airborne diseases, since these diseases do not normally transmit through skin contact, but we do have a large amount of information of infection rates of airborne diseases.\n\n**Second**, one *major* confounding factor that we're running into from the outset is that we don't have data (i.e. statistics) on the infection rates of all diseases. The reason for this being that very few people will actually will seek medical attention for minor illnesses (e.g. the common cold or warts).\n\n**Third**, as bellabagoftrix mentions, hygiene is another important factor here. You should expect extremely varied results depending on a country's general hygiene education. So a comparison of just handshaking vs non-handshaking can not be expected to result in useful knowledge.\n\n**Fourth**, even if we do go deep into this and separate out countries (which can be quite diverse in themselves) and the diseases (*extremely* diverse), we get another issue, wherein not everywhere is exposed to the same pathogens. E.g. comparing the rate of SARS infections in the USA and in China is, again, going to result in useless data.\n\nAnd that should explain pretty decently why we can't answer your exact question.\n\nFor your expected question of roughly \"Is handshaking more risky?\" Yes, but it is *trivial* if you use minimal hygiene. Why?\n\n1) Apart from the few direct contact diseases such as warts and parasites (which hopefully the owner has the decency to avoid spreading), comparatively, very few diseases can infect you through your skin (for more info, [Innate immune system: anatomical barriers](_URL_0_))\n\n2) Where contact-based disease transmission is more likely to occur: Open wounds (still low risk without actual fluid transfer), mucus membranes (eyes, mouth, urethra, anus).\n\n3) As long as you wash your hands decently before touching the above mentioned areas, you should have minimal risks of becoming infected.\n\n**TL;DR** I realize that media (disease \"scares\") and corporate marketing (overabundant use of hand sanitizers) are the main source of these issues, but the fear of simple human contact is illogical. Apologies to those who have been driven to said fear by misinformed schoolteachers and media-presence.",
"How about kissing for greeting? I imagine that could be much less hygienic.\nThen again, maybe these cultures have greater resistance to known diseases, if not new ones.",
"I think the bigger question is which countries place emphasis on proper hand hygiene.",
"A few years ago at the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, someone did a study to assess risk of MRSA transmission during graduation handshakes. They found that the risk is very small, and much lower than the risk of transmission to healthcare workers treating infected patients (who presumably wear gloves).\n\nIt's possible that risks of other diseases are different. However, this study suggests that risk of disease transmission from handshaking is very small.\n\n[Here's a writeup, complete with a photo of the dean in his regalia getting swabbed.](_URL_1_)",
"I believe the question isn't direct enough.\n\nEntire cultures on this planet spread diseases through an array of means. Handshaking is simply a single method of physical contact.\n\nInstead, try to turn the correlation into an experiment, or reduce the number of third party variables. Maybe ask a question like:\n\n**Is their a relation between the number of times a person shakes someones hand and the number of times they get infected?**\n\nGetting more specific with the question will help you to make your point more clearly and directly. When you present the results of the study to an audience for example, it will help you to stay on the topic of discussion.\n\n------------\n\nAlso, you must consider that handshaking is only part of the infection. Somehow, people then make contact with food, or with their face or eyes, etc, and somehow they become infected.\n\nThen maybe ask a different question:\n\n**Is their a relation between the number of times someone makes hand contact with their face, and the number of times they get infected?**\n\nAs always, try to conduct an experiment instead of a correlation whenever possible. Correlations cannot prove the relationship between two variables, but can provide a good possible understanding for what relationship they may have.",
"I think a related question that should be touched on in this thread would be \"How does population density in different parts of the world affect disease transmission?\" I'm currently studying zoonoses and there is a definite correlation between (for example) rabbit populations and tularemia. Does this correlation translate to human populations?"
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"url": [
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}
|
Are rates of infection less in countries where handshakes are not a cultural norm?
Basically are rates of infection higher in cultures where handshaking is the norm, compared to cultures where they have some other form of greeting - eg bowing in Japan
|
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|
rr7vn
|
My mother won't get off my back about this one, if you sleep with the lights on is it true your body won't produce enough melatonin?
|
My mother watches doctor oz like no other, and I often fall asleep with my lights on because I'm too lazy to get up and turn them off. She thinks now my body isn't producing enough melatonin and freaks out at me anytime she sees my light on while I'm still sleeping.
Is she actually right or being crazy?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Melatonin plays an important role in our bodies as it helps to regulate the circadian rhythm.\n\n[According to this study](_URL_0_) the wavelengths most relative to melatonin production are 446-477 nm. These are blue wavelengths, and may or may not be produced by the lamps you have.\n\nMelatonin does cause drowsiness and lower the body temperature so it helps to put us to sleep, but it doesn't seem to play a key role in keeping us asleep. It regulates the phase of the rhythm, meaning it helps to set when we fall asleep and wake.\n\nOther chemicals like [cortisol](_URL_1_) are suspected to play a stronger role in keeping us asleep, but they have more complex roles. They more play a role in sleep-staging, which is in itself poorly understood.",
"Circadian Rhythms, Influence of Light Dark Cycle. Our body, in the absence of light, will still maintain a ~24 hour/day cycle (actually closer to 25 hours). Bright lights in the evenings just off-sets the clock to 'reset' the clock at a later hour.\n\n* [Wiki Link](_URL_5_)\n* [~~Research Article: a b Charles A. Czeisler MD, PhD (1999). \"Human Biological Clock Set Back an Hour\"~~](_URL_4_)\n\nEDIT: The article striken through is outdated and stricken with flaws - and a more recent [study](_URL_4_), [pointed out by Teedy](_URL_5_) shows ~24 hrs and 11 +/- 16 min clock.",
"If you are maintaining a cycle, you'll probably be fine. That said, circadian clocks in our bodies are set strongly by light cues. Room light can absolutely cause melatonin phase shift when applied for long period of time, take a look here at figure 3a for example (the paper is a decent review too)\n\n_URL_6_",
"Everyone is talking about how melatonin production is regulated by the amount of light.\n\nWhat I don't see anyone mentioning is the fact that it's regulated by the amount of light *that enters your eye*.\n\nYour retina sends some signals to the [Lateral Geniculate Nucleus](_URL_7_) in your thalamus. Neurons there send signals to your hypothalamus. Your hypothalamus is what regulates melatonin production.\n\nIt will be harder to fall asleep with the lights on, because you produce melatonin in a dark room even with your eyes open, but not as much in a light room with your eyes open.\n\nAs soon as you close your eyes, it doesn't matter any more. Light isn't coming in and activating your retina, it doesn't matter how bright the room is if you have your eyes closed.\n\nInteresting side note, melatonin is also involved in decreasing sex hormone production, and it's thought that spring is typically breeding season for animals because the longer days mean less time spent in the dark and therefore less sex hormone inhibition.\n\nTL;DR It's harder to fall asleep with the lights on because you don't start producing melatonin in a well lit room unless your eyes are closed, but once they're closed, it doesn't matter how well lit the room is.",
"Why don't you get a timer for the light? Even if you ignore alleged or real effects on melatonin, or the messing-up of your circadian rhythm, at some point it will get annoying because you will start to wake up at odd hours because the lights are on.\n\nA timer is cheap and saves you all the actual and potential trouble. Set it to 1 hour or whatever, start reading, fall asleep, the light turns off, all is well with the world. :)",
"I'm not a scientist but I found these on _URL_10_\n\n_URL_9_\n\n_URL_8_"
],
"score": [
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}
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11487664",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0165178183900550",
"http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/07.15/bioclock24.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/rr7vn/my_mother_wont_get_off_my_back_about_this_one_if/c47ztr0",
"http://jbr.sagepub.com/content/20/4/326.full.pdf+html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm#Impact_of_light.E2.80.93dark_cycle",
"http://www.jncasr.ac.in/chronobiology/KPW1.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09/110912092554.htm",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110113082716.htm",
"sciencedaily.com"
]
}
|
My mother won't get off my back about this one, if you sleep with the lights on is it true your body won't produce enough melatonin?
My mother watches doctor oz like no other, and I often fall asleep with my lights on because I'm too lazy to get up and turn them off. She thinks now my body isn't producing enough melatonin and freaks out at me anytime she sees my light on while I'm still sleeping. Is she actually right or being crazy?
|
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] |
|
13rv4i
|
What are the restraints of building taller buildings ?
|
I occasionally see [these kind of pictures](_URL_0_) and can't help but wonder how far we are off in years from building skyscrapers like these. Or is it financially implausible to build such structures?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c76mx29",
"c76q5rv",
"c76m74y"
],
"text": [
"Money isn't an issue as much as the properties of building materials. Early masonry buildings were wide and low to the ground. The bases had to be thicker to support the stones on top and height was limited by the weight. Timber buildings could be taller, but fell victim to wind and fire. Improvements to steel and concrete make them the premier building materials, but are still limited by their ability to resist forces, like wind, earthquake, and the weights of the structure itself and its contents. Improvements have made stronger and lighter steel and concrete, which produced structures like the [Burj Khalifa](_URL_1_) and the [Tokyo Skytower](_URL_0_). \n\nI don't see any reason why buildings won't one day rise out of the clouds like sci-fi suggests--Engineers are amazing!",
"Vertical transportation systems are also a problem at taller heights. The elevator cables become too long and too heavy after a certain height. Even if you were using magnetic rails instead of cables, it becomes very tedious to move to the upper floors (switching elevators between a certain number of floors might be necessary). The elevators can only go so fast without causing nausea to human beings. Unless you live and work inside the building, this is a big restraint. But I look forward to vertical cities. Down with horizontality!",
"Wind. I swear to god most skyscrapers need pendulums or counterbalances within the structure to keep from being blown over...\n\nAnd the wind only increases with height."
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://dizorb.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/1920x1080-Dizorb-CityScape-HD-Wallpaper.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Sky_Tree",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burj_Khalifa"
]
}
|
What are the restraints of building taller buildings ?
I occasionally see [these kind of pictures](_URL_0_) and can't help but wonder how far we are off in years from building skyscrapers like these. Or is it financially implausible to build such structures?
|
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] |
|
yt7ej
|
Why do we feel like eating certain foods at times over others?
|
For instance, sometimes people may want something crunchy, or get even more specific by naming exactly what they feel like eating. Does it depend on the climate? If so, what changes occur in our bodies to tell our brain that we crave a certain kind of food?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5yoqpc",
"c5yx0za",
"c5yuh8e"
],
"text": [
"Someone who knows what they are talking about can back me up on this one. I saw a video that said your body and brain together knows what nutrition you are running low on and will pick an item that has the nutrition that you need. This is why some foods will \"sound good\" at certain times. I'm sure there are many other factors though. [Here's an article that might help.](_URL_0_)",
"I just spent the last half hour or so on Pubmed looking at studies on food cravings. There seems to be no correlation between what your body needs and what you crave unless we are talking about some forms of pica: _URL_2_\n\nThe only correlations seem to be hormonal during a woman's menstrual cycle and in pregnant women. Also, the cravings you get when you are [dieting, especially when hungry](_URL_2_), seem to be for high caloric density foods. \n\nThere are no studies out there that I have been able to find that lend any support for the theory that we crave food because our bodies need something.",
"i'm sure there are many explanations, but sugar (and wheat) have addictive properties. \n\n > Finally, a 2008 study noted that sugar affects opioids and dopamine in the brain, and thus might be expected to have addictive potential. It referenced bingeing, withdrawal, craving and cross-sensitization, and gave each of them operational definitions in order to demonstrate behaviorally that sugar bingeing is a reinforcer. These behaviors were said to be related to neurochemical changes in the brain that also occur during addiction to drugs. Neural adaptations included changes in dopamine and opioid receptor binding, enkephalin mRNA expression and dopamine and acetylcholine release in the nucleus accumbens.[4]\n\ni'm normally a carb-o-holic, but if i eliminate it from my diet, the cravings go away after about 3 days. the longer i go without it, the less i crave it."
],
"score": [
10,
5,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.timesunion.com/living/article/What-makes-us-eat-certain-things-not-others-1329231.php",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pica_(disorder)",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14984802"
]
}
|
Why do we feel like eating certain foods at times over others?
For instance, sometimes people may want something crunchy, or get even more specific by naming exactly what they feel like eating. Does it depend on the climate? If so, what changes occur in our bodies to tell our brain that we crave a certain kind of food?
|
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] |
|
1nkp03
|
Do particles, like neutrinos affect anything, if they somehow stopped existing, would it have a noticeable effect on us and what we can observe around us?
|
I'm assuming, there are other kinds of particles, that don't interact electromagnetically. Please correct me, if that assumption is wrong.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ccjhrmv",
"ccjidu6",
"ccjht7f",
"ccjvc24"
],
"text": [
"Neutrinos don't interact electromagnetically, it's true. If the Sun somehow stopped emitting neutrinos (most neutrinos on Earth are streaming out from the Sun), it wouldn't affect us too much.\n\nIt would probably affect the Sun, though. Neutrinos carry a lot of energy away from the Sun (just by virtue of how fast they're travelling), so that would need to change. What would happen depends on how you're getting rid of neutrinos.\n\nNeutrinos are important to a lot of nuclear processes. They are needed to balance the equations. Just like energy and electric charge, there's a conserved quantity in nuclear reactions called the *lepton number*. It's the number of leptons minus the number of antileptons.\n\nThere are six kinds of leptons: electrons, muons, tau particles, and the three flavours of neutrino. If you create one during some reaction or other, you have to create an an antilepton as well (not necessarily the antiparticle for the same lepton). For example, when the Sun fuses two protons into a deuterium nucleus, one of them turns into a neutron. To conserve charge, this creates a positron. To conserve lepton number, this in turn creates a neutrino.\n\nThe same thing happens with a lot of radioactive processes: beta decay in particular. That's when a radioactive nucleus converts one of its protons to a neutron, or a neutron to a proton. In the first case, it emits a positron and a neutrino; in the second case, it emits an electron and an antineutrino. If the nucleus were somehow unable to produce a neutrino, it would not be able to decay in that way (if it can decay by breaking into two nuclei, that would still be possible).",
"I would like to add that neutrinos carry almost all the energy away from a supernova. If they were to disappear, who knows what would happen during supernovas. \n\nAs for other particles that don't interact via EM force, that would be something like dark matter. It is called dark matter because it doesn't really interact with the EM force much if it all. So we can't see it except by the effects it has on matter.",
"Considering the fact that they are produced in the [chain reaction responsible for almost all energy coming from the sun](_URL_0_), their disappearance would mean that the sun will no longer provide energy, since they are needed for the lepton conservation in beta decay.\n\nIf your question was intended as to whether neutrinos affect our everyday lives, the answer is pretty much no.",
"Besides all of the other good answers here, neutrinos are an essential part of most weak nuclear processes. Without neutrinos, many decay processes would be impossible. This means that particles like muons, pions, and many isotopes like carbon-14 (just to name a few) would be stable. The world would look very different if muons, taus, pions, etc. were all stable!"
],
"score": [
20,
8,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNO_cycle"
]
}
|
Do particles, like neutrinos affect anything, if they somehow stopped existing, would it have a noticeable effect on us and what we can observe around us?
I'm assuming, there are other kinds of particles, that don't interact electromagnetically. Please correct me, if that assumption is wrong.
|
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2m328u
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The Philae lander has successfully landed on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. AskScience Megathread.
|
Here's the ESA livestream:
* _URL_3_
Here's some more resources about the Rosetta spacecraft:
* _URL_5_
* _URL_4_
* _URL_2_
* _URL_7_
* [THE ROSETTA LANDER (“PHILAE”) INVESTIGATIONS](_URL_6_)
Here's the first images from the Philae lander:
* _URL_8_ (Philae leaves Rosetta, courtesy of /r/space)
* _URL_0_ (Philae above the surface, thanks /u/vorin)
* _URL_1_ (Right before touchdown)
ESA Twitter:
* _URL_9_
Ask your questions!
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"[First image of the comet 67P during Philae's descent](_URL_0_)\n\n[Image Philae took of the surface moments before landing](_URL_1_)\n\nLikely no more pictures today. Rosetta has to do some maneuvering and communication will be temporarily severed.\n\nBut, check out this [~~scale~~ model of 67P and Philae](_URL_2_).",
"How much data can be transmitted and at what bit rate, also, what is the chances of finding microbial life (I know)?",
"What do we hope to learn from Philae's exploration?",
"What am I looking at in that \"first image\" ?",
"As fast as I know the harpoons have not been fired. I assume they don't want to fire the harpoons for fear of sending the probe flying without the thruster holding it in place. Can the experiments comence without any anchor?",
"My mother just asked me how they got it there and I realised I don't really know more than just we use radio waves, how is the rosetta controlled from earth? How do we receive and send information to it? How much control do we have?",
"What is the user interface like? Are commands typed into something like a UNIX shell? Or is there a web page with buttons that are labelled \"Launch Orbiter\", etc.? \n\nIs the code open-source or on the web someplace for me to look at?",
"I have some mundane questions. What is the lander named after? And who is the comet named after?",
"Why didn't the anchors deploy? How do we know the lander isn't drifting around, crashing into things?",
"How long will Philae operate and continue to transmit data back to earth?",
"Why did it take 10 years for the probe to land on the comet? \n\nWhy not just shoot it directly at the comet (predicting its future position) without all the gravity assists?\n[I asked it here, but no one answered.](_URL_3_)",
"How far away from Earth was 67P when Philae landed?",
"[Here's the image](_URL_7_) I snagged from the stream earlier this morning of the Philae lander taken by the Rosetta spacecraft. Can't wait to see what all the images look like all cleaned up :)\n\nEdit: ESA sources, [wide angle](_URL_5_), [narrow angle](_URL_4_), [narrow angle cropped](_URL_6_).",
"We're happy to answer your questions but don't forget to check on google first!",
"What's the local acceleration due to gravity where Philae landed?",
"When can we expect to see photos from the surface?",
"How long can Philae stay online/active for?\n\nI Read that it's initial battery will last for 40 hours and once that's done, it will switch over to rechargeable ones with solar panels. So how long will it be able to keep sending signals our way for?\n\nHope this makes sense.",
"Is it possible that the force from the spacecraft's landing on the comet could have changed the comet's trajectory? \n\nOn a somewhat related note, could the achievements of this mission yield any useful knowledge for designing future anti-asteroid defense systems for earth?",
"How large of a rocket would have been required if Rosetta just used a basic Hohmann transfer orbit instead of that epic quadruple gravity assist?",
"Why was 67P chosen as the comet of choice?",
"This may not be a very /r/askscience comment about this... \n\nBut I honestly never thought I'd see the day we'd land on a freaking COMET. I'm feeling maybe a little of what folks felt in 1969, hearing \"one small step\".\n\nIt's a good day, ladies and gentlemen.",
"Is sending out probes like this and attaching to other faster moving celestial bodies a valid means of exploring the depths of space we haven't reached yet?",
"This is absolutely amazing and it doesn't seem like anyone cares. I know this took almost two decades to pull off but to think we are one step closer to mining out in space just warps my mind.",
"What do the experts make of the \"dunes\" found on the Rosetta images of 67P? What processes might have formed them?\n\nEDIT for reference: _URL_8_",
"Can we get more information about the computer system that Philae uses?\n\nHardware:\n\n* What is the overall architecture of the (embedded) system?\n\n* What CPU (or CPU arch) does it uses? How fast is the CPU?\n\n* What type of memory does it have? How much memory does it have?\n\n* More general: what (hardware) hardening techniques did they used to achieve high reliability?\n\nSoftware:\n\n* Do we know if the operating system is based on a previous version of some real-time OS, or is written from scratch?\n\n* Was there some (research) material published for testing and validation of the software that runs on Philae?",
"I apologize in advance for how stupid this probably is: Hypothetically, could future manned missions \"ride\" comets for extended periods of time so they could cross long distances without using as much fuel?\n\nEDIT: Thanks for all the responses! I totally get *why* this was a dumb question now and am even more excited about space travel than I was before!",
"Is philae intended to travel about the comet? What will prevent it from merely floating away due to the lack of gravity?",
"The diagrams suggest Rosetta is orbiting 67P. How can it do that when the comet produces so little gravity? Is Rosetta firing thrusters to keep from flying off into space (so it's circling 67P more than orbiting it)?",
"Where is 67P off to next?\n\nDo we know whether it is likely to pass close by any other stars with a piece of earth tech screwed onto it? Will we get it back later? Or is it doomed to wander through deep space.",
"What sort of computing power do rosetta and philae have considering they were launched 10 years ago.",
"If the comet is moving at 135,000 km/h and rockets usually hits speeds of approximately 30,000 km/h, then did the gravity assist help it go four times as fast? If so, can we use gravity assist to help us go faster than 300,000 km/h or even 500,000 km/h? How fast can we go using gravity assist?",
"I thought comets were supposed to be covered in ice. The descriptions of Philae say it has things like \"harpoons\" and \"ice screws\", but it looks pretty rocky to me in the picture.\n\nWhere's the ice? Is 67P special or were we wrong about the common characteristics of comets?",
"Why didn't they try to hit the comet going away from the sun? Seems a probe could have lived a lot longer.",
"Did Rosetta and Philae receive any updates while drifting for the past 10 years? Technology has changed quite a bit since 2004. What needed to stay the same/change on the ground in order to be compatible with the 10 year old craft?",
"With the harpoons having not fired could the lander have already bounced off and be floating away right now? Could it float away at any given moment?",
"How is data sent all the way from out there to earth? It's mindblowing to me how a spacecraft can snap a picture millions of miles away and we can receive it in a matter of seconds.",
"no question, congratulations to ESA and all people involved in this! it's stunning and awesome what humanity achieved today.",
"Is there a main control loop coordinating the functioning of all instruments on board (or is each instrument autonomous), such that if communications were interrupted the craft would continue to follow a protocol and do useful work in case it could transmit findings at a later date?\n\nIf so, how much storage space is there on-board for data? Are we talking terabytes?",
"According to Wikipedia, \n \n > In 1997 it was speculated that a relatively small metallic asteroid with a diameter of 1.6 km (0.99 mi) contains more than $20 trillion USD worth of industrial and precious metals \n \nSo when can we expect to get free resources, install robots in every factory and home, ditch capitalism, and live all day playing video games and stuff?",
"How are orbiters like Rosetta guarded from hacking? Is the possibility that someone else than ESA might capture signals (for maneuvers for example) and repeat them so orbiter would do the maneuver twice and possibly fail it's mission because of that?",
"I believe that the number of bits to describe an image is not the main issue here for the poor quality photos we have been receiving.\n\nIt is true that with just 8 bits you can easily represent a grayscale image. However that is not the optimal solution either. With less than 8 bits you can represent a color image without the kind of loss we are seeing in those photos.\n\nThey could compress each image by making the camera to compute a different color palette for each photo and then send you the palette after the image pixels. You could easily reduce 8 bits to half in some photos and still get a quite impressive quality.\n\nHave a look: _URL_9_\n\n_URL_10_\n\nThis method is called **indexed colors**. This technique is so old that even Jesus used it to post photos on facebook.\n\nSo datagram size is not the issue here, however I can't understand what is the need for those grayscale images from the lander. If the datagram size is the *only* issue, I and anyone in image compressing would have done a better job at it. Anyone care to explain?",
"Bounce and stabilisation question: So the lander might have bounced 1 km upwards for two hours. Is it likely that it also rotated in nothingness and we're just lucky it didn't land on its head? Can it somehow stabilise itself to face the comet feet first when it is in free fall?",
"> [Philae Lander](_URL_11_): I’m on the surface but *my harpoons did not fire*. My team is hard at work now trying to determine why.\n\nWhat does that mean? Do they have some other means to fix Philae on the surface?",
"Besides photos, how do the people controlling Rosetta and Philae know where they are? Exactly what is being transmitted back to let them know? Are the people at the ESA just receiving numbers and coordinates or a visual representation?",
"Absent harpoons holding the probe in place, how much gravitational pull is there between the 220 lbs probe and the 4.1 KM wide comet to hold the thing in place? Is there centripetal force spinning the probe away?",
"Hi dont know if this has already been asked or answered but will all scientific discoveries be made public? In perticula say if a new element is discovered will it be added to the periodic table?",
"Does relativity and time dilation come in to play when communicating with the probe? For example, like it does with our GPS sats back home?",
"Suppose they don't find much ice, as if 67P was just like an asteroid, the way it looks, what would happen then?",
"how fast is this comet hurtling** through the solar system?",
"what is the total distance travelled by the probe?",
"Two questions related to Hubble;\n\n1) Is it possible to aim the Hubble at the comet and see the lander? What about Rosetta?\n\n2) If 1 is false (or even if its possible) what would the resolution of this image be, hypothetically?\n\nMy feeling is no probably because it would be too difficult to aim the Hubble at a tiny object so close. And come to think of it, I don't recall any pictures the Hubble has taken of things like the moon or inner planets.",
"Comets are known to travel into deep space, so after the initial batteries deplete and the lander switches to the rechargeable solar ones, how long are those expected to last? Also would it be enough time to gather data for analysis? Also what if the comet swings around too near to a star, would it damage the probe? Please correct me if anything I stated was wrong.",
"I read through a few of the info pages and found out that the main \"antenna\" for this mission on Earth is in Australia [[link](_URL_12_)]. I imagine it's fairly easy to direct it exactly to where Rosetta is.\n\nHow is Rosetta communication targeted? Is the antennae targeting part of required maneuvers or is there some other kind of mechanism at play?",
"Am I right in thinking that Philae was basically just dropped onto the comet, so those 7 hours or so were in freefall? If so, from how high above the comet was it dropped and how fast was it travelling when it first touched the comet before bouncing back off?",
"I tried looking this up and couldn't find anything so I'm assuming there's not an answer....\n\nIs there any prediction on where this comet will end up long term? Or will it just move throughout space? FYI- I don't know anything about this stuff.",
"Might be too late to ask but hey, someone might know. \n\nCould the inertia of the probe landing/firing its anchor change the trajectory of the comet ever so slightly and could this be enough to change its path and possibly cause issues?",
"What have the scientists who launched it been up to for the last ten years? Surely they can't have only focused on this; I imagine most of the work would have to have been at launch and at landing.",
"I heard on the news that Phillae only has a 60 hour battery span. Does this mean it will only be able to gather data for that time? Does it not have any source of generating energy?",
"A European space Probe has landed on a comet named by the Russians, hailed as a victory by the Americans and a great leap for the entire human race.\n\nI love it!",
"If you would Start the Same Mission this year, what would the Change be regarding data rate, picture size and communication speed (the \ntime it takes to send instructions to philae) \nThanks",
"What are the implications of the failed firing of the harpoons? what research cant be conducted as a result of this and will the problem be fixable?",
"This is more of an \"AskPhysics\" question, but what is the significance of the magnetic oscillations that we heard coming from the comet this morning?",
"I read the temperature of 67p is -70°C, does this affect how the lander works or is it designed to withstand such temperatures",
"is the comet going to be visible from earth during its trip around the sun?",
"How will they test for organic material on the comet without having samples in hand?",
"What is the gravity percentage with the comet being in relation to earth?",
"Was this operation more difficult than sending a man to the moon?",
"how will Philae change the trajectory of the comet?",
"Are they sending satellites out like this yearly?",
"Hopefully this doesn't get buried because its only kinda space related, but what happens as the comet comes back towards earth with the data transmission. I know it takes ~28 minutes to get info back from it now, but as it gets closer that time is going to go down. I guess if it is sending data/pics/etc back in chunks then those chunks just get here faster. If it is sending data/pics/etc back in a constant stream then what happens as the time to transmit goes down? For example, Data set 1 is sent from a distance taking 20 minutes to get here. Is it comet moving fast enough back toward earth that data set 2 sent from a distance taking 18 minutes to get here, get back to earth faster than data set 1?",
"How is the lander able to make the adjustments to land in such a precise location with such a delay of communication and commands from earth? I would imagine some \"on-the-fly\" corrections were required to safely land, etc. With an object moving so fast and being so unstable (or at least as I'd imagine), how are we able to make sure that the lander is able to land on a smoother, flat surface rather than a huge boulder, slope, or something similar? I would imagine that the distances between ideal and terrible landing zones could be meters from each other.",
"So it seems they are saying they only have 64 hours total since they are only getting 1.5 hours of sun per 12 hours instead of the 6-7 hrs they would have at the original landing site. Why cant they just put the lander in \"standby\" and let a bunch of charging cycles pass until it is charged enough to operate again? Wouldn't this just mean waiting longer to charge?",
"On the livestream they said that it would have taken ~two weeks until they could try a new landing had this one failed. So my question is - 2 weeks seem pretty high if you consider the comet beeing \"only\" ~4 km in diameter the orbit should be relatively high, or the velocity of rosetta/philae pretty low right? Am I getting anything wrong here? :)",
"Okay, I hope I'm addressing this the correct way:\n\n* How do we know what kind of \"substance\" is the comet made of, in order to make drills that are capable of safely attaching the probe to the surface?\n* Is that based on the comets that have fallen to Earth? Are all the comets we know made of similar \"substances\"?",
"From the point that it was launched to what Im assuming was a controlled descent to its target, how active was the rosetta in controlling its course ?\n\nDid it have to perform course adjustments en route or was it a case of we launched it and now its on track for its target in 10 years ?",
"Gravity Question.\n\nI was looking at the orbital paths of Rosetta of pre and current orbit: _URL_13_\n\nAs the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko has mass and therefore has gravity, but with estimates given are between .01 and .0001 m/s2 is the gravity enough to hold Rosetta in orbit, or is it using propulsion to hold the orbit?",
"This might be dumb and obvious to some but are the photos in black and white? Or does it 'look like that' in space? If they are in fact B/W, why is it not possible to take color photos in space?",
"Watching the video of the path rosetta took, I saw the comet pass by close to the sun while the spacecraft was still slingshoting around the planets. Why didnt Rosetta just land then?",
"Is there a video of the FIRST moment the scientists heard back that it had successfully landed? \n\nLike a video of people cheering and screaming and hugging like from the rover landing?",
"What was the window of time that flight path was available? \nWere there back up dates that would have worked with that path?\nWere there other paths for other dates?",
"Why this comet in particular? It took 10 years to achieve this, was it because this one was the closest or was there a different reason we chose this one?",
"Can someone ELI5 the sound it makes? I got to \"oscillations in the magnetic field\" and it lost me? What is that, and why is it all predator sounding?",
"How are the gravity assist manoeuvres calculated ? Do they use a supercomputer to brute force billions of possible paths or is there a more elegant solution ?",
"What kind of instrumentation was rosetta using to spot the comet and track it for more accurate maneuvers while it was still millions of miles away?",
"Will the probe still be functioning when the comet get's close to the sun? Also, how close will the comet be to the sun?",
"What are some of the challenges of photography in environments like these? I assume low light, radiation from the sun, dust maybe... anything else?",
"Would be possible to land on Halley's comet, instead of 67P? \n\nOf course, if she would showed up in 2014.",
"Whats the next step for ESA?\n\nHow long will Philae last?\n\nWill this give a bigger budget for ESA?",
"Wondering how severe the threat is that Philae could \"fall off\" the comet. Is this a serious concern?",
"How far is the comet from Earth (using a comparison of distance between Earth and other planets)?",
"So why did we choose to land on this comet out of all the comets out there?",
"Is there a limit for how far away it can transmit from?",
"Does anyone know what the odds of success for this mission were?",
"What will be useful about the mission if it is successful?",
"Is rosetta orbiting the comet, or just on the same trajectory?"
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{
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}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/Wn4I0Y5.png",
"https://pbs.twimg.com/media/B2QqA8QCUAEAQAu.jpg",
"http://sci.esa.int/rosetta/",
"http://rosetta.esa.int/",
"http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Operations/Live_updates_Rosetta_mission_comet_landing",
"http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Rosetta",
"http://tfo.rmki.kfki.hu/system/files/public/Missions/Rosetta/cdms/publications/Bibring-Philae-2006.pdf",
"http://rosetta.jpl.nasa.gov/",
"http://i.imgur.com/69qTx52.png",
"https://twitter.com/esa"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/Wn4I0Y5.png",
"https://pbs.twimg.com/media/B2QqA8QCUAEAQAu.jpg",
"https://imgm.24liveblog.com/2014/11/13/m_5463ac1932453_s.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2m386f/why_did_it_take_10_years_for_the_philae_probe_to/",
"http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2014/11/Farewell_Philae_-_narrow-angle_view2",
"http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2014/11/Farewell_Philae_-_wide-angle_view",
"http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2014/11/Farewell_Philae_-_narrow-angle_view",
"http://i.imgur.com/6wt3bWV.png",
"http://blogs.esa.int/rosetta/2014/10/20/cometwatch-18-october/",
"https://www.tu-chemnitz.de/docs/yale/graphics/graphics/gif_w_palette.gif",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Screen_color_test_VGA_16colors.png",
"https://twitter.com/Philae2014/status/532579550069551104",
"http://sci.esa.int/rosetta/34174-esoc-info/",
"http://astrobob.areavoices.com/files/2014/06/67P-Rosetta-orbit.jpg"
]
}
|
The Philae lander has successfully landed on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. AskScience Megathread.
Here's the ESA livestream: * _URL_3_ Here's some more resources about the Rosetta spacecraft: * _URL_5_ * _URL_4_ * _URL_2_ * _URL_7_ * [THE ROSETTA LANDER (“PHILAE”) INVESTIGATIONS](_URL_6_) Here's the first images from the Philae lander: * _URL_8_ (Philae leaves Rosetta, courtesy of /r/space) * _URL_0_ (Philae above the surface, thanks /u/vorin) * _URL_1_ (Right before touchdown) ESA Twitter: * _URL_9_ Ask your questions!
|
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] |
|
3ifgby
|
What are the circle/dot pattern on car windows?
|
I've been noticing [this pattern](_URL_0_) on car windows a lot recently, especially on luxurious cars like benz and bmw. Can anyone explain to me why this pattern is there? Is it up protection or just the way the glass was made?
& nbsp;
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cug0y0j",
"cug62iy",
"cugawmi"
],
"text": [
"This has to do with the tempering process for the glass. Tempered glass is used to not only strengthen the glass, but to have it break into less hurtful chunks when you get into, say, a collision. The dots are different stress points of the glass, likely from years of heating and cooling on the glass.\n\nAs for why you see the dots? Many sunglasses are now polarized, and a lot of cameras have polarizing filters on them to help cut down on glare. A side effect is the dots show up more readily. See [this picture] (_URL_0_).",
"When I ride my motorcycle, I often wear polarized sunglasses under a polarized face shield. At that point, almost every window I look at has that pattern, and a large fraction of cars have crazy patterns in their paint. Trippy...",
"When you look at a piece of polarized glass while wearing polarized glasess, the two sets of polarizing lines cause interference. \nThe polarization lines in that window (and most auto glass rear windows) are not straight. The spots you see shows where on the window the lines are more perpendicular the polarization is compared to your glasses.\nNext time you see this, turn your head sideways and you'll see the pattern change as different parts of the window go into and out of alignment with the polarization in your glasses."
],
"score": [
104,
17,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/ks3BGTr"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughened_glass#/media/File:CarWindowPolarization.jpg"
]
}
|
What are the circle/dot pattern on car windows?
I've been noticing [this pattern](_URL_0_) on car windows a lot recently, especially on luxurious cars like benz and bmw. Can anyone explain to me why this pattern is there? Is it up protection or just the way the glass was made? & nbsp; Thanks!
|
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|
bgnypm
|
If you are at the base of a large mountain range, is there any noticeable or measurable gravitation effects in the horizontal direction toward the mountain center of mass?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"elniisr",
"elngayb",
"elnhrt8"
],
"text": [
"This was one of the first (non-trivial) experimental tests of gravity. Too small to notice without tools, but measurable in 1775. [Schiehallion experiment](_URL_0_).",
"Noticeable without instrumentation? No. Measurable with instrumentation (even very simple surveying devices)? Definitely. This effect has been observed / measured for a long time, it's called [vertical deflection](_URL_4_). The classic example was the noticeable deflection of plumb lines towards the Himalaya during the [Great Trigonometrical Survey of India](_URL_4_). For a bit of history, you can find lots of old papers, [e.g. like this one](_URL_4_), discussing this. The recognition of the vertical deflection in relation to the Himalaya during this survey directly contributed to the development of the original theories of [isostasy](_URL_4_).",
"Someone else already talked about vertical deflection, so I'll mention something else you might be interested in which is the [GRACE](_URL_5_) mission. This mission studies ground water by measuring super small changes in gravity. (It does this by having two spacecraft chasing eachother and constantly measuring the distance between the two using a laser. If the gravity is stronger below the leading satellite it speeds up a bit and the distance between the two grows. If the gravity is weaker, it slows down and the distance shrinks. When the second satellite passes over the same location it speeds up/slows down too. So the distance between the two has a very clear pattern as the spacecraft go through a varying gravitational field, allowing them to detect very small changes in gravity. \n\nThe presence (or absence) or ground water actually changes the local gravity enough that these spacecraft can detect it! (There are some amazing animations if you can find them, of the drought in California being clearly visible in the gravity maps generated by GRACE, as ground water was pumped up to irrigate crops while not being replenished due to the drought. Tons of cool stuff has come from that mission, so I figured you'd get a kick out of it!)"
],
"score": [
20,
18,
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiehallion_experiment",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_deflection",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isostasy",
"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1775632?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Trigonometrical_Survey",
"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/Grace/index.html"
]
}
|
If you are at the base of a large mountain range, is there any noticeable or measurable gravitation effects in the horizontal direction toward the mountain center of mass?
|
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||
lhuiy
|
Our Community is Growing. Help Us Keep it Clean.
|
**Hi Everyone! And Welcome to New Users!** Ask you have probably heard, r/AskScience recently became one of the default subreddits for new users of Reddit. This is a big step for us as a community! We're proud to have ushered this subreddit to the point where the admins think that all users of Reddit should be exposed to us.
As you may have noticed over the past 48 hours, this also provides us with a new list of challenges. In response to the blog post announcing that we were a new subreddit, we gained around 4700 subscribers, a 7% increase in our population in a single day. As such, I'm going to take this moment to remind you of the rules, or if you're new tell you them for the first time.
**TL;DR: We have rules. Follow them. No herp-derping allowed.**
**The Rules Of AskScience** (Updated Oct 20, 2011)
1. Here at AskScience, our goal is to provide an atmosphere for accurate discussion about scientific topics. We want to stay on topic and avoid distractions. As such, off-topic comments are not permitted.
2. Our goal is expert scientific responses to questions. Speculation should be deeply rooted in science, and ideally come from those with strong scientific background in that field. Either here or in real life, anecdotes are not scientific data, and don't provide good scientific insight, so please refrain from using anecdote to answer questions.
3. We don't answer personal medical questions. While medicine is certainly part of science, many of our panelists and our moderators feel it is impossible to accurately answer a medical question while maintaining both confidentiality and providing an accurate answer. It is also a serious breach of medical ethics for a doctor to provide that kind of 'distance diagnosis.'
4. Before you submit a question, please use [_URL_0_](_URL_3_) to see if it has been asked in the before. Read the previous threads, and if your specific question still hasn't been answered feel free to submit that *specific* question as a clarification on the old thread.
5. We don't do homework help. If you need help with your homework, go to [r/HomeworkHelp](_URL_2_).
6. We are not here to discuss religion outside of the context of sociology. As such, questions explicitly about religion or hate speech or insults for any reason will be immediately deleted.
7. Open ended questions with no specific answer are prohibited.
**How The Rules are Enforced**
As moderators, our job here is to enforce the rules to make sure that discussions proceed smoothly and, most importantly, make sure that questions get answers. Every once in a while, one of us will go through a thread and clean up any comments we feel are veering out of control. But we **need your help!** There are only so many of us, and we can only catch so much. *I'll say it again. We cannot do this without your help.*Here is how you can help us enforce the rules:
*This section updated Oct 28, 2011*
If you see a comment that isn't following the rules, do all of the following: a) downvote b) press the 'Report' button to anonymously alert the moderators. Please do not post in a thread repeatedly explaining to people why they are being downvoted. It used to serve an important function, however they eventually become distracting.
More explicitly, here are the things that should be downvoted, reported and kindly replied to every time:
1. Jokes in top level comments.
2. Memes.
3. Conversation not directly related to the question or a follow up question.
4. Speculation.
5. Anecdotes.
**Panelists**
One of the most important mechanisms for making sure questions get answered is our panelist system. Panelists are people who have informed us that they are REAL scientists who are taking the time to answer questions here. Their specialties are noted by the colored tags next to their names, and the color relates to what science they study.
Just because someone is a panelist doesn't mean they are right though! Ask them follow-up questions, ask for citations! Critical analysis of what people say is an important part of getting the most of the AskScience experience. While we can't and won't ask people to cite everything they say, if you aren't going to completely explain a topic please provide a citation so that those who want to know more have a source to go to.
Also keep in mind there are other experts who frequent AskScience. Just because someone isn't a panelist doesn't mean they are wrong!
**Not Interested in Science?**
Okay by us! If you're not interested in seeing content from AskScience, thats fine too! In the top right corner of the screen, under the search bar, you'll see a red button that says "Unsubscribe." Click it and AskScience will stop showing up in your Reddit front page unless you click subscribe later.
**Why are we doing this?**
Over the past couple of days, we have received a lot of kind messages from people letting us know how much they like AskScience. They have also expressed concern that the quality of AskScience will decrease with the flood of new users. We'd like to take a few moments to address those concerns.
The past 48 hours have been very exciting but also a lot like drinking out of a fire hose for the moderation team. But we believe that trying out being a default subreddit is a worthwhile experiment for us. We know that because of the community that we have built and the strong moderation we have become known for that there is a lot of good and we want to see that grow. It is an *experiment* and if in a week or two we decide that we cannot both be a default subreddit and maintain high quality, we will remove ourselves from the default subreddit list.
You may have noticed a lot more off-topic conversation in the past 48 hours. We have been doing our best to try to keep this under control, but because of the exposure provided by the new default subreddit announcement things have gotten a bit ahead of us. We are optimistic about this getting better, though, because we really do believe that this is blog post exposure, not new users. We've been informally keeping track and about 95% of the comments we've deleted in the past 48 hours have been from experienced Redditors, not new users (who have been very well behaved).
Finally, the reason that we're committed to trying this out is because we care about science education. As its often noted on Reddit and other places, improving the scientific literacy of the general public benefits society as a whole and positively impacts the greater community. To quote the [reddit admins directly](_URL_1_):
> The reddit team, our Board, our informal advisors, and many in the reddit community sincerely believe that reddit has the potential, over the next generation, to positively impact journalism, civic engagement, fundraising, product development, and learning.
That is EXACTLY what we do here at AskScience. We want to see this succeed.
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"Just want to add that we couldn't do this without the help of the AskScience *community*. You guys are the ones asking interesting questions, answering them, and keeping the signal to noise ratio high with upvotes and downvotes. The moderators do what we can to clean up around the edges.",
"Can't stress this enough: \n\n###use your report button. \n\nWe're adding new moderators and trying to train them up, but we need the community to alert us to where our attention should be directed. It used to be that I was able to look in every single thread of every post and keep reasonably up to the task. That's now impossible for me, and probably for any of our mods. So we need the community browsing to alert us to where we need to go.",
"Can I complain here about all the people who can't use the search button? Because pretty soon I'm going to get tired of searching *for* people and linking them to the 24710019 times their question has been asked before, and just revert to downvote, hide, move on.",
"> No herp-derping allowed.\n\nThat's probably the best tl;dr for commenting advice in a serious subreddit ever.",
"This place is amazing. I am a new user and I will follow the rules, no questions asked.",
"> Guessing is called speculation and is explicitly forbidden. Don't think you know. Don't have an example that shows the answer. Trying to use an example to answer a question is anecdote and is also explicitly forbidden.\n\nSince calling something \"forbidden\" can chill discussion, may I humbly suggest a minor edit? \n\n\"Guessing is speculation. If you believe you have something to add to the discussion, or in response to the question, try to find a source for what you are thinking. If you can't find a source, then instead of stating something you're not sure of as a statement, ask it as a follow-up question. \n\n\"Similarly, the plural of anecdote is not data. \"This happened to me once,\" is not an answer to a scientific question. Again we suggest that if your experience adds to the question, ask it as a follow-on question. If you feel that it doesn't really add to the conversation as a follow-on question, then think twice about posting it...\"",
"I am slightly saddened that my *question concerning a certain boat, and the animals that could fit in it* got removed today, but I'm glad it proved to be a good example of what this subreddit can expect when a question is provocative.\n\nEven though you deleted my first (and probably only) front-page submission, I forgive you. \n\nThanks for keeping reddit classy.",
"I like it, even though i was a recent unknowing victim of your downvotes. It's good policy.",
"I'm very glad you are all taking this route, and I wish you the best in the interesting weeks to come. This is by far the most thought provoking public resource I've had a chance to read on the Internet, and I hope to hell it stays at least somewhat unsullied by the recent front page influx.",
"Some other points:\n\nThere are [guidlines](_URL_0_).\n\nOne thing I was confused about when i first saw this subreddit was who was qualified to be a panelist:\n\n > We would prefer that you're a grad student or someone who's done scientific research or similar work\n\nNo proof is required of this, so *please* only get a tag if you're reasonably sure that you're an expert in your area. If you're posting stuff that isn't to a high standard with a panelist flair, another panelist in the same area will probably call you out (actually has this happened yet?)\n\nAbove all, if in doubt, don't answer a question, especially if the post is only a few hours old. Occasionally, if a post is 15 hours old and no panelist has appeared, I'll be tempted into answering something slightly outside my field, or maybe linking to a useful resource. That should be the level of caution exercised, IMO.",
"You guys are great, one of the most interesting subs around, been lurking for awhile and no plans on stopping. I hope the increased traffic only makes /asksci better",
"One overarching thought. I don't know how long other folks have been online or participated in other online fora, but I'd like to share something I've learned in over twenty years online:\n\n**Absolute rules about content will almost always generate more noise than what they are trying to prevent.**\n\nThings like \"forbidden\" or \"don't do [x]\" tend to cause avalanches of meta-discussion about exceptions, definitions, and why they're just plain misguided. \n\nInstead, I've found that giving guidance and constructive criticism about what to post or how to post get a lot more traction. When you want to say \"Don't do [x]\" try to shape it into a proper alternative - \"If you want to do [x], please first do [y] or think about [z].\"\n\nAlternatively, use softer language: \"Is frowned upon\"; \"prefer that you don't\" or even \"It's unlikely that....\"\n\nExplaining the \"why\" can also go a long way towards forestalling meta whinging. \"Hey, everyone here understands that this pun might be funny, or that meme-o-the-week could elicit a chuckle. But you have to realize that with /r/askscience on the front page, and almost 100,000 subscribers, if just 5% of the subscribers make a pun or meme joke, that's 5,000 submissions. Sure, that doesn't happen, but it should give you an idea of why we like to try to stay laser-focused on citeable scientific answers that are closely related to the OP\"\n\nAlso, while /r/askscience is a heavily moderated forum (and benefits strongly from this), keep in mind the tension between moderators and posters. I can't presume to speak for the moderators, but in general you want to position yourselves as delegates of the community. Authoritarian \"we want [x]\" pronouncements will invite challenge, as opposed to \"we've found the community prefers [x]\" or words to that effect. \n\nExamples also help, always. :-) \n\nHope this isn't too preachy, \nScary T. Clown",
"> Ask you have probably heard, r/AskScience recently became one of the default subreddits for new users of Reddit. \n\nAha, that explains all the homepage submissions. Nice work guys - great quality content.",
"Cheers to the best subreddit. :D I remember this being such tiny subreddit 2 years ago.\n\n*They grow up so fast* :')",
"\"Help us keep it clean.\"\nNo, help us keep it fertile. The opposite of clean.",
"No one's going to take the rules seriously unless you actually **enforce** them, i.e. **bans.**",
"Just in the time ask science has been a front page reddit there already has been a decline in the quality of posts and comments, the mods must be run off their feet. I mean look at that blind person thought post, it has been heavily pruned yet the op insists on sticking anecdotal posts in edits constantly. It's going to be a constant battle with new reddit members joining every day.",
"I would just like to thank each and everyone of you! Science is interesting and the more people that get to question it and learn about the better. This subreddit is part of what Reddit makes so awesome.",
"Every subreddit, that i have subscribed to has taken a steep dive after 100k subscribers. \n\nLets hope this reddit isn't another fatality.",
"This is one of my favorite subreddits, and you guys do a great job moderating it. Thanks for all your work!",
"It seems that I am the only one who has a quarrel with a few of these points. \n\nFirst, well informed speculation by experts is not the same thing as random speculation. Indeed, this sort of speculation is an absolutely necessary step in creating falsable theories that expand science. To deny experts this ability undermines their knowledge of the field. It should be noted that this is really only valid in the case of questions with no clear answer. \n\nWhich brings me to my next point, asking open ended questions is exactly what being a scientist is all about. To forbid this sort of inquiry is to deny the very curiosity that drives the advancement of human knowledge. So while someone shouldn't ask about matters of theology, unanswered questions about topics like relativistic fluids and countless open problems should not be forbidden, but rather encouraged. \n\nIf we are to ban speculation and open ended questions in all cases, askscience would merely become a series of Wikipedia links and quotations, rather than a place to exchange expert knowledge. It is important to keep a sense of order, but it is more important to not divorce ourselves from the sscientific principles that enable us to have expert panelists.",
"At first I was disappointed at how stringent and rigid the rules were that governed this subreddit (no memes? c'mon, who are you and what have you done with reddit?). But for a subreddit like this, one where people go to for hard, objective facts - these rules are absolutely necessary. \n\nSo reddit, specifically the /r/askscience mods, I salute you for the absurd amount of effort you are and will be putting into moderating these threads because God only knows (am I allowed to say \"God\" in any of these conversations? LOL) how many stupid, and abjectly false posts and information will populate this subreddit.",
"I love this subreddit, it is one of the main reasons I have come back to reddit so often. I hope this step into the larger audience of reddit can not only enrich the entire reddit community but specifically, usher in more experts to help this subreddit retain and improve its already shining reputation.",
"Judging by some of the more recent askscience threads, it was a terrible idea to open this up as a default front page subreddit. So many deleted comments, so much non scientific discussion. Hopefully it gets pulled from being a default soon, otherwise we will lose what this subreddit stands for.",
"I think it's going to be a pain in the ass, but ultimately it's going to be better for the larger reddit community. Sure there will be a lot of \"stupid\" questions, trolling and nonsense as a result, but there will be more people exposed to scientific fact.",
"I would like to apologize to r/askscience. I recently made an in-bad-taste joke comment without thinking and was appropriately downvoted to the core of the Earth even though it was a funny one.",
"Wait, you didn't ask for all of the new *scientists* finding this subreddit to volunteer some of their time answering questions? They are out there. Just ask! :)",
"I just want to say thank you for having me in your community as a n00bie. I've thoroughly enjoyed a lot of article I've seen in askscience.",
"You can link it in the top, you should do it users are lazy.",
"You've just taught be how to unsubscribed from /r/pics. I love you.",
"I'm curious about the comment: \"Trying to use an example to answer a question is anecdote and is also explicitly forbidden.\"\n\nFor those of us in the social sciences, or those of us interested in what constitutes 'science,' there are times when using an example is all that we might be able to provide. For instance, if you asked me something about a mode of production, I would have to give you an example (i.e. the capitalist mode of production, made up of one part private property relations, and one part the resources and technology specific to that period). That isn't necessarily an anecdote, but it is an example.\n\nI believe this 'rule' needs to be amended to encompass the totality that science represents, and not just positivist notions of science.",
"I'm curious about the encouraged downvoting of speculation and anecdotes. Surely this makes sense for hard science questions or questions relying on knowledge of established laws or principles. Some intriguing questions do require educated speculation and relevant anecdotes (naturalistic observation of a species of interest as an example). So, I don't think this should be universally applied; rather, downvotes should be applied to speculation and anecdotes that have no educational value to them (e.g., My Uncle did X).",
"I hope the mods rule this place with a good level of strictness, this is one of my favorite subreddits and I hope it doesn't get hurt by being a default subreddit. But more people means more questions. I'm hoping for the best!",
"Correction?\n\nIn the top right corner of the screen, under the search bar, you'll see a red button that says \"Unsubscribe.\" Click it and AskScience will stop showing up in your Reddit front page unless you explicitly ~~visit us again~~ click \"Subscribe\".",
"I vow not to place another smartass follow up comment on a smartass that commented on the original post..I'll just downvote them and go along my merry way to help keep the unwanted traffic down.",
"I hope your guidelines are strongly adhered to, to ensure that the most scientifically inquisitive among us can have their voices heard, and not be belittled or scorned by grammar nazis or trolls.",
"Question: What if I answer the question accurately, cite my sources, *and* sneak a meme into the comment? Is the downvote/report intended to discourage the \"wrong\" content, or encourage the \"right\" content?",
"This seems like a good thread to ask this non science related question. Does anyone know how to make a user's tag visible on the reddit is fun app for android?"
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Our Community is Growing. Help Us Keep it Clean.
**Hi Everyone! And Welcome to New Users!** Ask you have probably heard, r/AskScience recently became one of the default subreddits for new users of Reddit. This is a big step for us as a community! We're proud to have ushered this subreddit to the point where the admins think that all users of Reddit should be exposed to us. As you may have noticed over the past 48 hours, this also provides us with a new list of challenges. In response to the blog post announcing that we were a new subreddit, we gained around 4700 subscribers, a 7% increase in our population in a single day. As such, I'm going to take this moment to remind you of the rules, or if you're new tell you them for the first time. **TL;DR: We have rules. Follow them. No herp-derping allowed.** **The Rules Of AskScience** (Updated Oct 20, 2011) 1. Here at AskScience, our goal is to provide an atmosphere for accurate discussion about scientific topics. We want to stay on topic and avoid distractions. As such, off-topic comments are not permitted. 2. Our goal is expert scientific responses to questions. Speculation should be deeply rooted in science, and ideally come from those with strong scientific background in that field. Either here or in real life, anecdotes are not scientific data, and don't provide good scientific insight, so please refrain from using anecdote to answer questions. 3. We don't answer personal medical questions. While medicine is certainly part of science, many of our panelists and our moderators feel it is impossible to accurately answer a medical question while maintaining both confidentiality and providing an accurate answer. It is also a serious breach of medical ethics for a doctor to provide that kind of 'distance diagnosis.' 4. Before you submit a question, please use [_URL_0_](_URL_3_) to see if it has been asked in the before. Read the previous threads, and if your specific question still hasn't been answered feel free to submit that *specific* question as a clarification on the old thread. 5. We don't do homework help. If you need help with your homework, go to [r/HomeworkHelp](_URL_2_). 6. We are not here to discuss religion outside of the context of sociology. As such, questions explicitly about religion or hate speech or insults for any reason will be immediately deleted. 7. Open ended questions with no specific answer are prohibited. **How The Rules are Enforced** As moderators, our job here is to enforce the rules to make sure that discussions proceed smoothly and, most importantly, make sure that questions get answers. Every once in a while, one of us will go through a thread and clean up any comments we feel are veering out of control. But we **need your help!** There are only so many of us, and we can only catch so much. *I'll say it again. We cannot do this without your help.*Here is how you can help us enforce the rules: *This section updated Oct 28, 2011* If you see a comment that isn't following the rules, do all of the following: a) downvote b) press the 'Report' button to anonymously alert the moderators. Please do not post in a thread repeatedly explaining to people why they are being downvoted. It used to serve an important function, however they eventually become distracting. More explicitly, here are the things that should be downvoted, reported and kindly replied to every time: 1. Jokes in top level comments. 2. Memes. 3. Conversation not directly related to the question or a follow up question. 4. Speculation. 5. Anecdotes. **Panelists** One of the most important mechanisms for making sure questions get answered is our panelist system. Panelists are people who have informed us that they are REAL scientists who are taking the time to answer questions here. Their specialties are noted by the colored tags next to their names, and the color relates to what science they study. Just because someone is a panelist doesn't mean they are right though! Ask them follow-up questions, ask for citations! Critical analysis of what people say is an important part of getting the most of the AskScience experience. While we can't and won't ask people to cite everything they say, if you aren't going to completely explain a topic please provide a citation so that those who want to know more have a source to go to. Also keep in mind there are other experts who frequent AskScience. Just because someone isn't a panelist doesn't mean they are wrong! **Not Interested in Science?** Okay by us! If you're not interested in seeing content from AskScience, thats fine too! In the top right corner of the screen, under the search bar, you'll see a red button that says "Unsubscribe." Click it and AskScience will stop showing up in your Reddit front page unless you click subscribe later. **Why are we doing this?** Over the past couple of days, we have received a lot of kind messages from people letting us know how much they like AskScience. They have also expressed concern that the quality of AskScience will decrease with the flood of new users. We'd like to take a few moments to address those concerns. The past 48 hours have been very exciting but also a lot like drinking out of a fire hose for the moderation team. But we believe that trying out being a default subreddit is a worthwhile experiment for us. We know that because of the community that we have built and the strong moderation we have become known for that there is a lot of good and we want to see that grow. It is an *experiment* and if in a week or two we decide that we cannot both be a default subreddit and maintain high quality, we will remove ourselves from the default subreddit list. You may have noticed a lot more off-topic conversation in the past 48 hours. We have been doing our best to try to keep this under control, but because of the exposure provided by the new default subreddit announcement things have gotten a bit ahead of us. We are optimistic about this getting better, though, because we really do believe that this is blog post exposure, not new users. We've been informally keeping track and about 95% of the comments we've deleted in the past 48 hours have been from experienced Redditors, not new users (who have been very well behaved). Finally, the reason that we're committed to trying this out is because we care about science education. As its often noted on Reddit and other places, improving the scientific literacy of the general public benefits society as a whole and positively impacts the greater community. To quote the [reddit admins directly](_URL_1_): > The reddit team, our Board, our informal advisors, and many in the reddit community sincerely believe that reddit has the potential, over the next generation, to positively impact journalism, civic engagement, fundraising, product development, and learning. That is EXACTLY what we do here at AskScience. We want to see this succeed.
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] |
|
x9m1a
|
Is there any validity to the saying "I'm not fat, I'm big boned"
|
I don't know if I'm the only person who has heard this, but I'm just wondering if it is possible for someone's bone structure to be a lot bigger than another persons. (I don't mean in height but more width/thickness of bones). As a follow up question If someone was a heavy set kid their whole life would their bones grow with them to support their weight thus altering the size of their bones for the rest of their life? Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5kg9fp",
"c5kghj5",
"c5kfbab"
],
"text": [
"Sort of. It's not so much a difference in bones, but there are different body types. That has more to do with muscle and how/where the body retains fat though. Skeletal structure remains similarly sized regardless of weight. There are a few genetic disorders that cause excess bone growth, like Proteus Syndrome or FOP, but those cause obvious changes in skeletal structure.",
"Yes, [here's](_URL_1_) the first paper I could grab on it. Shoulder width, elbow, wrist, and waist circumference around the bones are some of the common metrics used. A larger frame size will unsurprisingly weigh more without being overweight.\n\nThe take-home message isn't that some people are naturally fat, it's that BMI is a crappy metric for determining obesity in an individual, since it only incorporates height and weight. In contrast, [body fat percentage](_URL_2_) is a much more informative statistic.\n\nEDIT: For the second part, a qualified yes again. Being fat does give you bigger bones [source](_URL_0_). Putting load on a bone will make it gain mass, so a sedentary obese person will likely have more bone mass than a sedentary normal weight person. On the other hand, load-bearing exercise also increases bone mass, and the obese aren't known for doing a lot of running around. It's harder to say whether a sedentary obese person would always have more bone mass than, say, a marathon runner.",
"I have seen [this picture](_URL_3_) used to show that skeletons are similar sized no matter how much fat you have."
],
"score": [
6,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ajcn.org/content/80/2/514.short",
"http://www.ajcn.org/content/40/4/808.full.pdf+html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fat_percentage",
"http://imgur.com/DI4OM"
]
}
|
Is there any validity to the saying "I'm not fat, I'm big boned"
I don't know if I'm the only person who has heard this, but I'm just wondering if it is possible for someone's bone structure to be a lot bigger than another persons. (I don't mean in height but more width/thickness of bones). As a follow up question If someone was a heavy set kid their whole life would their bones grow with them to support their weight thus altering the size of their bones for the rest of their life? Thanks!
|
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|
6wl882
|
What is the current thinking on the future of uranium supply and breeder reactors?
|
I've seen various estimates on the future supply of Uranium, that there might be as little as 80-200 years worth left, and that there might be so much that running out won't ever be a concern. What's the current consensus on it?
Breeder reactors sound almost like a miracle technology, with the potential to extract 100 times more energy than normal reactors and massively reducing the headache of nuclear waste, but apparently 'in 2010 the International Panel on Fissile Materials said "After six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars, the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries."'.
What are the drawbacks, or why are they infeasible in reality? Even if uranium is abundant, wouldn't they be worth pursuing simply because they get more value out of whatever amount is mined?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dm8w9sc",
"dm8zebw",
"dm91euk",
"dma0qxr"
],
"text": [
"Breeder reactors solve many problems that fission reactors suffer from. As long as you have [fertile](_URL_0_) material, you can produce more fuel than you consume. Breeders can also help reduce high-level radioactive waste. Seen in this light, breeders do seem like miracle technology...\n\nHowever, they suffer from a critical weakness. Breeder technology is an extreme nuclear proliferation risk. Any country with access to breeders could readily produce weapons-grade material that can be used in nuclear weapons. For this reason, many people believe that it is not worth the widespread adoption of breeder technology in case it falls into the wrong hands. \n\nMost of the expense that comes with operating a nuclear reactor of any kind comes from complying with regulatory rules, which are quite extensive. This isn't necessarily a bad thing - this is part of the reason why nuclear power has an excellent safety record - but it does tend to make it very uncompetitive. Considering how (relatively) cheap it is to burn coal, which is subject to relatively little regulation, it isn't hard to see why breeder technology, and nuclear technology in general, hasn't taken off.",
"If you naively divide the uranium reserves by the consumption, then you get a few decades, but that doesn't mean we won't have uranium left afterwards.\n\nWe don't have breeder reactors because we have enough uranium without them. If uranium shortage would be an issue, we would have more breeder reactors.\n\nIn addition, the uranium supply is determined based on current prices. Uranium is a small fraction of the cost of nuclear power. Even at twice the price it wouldn't have a large impact on the electricity cost, but suddenly much more uranium becomes accessible for that price.\n\ntl;dr: We won't run out of uranium in the foreseeable future. Breeding is only necessary if (a) we increase nuclear power a lot and (b) we don't use thorium on a large scale.",
"Like anything that you dig out of the ground, we won't suddenly run out of uranium: it will just become more expensive to extract. Since nuclear fission is a highly capital-intensive method of power generation, it is (compared to coal and gas, for example) relatively insensitive to fuel costs.\n\nThis may explain the variation in the estimates you have seen. There will be a certain level of proven reserves at the current market price, but at a higher price then more will become economically viable and there is a greater incentive to search for new ones.\n\nFurthermore, it is possible to extract uranium from seawater. It is very dilute, but multiplied by the volume of the Earth's oceans the total quantity would be sufficient for many thousands of years. Mining has been the preferred method thus far because it is cheaper, but that does not mean we are limited to what we can mine.\n\nSimilar considerations apply to technologies which would make more efficient use of uranium (not just breeder reactors, but also reprocessing of fuel from conventional reactors). Looked at over a timescale of thousands of years it seems sensible, but currently it is cheaper and less risky to mine more uranium.",
"Breeder reactors are hard, expensive, complicated things that have been done badly several times.\n\nSo in general, people don't want to touch them.\n\nIn the race for safe, clean, affordable energy, nuclear fission has lost to the alternatives, in the developed world.\n\nSome developing countries are (like some developed countries did previously) going through the process of \"ooh, nuclear, exciting, we should totally do that ... a decade or two passes ... then ... wow, that's much harder, more dangerous and more expensive than we thought\". Breeders were at the expensive, complicated end of nuclear fission anyway, so they're not commercially interesting at all."
],
"score": [
12,
7,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertile_material"
]
}
|
What is the current thinking on the future of uranium supply and breeder reactors?
I've seen various estimates on the future supply of Uranium, that there might be as little as 80-200 years worth left, and that there might be so much that running out won't ever be a concern. What's the current consensus on it? Breeder reactors sound almost like a miracle technology, with the potential to extract 100 times more energy than normal reactors and massively reducing the headache of nuclear waste, but apparently 'in 2010 the International Panel on Fissile Materials said "After six decades and the expenditure of the equivalent of tens of billions of dollars, the promise of breeder reactors remains largely unfulfilled and efforts to commercialize them have been steadily cut back in most countries."'. What are the drawbacks, or why are they infeasible in reality? Even if uranium is abundant, wouldn't they be worth pursuing simply because they get more value out of whatever amount is mined?
|
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8ckrgj
|
A creationist told me that science, under uniformitarianism, basically assumes that things have always occured as they do now. Is this true? If it's true isn't that a problem?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"I have never even heard of uniformitarianism, but after a quickly skimming the Wikipedia article, I'll now pretend to be an expert on it. I won't comment on its relation to geology where the idea seems to have gotten more attention, but from a physics perspective I can say this: \n\nYeah, science isn't invincible. It cannot defend itself against [Last Thursdayism](_URL_0_) and it cannot defend itself against perfect and completely deceptive coincidence which reminds me of a bit in the play \"Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead\" where the two titular characters bet on coin tosses using a coin which comes up heads nearly every time. The universe R+G live in is utterly unfair because Hamlet was already written therefore R+G cannot survive their own play. In a similar fashion we have to assume that the universe is being honest and fair with us when it reveals behavior through experiment. It we cannot do this, we can't move forward and do things like build computers and radio telescopes.\n\n > If it's true isn't that a problem?\n\nNot really. I'm emphatically uninterested in the myriad of 'gotcha' carefully constructed what-ifs which do nothing but make sure that the natural laws are somehow not what they appear to be to plain, but careful eyes. Nobody else has even come close to making a formal system of generating knowledge about the natural world that works as well as science.",
"Uniformitarianism is a useful guideline, but scientists recognize that it is not always true. For example, geologists spent [over a century](_URL_1_) trying to find a uniformitarian explanation for the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago, before realizing that a giant asteroid impact was responsible -- definitely *not* an everyday phenomenon.\n\nAs doctors like to say about diagnosing diseases, \"when you hear hoofbeats, don't think 'zebra'\": the best explanation is usually something common. But there are zebras out there! A good scientist will focus on the everyday explanations and try them first: if they don't work, the unusual ones should be considered.",
"What they're trying to do is essentially picking a fight with Occam's Razor. They're attempting to connect the dots from \"science could be wrong\" to \"science is wrong\" to \"therefore I'm right\". But assuming that the rules of the universe have always been constant is still the most elegant model, because there is nothing that would be more easily explained by the contrary.",
"You might also get some useful discussion if you post this question to /r/philosophy. Your question is related to [the problem of induction](_URL_2_) and [scientific realism](_URL_3_).",
"Another aspect to consider, is what science is trying to do, and what science isn't trying to do. Science is, in general, not really trying to explain how the universe really works. There doesn't seem to be any way to get this kind of information and therefore we don't waste our time trying. Instead, we are generally building models that explain the results we are seeing, and can be used to predict the outcome of future experiments. Each such model will have a \"region of validity\". For example, it could be that the rules of nature will somehow drastically change in the future, and if so, our models cannot take that into account. \n\nThis doesn't make our science useless. You just need to be a bit careful when drawing conclusions, so that you don't leave the region of validity of the model.",
"This isn't really a science question so much as it's a logic question. Creationists and other anti-science believers try to shift the burden of disproof onto science rather than accept the burden of proof for their dubious claims. Russell's teapot is a great concept that illustrates this. Bertrand Russell wrote that if he were to assert, without offering proof, that a teapot orbits the Sun somewhere in space between the Earth and Mars, he could not expect anyone to believe him solely because his assertion could not be proven wrong, but that's exactly what creationists are doing. Anti-science beliefs are inflexible and when presented with evidence to the contrary, the evidence is denied, obfuscated, or counted with absurd counter-theories. Science adapts to changes. It embraces *verified* discoveries and new knowledge. \n\nUniformitarianism isn't dogma. It's a basic underpinning of science because we observe it to be true everywhere we look. Anti-science believers who present it as anything else are either uninformed or intentionally misrepresenting good science.",
"Physicists regularly consider models of cosmology where fundamental laws and parameters are changing in time. Then they see what they predict, check if those predictions are valid and if they're not they throw the theory out. For example, one of the first alternate explanations to the Big Bang for the observed expansion of the universe was an idea called \"Tired Light\", which basically posited that maybe the observed gravitational redshift of far away galaxies was related to either the older universe having light that was \"different\" or that light itself changes in property as it travels. However, Big Bang Cosmology (BBC) also predict not just the existence of but the exact spectral distribution of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) as well as predicts the relative abundances of hydrogen and helium and the age and abundances of galaxies vs. galaxy clusters vs. superclusters. Tired Light does none of that, so we throw it out.",
"We extensively use uniformitarianism in our everyday lives (as does your creationist friend). When going to work, we almost always take the same route we took the previous day. If that was the best (shortest, least traffic, or easiest) route yesterday, it will almost always be the best route today. On occasion catastrophism will intervene ; an auto accident, a construction project, etc., and we’re forced to take a different route. Almost all our actions are repetitions of past routines because the world is only occasionally/rarely chaotic. For your friend, this explains why the miracles he believes in seem miraculous. For science, this explains why we need to augment our uniformitarian models with catastrophic intersessions (meteor strikes, volcanic eruptions, anthropogenic global warming effects, etc.)"
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omphalos_hypothesis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event_research",
"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/induction-problem/",
"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-realism/"
]
}
|
A creationist told me that science, under uniformitarianism, basically assumes that things have always occured as they do now. Is this true? If it's true isn't that a problem?
|
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||
mgw0g
|
How are scientists experimenting with neutrinos if they're so weakly interactive?
|
I was under the assumption that neutrinos were so weakly interactive that they could easily pass through close to a light-year of lead. If this is the case, how are scientists able to conduct experiments with them?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c30t6aw",
"c30tcsa",
"c30t76c"
],
"text": [
"Well, they use something like 1.2 million kg of lead for the Gran Sasso detector (Some of which [came from an ancient roman shipwreck](_URL_0_)). But the main thing here is that they're using quite sensitive detectors (scintillators with PMT tubes), which are triggered by as little as a single interaction. \n\nSo while the vast majority of neutrinos do go straight through, they can still detect some of the minuscule number that do interact. If a neutrino has a 50/50 chance of making it through a light year of lead without interacting, then you need 10^16 neutrinos to have the same chance of getting an interaction in 1 meter of lead. The [number of protons](_URL_1_)\n in the [SPS](_URL_2_) beam that ultimately produces the neutrinos is over 10^13 , apparently. So it's not really as extreme as \"a light year of lead\" might sound.",
"There are a variety of methods but the basic idea is you put enough matter in the way, use the fact that there are a lot of neutrinos and hope that some of them interact with your matter. This is tough.\n\nThere are a variety of versions of this:\n\nThe first attempted experiment (way back in the 1960s) to try to measure natural neutrinos, the [Homestake experiment](_URL_4_), used a method where neutrinos interacting with chlorine would turn the chlorine atoms into argon. Then one could extract the argon and measure how much was formed from that. Obviously, this is not a great method. You get a rough estimate of how many neutrino events you get but you don't get nice data like the time of interactions or the energy of the neutrinos, and you can only measure the results from a specific type of neutrino. \n\nMore recent work uses water or some other substance that we can easily see the interactions with. There are a variety of interactions that can occur but the primary idea is that when a neutrino in water interacts with an electron it can give the electron a lot of momentum. The electron keeps moving through the water. But the important thing is that the electron is moving faster than light can move in water. This results in the electron giving off light in the direction opposite its movement, in a way that is sort of analogous to a sonic boom called [Cherenkov radiaton](_URL_6_). Since water is pretty transparent, you can set up detectors to measure the light and get from them what is happening. [Kamiokande](_URL_5_) in Japan uses this method. \n\nOne doesn't need to use liquid water for this. Some other substances work also. Ice also works. [IceCube](_URL_6_) is an experiment at the South Pole that uses the pre-existing South Pole ice and has detectors very far underground, so that the only major light sources are the neutrino interactions.\n\nOne of the most annoying things about any neutrino experiment is that high energy cosmic rays or particles resulting from cosmic rays hitting the atmospheres (especially muons) can travel very far underground. So one needs to keep your experiment deep underground and even then still need to be able to carefully tell the light flashes from those caused by non-neutrinos. In both of the examples mentioned above, obnoxious muons are one of the main sources of noise. \n\nThere are other detectors designed for other purposes. For example, the Gran Sasso detectors being used in the recent OPERA work which claimed to detect faster than light neutrinos used lead sheets. That's because they cared about certain types of measurements (neutrino oscillation) that could be measured most efficiently if one had a very good idea of which type of neutrino interacted when. \n\nThere's a lot of very clever engineering and very careful physics going into all of these, but the same basic idea holds: put a lot of matter in the way and hope it will catch stuff.",
"You have to play with probability, they simply use massive amounts of neutrinos and absolutely ginormous detectors far underground, at cern there is 730km of rock between where they are produced and detected, and they have done around 15000 separate measurements over the last 3 years, if you are using large numbers of neutrinos then you can get some good results.\n\nand check out how big these detectors are... _URL_7_"
],
"score": [
12,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100415/full/news.2010.186.html",
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=72870",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Proton_Synchrotron",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestake_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamiokande#Kamiokande",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IceCube_Neutrino_Observatory",
"http://www.google.co.uk/search?q=neutrino+detector&hl=en&safe=off&prmd=imvnsu&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=nmXGTpOcJsiG8gPr9cWNAQ&sqi=2&ved=0CDgQsAQ&biw=892&bih=847"
]
}
|
How are scientists experimenting with neutrinos if they're so weakly interactive?
I was under the assumption that neutrinos were so weakly interactive that they could easily pass through close to a light-year of lead. If this is the case, how are scientists able to conduct experiments with them?
|
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|
nzn0l
|
This might be a silly question but.....have we
*actually* reverse-engineered anything?
|
I've heard the term before (mostly in sci-fi movies, yes), and just wanted to know if there has been any actual equipment or item that was reverse-engineered.
I mean, unless I'm grossly misinformed, 100% of the tech we have is man-made. We have never encountered alien technology that we could reverse engineer so we could learn to understand it (and then create it for ourselves).
I'm guessing the answer to my question to be a simple "No.", but just wanna make sure. I'm sure countries have taken tech from one another and reverse engineered it, then used it for their own purposes.
The more I write this, the more I think I won't get an actual response, but oh well!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"During the cold war, pretty much all recovered listening devices were disassembled and studied. During the second world war, [Enigma encryption machines](_URL_1_) were studied by the allies to break the encryption. These days, a lot of outdated electronics get reverse engineered to build compatible replacement parts.\n\n[This article](_URL_0_) gives you a fairly decent outline of revers engineering today",
"You are apparently asking two different things.\n\n\"We\" as a species have not reverse-engineered anything alien that we publicly know of. We have no proof that aliens exist or ever existed period.\n\nReverse-engineering itself happens all the time. One of the reasons PCs are not all made by IBM is because Compaq reverse engineered the PC BIOS to make \"IBM-compatible\" computers.",
"1. Start by distinguishing your question a little bit better. We have not currently found any evidence of non-earth-based intelligent life in the universe, and the idea of reverse-engineering in that sense requires that we find something intentionally engineered to begin with.\n\n2. If you are referring to reverse-engineering done by humans based on technology developed by other humans, then absolutely we have. There are countless examples throughout history of governments and corporations dismantling each others technology for a variety of reasons (to copy it, modify it, defend against it, etc).\n\nFor example, the company I work for currently has successfully blocked a Chinese competitor of ours from selling clones of our technology in the United States and many other first world nations for the last decade or so. This company had reverse engineered and copied whole sections of code, and developed hardware which was a direct copy of our technology, so the lawsuit was easily won here. This did nothing to hinder their sales in many other nations where they do not consider this type of thing to be illegal, and our competitor has continued to grow very quickly by taking advantage of these markets.\n\nYou can find countless examples in wartime as well; where each side attempts to capture and reverse engineer each other's weapons, to use the technology and/or better defend against it. A classic example is the story of the Enigma machine and Alan Turing.",
"It depends on your definition of \"we\", but it happens all the time. Unfortunately it's not as glamorous as you might think.\n\nDuring the Vietnam war, the Soviets reverse engineered an [AIM-9 Sidewinder](_URL_2_) missile which got lodged in one of their Migs without exploding. They were able to create a copy which was so close to the original that parts were interchangable.\n\nBesides mechanical systems, software gets reverse engineered all the time. This is what allows hackers to break security.\n\nIt also happens frequently in industry where one company will take an other company's product, disassemble and analyise it to learn how it works.",
"I know in the hardware business companies reverse engineer each other's products all the time (often to see if their competitors impinging on any of their patents). In the military there are certain systems whose designs have been lost to the ages, but for which replacement parts are still needed. There are companies that will reverse-engineer those designs for you (often grinding down the layers of the chip and imaging them under electron microscope layer by layer) so they can build you replica replacement parts."
],
"score": [
17,
10,
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ipfrontline.com/depts/article.aspx?id=14840&deptid=5",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/77/a3672777.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIM-9_Sidewinder"
]
}
|
This might be a silly question but.....have we *actually* reverse-engineered anything?
I've heard the term before (mostly in sci-fi movies, yes), and just wanted to know if there has been any actual equipment or item that was reverse-engineered. I mean, unless I'm grossly misinformed, 100% of the tech we have is man-made. We have never encountered alien technology that we could reverse engineer so we could learn to understand it (and then create it for ourselves). I'm guessing the answer to my question to be a simple "No.", but just wanna make sure. I'm sure countries have taken tech from one another and reverse engineered it, then used it for their own purposes. The more I write this, the more I think I won't get an actual response, but oh well!
|
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|
o378y
|
How are the ends of a ski lift cable joined to make a complete loop?
|
Was skiing today, and a friend and I were wondering how they make the steel cable into a complete loop. We didn't notice any particular joint while watching the cable for a while, though we could certainly have missed it. Also relevant, what are these things made of, specifically?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3e01jq",
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"c3e2yv6"
],
"text": [
"Unwrap the strands that make up the ends of the rope, for a couple of meters on each end. Cut off half of the strands from each end. Wrap the remaining strands together to form one same-thickness rope again. Weld the ends. The strength is mainly in the friction of the strands being wrapped around one another. If the splice is long enough, the frictional forces can be stronger than the regular strength of the wire rope.\n\nIf you notice a painted spot on the ski lift cable, that's the join.",
"Your question has already been answered in prior replies, but I wish to share a bit of what I know about cables to earn upboats.\n\nThere is some subtlety to cable design principles that are particularly important to the application of lifting skiers up a hill. For one, lift cable strands are twisted. This twisting of strands around each other does two things. \n\nFirstly, when the cable is wrapped around the bullwheels (huge pulley wheels at the ends of a chairlift) the twisted configuration places each strand sometimes closest to the center of the bullwheel and sometimes at the furthest radius to the center of the bullwheel. In a sense, if you were to lay a cable straight and paint a single strand a bright color, you'd see it transcribe a mild sinusoid across the bundle, oscillating from one side to the other. This twist period must be shorter than half the circumference of the bullwheel. Because the length of each strand oscillates between minimum and maximum radius on the bullwheel, each strand is NOT stretched or compressed as the bundle is made to wrap the bullwheel. Conversely if the bundle was not twisted, with each strand parallel to every other, the inside most strand (strand contacting the bullwheel) would be placed under compression and the strand furthest from the bullwheel center would be stretched. This is a non ideal loading scheme which would result in fatigue loading of individual strands. You'd also get increased abrasion between strands. Not to mention a uneven loading across the bundle cross section which would be a less efficient use of the material.\n\nSecondly, the twisting increases the friction between strands. This is extremely important as each strand has enough friction to it's neighboring strands that they can support each other in case a strand breaks or is otherwise compromise. In the case of an untwisted multi strand cable, the strength of the entire bundle is determined by the number of intact strands across it's entire length. With negligible friction between strands, a strand that has been broken can transmit no tension between your loading ends. When you're dealing with a few miles of stuff, the probability of a break in a given strand starts to get pretty high once you run the thing for years. In the case of the twisted cable, significant friction is developed between strands. A broken strand cannot transmit load across a break, but neighboring strands can pick up the load at the immediate zone of the break and pull on the sides of the intact strand away from the break. This means that a break in a strand does not make the strand a dead load carrier for it's entire length. As long as you do not have a collection of strand failures concentrated in the same zone, long twisted cables will generally give you very close to the breaking strength of a perfect short section even if every strand has one or multiple breaks spread through the bundle.",
"I've assisted with a cable splicing not long ago. It's just spliced together over a long section. Generally depending on the length of the lift it may have come in 2 or 3 sections (ours was 2 I believe). There are a handful of specialists in North America who perform the task. I think there may only be 1 guy running a small business who services western Canada. [Here](_URL_0_) is a brief on the cables materials. I wish I had asked more questions while working on it to help you! The whole procedure of taking the cable off a tower, splicing, removing and replacing is really interesting and while it may seem complex, the systems for doing so are surprisingly simple.",
"Think of something similar to [this](_URL_1_), but with wire and many many more strands."
],
"score": [
46,
27,
6,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairlift#Rope",
"http://constructionmanuals.tpub.com/14251/img/14251_130_1.jpg"
]
}
|
How are the ends of a ski lift cable joined to make a complete loop?
Was skiing today, and a friend and I were wondering how they make the steel cable into a complete loop. We didn't notice any particular joint while watching the cable for a while, though we could certainly have missed it. Also relevant, what are these things made of, specifically?
|
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|
qqefe
|
Is it possible to compute your latitude and longitude based on your surroundings like the sun, the moon and the stars?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Latitude can be calculated from the stars. More particularly, the angle at which you see the northern star gives you an indication how far north you are (works only on northern hemissphere).\n\nLongitude cannot be calculated without a precise clock, because any indicator west or east of you, rotates as earth rotates (and additionally depends on the time of year).\n\nWith a clock and some time you could also determine you longitude by observing the sun.",
"It absolutely is. Your lattitude (North-South coordinate) is fairly easy to measure. Take the angle between the horizon and the north star (assuming you're in the northern hemisphere), and you've got it. Alternatively, if you were equipped with a table of the [sun's declination](_URL_0_) for the day, you could measure the angle between the horizon and the sun at noon. With a little more math, you could find your latitude at any time of day, armed with the knowledge that the Sun follows a roughly [sinusoidal curve](_URL_1_) as it travels through the sky.\n\nLongitude is quite a bit trickier, because the Earth rotates. Most seafarers used a method called [dead reckoning](_URL_2_), where the navigator would keep close track of the ship's speed and heading, and keep accurate and consistent records of position that way. \n\nMethods to calculate by celestial bodies included using a clock to measure the difference in events (sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, etc) between where you are and where the clock is set to. For example, if your clock is set to Greenwich Mean Time, and you know that the sun is supposed to rise at 6:30 am, but it actually rises at 7:15, then you know you are roughly 45 minutes west. 1 hour = 15 degrees (24 hours = 360 degrees), so you are 11.25 degrees west of the Prime Meridian. It's not quite that simple because latitude affects the perceived sunrise and sunset, but that's the gist of it.",
"> Is it possible to compute your latitude and longitude based on your surroundings like the sun, the moon and the stars?\n\nYes, and this was the primary activity of navigators before GPS. One can use a sextant, an accurate clock, and a lot of mathematics to establish one's position anywhere in the world.\n\nI know this because [I sailed solo around the world](_URL_4_) pre-GPS. [Here is a picture taken from another boat of me making a sextant sight, somewhere in the Pacific](_URL_3_). Not a great picture, but you get the idea. :)",
"Basically, if you measure the angle to a celestial body and have the exact time you use a set of tables and some arithmetic to draw a really large circle on the surface of the globe. You are somewhere on that circle. If you to the same things with another body, those circles intersect at two places. You are at one of 'em. If you are surrounded by water and your two points are in the Andes and the Indian Ocean, it's easy to narrow down! In practice, a third body and it's circle intersects the other two at one point... There you are!",
"Greenwich Mean Time can be determined by measuring the angle between the moon and certain stars.\n_URL_5_\nLunar time was used by Joshua Slocum in the first solo circumnavigation, because he couldn't afford a chronometer.\nOnce time is known, the usual method of finding position in celestial navigation is through the intersection of two or more lines of position, each determined by measuring the altitude above the horizon of a star and using a nautical almanac.",
"Before the invention of the harrison h1clock it was calculated by the moons of jupiter. Read longitude by Dava Sobel",
"Yes.\n\nWith an accurate clock, and an [astrolabe](_URL_6_) you can calculate your latitude and longitude."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declination#Sun",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_reckoning",
"http://i.imgur.com/E1Kmy.jpg",
"http://arachnoid.com/sailbook",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_distance_(navigation)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe"
]
}
|
Is it possible to compute your latitude and longitude based on your surroundings like the sun, the moon and the stars?
|
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||
1ctgfo
|
When we say an equation or theory 'breaks down', what exactly does this mean or look like?
|
Particularly in physics, what is happening that leads us to conclude that the equations stop working? Can you provide an example of an equation that breaks down, to illustrate this point?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c9jwpfs",
"c9jwfh2",
"c9jxful"
],
"text": [
"It generally means that the assumptions behind the model are no longer valid. For example, the Ideal Gas law works pretty well for simple, mono-atomic gases under fairly normal conditions - however, it stops giving correct answers for very dense gases (because it assumes that the size of the gas particles doesn't matter) or gases that have stronger intermolecular interactions (it neglects these entirely).\n\nOne good example of equations breaking down is the Newtonian (classical) expression for kinetic energy - E=1/2mv^2. This predicts that, as long as you can keep increasing your energy, you can reach any speed you want. However, Special Relativity states that you cannot reach any speed - your speed is limited to c, the speed of light, and for any massive object to reach this speed, infinite energy is required. This means that the Newtonian equation breaks down once you get to about 10% of the speed of light - the kinetic energy it calculates is very different from the actual value.\n\nInstead, the relativistic expression for kinetic energy is instead E=(γ-1)mc^2, where γ is the [Relativistic Gamma](_URL_0_) (or Lorentz) factor, related to the ratio of your speed to the speed of light - it isn't linear with speed, and starts at 1 for a motionless object and increases towards infinity as you approach c.\n\nThe reason that the Newtonian version works is because it is a close approximation to the Relativistic version, when γ is very close to one - in fact, E=1/2mv^2 is the first term of the [Taylor expansion of the relativistic KE](_URL_1_) (warning: maths!)",
"Sometimes there are equations that come about when some quantity is very small (or very large) compared to another. If this assuption is reasonable, it often leads to a simpler and more illuminating description of what is going on. These equations \"break down\" and stop being valid when the simplifying assuption no longer holds. Some examples are listed here when you want to calculate the pH of something [(wiki)](_URL_2_).",
"Many materials change behavior depending on the situation. For example, here is the relationship between [stress(σ) and strain(ε) for an example material](_URL_3_).\n\nFor small strains, it would be technically correct to say the material behaves linear-elastically. You could then calculate the stress at any strain by simply using:\n\n σ = ε*E\n where: σ = stress, ε = strain, and E = stiffness\n\nHowever, once you pass the yield stress of the material, you enter a non-linear elasto-plastic region. It would then be incorrect to use the above equation. So you could then say the equation \"breaks down\" for large deformations."
],
"score": [
17,
6,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_factor",
"http://modular.math.washington.edu/20b/notes/html/node55.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH#Calculations_of_pH",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Stress_Strain_Ductile_Material.png"
]
}
|
When we say an equation or theory 'breaks down', what exactly does this mean or look like?
Particularly in physics, what is happening that leads us to conclude that the equations stop working? Can you provide an example of an equation that breaks down, to illustrate this point?
|
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|
36z9lv
|
Why can people lift so much on a leg press?
|
I know people that can leg press like 600 lbs but can only squat about a quarter of that.
So I was wondering what the differences were? I was able to determine, using high school physics, that because the weight rests on the sled at about a 45° angle, only about 71% of the weight is effectively being lifted in the direction the sled travels.
However, this didn't satisfy me because a 600 lb leg press does not mean a 424 lb squat. So what else factors into this??
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"crifqqk",
"criflak",
"critq2j",
"crilwgv"
],
"text": [
"A few more things to consider, besides the lower force required to move the mass, would be a shorter range of motion and musculature involved. \n\nMost leg press machines don't allow the range of motion that a barbell squat does, effectivly cutting the amount of work being done.\n\nMost people's squat is not being held back by lack of leg strength, but by their ability to support the weight with their core musculature (abs, lats, spinal erectors, etc). You're not required to support the weight on your shoulders in the leg press and are therefore not limited by core strength. The solid back support does the work so your muscles don't have to.",
"I'd guess the reason is that for squats you use a lot of smaller muscles to stabilize the weight. A leg press keeps you stationary, while you need to balance a barbell while going down and up as well as keep balance as your posture changes throughout the movement. \n\nIn much the same way that a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, your squat can only be as high as the weakest muscle that needs to work in order to squat correctly. A leg press mostly isolates your quads - which is a huge muscle and one of the strongest in your body. This might account for the big discrepancy.\n\nEdit: only just noticed this was /r/askscience, not /r/fitness. Still fairly confident about the accuracy of my reply though, so I'll keep it where it is. That said: paging all physiologists!",
"Because your back is the weakest link. Also, during a proper squat, a lot more muscles are involved - basically your whole body, more or less.\n\nThe leg press machine allows you to focus only on legs, and eliminates all weak links from the process.",
"Legs are pretty strong, a lot more so than most of your other muscles. I would venture a guess as to the fact that leg presses rely more soley on your leg muscles, meanwhile squats require leg muscles, but also back muscles and shoulder muscles to move around and support the weight as well.\n\nEdit: this is probably just a contributing factor, I doubt this is the only reason. But I also think it's worth mentioning that the difference is likely not due to physics, but due to our actual bodies, like what stance is more comfortable, since changing the forces needed to lift the weights would just complicate things. Like, you're lifting 600, but using only half of the required force? Just some thoughts."
],
"score": [
37,
9,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why can people lift so much on a leg press?
I know people that can leg press like 600 lbs but can only squat about a quarter of that. So I was wondering what the differences were? I was able to determine, using high school physics, that because the weight rests on the sled at about a 45° angle, only about 71% of the weight is effectively being lifted in the direction the sled travels. However, this didn't satisfy me because a 600 lb leg press does not mean a 424 lb squat. So what else factors into this??
|
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] |
|
kuqs9
|
Sorry if this seems in bad taste, but what is this?
|
< WARNING [NSFL] > _URL_0_ < WARNING [NSFL] / >
WARNING > Its a photo of a persons mouth. The teeth are somewhat rotted and there appear to be maggots living in the jaw area.
Is there a name for this condition or disease, What happened?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2neokr",
"c2nes6q",
"c2nexdk",
"c2nf5r9",
"c2neza8",
"c2nfe3p",
"c2nfiao",
"c2nfpd6"
],
"text": [
"###OH GOD AHARHRGHGHGHWARGLEBARGLEAHRRAAARRRRGHHH\n\nUhm. Now that I have that out of the way.. I'd like to remind our readers that this is incredibly NSFL.",
"I shall not sleep tonight. \n\nEdit: Answer- Oral Myiasis\n\nAbstract:\n > Oral Myiasis is a rare pathology in humans and is associated with poor oral hygiene, alcoholism, senility, suppurating lesions, severe halitosis and others conditions. The treatment is a mechanical removal of the maggots one by one but a systemic treatment with Ivermectin, a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic, have been used for treatment for oral myiasis. We present a case report of a 32-year-old man indigent, alcohol-dependent with an extensive necrotic area and acute swelling in upper lip and fetid odor. The patient's management included topic use of gentian violet, oral therapy with ivermectin (6 mg orally), surgical exploration to remove the larvae and necrotic tissue. After the complete larvae removal the swelling and the wounds were healing normally, the patients was referred to plastic surgery to repair tissue damage. The prevention of human myiasis is by education, but unfortunately in the developing countries some people live in low social condition, predisposing the occurrence of the infestation.\n\nFull text available free here: _URL_0_",
"This is the best post I've seen all day.\n\nWhat kind of maggots are these? I'd like to know the distribution of their species for future reference. What would happen if this were just left untreated? What do they secrete? Oh god, I feel rather masochistic in wanting to know about these little, freaky dudes.",
"How do the maggots get there in the first place?",
"Maybe put the warning above the image link? Gah.",
"Uhm...chewing tobacco can't contribute to the risk of developing this, can it?\n\n*Spits out chew just in case...*\n\n________________________\n\nP.S. To OP - how did you come across this image, without having been exposed to the condition with which its associated? Just curious.",
"If they left the maggots untreated, would they eat only necrotic tissue and clean up the guy's mouth? \n\nI'm referring to the scene in Gladiator where they nurture maggot's in Maximus' wound, telling him that the maggots will help the wound heal properly. To my understanding, they will only feast on dead tissue.",
"According to Gopalakrishnan et al., a progressive and continous necrosis of muscles occur associated with larval growth and invasion. The pathogenicity results from inflammation and toxin secreted by the larvae which prevents healing.\n\nFrom this [paper](_URL_1_) NSFW/NSFL images"
],
"score": [
155,
86,
13,
7,
7,
5,
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2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/Q5HU0.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16505789",
"http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1413-86702009000300021"
]
}
|
Sorry if this seems in bad taste, but what is this?
< WARNING [NSFL] > _URL_0_ < WARNING [NSFL] / > WARNING > Its a photo of a persons mouth. The teeth are somewhat rotted and there appear to be maggots living in the jaw area. Is there a name for this condition or disease, What happened?
|
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|
29nt9z
|
Is wifi "stretchy"?
|
It seems like I can stay connected to wifi far from the source, but when I try to make a new connection from that same spot, it doesn't work. It seems like the connected signal can stretch out further than where a new connection can be made, as if the wifi signal is like a rubber band. Am I just imagining this?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"> Am I just imagining this?\n\nNo, you're not. When the link is established already, the error correction algorithms will re-send missed packets, and that's why you can walk a bit further.\n\nWhen establishing a connection, too many dropped packets will mark the connection as bad, and it will not get established. Basically, the requirements are a bit more strict when establishing it, which makes sense.",
"Kind of, yes. Basically establishing a connection requires a stronger signal because your computer wants to see a signal of a certain strength before suggesting it as an option to connect to.\n\nHowever, when you are already connected to a router your computer is actively trying to listen for and transmit to something. The connection may be bad, but it will at least try.\n\nSo, yeah, the behavior you would see from this situation could be described as looking \"stretchy\", even though that wouldn't technically be describing what is going on.",
"I see lots of different (good) explanations, but none mention AGC\n\nthe AGC (Automatic gain controller) in every wifi radio will make your connection \"stretchy\". \n\nas MrTinKan mentionned, it is very much like a megaphone where as you're moving away, the agc will boost the \"gain\" of the transmitter higher and higher. \n\nhowever it's also like a adjustable ear. (it affects both transmit and receive) and once you disconnect, it will go back to its default setting, making you unable to catch its attention again no matter how strong you're transmitting. \n\nof course, it's not a single-factor thing and as other mentionned, some of it is firmware based\n\nit's also the cause of a common wifi problem called the \"hidden node problem\".",
"Follow on question: Is there any real reason why we could not have wifi everywhere? I mean most houses, businesses, and buildings have wifi already. Isn't there an easier way to set up wifi so that it is everywhere? (and open)\n\nObviously, mobile broadband is available most everywhere that you have cell service, but it is expensive. I don't fully understand the inner workings of that, but it seems like cell phone carriers are screwing us.",
"Network Engineer here, WiFi, like any wave, can tone down the data rate to extend its signal coverage. We measure this in a loss of decibels (power) relative to original signal strength.\n\nOne of the scenarios I encounter at work is that WiFi coverage needs to penetrate through non-reflective materials, combined with extending signal coverage for a given area.\n\nIf I need to penetrate material deeper with a signal, I can amplify the antenna power at the base unit. Newer 802.11 signalling modes use a higher frequency + power input to do this.\n\nIf I need to extend data coverage, 802.11 is very finnicky about maintaining a data rate throughput and goodput to ensure quality connection. On higher end access points one would be able to go into the settings console and forcibly lower the data rate to extend area coverage (because now the expected throughput and goodput is lower, therefore you require less power to cover a certain area, thus you can lower the rate and amplify the signal to get a combined bigger area effect).\n\nConnection is based on \"heartbeats\" between clients, such as SYN and ACK datagrams and packets.",
"This has to do with the noise floor and signal strength. When you are close to the radio, it is not difficult to find its broadcast frequency and establish a lock on the frequency as the frequency is a few db over the noise floor. The farther you get the farther it falls into the noise floor but if you are still locked on that frequency you can usually still read the signal. \n\nWhen you attempt to connect again from that dIstance, your computer has no idea what signal is the noise floor and what signal isyour router so it is difficult to establish a lock. Im not super familiar with wifi protocols, but I would assume they sweep a known frequency range and look for amplitude peaks and do not give you the option to connect to a signal in the noise floor as it would basically be useless.",
"On thing no one has mentioned that ive seen is what type of data you are using when driving away. It gets my kids all the time. Theyll be watching a movie or show on netflix on their kindles and we have to leave the house. Netflix and other streams load ahead of what you are watching. The kids might have a what seems to be a connection for a good mile or two from the house until that preloaded secrion of the video plays, then itll seem like theyve lost connection and we are way outside the home wifi. Is this possibly whats happening when you notice your wifia s \"stretchiness\"?"
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{
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{
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|
Is wifi "stretchy"?
It seems like I can stay connected to wifi far from the source, but when I try to make a new connection from that same spot, it doesn't work. It seems like the connected signal can stretch out further than where a new connection can be made, as if the wifi signal is like a rubber band. Am I just imagining this?
|
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] |
|
1h1s9m
|
Can you help me identify what microorganism is growing in my cup of wine?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"caq23rz",
"caq2h38",
"caq2o89"
],
"text": [
"Judging from the thread-like growth (mycelia), I think it's a fungi. Though not yeast, since yeast grows by \"budding\". I can't help you anymore than that.\n\nI'm studying Environmental Science\nMycelium: _URL_0_\nBudding: _URL_0_",
"The most likely contamination would be acetobacter. Is it jelly like? if so the chances are that is what it is. the low PH and next to no carbohydrates limit what will grow significantly (alcohol and O2 are what the vinegar producing bacteria need). This knowledge comes from making significant amounts of sour/wild beers.",
"I grow fungi for a living at my work. Do you have another pic of it?"
],
"score": [
13,
8,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelium"
]
}
|
Can you help me identify what microorganism is growing in my cup of wine?
|
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||
8x2ux6
|
Do humans know how reflections work from birth, or do they learn it?
|
A lot of other animals don't understand reflections. Do humans understand reflections from birth, or do we slowly learn how they work? If someone hadn't seen a reflection their whole life, and saw one when they were 50, would they understand it?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"e20mp6l",
"e20m00v",
"e213kbz",
"e219t2g"
],
"text": [
"Recognizing themselves in a mirror is something that develops at a later age, around the age of 18 to 20 months. Whether this is the same thing as knowing how reflection works or that this means they develop a concept of self I do not know. But I wouldn't know why reflection would be instinctive, I would guess that is also something learned at later age.\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"I googled this question and got some good answers. \n\n\nIt’s definitely not something they can do at birth. Rather from 6 months they can recognize the image and recognize it as their own, from about 18 months. \n\n\n_URL_1_",
"There is something called the mirror test for animals self recognition, if you put a mark on, for instance, an elephant, it will try to rub it off in a mirror but if you did so to a turtle it would not, there is margin of error when it comes to animals that aren't sight oriented such as dogs where other tests are made. In all I believe that at a certain point of age when the child has started to gain cognitive strength they will be able to... It's not exactly what you asked for but I thought I would mention it because it's pretty interesting.",
"From birth? The brain has no capacity to process visual stimuli into complex shapes. There’s no understanding of the structure of objects other than just shades of light. This is learned in the few few weeks to months as their visual system develops and they correlate what they see to the objects they interact with."
],
"score": [
28,
8,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01650250500147485",
"https://www.thoughtfulparent.com/2009/10/child-psychology-classics-mirror-test.html?m=1"
]
}
|
Do humans know how reflections work from birth, or do they learn it?
A lot of other animals don't understand reflections. Do humans understand reflections from birth, or do we slowly learn how they work? If someone hadn't seen a reflection their whole life, and saw one when they were 50, would they understand it?
|
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|
uy07h
|
When you can't remember something why do you still know enough to recognize people's incorrect suggestions?
|
For example: if you can't remember an actors name and people suggest a similar name you will know that it's not quite right. If you can't recall what it is to begin with, how does that work?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4zmry0",
"c4znbvu",
"c4zpukc"
],
"text": [
"The information may still be in your brain, you simply haven't yet been able to consciously access the proper memory. Or you have a partial memory, and it needs to be reinforced (for example, you can remember that the actor's name begins with the letter \"B\") to be restored. Long term memories need to be accessed to be \"refreshed\" or they will slowly fade away and become more difficult to access. This process also tends to change long-term memories over time. We don't remember the event, we remember the memory. It has been shown that people's long-term memories do change over time, and can be influenced by suggestion. \n \nAn alternative could also be that you logically reject the suggestion without any involvement of the precise memory of the correct answer. For example, you ask \"What is the name of the actor in the Men in Black movie who costarred with Will Smith?\" and someone answers \"Justin Beiber\". You might simply recall that MIB was released in 1997, when JB was only about 3 years old and thus discount the suggestion as being inplausible. Or you might recall that Smith's co-star was a Texan, and know that JB is Canadian and hence not a match.",
"Knowing something about one thing doesn't mean you know it about another.\n\nI don't know who acted in the 1928s production of whatever, but I know it wasn't Keanu Reeves [or was it? He is immortal...].\n\nSo just because I can confirm one fact doesn't mean I know another.",
"One prominent theory of memory recall is that attractor networks are activated, are recurrent, and will ultimately fill in the missing blanks. The attractor network is a population of neurons. This population is self-activating in a loop. If you stimulate enough of the neurons, then all of them will get activated (and you will remember all of the memory). \n\nAnyway, following this theory, a clue to the memory triggers part of the appropriate attractor network. Of course, it is only a partial memory, so it also triggers a bunch of other, competing attractor networks. Someone makes a suggestion - and none of the competing attractor networks match the suggestion, so you know that is not the answer. \n\nOne of my goals in life it to piece this puzzle together so I will know why a partially triggered memory can be remembers an hour or a day later, but cannot be figured out in real time. It pisses me off."
],
"score": [
8,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
When you can't remember something why do you still know enough to recognize people's incorrect suggestions?
For example: if you can't remember an actors name and people suggest a similar name you will know that it's not quite right. If you can't recall what it is to begin with, how does that work?
|
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|
1ukoo5
|
How does your body react to the free space created when an organ, such as your kidney, is removed?
|
When a Kidney is removed how does your body react to the new space, my guess is that it just fills it in with generic flesh?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Depends on the flexibility of the cavity we're talking about. In abdomen some fluid builds up, other organs fill most of the space and abdominal wall sinks in a certain amount (usually too small to measure). In skull, fills up with fluid. In chest, the other lung expands to fill most of the space, fluid fills up the rest of the space, eventually lung usually expands to fill the space completely [edit: this is true in PARTIAL lung resection only -- see below for discussion of total pneumonectomy (removal of one whole lung)]. \n\n**Edit to answer some questions:**\n\nQuestion about lung resection and improvements to lung performance if the lung gets bigger: If you resect a whole lung (total pneumonectomy) the other lung stretches out to fill about 1/4 of the empty space -- see the Xrays at the link I posted below. The **function** of the now larger lung does NOT improve significantly because lung performance (in terms of oxygenation) depends on the amount of lung tissue (specifically alveolar tissue) that is exposed to air on one side (ventilated) and exposed to blood on the other (perfused). This is known as the V/Q match. In normal healthy lung V/Q is tightly controlled by a number of mechanisms so just letting the lung stretch out by removing the other one or by removing part of an intra-abdominal organ will not improve lung performance (even if measured vital capacity -- the volume between max inhale and max exhale goes up, which it wouldn't if you removed part of or a whole lung). You do not grow extra lung tissue, it just gets stretched out (now, this is not necessarily true of a fetus and maybe even young children but I have no expertise there).\n\nTo dig in (a little) deeper: if the normal lung tissue is already compressed by a huge intra-abdominal mass like a near-term pregnancy or big tumor or even by abnormal lung tissue such as huge emphysema bubbles (blebs) you can return the lung to normal V/Q match by resection of the mass.\n\nSo **tl;dr edit** lung *volume* doesn't equal lung *performance* in lungs that are finished growing at least.",
"I'll add this one as an aside: I had a patient once who years previously had a stroke (like 20 years prior). A stroke means that part of the brain dies. I took him for a CT scan for an unrelated issue. The CT of his brain showed a HUGE part of the brain was dead - like practically a whole hemisphere - yet aside from being a little unpleasant, he was functioning fine for his age (around 70-ish). \n\nThe interesting thing for me was that the dead part of his brain hadn't been reabsorbed, but just showed up as a dark mass still in the usual brain morphology (wavy folded lines of brain matter). Same shape, just dark matter - just preserved like that for 20 years in his skull. \n\n The human body is pretty weird!",
"[See here](_URL_1_) and [here](_URL_0_) for answers from the last time this was asked.\n\nThere's a certain amount of movement that is allowed among the things in your abdomen, but there's connective tissue (fascia and peritoneum) that limits the amount of rearrangement that can occur.",
"If you have a hysterectomy (I think only a full...? not sure on that detail), they put in a sort of mesh to keep everything where it is supposed to be. Occasionally, the mesh will fail and your organs will start to fall down. This can sometimes cause the vagina to prolapse.\n\n_URL_2_ though I know of this from doing medical malpractice cases.",
"Something that I think is very important to point out is that, often times in surgery when they transplant an organ, for example a kidney, they put it back in a completely different place to the one which no longer functions, but unless dangerous will leave the existing one in the body of the recipient"
],
"score": [
803,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/y7fym/what_holds_our_organs_in_place/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/osmjj/when_an_organ_say_a_kidney_is_donated_what/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_genital_prolapse"
]
}
|
How does your body react to the free space created when an organ, such as your kidney, is removed?
When a Kidney is removed how does your body react to the new space, my guess is that it just fills it in with generic flesh?
|
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|
160zuf
|
Theoretically, how far "back in time" could we go and still be able to have a conversation with local inhabitants?
|
Just how much do we know about these ancient languages and dialects? Would we still be able to understand them today? English and other languages too =D
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7rooyh",
"c7rr0sy",
"c7ruonw",
"c7rz61i"
],
"text": [
"Warning: This is not my area of expertise at all, but since there have been no replies after half an hour, I'll give it a go.\n\nFirst of all, it depends greatly on what language you'd like to speak in, as you acknowledged in your post. It also depends on who you'd like to speak to - peasants? kings? But the general answer for English is somewhere around the 12th-14th centuries. This is a bit of text from the mid-1100s: \"He chæs himm sone kinnessmenn all swillke summ he wollde and whær he wollde borenn ben he chæs all att hiss wille.\" This is mostly intelligible - it means \"He chose some kinsmen as he liked, and where he would be born, he chose all at his will.\" But they were also using a number of Germanic words that we don't use anymore, and you may have had some trouble understanding a great deal. By the time of Chaucer in the late 1300s - well, you can read Canterbury Tales without any special training, so there you go.\n\nIf you speak Italian, you might be able to go back significantly further. Italian was fractured into many regional dialects until the publication of the Divine Comedy in the 14th century. However, certain regional dialects were more like modern Italian than others, and in those regions you could go back further. The first documented words in Italian date from the mid 10th century; however, spoken Italian dates back much further - in 722, when Pope Gregory II, raised in Rome, met St. Boniface, who had studied classical Latin, Boniface said that he found Gregory IIs Latin very difficult to understand, indicating that the language of the Italian peninsula had already begun to evolve away from vulgar Latin.",
"This might be a good question for /r/linguistics. Also, I'm not an expert on this so feel free to take this with a grain of salt.\n\nFor English, the Great Vowel Shift renders spoken Middle English largely unintelligible. This change is thought to have begun in the 1300's and be completed around 1700. Modern English (being attested to the 1500's) falls in this range. I'd conjecture that we today would most likely be able to converse with at least the educated around Shakespeare's time, albeit with some difficultly due to differences in vocabulary and pronunciation. Any earlier gets fuzzy, but as language change is rarely abrupt it could be possible. Middle English is largely unintelligible to people today. Sorry for the conjecturing, but we don't really have access to spoken forms of language in older files (excluding pronunciation gleaned from written texts).\n\nI'm less versed in other languages, but do know that languages change constantly and change differently compared to other even related languages. Some are more conservative than others. Kevin Stroud's History of English podcast claims that roughly it takes 1000 years for a language to diverge from a parent language into a mutually unintelligible daughter language. I would use that number as a basis, but it probably isn't true for every language.",
"You should try posting in r/linguistics. They have a few people who could answer pretty well!",
"That will be different for every region.\nI can answer for my native language, Modern Greek. \nThe classical sound system collapsed around 1st century CE, and it started resembling the modern one around the 4th century CE. Grammar and vocabulary undergone transformations that will lead eventually to modern Greek, so a fluent and somehow linguistically-aware speaker of Modern Greek could understand spoken [medieval Greek](_URL_0_) mostly of the late period of the Middle Ages. As a matter of fact, religious texts written in then-modern Koiné Greek are way, WAY more accessible to Modern Greek speakers, than classical texts (Plato etc), and Homeric texts are completely inaccessible without dedication and years of study."
],
"score": [
52,
22,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Greek"
]
}
|
Theoretically, how far "back in time" could we go and still be able to have a conversation with local inhabitants?
Just how much do we know about these ancient languages and dialects? Would we still be able to understand them today? English and other languages too =D
|
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2m5xrd
|
How are complex orbital paths (like the one that the Rosetta Lander used) calculated?
|
What tools does NASA use to calculate slingshoting around several different planets? What are the real margins of errors in their calculation? How much leeway do they have to correct mistakes en route?
|
askscience
|
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"> What tools does NASA use to calculate slingshoting around several different planets?\n\nTrajectory Browser Goes Public \n_URL_0_\n\n > What are the real margins of errors in their calculation? \n\nVery low. Deviations from the planned path are caused more by uncertainties in the exact conditions along the way (e.g. pressure from solar wind), than by errors in their calculations. \n\n > How much leeway do they have to correct mistakes en route?\n\nNot really caused by mistakes, but they have enough leeway.",
"Low fidelity tools generally use a patched-conic approach to develop rough estimates for the delta-V required.\n\nHigher fidelity tools are generally a combination of numerical propagators (Runge Kutta fixed or variable step is common) coupled with an optimizer. The propagators tell you where the craft will go given assumptions on things like vehicle mass and engine burn placement and direction. The optimizer is then used to vary those parameters until the desired result is obtained, and fuel or trip time are minimized, since those are large cost drivers. The optimizer also ensures that certain constraints are met (can my spacecraft fit into the launch vehicle, does the trajectory allow for enough communication intervals?, etc)\n\nFurther on, you add more and more fidelity (solar wind, n-body gravity, etc) until by the time you fly, you're very confident in the solution. Any uncertainties are modeled in a \"monte carlo\" analysis. In a monte carlo analysis, you assign an uncertainty to design variables (will my engine always produce X thrust, or will it actually be X +/- some percentage?). You then run a LOT of simulations where all of those factors are randomly assigned given their uncertainty. The flight software should be capable of removing any errors due to those uncertainties. (For example, accelerometers might detect that an engine over or under performed, and adjust the burn length accordingly, or schedule another burn later). Running monte-carlo means that you get to test points where uncertainties stack on top of one another in potentially unforseeable ways, and ensure that the system is capable of surviving that combination of uncertainties. At the end of the day, we typically expect the mission to be successful in something like 95-99% of the monte carlo runs.",
"The short answer: in many steps. They use crude approximations as a starting point for more sophisticated methods. Simplified steps:\n\n1st step: analytical patched conics methods (NOTE: this is *not* what Kerbal Space Program does). You can analytically solve a lunar or interplanetary trajectory when you assume the initial and final orbits as circular and coplanar. Very crude approximation but gives very useful results. (See Bate, Mueller, White: Fundamentals of Astrodynamics)\n\n2nd step: two body boundary value problem, ie. the Gauss problem (or Lambert problem). Solves an orbit given an initial and final position and the time of flight in between. This is repeated to produce [Pork Chop plots](_URL_2_) which are used to find the minimum delta-v for a given trajectory. These can be combined to compute a multi-step gravity assist trajectory.\n\n3rd step: restricted n-body problem. This involves a numerical integration of the entire trajectory (which is \"slow\" compared to the earlier methods but not a real issue with modern fast computers). This gives the exact trajectory to within a fraction of an inch. Then small correction maneuvers are added and a multi-dimensional numerical minimization process is applied to search for a locally optimal trajectory.\n\nEach one of these steps are necessary because all the methods need a good starting point (\"initial guess\") to converge to an effective solution quickly. Human intervention in between can be useful and definitely makes writing the computer programs easier. Jumping directly to the third step would be like shooting in the dark.\n\nThere is a contest for students about designing missions like this. [The Global Trajectory Optimization contest](_URL_2_) (\"the America's cup of Rocket science\") is all about finding optimal trajectories for space missions that are too complex to actually perform with modern day technology.",
"This explains the mechanics of calculating the route but how do astrophysicists recognize opportunities in planetary alignments in the first place? How in the world did someone ever say, \"Hey, you know if we swing a probe around the earth, swing it back around the earth, then around mars then back around earth, I think we can get it to just match and run up alongside 67P 12 years later?\" \n\nThis has got to be one of the more impressive recognitions of an massive but obscure opportunity I can think of.",
"*Well orbital variables for the solar system are very well known^1 for the \"big\" objects \n\n*So does the gravitation laws^2 and orbital mechanics^3\n\nthey have a/some tailor-made programes to calculate how a trajectory evolves regarding time.\n\nthen they backtrack from where they want to go seeking to optimize parameters (time, fuel, etc...) going like\n\n- ok be can go directly there scramming a LOT a fuel\n- this and this bodies could give as a gravitational assist\n- we could chain the assists\n\nand so on and on...\n\nyou can try on your own with a little programming project to inderstand better\n\n^1 : _URL_3_\n\n^2 : _URL_4_\n\n^3 : _URL_5_",
"We use things like AGI's STK among other things. Also, just to clarify, as awesome it would be for NASA to be associated with Rosetta, it was all ESA. NASA and ESA attempted to work on a joint mission with the same overall objective prior to Rosetta but neither could play nicely so the project fell apart. NASA tried to do something without ESA, but Congress killed it; and ESA did Rosetta without NASA and it turned out super awesome for them.\n\nAs for margins of error, this varies greatly depending on what class of mission it is and whatever requirements are imposed. As to how much leeway there is, it also depends on the class of mission and the NASA center that manages it some are way more risk averse than others. However, at the end, things always come down to the amount of fuel necessary to do things because if you figure out how to fix a mistake, but have insufficient fuel or failed thrusters, then, the mission is SOL."
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"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/engineering/news/trajectory_feature.html",
"http://sophia.estec.esa.int/gtoc_portal/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porkchop_plot",
"http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_mechanics"
]
}
|
How are complex orbital paths (like the one that the Rosetta Lander used) calculated?
What tools does NASA use to calculate slingshoting around several different planets? What are the real margins of errors in their calculation? How much leeway do they have to correct mistakes en route?
|
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] |
|
pu7fm
|
How exactly does a Heat Pump work?
|
How can a heat pump utilise less amount of electricity to heat a greater amount of space?
Is it something along the lines of moving the heat of the outside (colder) air to inside?
The heat pump doesn't really do any heating it just moves the heat... right?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3schr3",
"c3sa6uo",
"c3s9v7l"
],
"text": [
"Mechanical Engineer here.\n\nThe most basic heat pump has 4 components: a compressor, a condenser, a pressure valve, and an evaporator. Within the system flows a refrigerant. The refrigerant is a chemical that has properties appropriate for the temperatures it needs to reach, but generally it is one that has a high latent heat of vaporization (that is, it takes a lot of energy to turn it from a liquid to a gas). If you're using a heat pump to heat a building, the evaporator is outside and the condenser is inside.\n\nIn the evaporator, the refrigerant is a very cold liquid. Because it is cold, heat from the evaporator's surroundings flows into it. This causes the refrigerant inside to evaporate, thus the name. Once it evaporates, the refrigerant enters the compressor where it is pressurized and heated, and it remains a gas. It then enters the condenser. Now it's very hot. Since the refrigerant in the condenser is hotter than the condenser's surroundings, heat leaves the condenser. This causes the refrigerant to condense back to a liquid. Once it's a liquid again it goes through the pressure valve, drastically reducing its pressure and temperature. From here the cycle repeats.\n\nYou can think of this process like ringing out a sponge. The sponge (refrigerant) absorbs water (heat) and then your hands (the compressor) ring out the water. The pressure valve serves to un-ring the sponge so that it can absorb again.\n\nThe reason you can deliver more heat than you have to provide energy is because the energy you're providing is to ring the sponge, not to create heat. The heat you're moving comes from a reservoir. The reservoir, in this case, is the outdoors. Even though it's cold outside, the air still contains energy because it's above absolute 0. A heat pump pulls that energy into a building.\n\nEDIT: to answer your second question: The energy that goes into the compressor *does* in fact contribute to heating. All of the energy that enters the compressor eventually becomes heat which makes its way into the building. So you get the heat that was moved plus the heat of the compressor's electricity. If you're using a heat pump as an air conditioner, this fact is detrimental. In most cases though, the heat you move is a few times greater than the electricity you provide.",
"When you compress a gas its temperature rises. When a gas expands its temperature drops.\n\nA heat pump compresses a gas in a closed system to heat it up to a temperature higher than the air inside your house. As it passes through your house it releases some of this heat. It then travels outside and is allowed to expand (into a larger pipe for instance), thus cooling down. Because it is now at a lower temperature than the outside air, heat passes from the environment into the system. Repeat.\n\nsee [this](_URL_0_)",
"Refrigerators are the same as heat pumps, in that neither creates (or destroy's) heat, the just move it around. In fact, that's how all processes work. Energy and matter cannot be created or destroyed, so everything you see if just converting one kind of energy or matter into another, or just moving it from one place to another."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_cycle#Heat_and_work"
]
}
|
How exactly does a Heat Pump work?
How can a heat pump utilise less amount of electricity to heat a greater amount of space? Is it something along the lines of moving the heat of the outside (colder) air to inside? The heat pump doesn't really do any heating it just moves the heat... right?
|
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|
vxink
|
Why is p=0.05 the magic number for "significance"?
|
Actually seems pretty high when you think about it - 1 in 20 times that result will be due to chance.
How did p < 0.05 become the magic threshold, and is there anything special about it?
|
askscience
|
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"WHAT A GREAT QUESTION! It most certainly is not **(totally)** arbitrary - to get an intuitive understanding of this, consider what the limiting p-values would mean. \n\nWhat does a zero p-value state? A zero p-value implies 100% confidence. What is the only statement that we can make with 100% confidence? That the expected value falls between negative infinity and positive infinity. Is that very useful? No, not really. \n\nOkay, so big confidence intervals aren't very interesting, what about a very small confidence interval? If we choose a very small confidence interval, well, then how confident are we really that the true value falls within that small interval, defined by the expected value and a small standard deviation? Not very confident, it turns out. \n\nSo, these two limiting cases suggests that there is some optimum point that offers you the best bang for your buck - a reasonably small confidence *interval* at a reasonably high confidence. \n\np=0.05 corresponds to about a confidence interval of about two standard deviations - that means that we are 95% confident that the expected value falls within two standard deviations of the measured mean. That's pretty good! Consider the bell-graph, increasing our confidence (to 97%) even a tiny bit more increases the confidence interval significantly (to 3 standard deviations!), whereas decreasing the range quickly takes us away from 95% confidence. p=0.05 is kind of the sweet spot, if you will. \n\nWhat if you want REALLY high confidence, but don't want a huge confidence interval? Remember that you can decrease your confidence interval without sacrificing your confidence by running more tests! This is why sometimes scientists require a 'six-sigma' confidence, meaning that the probability for a type1/type2 error is ~one in a million. Major scientific tests, such as the search for the Higgs Boson, are done requiring six-sigma confidence (compared to p=0.05 -- > two-sigma!). \n\nPeople who learn statistics get too caught up in the equations and plugging and chugging, it's important to keep a very intuitive understanding of why statistics is important and how to interpret values!\n\n**TL;DR**, For most situations, p=0.05 offers the best combination of high confidence and small confidence interval. \n\n**EDIT**: Okay, okay 0.05 is arbitrary - the actual selection of p-value really depends on how many tests you can easily run. The more tests you can run, the lower a p-value you can afford.",
"Because Ronald Fisher wrote in his \"Statistical Methods for Research Workers\" back in 1925:\n\n\n\"Personally, the writer prefers to set a low standard\nof significance at the 5 per cent point, and ignore entirely\nall results which fail to reach this level.\"\n\n\nAnd that's the real reason. Fisher said he liked .05 and everybody else just ran with it.\n\n\nEdit: Story as told in the [American Psychologist](_URL_0_)",
"It is and it isn't. First, to be a purist, it's p < 0.05. When you have = people scoff. \n\nFisher (as in the F-value) used this and 0.01 to indicate that things are happening with only a 5% and 1% chance of these being errors, or that the findings are truly happening by chance. \n\n\n > Actually seems pretty high when you think about it - 1 in 20 times that result will be due to chance.\n\nNot really. Run any simple data set and you'll see that getting 0.05 is not easy to do... unless you live in the world of big data. Here's where we get awesomesauce.\n\n\nSo you point out something absolutely fundamental - 1 in 20 times _by chance_. When you perform a t-test, F-test or correlation or whatever it is you do with 1 or 2 variables, 1 out of 20 is fucking awesome (especially when dealing with \"noisy\" and unreliable data like people or social and economic phenomena). \n\n\nBut what happens when you perform _100 tests_? That is, you have lots of variables and compare each of them pairwise (t-tests) and you have exactly 100 tests. You can get really, really excited because one ---or five--- of your results might meet this magical threshold provided to us by the Fishergods (or Student/Gossetgods). But you're exactly wrong. Just by performing _more tests_ you run into a problem: at least 1 in 20 are going to come up as significant _just by chance_. This is comically put [here](_URL_5_) and [here](_URL_5_). But the second, while hilarious, is a terribly serious affair. \n\n\nWhen you decide to compare more things, or even decide to _rerun_ an analysis, or even decide to change things up and do a different analysis, you run the risk of getting a bogus p-value. Fortunately, there [are ways](_URL_5_) of fixing that. And lots of scientific communities (especially in brain/behavior/genomics/social) are aware of the comparisons problem, and correct anywhere between a few (say 4 or 5) and a metric assload (2.5 million comparisons, such as in GWAS). \n\n\n[So, the magical threshold is arbitrary(-ish)](_URL_5_), but that's why we have _alpha_ values. Alpha values are to be decided _a priori_ about how low your p-value should be. And this actually does vary quite a bit between fields even for single tests. For example, in educational settings a p-value (technically alpha) of 0.3 is OK. To get an effect with a bunch of kids in some way at the 30% mark is pretty good. But in fields like [psychophysics](_URL_5_), for just one test, a p-value isn't good enough unless it's really, really small (e.g., 0.0001; no comparisons corrections).",
"_URL_6_\n\nIn statistical significance testing, the p-value is the probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. One often \"rejects the null hypothesis\" when the p-value is less than the significance level α (Greek alpha), which is often 0.05 or 0.01. When the null hypothesis is rejected, the result is said to be statistically significant.\n\n**Critics of p-values point out that the criterion used to decide \"statistical significance\" is based on the somewhat arbitrary choice of level (often set at 0.05).**",
"If I'm not mistaken it varies often by field. In particle physics monte carlo allows for tremendous amounts of data so .05 doesn't really mean anything. Often in particle physics the p-value is set at something like 0.0001 for significance. I think bio fileds have it set a bit harder since things are harder to control at times.",
"This nicely demonstrates the downside of p = 0.05:\n\n_URL_7_\n\nIt basically means you'll be wrong 1 in 20 times, which is fine in some fields but not in others.",
"I went through the thread and found most of the typical responses, such as Fisher convention, adequate acceptability of Type 1 error rates, and decent confidence interval range. \n\nBut I'd be remiss to also not point out that despite the reliance on p-values, there is a growing movement to include measures of effect size. Proper attention to power analysis, particular in epidemiology/psychology/etc. is not often given. I frequently urge new analysts to consider other factors of the research design, rather than saying \"this p value is really low, it's great\" (which makes my head hurt). Always present measures of effect size (or ask for them)."
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{
"url": [
"http://www.radford.edu/~jaspelme/611/Spring-2007/Cowles-n-Davis_Am-Psyc_orignis-of-05-level.pdf",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vxink/why_is_p005_the_magic_number_for_significance/c58kz1m?context=2",
"http://xkcd.com/882/",
"http://prefrontal.org/files/posters/Bennett-Salmon-2009.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_comparisons",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value",
"http://xkcd.com/882/"
]
}
|
Why is p=0.05 the magic number for "significance"?
Actually seems pretty high when you think about it - 1 in 20 times that result will be due to chance. How did p < 0.05 become the magic threshold, and is there anything special about it?
|
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|
1kaqgu
|
That think you can do with a straw and a liquid where you suck some liquid into your straw and keep it there using your tounge to block the upper end of the straw; Will it work on a much larger scale?
|
Like, if a helicopter carried a giant tube and a sucking device, and sucked up water from the ocean. Could the water be kept in the tube, because of the vacuum? I hope you can understand what I mean here, it's hard to explain. I did this at a burger place and a friend said it wouldn't work on a larger scale.
El edito de specifico: I mean that you lift the straw above water level.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbn1ht7",
"cbn12yt",
"cbn6i2q"
],
"text": [
"Like you said gravity wants to pull the water in the straw down, but the low pressure between you finger and the water and the relatively high atmospheric pressure outside the straw keep the water up.\n\nThe straw is small enough that the surface tension of the water (or soda) keeps the air-water interface at the bottom of the straw in the shape of a meniscus. For our purposes, we'll say it's mostly flat. Because surface tension is keeping it 'flat' air can't make its way up to the low pressure area. For a bubble to make it up the straw it has to stretch the surface of the water, but the tension between the water molecules tries to reduce the surface area - hence the name, surface tension.\n\nIf you increase the diameter of the straw then it's easier for air/water to overcome the surface tension. If you tried it with something like the diameter of a drinking glass, all the water would fall out. One important thing to note is that there is still enough air pressure to hold the column of water in place, but not enough surface tension. If you put something in place to hold the shape of the water, it won't fall out of the glass. [Here's an example on youtube](_URL_0_). The relevant part is from about 0:17 to 0:33 when he says \"the index card will stick there.\" You can even do this with something you would normally be able to pour water through, like a paper towel. If the holes are small enough that air can't pass through while simultaneously letting water through (surface tension again), then the water won't pour out of the glass.",
"No, on a small scale the cohesive and adhesive properties of water generate enough force to keep the liquid in place but on a larger scale, the force generated is insufficient (surface area increases with r, area with r^2)",
"34 feet. That is the maximum height that a column of water can reach given a near-perfect vacuum at sea level. At that level, the air pressure is around 15 PSI (101KPa) and will push on the surrounding water and cause the column to rise. A column of mercury will rise to 760mm, which makes it a much more convenient way to gauge barometric pressure."
],
"score": [
7,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Te57fkE6Gc#t=0m17s"
]
}
|
That think you can do with a straw and a liquid where you suck some liquid into your straw and keep it there using your tounge to block the upper end of the straw; Will it work on a much larger scale?
Like, if a helicopter carried a giant tube and a sucking device, and sucked up water from the ocean. Could the water be kept in the tube, because of the vacuum? I hope you can understand what I mean here, it's hard to explain. I did this at a burger place and a friend said it wouldn't work on a larger scale. El edito de specifico: I mean that you lift the straw above water level.
|
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|
nbnel
|
How did/does ice get on the tops of mountains which are above the cloud level?
|
A creationist friend of mine asked me this question, stating that there is no way for ice to get on top of mountains above the cloud level other than the flood (as depicted in Genesis, which covered the tops of the mountains).
It is a question that I do not know how to answer. Any help, along with evidence, sources, and/or additional reading material is appreciated.
Thanks!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c37tb6u",
"c37u05g",
"c37w777"
],
"text": [
"There's water vapour throughout the atmosphere, and it isn't always visible. The trails behind jet engines, for instance, are caused by the condensation of this vapour. Separately, I'm fairly sure there aren't any mountain-tops permanently above all clouds.\n\nFrankly, this is one of the more incredibly stupid religious claims I've ever heard. Even if the question wasn't trivially answered without resorting to superstition, the flood idea requires an incredibly large amount of water to mysteriously appear then disappear. It also requires lots of other science to be inexplicably wrong, such as our methods of dating things, and our understanding of how fossils form. As such, it illustrates the common fallacy of assuming one of two conditions must be true, without proving that they are the only two possible conditions.",
"Isn't it also possible for wind from below the clouds to travel up the mountain, in a \"snowing up\" effect, similar to what occurs on the Empire State building. As a matter of fact, wind does go up a mountain, as this also gives an updraft for those flying in glider airplanes.",
"Cumulonimbus storm clouds can reach up to 60,000 feet in altitude. Everest is less than 30,000.\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
30,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulonimbus"
]
}
|
How did/does ice get on the tops of mountains which are above the cloud level?
A creationist friend of mine asked me this question, stating that there is no way for ice to get on top of mountains above the cloud level other than the flood (as depicted in Genesis, which covered the tops of the mountains). It is a question that I do not know how to answer. Any help, along with evidence, sources, and/or additional reading material is appreciated. Thanks!
|
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] |
|
8f2bbo
|
[Earth Sciences] Why can't they "tap" the gas coming out of the burning "door to hell" pit?
|
This thing has been burning for a long time:
_URL_0_
Why can't they drill down near it and start capturing all of that gas? Is it not worth it? Is it not possible? If we can put our burning oil wells, why can't we put this out?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dy0j70j",
"dy05kon",
"dy0alei"
],
"text": [
"I'm the guy from that article that went down inside the \"Doorway To Hell\" (Seriously). When I was there for the expedition, we had two local geologists with us from the oil and gas ministry. They said that there was a plan to drill at an angle from a spot nearby to try and tap into the gas reservoir that's feeding the flaming sinkhole. As far as I know, that plan has not been implemented yet.\n\nYes, it was an amazing experience being the first person to ever go to the bottom of that place!! Scary as Hell, but worth the effort.",
"It really depends on how the gas is dispersed in the bedrock and the heat of the area. With continuous fire for such a long time, it might be hard to tell how hot the gas is. It's possible that the gas is already heating past its ignition temperature below the surface, and burns when exposed to oxygen. If that were the case, exposing large pockets of it to the atmosphere by drilling into it might be dangerous. Dealing with liquid and gaseous fuels bring different challenges.",
"A big difference is that oil Wells are artificial. One entry to them, and we have an estimate for how big it is. \n\nThe door is a natural cave right? Unknown size and composition? Unknown number of entries, some of which could be small and far away. It might be making it's own fuel by boiling water from an underground source. Or a creek drains to it. Maybe just groundwater in general. We can cap oil Wells, or detonate them and let the resulting dirt smother the fire. We can't do that with a cave complex, not without a lot of work digging down and planting explosives. Doing that would be very dangerous, very expensive, have no positive benefit, and if successful would have far reaching impacts on the area.\n\nWe won't do it until the door is the last source of accessible gas/oil, or the location needs to be prepared as humanities last stand against annihilation that can't risk a burning underground cave. (Hyperbole)"
],
"score": [
209,
31,
16
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2014/07/140716-door-to-hell-darvaza-crater-george-kourounis-expedition/"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
[Earth Sciences] Why can't they "tap" the gas coming out of the burning "door to hell" pit?
This thing has been burning for a long time: _URL_0_ Why can't they drill down near it and start capturing all of that gas? Is it not worth it? Is it not possible? If we can put our burning oil wells, why can't we put this out?
|
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130kfp
|
Why do dart guns require less precision than a medical syringe?
|
Whenever I go to the doctor for blood samples or vaccines, they always insert the syringe in an arterie. But I never see hunters aiming for arteries on animals, yet the tranquilizing effect stil happens. The doctor also needs to feel my arm to find the arteries, something I imagine would be impossible for hunters.
I know the blood circulatory system is the body's way of transporting hormones and important nutrients around the body. Do tranquilizing darts:
1. Affect the nervous system? The body's other method of transporting, used for electrical signals.
2. Have so strong dose that they affect blood stream even when fired into tissue?
3. Actually hit arteries? Who knows, maybe I'm underestimating the skills of hunters?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"First off, the doctors are looking for veins not your arteries. \nSecondly, besides movie magic, the anesthetics on the darts take a while to set in as they are typically intramuscular shots.\nThird, when you are put under anesthetics for surgery it is all done intravenously to allow for better flow and control of the medications that render you into the desired state of consciousness.\nFourth, you could be knocked out with an intramuscular injection too, its just less controlled and leaves a bigger headache afterwards.",
"While we're on this topic... This really annoys me when I'm watching Dexter. He knocks out his victims with an injection (usually to the neck and they pass out within a second of being pierced by the needle. Does anyone know the minimum amount of time something like would take, realistically?",
"Tranquilizer darts rely on hitting muscles and thus are intramuscular injections. Muscles have a lot of blood flow and the anesthetic is then absorbed by the blood and then transported to the brain where it takes effect. They get to the nervous system through the blood. If they are injected directly into the blood (by the veins, not the arteries), they get their faster, in a matter of seconds. In the muscles, it takes several minutes, usually around 5 depending on the patient. This is often why it's not always the best idea to tranquilize dangerous animals in close quarters with people, i.e. someone falls into a zoo exhibit, etc. Since it takes several minutes to kick in, you might provoke the animal into attacking before it falls asleep.\n\nDifferent drugs are absorbed differently. In general, most anesthetics are given at the same dose in the muscle as in the blood. It will all get to the brain eventually, it's just a matter of how quickly. When doing surgery in pets, most vets have a 3 stage protocol for anesthesia. First step is a sedative in the muscle to relieve stress and make the next steps easier. Step 2 is an IV injection to completely knock out the patient, once they are sedated. This is a short acting drug, usually only lasting a few minutes. An endotracheal tube is then placed in the trachea to allow anesthesia to be maintained by an inhalant anesthetic which flows continuously. Once the procedure is finished, the gas is turned off and it leave the system pretty quickly.\n\nIt's unlikely to hit an artery or vein with a dart gun. The main targets with dart guns is large muscle masses, usually the rump or thigh in my experience. (I worked in a zoo vet hospital while in vet school. One of my responsibilities was to help dose and fill the darts.) If it should enter directly into the blood stream, it would just work quicker.",
"You are on the money with #2. ~~Ketamine is an intramuscular anaesthetic, thus does not need direct intravenous access.~~\n\nFrom Wikipedia:\n\n > Tranquilliser agents\n\nSeveral immobilising drugs have been invented for use in tranquilliser darts.[4] These include:\n\nAzaperone\n\nCombelen (Bayer)\n\nDomosedan (Farmos)\n\nDormicum (Roche)\n\nDetomidine (Farmos)\n\nFentanyl (Janssen Pharmaceutica)\n\nEtorphine hydrochloride (M–99, Novartis)\n\nHaloperidol (Kyron Laboratory)\n\nImmobilon, a mixture of etorphine and a phenothioazine tranquilliser such as acepromazine or methotrimeprazine.\n\nSerenace (Searle)\n\nValium 10 (Roche)\n\nXylazine (Rompun, Bayer)",
"Because toxins in darts target the synapse between preganglionic and post ganglion cells; preventing neurotransmitter release to target organs. Less specific. Mostly used in muscle paralysis and such. This of course is grossly simplified but you get the idea."
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{
"url": []
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|
Why do dart guns require less precision than a medical syringe?
Whenever I go to the doctor for blood samples or vaccines, they always insert the syringe in an arterie. But I never see hunters aiming for arteries on animals, yet the tranquilizing effect stil happens. The doctor also needs to feel my arm to find the arteries, something I imagine would be impossible for hunters. I know the blood circulatory system is the body's way of transporting hormones and important nutrients around the body. Do tranquilizing darts: 1. Affect the nervous system? The body's other method of transporting, used for electrical signals. 2. Have so strong dose that they affect blood stream even when fired into tissue? 3. Actually hit arteries? Who knows, maybe I'm underestimating the skills of hunters?
|
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|
28xibn
|
If I had samples from all four oceans, could I tell which sample was from which ocean?
|
Let's say I have samples from the Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, and Indian Oceans that are completely devoid of life (so no looking at the plankton, if that makes a difference). Would I be able to say which sample came from which ocean?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cifjxt7",
"cifqn1d",
"cifi8x9",
"ciftob4",
"cifmarc"
],
"text": [
"Kind of. The Pacific Ocean is rich in Iron which is thought to be brought by the winds from the Gobi Desert. Iron is a limiting nutrient because it's needed for nitrogen fixation in phytoplankton. The Atlantic Ocean, however, has high nitrogen but low iron. Look up HNLC (High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll) and the Redfield Ratio (which is the golden ratio 106C:16N:1P). These hypotheses are the basis for what determines how productive an area of the ocean will be (since productivity is determined by the bottom of the food chain)",
"Different kind of sample: audio characteristics. I used to program a trainer system for US Navy submarine sonar operators. In loading training scenarios, each ocean had different audio characteristics that affected both the ambient noise and how sound propagated in that ocean. They vary in terms of salinity/depth and temperature/depth profiles that determine the depth at which there is a deep sound propagation channel.",
"You could make a pretty decent guess based on oxygen 18 ratios.\n\n[From this page,](_URL_0_) see [this image.](_URL_0_o18wobs.gif)",
"We might be able to by analyzing the dissolved organic matter. We can obtain a mass spectra with many thousands of chemical formulas. We can apply statistical methods like PCA to see the chemical differences between the samples (from different oceans). I've been involved with research that did just that and is [in-press in Marine Chemistry] (_URL_2_).\n\nOne important consideration would be sampling location. Obviously, coastal areas would have large terrestrial inputs. Places of high productivity, like upwelling zones, would be different than places that undergo photochemical processes like the Pacific sub-tropical gyre. The surface vs the deep will be undergoing difference chemical processes since the surface layer can have photochemical processes, while the deep changes of DOM are largely driven by microbial processes. The oceans are connected via the global conveyor belt, which allows for some assumptions of the changes that may be occurring. For instance, we considered the deep Atlantic sample as being a younger version of the deep Pacific sample and the differences are largely microbial degradation of DOM. \n\nOn average, the DOM is rather refractory in the oceans, meaning it isn't being degraded on over the long term. The circulation of the ocean is 1-2k years and the average age of marine DOM is 2-3 times that from carbon-14 measurements. Many of the same chemical formula are present ( > 50%) in the oceans I've studied, which may be this refractory pool of marine DOM. There is also labile and semi-labile DOM which remineralizes to CO2 more rapidly, by photo- and bio-degradation.",
"Marine scientists use elemental analysis of seawater to determine location based on smaller spatial scales close to the coast pretty regularly. Microchemistry of [fish otoliths](_URL_3_) uses this to figure out where a fish has been, as the chemical composition of a layer laid down is indicative of the chemical composition of the seawater they were in at the time. It works very well over the scale of kilometres within a bay, but I'm not sure how we'll this would work over the scale of an entire ocean, however, as I gather most of the variation is due to input from bays, rivers, inlets etc.\n\nEdit: wiki link."
],
"score": [
416,
40,
20,
5,
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]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://data.giss.nasa.gov/o18data/",
"http://data.giss.nasa.gov/o18data/o18wobs.gif",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304420314001029",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otolith_microchemical_analysis"
]
}
|
If I had samples from all four oceans, could I tell which sample was from which ocean?
Let's say I have samples from the Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, and Indian Oceans that are completely devoid of life (so no looking at the plankton, if that makes a difference). Would I be able to say which sample came from which ocean?
|
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|
lvjfn
|
If we were as tall as a housefly, would we still be able to make the technology we have today?
|
For example, would we have to make computers that are the same as we have them today or would we have worked out have to make them smaller.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2vyjof",
"c2w0re7",
"c2vzedd",
"c2vyrg4"
],
"text": [
"Would we have enough brain cells to have enough neural connections to be intelligent enough to make a computer, if we were the size of a fly?",
"I don't even know how a fire would work if you were the size of a fly. It would be hard to build furnaces that can achieve the temperatures necessary for making bronze or metal tools at that size.",
"Assuming you mean 'shaped like a human, but the size of a fly', I'm sorry to say you wouldn't survive long enough to even consider technical advancement... the surface area / body mass ratio would never allow it.\n\nIf we had evolved to be the size of a fly, our body shapes would be nothing at all like our shapes now, and hence we would probably create completely different technologies, assuming we could create anything at all.\n\nIf we all suddenly shrunk to the size of flies, we'd be far too busy freezing to death within seconds to care... Honey, I Shrunk the Kids has a lot to answer for!",
"Transistors in computer processors have a semiconductor layer 2atoms thick.\n\nSo we can't make processors any smaller.\n\nWhether the rest of the computer could be scaled down any more is beyond what I can think of tonight"
],
"score": [
10,
9,
7,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
If we were as tall as a housefly, would we still be able to make the technology we have today?
For example, would we have to make computers that are the same as we have them today or would we have worked out have to make them smaller.
|
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] |
|
jweyi
|
Atypical askscience question: how do you organize your scientific articles/journals?
|
I am currently in undergrad, and am trying to get into the habit of keeping up with the current science. Right now I just have a text file with a compilation of links to papers/journal articles/studies but I would like a more efficient way to search and cite the small but growing pile of articles I have. Thanks
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2fqyu7",
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"c2fork3"
],
"text": [
"Aha, this is exactly the sort of question I'd like to see more of. Organization of papers *is* part of the scientific process. Anyone who's ever flailed about trying to find that *one* paper that had exactly the right protocol/method knows this.\n\nI do the following:\n\n1. I use Mendeley whenever I need to search all the papers I currently have, and for those tip of my tongue moments. \n2. Whenever I download a new paper, it *has* to go into an appropriately sorted folder. I have an elaborate folder hierarchy that's organized by topic. When I save .pdfs, they're always stored as title-first author's name.\n3. I have Mendeley set up to automatically generate a .bib reference file with all of my downloaded papers. After that, whenever I'm writing a paper, LyX has a very good system for allowing me to find the papers I want from that .bib archive.\n4. With regard to ways to just cite papers, I've also used Endnote and RefWorks in the past. I also use JabRef from time to time. If you don't want to just use a LaTeX based system (which LyX is), Endnote is a perfectly fine system to use. (I've heard Zotero is a decent open-source alternative, I've never used it).\n5. Links are all well and good, but you really want to be building up a .pdf store. Lots of links fail, access rules change, it's good to just have the papers with you all the time. \n6. I also have two very tall stacks of papers that are, (shock, horror), printed out and kept on my desk, where they're highlighted intensely and have annotations scrawled all over in angry black ink. They're completely non-indexable, but I love them.",
"You can probably also get really good answers to this question in [r/AskAcademia](_URL_0_).\n\nIn any case, I personally prefer to use EndNote to store all of my references, as well as cataloging the .pdf files that go with them. You can also group your references into lists that make organizing your library really easy. As someone who is getting started, I would recommend checking out [Zotero](_URL_1_); it's pretty much a free, open-source version of EndNote.",
"I use [Mendeley](_URL_2_), mostly because I split my papers between my MacBook and a Linux box in my lab. Otherwise, I rather like Papers. \n\nI find the highlighting and note-posting features to be super convenient, though older papers are often not highlight-able. I also find myself saving a lot of paper, relative to when I was starting grad school, simply because I don't feel the need to print so I can take margin notes anymore. I just leave a note in Mendeley indicating the page of my research journal in which I followed through on something. All in all, it has some bugs that need ironing out, but I like it...",
"I use [Papers for Mac](_URL_4_). Windows and Linux not supported, but if you have Mac it's the absolute best option for organizing your library. It also has an iOS version which syncs with the desktop app. That is honestly one of the main reasons I got an iPad. It makes your whole library well-organized and completely mobile.\n\nEDIT: For physicists and other folks who use TeX, Papers makes it very easy to export your library to BibTeX so you can cite them at will in your writing. You can use the Perl script [bibtexformat](_URL_3_) to clean up the BibTeX files it creates (e.g., remove particular fields, customize the citation keys)."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskAcademia",
"http://www.zotero.org/",
"http://www.mendeley.com/",
"http://www.bulheller.com/bibtexformat.html",
"http://www.mekentosj.com/papers/"
]
}
|
Atypical askscience question: how do you organize your scientific articles/journals?
I am currently in undergrad, and am trying to get into the habit of keeping up with the current science. Right now I just have a text file with a compilation of links to papers/journal articles/studies but I would like a more efficient way to search and cite the small but growing pile of articles I have. Thanks
|
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|
14wfqj
|
At noon on Dec. 21 a beam of sun shines through a window. It lights up spot X on the center of an adjacent wall. We know the Lat-Lon and elevation of the window and wall. Can we predict where on the wall the sunlight would strike for any given time and day of the year? With what degree of precision?
|
Let's assume that:
1. The window frame and walls are insignificantly thick. In other words, the window frame, sill and thickness of that wall will not interfere.
2. The beam on the wall will take the shape of the window, albeit distorted. Consider one corner of that shape to be the spot X which we're tracking. (This should be simpler than trying to predict how the shape would distort as angle of incidence changes.)
3. Our location coordinates are provided and limited by a standard consumer-grade GPS like those found on smart phones.
4. The time and dates above were selected arbitrarily.
5. We're close to sea level and not more than 5,000 km from the equator.
EDIT: Lots of good information below. Thanks to all for the direction. Still wondering if anyone is able to come up with a formula, where we just need to plug in the variables. Any takers? (Please forgive me if what I'm requesting is a monumental task. I just don't know...)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"In fact you can. When you were done, you'd have constructed an Analemmatic sundial. _URL_0_",
"[Here](_URL_1_) a handy demonstration of the motion of the sun throughout the year. Put your latitude to whatever you want, the time is set to noon by default but you can change that too if you want. Then you can drag the arrow on the calendar to change the date and see where the sun will be on that date at the chosen time. At the bottom left corner turn on show analemma too to see the track the sun will make.\n\nIt even has the stick figure standing and its shadow, so you could think of the head of the shadow as spot X, it's just on the floor instead of on the wall. It'll make a similar figure as the analemma but just projected on the floor. It would work similarly for a wall. Play with the latitude and time of day and the calendar a bit and you should get a pretty good feel for the motion of the sun.",
"The first thing i thought upon reading your question was *Indiana Jones, Raiders of the Lost Ark*. Was this, perchance, related to your question?",
"Yes, you can do something similar with a pinhole camera. If you were to take a picture every day at a specific time; you would get something like [this](_URL_2_). Notice the distinct figure 8 pattern.\n\nIf you were to substitute the film for your window and wall you could predict where a given beam would land on any given day. Just imagine the window is a VERY large pin hole and the wall is a VERY large film.\n\nTo do this you would need to have information such as your longitude. At the Equator the figure 8 would be more symmetrical. Near the poles one of the loops would be far smaller than the other.\n\nI don't have the expertise to provide any formula to calculate this specific problem. The best I can do is explain what is happening.",
"[Here is](_URL_3_) a nice little segment from Carl Sagan's \"Cosmos\" which illustrates exactly what you are asking. It is fascinating."
],
"score": [
35,
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2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analemmatic_sundial",
"http://astro.unl.edu/classaction/animations/coordsmotion/sunmotions.html",
"http://images.nationalgeographic.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/306/cache/year-in-picture-analemma-sun-path-eclipse_30692_600x450.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw1plQa5-Hs"
]
}
|
At noon on Dec. 21 a beam of sun shines through a window. It lights up spot X on the center of an adjacent wall. We know the Lat-Lon and elevation of the window and wall. Can we predict where on the wall the sunlight would strike for any given time and day of the year? With what degree of precision?
Let's assume that: 1. The window frame and walls are insignificantly thick. In other words, the window frame, sill and thickness of that wall will not interfere. 2. The beam on the wall will take the shape of the window, albeit distorted. Consider one corner of that shape to be the spot X which we're tracking. (This should be simpler than trying to predict how the shape would distort as angle of incidence changes.) 3. Our location coordinates are provided and limited by a standard consumer-grade GPS like those found on smart phones. 4. The time and dates above were selected arbitrarily. 5. We're close to sea level and not more than 5,000 km from the equator. EDIT: Lots of good information below. Thanks to all for the direction. Still wondering if anyone is able to come up with a formula, where we just need to plug in the variables. Any takers? (Please forgive me if what I'm requesting is a monumental task. I just don't know...)
|
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|
212lmo
|
How will the Mars One astronauts look after themselves?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cg9108m",
"cg90xj1",
"cg923h7",
"cg920jm"
],
"text": [
"2 astronauts will receive extensive medical training in order to be able to treat minor and critical health problems, including first aid and use of the medical equipment that will accompany them to Mars. Meaning at least two crewmembers will be trained in each essential skill-set in case a member becomes ill. Their training and preparations will take all the time between their admittance to the program, and the start of their journey to Mars.\n\nSource: Wikipedia",
"The international space station has basic medical tools in the floor of his central module. An operation table with a sterile environment can be improvised. This is good enough for basic surgery like removing an appendix, stopping bleedings or fixing a bone fracture without risking death from infections blood loss or suffocation.\n\nthe ISS is close enough to have medicinal robots remote controlled by doctors on the ground if the patient can not be moved. Some basic multi-purpose robots for are about to be tested there anyways.",
"Col. Chris Hadfield spoke at my company shortly after his return from the ISS in October; besides it being very inspirational to hear him talk, we had a Q & A session afterwards where one of the questions was on the same topic.\n\nCol. Hadfields response was that everyone needs to be a generalist, learning a bit of everything - one of the things he had to learn was dentistry. In the event of needing to do a root canal, he would've been able to do so - it might not be the same as going to a doctor/dentist/etc here on earth, but they can take care of the issue as needed.\n\nEdit to include: Next time /u/ColChrisHadfield does an AMA, I recommend checking it out; and if he is still on his book signing tour, you should go. Great stories, great personality - and meeting an astronaut (especially one as interesting as him) is just amazing.",
"About the number of astronauts: There will be 4 on the 2025 mission, with 4 more following every 2 years after that. So there will be 16 after four missions, but they'll just keep going after that. \n \nThis is their official roadmap: _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
31,
10,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mars-one.com/mission/roadmap"
]
}
|
How will the Mars One astronauts look after themselves?
|
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||
49pl7p
|
Is everyone's blood brain barrier equally permeable?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d0tr6kl",
"d0u2xts",
"d0u97lu",
"d0ue7d1"
],
"text": [
"No. In fact, in certain disease states (most notably Alzheimer's), the barrier is so penetrable it is like it does not even exist.",
"Stimulant abuse and tobacco smoking can make the BBB more permeable by way of increased oxidative stress ([Pubmed link](_URL_1_); [full text](_URL_0_)). It might even play a role in the symptoms of drug withdrawal, although that question hasn't been thoroughly studied yet.",
"In veterinary medicine, there is a well-known genetic predisposition in certain breeds to carry a mutation the MDR-1 gene. Affected dogs have abnormal function of a P-glycoprotein that transports certain drugs in and out of the brain (ivermectin, loperamide, etc). I imagine there might be similar genetic variability in humans but I only know non-human species!",
"A while ago I did research on Herpes Simplex: Encephalitis. I found in multiple sources that it's capable of crossing the BBB in relatively small numbers. That it can totally do its thing when it wants to, and lay dormant your whole life never being an issue.\n\nI read in many sources that it was often either undiagnosed, because of how hard it is to identify, or that it is brought out in full by heavy stress.\n\nSO, while the individual person's genetics may or may not alter the BBB, some viruses are fully capable of overwhelming it or infulgrating it. Given circumstances such as alzheimers and (I believe) Dimentia, it becomes compromised. Sorry for misinformation or mistyping, on mobile and very tired. But this is always a fascinating subject."
],
"score": [
784,
110,
40,
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://jcb.sagepub.com/content/36/3/539.long",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26661236"
]
}
|
Is everyone's blood brain barrier equally permeable?
|
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||
1aem2i
|
If all clocks and watches disappeared one day, how would we accurately measure the time again?
|
From my understanding, all the atomic clocks around the world are just very very good at measuring time differences, but they don't inherently are able to measure the absolute time of course.
So what would happen if by accident all absolute time references vanished one day leaving us without a single clock telling the current time?
How would we able to determine it again? How did we do it in the first place?
How can we determine the exact date, like "It's 15th March" once every notion of the current time/date is gone?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8wors5",
"c8wora5",
"c8worhn"
],
"text": [
"A global catastrophe that eliminated every timekeeping device would have to take out the radiation-hardened clocks in all the secure Cold-War-era facilities around the world. In that event, timekeeping would probably need to be reinvented by the intelligent descendants of modern cockroaches or deep-sea cephalopods.\n\nIn the bizarre event that such a calamity left human survivors, they would initially measure time by the position of the sun. If it were still visible that could be done directly with a sundial. If clouds obscured the sun for a long period, its position could be determined with a polarizing filter, since [sunlight through clouds is still linearly polarized](_URL_4_).\n\nThe world time standards such as [Coordinated Universal Time (UT)](_URL_0_) and [Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)](_URL_1_) are [telescope-based](_URL_3_), meaning that they are calibrated using telescopic observation of celestial bodies whose positions are precisely known. Once the skies cleared, we would recalibrate by measuring the precise moment that these bodies crossed the celestial meridian - the north-south line that passes directly through the zenith. We then take the object's [right ascension](_URL_2_), subtract the observation point's [longitude](_URL_8_), and you have the exact [sidereal time](_URL_7_), from which the [solar time](_URL_5_) can then be calculated using an [ephemeris](_URL_6_).\n\nIf we somehow lost the *date*, either by hiding underground for an extended period or due to cloud cover dense enough to obscure even the day-night cycle, an amateur astronomer could use an ephemeris to determine the date after the sky cleared, using published positions of the Moon and planets.\n\n**Edit:** Links and Armageddon scenario.",
"For figuring the exact date you can determine the summer and winter solstices, use them as your starting points and count from there.\n\n(Of course if we ever get into this situation I'm creating a new calendar that will feature 12 months of 30 days each, plus 5 intercalary party days at the end of every year (plus an extra day every four years.))",
"We know where the stars and planets will be on any given date in history back and forth for a few million years, at least. It wouldn't be hard to figure out what day it is (and probably down to the hour) based on that.\n\nAbsolute time is an artificial construct so we could just well start a new calendar at zero and figure out the conversion to the old calendar later. The first time we did this we did the same thing, just without a conversion point. Pick a zero everyone can agree on and start counting from there."
],
"score": [
10,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_ascension",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time#World_time",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_sky_model",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeris",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_time",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude"
]
}
|
If all clocks and watches disappeared one day, how would we accurately measure the time again?
From my understanding, all the atomic clocks around the world are just very very good at measuring time differences, but they don't inherently are able to measure the absolute time of course. So what would happen if by accident all absolute time references vanished one day leaving us without a single clock telling the current time? How would we able to determine it again? How did we do it in the first place? How can we determine the exact date, like "It's 15th March" once every notion of the current time/date is gone?
|
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|
1ns3k2
|
Are aerodynamics completely unimportant for non-superfast trains?
|
All the superfast trains I know of have streamlined shapes, which makes sense. However, almost all non-superfast trains I've seen don't seem to follow the same design rules.
This post was inspired by the [new design of the London subway trains](_URL_1_), which seem to present themselves to the air in the tunnels with a *very* flat face. That made me think of our inter-region trains, many of which [look like this](_URL_3_) or [like this](_URL_0_); however, it's not limited to my own country - Swiss trains, for instance, [don't seem much more streamlined](_URL_2_).
Now, in the case of the metro it might be somewhat understandable - the train doesn't really go all that fast (London metro average speed: 33 km/h), and I suppose traveling in a tunnel creates all sorts of aerodynamic weirdness I'm completely unaware of. But open-air trains routinely reach speeds of 130-140 km/h, and you'd think there would be interest in making them meet and leave the air with more pointy noses and tails.
Now, if in order to do this you had to build their fronts and backs out of reinforced adamantium or something, then I'd see the reason - but it seems in many instances all that would be needed would simply be a different shape, and since it doesn't have to withstand stuff like supersonic air it should be possible to build it out of the same things they use to make flat fronts. Surely it can't be much more expensive, and even if the efficiency gained (what with all the friction of several dozen wheels) is, I don't know, 0.5%, it's still better than nothing.
Clearly I am wrong, because I expect whoever designed those trains took all this into consideration and decided it wasn't worth bothering with. But why?
|
askscience
|
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"Now really _completely_ unimportant, but close to.\n\nThe longer you make a train, the less important the form drag (which you can influence by changing the shape of the locomotive) becomes, and the more important skin friction gets. \n\nA typical train can have diameter to length ratios of 20 to 100, if you approximate it as a cylinder. In this case, the influence of the front just does not matter.\n\nAnd above all, you have to consider cost/benefit. You COULD, for example, reduce total drag of a freight train considerably if there were snug fairings for all waggons, creating a smooth outlite. But that would create huge amount in costs (both in production, as well as in increased work for loading / unloading, maintinance, etc), so its just not cost efficient.",
"In the case of the tube trains, having an aerodynamic nose would be of no benefit due to the fact that there is such a 'snug' fit within the tunnels that air cannot flow around the train anyway.\n\nAlso, it's about storage. Space is at a premium, so when they're parked nose-to-tail along sidings and in shelters, you don't have several feet of track wasted by every train.\n\nThey are also slow enough that streamlining is not going to have much of an effect.",
"With trains you have 3 competing factors, aerodynamics and space constraints and accessibility. \n\nAn aerodynamic train wins out at speed, but take more space to store and don't allow people to move between trains safely. At lower speeds, being able to squeeze more trains into a siding can be more useful than a small fuel saving. \n\nA pointed nose also stops you putting a door at the front. In the case of a breakdown, passengers would have to get off the train and reboard, a far more dangerous situation (other trains cannot pass, electric rails need powering down etc).\n\nAn interesting note, on the London underground, the trains form part of the air conditioning system. The force cool air down the tunnels into stations and warm air out. This stops the air conditioning units being overwhelmed. Many of the stations are limited where they can dump excess heat due to the city above.",
"The sources of aerodynamic drag on trains are form drag and friction. Form drag is largely dependant on the cross sectional area and shape of the nose and tail of the train, while friction is dependant on the length (and other things like carriage gaps, pantograph, etc.). So friction drag is the primary drag source as the train lengthens.\n\nDrag increases with speed squared, so at relatively low speeds (like in most inter-city trains) the practical advantages of having a flat front (such as conforming to space and platform constraints, packing in more passengers, emergency access etc.) possibly outweigh the associated drag cost. In addition, the piston effect is useful on the London underground for aiding ventilation of the stations, so the nose profile doesn't matter much here.\n\nAt higher speeds changing the nose shape (and tail shape) is critical to reducing form drag. This is also important in tunnels at high speeds (even with a 'snug' fit between the train and tunnel walls) as nose shape can influence passenger aural comfort (pressure variations when entering the tunnel causing ear pain) and lead to higher noise levels (possibly even a sonic boom ahead of the train at really high speeds). \n\nIn summary, regional trains could probably benefit from making the nose (and tail) more aerodynamic, but it was somehow decided that this is outweighed by the practical implications (some of which were mentioned earlier).\n\nSource: PhD student in high speed rail aerodynamics",
"The crazy noses on bullet trains are less about reducing drag and more about reducing the \"tunnel boom\", which is what it sounds like. \n\nWhen a train enters a narrow tunnel at a high speed, it can cause a boom so loud down the tunnel that it can damage the tunnel.",
"In the US at least, streamlined diesel trains were the norm when first introduced for both freight and passenger service, looking similar to [this] (_URL_1_). It didn't take railroads much more than a decade to realize that an aerodynamic body was useless if, for example, the operator had to stick his head out the window to see in reverse or the conductor had to climb up a ladder and physically get inside a locomotive after coupling and uncoupling. Since a huge percentage of railroad traffic, especially coal, in the US moved at speeds barely faster than a human can jog, with fifty to a hundred-plus cars, utility won over physics. \n\nThis lead to almost all freight and some passenger operations being replaced with non-aerodynamic locomotives looking like [this] (_URL_0_). The engineer can see forward easily, can see to back up a short cut of cars, and the conductor can ride the front or back when not at speed. As a bonus light maintenance on the engine is easier as hatches allow side access to the engine compartment where before a maintenance worker had to cram himself inside the carbody. Today, even a lot of non-electrified commuter trains in the US are non-aerodynamic (though that may say more about the pitiful state of commuter rail than anything else).",
"Related question: in my country it's possible for passengers to open windows in corridors and compartments. As there's no AC, most of the windows are wide open in summer, otherwise the travel would be unbearable. I suppose it affects aerodynamics and fuel/electricity consumption considerably. I wonder if someone can tell how much energy is wasted this way? And if the company decided to fit AC in the trains (and seal the windows), would it be a worthy investment and how fast could they expect returns (assuming 6 warm months a year)?",
"You may have been looking at the [wrong](_URL_3_) Swiss [trains](_URL_4_).\n\nArguably, even [the 1919 Krokodil](_URL_4_) was more streamlined than some later breeze blocks.",
"The important aspect, why is the streamlined shape used more and more now, is noise reduction. With good aerodynamics you significantly reduce the noise which allows trains to ride faster in inhabited areas",
"Drag force = 1/2 (fluid density) ( drag coefficient) (surface area) (velocity ^2 )\n\nDrag coefficient is a function of the shape of the object. In this case fluid density is the density of the air the train is traveling through. If we were to say every variable is constant except velocity we would see drag force = C * velocity^2 . So if we are to compare the drag force of the 33km/h train to the 140 km/h train we would see a drag force almost 18 times higher in the fast train than the slow train. So you can see that the exponential growth of drag force is the reason why aerodynamics becomes so much more important with faster moving object."
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{
"url": [
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"http://images2.corriereobjects.it/methode_image/2013/10/05/Scienze/Foto%20Gallery/metro3_MGzoom.jpg",
"http://www.ffs.ch/content/sbb/it/desktop/sbb-konzern/sbb-als-geschaeftspartner/bund-kantone/kantone/westschweiz/region-jura-bernois/_jcr_content/contentPar/completeimage/image.spooler.completeimage.553.jpg/1305116232755.jpg",
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"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Sbb_rabde500.jpg",
"http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3154/2769755895_9fca4e7004_z.jpg"
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}
|
Are aerodynamics completely unimportant for non-superfast trains?
All the superfast trains I know of have streamlined shapes, which makes sense. However, almost all non-superfast trains I've seen don't seem to follow the same design rules. This post was inspired by the [new design of the London subway trains](_URL_1_), which seem to present themselves to the air in the tunnels with a *very* flat face. That made me think of our inter-region trains, many of which [look like this](_URL_3_) or [like this](_URL_0_); however, it's not limited to my own country - Swiss trains, for instance, [don't seem much more streamlined](_URL_2_). Now, in the case of the metro it might be somewhat understandable - the train doesn't really go all that fast (London metro average speed: 33 km/h), and I suppose traveling in a tunnel creates all sorts of aerodynamic weirdness I'm completely unaware of. But open-air trains routinely reach speeds of 130-140 km/h, and you'd think there would be interest in making them meet and leave the air with more pointy noses and tails. Now, if in order to do this you had to build their fronts and backs out of reinforced adamantium or something, then I'd see the reason - but it seems in many instances all that would be needed would simply be a different shape, and since it doesn't have to withstand stuff like supersonic air it should be possible to build it out of the same things they use to make flat fronts. Surely it can't be much more expensive, and even if the efficiency gained (what with all the friction of several dozen wheels) is, I don't know, 0.5%, it's still better than nothing. Clearly I am wrong, because I expect whoever designed those trains took all this into consideration and decided it wasn't worth bothering with. But why?
|
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|
8a5b83
|
How effective are amber alerts and other such mass notifications?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dwwi2w0",
"dwwj2tz",
"dwye71q"
],
"text": [
"So according to the wiki page, the national center for missing and exploited children estimates that 657 children have been saved due to the Amber alert system from 1996 to August 2013. \n\nAn Amber alert report from 2013 shows that of 196 alerts, involving 243 children, minus the 47 that were false or hoaxes, 95 % were recovered in 72 hours.\n\nSo, since no one can say for sure whether one particular call in tip was the definitive moment in recovery, I'm not really sure. \n\nOn the report there was a story where man spoke to a kidnapper and his victim, went home and saw the news story and called in their location, saving the young lady. So for sure 1/657....\n\nDoesn't look very good when you put it like that huh? \n\nHere's my sources \n\n[Amber alert report](_URL_0_)",
"I've heard from several sources that they're very nearly worthless, and are sometimes harmful (it's possible for the abductor to benefit from the information in the alert).\n\n[This researcher](_URL_1_) looked at over 1500 cases and says:\n > [I]n my reading of the data, the number of children whose lives have been saved by AMBER Alert ranges from zero to something very close to zero.\n\nBasically, in the vast majority of cases, the kid isn't actually in danger. Often it's that the dad took off with the kid, mom got mad and filled a report, or vice versa. The AMBER alert can end up exacerbating what started as a stupid domestic dispute, turning it into a traumatizing manhunt when the \"kidnapping\" parent panics. When the intention is to kill, it's usually already done within three hours, which is often well before the police ate even notified. Either way, these cases are being solved by regular police work.\n\nThe problem is that nobody wants to be the politician to suggest we're wasting money and resources on a program meant to find missing children, even though we unquestionably are.",
"Don't know about amber alerts, but for another type of mass notification: for a period of 4-5 years in the 80s they used to put pictures of abducted children on milk cartons. I think the majority of milk cartons in the country had these, or close to it, during this period. There is only one known success from this campaign, out of some billions of milk cartons printed.\n\nEventually some doctors complained that the cartons were scaring children unnecessarily and the campaign was stopped."
],
"score": [
60,
8,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.amberalert.gov/pdfs/2013AMBERAlertReport.pdf",
"https://www.researchgate.net/blog/post/after-20-years-of-amber-alerts-are-they-worth-it"
]
}
|
How effective are amber alerts and other such mass notifications?
|
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||
2zz1kk
|
Reddit, why are there two different names for the same thing, Voltage and electric potential?
|
I'm curious if there is some historical context where one was preferred in certain fields, and why. Obviously in electronics you will here voltage. But, I think in physics you are far more likely to hear the term electric potential. Any help is greatly appreciated. I'm super curious about this.
edit: Thank you for all the informative comments.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cpno22x",
"cpnsy1i",
"cpo3tez",
"cpnpw7p"
],
"text": [
"Voltage is generally used to refer to a difference between two points, while electric potential is used to describe a field covering some space.\n\ni.e. we have a field V(r), which is the electric potential in space and if we put a probe at r1 and r2 and connect a potentiometer between them we measure the voltage V(r2)-V(r1).",
"Voltage and potential difference are different in a changing magnetic field. The changing magnetic field will induce a voltage in a closed circular loop of wire. This voltage is not a potential difference. The electric potential remains zero everywhere in the loop. The induced voltage is the work done by the field in moving a unit charge once around the loop.",
"George Green, the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism (about 1830), used the term potential, which could be applied to a single body, or two bodies, or many bodies and the space between them. The potential, at any point in the neighbourhood of an electrically charged body, is the quantity of work that would be required to bring a unit charge from an infinite distance to that point. The term 'difference of potential' came in extensive use after 1860, when electrical engineering was booming, but was somewhat mathematical, and less generally understood, than the term electromotive force. In 1881, new standard electrical units such as the volt (which did not exist before), proposed by a committee of Kelvin and others, were accepted by the International Conference of Electricians. Terms like voltage and volt meter, named after the new unit, became popular after 1881. Voltage is the difference in potential between two points.\n\nThis history is reflected in the frequency of these words vs. time, measured by ngram viewer: [ < click > ](_URL_0_).\n\nUnlike voltage, the term potential can be used outside electricity, for example in gravitational potential and heat potential.\n\n(edit: updated ngram viewer graph)",
"\"Voltage\" tends to refer to EMF (electromotive force), in casual use. A battery has a voltage. \"Potential\" evokes a metaphor with other potentials, especially gravitational potential energy.\n\nBut the technical difference is as /u/I_sometimes_lie said. He or she wasn't lying this time. In an electric field, or a circuit, there are potential differences (voltages) between any two points. But there's only one potential that's the reference, denoted by a potential of zero: to say what the potential is at any point, you only need to say one point."
],
"score": [
17,
4,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=electromotive+force%2Cdifference+of+potential%2Cvoltage%2Cpotential+difference%2Celectric+tension%2Celectrical+tension&year_start=1855&year_end=1904&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Celectromotive%20force%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cdifference%20of%20potential%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cvoltage%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cpotential%20difference%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Celectric%20tension%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Celectrical%20tension%3B%2Cc0"
]
}
|
Reddit, why are there two different names for the same thing, Voltage and electric potential?
I'm curious if there is some historical context where one was preferred in certain fields, and why. Obviously in electronics you will here voltage. But, I think in physics you are far more likely to hear the term electric potential. Any help is greatly appreciated. I'm super curious about this. edit: Thank you for all the informative comments.
|
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] |
|
8a6afl
|
Why does a geiger counter use that odd static noise instead of something else?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dwwmkrb",
"dwwn468",
"dwx9625"
],
"text": [
"Because a geiger counter originally is a pure analog device that pretty much hooks up the tube's output to a speaker. The tube just outputs short electrical pulses that indicate an event was detected. If you connect that to a speaker it just sounds like a click. It just happens the most straightforward and cheapest way to do it. Try taking a battery and a speaker, and briefly touching the contacts together. That's pretty much it.\n\nOne certainly could do something fancier, and with modern digital electronics it could sound like anything at all, but I figure that people in the need for one have other priorities in mind over how it sounds.",
"When a bit of ionizing ratiation hits the Geiger–Müller tube, it briefly ionizes the gas inside and lowers the high voltage across the tube. That voltage drop is amplified and applied to a speaker. The sound is not synthesized within the Geiger counter. When little radiation is present, you just hear clicks. When lots of radiation is present, you hear the \"static\".",
"Other people answered why the sound exists in the first place, but one of the reasons they keep it is safety. Its a easily recognized sound and they have found that people react faster to an increase in auditory signal than just seeing the dial of counts go up. \n\nSource: just took my radiation safety course. Never forget ALARA."
],
"score": [
56,
10,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why does a geiger counter use that odd static noise instead of something else?
|
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||
yvj16
|
Trying to settle a long standing debate in my house. My husband thinks I'm an idiot because I fill our ice trays with warm water so they will freeze faster.
|
I never really gave it any thought until he pointed out the irrationality of it, yet it's always the way it has been done at my house.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5z6v8f",
"c5z74mv",
"c5z6igq",
"c5zb52h",
"c5z6jgq",
"c5z6wts"
],
"text": [
"Do an experiment. Put in one with cold and one with warm. Check them every 20 minutes. Report back with the results.\n\nSpoiler alert: cold water will freeze faster except for under very unusual circumstances.",
"The water in your hot water tank is a lot more polluted with sediment and contaminants than from your cold supply (in most normal installations anyway) so aside from this question about freezing times, I would very seriously recommend using cold water to make ice and to use for drinking water and cooking.",
"I don't do that because I've always figured it would cause more water to evaporate and frost up my freezer.",
"Hot tap water is a seriously bad idea. It's not meant for drinking as is. Recommend you go cold.",
"This is known as [Mpemba effect](_URL_0_). \n\nIt isn't clear why it happens, but it does happen, on some conditions.",
"Would using hot water alter the internal temperature enough to make the freezer kick into high gear, therefore cooling the freezer more, making the trays freeze faster?"
],
"score": [
20,
12,
4,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpemba_effect"
]
}
|
Trying to settle a long standing debate in my house. My husband thinks I'm an idiot because I fill our ice trays with warm water so they will freeze faster.
I never really gave it any thought until he pointed out the irrationality of it, yet it's always the way it has been done at my house.
|
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2z8r01
|
How fast does electricity move in a wire?
|
I know that in theoretical DC circuits, when I connect the battery, all the electrons begin motion at the same time and a current is created. But this can't be the whole picture or I could transmit information faster than the speed of light.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"> all the electrons begin motion at the same time and a current is created\n\nThis is wrong. Direct Current (DC) is a useful approximation, not a physical reality. No circuit is ever exactly DC all the time. When you connect the wire to the battery, the fact that you have gone from zero current at one instant of time to non-zero current at another instant of time means that the current is changing, and is therefore not DC. This changing current causes changing electromagnetic fields that flow through the circuit at the wave speed (in a crude sense, it's the speed of light in the material, which is less than the speed of light in vacuum). These waves - and associated fluctuations in electrical current - travel through the circuit, scatter off circuit elements, and quickly dissipate and settle down to the constant field state. In a very small amount of time, the transient electrodynamic effects go away, and the circuit acts more and more like an ideal DC circuit. In others words, the instant that you connect a wire to the battery, you do not have a DC circuit. Only after some time, when the fields have had a chance to flow through the entire circuit, and the electrical current has had a chance to settle down to its equilibrium state, do you have direct current.",
"About two-thirds the speed of light, give or take. The actual speed of the electrons is much, much, much slower though, on the order of like a millimeter per second.",
"~~Electronics~~ Electrons (thanks /u/StopDataAbuse) push each other away because of their negativity. This is what transfers the signal, and goes at about 50% to 99% of the speed of light depending on the material. Note that this is not related to the actual speed of the electrons themselves.\n\nNow the speed of the electrons themselves is more interesting (I think). I once calculated this and I'll do it again for fun. Let's take a simple DC circuit:\n3 volt power source, 3 ohm resistor giving 1A of current. Lets take 18 awg copper wires with a cross section surface of 0.823mm^2 according to [this](_URL_0_). The length of the wires we'll define as L meter, as you'll see it doesn't matter which L we pick as long as we ignore the resistance it brings.\n\nThe volume of the wire is 0.823mm^2 * L meter = 0.823 10^-6 * L m^3. The density of the wire is (from Wikipedia) 8.96 g * cm^-3 = 8960 kg * m^-3. Multiply those numbers and we'll get the weight of the wire, which is 7.374 * L * 10^-3 kg. I searched for the number of free electrons every copper atom has, and a google search returns 1. So now we need the number of atoms in those wires. 7.347 * L g / (63.546 g / mol) * 6.022 * 10^23 / mol = 6.988 * 10^22 L. That's the number of free electrons in the wires. 1A is 1C / s = 6.241 * 10^18 electrons per second. That's the number of electrons that flow into the wire and out the other end every second. Divide 6.988 * 10^22 L with 6.241 * 10^18 / s and you'll get 11197 * L s. That's the number of seconds any electron stays in the wires before leaving the other end. Divide the length by this time and you'll get the speed: speed = L meters (as the length of the wires were L) / (11197Ls) = 8.93 × 10^-5 m / s. That's not very fast. It would take over 3 hours to travel through a 1 meter wire. Hope I got all the numbers right :S",
"To give you an idea of what's happening, you might imagine that it's the electrons themselves moving from one part of the wire to the next that establishes the current. But, while it's true that electrons in a conductor move quite fast - sometimes at relativistic speeds - they tend to bounce off of atoms pretty frequently, and don't tend to move very far in one direction at a time. (The distance they do move between collisions, called the \"mean free path\", tends to be thousands of times smaller than a millimeter.) What's more, their [drift velocity] - the center-of-mass velocity of all the free electrons in some area - is also fairly small, typically on the order of millimeters per second or less.\n\nWhat *does* happen to move current so quickly isn't to do with the electrons; it's instead because of the electricafield. Basically: as the current advances, an electrical field pushes electrons to drift a little bit forward on average; that displacement causes a charge imbalance and so extends the electric field; the extended electrical field leads electrons significantly further on to move; lather, rinse, repeat. Because the electric field can extend forward at the speed of light, this process carries the wave forward at nearly the speed of light.\n\n[Warning: The above paragraphs contain classical heuristics to the quantum behavior of electrons and quasistatic heuristics to the motion of electromagnetic waves.]"
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://www.technick.net/public/code/cp_dpage.php?aiocp_dp=guide_awg_to_metric"
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|
How fast does electricity move in a wire?
I know that in theoretical DC circuits, when I connect the battery, all the electrons begin motion at the same time and a current is created. But this can't be the whole picture or I could transmit information faster than the speed of light.
|
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|
kwhv6
|
Hypothetically, could anaphylactic shock be treated by sending the victim bungee-jumping or other adrenaline-inducing experience?
|
Here's what I'm thinking:
* EpiPen's active ingredient is adrenaline
* the body produces adrenaline naturally during exciting experiences
* so when lacking medical adrenaline, could inducing the body to produce it be better than doing nothing?
However:
* nearly dying would surely induce adrenaline anyway?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2nsz33",
"c2nt4ll",
"c2nssj2"
],
"text": [
"Another question: Wouldn't the fact that you probably think your dying during anaphylactic shock cause you to pump out adrenaline anyway? Why doesn't this solve its own problem?",
"One totally uninformed thought might be that your body is already producing as much adrenaline as it can, but it's still not enough",
"If the person is unconscious because of the anaphylactic shock, probably not."
],
"score": [
24,
8,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Hypothetically, could anaphylactic shock be treated by sending the victim bungee-jumping or other adrenaline-inducing experience?
Here's what I'm thinking: * EpiPen's active ingredient is adrenaline * the body produces adrenaline naturally during exciting experiences * so when lacking medical adrenaline, could inducing the body to produce it be better than doing nothing? However: * nearly dying would surely induce adrenaline anyway?
|
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1sddpq
|
Is there three copies of anything in our body?
|
This question comes from my five year old. I couldn't think of anything.
Three bones in the ear doesn't count because each bone is different. Eyes would count if we had three of them.
Edit: my child inspired the question but I'm asking reedit for my own curiosity. Thanks for all the answers!
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"That's a really great question. If your child is asking about exactly three you're probably out of luck because of our bilateral design, but the best I can say is you'll see three copies of an X chromosome in certain females afflicted with Triple X Syndrome.",
"The lung has five lobes; the right lung is made up of three lobes, and the left lung two. This isn't quite what you're looking for (Greengrasser11 is right that our bilateral \"design\" makes it tough), but the odd number of lobes always seems peculiar to me.",
"Med student here. Couple of thoughts.\nThe tricuspid valve in the heart is, as the name suggests, made up of 3 leaves. _URL_0_ (having two flaps in the lower diagram is the anomaly)\nOften people have supernumerary 'something'. For instance supernumerary nipples are relatively common, 1 in 18 for men and 1 in 50 for women. They most commonly occur on the left hand side.\nI have a supernumerary renal arteries, I have 3 instead of 2 which was picked up when we were practising ultrasound, and that has around 30% prevalence.",
"Lots and lots and lots - if you count individual genes/alleles. Quite often, our DNA will code for something, but then have multiple copies of that gene in our genome. One of the posts on here (reddit) recently was regarding an article on \"junk\" DNA. Some researchers have claimed that these tandem repeats, or blank/junk DNA, are responsible for a lot of the variation in our faces. There's multiple reasons why we might have multiple copies of genes on our chromosomes, but one of the current theories is that it serves as a way to attenuate signal. By controlling the concentration of promoters or inhibitors, or controlling how many copies are exposed for translation, you can control how strongly the gene is expressed.\n\nOther than that, we have 3 joints in each finger, 3 points of articulation for each limb, 3 pieces to our heart valve (tricuspid), three roots on some of our teeth (and 3 faces on some), and 3 points of attachment for a lot of different muscles.\n\nI suppose that you were looking for something with a tidy sum of 3, but that isn't all that common in animals that develop bilaterally. Generally if you were looking for sets of 3 of something in bilateral animals, you'd have to look along the segmentation, ie in the anterior to posterior direction. We are a segmented animal, just like a worm (think of our ribs), and there's not a lot keeping things from developing in an odd number of segments.",
"I can't really think of something a five year old one understand, but if you're curious yourself:\n\nOn the molecular level, lots of molecules are made of 3 identical subunits (homotrimers) \nOne of which is a type of inflammatory molecule, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha)\n\n_URL_1_",
"Neuroscience, neurosurgery MD PhD Candidate, Anatomy teacher here. \n\nLoads of things yeah, mostly developmental \"left overs\" or in dease. Allow me to highlight a few that we encounter pretty often in the anatomy lab.\n\nYeah, we have a couple of triplett arteries or veins, usually the \"third\" running right down the middle, two others parallel to them:\n\nArteries, Ligaments etc.\nAlong the umbilical folds (plica mediana) the middle artery then occludes after birth (_URL_3_)\n\nThe median artery of the forearm may (in rare cases) be prominent to a tripple blood supply to the hand (instead of the classical radial and ulnar artery)\n\nNerves\n\n-Trigeminal nerve (literally three branches; above the eyes, below the eyes, on the chin).5th Cranial nerve that relates sensory (and a wee bit of jaw movement) information from the face to the brainstem.\n\n\nOrgans\n\n-Double brain? What about tripple/quadruple brain: \nQuick overview, the grey matter or cortex are the nerve cells. These dont originate on the surface, but migrate along the long nerve axons to form the cortical surface. This migration process is damaged in some developmental diseases, leading to dysgenisis and heterotopic grey matter regions -A brain in a brain! Hemisphere, hemisphere and smaller brain inside. (Cortical Dysgenisis - _URL_2_)\n\n-(Cheating a bit) Three main (functional morphology) connections between right and left brain hemisphere: Anterior, posterior commisure and corpus callosum.\n\n- Tripple thyroid is common. left lobe, right lobe, accessory lobe as a developmental \"left over\". \n\n-Double and tripple spleen is quite common. \n\n-Three lung lobes on the right side. (Left has two, heart takes space)\n\n-The back of our liver is attached to the peritoneal wall in a triangle formation (does this count? :p) called the \"Area Nuda\". \n\n-Tripple kidney are quite common. (The third accessory kidney juxtaposed to one of the others)\n\n-Muscle groups: \n\n.M. triceps brachii - three origins of the muscle hence the name. (One end of the muscle is attached to three bones). \n\n-Our deltoid muscle has three parts.\n\nRandomly loads of other uninteresting bits. \n\nTLDR: Yes: in 1) Pathology, 2) Derivative of developemental \"left overs\" and 3) bits and bobs here and there.",
"Your feet have three cuneiform bones - medial, middle, and lateral. The 4th and 5th cuneiforms evolved to be fused to form the cuboid. So yea you have three cuneiform bones in each foot. Not quite what you were looking for but the closest I could think of.",
"Look at your hand. The ring finger, middle finger, and index finger are slightly offset from each other because of where these phalanges articulate (form a joint) with the metacarpals (that's your palm bones, son). However, if you measure the fingers length, you will see they are virtually identical. \n\nThis is true with several other bones. Why focus on bones? Each bone is a separate organ, and their structures are the result of developmental gradients just like the ones generating bilateral symmetry. Except the relevant gradients are often rostral/caudal ( head to tail). \n\nThis results in several bones near each other being very similar in structure. You would have a hard time distinguishing one thoracic vertebrae from another. Similarly with lumbar vertebrae. \n\nAs an aside, there are also three molars in each corner of the adult mouth. (But that doesn't mean teeth are bones.)",
"Here's a thought: codons. The way genes are translated to proteins in our body is through a process that involves codon. Essentially, our DNA gets recoded in a single stranded form known as RNA. This is a process called transcription. After a gene has been transcribed, the genetic code of the RNA transcript is then read and translated to proteins. This occurs three base pairs as a time. These collections of three nucleotides that get read at the same time encode for an amino acid. Once enough of those amino acids link together, the newly formed peptide can be further processed and folded to form a functional protein.",
"Well, we have more than three of some things such as various cell types, ribs (although in size-pairs), vertebrae (not exact copies) etc. It's also possible to have three kidneys, three testes etc, but that's generally considered a developmental fault. In the 'standard' human design, though, there generally isn't anything which comes in three (and only three) identical copies.\n\nPerhaps the closest thing might be the three types of cone photoceptor cell found in (most) eyes. Again, not identical in their makeup, but they share a function and location.",
"So, there are six ear bones, not three, in most people.\n\nSome individuals have three nipples, or other features that are normally paired, but some people get an extra. A man named Francesco Lentini had three legs.\n\nYour five year old might be interested to know that there are three bones in the sternum - they are all different, but they are three of something that aren't just half of a set of six - they line up right down the middle of the chest."
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"url": [
"https://myhealth.alberta.ca/health/_layouts/healthwise/media/medical/hw/h9991304_004.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor_alpha#Structure",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12194504",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilical_folds"
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|
Is there three copies of anything in our body?
This question comes from my five year old. I couldn't think of anything. Three bones in the ear doesn't count because each bone is different. Eyes would count if we had three of them. Edit: my child inspired the question but I'm asking reedit for my own curiosity. Thanks for all the answers!
|
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iz8o2
|
What exactly is occuring biologically when you get that sinking feeling in your stomach after something terrible just happened?
|
askscience
|
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"From my physiology classes i have taken so far I would have to venture an educated guess that it is the sudden release of catecholamines by your body...ex. epinephrine(adrenaline) and a host of others. Notice how after it occurs you will usually feel nervous and jittery or full of energy similar. This is normally known as the \"fight or flight\" mechanism your body employs to save you in a time of stress whether it be running from something dangerous or preparing to defend yourself. You body doesn't know the difference between a lion or something dear to you being ruined, your brain will still trigger the same immediate response. This is just an educated guess but I hope it answered some questions.\n\nSource: Ph.D. candidate in pharmacology and toxicology at University at Buffalo, mainly studying cardiovascular diseases. \n\nEdit: Correction thanks to Kingpin15",
"Your sympathetic nervous system (flight-or-fight, stressful situations, etc.) becoming activated and your GI tract's rhythmic churning and peristalsis coming to an abrupt stop is my guess.",
"I find it quite interesting that this question is shooting towards the front page and at 50 upvotes it still doesnt have a single attempt at an answer. \n\nIf there is any scientist out there looking for a research project, I think you found it.",
"Sympathetic nervous system is turning on - diverting blood from your digestive system (including the enteric nervous system) and downregulating all activity of the GI tract. It sends this blood to your muscles and brain and releases, among other chemicals, adrenaline. \n\nThis is commonly experienced when looking down from heights as well.",
"There has been NO fully supported answer for why this occurs. The \"feeling\" you get in your stomach, often associated with your conscience, is the result of nerves in your abdominal area. Other than the brain, one of the most highly concentrated area of nerves is in the mesentery. It's that \"feeling in your stomach\" because it's widespread throughout your intestines. \nThose nerves fire up with such emotions as love, guilt, nervousness, etc. causing that feeling, but there has been no substantial evidence as to why.",
"I was thinking about how stress changes the cycle of my inflammatory bowel disease and it occured to me that it may very well be just a change in your digestion during a period of duress or stress.\n\nFound this for you\n\"4. You may have noticed a feeling of unease in the abdomen during times of stress. Stress effects the nerves of the digestive system and can upset the intricate balance of digestion. In some people stress slows the process of digestion, causing bloating, pain and constipation while others may need to frequently empty their bowels and the stools may be more loose and watery. Stress can worsen some conditions such as peptic ulcers or irritable bowel syndrome.\" [Source](_URL_0_)",
"I would argue that the feeling is probably a result of the sudden constriction of the blood vessels in you viscera. This occurs as a result of both a CNS response and the systemic release from the adrenal glands and is an integral part of the fight/flight response (less blood flow to viscera= more to skeletal muscle.",
"Am I the only one that gets the sinking feeling when falling from a high height in a video game (minecraft, etc)?",
"I've noticed a similar feeling (or dropping feeling) on the plane before.",
"When the world doesn't make sense and you don't feel in control of anything, your body subconsciously decides to focus on the one thing it *knows* it can do well: making shit.",
"There's a huge cluster of nerves in your stomach that actually acts as a [second brain](_URL_1_). My guess is it's that.",
"This previous askscience question may be relevant: [What's That Feeling in My Stomach When My Feelings Are Hurt?](_URL_2_)"
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"url": [
"http://www.gesa.org.au/digestive_system.cfm",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=gut-second-brain",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/h4wcx/whats_that_feeling_in_my_stomach_when_my_feelings/"
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|
What exactly is occuring biologically when you get that sinking feeling in your stomach after something terrible just happened?
|
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5vhrb5
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Are human the only animals that can use ketone bodies to fuel the brain?
|
I recently heard that humans are the only animals that can use ketone bodies (B-hydroxybutyrate) to fuel their brains and I was wondering if this was true. Are other primates capable of doing this? If yes, which ones? In either case, is there any understanding of when this mutation appeared in humans/primates?
It seems like the ability to maintain mental acuity in a fasted/starved state would certainly be a useful at whatever point in our history we became meat eating hunters.
|
askscience
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"text": [
"No, humans are not the only the only animals that use ketone bodies.\n\nKetone bodies are a normal metabolite within lipolysis, ketogenesis and ketosis (burning fats from your fat tissue) and a great deal of what we know about lipid (fat) metabolism was derived from rat and mouse experiments. So at the very least ketones as fuel existed in the joint ancestor of all mammals, millions and millions of years before the first primates existed.\n\nBut it likely goes back much further.\n\nConsider also that when many animals sleep they make use of their fat stores to maintain energy homeostasis. Pretty much all animals with nervous systems engage in sleep or a sleep-like process. So lipolysis and ketone utilisation likely goes back at least as far as the joint ancestor of all chordate animals. And it likely goes back even further than that as lipid metabolism _in toto_ is a key pillar of keeping cells functioning\n\nHere's a paper from 1979 on ketone body metabolism in fish\n\n_URL_2_\n\nHere's one from 2006 on ketone and glucose metabolism in the honey bee vs fruit flies and mosquitos\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit:\nAs I'd not previously considered animals other than the ones I covered in my undergraduate degree, here are some other references I've found for other animals\n\n2015: Fruitfly brains can metabolise fatty acids directly (where ketones would be a metabolic intermediate)\n_URL_1_\n\n1976: Ruminants like sheep don't use ketone bodies in their brain\n_URL_3_",
"I think this rumor comes from human brains being able to adapt the largest percent of brain tissue to using ketones when in a state of ketosis. This probably has less to do with ketosis being more appropriate for humans than other animals and more to do with the unique makeup of our brains and unusually large cerebral cortex. I'm not aware of any research, but I'd be willing to bet dolphin brains use more ketones than ours. Other hunting carnivores that can't use ketones as well have to shift their brains and metabolism in general to a low energy state called hibernation to survive the winter. Whereas humans and some others can maintain a high energy state via ketones and continue to hunt through the winter.",
"My thirteen year old daughter has been running on ketones all her life. She has a rare neurological condition called Glucose Transporter Deficiency Syndrome - which means Glucose cannot pass through her brain barrier. She's been in ketosis for 12 years now. Ketones are the business for some - a far better option then a multitude of epilepsy drugs.",
"FYI, under normal conditions the brain almost exclusively uses glucose for energy\n\n > Glucose is the only fuel normally used by brain cells. Because neurons cannot store glucose, they depend on the bloodstream to deliver a constant supply of this fuel. Fatty acids do not serve as fuel for the brain, because they are bound to albumin in plasma and so do not traverse the blood-brain barrier. In starvation, ketone bodies generated by the liver partly replace glucose as fuel for the brain.\n\n\nAll cells in the human body can use glucose, FFA and ketones for energy, the brain however almost exclusively uses glucose. During a fed state the brain will use 20-25% of total body glucose \n\nDuring starvation and ketosis that number will jump up to 70% of total body glucose is used by the brain.",
"I have my bachelors degree in neuroscience and I'm working on my PhD studying medical potential of snake venom proteins (I enjoy working with the animals so I've shied away from a neuro only degree). I have always been taught that the human brain can only use glucose as an energy source, hence the rapid brain death when deprived of oxygen. I thought this also meant gluconeogenesis did not occur in neurons. Also that ketones could not be used as an energy source in the brain as in other tissues. Do you happen to have the source for the research showing neural tissue using ketones as an energy source? I'm very curious as I've been taught otherwise for years. Thanks!",
"Also like to point out that not 100% of your brain needs ketone. Some part of it actually need glucose. Now if you are on the keto diet do not worry all the glucose needed can be created with a process called Gluconeogenesis."
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{
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1847477/",
"http://www.nature.com/articles/srep07805",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1161766/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1309065/"
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}
|
Are human the only animals that can use ketone bodies to fuel the brain?
I recently heard that humans are the only animals that can use ketone bodies (B-hydroxybutyrate) to fuel their brains and I was wondering if this was true. Are other primates capable of doing this? If yes, which ones? In either case, is there any understanding of when this mutation appeared in humans/primates? It seems like the ability to maintain mental acuity in a fasted/starved state would certainly be a useful at whatever point in our history we became meat eating hunters.
|
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] |
|
1vfktk
|
How did we come up with the daily recommended number of calories, carbs, fats, sugars & proteins In humans?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cerx1pk",
"cerxgvm",
"ces02uc",
"cerx89h"
],
"text": [
"The current protein recommendations were determined based on [a review of studies](_URL_2_) by the Institute of Medicine in 1989 using [nitrogen balance](_URL_1_) studies, where they measured the amount of nitrogen entering and exiting the body. Depending on whether the value of nitrogen exiting the body is a net positive, negative, or 0, muscle catabolism/anabolism/maintenance can be assessed. For adults it was determined that .8 grams of protein per kilogram (g/kg) of body-weight was the amount needed for *most* adult individuals to have “a low probability of inadequacy.” Some may have higher and some may have lower requirements, but .8 g/kg was chosen as the best bet for most people. The IOM admitted that older adults may have a higher requirement, and more [recent reviews](_URL_0_) have also supported this, but higher requirements have not yet been formally established. Endurance athletes and strength athletes [also have higher requirements](_URL_3_).",
"This is all good stuff, I just wanted to add a link to an actual scientific source on nutrition. Here is a link to Harvard School of Public Health's _URL_5_, which is the best source I know of for credible scientific information about nutrition: _URL_4_",
"So, someone already mentioned how one calorie is the amount of energy required to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius. How this was ever considered as the pinnacle metric of health is beyond me, but it deserves further explanation: \n\nTo measure the amount of heat loss of different foods, scientists break the food chemical bonds completely, UNDERWATER (not interacting with the human body/metabolism and its infinite complexities, mind you), and then measure the change in the temperature of the water from the heat generated from those chemical reactions.\n\nWorth emphasizing, calorie measurements took place *in a test tube where no other factors came into play*, so scientists wrongly concluded that fat (9 calories per gram) is twice as \"fattening\" as proteins and carbohydrates (both 4 calories per gram). But this is not true.\n\nTo your body, a 100-calorie snack does not necessarily contain a hundred calories' worth of available energy. The hundred calories reflect only the amount of possible energy that *could* be utilized by your body, depending on what kind of food the snack is. If the snack is composed of carbohydrates, your body has to use the hundred calories for immediate energy or store that energy as fat. But if the snack is made up of protein and fats, your body can use these foods first for building materials (cells, enzymes, hormones and so on), leaving fewer calories to be used as energy or stored as fat.\n\nFor example, in a laboratory setting, if you took a 7 oz. piece of chicken (protein and fat) and broke it down into its basic elements of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon, you would find that it contained about 380 calories. But when you eat the same piece of chicken, your body does not break the chicken down into its basic elements. The protein and fat in the chicken are only partially broken down into amino acids and fatty acids, which are then used to build new proteins (muscle, hair, skin) and fats (myelin sheaths, cell membranes and hormones).\n\nSince the chicken was never broken down to its basic elements but instead was reconfigured into new proteins and fats, all of the bonds were never actually broken. Therefore, all of the potential energy was never released as it is in a laboratory setting. Because proteins an fats are not broken down into energy and are used instead as the raw building materials of your body (\"calorie\" be damned), little or none of the proteins and fats goes to fat storage.\n\nCarbohydrates, however, are not used as building materials but instead provide energy that is then used to drive chemical reactions. If the energy derived from carbohydrates is not needed at that moment, carbs are stored as energy, either in ready-energy form as glycogen or in a long-term form as body fat (and not all \"carbs\" are the same or broken down at the same rate, blah, blah, blah).\n\nIn other words, the body is not a closed mechanical system and the Second Law of Thermodynamics (which is often appealed to) is a shit way to measure nutritional worth. Further, not all calories are even released/utilized as energy. Any use a \"calorie\" might have as a dietary metric is very limited. Emphasizing the \"calorie,\" or \"caloric intake,\" is an incredibly reductionist approach, not to mention a flattening of the vast complexities of food and its interactions with the human organism. Particularly when you take into account the things the body needs that we have hardly begun to quantify (e.g. phytonutrients and anti-oxidants, including the balance and matrix of complementary nutrients within each food), and the growing appreciation and intricacies of the human microbiome (particularly the microbes in our gut, which breakdown and utilize what we eat, which in turn determines the community/ecology of microorganisms in our guts).",
"Good info here, just came to add that many recommended daily allowance (RDA)s for vitamins are based on the amount the average human needs in order to prevent malnutrition diseases such as scurvy or ricketts. An RDA is by no means an \"optimum nutrition level\", so don't think that you're super healthy because you got 100% of your RDA of vitamin C today... 1000% RDA may* be better.\n\n* Different vitamins have different optimum values, and every person is different- some vitamins are water-soluble, some fat soluble, some you can take too much of and it's bad, and some just get peed out if you take too much, so do your homework."
],
"score": [
53,
21,
17,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23867520",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_balance",
"http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309046335",
"http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/717046_7",
"http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/",
"Nutritionsource.org"
]
}
|
How did we come up with the daily recommended number of calories, carbs, fats, sugars & proteins In humans?
|
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p2jqt
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If you could empty a state of its people (ex. Wyoming) and fill it with wind turbines, how much electricity would they generate?
|
The question is self explanatory. However, can you put it more in terms of what it could power, ex. half of Chicago, all of Chicago, etc.
|
askscience
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"In thinking about a question like this, remember the following:\n\n* The energy in wind varies as the square of its velocity, so small variations in wind velocity produce large changes in energy.\n\n* If one \"fills\" an area with wind turbines, there will begin to be some interaction between the turbines and a consequent reduction in efficiency, so they can't be packed too close together without mutual interference. At that point, their outputs can no longer be simply added together.\n\n* Let's say that you pack the turbines together in such a way that they begin to interfere with each other, so that the overall wind velocity is reduced to 70% of the original velocity. Because of the rule expressed in the first point above, this means the generating efficiency is reduced to 1/2 of what it would be if there were only one turbine (0.7^2 = 0.49). This interference effect argues in favor of selecting a location with relatively strong winds and avoiding too much packing.\n\n* People who do this professionally tend to choose an area with high, consistent winds, and transmit the power to the most likely users, rather than try to locate the turbines near the users at the expense of the turbines' effectiveness. The reason this works is that, for a sufficiently large wind farm, the losses created by power transmission are more than made up for by a more optimal siting with respect to wind.\n\n > can you put it more in terms of what it could power, ex. half of Chicago, all of Chicago, etc.\n\nVery difficult to answer -- it is almost always the case that the time of highest wind (usually midafternoon) isn't the time of greatest power demand (typically evening hours). If some method of energy storage is included, that would change everything, but this kind of arrangement is very complex and expensive for high energy levels.",
"It really depends on what the general wind behavior of an area is.\nThis map shows the average wind speed of the United States:\n_URL_0_\nMany places are great for wind power are many are quite lousy, if there's no wind the turbines don't turn, no power.\nWind Power is an interesting idea. Many people think that if we build enough wind turbines, we could power the entire world, but actually this isn't the case. There is actually a finite limit for the amount of power we could retrieve from the wind on the Earth, and it actually comes up to be about ~30% of our total energy use as a planet today. This uses a few assumptions about how much of the Sun's energy that is transmitted to the Earth is transformed into winds, as well as the current efficiency of wind turbines in creating electricity from the wind.\nI'll see if I can dig up the derivation and post it here later.",
"I find this blog by physicist Tom Murphy to be enligthning in energy matters:\n_URL_2_\nHere on the potential of wind: (scroll down a bit)\n_URL_2_",
"_URL_4_\n\nThis is a chart of the power BPA manages. Mostly services Washington state and Oregon.\n\nAs you can see, wind power is pretty unreliable, but BPA already manages about 3-4 GW of wind power production.\n\n > In 2005, the amount of electricity consumed in CMAP region was 85 billion kilowatt hours (85,498,236,248 kWh). Again, consumption amounts are closely related to each county’s rank in population size. (Figure 10 and Table 8.)\n\nfrom _URL_3_\n\nChicago used 85,498,236,248 kWh in 2005. This translates to an daily load of 234,241,743 KWhrs, and an hourly load of 9,760,072 KW. Which is 9760 MW.\n\n**tldr: So my state's current wind power could supply about a 1/3 of chicago metro, but there would be constant brown outs without a secondary source due to wind fluctuation.**",
"I live in South Dakota, and a recent study (wish I could find a link, but I'm at work) shows that this state has enough viable wind energy locations to provide well over 60% of the nations energy needs... This is without removing the people already here (not many of us)!"
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"url": [
"http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind_maps_none.asp",
"http://physics.ucsd.edu/do-the-math/2011/12/wind-fights-solar/",
"http://physics.ucsd.edu/do-the-math/",
"www.cntenergy.org/download/21/",
"http://transmission.bpa.gov/business/operations/wind/baltwg.aspx"
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|
If you could empty a state of its people (ex. Wyoming) and fill it with wind turbines, how much electricity would they generate?
The question is self explanatory. However, can you put it more in terms of what it could power, ex. half of Chicago, all of Chicago, etc.
|
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|
4v6rhu
|
What's going on in my head when I'm thinking of an image?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"So this is a tricky one as it has to do with memory storage, which isn't fully understood. However, the ability to \"see\" an image in your head is a bit easier to explain, so we'll skip over how the brain actually stores data.\n\nWhen you see something in front of you the information gathered by your eyes is projected back into your visual cortex for processing, encoding, and storage. This is a fairly complex process that breaks the image down into patterns that can be stored internally (you aren't storing an \"image\" per se but rather the information about that image). \n\nWhen you recall an image your brain recreates that pattern of signals and projects it onto the visual cortex like an echo of the original. This means that the only real difference between seeing something in the real world vs. in your head is the signal source and your ability to distinguish between the two.\n\nIt should be said that while the brain is remarkable it is not flawless, the image you remember is easily altered by other factors both intrinsic and extrinsic.\n\nFurther Reading can be found here:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_\n\nEdit: For those of you who say you lack this ability entirely, know that aphantasia is a relatively new suspected disorder. I was able to find a single small study on research gate concerning it.\n\nZeman, A., Dewar, M., & Della Sala, S. (2015). Lives without imagery–Congenital aphantasia. Cortex, 3.\n\nEdit 2: I've seen a lot of questions about imagined images and some talk of idea inception (original thought). At the visual cortex, the former functions the same as normal visual recall but you are combining known patterns in a different configuration from before. The combinations may be unique but the underlying patterns and ideas are \"recycled\".\n\nAs for inception, this has more to do with memory structure, storage, recall, and conscious thought, but one of the prevailing theories is that our thoughts and recollections have a degree of randomness that can cause original ideas. I would not be the one to ask however.\n\nEdit 3:\n\nFor music recall I imagine the mechanism is similar but I have not done much research into the topic yet. A good springboard for those curious would of course be Wikipedia but take it with a grain of salt.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nApologies for the less than in depth responses but doing this from a phone makes pulling proper sources a tad difficult. I will try to revisit this thread when I have access to my mendeley account.\n\nFor a more in depth analysis of visual recall please refer to the post by /u/albasri as his sources are much better than Wikipedia links.",
"In the 80's there was a big debate about this called, appropriately, The Imagery Debate. There was even a (philosophy) book published with that name. I recommend checking out the Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP; a great resource in general) article on mental imagery, particularly the section on [the analog propositional debate](_URL_18_).\n\nRoughly, the two camps/ideas were this: \n\n**Analog View (Kosslyn):** mental images are imagistic or pictorial in nature and share many properties with an actual image / perception of the real world. This might include reactivation of cortical areas during mental imagery that are active during perception. It is like you are really seeing the thing (hence the term analog). \n\n**Propositional View (Pylyshyn):** although it may seem to us that we call up an image and examine it with our mind's eye (whatever that may mean!) this is actually misleading and does not reflect the true nature of the representation and is also in danger of committing the Cartesian fallacy (who/what is looking at / analyzing this internal picture?). Instead, mental images are actually (symbolic and amodal) descriptions in a Language of Thought -like way. So, for example, when you imagine your room, you are not creating a picture in your head, but a series of relations between concepts like \"to the left of (door, couch)\" which means that the operator \"to the left of\" takes in two objects or arguments (door and couch) and describes the relation between them.\n\nIt would take too long to list all of the arguments for the two views, so here are a select few:\n\n**Evidence in favor of picture-like representations:**\n\n- mental rotation: if you are comparing two 3D objects and trying to decide whether they are the same (just rotated versions) or not, the amount of time to answer is linearly related to the angle of rotation ([Cooper and Shepard 1973](_URL_17_). It is as if we are rotating a mental model just like we would a physical object to try to get them to match\n\n- we represent empty space and preserve metric information: imagine a map of the US. Focus your attention on NY. Now move your attention to Maine. Go back to NY. Now shift your attention to California. Did it take you longer? Many people say yes. (The actual studies used fake maps that subjects had to memorize and different measures). This suggests that our mental images preserve metric properties: things that are far in the world are far in mental images, that just like for a picture, it takes time to scan our mental images, and that we represent the empty space between parts of our mental image/ focus of attention just like in a picture ([Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser 1978](_URL_18_)).\n\n- we experience our mental images in different detail based on our imagined viewpoint /distance just like a real picture/ the world: imagine a rabbit next to an elephant. Does the rabbit have ears? Whiskers? Now imagine a rabbit next to a bee. Does it have those features now? Depending on the imagined \"level of zoom\" we imagine or can respond about features with varying degrees of resolution ([Kosslyn 1975](_URL_17_).\n\n- mental imagery activates early visual areas: [Ganis, Thompson, and Kosslyn 2004](_URL_18_), [Slotnick, Thompson, and Kosslyn 2005](_URL_15_), and many more. Although I would point out that there is still a question of exactly what is represented / what those activations mean and some of the evidence isn't very convincing and vivid mental imagery can occur in the absence of primary visual cortex ([Bridge et al. 2012](_URL_16_), although see [Stokes et al. 2009](_URL_15_)).\n\n**Evidence in favor of the propositional view:**\n\n- our mental images and representations are typically fixed in a particular viewpoint/ representation and we can't look at them a different way like we could with a picture. For example, in these [Slezak figures](_URL_16_), you can imagine rotating them 90 degrees counterclockwise and seeing a different animal. However, if subjects are shown these figures briefly and asked to memorize them, they do not notice the other interpretation, even though they can mentally rotate the figures ([Slezak 1991](_URL_16_); see also [Chambers and Reisberg 1985](_URL_17_) who showed that mental images cannot be ambiguous like pictures can). Nor can we detect the parts or patterns of a mental image like we could with a real image ([Reed and Johnsen 1975](_URL_18_)). Rather, it is as if we have some sort of abstract, summary representation and not a picture. \n\n- what we store and then try to imagine is greatly affected by the context and is not a veridical representation of what we have save / are trying to imagine. [Carmichael, Hogan, and Waters 1932](_URL_15_) ( < -- not a typo on the date!) had participants memorize and then later draw from memory a series of simple shapes. For example, they might be shown a circle with little lines sticking out of it on all sides. For one group of subjects, they told them it was a sun; for another group, they told them that it was a ship's wheel. When subjects later drew the images from memory, their pictures were distorted based on the label that the image was given, even though the original image was the same for both groups. They argued that this showed that the images were not stored as pictures but as concepts which were susceptible to linguistic influence.\n\n- as mentioned, the fMRI evidence is actually a bit mixed. In many of those studies, they find activation outside of early visual cortex in areas like LOC and in parietal cortex suggesting that representations are more diffuse and distributed and perhaps more abstract.\n\n**Resolution:** the nature of mental image representations may be a combination of both types and may vary based on task. Some aspects are pictorial and some are propositional. See the [dual-coding theory](_URL_17_) (the critical evidence in favor of this is probably [Brooks 1968](_URL_16_)).",
"Mildly off-topic, but I suppose this mildly changes the answer of the question:\n\n_URL_19_\n\nSome people have aphantasia (the inability to visualise images in their head.) I don't believe there is a clear answer as to what happens in the head of those people, but I would think that there would be some differences.",
"I ask this question on the same subreddit, I get a couple responses, 6 upvotes, ya know, the typical reddit post.\nSomeone else asks this question, front page!\n\nproof:\n_URL_20_\n\nBut you should find some answers in my posts comments.\nIn short: \"There is some evidence that mental imagery reactivates parts of visual cortex (including early visual cortex) that are active during perception in a top-down manner due to feedback from higher level visual areas.\"",
"I don't have more to contribute to some of the great answers here, but if you're interested in exploring this stuff further I highly recommend checking out [The Mind's Eye by Oliver Sacks.]( _URL_21_)",
"You might be interested to learn more about something called Charles Bonnet Syndrome. It's a common illness that effects about 10% of otherwise mentally healthy (i.e. not psychotic) people who have experienced partial or severe blindness. What seems to be happening is that various parts of the visual cortex self-stimulate in the absence of external stimulation to produce lifelike/realistic hallucinations. There is an excellent TED talk on it from Oliver Sacks if you are interested that can be found here:\n\n_URL_22_"
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{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recall_(memory)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music-related_memory?wprov=sfla1",
"http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/1990/09000/Functional_anatomy_of_storage,_recall,_and.15.aspx",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_memory",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Slezak2/publication/243768941_Can_images_be_rotated_and_inspected_A_test_of_the_pictorial_medium_theory/links/55fe323c08aeafc8ac740704.pdf",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-coding_theory",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926641004000709",
"http://m.jneurosci.org/content/29/5/1565.full",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-011-6299-z",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xhp/11/3/317/",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xhp/4/1/47/",
"http://m.cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/15/10/1570.short",
"http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/images/personal-zenon-pylyshyn/class-info/Lecture2_files/slide0019_image059.jpg",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/1974-08328-006",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03197532",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/15/1/73/",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/cep/22/5/349/",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010028575900158",
"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mental-imagery/#AnaProDeb",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphantasia",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4m8zge/how_do_we_picture_something_in_our_heads/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind%27s_Eye_(book\\)",
"http://video.ted.com/talks/podcast/OliverSacks_2009_480.mp4"
]
}
|
What's going on in my head when I'm thinking of an image?
|
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6ay4wa
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Does a steady or a blinking digital clock use more energy?
|
askscience
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"I think the question you're really asking is \"does the energy savings from having the LED off part of the time outweigh the energy used by the circuit doing the blinking?\" It's hard to answer this in the general case because there are so many variables. If we assume the clock circuitry is simple and well designed, which is probably a reasonable assumption, it's likely the blink circuitry is lower power than the LEDs so it should save power.",
"Steady. It looks \"steady\" to you but the circuitry has to send ON constantly to each of the 7 segments. If it's blinking if only sends ON a fraction of a second.\n\nSource: electrical engineer who had to play with LEDs for his courses.",
"Matters what kind of display technology.\n\nLED or old school vacuum fluorescent: It uses less while blinking. Almost all of the power in a clock like this goes into the display because the display needs to emit light. You've never seen a battery powered LED clock because the batteries would last only a few days. Well, a blinking display is only lit up part of the time, so it's using basically no power during the times it's off. Hence, less power overall. \n\nLCD: More power, but basically immeasurable. It does take a bit of power to make an LCD change state, and a bit of power to calculate when to do this, so it is technically more power. But it's probably like 0.01% more.\n\nEDIT: LCD's are less too because they aren't bistable. See comments below.",
"It depends what kind of circuitry is doing the blinking, but in general the blinking would use less energy than the solid LED. Even if you were using a microprocessor it would be drawing microamps of current.\n\nIt's a strange question because both of these use a very small amount of power so either way don't worry about \"saving\" power by using a different alarm clock system.",
"Here is a simple, direct answer: no. The blinking clock will generally use less power than a steady clock. The reason for this is that the (assumed 7 segment LED) display uses substantially more power than anything else in the clock.\n\nEven if the clock does not use a transmissive display, the power draw isn't going to be measurably higher for the blinking device.",
"I work for a company that makes lights for bicycles. Our lights blink on both bright and dim mode, but the bright mode is faster than you can see. I don't know much about electronic engineering, but it's my understanding that most if not all modern led units work this way. They aren't on all the time, but look like they are because the off time is so short. It's worth mentioning that there are also settings on most lights that have a visible blink. Anyway, the longer the \"dimmer\" setting definitely has a longer battery life.",
"Presuming an LED display, steady will consume more power. LEDs consume zero power when off, and turn on almost instantly with no significant additional power required. Power consumption will vary with the displayed time, though: 1:11 has fewer segments illuminated than 12:08 and so will consume less power. And really, most clocks will be blinking at a high frequency continuously, even when they appear steady. This is done for two reasons: saving I/O pins on the control chip by only turning on one digit at a time and brightness control. Each display usually has 7 segments, controlling all 4 digits in a digital clock would therefore require 28 pins on the controller. That's quite a lot. Turns out that if you turn on only one digit at a time, you only need 7+4= 11 pins to control the display, making the circuit simpler and cheaper. Then pulse width modulation is used to control the overall brightness efficiently.",
"Actually, digital clocks are all blinking. A 7 segment display requires 7 IO lines. To write to each individually, you would need 28 outputs, which is a lot for most micro controllers.\n\nWhat instead is done is an 8th select pin is used on each 7 segment display. One number is written at a time, but they rapidly move between digits, so the human eye thinks they are always on. 28 outputs can be reduced to 11, 7 for the numerical value you want to display, and 4 select pins to determine which digit you wish to write to.",
"LED displays use a method called pulse width modulation to not only control brightness but to also decrease something called duty cycle. The duty cycle is how much time a component spends being powered. The less time it spends powered the less power it uses over time. This is the only way the old school 7-segment LED display calculators could be battery operated, if all those LED lights stayed on continuously they would drain the batteries in a few minutes. \n\nSo in a flashing clock, the display is already flickering on and off pretty fast to save power. The same clock signal is used to control both the pulse width, the flashing, and the actual counter keeping track of the time. So there is only a handful of extra components needed to trigger the flashing, the sum of which is still well under the power requirements of the display itself. \n\nSo yes, a flashing clock will use less power than a steady one.",
"Probably depends on the clock. A clock with an LED display will likely use less energy when the LEDs are off, but a clock with a LCD display may not have any difference. There could be some energy used to switch the components which drive the display but that would likely be insignificant in the case of the LED clock, and could be significant for the LCD one. The only way to tell is to measure the energy consumption for any given clock.",
"The answer is very simple: a blinking use less energy. The energy required for the blinking is actually near null. A clock circuit use usually a 32768Hz crystal, and run constantly. It is then fed to a counter. The 15th bit will change of state every half a second, so goes out to the blinking out. In other words, if they do not make the blink out circuit, it is basically only a wire that they don't put, everything else is the same with or without blinking.\n\nThen, that blink out goes to a transistor. That transistor WILL consume a bit of power, most likelly bellow 0.1mA, so does increase the power consumption.\n\nHowever, a led is usually driven at around 10mA.\n\nSo, without blinking and hard connected led to the power source: 10mA average. With blinking: 10.1mA 50% of the time is 5.05mA average.",
"My guess is a steady clock would use more energy\n\nWhen we programmed scrolling 8x 7segmemt displays in college, we would turn on each segment individially (54 segments) for a short period, and repeat for a length of time. Then shift all of the 'on' commands to the left digit and replace the eighth digit with new 'on' commands. Repeat\n\nWith no extra ICs or components, we could code the display to flash all 54 segments for what appears to be a solid display, say for one second, then off for one second, then update the display and display for a second, repeat. \n\nThus there is time where no current is moving through LEDs so overall consumption is less\n\nSorry if this doesn't make sense. Please ask questions",
"Steady uses more power and consumes more energy... always. It's no different than the concept of a light in your house. A light on for an hour is going to consume more than a light on for ten minutes. Push that over 24 hours at 1 hour intervals... the 10 minute light still consumes less.\n\nThe only time you'll see a load potentially consume more in transient states over a steady state is for inductive/capacitive loads where there is an inrush to get the load started. That's like data banks and large motors that have significant power up requirements.",
"Ha! I just took this class - A steady clock uses more energy, assuming it uses LEDS, and it would in most other cases. This is actually how intensity is controlled -- they blink on and off fast enough that you can't see the blinking, and it's done this way because it saves power. \n\nThere is, however, power dissipated in the actual switching, which goes up the faster you switch them on and off. This is why you can sometimes hear a high-pitched noise when you turn on an appliance or projector -- the switching frequency is tuned above human hearing range because it makes noise, but just barely above because each little increase in frequency uses more energy.",
"Let us consider the possibility of a Bistable display as well, such as e-ink. The concept is simple, keeping the display on doesn't require energy, but changing the pixels does. That mens keeping it on requires no energy, but flickering it means changing the corresponding pixels to ON or OFF very frequently hence consuming quite some energy.",
"The key assumption is that all the circuitry uses a CMOS process. One of the key advantages of CMOS is that the power consumption/loss is dominating by switching (transitioning from logic 0 to 1 or 1 to 0). The quiescent current (leakage current) is so low that it is often ignored. TI's [CMOS Power Consumption and Cpd Calculation](_URL_1_) has equations for static and dynamic consumption in CMOS. For example, a 10 to 40µA leakage current for a 5V device disspates about 50 to 200µW (see Eqs 1 to 3 of that document). Switching a CMOS transistor requires moving charge into the gate parasitice capacitance to raise the voltage at the gate (with respect to the source terminal for nmos) such that it passes the threshold voltage and the transistor turns on. Per transition, this is the energy to turn on a transistor (don't forget you're also turning off the complementary transitor at the same time). Multiply energy by transitions/seconds, and you'll get power in terms of the switching frequency. See equation 4 from that document: `P_T = C_pd * V_cc^(2) * f_I * N_SW` where f_I is the switching frequency and N_SW is the number of bits.\n\n\nAnyway, these principles directly translate to power electronics, where the small CMOS transistors are replaced with very large transisitors/semiconductors that do the switching (e.g. MOSFET, IGBT, Thyristor). For MOSFETs (common for switching anything up to a couple hundred volts), see TI's document[MOSFET power losses and how they affect power-supply efficiency ](_URL_0_). To blink the LED display, you would power it in series with a MOSFET. In this case, the conduction loss of the MOSFET is now a consideration (it has a finite on resistance). There is a trade off between MOSFET on resistance and gate capacitance, and this drives the selection of a device to meet the application requirements. The conduction loss is simply `I^(2) * R_DSon `, which depends on load current (how much current does your LED display need?). The switching loss can be summarised by equation 4 of the second link `P_SW = V_IN * I_OUT * f_sw * (Q_GS + Q_GD) / I_G `. Similar to the first document, you'll notice that it is again proportional to switching frequency. This loss depends on how often you want to blink the LED display. Note there are other losses like driver circuitry losses that I haven't considered, but these are typically lower than the actual MOSFET losses.\n\n\nThe above is nicely summarised in figure 8 of the second linked document. As switching loss goes down, conduction loss is dominant (i.e. loss from having the display on). This provides a general answer to your question without going into the specifics on device selection. For infrequenct switching (few times a second), you would pick a device with very low on resistance (high gate capacitance and hence high switching loss), such that you minimise the dominant conduction loss. If your clock has a 4 digits, with 7 segments each and 2 dots in the middle, you'll have 30 LEDs. If each draws 20mA, the display draw might be 600mA. For a MOSFET of 5mΩ on resistance, the conduction loss here will be 1.8mW. Note that is you drive the display with 5V, the total display consumption is 3W (note a lot of that will be in the current limit resistors of the LED display). In this example, the MOSFET condution loss is 0.06% of the total display loss, and for a very low blink rate we can assume the switching loss (loss from blinking) will be much lower than the 1.8mW conduction losses. If the blinked display was off for half the time, it would draw 1.5W plus the blinking circuit loss (assume no more than twice the conduction loss, i.e. 4mW). Compare this example 1.504W to the non blinked 3W, and you can see it cleary saves a lot of energy. You can also expect the same approximate power savings when blinking the display at a faster rate than the eye can see. In this case this display will appear to be continuously on but at a lower brightness. See Pulse Width Modulation for more information.\n\n\nNote that I haven't considered the power draw of the other circuitry (e.g. clock). I'm only looking at the additional loss of adding a blinking component.",
"One thing to remember is that for things with 7 segment LED displays like clocks, usually they're not actually steady at all because it uses too many electrical lines.\n\nFor example, for 6 digits you would need 42 (7 * 6) electrical lines each individually controllable. You can do it, but it's more expensive.\n\nHowever if you [arrange them in a matrix](_URL_2_) where only one digit is actually lit at a time, you can do it with just 13 (7+6) lines. It works by having 7 segment lines that control all the digits simultaneously, and another 6 lines that allow entire digits to be switched on individually.\n\nThus each digit is pulsed on individually rather then the all being lit at once. You can actually see this on a cheap LED matrix clock if you take a photo at a high shutter speed.\n\nSo in relation to your question to keep the display lit the circuitry is already doing complex pulsing, and this can be turned off completely for half the time if the display blinks so it saves even more energy that you're probably thinking originally."
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Does a steady or a blinking digital clock use more energy?
|
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] |
||
pqo8m
|
Why were so many people in the 19th century inventing things at the same time?
|
The first electromagnet (william sturgeon/Joseph Henry), the telephone (Elisha Gray/Alexander Bell), The lightbulb (edison/swan), etc. You don't ever seem to hear about people inventing things simultaneously nowadays but when I read history it seems like it was the norm in the 1800's.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3rgo2c",
"c3rggd2",
"c3rlpue"
],
"text": [
"One of the reasons you don't hear about 'person X discoverd phenomenon Y yesterday' is because the nature of discovery is changing. Al lot of the easily picked fruit has been picked in the 19th century. Discoveries are now made in teams of scientists (CERN employs almost 8000 scientists, for example). But we haven't slowed down at all! Progress goes faster than ever: over [half a million patents applications are done in the US alone](_URL_0_). \nOnce on the market, technology spreads faster, too. It took [fifty years](_URL_1_) between Edisons first power plant and general American access to electricity. Facebook has only been open to the public for five and a half years.",
"The 19th century saw huge advancements in the way that information was disseminated. Mechanization through steam power made printing easier, so books could be printed and distributed faster and sold cheaper than before. Steam-powered ships and trains allowed people to travel faster and in greater comfort, so suddenly it was feasible for scientists to hold conventions and visit each others' labs. Since information - spoken or written - is the backbone of science, this lead to an explosion of scientific and technological advancement.",
"It happens all the time. It's not like there was some genius who discovered the telephone out of nothing, inventions depend on previous discoveries. Once there is enough knowledge for the invention, naturally many people will make the final step at te same time. \n\nI once read from a patent lawyer that over 90% of patent infringments are unintentional."
],
"score": [
21,
9,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/us_stat.htm",
"http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1919956,00.html"
]
}
|
Why were so many people in the 19th century inventing things at the same time?
The first electromagnet (william sturgeon/Joseph Henry), the telephone (Elisha Gray/Alexander Bell), The lightbulb (edison/swan), etc. You don't ever seem to hear about people inventing things simultaneously nowadays but when I read history it seems like it was the norm in the 1800's.
|
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utthp
|
How does cutting work?
|
**NOTE:** This is **NOT** a thread about the self-harm phenomenon known as "cutting."
How does cutting work? Example: cutting a piece of paper in two.
* Is it a mechanized form of tearing?
* What forces are involved?
* At what level (naked eye, microscopic, molecular, etc.) does the plane of the cut happen?
This question has confounded me for some time, so if someone could explain or to me, I would be grateful.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Cutting a piece of paper in two is a result of shearing: an upward force extremely close to a downward force causing material to separate. The tearing isn't completely even on a microscopic level, but when you line an even distribution of force along a line, and an equal and opposite distribution of force along another line parallel and very near to the first, you make a \"clean cut\" to the naked eye.\nEdit: The shear force is named after scissors. \n\nSource: Statics class",
"I always like to use lettuce as an example when this question is posed because it is such a universal food. Lettuce has very large cells. If you hold a leaf up to a light, it's quite transparent. If you hold a sheet of 100# cover weight paper up to a light, it's not very transparent at all. This is due to the compressed nature of the fibers that these two things are composed of. \n\nBut now, back to lettuce. If you have 2 fresh heads of lettuce, you can test and prove this for yourself. Have two Ziploc freezer bags ready to put into a fridge when you break your lettuce up. With one head of lettuce, rip and tear it apart by hand and place all of the leaves into one of the bags. With the other head, use a sharp knife and chop that head of lettuce up. Then, again, place that one in the other bag. Refrigerate and wait.\n\nYou will notice that in maybe a day or two, the *cut* lettuce will start wilting and turning red on the edges. Just the same as pre-packaged salads in the grocery store, the hand-torn lettuce will go for 5-7 days without those effects. The wilting and reddening comes from the fact that the large lettuce's cell structure can be severed and cut with a sharp knife. Those halved cells become exposed to oxidation as they lose the water that composed the majority of their cellular structure. The hand-torn leaves will last longer without wilting because they were torn along their cells almost like perforation--no cells for the most part are damaged or severed. The cells maintain their structure and retain the composition of their membranes until their no longer-existent root system stops feeding them with fresh water.\n\nedit: changed \"late\" in the first paragraph to \"light\" as originally intended.",
"For our intents and purposes, consider that most cuts and chops don't actually involve direct cleavage of at a molecular level by some atom-thick blade. What really happens is a combination of Poisson expansion and intense pressure causes a nucleus of separation perpendicular to the knife, some finite distance into the cut material from the actual interface.\n\nIf you have some Jello handy, you can feel, see, and then later eat, this phenomenon for yourself. Take a small cube and gently press with your finger, increasing pressure until you feel the rupture. If you stop, you should be able to see a surface glinting a few mm from where you had your finger.",
"what about cutting soft materials such as meat with a knife? It seems something other than shearing is taking place. What would be the difference between using a serrated and a straight blade?\nAlso, what about stabbing?",
"Now the next question: does anyone know of a video showing a piece of paper, or anything else really, being cut from a very close (almost microscopic perspective?",
"I have ALWAYS secretly wondered this, were does the part of the papar that you took out go? I never asked anyone because its so extremely hard to explain and the average person would instantly call you an idiot. Thank you for asking this.",
"I have a good follow up question... when I'm cutting wrapping paper with scissors, at some point i no longer need to use my fingers to open/close the scissors; I can just keep the scissors in a static position and glide them, having them cut the wrapping paper flawlessly. What is this phenomenon ?\n\nNote it's not possible all the time; unsuccessful attempts will cause \"bunching\" and the cut will be jagged",
"When you cut a piece of metal, are you breaking covalent bonds?",
"I think that it is strange to see that no one has started from here: _URL_1_\nand here: _URL_1__mechanics\n\nTo put it more simply, if you have a crystal lattice such as metal (easier to explain) then the rows of atomic bonds will shift upwards (normally in a zipper fashion) when a shear force is applied. As you change the material to more complex amorphous structures the bonds, bond density, and ability of long (usually carbon) chains to deform will affect the order of bond breaking.\n\nAnd my biggest tip: _URL_0_ (don't bother with a more recent edition) can be purchased for less than a Chipotle Steak Burrito with a Coke. It's a very good overview of material science, and needless to say, \"cutting\" is a very complicated process!",
"[This video](_URL_3_) of metal being cut was recently linked to /r/videos. It shows the process magnified and in slow motion. This is an example of a single blade passing through a substance (like the cheese example I gave before).",
"I don't think anyone's posted it yet, so [this is a slow-mo video](_URL_4_) of different types of steel being cut. I don't have a scientific or engineering background, so upvotes for anyone who wants to explain what's happening here.",
"oddly enough this showed up today: [cutting steell](_URL_5_)"
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"url": [
"http://www.amazon.com/Materials-Science-Engineering-An-Introduction/dp/0471736961",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture_mechanics",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek&hd=1",
"http://youtu.be/mRuSYQ5Npek",
"http://www.wimp.com/cuttingsteel/"
]
}
|
How does cutting work?
**NOTE:** This is **NOT** a thread about the self-harm phenomenon known as "cutting." How does cutting work? Example: cutting a piece of paper in two. * Is it a mechanized form of tearing? * What forces are involved? * At what level (naked eye, microscopic, molecular, etc.) does the plane of the cut happen? This question has confounded me for some time, so if someone could explain or to me, I would be grateful.
|
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|
1159hr
|
It seems people often get sick when they travel. Is this because of stress and environmental factors or because one is exposed to "bugs" different from the ones at home?
|
For example, if I move from one part of the country to another am I more likely to get a common cold or flu because I haven't built up resistance to the local strains, or are they same throughout the country and I'm just getting sick because I'm run down.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6jhptp",
"c6jht8q",
"c6jg2ly"
],
"text": [
"As far as I know, there's no compelling evidence that people get sick more when they travel (if anyone is aware of evidence, please point me to it). It's more likely a result of confirmation bias. If you get sick while you're on a vacation, your likely to remember it more (since it might have ruined your vacation), and if you come down with symptoms any time within a could of weeks of getting back, your brain might associate it with the trip even if you picked it up on the subway ride home from the airport. \n\nAll of the things Pharose mentioned are potential explanations, but I'm not convinced that the premise is actually true.",
"People cramped together in small places like planes and such makes it easier for germs to change \"hands\".",
"Strain of the flu and cold are not particularly different from one side of the country to the next, although you'd would probably see a significant change from continent to continent. The greater varying factor is usually the quality of water and any bacteria in it. Most water has bacteria in it, but not enough to make us sick, however this bacteria does create extra work for our immune system. Water quality is very different from region to region and I find I get sick much easier when I travel 300km to my cousin's house. \n\nAnother big contributing factor is the type of transportation. When you're stuck on a plane or bus for several hours you are forced to breath the same air as everyone else so it's quite easy to share diseases. \n\nStress and sleep/work schedules can also be a destabilizing factor."
],
"score": [
8,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
It seems people often get sick when they travel. Is this because of stress and environmental factors or because one is exposed to "bugs" different from the ones at home?
For example, if I move from one part of the country to another am I more likely to get a common cold or flu because I haven't built up resistance to the local strains, or are they same throughout the country and I'm just getting sick because I'm run down.
|
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|
6qa87d
|
I saw a picture claiming that manhole covers are round because a circle is the only shape that can't be made pass through itself. Is it true?
|
I saw [a picture on _URL_1_](_URL_0_) claiming what I described in the title.
I wonder, is it really true?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dkvwmg0",
"dkw2n51",
"dkwd8on",
"dkvwzaa"
],
"text": [
"A circle can pass through itself. If the diameter is the same in the hold and cover, it will fall through both flat and tilted. To solve this, all manholes have a lip on the part in the street that makes the hole smaller so the cover doesn't fall through. The reason manhole covers use circles is because when rotated their shape does not change. If a square was used, it could be tilted so it was vertical and rotated so it went through diagonally. Interestingly, circles aren't the only shapes that can do this, and equilateral triangles can do the same thing.\n\ntl;dr Circles could fall through if there wasn't a lip, but with circles they can't be rotated to fit through.",
"No. There are a lot of shapes with that property like Reuleaux triangles. Manhole covers also come in a range of shapes (including triangles.) That said, there are a number of other practical reasons that make circular manhole covers attractive.",
"It's not true. There are [curves of constant width](_URL_0_) that meet that criteria. \n\nIt is one of the reasons, though, along with others like a round cover can be easily aligned to the hole, easily manufactured, has no corner for corner stresses, etc.",
"Well yeah. I don't know if thats the exact reason why they are round, but the fact that other shapes could fall through is true. For example a rectangle would fit through if you flip it on its sides and rotate it 45°"
],
"score": [
31,
8,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://s3.crackedcdn.com/phpimages/pictofact/5/0/2/381502_v1.jpg",
"cracked.com"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve_of_constant_width"
]
}
|
I saw a picture claiming that manhole covers are round because a circle is the only shape that can't be made pass through itself. Is it true?
I saw [a picture on _URL_1_](_URL_0_) claiming what I described in the title. I wonder, is it really true?
|
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15koxq
|
Are we meant to sleep in 8 hour increments?
|
I was talking with my girlfriend yesterday about whether human beings are meant to sleep in 8 hour increments or is this a product of our society / technology (working hours / availability of lighting). Did ancient humans sleep differently?
Extra points for links to studies.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"The answer is: We're not entirely sure!\n\nTo start with, almost all mammals sleep *polyphasically* (i.e., multiple blocks of sleep per day). *Monophasic* sleep (i.e., one block of sleep per day) is unusual, but humans are not the only species that do it. So far as we know, the behavior is restricted to primates though -- and not all primates sleep that way. Some also sleep *biphasically* (i.e., they have a main sleep block at night, and a shorter nap during the day, a la siesta cultures).\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_4_\n\nIn modern human society, adult humans sleep almost exclusively monophasically. But it could be argued that this is due to electric lighting and standardized work hours. There is certainly a tendency towards increased sleepiness in the afternoon, which allows afternoon napping in some people. Many children nap, of course, but they tend to nap less as they move into adolescence and then into adulthood, as our ability to maintain extended wakefulness improves.\n\nThere was a book recently that gained a lot of attention called *At Day's Close* that argued that people in medieval times slept in two discrete chunks at night, i.e., *split* sleep. They would have a first sleep around sunset, then wake for a few hours, and then have a longer second sleep to dawn (_URL_3_). This brought the idea of a split sleep pattern back into vogue.\n\nIt's still unclear whether this is our 'natural' sleep pattern, even if one can agree on a use for the word natural. The only real recent evidence to corroborate split sleep is a study in which people were put on schedules where they were in a lit environment for 10 hours per day, and put into bed in a completely dark room for 14 hours per day. Under these conditions, some of the subjects started to split their sleep into two chunks on many nights (_URL_2_). Whether this is in any way related to what we should naturally do is questionable; it is perhaps a simulation of winter nights before the advent of electricity.\n\nOther studies have observed villages where they do not have electricity yet, and found people sleeping into a single consolidated nightly block, e.g., _URL_1_\n\nThe problem with the split sleep schedule in the modern age is that you are likely to get artificial light exposure during the time that you are awake in the middle of the night. This is really terrible for several reasons: \n\n* Light has a direct alerting effect that makes it difficult to go back to sleep; \n\n* Light exposure near or after bedtime suppresses the secretion of melatonin, which has cancer-protective properties, and also helps you to sleep; \n\n* Light at that time causes a phase delay shift of your circadian clock, effectively moving you to a later schedule and making your body want to wake up later and go to bed later the next day. \n\nRoom light, or even screen light, is enough to cause all of these effects. If you really want to live on such a schedule, you need to accept candlelight or dimmer during the night between sleeps, which most people are not happy to do.\n\nThere's certainly no existing evidence to suggest that split sleep is better than consolidated sleep, be that in terms of health or cognitive function. I should also note that there is definitely no evidence to support sleeping regimes that distribute sleep evenly across the day in naps (Da Vinci, Uberman, etc.). In fact, there is a wealth of knowledge to show that they are terrible.",
"It is postulated that humans originally had a bimodal sleep pattern and that sleeping for 8 hours is a relatively new thing in human history. \n_URL_5_",
"A very interesting TED talk about our natural sleep cycle.\n_URL_6_",
"The basics of human sleep include a 1.5 hour cycle through which the brain's electrical signals cycle. \n\n_URL_7_\n\nThe end of the cycle returns the brain to an almost conscious level, so it makes sense to sleep in 1.5 hour increments (1.5, 3, 4.5, 6, 7.5, etc). I would assume falling asleep immediately doesn't happen often, and as such, an extra half hour is added to the recommended amount to fall asleep.",
"There was a study done where people were in total darkness for 14 hours each day, within a month they all settled into two 4 hour blocks of sleep, with 2 hours of wakefulness in between, much like the medieval sleep hypothesis. So it's basically scientifically true, we're meant to sleep in two phases. Here is the study:\n_URL_8_\n_URL_9_\n\nIt's further backed by historical evidence, an 1829 medical journal urged people to stop sleeping in 2 phases.",
"I sleep differently and have for the last 30 years. I sleep 5 hours, wake up and read or watch a movie, and then sleep for another 2. Sometimes another 1 during the day. \n\nGoogle \"second sleep\"."
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"url": [
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"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1076/brhm.29.1.49.3045",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8238456",
"http://science.slashdot.org/story/12/02/23/161225/interrupted-sleep-might-be-the-best-kind",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/016643289500025O",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmented_sleep",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/jessa_gamble_how_to_sleep.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16964783",
"http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/249312/scitech/science/people-may-not-need-8-hours-sleep-after-all-studies"
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|
Are we meant to sleep in 8 hour increments?
I was talking with my girlfriend yesterday about whether human beings are meant to sleep in 8 hour increments or is this a product of our society / technology (working hours / availability of lighting). Did ancient humans sleep differently? Extra points for links to studies.
|
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|
30xx9h
|
I just noticed that the Pioneer plaques were attached to the probe with plastic clamps. Is it possible these could decay in time and separate the plaque from the craft?
|
I've always assumed the plaques were welded on or bolted on, but I just noticed the translucent clamps in [this](_URL_2_) and [this](_URL_1_) images.
What happens to most plastic in space? Is it possible it could decay, lose cohesion and, after a while, fling the plaque away from the craft, if there is any rotation? How long until that happens?
EDIT: [this](_URL_0_) is the only other image of the plaque attached to the probe that I could find. It's not as clear what the material is in this shot.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cpwvrze",
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"cpx04ui",
"cpwv911",
"cpxv7gp"
],
"text": [
"It's not really possible to identify the material from photos, but there are a lot of possible materials those could be made from.\n\nThe general answer to your question is that yes, most plastics are not suitable for space. They exhibit [outgassing](_URL_1_), the release of volatile chemicals within the plastics; UV degradation; and usually are not thermally suitable for the temperature ranges seen by spacecraft.\n\nHowever, NASA maintains [lists](_URL_0_) of suitable materials for space (as well as [reports](_URL_2_) of the effects of the space environment on common materials), so this was certainly addressed during the design of the Pioneer vehicles.\n\nInterestingly, [plastics have also recently been found to be very effective in shielding against cosmic radiation.](_URL_3_)",
"I'm currently unable to find any source saying how the plaques were affixed to the spacecraft.\n\nThat said, I have worked in ultra-high vacuum systems which share a lot of the materials specifications that are used in space. Just because the clamps are white does not mean that they are plastic. They could be ceramic, as ceramics are often a good choice in vacuum applications for their material strength (though brittleness can be an issue with some).",
"Those are definitely Teflon clamps. PTFE (teflon) is used a ton in spacecraft. ESA actually uses [custom made teflon cable ties for spacecraft applications](_URL_5_) (the green things holding the wires in place). Both [PTFE and PEEK are notoriously vacuum stable](_URL_4_) and will not significantly degrade with UV exposure, ultra high vacuum, cosmic rays, and pretty much anything else you throw at it. The teflon clamps will probably last longer than the metal.",
"There is rotation - Early Pioneers (6-9) tested the concept of spinning to stabilize a spacecraft. Assuming that the plastic does outgas and degrade in time (as other answers indicate), the question then becomes one of whether the velocity of the plaque at moment of release is greater than the escape velocity of the probe.\n\nPioneers spin at around 60rpm, and mass approximately 150kg. I don't know how far the plaques are from the center of rotation, but assuming the worst case of them being at the end of the 2m arms, we can get an idea of the linear velocity of the plaques:\n\n60rpm = 60 * 2pi = 120pi radians/min\n\nlinear velocity = angular velocity * radius\n\nv = 120pi * 2\n\n= 754m/min = 12.56 m/s\n\nAssume the Pioneer is a 2m radius sphere, which is admittedly not a great assumption but is pretty conservative. Escape velocity is given by Ve = sqrt(2*GM / R) where G is the universal gravitational constant, M is the mass of the body, and R is its radius:\n\nVe = sqrt(2 G * 150 / 2) = 1*10e-4 m/s, or something in the range of 36cm/hour.\n\nSo it appears from this very crude approximation that the plaque is absolutely going fast enough to fly off into the cosmos.",
"I can't say for sure without knowing what they are, but polymers tend not to handle UV well, or radiation like you'd see in space. They break down the polymer chains and, worse, create free radicals that rapidly oxidize and embrittle the polymer.\n\nThat said, I assume NASA was aware of this issue, and the plaques shouldn't have seen much force after launch, so the load on those clips would be minimal.",
"I asked a similar question but more directed to the degradation of the disk itself. The disk is constantly bombarded by cosmic radiation which will lead to a slow but inevitable loss of material (ablation). By my [crude estimate] (_URL_6_) the disk itself is on the hairy edge of being readable when it get in proximity of the nearest star. (Note: I don't know the true ablative rate - so the back of the envelop is just that - a guess)"
],
"score": [
37,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/627327main_AC72-2135.jpg",
"https://i.imgur.com/qvcjKct.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/GPN-2000-001621-x.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://outgassing.nasa.gov/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outgassing",
"http://see.msfc.nasa.gov/mp/NASA-95-cr4661pt1.pdf",
"http://www.space.com/21561-space-exploration-radiation-protection-plastic.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-high_vacuum#Material_limitations",
"http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3663/13019874465_5cdd7e7e1f_o.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2yl282/how_long_will_it_take_cosmic_radiation_to/cpavexs?context=3"
]
}
|
I just noticed that the Pioneer plaques were attached to the probe with plastic clamps. Is it possible these could decay in time and separate the plaque from the craft?
I've always assumed the plaques were welded on or bolted on, but I just noticed the translucent clamps in [this](_URL_2_) and [this](_URL_1_) images. What happens to most plastic in space? Is it possible it could decay, lose cohesion and, after a while, fling the plaque away from the craft, if there is any rotation? How long until that happens? EDIT: [this](_URL_0_) is the only other image of the plaque attached to the probe that I could find. It's not as clear what the material is in this shot.
|
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|
14ohxx
|
What is the difference between warmth and temperature?
|
A chapter in my physics book is about ~~warmth~~ heat and temperature but I don't understand the difference very well.
edit: I meant heat, not warmth.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Warmth doesn't really have a scientific definition, but most likely the difference the author has in mind comes from the [thermal conduction](_URL_0_) of materials. For instance, if you are in 60 degree water vs 60 air, you are going to feel a lot colder in the water. Why? Because water has a much higher rate of thermal conduction than air. Thus, it wants to move you towards equilibrium (your 98 degree body heading towards the temperature of the 60 degree water) a lot quicker than the air does. Thus, it is easier to stay warm in air than in water. \n\nAgain, this is a guess- as warmth is not a scientific term.",
"\"warmth\"/heat is a measure of a particular type of energy (energy contained in disordered motion). Temperature is sort of like a \"heat pressure\" -- if you consider heat energy to be sort of like a fluid (people once considered it to be an actual fluid - [caloric](_URL_3_)), then temperature is a measure of that fluid's pressure.\n\nBut temperature is a really counterintuitive thing. To understand it, you have to understand entropy. [Here is an earlier answer I gave over in /r/physics, explaining what entropy is](_URL_3_).\n\n[Here is another answer I gave in /r/science about what temperature really is](_URL_3_).\n\nIn brief: \n\n* **heat** is energy contained in disordered motion\n\n* **entropy** is the amount of disorder present in a macroscopic system (i.e. a *thing* that you can describe simply, but which might hide a lot of internal complexity). Entropy is a measure of how complex a full description of the system would be (describing, for example, the complete quantum state of the system), compared to the macroscopic description (for example the system's temperature and bulk characteristics).\n\n* **temperature** is the reciprocal of the derivative of entropy with respect to energy in the system -- i.e. an inverse measure of how many more states become available for every additional joule of energy put into disordered motion.\n\nTemperature is important because it acts like a sort of pressure - heat will flow from systems with high temperature to systems with low temperature, but not vice versa. But it doesn't work according to the same principles as normal hydraulic pressure - the flow is a probabilistic one, having to do with the likelihood of ending up in one macrostate versus another. (Macrostates with a lot of entropy are achievable with many different microstates, and they are therefore more likely than macrostates with low entropy - which are achievable only by putting the system in one a comparatively few microstates).",
"They probably mean Heat (aka Thermal Energy) and Temperature (aka Thermal Energy divided by a coefficient dependent on substance that basically says how much energy the substance can hold in its vibrational modes).\n\nIn (ideal) gases, that coefficient is known as the Boltzmann constant.",
"Broadly speaking, \"[heat](_URL_5_)\" is the molecules of a substance \"vibrating\".\n\n(I'm not crazy about that term myself but it's the one that's commonly used.)\n\nIf the molecules are vibrating slowly, that's a low temperature. \n\nIf the molecules are vibrating fast, that's a high temperature. \n\nNow consider different quantities of a substance. \n\n- I could have 1 liter of a substance at 100 degrees. (Maybe a deep fryer that I'm heating oil in.). - If I put a thermometer in that it'll show 100 degrees. (All units solely for illustrative purposes and not to be taken seriously.)\n\n- Alternatively I could have 1,000 liters of a substance at 10 degrees. (A swimming pool full of cold water.) - If I put a thermometer in that it'll show 10 degrees. \n\nBut the amount of heat energy contained in the first example is 1x100 = 100, and the amount of heat energy contained in the second example is 1,000x10 = 10,000.\n\nEven though the second is a lot \"cooler\", the greater mass means that there's a lot more \"heat\" in there.\n\n\\-\n\nA [heat pump](_URL_4_) is a device for moving heat - can be used to make something either hotter or cooler. \n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_4__and_refrigeration_cycle\n\nAny ordinary air conditioner or refrigerator is a heat pump. \n\nI've seen designs for home heating and cooling using a heat pump coupled with a pool full of water for heat storage. They pump heat from the pool into the house to heat the house, and from the house into the pool to cool the house.",
"Hmm, I may be about to explain something different, but this sounds close to what you are asking.\n\nTemperature is akin to the density of the total heat energy of a given volume of substance and area. This is why a gas that is compressed gets \"hotter\", it's not so much that you are adding heat (though there is probably some addition from the compression), but that you are pushing all those molecules much closer together, thus increasing the density of the heat energy.\n\nThis high density of heat will bleed off until the compressed air is the same temperature as its environment. When you decompress the gas, it spreads out, lowering the density of the heat energy, ie it becomes colder.\n\nI have now described the basic physics of refrigeration and why CO2 extinquishers create frost (though that is NOT how they put out fires).\n\nDoes that help?"
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2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conduction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloric_theory",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/auwpu/i_have_a_science_question_is_there_an_antithesis/c0jitcb",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Physics/comments/eanst/can_somebody_easily_explain_to_me_what_entropy_is/c16nc7p",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pump",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pump_and_refrigeration_cycle"
]
}
|
What is the difference between warmth and temperature?
A chapter in my physics book is about ~~warmth~~ heat and temperature but I don't understand the difference very well. edit: I meant heat, not warmth.
|
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vx0qn
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Yesterday when I reached my destination with my car I noticed I was carrying a bee in it the whole time(I had the windows closed).Could this bee survive hundreds of miles away from its nest or is it doomed to die?Any chances it could be "adopted" by another nest?
|
askscience
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"Solitary bees are other species than social bees, such as the honeybee. They make it on their own by definition.\n\nAnd about being adopted by another nest, I've got no idea how easy it is for a bee to locate an unknown hive. If your \"lost bee\" would find one, she would most likely be chased away by the guard bees because her smell was different, but if she had the foresight to load up on nectar or pollen first, she might be admitted.\n\nWe did an experiment where we marked 100 honeybees with tiny number stickers on their backs. Newborn adult bees are relatively easy to handle, they don't fly yet and their stingers aren't very effective. We put the bees in the hive from which the brood had been removed. We checked the hive for the numbered bees daily. Once they were old enough to leave the hive to forage for nectar and pollen, some would end up in neighboring hives. In the end, about 10% migrated. Since these hives were pretty close together in a bee stand, maybe they just landed at the wrong address by mistake.",
"**The following is about the European honeybee in north America ONLY!!!**\n\nIn the case of [The Euro Honey Bee](_URL_0_) \"adoption\" is highly unlikely. The top post omits a very important detail, his study link, as well as details important to such a study. \n\nSo, basic things about bees, an \"altruistic,\" haplodiploid sex determinate, colonial being. Honey bee workers are all female. The queen creates them by using her sperm reserves to fertilize them. Because of this, the female (diploid) workers share, on average, 75% of their DNA with other workers (only 50% with the queen herself or drones/males). \n\nThe shared DNA is a likely mechanism for altruism in honey bees. When the hive gets too big and a new queen is born, to whom are the workers loyal? When winter nears and it's time to close for the winter, the males who didn't go off to mate are forcibly removed. \n\nSo, could she be adopted by a hive with whom she shares only species DNA? It's highly unlikely. Even if it were \"a thing\" she is unlikely to find one in the first place. Almost all honey bees are domesticated and industrial owned/operated (in the US). In fact, there's no such thing as a \"wild\" honey bee hive in the US. They're feral. \n\nBut there is good news. Foraging bees are doing the most dangerous job in the hive. This means they are already among the oldest in their hive, now in this position because she is very near the end of her life anyway. The bees do many jobs in the hive before going off to gather, so your stowaway is already close to death, no need to worry much about it. \n\nOr, if it's somehow a male, he can be solo looking for a female to mate. He is already highly unlikely to find a female in the first place. If he does, he dies. If he doesn't, he dies. For him, it's just a question of when. \n\nI urge anyone to study altruism in colonial insects or \"helpers at the nest\" in birds. It's cool to see some species forgo their own reproduction in favor of their siblings and the mechanisms (environmental, etc) that govern them.",
"What sort of bee was it? Some bees are 'solitary'. I don't know if that means they could survive being transported a large distance but it might be more hopeful than for a hive bee.",
"If it's a worker from a honey bee hive, it was doomed to die anyway. The only reproductive member of a bee hive is the queen. Losing a worker or a drone is like clipping your fingernails. The colony will be just fine.",
"If it was a honey bee from a hive, it was almost certainly a worker bee. They live a few weeks at most during the summer (although some can live for months through winter when the hive forms a ball around the Queen and hibernates).\n\nNormally, those bees will fly up to around 3 miles from their hive to search for honey and will be able to find their way back. In fact, if you are moving a hive to another location within three miles of the original location, they will try to return to that spot instead of the new one.\n\nAs for being 'adopted' by another hive, no. Hives generally have a group of soldier bees around the entrance to the hive to fight off intruders.\n\nSource - Four bee hives.",
"Not exactly relating to the bees. But is on topic with the spread of insects. It is not a good idea to transport insects or fire wood(which can carry insects) long distances. This is because the insects can carry diseases that can harm trees that are not native homes to these insects. I know you're not supposed to move firewood, it is also illegal is some parts of the world to do so. First couple hits I found on google [Source 1](_URL_2_) [Source 2](_URL_2_)",
"What about ants? Could an ant survive far from its colony?",
"If you're talking honey bees [this is the best paper on how far a honey bee can find its way home](_URL_3_)\n\n > > Large Scale Homing in Honeybees\n > > \n > > In order to investigate the capacity of the honeybees' homing abilities, we artificially displaced foragers to novel release spots at various distances up to 13 km in the four cardinal directions. Returning bees were individually registered by a radio frequency identification (RFID) system at the hive entrance. We found that homing rate, homing speed and the maximum homing distance depend on the release direction. Bees released in the east were more likely to find their way back home, and returned faster than bees released in any other direction, due to the familiarity of global landmarks seen from the hive.\n\nTL/DR: Under 5km, very likely it'll find its way to its own home. Over 10km unlikely.\n\n\nApparently drone bees can move in with other hives (and some beekeepers fear bee diseases may spread that way); but I don't think worker bees do this.",
"Are you sure the nest isn't somewhere in your car?"
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"url": [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee",
"http://www.virginiaoutdoors.com/content/firewood",
"http://www.naturalnews.com/028147_nanoparticles_insects.html",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0019669"
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Yesterday when I reached my destination with my car I noticed I was carrying a bee in it the whole time(I had the windows closed).Could this bee survive hundreds of miles away from its nest or is it doomed to die?Any chances it could be "adopted" by another nest?
|
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||
n9qxu
|
How much g-force can the human body withstand? Once beyond that point, what are the effects on the human body?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c37egls",
"c37e7do",
"c37dt5b",
"c37iznj"
],
"text": [
"Here is John Stapp decelerating at -46G, going from 614-0 mph in less than 1 second: _URL_0_",
"[This might be worth reading](_URL_1_) (PDF)\n\nFAA\nAcceleration in Aviation:\nG-Force",
"I don't know any specific numbers, but there are a number of factors to consider:\n\n* Ability to maintain blood flow to vital areas of the body\n\n* Ability to maintain vital muscle operation (diaphragm for breathing, GI tract, etc)\n\n* Mechanical stress--at what point will your various body parts squish/break/tear",
"This is a complex question and depends on quite a few issues. First and formost is the duration of the g-forces.\n\nObviously, as posted earlier. Dr Stapp was subjected to a high number of g's for a short period of time. He survived. Ejections from aircraft are on the order of 20gs. For longer durations, lower numbers are tolerated. The accepted answer in the aviation community is 9 positive, 4-5 negative can be sustained for 30ish seconds. I have tried this. It hurts. A lot.\n\nThe second portion is direction. The positive gz direction is the vertical axis and has the best tolerance because it is the force we evolved to withstand. It may cause compression of the spinal column, but it is survivable best. The next is the forward direction. Imagine getting hit in the chest with a hammer. Clearly your ribcage is not as durable as the spinal column so you can sustain less gs. The last direction is the lateral direction. This is tolerated the worst, as it has the tendency to shift internal organs.\n\nSince my background is in aviation medicine, I will discuss the Gz direction. With positive Gs, you get grey out, then blackout as the blood flow to the brain is compromised. First is tunnel vision, then blackout, then unconciousness (GLOC- G induced loss of conciousness). This persists until the Gs are halted. At this point conciousness is regained after about 12 seconds. After another 12 seconds, USEFUL conciousness is regained. It is worth noting that straining maneuvers and g-suits can help avoid G-LOC by increasing the pressure on the chest, abdomen and legs, forcing blood back to the brain. Clearly both muscular fitness, cardiovascular fitness and training have a huge influence on G tolerance.\n\nIn - g situations, the opposite occurs. You red-out as blood is forced into your brain. I assume eventually the increased pressure will result in vessel rupture, but I have heard -g hurts a LOT MORE than +g, and most people try to avoid it."
],
"score": [
20,
5,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UEYxf4fl_A",
"http://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/pilotsafetybrochures/media/Acceleration.pdf"
]
}
|
How much g-force can the human body withstand? Once beyond that point, what are the effects on the human body?
|
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] |
||
1erl30
|
Does anything run directly on AC electricity without getting converted to DC first?
|
machine, equipment, appliance, ect?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ca327ae",
"ca39h1y"
],
"text": [
"Most electric heaters do, including baseboard heaters, ovens, toasters, stuff like that. Incandescent, fluorescent, and some LED lights do too. Many other things use AC directly as well.\n\nMany devices, particularly large appliances, run on a combination of AC and DC. Things like washing machines, dryers, coffee makers, etc. use AC to run the motor or the heating element, but would have a small DC power supply to run the control system.",
"Power tools. Drills, circular saws, string trimmers, etc."
],
"score": [
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Does anything run directly on AC electricity without getting converted to DC first?
machine, equipment, appliance, ect?
|
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|
8uvk1z
|
Angler fish lure their prey using light emitting bacteria, but why would the prey which spends its entire life in total darkness of the ocean depths be even lured to such an obvious trap? Do only "lost" living organisms from the upper layers get tricked like that?
|
askscience
|
{
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],
"text": [
"Bioluminesence is the most common form of communication in deep-sea animals. It's also often used as a defensive manouver - to distract, deter, and even mark others. A glow might signal prey trying to communicate, but also a commotion where prey is likely to be found.",
"Because it's not always an obvious trap. You're looking at from the aspect of angler fish has a lure only. In the deep ocean the big fish eats the smaller fish cliche is pretty standard. For example, copepods eating bacteria cause the bacteria to light up. The bacteria can be seen in the almost clear digestive tract of the copepods, and surrounding water. The bacteria is hoping by showing the copepods' location, something else will eat it.\n\nA lure that looks like a glowing copepods might attract something that eats copepods.",
"This is the bleeding edge of the evolutionary arms race.\n\nIn each generation, the lantern fish who flub the trap go hungry and their genes disappear, leaving only the best anglers. \n\nSimilarly, the stupidest prey who fall for the trap die off, leaving only the smartest fish behind. \n\nSo now you have +1 smartness angler fish VS +1 smartness prey fish.\n\nBut one of them has to lose right?\n\nSo you still get fish being eaten, and the cosmic ballet goes on."
],
"score": [
839,
413,
54
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Angler fish lure their prey using light emitting bacteria, but why would the prey which spends its entire life in total darkness of the ocean depths be even lured to such an obvious trap? Do only "lost" living organisms from the upper layers get tricked like that?
|
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1ogm3w
|
How specific are "ballistic reports"? Could every gun that's manufactured be fired once so its ballistic report could be documented and saved to match against future crimes?
|
askscience
|
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"Maryland did this - required all firearms sold in the state to have a round fired and entered into the state database. After several years and $2.6 million dollars, it finally contributed to a single murder conviction.\n\nThere are likely a number of reasons for this - the \"fingerprints\" change over time (or more accurately rounds fired), can vary surprisingly for different types of ammunition, the vast majority of guns used in crimes are stolen anyway, etc.",
"Before saying anything else, Maryland tried to do this and it was a huge waste of money.\n\nBallistics change on guns over time so that is an issue that almost makes this a non-starter.\n\nAnother big issue is that legally purchased guns are typically not used in crime as one of the other commenters posted. Also this would require a huge logistical undertaking and more importantly I doubt the NRA and gun-toting citizens would welcome this. \n\nNot gonna happen.",
"No, it would not work. To avoid repeating other's points, I'll mention a new one: smoothbores. \n\nA shotgun, or any other gun with a smooth barrel, does not have rifling and cannot have a \"ballistic fingerprint.\"",
"N.Y. State has instituted such a program for pistols.\nThe 'report' for the fire-arm, as delivered, is pretty specific.\n\nThe fired projectile and cartridge case can, not always, but fairly often, be matched to the specific weapon.\n\nThe problem is that it's only a matter of a minute or so to swap \nthe barrel, and extractor of an auto-loading pistol, and maybe 'wipe the firing pin with a whetstone, and there goes all that expensive official record-keeping, right down the drain.\nEven the caliber of the projectile can be changed.\nThe parts are cheap and easily available.",
"When weapons are fired, a small amount of wear occurs on the parts involved. I don't have the article on hand, but IIRC, 200 rounds was all that was needed to change the striations on the bullet; the original ballistic report rendered worthless. And a person could always [make their own weapon](_URL_0_), so it's a dead end, anyway.",
"there's a phenomenon known as subclass carryover, two guns of the same model made one after another on the production line will produce virtually indistinguishable striations on the bullets they fire\n\nhowever, the inside of the barrel wears with use, so a bullet fired from a gun today may look different from a bullet fired from the same gun a year from now, depending on how frequently it is used. The patterns would probably look VERY similar, but with significant use, they would look different enough to raise enough doubt that they wouldn't be considered a match.\n\nIt's the same with tire, foot and tool impressions, all are capable of changing over time due to wear.",
"I'll explain it like this. Glocks have polygonal rifling in their stock barrels. Spend 100 bucks, get a traditionally rifled after market drop in barrel and instantly your ballistics profile is changed.",
"Another aspect of ballistics is shell casing identification. An idea that has been floated around for awhile is micro stamping the firing pin, leaving a serial number on the primer. As has been stated to get anything to stand in a court, trained individuals must match evidence against know exemplars. Very tedious and costly. \n\nBesides there are so many illegal, old guns on the streets already even if we implemented this today it would take a long time for new weapons to trickle down to the murders and thugs.\n\nMost people don't spend cash on a new gun then use it in a drive by.",
"That would not ever work. I will explain why. I fire a bullet and murder someone. I think take a file and file the shit out of the inside of my gun barrel. I can also run the file before firing the bullet. This completely voids a ballistics test.\n\nSecond, I can simply remove the barrel from my pistol and replace it with a brand new barrel, without changing the guns serial number in any fashion. This completely voids a ballistics test."
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"url": [
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|
How specific are "ballistic reports"? Could every gun that's manufactured be fired once so its ballistic report could be documented and saved to match against future crimes?
|
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||
1rtkaf
|
Are tractor beams scientifically possible?
|
Watching Star Wars right now and I was curious if tractor beams could actually work/exist.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cdqqnmg",
"cdqsiaq",
"cdqv227",
"cdqzrfb"
],
"text": [
"Very small things can be manipulated using a focused laser. It's called optical trapping or optical tweezers. There is a similar effect that can be done with sound waves called acoustic levitation.\n\n[Optical tweezers](_URL_1_)\n\n[Acoustic levitation](_URL_0_)",
"/u/iorgfeflkd gave a good answer, but optical tweezers do not scale well.\n\nYou could give the opposing ship an enormous electrical charge (say, with a particle beam) and give yourself an opposing charge. This is one [proposed way to steer an asteroid](_URL_2_). You don't really want a giant spark as soon as the Millennium Falcon lands though, but at the engineering level required for the rest of Star Wars I'm sure they'd find a solution.",
"We're already using magnetism to pull magnetic items towards something else. Basically for a real tractor beam we need to improve a couple of things though:\n\n* Focus - we don't want to have all metal stuff in a 20 km hemisphere come fly at us.\n* Range - once we focus, the range should go up because we're not spreading our energy over a hemisphere but just to a small cone. We managed to do that with RADAR and light - electromagnetic waves, why not with constant magnetic force as well?\n* non-magnetic things - that's the hardest part I guess. The only thing that really nicely works with all kind of matter is gravity - yet we can not turn it on and off like electromagnets, aaaaand the forces are tinytiny (it takes the whole Earth to generate a force of ~10N on a kilogramm of matter), yet perhaps there might be other ways like electric charges, or a plasma beam coating the object to be pulled with magnetic material...\n\n_URL_3_",
"Anything that can heat the opposite side of an object from the facing direction would roughly be defined as a tractor beam. That would be the best way to create such a device that would function in the vacuum of space. There are presently optical devices that can accomplish this goal. Sound waves do not propagate in vacuum, so though they are used on earth they could not be used in space. \n\n_URL_4_"
],
"score": [
78,
37,
7,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=669AcEBpdsY",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ju6wENPtXu8",
"http://www.ijastnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_10_December_2012/11.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSmuqLtmuwg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2hdKXMRKSY8"
]
}
|
Are tractor beams scientifically possible?
Watching Star Wars right now and I was curious if tractor beams could actually work/exist.
|
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] |
|
17ms00
|
If I start walking toward the sun as soon as it rose in the morning, and walked toward it through out the the day at the same constant speed, only pausing for a brief time when it was directly overhead, and then continued on till it set; would I eventually end up back in the same place as I started?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Most of the time no. Let's just look at how much you walk in the north-south direction and ignore the east-west direction for now. Let's say you're in the northern hemisphere. Then on most days, while the Sun is above horizon, it will mostly be on the southern half of your compass. Thus most of the day you'll be walking south to some degree and north only close to sunset and sunrise, if at all. So you'll end up south of where you started. However, this will depend on your latitude and time of year and there might be some particular day in a year where you'll walk the same distance south as you do north.\n\nThe east-west direction is easier to handle. If we assume that you won't walk a huge distance in a day in the first place, so that we can assume that your longitude (or latitude) doesn't change significantly, then the motion of the Sun is symmetrical in the east-west direction and you'll walk equal length in both directions.\n\nPlay with [this](_URL_0_) to see how the Sun moves across the sky at different latitudes and times of year. The yellow circle is daily path of the Sun.",
"XKCD's \"What if?\" blog [recently covered a closely related topic](_URL_1_). The post describes the path if you follow a star or planet, with various conditions and limitations.",
"If you're in the northern hemisphere you would end up way south of where you started",
"If you were near the equator, and if you moved fast enough (~1000mph) then the sun would stay in essentially a fixed spot above the horizon, assuming you start sometime in the afternoon (this would save you a lot of 'unnecessary' travel east). I believe your path would look something like a sine wave, where you cross back and forth across the equator. So should you arrange all of that, you could follow it forever, and you would eventually return to the place you started, assuming where you started was along the sine wave-ish path where the sun would lead you."
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"http://astro.unl.edu/classaction/animations/coordsmotion/sunmotions.html",
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/25/"
]
}
|
If I start walking toward the sun as soon as it rose in the morning, and walked toward it through out the the day at the same constant speed, only pausing for a brief time when it was directly overhead, and then continued on till it set; would I eventually end up back in the same place as I started?
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||
uoriq
|
Did we learn anything new from this recent Venus Transit?
|
or did we simply observe it in ways we havent before due to scientific and technological advancements?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4x92at",
"c4xfqed",
"c4xgc7i",
"c4xbiuq"
],
"text": [
"The hubble space telescope has been used to observe the transit (by observing it's reflection off the moon). This is being used to confirm that our models of how extrasolar planets dim the light from their sun are correct.\n\nTechnically that's not something new, but it does give us greater confidence that our models are correct.",
"Astronomers are using solar observation satellites to get a more accurate idea of the diameter of the sun. We know it pretty well by now (within 40 kilometers, or about 3x10^-5%), but every transit allows us a greater degree of accuracy. We have used mercury transits (FAR more frequent, but slightly less accurate) to gain a pretty good idea, but a Venusian transit allows an even smaller margin of error, thus giving us a greater degree of accuracy. \n\nI am not familiar with the mathematical specifics, but because we know the orbital velocity and distance of Venus *very* well, timing the transit lets us know how far across the sun is.\n\nSource: NPR story",
"One odd thing is that the [black drop effect](_URL_1_) seems to be vanishing. It was widely reported in the past, but with recent transits it's much less frequently identified.\n\nSome speculate that the effect is mostly an illusion produced by the less performing telescopes of the past. Others say there might be some changes either with Venus, or the Sun, or something else, that take a long time to happen and resulted in the diminishing of the effect recently.\n\nI observed the 2012 transit visually through a 50 mm f/4 achromat refractor at 23x (a pretty small instrument). I thought the black drop was pretty clearly visible. But at the same time I imaged the transit in a 150 mm f/8 newtonian reflector in prime focus. You can see the pictures below, there is no black drop visible at all. Both instruments were using the standard Baader solar safety film.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nStrange, eh?\n\nI'm not sure we actually learned anything new about the effect, but I'm sure we're getting closer to understanding it better.",
"[Rare transit of Venus a boon to exoplanet researchers](_URL_2_)\n\n[TAKING VENUS' TEMPERATURE DURING TRANSIT](_URL_3_)"
],
"score": [
76,
5,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/TGqlG#0",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drop_effect",
"http://arstechnica.com/science/2012/06/rare-transit-of-venus-a-boon-to-exoplanet-researchers/",
"http://news.discovery.com/space/probing-venus-atmosphere-during-the-transit-120604.html"
]
}
|
Did we learn anything new from this recent Venus Transit?
or did we simply observe it in ways we havent before due to scientific and technological advancements?
|
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] |
|
143vsk
|
What is the slipperiest substance on Earth?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c79php9",
"c79r6uq"
],
"text": [
"[BAM](_URL_1_) overtook Teflon for being the slipperiest substance a few years back. I believe right now the issue is getting it to bond to anything before it can be widely used as a permanent lubricant. It also happens to be an [incredibly hard material](_URL_0_) when alloyed with TiB2, getting close to the hardness of diamond.",
"I think it is cartilage. I remember this being discussed in my Biomedical Engineering class a while back. If I remember we cant make anything as slippery as it (coefficient of friction static .01 kinetic .003)\n\nEDIT:\nNot sure why the downvotes but here is a source, _URL_2_ \n\nIts a long article but here is a paragraph labeled \"Joint Lubrication\" page 75 \n\n\"Normal synovial joints operate with a relatively low coefficient of friction, about 0.001 [40,54,86]. For comparison, Teflon sliding on Teflon has a coefficient of friction of about\n0.04, an order of magnitude higher than that for synovial\njoints. Identifying the mechanisms responsible for the low\nfriction in synovial joints has been an area of ongoing research\nfor decades. Both fluid film and boundary lubrication mechanisms have been investigated.\""
],
"score": [
17,
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_magnesium_boride#Hardness",
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16102-material-slicker-than-teflon-discovered-by-accident.html",
"http://www.cartilagehealth.com/images/artcartbiomech.pdf"
]
}
|
What is the slipperiest substance on Earth?
|
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||
tu2yd
|
Reddit, is it possible to gather color information from a black and white photograph?
|
I got to thinking this morning and wondered if there is a way to analyze the tones in a black and white photograph in order to reproduce what the actual colors would have been when the picture was taken. I know that there would be a distinct margin for error given that some colors have the same grey tonal value (for instance, both red and green have the same grey value when desaturated). Any of you science heads know the answer to this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4pqfvw",
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"c4ptw9z",
"c4pqi1o",
"c4ptlu8"
],
"text": [
"No. A RGB color scale has 3 dimensions, while a black/white only has 1. For every tone except for pure black and pure white, there is an infinite number of possible combinations of RGB that could add together to make that value.",
"As I recall, there was a guy that was able to take color photos long before color film was developed. He put colored slides in front of the camera and took photos with each different color filtered. He then took the resulting slides and projected them with colored lights onto the same surface, combining into a color image. [first article I was able to find](_URL_0_)",
"As everyone has said, the answer is generally no. However:\n\n(1) if you have multiple black and white photos with different, known spectral responses, and you assume the scene you are imaging is static (or the images were taken simultaneously) you can get color images (or hyperspectral images). Much of astronomy is done this way. This is typically achieved with different color filters for a single camera.\n\n(2) Pretty much all digital cameras have a \"grayscale\" sensor, but neighboring pixels have different filters in front of them.\n\n(3) There is research to predict color images from grayscale images. These algorithms typically wouldn't be forensically useful, because they are effectively hallucinating the color information, but they can produce convincing results. Here's a recent Siggraph Asia paper:\n_URL_2_ . Here's their Siggraph video: _URL_2_ . This method involves user assistance but other algorithms are automatic (and less reliable).",
"Not at all automatically. Grayscale != color.\n\nManually, of course.",
"I am going to base most of what I know off what I am familiar with ([OpenCV, developed by Intel and other partners](_URL_3_)).\n\nSo based on a formula on that page, red is weighted at .299, green at .587, and blue at .114. Reversing this is going to leave each pixel with a limited number of options and based on knowledge of what the *should* be (ie: leaves on a tree are normally green, the sky blue, and the sun yellow), pixels in a region can be appropriately colored. So it is possibly to a limited extent to revert the color, although it will never be exact, and many unknown objects could be incorrectly colored. But this method is incredibly reliable for skin tones, hair color, eye color, and many of the natural things that we observe on a day to day basis."
],
"score": [
48,
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]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.oddee.com/item_66082.aspx",
"www.ece.nus.edu.sg/stfpage/eletp/Papers/sigasia11.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LfYQM9ePOSM",
"http://opencv.willowgarage.com/documentation/cpp/miscellaneous_image_transformations.html#cvtColor"
]
}
|
Reddit, is it possible to gather color information from a black and white photograph?
I got to thinking this morning and wondered if there is a way to analyze the tones in a black and white photograph in order to reproduce what the actual colors would have been when the picture was taken. I know that there would be a distinct margin for error given that some colors have the same grey tonal value (for instance, both red and green have the same grey value when desaturated). Any of you science heads know the answer to this?
|
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|
a1spo3
|
Why does a phase to phase electrictrical contact result in an explosion?
|
I'm looking for the actual physics of why this occurs.
In regards to a three phase system, when you connect A and B phase, or B and C or A and C this results in an explosion in the transformer.
Why is that?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eashq4j",
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"east7i5",
"easue05",
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],
"text": [
"It is because the difference in voltage developed due to difference in phase. The phases have a difference of 120 degrees between them. Instantaneously, this causes that difference between the voltages difference at to be another sinusoid with a magnitude 1.5x that of the original voltage at each phase. This causes a lot of current, and hence you see the kaboom.",
"The phases are the same RMS (root means squared, an average) voltage, but they are not the same instantanous voltage. Your household power for example is 120 or 240 V RMS. What this actually means is that if 120 V it varies from about 170 V to -170 V, doing this 50 or 60 times a second. 170 is 120×sqrt(2). We use RMS, because a normal average would give 0 for everything, and that's clearly useless. \n\n\nSo what three phase power is three different lines, all 120 V RMS, but each peaking at 170 V a third of a cycle apart. Or substitute with whatever voltage you want, the peak is always just sqrt(2) more than the RMS. \nThis is seen in commerical and industrial applications as well as transmission. The 120 V equivalent is 208 V as each phase is 208 V RMS to each other. They are 120 V RMS from ground/neutral, but 208 V RMS from each other. 208 is 120×sqrt(3). The peak voltage between phases is 294 V, 208×sqrt(2). \n\n\nSo what happens when you connect two phases? Well, two ways to look at this. Say A is peaking at 170 V to ground, well call this 170cos(0). B is then at 170cos(0-120) = -85 V. So connecting A and B while A is peaking is actually shorting 255 V, worse than shorting A simply to ground. Worst case is when 1/12 of a cycle. A is at 170cos(-30) = 147V and B is at 170cos(-30-120) = -147V, giving you a total 294V. Or you can just say voltage AB is another sine wave, 30 degrees ahead of phase A, with a peak of 294V and an RMS of 208V. Again, just sqrt(3) more than a single phase to ground. \n\n\nSo what happen when you short 208V, or worst yet 480V, 600V, 4160V, 13800V or even worse? A very, very high current (depending on circuit conditions), which results in a large amount of heat, light, and magnetic forces. Magnetic forces can tear apart electrical equipment that isn't properly braced Heat and light will burn and vaporize things for some distance. Second degree burns can happen quite the distance away. Rapid heating of air causes expansion, and worse yet vaporization of metal (copper/aluminum in the wires) causing an extreme amount of expansion. This results in a shock wave. Shockwave, heat, light. You have an explosion. Also called arc flash specifically.",
"Not sure why no one is pointing this out but let's start with the fact that a phase to phase fault won't always result in an explosion. If I had a small three-phase transformer which produced three phase 12VAC, shorting the phase conductors will not result in an explosion.\n\nAny transformer (three phase or not) when subjected to a fault (phase to phase or phase to ground) with sufficient available current to \"feed\" the fault would be capable of experiencing a dramatic display of Sparks, fire, what have you. There's nothing special about three phase transformers or phase to phase faults.\n\nNow, having said that, most large transformers are likely to be three phase. And only those very large ones are likely to be fed by a source capable of providing sufficient current to cause such an explosion. Additionally, with these transformers, being that they are three phase, the phase-to-phase voltage is higher than the phase to ground voltage. So all else being equal about the nature of the fault, a phase to phase fault will produce a higher fault current than a phase to ground fault which means higher energy and therefore a higher probability that an explosion would occur.",
"Open this image and then lets explain: [_URL_1_](_URL_0_)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nLets presume this is 240v 3 phase since the image doesn't say. Follow the Purple line to start with - at it's Peak above the center line, which we'll call 0 volts, or Ground volts, it's at 110v. it slopes down, cross the zero line, at this point it is zero volts, and then at the bottom most under the center line, it's -110v. The \"distance\" of the line from Center is always a number between 0 and 110. But if you draw lines straight up and down to any other phases and the purple phase were were talking about only 2 of the 3 will ever cross at the same point and become zero and they quickly diverge. The vertical distance between any of those lines at any given point is the voltage potential between those phases. I hope that helps.",
"I think an animation would be far better than these wordy explainations....\n\n & #x200B;\n\nthe fact of the matter is, the power running through those wires are all offset from each other... when you short the wires, the \\*timing\\* of the crests is what collides and causes the 'explosion'.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nit is more like waves on the beach; a wave comes in and another wave comes in slightly faster, overtaking the first wave... but not until the crest of wave 2 meets the crest of wave 1; when this happens, the peaks \\*build\\* off each other. Waves 'break' and cause foam when this happens. The energy expressed by the wave 'breaking' and foaming is the equivalent of the 'explosion' when crossing multiple phased power outputs. There is nowhere for the energies to go safely, so they burst out and cause the explosion."
],
"score": [
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/images/power_files/3phase.gif",
"http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/images/power\\_files/3phase.gif"
]
}
|
Why does a phase to phase electrictrical contact result in an explosion?
I'm looking for the actual physics of why this occurs. In regards to a three phase system, when you connect A and B phase, or B and C or A and C this results in an explosion in the transformer. Why is that?
|
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|
8qqp7v
|
If there was a bag of 10 balls, 9 white and 1 red and 10 people including you has to pick one randomly and who gets the red ball wins, does it matter what order you all pick, or is it better to go first or last with probability?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"It doesn't matter.\n\nThe first person to pick has a 1/10 (10%) chance to win. So he has a 9/10 (90%) chance to not win. That means that the second person to pick has a 9/10 (90%) chance to get his turn (which only happens if person 1 doesn't win), but if he gets his turn he has 1/9 (~11.11%) chance to win. That means his total chance to win is 9/10 * 1/9 = 1/10 (10%).\n\nPerson 3 only gets his turn if both 1 and 2 don't win. That means that the chance that he gets his turn is equal to 1 minus the chance that either player 1 or player 2 wins. That means: 1 - (1/10 + 1/10) = 8/10 (80%). At that point, he has a chance of 1/8 to pick the correct ball, so his total chance of winning is 8/10 * 1/8 = 1/10 (10%).\n\nYou can extend the same line of reasoning for the other players and find the same outcome, 10%, for each.",
"the probability of final result is the same regardless of what order you go in\n\nhowever it's _feels_ like the probabilities are different because _if_ you reveal the outcomes as you go, the likelihood of someone now pulling out the red ball _given that_ the last X were white _does_ change as you go along\n\ne.g. initial likelihood of anyone getting the red ball regardless of order = 10%\n\nbut say _given that_ the first 8 people pulled out white, the 9th person to go now has a 50% chance of pulling red\n\nif they pull white, the final person now has 100% chance of pulling red\n\nhowever everyone had a 10% chance to start with regardless of order",
"It doesn't matter. You can see this by calculating the probabilities as u/Rannasha did, or as follows: \n\nTake one ball after another out of the bag without looking, and arrange the balls in a sequence in the order you picked them. The red ball will be one of the 10 balls in the sequence, and it can be the first, the second, the third, etc. or the tenth ball, all with equal likelihood. The reason: all you did was to create a random sequence of the 10 balls, with all sequences equally likely. (The sequences are equally likely for symmetry reasons: no sequence is \"better\" than any other.)\n\nNow you translate this to your original game: each of the ten people is equally likely to end up with the red ball.",
"I dont know we can post maths question in this group until now. \nIn ideal maths case, the chance of anyone hetting the red ball is equal. \nBut in pratical case, it is always better to draw first, then you would not be disappointed as seeing other picked the red before your turns. \nYou can even leave the venue and do other stuff asap.",
"I know the question has been answered already, but a while ago, I had a similar question about a board game my friends and I played. It involved choosing a card that was either “liberal” or “fascist.” My friend was mad because he never picked fascist and thus never got to experience the full scope of the game. \n\nThere were I think 4 liberal cards and 3 fascist cards in a deck. I assumed that pulling first would increase the probability, but that turned out to be wrong. \n\n[I decided to make a plot on MATLAB to find out if the order in which he chose would affect the probability that he chose a fascist card.](_URL_0_) Evidently is does not. (Excuse my typos in the plot)",
"10 balls, 10 people.\n\nTo start out with everyone has a 10% chance of getting the Red Ball, so it does not matter if you go earlier or later.\n\nBUT, as white balls are drawn and players eliminated, the odds for those whose have not drawn go up: 11%, 12.5%, 14.3%, 16.7%, 20%, etc. \n\nIf eight white balls are drawn, the last two people have a 50% chance of winning. So, IF you make it to the top 2, your odds are better. BUT, your odds of the red ball still being in play after 8 drawings is only 20%\n\nIf you decide to draw last, if the red ball has not been drawn, you have a 100% chance of winning. But you only have a 10% chance that the red ball will be drawn last. So it all evens out.",
"Another way to see that it doesn't matter, is that if you numbered the balls 1 to 10, you would effectively be choosing a random permutation between you. From here you can see it's symmetric and hence each person has the same odds.",
"If all ten are pulled at once, everyone has equal odds. If all ten are pulled in sequence, but all are revealed after the last ball is pulled, everyone has equal odds. \n\n If they are pulled in sequence and revealed immediately after each ball is pulled, _but nobody can take any actions that modify the game based on the revealed information_, then everyone still has equal overall odds of winning, but the instantaneous odds fluctuate over the course of the game: say you are fourth in line. First and second balls are pulled and are revealed to be white. You now know that there is a 1/8 probability your ball is red. Third person pulls red. Now you have a 0 probability of pulling red.\n\nInteresting things happen when the balls are pulled in sequence, revealed immediately, _and you can take action based on that information_.\n In such a setup, if you have the option to choose to remain in the game or not (and perhaps increase an initial wager) it can be advantageous to go later in line. I'd have to sit down with paper and pencil to figure out of you would be better off going last or somewhere in the middle.\n\nLook up the \"Monty Hall Problem\" for an interesting and not immediately intuitive application (though not quite the same problem, it is petty fascinating. )",
"All the arguments of the form \"But if the third person picks the red ball, then the others have no chance at all!\" are simply recognition of the fact that *once the winner has been established it's not probability any more*; it's history. You know who won.",
"Everyone ignoring the real world implications... tsk tsk.\n\nGo first. \n\nThere is always a probability you might die between the moment you start the game and before it ends.\n\nAlso on the off chance that something happens mid-game and the game is voided and you might have to replay it. (i.e. fire alarm goes off, earthquake).\n\nI can think of more... like the possibility of others' cheating via sleight of hand.",
"So i wrote a python script to test this, which you can run here: _URL_1_\n\nIn the script it runs 1M simulations of this problem. The results are:\n\n1. 99900\n\n2. 99797\n\n3. 99643\n\n4. 99760\n\n5. 100101\n\n6. 99908\n\n7. 100075\n\n8. 100363\n\n9. 100252\n\n10. 100201\n\nCode:\n\n\tfrom random import shuffle\n\tcount_dictionary = {\n\t\t1: 0,\n\t\t2: 0,\n\t\t3: 0,\n\t\t4: 0,\n\t\t5: 0,\n\t\t6: 0,\n\t\t7: 0,\n\t\t8: 0,\n\t\t9: 0,\n\t\t10: 0\n\t}\n\n\tfor x in range(1000000):\n\t\tballs = list([\"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"white\", \"red\"])\n\t\tshuffle(balls)\n\t\tred_ball_location = balls.index(\"red\")+1\n\t\tcount_dictionary[red_ball_location] += 1\n\tprint count_dictionary",
"Not a mathematical answer but from programmer perspective, the drawing is a dumb process that doesn’t affect the outcome. If you were able to throw the balls in a line randomly there would be te same chance that the red ball is in a given spot. Now order them randomly then place them one by one in a line, same chances just different process for displaying the results. By drawing, even though it was one by one, the randomization is still the same, the displaying is different. If through iterating there was information that could change the outcome (like blind trades after you draw white eephant style) that could change the chances as you go.",
"The quickest way to see that it doesn't matter is to imagine that there are 1 white and 1 red. In this case, the person who goes first has a 50% chance of getting the red ball. If he does not, then the other person will get the red ball. That leaves it as a 50/50 so it's even for this case.\n\nNow imagine we want to scale it up. There's now 2 white balls and 1 red. 1/3 of the time the first person gets the red ball. If he doesn't, which happens 2/3 of the time, it's now reduced to a 1 white 1 red scenario which has been proved as a 50/50. So the odds are 1/3, 2/3 * 1/2, 2/3 * 1/2 = 1/3, 1/3, 1/3.\n\nIf it's true for the (n-1) ball case, then for the n-ball case there is a 1/n chance that the red ball is taken by the first ball, and a (n-1)/n chance that it reduces to everything remaining having 1/(n-1) probability of getting the red ball. Reducing this down it means everything has a 1/n chance for every person to get the red ball.",
"There's no difference. \n\n\nThe probability of the first guy getting the red ball is 1/10. \n\n\nProbability of the 2nd guy getting it is the probability of the 1st guy NOT getting it multiplied by the probability of the 2nd guy getting it from a total of 9 balls. In other words, 9/10 X 1/9. Which is also 1/10. \n\n\nProbability of the 3rd guy getting it is the probability of the 1st guy NOT getting it multiplied by the probability of the 2nd guy NOT getting it from a total of 9 balls multiplied by the probability of the 3rd guy getting it from a total of 8 balls. In other words, 9/10 X 8/9 X 1/8. Which is also 1/10. \n\n\nRinse and repeat for all the others. So the probability is the same regardless of which order you go in, which is 1/10",
"You should go first. \n\nWhile all of the strictly mathematical explanations are correct that it doesn’t matter, there are exceptional circumstances that mean going first is best. For instance, the game could be canceled due to an emergency. \n\nAs there is no disadvantage to any spot in the order, weird occurrences mean that first is superior.",
"I think this problem is easier to think about if you generalize it to any number of players. When there are N people remaining, the person whose turn it is has a 1/N chance of winning.\n\nStarting with the 1 player game, that player always wins. In the two player game, the first player wins half of the time, and the other half reduces to the single player game.\n\nIn the three player game, 1/3 times that player wins and the other 2/3 reduces to the two player game where each wins 1/2 the time, so 1/3 each.\n\nFrom this we can guess \"the game is fair\", that is, every player has a 1/N chance to win. Let's try to prove that.\n\nWe've already proved the game is fair in the single player case. So let's use induction to look at the game with more players.\n\nAssume the game is fair for N people, that is, each of them has a 1/N chance to win. Then with N+1 players, there is a 1/(N+1) chance the first player wins, and a ((N+1)-1)/(N+1) = N/(N+1) chance to become an N player game.\n\nThis means each of the remaining N players has a (1/N)*(N/(N+1)) chance to win the bigger N+1 size game, which equals 1/(N+1). So every player has a 1/(N+1) chance to win and therefore the game is fair.",
"Imagine every single ball is a different color. Now, assume the red ball still wins the game, but we don't reveal that until after the fact. Although there's still picking after we get to the red ball, whoever picked that will be the winner. Since there's an equal chance for anyone to get any ball color, there must be an equal chance to get the red ball and win the game.",
"Questions involving probability are many times better answered by counting rather than by appeals to theory. (Technically, we talk about the expected values of the situation.)\n\nIn this case, imagine that the game is played 100 times; how often will each player win if the order of choosing is maintained and the probabilities work out ideally? Player 1 (P1) will win ten times since 100 times there is a 1/10 chance of getting the red ball.\n\nPlayer 2 will get to choose 90 times, and each time the probability of P2 winning is 1/9, since a white ball will have already been chosen by P1. So P2 wins 1/9 of the 90 repetitions, i.e., P2 wins 10 times. \n\nCarrying on a bit, P5 will play only if P1 .. P4 get white balls, so P5 gets to play 60 times. On each play, there is one red ball and five white and the probability of winning 1/6. 1/6 of 60 is 10; P5 gets to play only 60 times, but wins ten times of the 100 repetitions.\n\nThe argument is valid for each of the ten players; in 100 repetitions, each wins ten times.\n\nbtw, claims about the game stopping when the red is drawn are irrelevant; we know what the results would have been if it had been continued - white balls for each.",
"I call this \"The Reverse Monty Hall Problem\" and wrote a short blog post about it a while back: [_URL_3_](_URL_2_)\n\nIt seems a reversal of the Monty Hall Problem to me because the main stumbling block with MHP is that people feel they have no agency from the door switch, that it \"doesn't matter\". This \"reverse\" problem presents the opposite; people feel they have agency when they do not.",
"You might be thinking of this in terms of \"oh no, that other guy picked 4th and got it, and I hadn't gotten to pick yet. I wish I'd gone sooner.\" However, you have to consider, do the odds change if you don't reveal the ball colors of all choosers until the end? They don't change at all. The odds are always the same, regardless of pick order.",
"Skipping all the math, there is a simple intuitive way of knowing that it doesn't matter.\n\nImagine, instead of balls, you had envelopes. One has $100 in it, and the other nine have just a piece of paper.\n\nEveryone blindly draws an envelope from the hat, but doesn't open it yet.\n\nWhat are the chances any individual's envelope contains $100? 10%.",
"The way the problem is listed is unclear. If you interpret it to mean that you stop picking as soon as the red ball is found is completely different than if you think it means everyone picks a ball, but does not show the colour of the ball they picked and then when they are all picked people reveal their colours.",
"A different way to look at it that makes your answer more obvious: Imagine your ten balls are randomly numbered from 1 to 10. Which number is most likely to be red?\n\nThis is completely equivalent to your version, since you can write which place a ball was picked after the fact.",
"If the game is fair, order does not matter, as u/Rannasha explained.\n\nThere's some nonzero chance that one or more of the other players has found some way to influence the odds, though. A perfectly rigged game will also have the same outcome regardless of the order of play, and reduces to the same result. \n\nIn some cases, however, a \"mechanic\" will figure out some way to pick a ball in a way that reduces the randomness of their own pick (and the chances of those who play after themselves), or the pick of players who draw later than themselves, but not any pick of ball that occurs before they touch the bag.\n\nIf the chances of an imperfectly unfair game are negligible, going earlier is of no practical importance. As the probability of imperfect cheating increases, going earlier takes on increasing importance, because the game will be fair to those who draw before any cheaters, and unfair to those who draw after.",
"Probability does not care/know about previous results. The overall chance of drawing the red ball is 10 & #37;.\n\nIf before you draw a ball you know there are say...2 left, and that the red ball has not yet been drawn, you kcan calculate that you have a 50 & #37; chance now based on the previous results. But your overall chance to draw the red ball was always 10 & #37;, it could have been gone already by the time you got your turn.\n\nCame up for us at school during genetics classes through the following thought exercise \"If we can calculate that a particular couple has a 25 & #37; of their child having down's syndrome, how many children they have already had and their status is never relevant, the chance is always 25 & #37; for each new child.\"",
"Well you’d want to be last because presumably you’d stop the game after the red ball was picked, therefore the last person to play will always be the winner ;)\n\nIn all seriousness though it shouldn’t matter as the chances are the same no matter what, it will just seem like they change",
"To put it a simpler way, imagine everyone picking from the bag and revealing simultaneously, it removes the reciprocal \"order / chance to win / chance to play\" which gives everyone equal odds, and just reduces it to \"chance that you got the ball\""
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{
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{
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{
"url": [
"https://imgur.com/gallery/kIb0Sfl",
"https://codepad.remoteinterview.io/CFNIVBCPSG",
"http://rcorell.blogspot.com/2010/12/reverse-monty-hall-problem.html",
"http://rcorell.blogspot.com/2010/12/reverse\\-monty\\-hall\\-problem.html"
]
}
|
If there was a bag of 10 balls, 9 white and 1 red and 10 people including you has to pick one randomly and who gets the red ball wins, does it matter what order you all pick, or is it better to go first or last with probability?
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||
jpcc8
|
The Death Of Oddjob. apparently electricity didn't work he way I thought
|
Reading about electrical engineering and pulled a quote from a site:
"You may have seen movies where the hero rips a high voltage wire off the wall, frying the evil villain with a shower of sparks from the end of the wire. Sorry, but this can't happen. A water pump can pump water out of a hose into the air, but if an electrical pump (battery or generator) tried to pump electricity out of the end of a wire, nothing would happen because of the strong force of attraction between the free electrons and the positive ions in the wire"
I don't understand the part about free electrons and positive ions. If someone could explain this or, if not, tell me why this person is mistaken you will have made my night.
Love, Reddit
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2e0g1n",
"c2e0eje",
"c2e1bb1",
"c2e17d5"
],
"text": [
"Air is a particularly good insulator—it prevents electron flow until you get to higher voltages, like lightning. If you pulled a high power cable from a wall in almost any circumstance that might occur in an action film it's going to act real boring and do nothing at all.\n\nInsulators work because electricity is caused by net motion of free electrons through a medium and they prevent that motion. Copper, a conductor, enables the electrons to move quickly due to something called a conduction band, a property of metals. Electrons can easily occupy and move through that band facilitating electricity flow. Insulators, like air, have both different chemical properties and different physical properties such that electrons cannot easily jump from air molecule to air molecule (again, except under special circumstances).\n\nIf you touch it, however, it won't need to pass through insulating air any more.",
"If you shove an open bunch of live wires into a guy's chest, he's going to die.",
"If the wire is under load (i.e. something connected to it is drawing current) or it is temporarily grounded during removal, then there will initially be a shower of sparks due to ionisation of the air and/or melting of the conductor. [This video](_URL_0_) shows the potential dangers of creating an arc between (in this case temporarily shorting) high-voltage busbars.\n\nElectrocution is usually pretty uneventful visually unless high voltages and currents are involved. There are numerous NSFL videos on YouTube showing the results of high-tension power lines inadvertently shorted by the human body.",
"One thing I've noticed about movie sequences in general... Nobody ever fails to rip that wire or pipe loose to get the bad guy.\n\nEven low grade electrical wiring or plumbing(let alone industrial construction) is surprisingly durable!"
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Qq7U7tFsvQ&feature=related"
]
}
|
The Death Of Oddjob. apparently electricity didn't work he way I thought
Reading about electrical engineering and pulled a quote from a site: "You may have seen movies where the hero rips a high voltage wire off the wall, frying the evil villain with a shower of sparks from the end of the wire. Sorry, but this can't happen. A water pump can pump water out of a hose into the air, but if an electrical pump (battery or generator) tried to pump electricity out of the end of a wire, nothing would happen because of the strong force of attraction between the free electrons and the positive ions in the wire" I don't understand the part about free electrons and positive ions. If someone could explain this or, if not, tell me why this person is mistaken you will have made my night. Love, Reddit
|
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] |
|
245dpp
|
Is there something inedible that is high in nutritional value, other than the fact that it's toxic?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ch3sbr1",
"ch3wwaw",
"ch3xidm",
"ch42coh"
],
"text": [
"The first thing that comes to mind is pure [Ricin](_URL_0_). Being a protein, you could very easily digest it into its component amino acids.\n\nIf it weren't for the fact that it shuts off your ribosomes and kills every cell it gets its hands on in unsettlingly small doses.",
"The fruits of the potato plant look like small brown cherry tomatoes. They are probably about as nutritious as a tomato but quite poisonous.\n\nMany beans are highly nutritious but are fairly toxic until cooked. The Kidney bean being the classic example.",
"[Cassava](_URL_2_) is an energy-dense root that contains nearly twice the energy content per gram than a potato. It also contains [cyanogenic glycosides](_URL_2_) which get metabolized in the body to pure cyanide. If the vegetable is not prepared in a very specific way, ingesting one can lead to to toxic effects or death within hours of consumption.",
"Acorns are poisonous if eaten without prepping them first. They have a very high level of tannins in them, which will stall digestion. If you soak them in water for a number of hours, or boil them, then dispose of the water, you can then eat them."
],
"score": [
283,
139,
109,
10
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanogenic_glycoside#Cyanogenic_glycosides",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassava"
]
}
|
Is there something inedible that is high in nutritional value, other than the fact that it's toxic?
|
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||
lvq3b
|
If I run electricity through a steak, will it move?
|
Assuming DC and other best possible settings; also what would those be? How old could it be? As in, would it happen if I bought a fairly fresh stake from the store?
This question has absolutely nothing to do with scaring the everlasting shit out of kids coming to my door.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Most likely not. The cycle that causes the muscle to contract requires ATP in order work. The electrical impulse just allows the muscle to contract. At this point in the steak's life, it most likely has no ATP left.",
"The settings would probably be around 30-70mv to get a muscle action potential going.\n\n In order for a contraction to take place you would need calcium ions(Ca^2+) to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of each muscle cell. \n\nCalcium is required to be released because calcium binds to the troponin-tropomyosin complex, changing the shape of the troponin-tropomyosin, which uncovers the myosin binding sites on actin which allows myosin to bind to actin, and then that allows a power strike to happen, which shortens the muscle cell.\n\n\nUnfortunately this all requires ATP, which would be long gone in a steak. What actually happens when there is no ATP left is the myosin will stay bound to actin, leaving them contracted for awhile until the proteins start to deform and denature. That is called rigor mortis.\n\n\nI'm not sure what the levels of calcium would be in a steak.. Without calcium ions, there is no contraction.\n\nBut it almost certainly would not work.",
"Beef muscle will respond to electrical pulses for about 16 - 18 hours after slaughter, then rigor mortis sets in\n\nA brief series of high voltage pulses applied soon after slaughter will reduce this time to minutes \n\nI published the original research ( J Fd Technol 1973 8) that demonstrated this as a process for improving meat quality and it is now being used in packing houses throughout the world",
"I'm not entirely sure about a fresh steak, so this is not a direct scientific answer to your question. \n\nHowever I do know that if you want to scare the crap out of some kids you can put salt on some [frog legs](_URL_0_!), and they'll twitch like crazy.",
"ok, not to threadjack, but what if it was off of a deer I had just killed? how long would the meat retain the ATP?"
],
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{
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{
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|
{
"url": [
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|
If I run electricity through a steak, will it move?
Assuming DC and other best possible settings; also what would those be? How old could it be? As in, would it happen if I bought a fairly fresh stake from the store? This question has absolutely nothing to do with scaring the everlasting shit out of kids coming to my door.
|
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] |
|
agwhwu
|
Is it possible that some of the puzzle slides are unsolveable?
|
Example for 3x3 number puzzle:
(From top left)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 7, (blank)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eea0crb",
"eea0cwa",
"eea0dpj"
],
"text": [
"Yes. It's not only possible, it's demonstrable and follows a very regular pattern. In fact, exactly half of the possible starting states are solvable, and exactly half are not.\n\nFor a quick and comprehensible proof of concept, consider a \"3-puzzle\" as opposed to your 8-puzzle. There are 24 possible states for a 3-puzzle. So it's not difficult to enumerate them. Then you can start to see which states lead to other states and which lead to valid solutions. You should find that exactly 12 starting states are solvable, and 12 are not.\n\nThis pattern persists for 8-puzzles, 15-puzzles, and so on. For more detail on determining solvability, you can look at this page: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)",
"Yes.\n\nThere are arrangements of the tiles that are not achievable from the solved state. If you pop out a tile and switch it with certain other ones, you can have a state from which you cannot achieve a solved state.",
"Yes. It was proven in the 19th century that half of arrangements of a 4x4 puzzle are unsolvable.\n\n_URL_2_\n\nFor the 4x4 case, simply swapping the 14 and 15 like so makes it unsolvable\n\n01 02 03 04\n\n05 06 07 08\n\n09 10 11 12\n\n13 15 14 []"
],
"score": [
15,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/\\~mdr/teaching/modules04/java2/TilesSolvability.html",
"https://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~mdr/teaching/modules04/java2/TilesSolvability.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15_puzzle"
]
}
|
Is it possible that some of the puzzle slides are unsolveable?
Example for 3x3 number puzzle: (From top left) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 7, (blank)
|
[
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6w463u
|
What kind of statistics are needed to determine whether a point is moving randomly?
|
Bear with me, there's some explaining to do here:
I was watching water striders skim across the surface of a lake, and was wondering what kind of statistical techniques or math are needed to determine whether the movement is random, or following some sort of pattern.
So a more precise formulation of the question: suppose we have a point S that starts at the origin. Every second, point S moves a fixed distance (let's say 1 unit) in some direction in the 2D plane. How long would I have to watch point S before I could be 95% confident whether or not the movement was random?
Extension questions; suppose the distance moved is variable also, not just the direction. How does that change things?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"You can't be sure if it is random or a pattern, but you can estimate whether it matches some model that you have in mind.\n\nAs a simple example, let's say the bug only moves in one direction (forward), but does so in discrete steps (some unit of length) at random times. This would be a type of Poisson process. We measure the times of the bug moving and find a Poisson process that best describes this motion. We could then use either frequentist or Bayesian statistics to estimate the likelihood that we have chosen the correct model, such as calculating the likelihood estimate or confidence intervals for the model parameters. To gain more confidence, we could take further measurements of the same bug and see if it fits the same distribution. We could also look at other bugs and see if their movements can also be described by a similar distribution (perhaps with different parameter values). We could then begin to compare aspects of the bugs (size, age, breed) to the model parameters and see if we can find relationships between them to explain why some bugs most faster or further. We can't be certain that we have the right model, but we can say with some level of confidence if the measurements could be described by our model.\n\nThe difference between random and a pattern is that we can predict the next step of the pattern. Something that seems random can suddenly become not random if we know what causes it and how to predict it. We often model things as random if they are sufficiently complicated that it is unreasonable to calculate everything about it. For example, you could try to calculate how much fuel your car uses while driving, but there are a lot of factors that are constantly changing, and tracking them all perfectly (down to the atom) is simply too much. Instead, we explain the largest factors by patterns that we know (engine efficiency, wind speed and direction, temperature, driving speed) and the rest we treat as random - it has a known set of possibilities, but at any moment we don't know for sure which one we will get. This model always results in an answer that is a random distribution - not an exact answer - but the location and spread say how strong our belief is that the fuel efficiency we actually end up measuring will be that one (or more typically, within our chosen range, where smaller ranges - more accurate - are less likely to be guessed correctly).\n\nFor a more thorough discussion of this, check out the NIST handbook on engineering statistical methods. _URL_0_",
"/u/reverseEngineered gave the correct answer. You can not determine through observation if something is random, or otherwise.\n\nBut, lets take a step back for a second, and ask an easier question. Assume that the movement from time n to n+1 is described by one of two probability density functions, can we determine which one it is? The answer to this is almost surely. Tests of these types are called [binary hypothesis tests (PDF)](_URL_2_), and are commonly used in probability theory.\n\nTo see why this is obvious, let P and Q be the PDFs, and consider the case where *n* movements *m* are observed (going to write this sequence as *m*^(*n*) ). Obviously since P and Q are both measures, the simplest form of comparison would be to determine P if P(*m*^(*n*)) > Q(*m*^(*n*)), and otherwise Q. \n\nIn fact, more sophisticated methods of comparison also control for type I and type II errors (false positive and false negative respectively), see the [Neyman-Pearson Lemma](_URL_2_). Regardless of the type of test, if the movements are IID ~ Q, then the probability of observing empirical distribution P is about exp(-nD(P||Q) ), where D is the kullback leiber divergence. D(P||Q) is only zero if P=Q, so with exponentially small probability will you not be able to determine between P and Q. This idea can of course be extended to multiple hypothesis, and non-iid movement in the obvious ways. So not much problem there.\n\nThe problem is though, by considering probability distributions over the entire set of sequences, the most likely outcome is that sequence was deterministic according the distribution you observed. In other words if you observe 01010011, the most likely distribution over all distributions is that one where P(01010011) = 1 and P(*) = 0 otherwise. \n\nIn practice though, this inability to decide is not generally a problem. Instead, generally you start under the assumption of a basic hypothesis, explain the hypothesis and then show the data meets this hypothesis. Or you can take the alternative approach and assume that the distribution is restricted in some way and then run BHTs.",
"> How long would I have to watch point S before I could be 95% confident whether or not the movement was random?\n\nIt depends on how you evaluate this probability, and what exactly you call \"random\". Probably never.\n\nAs an example, computers have pseudorandom number generators. If you generate 10^whatever random numbers, they will repeat eventually. With a good algorithm you'll never see this within the lifetime of the universe, but if you could watch it forever then you would see it is not random. The better the algorithm the longer you need before you notice patterns.",
"While people have given you great, formal mathematical answers to your question I don't feel they've really answered the spirit of what you were asking. \n\nAs mentioned statistics can tell you whether a set of observations/values you observe have or have not been drawn from a given distribution. When asking lay questions about random selection people are usually implying selection from a uniform distribution (over some interval) \n\nFor instance if I ask you to select a number between one and ten (interval 1 to 10) the implication is that I want you choose a number such that any choice has equal probability. This is the common sense, but not formal, meaning of selecting a number at random. \n\nSo I can now do a statistical experiment with this. If I select 1,000,000 integers between 1 and 10 I can then test if they come from a uniform distribution. If they were selected randomly from a uniform distribution I would expect that a 10th of the values will be 1s, a 10th will be 2s and so on. If 500,000 of the values turn out to be 7s then it would be very unlikely the numbers we are seeing are sampled from a uniform distribution.\n\nSo instead of testing if my values are sampled at random (which as mentioned by others is somewhat undecideable) I can at least test if the values come from a given distribution. The uniform distribution in this case. \n\nWhat does this look like for the point in a 2D world? Lets say your point changes heading every second. We can measure the new heading as a number of degrees of deflectiom from the old heading. For the sake of conceptual ease the new heading can be any integer number of degrees from 0 to 359 (although the math also works fine if we choose any continuous real value). Now, given my above preamble, the question is really \"are the deflection values my point chooses drawn from the uniform distribution or not\" i.e. If I watch for long enough will I discover every value from 0 to 359 is equally likely. If it turns out to be the case then colloquially we would usually think of this as random movement. \n\nAdding distance moved as a new variable doesn't much complicate this. Distance moved could also be sampled randomly from a uniform distribution (over some interval). We could measure this independently and resolve the statistics independently or if you suspect that heading and distance interact you could work with the joint probabilities of these events"
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neyman%E2%80%93Pearson_lemma",
"http://web.mit.edu/gallager/www/papers/chap3.pdf"
]
}
|
What kind of statistics are needed to determine whether a point is moving randomly?
Bear with me, there's some explaining to do here: I was watching water striders skim across the surface of a lake, and was wondering what kind of statistical techniques or math are needed to determine whether the movement is random, or following some sort of pattern. So a more precise formulation of the question: suppose we have a point S that starts at the origin. Every second, point S moves a fixed distance (let's say 1 unit) in some direction in the 2D plane. How long would I have to watch point S before I could be 95% confident whether or not the movement was random? Extension questions; suppose the distance moved is variable also, not just the direction. How does that change things?
|
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|
r6pma
|
Evolution Debate
|
askscience
|
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"[Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution - Theodosius Dobzhansky](_URL_0_)",
"[Laboratory Observed Speciation](_URL_4_)\n\n[A starting point for objections to evolution](_URL_4_)\n\n[Nylon-eating bacteria](_URL_4_) The latter being interesting in that it has apparently evolved enzymes only useful for digesting nylon products, which are not only different from its relatives, but also which would have also obviously been useless before humans invented nylon in the 30's.\n\n[Discussion on the misuse of the scientific terms fact and theory in the evolution debate](_URL_4_)",
"[Evidence of common descent](_URL_5_) \n[20+ evidences for evolution](_URL_6_) \n[A website with a load of links supporting evolution](_URL_7_)",
"The best \"proof\" for evolution that I can come up with is the fact that we get sick every year. All viruses mutate and \"evolve\" in order to become better resistant to our treatment methods. Every year, a new strain of cold appears that is more resistant to last years medicine.\n\nThis is essentially natural selection in it's purest form. Every year when you take medicine to combat your cold, there is a small amount of the virus that resists the treatment. This small amount is not enough to keep you sick and therefore you recover. However, this small remaining amount then breeds and multiplies until it is the new dominant strain of virus. To my knowledge, this process is one of the easiest ways to validate natural selection.\n\n_URL_8_",
"You may be presented with arguments, presented as *fact* that you may not be able to counter if you do not prepare for them.\n\nFor example, it is sometimes claimed there has been insufficient time, given a particular rate of random mutation, to produce the observed complexity in the natural world.\nYou can question the assumptions, such as how many mutations would be required to produce a given complexity, but you won't likely have a better basis to estimate this made-up quantity. You can, however, point to natural selection as a way to amplify the rate of beneficial mutation propagation. That is, the process is not entirely random, more of a go with what works \"survival of the fittest\".\n\nAnother example is that very complex systems could never evolve because intermediate stages are not viable, and would not produce survival benefits.\nI have heard eyes used in this line of reasoning, and point out that there are existing examples of photo-receptive organisms all along the spectrum of \"eyes\", such as deep sea hydrothermal shrimp, copepods, etc.\n\n\n[Here](_URL_10_) is one *point*. And, [here](_URL_9_) is its *counterpoint*.\n\nedit: fixed link (1)",
"[The peppered moth](_URL_11_) is a great and easy to understand example of observable evolution that has been studied in depth.\n\n The moth was originally light grey & splotchy to help it camouflage on the lichen growing on trees. During the industrial revolution the pollution slowly killed off the lichen. The moths that were born with mutations making them a slightly darker shade allowed them a better chance of survival because they could hide from predators better (the trees were black with pollution from coal burning) . Eventually most of the moths born were a dark grey, almost black shade, because the trait of having dark color allowed them to survive and reproduce to pass that trait on.\nNow that the pollution has been cleaned up/less coal burning the numbers of light color moths are starting to increase again.",
"There's an avalanche of information supporting evolution, but I think the most helpful would be to know weak points for counterarguments like Intelligent Design.\n\nRead Behe's book that entails the concept of 'Irreducible Complexity,' and figure out (or simply do a quick Google search) of why that concept does not work.\n\nGood counterarguments to Behe include 'Arch' theory, which is a good place to start!",
"OP said not to focus on just religious counter-points to evolution, but who else doesn't believe in evolution? Or at least who doesn't believe in evolution and has their own point of view on the matter other than \"I don't know.\"\n\nIt would probably be best to focus on the religious points, like irreducible complexity, and it \"violating\" the second law of thermodynamics. \n\nRead through this wiki\n\n_URL_12_\n\nIt should tackle just about everything that you could possibly encounter. \n\nFor points of your own, I find very simple and tangible examples work best. Like how different antibiotics on a petri dish of the same bacteria will kill different sized circles of the bacterial lawn and how that can be analogous to how evolved that bacteria is to resisting that antibiotic.",
"This will not be a debate in the sense that both parties do not follow the same rules of debate, nor share the same basis of assumptions.",
"If you're looking for books, try Why Evolution is True, by Jerry Coyne. [There's an accompanying blog that might be worth reading too](_URL_13_).",
"One type of argument I find very compelling against Intelligent Design is pointing out examples of poor design in some living beings, like the Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve on mammals, particularly on giraffes. \n\n_URL_14_\n\nThe left laryngeal nerve could make a very straight path right into the larynx, but instead it descends down to the thorax, passes through the aortic arch and comes up again to reach the larynx. Imagine this path in an animal like a giraffe: this means that instead of making the straight path of a some 20 - 30 centimeters from the vague nerve to the larynx, it goes down and up again a two meter long neck!! And this introduces some problems: material waste, delays in the nervous impulse reaching the larynx, need for more energy expenses for a sufficiently strong nervous impulse to reach the destination (because of dissipation), etc.\n\nIt's easy to explain this in an evolutionary setting. Fishes don't have necks, so the the equivalent of the larynx nerve make a straight path to its destination through the various blood vessels in the fish thorax. Evolution is constrained to generate new body plans based on the existing ones. It can't just invent something entirely new. New bodies evolve in small steps from the previous existing bodies. And all intermediate states must be viable! So, as mammal necks start growing, the nerve is already stuck with its path through the thorax. Selection would favor an animal with a shorter nerve, but there are not many ways to get from long nerve to short nerve in small viable steps. \n\nAs biologists often put it: evolution is not global optimizer. It must work through small, viable steps on what already exists. \n\nAn intelligent all-knowing designer is not constrained by this! He can just make the perfect animal from scratch. So... how do you explain poor design by a perfect designer? Deliberate sloppiness?",
"1) Concrete examples : Lenski's work on the long term evolution expereiment, and vinyl eating bacteria are great examples. Google them; it will show up.\n\n2) Read [this](_URL_15_). I link that all the time; it's a fantastic article, and is readable at the educated layman level. It's not that fact-packed, but it will help you understand the concept a bit better.\n\n3) To counter their arguments, make them prove their opinion at least to the point that evolution has been proven to them; similar levels of rigor. I'm sure your bio textbook has some examples in it, so they need to present data supporting their proposed mechanism at at least the same level of rigor. Introduce them to this concept before you start any discussion.\n\n4) \"God did it because I believe God did it\" doesn't count because you can counter with a statement of equal rigor: \"God didn't do it because I don't believe God did it.\" The way you do this is important, though; when they say that, casually comment that their statement is a bit flippant. When they counter that it isn't, argue that if you used the opposite statement (God didn't do it because I believe he didn't), you would feel uncomfortable as the comment would seem flippant to you. They will disagree to support their stance. Now you can counter with that exact statement.\n\n4) Talkorigins is a great website. It's about as old as the internet, I think.",
"Point out the fact that the theory of evolution is a serious scientific endeavor with multitudes of observations and evidence that all point to the truth of that theory. Then point out that Christianity, Judaism and Islam all tell completely different stories about the exact same God, and how many sects within those religions disagree completely (sometimes violently) about the interpretation of just one source of evidence (i.e. whichever holy text). It's not a matter of believing in evolution, evolution is an observable scientific fact. Saying you believe in evolution is like saying you believe in physics or the water cycle.",
"Youtube user [CDK007 has done a lot of videos explaining evolution and countering creationist/ID attacks on evolution](_URL_19_).\n\nA few picks:\n\n* [The basics of how evolution works](_URL_17_) / [Part 2](_URL_23_)\n\n* [Clock evolution / argument against a common straw man attack](_URL_20_)\n\n* [Irreducible complexity](_URL_22_)\n\n* [Evolution of the Flagellum](_URL_16_)\n\n* [Why Intelligent Design is wrong](_URL_21_) / [Part 2](_URL_18_)\n\nAlso remember that evolution does not cover where life originated from, only what happens when you already have self replicating organisms. The theory of how life started is a separate theory called abiogenesis.",
"1. There is no debate, this isn't a popularity contest so unfortunately less intelligent don't get to participate this time\n2. HxNx, x = different numbers, flu strains, different receptors show up each year\n3. DNA viruses, like herpes/HIV, have large genomes to change their protein coat to evade the immune system, aka evolving\n4. Historical evidence of humans, *Homo* species developing bigger brains and growing a bigger skeletal system\n5. HLA B53 gene more frequently found in West African populations, which help against malaria\n6. CCR5-Δ32 _URL_24_",
"If you explain how evolution works you'll see that it is almost a tautology. Also I just read [this](_URL_25_) which might give you some pointers if you want to convince even those who won't listen to your other arguments.",
"Evolution is nothing but the change in allele frequency over time, so I'd start with that simple definition. I'd also bring up all the examples of antibiotic resistance such as MRSA.",
"Despite its controversiality and likelihood to be completely opposed to the scientific community, deleting the original post was unnecessary. Now we have no context or 2nd party.",
"Depending on the structure of the debate you may want to try to take a more objective view. Your clear bias compromises you...just a thought.",
"When are they going to have the Gravity debate?"
],
"score": [
25,
19,
16,
15,
11,
7,
5,
3,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://people.delphiforums.com/lordorman/light.htm",
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2409365?uid=3739680&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=55928612223",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon-eating_bacteria",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/",
"http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/faqs-mustread.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_evolution",
"http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2008/04/four_bad_arguments_against_evo.php",
"http://www.renewamerica.com/columns/fischer/080418",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppered_moth_evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objections_to_evolution",
"http://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent_laryngeal_nerve",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/21p11486w0582205/fulltext.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SdwTwNPyR9w&feature=plcp&context=C4ee3d94VDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUoot7AOvZsTnMwGdypzLSiBF9o=",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SeTssvexa9s&feature=plcp&context=C4c8ed02VDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUootxs0FOv6hpKs4w2ctLa4uXA=",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xx5t5_trnuU&feature=plcp&context=C448b5d5VDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUoot2FH-6F4uRQUCalCudiEa3g=",
"http://www.youtube.com/user/cdk007/videos",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcAq9bmCeR0&feature=plcp&context=C429e08eVDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUootwiXVKWx8teC7bI6PiflIIQ=",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M2SVMKZhV2g&feature=plcp&context=C4b4f2ddVDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUoot1YZxitf4V2jOj1lKEg99uc=",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZdCxk0CnN4&feature=plcp&context=C4127bf8VDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUoot46DL6oqkdZJGxBIlqqvAio=",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=26dwfZIqfco&feature=plcp&context=C4883b92VDvjVQa1PpcFMBUQaLKUoot_TqiJIXiZDBmo6riWWO31A=",
"http://www.eeb.ucla.edu/Faculty/Novembre/GalvaniNovembreMicInf2005.pdf",
"http://www.alternet.org/teaparty/154607/How_the_Right-Wing_Brain_Works_and_What_That_Means_for_Progressives/"
]
}
|
Evolution Debate
|
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2qxe1u
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Why can we ignore the imaginary part of the simple harmonic motion displacement equation?
|
If you derive the displacement of a mass on a spring from the first principles F = mx''(t) = -kx(t) then you get the equation x(t) = Acos(wt) + iBsin(wt) where A and B are real constants and w is the angular frequency (sqrt(k/m)).
Why can we eliminate the second half of the equation? Is it ever used?
My working for the derivation is as follows, there may be a mistake as google is fruitless:
F = mx''(t) = -kx(t)
x''(t) + kx(t)/m = 0
let x = e^nt
n^2 e^nt + k/m e^nt = 0
n^2 + k/m = 0 as e^nt =/= 0
therefore n = +/- (-k/m)^0.5
x(t) = c1e^iwt + c2e^-iwt (Substituting w for (k/m)^0.5
Applying Euler's identity:
e^iwt = cos(wt) + isin(wt)
x(t) = c1 + c2)cos(wt) + i(c1 - c2)sin(wt)
x(t) = Acos(wt) + iBsin(wt)
|
askscience
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"Once you get to the general solution you have to get the particular solution by applying the initial conditions. Say you know the position and velocity at t=0. This first means that A has to be equal to the initial displacement x(0). Looking at the derivative you have\n\nX'(t=0) = iBw\n\nSo unless you have an \"imaginary\" initial velocity, which is an unphysical thing, B must be a function of 1/i, or in the case of 0 initial velocity, 0/i = 0.\n\nIn short, you'd need an imaginary displacement or velocity as an initial or boundary value for B to end up nonzero (or A to be imaginary).",
"Have you taken a course in linear algebra? It will clear up a lot of your confusion, but we have two solutions:\n\ny1 = e^(iwt) , y2 = e^(-iwt)\n\nThe solutions are called linearly independent (which for now means \"not constant multiples of each other\") and any other solution is a linear combination of these two solutions.\n\nCan you verify for yourself that (y1 + y2)/2 = cos(wt) and (y1 - y2)/(2i) = sin(wt)?\n\nSince cos(wt) and sin(wt) are formed as linear combinations of y1 and y2, that means cos(wt) and sin(wt) are also solutions to the differential equation. Furthermore, cos(wt) and sin(wt) are also linearly independent, which means that you can write the general solution as:\n\ny = (c1)sin(wt) + (c2)cos(wt)\n\nMany times, this form of the general solution is more useful than the exponential form because it is purely real-valued, with real coefficients.\n\nSo there is no \"discarding of solutions\".\n\nBut linear algebra is so cool and fascinating that I feel compelled to share this with you:\n\nIf you study physics, you are familiar with coordinate systems. The most familiar is the Cartesian coordinate system, and you know that there are a set of \"basis vectors\" (i, j, k). Every other vector in R^3 can be formed through linear combinations of these basis vectors.\n\nLinear algebra extends these concepts to arbitrary \"vector spaces\" which are not necessarily R^3 . In this case, one vector space is the \"space of solutions to the differential equation\". Just like one defines basis vectors for R^3 , one can also define basis vectors for this solution space - the requirement is that there are enough of them (the solution space of a 2nd-order differential equation is 2-dimensional, which means you need 2 solutions), and that the basis vectors are all linearly independent. This means that e^(iwt) and e^(-iwt) are basis vectors for the solution space.\n\nBut there is no unique set of basis vectors; in fact, cos(wt) and sin(wt) are also basis vectors for the same solution space. And any solution to the differential equation is a linear combination of the basis vectors... that's exactly what c1 and c2 tell you. Essentially, (c1, c2) is a coordinate in your solution space relative to the basis vectors!",
"Short answer: Let B be imaginary.\n\nSlightly longer answer: the real and imaginary parts are independent solutions.\n\nConsiderably longer answer: Using complex numbers at all is just a trick we can use thanks to linearity. First, both cos(wt) and sin(wt) are solutions, so since the equations of motion are linear in x (multiplication by m and second derivative on one side, multiplication by -k on the other) you can take a linear combination to get e^+/- iwt = cos(wt) +/- i sin(wt).\n\nOf course that's not how you got that; it's easier to derive the solution e^iwt than the cosine or sine solutions separately. You can get back to the real and imaginary parts either by adding the two exponentials e^+/-iwt , as you do, or just by using the fact that the equations of motion are entirely real, which means that you can break apart the real and imaginary parts of the solution:\n\n(mD^2 + k)x = 0\n\n(mD^2 + k)[Re(x) + i Im(x)] = 0\n\n(mD^2 + k)Re(x) + i(mD^2 + k)Im(x) = 0\n\n== > (mD^2 + k)Re(x) = 0 and (mD^2 + k)Im(x) = 0,\n\nwhich is to say both the real and imaginary parts separately solve the equation of motion.",
"If you look at your solution you will notice that it is in the form of a complex number:\n\nx = C + iD\n\nwhere C = Acos(wt) and D = Bsin(wt)\n\nNow think back to algebra where you learned about the complex plane. The real axis was the \"x\" axis and the imaginary axis was the \"y\" axis on this plane, and for any value of x on the real axis there was a corresponding value for y. This could all be visualized as a vector on this complex plane (the real and imaginary parts being the components of this vector). \n\nSince we are only interested in the x-value for the simple harmonic oscillator solution, we only need to interpret the x-component on the complex plane when you are done solving the problem, that is, we just look at the real part (the value(s) on the imaginary or \"y\" axis would still be there mathematically but they wouldn't have any effect on the x-value, as orthogonal vector components don't influence one another, and so we can choose to ignore those if we so choose).",
"Just like when you solve acceleration equations and ignore the imaginary result of time or distance....we ignore it because we say it can't happen but really we just don't know what imaginary time is and how we can actually use it in the physical world. When you can get from A to B in \n2 + i4 seconds there is a noble prize waiting for you."
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Why can we ignore the imaginary part of the simple harmonic motion displacement equation?
If you derive the displacement of a mass on a spring from the first principles F = mx''(t) = -kx(t) then you get the equation x(t) = Acos(wt) + iBsin(wt) where A and B are real constants and w is the angular frequency (sqrt(k/m)). Why can we eliminate the second half of the equation? Is it ever used? My working for the derivation is as follows, there may be a mistake as google is fruitless: F = mx''(t) = -kx(t) x''(t) + kx(t)/m = 0 let x = e^nt n^2 e^nt + k/m e^nt = 0 n^2 + k/m = 0 as e^nt =/= 0 therefore n = +/- (-k/m)^0.5 x(t) = c1e^iwt + c2e^-iwt (Substituting w for (k/m)^0.5 Applying Euler's identity: e^iwt = cos(wt) + isin(wt) x(t) = c1 + c2)cos(wt) + i(c1 - c2)sin(wt) x(t) = Acos(wt) + iBsin(wt)
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] |
|
3tjazw
|
When I feel like there's someone behind me but no one is there, what am I feeling exactly?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cx6yfmm",
"cx73r0n",
"cx7cw1p",
"cx7kvyj"
],
"text": [
"This sounds like the [psychic staring effect](_URL_0_). Many people experience this, but there is no evidence that they actually sense anyone. \n\nI am unaware of any research which attempts to address *why* we have such feelings. From a signal detection theory standpoint, it might be that we are misinterpreting external / internal noise as signal (a person being there), as when you think you see something out of the corner of your eye, or when you get \"phantom vibrations\" of your phone even when it's not really ringing or even in your pocket, or when you think you hear someone at the door (especially if you are actually expecting someone).",
"The obstacle sense is the closest scientific phenomena to the question the op asked - and it is acoustically mediated. None of the somatosensory receptors have adequate sensitivity to suggest detection of a body outside ourselves via air currents or the like. Sound echoes, otoh, have a lot more information than you think. \n \n_URL_1_",
"I had read about this before, but can't find the original source. What I can find on it right now is this: [second-presence effect](_URL_2_). It's an interesting read. Basically even healthy brains can hallucinate when its functions are somewhat compromised by things like stress, hypoxia, or sleep deprivation.\n\n***\n\nThe other part of this that I had read in the original source was about an experiment they conducted, which I will try to recount for you to the best of my memory:\n\nThey hook people up to a machine such that the machine matched their hand movement. The participants were essentially using the machine to scratch their own back. They move their hand, and the machine moves across their back accordingly. The participants felt like they were scratching their own back.\n\nNow the interesting part is, they started adding a bit of input delay (I forgot what was the exact amount of delay that was sufficient to have an effect). Now, suddenly the participants felt like the touch on their back was no longer their own, leading them to believe that there was another presence touching their back.\n\n**What does this mean?** When your sensory inputs can be reasonably explained by things that you're used to, such as your own touch, or the wind etc, then your brain is calm and collected because everything makes sense. Otherwise, if there's unexplained sensory input, like a touch that's not your own, or when the background noise reverberating in the room suddenly cuts off from particular one direction, or when the brightness falters somewhere in your peripheral vision, your brain automatically tries to make sense of these strange signals and tends to comes up with the idea that there's something else moving near you.\n\n***\n\nThere's also a related phenomenon having to do with the [world's quietest place](_URL_3_). Apparently, when some of your senses pick up nothing, your brain tends to fill in the blank with hallucinations.\n\n***\n\n#TL;DR: Your brain always tries to make sense of your surroundings using your sensory inputs. When things don't make sense or when your brain is compromised, it can go a little crazy.",
"We have predilection towards over-sensing, so to speak. Animals that think they're being followed more often than they actually are are more likely to survive than animals that think they're being followed less often than they actually are. We tend to interpret noise (as opposed to clear signals) as danger."
],
"score": [
11,
4,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychic_staring_effect",
"http://202.114.89.42/resource/pdf/4021.pdf",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-sensed-presence-effect/",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2124581/The-worlds-quietest-place-chamber-Orfield-Laboratories.html"
]
}
|
When I feel like there's someone behind me but no one is there, what am I feeling exactly?
|
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||
phu2l
|
Can someone explain to me the accuracy of these contraceptive pill claims?
|
My girlfriend linked me to [this article](_URL_0_) and is a little concerned. I do not have the science background to accurately address her concerns. Any help? I'm not too concerned with the opinion based points, just the science based points.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Medical student here. First of all, I am only going to discuss point 1 in any detail as the others are entirely opinion-based and reek of hysteria (Pill was created \"specifically for the purpose of eugenics\" etc.).\n\nSo, onto the increased risk of breast cancer. First the article author does not specify whether he/she is talking about the Combined Oral Contracteptive Pill (COCP), or the Progesterone-only pill. I will assume the issue is with the COCP, as it is far more commonly prescribed. Also, please remember 'cancer' is a blanket lay-term for hundreds of proliferative disorders, and there are a number of different breast cancers.\n\nThe BadCatholic article you have provided links to a paper (Dolle et al., (2009). 'Risk Factors for Triple-Negative Breast Cancer in Women Under the Age of 45 Years', Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18; 1157), which is specifically talking about the association between oral contraceptives and one type of breast cancer: Triple-Negative Breast Cancer.\n\nThe BadCatholic article then says, I quote, \"Woman who regularly use the pill are 4.2 times more likely to get breast cancer...The evidence is in. The Pill leads to the death of women.\". **This is, unfortunately, blatent misinformation.**\n\nThe papers actual conclusion is this: \"Among women ≤40 years, the relative risk for triple-negative breast cancer associated with oral contraceptive use ≥1 year was 4.2 (95% confidence interval, 1.9-9.3)\". **This means that in women under 40, the have a 1.9-9.3 increased risk of contracting this particular cancer, if they use the pill for over a year.**\n\n\"whereas there was no significantly increased risk with oral contraceptive use for non-triple-negative breast cancer among women ≤40 years, nor for triple-negative breast cancer or non-triple-negative breast cancer among women 41 to 45 years of age.\" **This means that for older women, there is no increased risk of this particular cancer, and for all women, there in no increased risk for all other breast cancers, after taking the pill for one year.**\n\nI would imagine this would still sound scary, but this was **only one small study.** I therefore would like to point you towards this recent meta-analysis (Cibula et al. (2010). Hormonal contraception and risk of cancer. Hum. Reprod. 16 (6): 631-650.), which concludes with the following facts:\n\n* Breast cancer risk indicate a slightly increased risk among current users of oral contraceptives (OC), an effect which disappears 5–10 years after stopping.\n\n* Combined OC have a significant **protective** effect on the risk of ovarian cancer, and the protection increases with duration of use.\n\n* The risk of endometrial cancer is reduced by about 50% in ever users, a benefit which is greater with increasing duration of use.\n\n* An association has been found between increased risk of cervical cancer and long-term OC use. HOWEVER, all cases of cervical cancer are due to the HPV virus (don't believe the people who say it is 99.7% of cases, those are due to ineffective labs), and therefore the pill can't be said to cause these cancers.\n\nSo to conclude the current evidence, a tiny increase in risk of breast and cervical cancer, and a tiny decrease in the risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer.\n\nFine, but which outweighs the other you might ask? The conclusion of that paper is:\n\n* **None of large prospective cohort studies with prolonged follow-up has observed an increased overall risk of cancer incidence or mortality among ever users of OC, indeed several have suggested important long-term benefits.** \n\nSo, overall, there is no increase or decrease of cancer incidence or mortality with the pill.\n\nThis is backed up by National Cancer institute (part of the NIH) (_URL_0_).\n\nHope this helps.",
"I'm going to come in right at the beginning to say please: \n\n* Don't attack the fact that it comes from a religious site, that's not what we're here for\n\n* Please include sources and keep anecdotes out. \n\nThank you !",
"10 points - addressed in order\n\n1. Yes the pill increases the risk of Breast cancer.\nBUT\nits very very slight. according to the lancet (Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 347:1713, 1996)\n\n[here](_URL_1_) is a list of all the risks of breast cancer.\n\nYou should also remember that it lowers the risk of ovarian cancer quite substantially ( outweighing the breast CA risk ). While the pill has health risks, ( increased clots / mood /libido ) so does pregnancy and the social implications of raising a child when unprepared socially and financially\n\n2,3,4,5,6 - groundless drivvle\n\n7 The pill does not cause an abortion as it stops the woman ovulating , thus prevents any fertilisation occuring at all.\n\nAs an aside, if you wanted to take them as emergency contraception the morning after , it is entirely possible and just involves taking a great many , and most morning after regimes are just much higher doses of the same chemicals.\n\n8,9,10. Not true.",
"I'm assuming the one you're really concerned with is the cancer one? These sort of stats are very prevalent, and as you can guess, very misleading. \n\nWhile I don't have a way of knowing if the study linked to was accurate or not, we'll assume it is. You know what else doubles your risk of getting cancer? Flying more than 4 hours 5 times a year. No one is running around saying \"Men, do you know what you're doing to your women if you fly them around the world on a vacation?\" (This is due to the fact that in that upper atmosphere you are less shielded from the Sun's radiation)\n\nWant to know what's ever worse? Living in Denver. You are simply living up in the higher atmosphere, less shielding. No one complains about living in Denver. \n\nFurther more, the article you linked to is citing an article that they didn't even read. All of the stats they listed? Yeah, they're in the abstract. The article is behind a paywall, so there is no way of knowing if their methods were sound (for instance, correlation does not always imply causation. Did they account for other lifestyle choices which could lead to the increase?). The other thing which is neglected to be mentioned is, what is the population % who gets this disease. If you are increasing your chance of getting this triple negative breast cancer from 0.000001 to 0.000002 well then, still not big enough to worry about it. \n\n** Reference ** Denver and Flight Stats taken from [this book](_URL_2_)",
"It's also important to note that this article is to attempt to 'use science facts' to support a religious/moral viewpoint. This isn't 'acceptable use' of science knowledge, but it's being passed off as 'science'. These are the dangerous types of science journalism."
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.patheos.com/blogs/badcatholic/2011/10/10-reasons-the-pill-sucks.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/oral-contraceptives",
"http://www.bci.org.au/about-breast-cancer/facts-about-breast-cancer/risk-factors-for-breast-cancer.html",
"http://www.amazon.com/Physics-Future-Presidents-Science-Headlines/dp/0393066274"
]
}
|
Can someone explain to me the accuracy of these contraceptive pill claims?
My girlfriend linked me to [this article](_URL_0_) and is a little concerned. I do not have the science background to accurately address her concerns. Any help? I'm not too concerned with the opinion based points, just the science based points.
|
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|
6x61lq
|
A question about centrifugal force in a weightless environment?
|
After reading 'Rendezvous with Rama' by Arthur C Clarke, I have been stumped by a thought about centrifugal force in a weightless environment. In the book a character attempts to fly in a winged craft along the central axis of a massive closed spinning cylinder with a gaseous environment. As they go along (If I am remembering correctly) they lose power and end up being pulled down to the inside surface. So I have been thinking about what particular set of circumstances are required for the centrifugal force to act on a body.
Say for example, if I am floating in space and a completely open-ended massive spinning cylinder were to pass around me i.e., I pass through the cylinder, however I am not on the central axis but closer to the inside surface. Would I be pulled down to the surface by the centrifugal force? I am deliberately excluding the gravitational force from this thought experiment.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dmdcbfu",
"dmdcgb7",
"dme7tra"
],
"text": [
"If you are not in contact with the wall of the cylinder at all and it starts to spin, you won't suddenly feel a centrifugal force pushing you outwards in your frame of reference.\n\nHowever if you hold onto the side of the cylinder while it spins up, your rest frame is now non-inertial. And now there *is* a centrifugal force pushing outwards on you.",
"In that scenario the skybike fell because the atmosphere of Rama rotated with the structure of the vehicle. As soon as the aircraft started to break up, it got pulled around with the atmosphere, which introduced centrifugal force and created pseudogravity, so it fell and crashed.\n\nGreat book. If you are interested, Blindsight by Peter Watts is almost the same story told from a different perspective.\n\nEdit: without an atmosphere you could fly around the inside of a spinning cylinder with no problems, just as Apollo 10 orbited over the moon at ten thousand feet without crashing.",
"The centrifugal force is only acting on you if you're holding onto the wall. The reason that you fall down when you jump is because the cylinder is curved.\n\nTake a look at [this animation](_URL_0_), which shows a red ball being thrown in a rotating environment. You can see that after it's thrown, no force acts on the ball, and it travels in a straight line (that's the red line). However, from the perspective of someone in the rotating frame, the ball appears to rise up and then fall back down, because the edge of the disk curves round to meet it. The blue line shows the object's path in the rotating frame.\n\nFrom this, you can hopefully see that an object stopped in space above the edge of the disk would not be attracted to the edge of the disk, but would just float there. In that Arthur C. Clarke example you gave, the atmosphere (or possibly atmoring?) would be spinning too, since friction would drag it along with the edge of the cylinder. The plane would not then be able to remain suspended above the edge of the cylinder, since the drag from the air would pull it along, and once it starts moving, it'll drift towards the walls."
],
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{
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"url": [
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|
A question about centrifugal force in a weightless environment?
After reading 'Rendezvous with Rama' by Arthur C Clarke, I have been stumped by a thought about centrifugal force in a weightless environment. In the book a character attempts to fly in a winged craft along the central axis of a massive closed spinning cylinder with a gaseous environment. As they go along (If I am remembering correctly) they lose power and end up being pulled down to the inside surface. So I have been thinking about what particular set of circumstances are required for the centrifugal force to act on a body. Say for example, if I am floating in space and a completely open-ended massive spinning cylinder were to pass around me i.e., I pass through the cylinder, however I am not on the central axis but closer to the inside surface. Would I be pulled down to the surface by the centrifugal force? I am deliberately excluding the gravitational force from this thought experiment.
|
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q6qee
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Could I put an "Algae Farm" at my cubicle to make the air better?
|
I guess this is a 2 part question.
A: Would having photosynthesizing organisms at my cubicle even do anything for the air I am breathing? (all I can find is pop-science articles online.)
B: I have heard many times (and didn't bother to source) that algae actually creates 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere. Is algae any more efficient than plants? Would it be better to have some sort of "Algae Farm" at my cubicle? Perhaps an aquarium but that is just filled with small organisms? (and probably a nice brewing pot for some nasty bacteria as well. ha)
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askscience
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"1. There are plants that will do this for you. They will both increase oxygen in the air and even remove harmful particles.\n\n2. Not sure about this but I imagine caring for algae is trickier than some houseplants that should do what you are asking for anyway.\n\n\n[Kamal Meattle on how to grow fresh air](_URL_0_)\n\nedit: Wanted to add [another useful link](_URL_1_). Be sure to check out the references there too.",
"There's also a good chance that your \"algae farm\" would start growing organisms that would actually be harmful to your health. (e.g. mold)\n\nBetter to stick with a potted plant.",
"For indoor air pollutants NASA did a study on a range of plants and their effectiveness at removing certain chemicals.\n\n_URL_2_",
"> I have heard many times (and didn't bother to source) that algae actually creates 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere.\n\nThis is not necessarily because algae are more efficient at photosynthesis. Algae are the most abundant type of photosynthetic organism on the planet and form the basis of most aquatic food webs. They create the majority of the worlds oxygen (and consequently are one of the major carbon sinks) due to sheer numbers alone. So growing algae instead of a nice looking house plant probably wouldn't make much difference in terms of air content.",
"Having photosynthesising organisms would increase the concentration of oxygen and decrease the concentration of CO2 in the air. This would indeed improve the quality of the air you are breathing. However, the amount of oxygen produced is very low and it would diffuse out of your cubicle very quickly. The gain you might get is not worth the massive hassle of having an algae farm in your cubicle\n\nEDIT: I should add, photosynthesis absorbs energy from light and gives out oxygen to the air, whereas respiration releases stored energy and takes in oxygen. Plants do both to some extent, but they must photosynthesise more in order to grow (growing needs a net input of energy). Therefore, the algae would only be releasing oxygen overall when it is actually growing. To actually make a significant amount of oxygen, the algae would have to be growing really quickly",
"Just buy a couple of spider plants, produce plenty of oxgen and are one of the lowest maintenance plants ever.",
"I think that all of the comments so far are lacking on the practical side - there may be plants that improve air in sealed environments, however offices (and most other structures) are large and designed to move air around so you probably won't get much of an effect on the air that you're breathing at the type of scale that's practical in a cubicle.",
"As a grad student growing large amounts of algae for biofuel, I wouldn't recommend growing it in your office. The reason algae creates over half the O2 in the atmosphere is simply because there is so much of it. It grows basically everywhere in the ocean and therefore contributes significantly to global O2 production. Anyway, back to your office, I wouldn't recommend it because it doesn't smell very good. You can get plants that are much more pleasant to smell and to look at that would provide the same benefits to the air quality.",
"The O2 created by one houseplant (or in your case a dirty fish tank) would make no difference in your air. It takes 20 trees to produce enough oxygen for one person. The ventilation in your office would dissipate any O2 produced, (however I bet it would fail to dissipate the rotten fish tank smell.)\n\n_URL_3_",
"I believe algae creates so much of our oxygen simple because it is so abundant, algae has oceans to fill.",
"[THIS!THIS!](_URL_4_)\n\nHere is an instructables on how to make your own Algae CO2 scrubber.\n\nAlso, I research algae for biofuel production. [Here is a picture](_URL_5_) of one of my setups. I would be glad to share detailed information of how to cultivate algae with anyone who is interested. Also, if you send me a PM I could hook some peoples up with some test tubes of algae. We keep 6 different strains in our laboratory. I also used to cultivate a biolumenescent strain at my house for fun.\n\n*Edit: to answer the questions\n\nA: yes, but I do think a traditional house plant may be slightly easier to maintain. However, algae looks pretty sweet.\n\nB: I've heard 70% unsourced as well. I don't think it is more efficient, in fact probably less \n(thnk about the CO2 that has to diffuse into water to get utilyzed). But you have to keep in mind the earth is covered ~70% with water, so it makes up more biomass than terrestrial plants. An algae farm probably wouldn't be better, because you have to bubble CO2 which uses energy (but it would be more fun). There are techniques to avoid getting contaminates like bacteria, which I would be happy to share with you if your interested.",
"What is wrong with the air in your cubicle? You certainly have enough oxygen. Do you want to clean it of particles or volatile contaminants?",
"Yes, having plants (or algae) around will improve air quality simply by increasing the proportion of O2 relative to CO2, although as some have already pointed out, you'd need to have plants or algae tanks scattered around the entire office to get any kind of real effect. Also remember that most office buildings nowadays have an HVAC system designed to provide turnover for the full volume of air within a room at relatively quick intervals, so even with a ton of photosynthesis you will realistically never get anything better than you would by passing the local air through a HEPA filter.\n\nIt's also true that, relative to terrestrial plants, algae grow *very* fast and thus pump out a lot of oxygen. However, for every mole of oxygen and milligram of new biomass they spit out, they require a proportionate ~~mass~~ quantity of CO2 and photosynthetically available radiation (PAR), i.e. visible light, just like normal plants. So to get that big boost in productivity, you'd need to be pumping in a lot of light and a lot of carbon dioxide. \n\nPAR is measured in relative light units, or RLUs; to give you a sense of what I mean by \"a lot\", the typical office lit with fluorescent bulbs will have a mean RLU level of about 60-100, while at noon on a cloudless day in summer RLUs outdoors peak at around 2000. Similarly, air is about 0.05% CO2 by volume. For a seriously dense algae culture you might want to pump in gas that is 5% CO2 or more, a one hundred fold increase. And running CO2 lines indoors can pose serious safety concerns even with the high turnover that comes with modern HVAC systems. Algae also need some basic inorganic salts, like nitrates and phosphates and more than a dozen other trace metals, in order to make the proteins, lipids and other more complex molecules (like photosynthetic pigments) necessary for their survival and growth. They need these in roughly the same proportions as terrestrial plants, though, so that part of the problem at least could be handled pretty easily with some store-bought plant food and a conservative sprinkling of potting soil in your tank.\n\nAnd yes, it will inevitably become contaminated and reek to high heaven. Mold should not be a concern if you use saltwater algae, though.\n\nBut with all that said, if your desk is next to a window and you don't mind giving them a little more TLC than you would need to give a house plant, a jar of algae with a little aquarium pump can make a pretty cool conversation piece!",
"Phytoplankton, the photosynthesizing single-celled \"grass of the sea\" (or algae), produces about half of the oxygen in our atmosphere. They contribute so much just by sheer surface area of the oceans (~70%), which gives them more space to proliferate and produce O2. So it's not so much the efficiency rather than quantity that makes the oceans so productive.\n\nThis means you could do just as well with a large geranium or other green plant, and you wouldn't need a tank with a bubbler. Plankton doesn't have a very long life span either, so when they die, they'll sink to the bottom and decompose, leaving you with an awkward murky tank.",
"I'm currently in an indoor plants class, and my professor told us that the best plants for filtering toxins were\n\n* Peace Lily (*Spathiphyllum walisi)*\n* Ferns (didn't specify which ones)\n* Silver Queen Aglaonema *(Aglaonema commutatem)*\n* Diffenbachia/Dumbcane *(Diffenbachia seguine)*\n* Spider Plant *(Chlorophytum comosum)*",
"Answer for b.\n\nI am an engineering technician who has worked with the growth systems at a company who, in the past worked to dewater algae.\n We usually start with a small sample of a pure strain (scenedesmus dimorphus, euglena gracilis, botryococcus braunii, chlorella vulgaris) and grow it from sample trays to 2000 liter growth tanks). This process does not take long and when the concentration gets too high it crashes and the algae start dying. This biomass has a lot of uses but, will begin to grow bacteria. You would have to clean it and start a new strain pretty often. You could daily, remove several liters from your system and then replace it with clean water.",
"There's several house plants that are supposedly especially efficient at improving air quality. A google search will find you many recommendations. Growing your own algae tends to stink, a lot.\n\nAs for algae creating so much oxygen, this planet is 70% water. There's a lot of space for aquatic algae and vegetation.",
"As someone else started with, algae do create a large amount of the oxygen in our atmosphere. However, it's algae found in the ocean that is generally responsible for this.",
"You would need a giant tank to have even a marginally noticeable affect on the air. And, algae smells so, there's that.",
"I feel the urgent need to step in here. This is something I've been studying for the last 2 years.\n\nHouse plants are actually able to remove gases and particles that are harmful to our health. Not all plants remove the same amount and type of these dangerous chemicals due to the different enzyme metabolisms each plant possesses, so it is important what you actually want to get rid of, and what plant are you planning to use. \n\nThere is a problem when you start bringing in plants to indoor environments though. The most common one is that plants bring in a lot of moisture and humidity due to the needed watering, which will lead to mold problems. Another common issue, which might not be as obvious, is the introduction of a group of chemicals called terpenes. These terpenes are what gives plants their pleasant smells, and it is what we find in common air fresheners that want to imitate the smell of pines (Pinene), lemons (limonene), etc. The problem with terpenes is that they react with ozone to form formaldehyde (which is one chemical that you do NOT want to be exposed to, since it is a well known carcinogen), benzenes (usually find in gasoline), among many other harmful chemicals. \n\nAnother issue with plants is that their natural metabolism makes them start bringing in other harmful gases (known as microbial volatile organic compounds, MVOCs) as the roots decompose their food. These MVOCs have been studied extensively and are known to inflame and irritate noses. Basically... it's really annoying for yoru nose to be in a place that has a LOT of these chemicals.\n\nOk, but I said they CAN remove pollutants... but how good are they at it? Let's talk about effectiveness. Let's compare a plant to a portable air cleaner with a filter (look for ones that have HEPA filters). These ones usually bring in about 300 cubic meters of air per hour (about 177 cubic feet per minute, or 5,000 liters per minute). Your typical plant, on the other hand, only delivers about 2.32 cubic meters of air per hour. You would need to have about 130 plants in your little office to have the same efficiency. And by that time, you are introducing SO much mold, MVOCs and moisture into your office, that it just wouldn't be worth it. That, plus how much it'd cost, the time to care for them, etc... it's just a pain.\n\nAt the end, there is absolutely no study that proves that plants are as successful to remove pollutants and bring in clean and fresh air to man-made devices. There are some mixed results regarding their efficiency, but for the most part, the numbers given out are just not as substantial compared to a portable device with a good filter\n\n-Graduate student in Environmental Engineering with a focus in Indoor Air",
"I work in the Indoor Air industry and present papers at conferences (last in Austin TX, the International Society of Indoor Air Quality.)\n\nA: NO! The only way it can be effective is to have as many plants as a greenhouse. The \"NASA\" work is over twenty years old, not pursued further because it's not effective. All the tests were in closed chambers, except one in a real life situation, where it didn't work worth a darn. Trust the US EPA on this one -- it's much better to control the sources of pollution, and to make sure you have outdoor air ventilation.\n_URL_6_ is the Web site. Too often, people make their air worse because the plant soil DOES grow mold (even when not overwatered). Plants are great for many reasons, but it's not for air quality. Also good: a better filter on the heating and air equipment.\n\nB: Nobody is researching Algae for air cleaning. Why? It don't work. Neither does ozone (no matter what they call it: \"Activated Oxygen\" is one title). HEPA filters can snare some particles, but not chemicals, and an air cleaner can never remove everything from the air.",
"If you're really interested in growing algae for this purpose or any other, i would recommend checking out the process of using 2 liter soda bottles for growing phytoplankton as a food source in marine aquaria. You can order specific species of algae that are proven to do well in closed systems, and i believe all you need to do is provide water movement via air pump, seed, feed, and provide light. I've seen regular fluorescent lights mounted on racks growing bottle after bottle of what looks like pea-soup.",
"The reason that algae is responsible for so much of the earths oxygen production is that the biomass of phytoplankton (single celled algae) is so huge in the oceans, which cover the majority of the planet. However, i believe plants would be just as efficient, but you would not be able to notice a significant difference if you had a few potted plant in your cubicle.",
"I am not entirely convinced that increased atmospheric oxygen is a desirable thing. Would it be?",
"A few things to consider:\n\n1) In many buildings (although this is changing with changes in construction technology and also depending on the purpose of the building), the internal/external gas exchange rate is such that a small number of plants won't make much of a difference to air quality in the space as a whole. See \n\n[EPA FAQ](_URL_7_)\n\n\n[2009 study by Girman et. al.](_URL_9_)\n\n2) Locally affecting the air is certainly possible - if you surround a cubicle with large palms you can certainly change the concentrations of oxygen and co2 in the vicinity. Beyond that, it's less clear - you hear a lot of BS about VOCs (volatile organic chemicals). First, many VOCs probably have no effect on health, but some clearly do such as formaldehyde. It is true that the microbes in plant soil can metabolize many VOCs thus removing them from the air - but plants also actually give OFF volatile organic chemicals (terpenes used for defense etc.)... that was I think the basis for Reagan's famous nonsense about forests contributing to pollution. Furthermore, if not properly maintained, soil can grow mold... and, trying to use algae is probably even trickier in terms of making sure you aren't producing all sorts of spores and other potential lung irritants.\n\n3) If you do set up plants, be sure to maintain them properly including dusting the leaves regularly (every few weeks is probably ok). For growing medium, artificial \"peat-lite\" type mixes are some of the best for making sure you don't have water retention problems (ultimately causing fungus/mold growth). Some type of bark mulch, peat moss, and perlite is usually a good place to start. Finally, a fan is very useful in increasing air circulation which can help to improve plant performance in terms of both effect on air as well as growth.\n\nMy OPINION is that plants are beneficial to health overall if properly maintained - but there is a lot of nonsense out there... plants are by no means a panacea or magic bullet of course.\n\nFor another overview, see: _URL_8_",
"In terms of part B i dont think its so much an issue of it being more efficient than other plants as much as it is more abundant. this is why it contributes so much to the atmosphere.",
"From experience with growing Algae, I can safely say that you'll more than likely just succeed in making your cubicle smell funky.\n\nJust stick to a plant as others have said, it'll smell less :P",
"Buy an English ivy plant. Can't link you to the study (by NASA) because I'm on my phone. Basically the plastic off-gasses and molds are significantly reduced.",
"This is amazing. I'm really looking forward to try it.\n\nIs there any research regarding using a similar method to remove/reduce Radon?",
"This is a link to plants that would help the air quality in your office _URL_10_",
"Algae produces more because it's in the ocean. The ocean covers 2/3 ofEarth.",
"I would recommend you get some potted plants. Some people don't appreciate science.",
"You should get [this](_URL_11_) desk for your office! :)"
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"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_air-filtering_plants",
"http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930073077_1993073077.pdf",
"http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/Contest/Results/96/winner/seis.html",
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"http://imgur.com/3X6kO",
"epa.gov/iaq",
"http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/hpguide.html#faq7",
"http://www.practicalasthma.net/pages/topics/aaplants.htm",
"http://www.buildingecology.com/articles/critical-review-how-well-do-house-plants-perform-as-indoor-air-cleaners/",
"http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/2fv9yF/www.mnn.com/health/healthy-spaces/photos/15-houseplants-for-improving-indoor-air-quality",
"http://www.julioradesca.com/"
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Could I put an "Algae Farm" at my cubicle to make the air better?
I guess this is a 2 part question. A: Would having photosynthesizing organisms at my cubicle even do anything for the air I am breathing? (all I can find is pop-science articles online.) B: I have heard many times (and didn't bother to source) that algae actually creates 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere. Is algae any more efficient than plants? Would it be better to have some sort of "Algae Farm" at my cubicle? Perhaps an aquarium but that is just filled with small organisms? (and probably a nice brewing pot for some nasty bacteria as well. ha)
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|
8t6ubw
|
From a physics standpoint what is information?
|
If it is constantly being created it can't have mass right? So is information just instructions that are "coded" onto everything?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"I am of course biased and some computer science is likely going to creep into this answer. But humor me anyway. :) \n\nAt least in a quantum mechanical universe, information cannot be created or destroyed. This is sometimes referred to as the \"time reversibility of Schrodinger's equations\".\nMathematically, this is a simple consequence of the fact that in quantum mechanics, the time evolution of a system is \"unitary\". If you bear with me, I explain this with some lightweight math below. \n\nRegardless, philosophically, your question is somewhat intriguing. Quantum mechanics (which makes astoundingly accurate predictions in experiments) somehow suggests that there's this underlying big machine that is somehow storing the state of the universe and continuously computing the next states from the previous one by applying the appropriate unitary transformations. \n\nWhere is this information? We don't know. One thing, however, appears clear: we don't think this is coded \"onto everything\" in any useful way. \n\nWhat do I mean by this? It turns out that if you have a system, with, say n particles, then the state of this system in quantum mechanics is described by an object (vector/density matrix) of size 2^n. This number can get very big very quickly and even if we could write 1 bit of information on every quark in the observable universe we won't be able to describe the state of more than, say, 100 particles. \n\nYet, of course, time after time, the outcome of our experiments are consistent with this huge amount of information being *really* used. Used in a way that cannot provably be done using any smaller object/information. \n\nSo that's the mystery. Not so much a mystery for making predictions or computing outcomes. Mystery in a somewhat philosophical sense, though.\n\n\n\n\n##Time Reversibility of Quantum Mechanics\n\nIf you know a little bit of linear algebra, this is really simple: in quantum mechanics, the state of a system at any point in time is described by a complex valued vector*. Any physical process describes how this description of the state changes over time. \n\nQuantum mechanics asserts that this evolution can be described by multiplication by a unitary matrix U(t). That is, if at time 1, the state is described by a vector $v$, then at time 2, the state is described by U(1)v. \n\nUnfolding this time evolution, if you start from a state v and apply a physical process described by U(t), then the state at time n is given by \nU(n-1) U(n-2)...U(1) v**. \n\nNow, the key properties of unitary evolution for us is i) products of unitary matrices is also a unitary matrix and ii) unitary matrices are \"invertible\". \nThe first property means that at time $n$, we can describe the state of the system we are studying by Uv where U = U(n-1) U(n-2)...U(1). \n\nWhat this second property means is simply this: If you know that Uv = w, then there's no other vector v' such that Uv' = w. In other words, given w and the process U, you can uniquely determine the original state v. \n\nThus, the information about v is never lost, no matter how long after the initial state you look at the system (so long as you know about the process acting on the system).\n\nLong story short, this explains why in a quantum mechanical universe, there's complete reversibility in the state of the system and thus no loss (or gain) in the information content. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n*Strictly speaking this holds only for pure states and in general, states are described by \"density matrices\" which can be thought of as analogs of probability distributions over pure states.\n\n**I am using \"discrete\" time evolution for simplicity. In general, this is a somewhat fancier integral. But the larger point is valid.",
"It's important to keep in mind that there is a difference between quantum information and thermodynamic information in physics. Quantum information, like total angular momentum (denoted by J), is regarded as conserved and cannot be destroyed. \n\nThermodynamic information CAN be created and destroyed. From the thermodynamic perspective, energy is the property that is conserved for all systems (and this fact emerges from the conservation of quantum information). But systems can have internal information (sometimes called exergy) that is a function of its absolute entropy relating its internal information to its external environment. For example, the DNA of a genome contains information. The quantity of this information can be calculated as a function of absolute entropy, and therefore can be considered to be \"thermodynamic information.\" This information is not conserved, which is obvious when an organism reaches thermodynamic equilibrium with it's environment (dies). It's like the information of a sand castle on a beach; it is not conserved.\n\nEdit: I implied \"spin\" was conserved before, which could be misleading. Spin angular momentum (S) is not conserved on it's own. Total angular momentum (J) is conserved. See Noether's theorem.",
"Not sure if I'm still late to the party or not, but my current understanding of information (from a classical physics standpoint) is that it is the \"remnants\" of an event. An event occurs in a fixed position at a certain instant. Say you're at 300 000 000 km from a star about to evolve into supernova, nothing in between you and the exact spot where it occurs. Since light has been measured and theorized through Electromagnetic theory to have a speed of 300 000 km/s, then the light emitted by the event (evolution into supernova) will only reach you 1000 seconds after it happened (provided that you and the star are in the same reference frame, that is stationary relative to each other.) You may think of this as one way to define information. Information needs a means to spread. When dealing with relativistic systems, these are either carried by light (we're thinking cosmological scales here) or by virtual particles (in the realm of particle physics). Information in that sense is really just evidence of an occurrence with a keyframe of time and space. And you determine where information comes from by having knowledge of the position and momentum of the carrier.\n\nPhysics loves generalizability. In that sense, information may be a starting condition, a rate, or just an intrinsic property of matter. Imagine a shrapnel explosion in vacuum, without any gravity at all. If you look at one single piece of shrapnel, it will be travelling at a constant velocity. By knowing how fast it is travelling (a rate) and where it is (a starting condition), you are able to trace it back to where it started. Except, at this point, you still don't know where that is, you need one more piece of shrapnel travelling in a different direction, so that you cross their inertial paths and then you'll know the intersection of the two is the point where the explosion took place, and since you know their time of flight (by knowing position and momentum at a given point in time), you will know where the explosion occurred.\n\nWhen it comes to entropy, someone already gave a good analogy. To tie it with mine, think of this same explosion happening in an isolated system (no energy or matter may escape it). Then any single time a constituent of the system collides with another, more information is created, because an event occurred. Now you cannot tell where the bomb went off based on two pieces of shrapnel that happened to collide. If they collided, they changed their momentum, and you'll need to obtain information of their momenta before the collision and after the collision in order to trace it back to the original place where the explosion occurred. If you manage to cool down a gas to absolute 0 (K), then you were able to completely stop the system, and you can think of the method you used to cool things down as a way of draining the information from the system, or that the system cannot carry any information at all because there is no motion at all.\n\nI hope (at least parts of) this explanation made sense, but feel free to ask further!",
"The amount of information needed to completely encode a closed system is always increasing. This information is called entropy.\n\nSome people think that our universe is limited in its possible reactions.\nIf you start with data encoding a closed physical system, then there is always an algorithm you can use with a turing machine to calculate data encoding the end result.\nThis algorithm can be executed on n turing machines in time O(t ) with space O (n) where t is the number of plank time units for the reaction to occur, and n is the number of particles in the reaction.",
"Ralph Launder once said \"Information is physical\". Meaning information never exists outside of being stored on some physical medium and every physical medium has some capacity to store information. The information in a system is as real as the mass of the system or the energy or any other physical property. \n\nHow many bits are there in a physical system? Well you take the number of possible states of the system and then you take log base 2. In classical systems this is a bit tricky. Within a 1d box of length 1 a point mass can be in any one of an infinite number of states between 0 and 1. The only thing we can say is that if we double the size of the box then the number of positions has doubled so the number of bits must have gone up by one. At this point the mathematicians groan at us physicists. ITS THE SAME INFINITY they cry. 0 to 1 has as many points as 0 to 2. Luckily quantum mechanics comes to the rescue. In quantum mechanics the possible states of a systems are limited to discrete quanta (hence the name quantum). A box of twice the size really does take an extra bit to describe. \n\nSystems contain bits. The bits of a system are enough to fully describe the system, just the same as all the masses and velocities are enough to fully describe the system. When we know the value of the bits its called information. When we don't know the value of the bits its called entropy. \n\nEntropy and information and energy are all related. Suppose I tell you a gas is at absolute zero. In that case you instantly know the velocity of every particle (namely they are all at rest). You have perfect information and zero entropy. Now suppose I tell you the energy of the gas is exactly one quanta above absolute zero (exactly one particle is moving). In that case if there are n particles then the possible number of states is n. So there are log_2 (n) bits of missing information (entropy). If I bring two systems into contact they will eventually reach the same temperature. This is just another way of saying the missing information will be evenly distributed across both systems. If I have a system where all particles are moving at the exact same speed and direction, I can find a reference frame where the particles are at absolute zero. Absolute zero is when we know all the information, not necessarily when all particles are stopped. \n\nEntropy only ever goes up because we can lose track of bits but we can never accidentally gain bits. In the example where I double the size of the box, it now takes an extra bit to describe my system but I didn't do anything to learn the value of the new bit. Thus the entropy has increased by one bit. \n\nSuppose you want to increase your information (aka reduce entropy). You cannot do things to bits which are non-reversible because the laws of physics are reversible. Furthermore you must have some set of your own bits where you store your learned information. When you measure the system you copy its bits onto your learning bits. But you can't actually copy because copying is non-reversible. The best you can do is start with your learning bits to 0 and then xor the measurements with the learning bits. BUT the task of preparing a number of known bits is exactly the same as the task of reducing the number of unknown bits. We can never reduce entropy overall, The best we can ever do is shift it around maybe dump it in the universe. \n\n#The information in physics is literally the same information in computer science. \n\nWhen your computer computes an irreversible function, information is lost and thus entropy is increased. This entropy is dumped into the universe as heat. [The laws of physics put a fundamental lower bound on the power consumption of your pc.](_URL_0_) Error correction is literally the same thing as running a refrigerator! \n\nIn a very real way the universe is made of bits. Information is physical.",
"It depends on what level you are asking the question.\n\nGeneralized to all levels, information can be boiled down to a certain entropic state of matter that is recognizable as having a certain meaning.\n\nsimple example: A mass 'A' moving at collision speed x relative to another mass 'B' has its velocity as derived information between time states, and if one of those masses is your car, and the other is a pedestrian, that's information becomes quite imperative, but do you have the energy and entropy to move the car within the time left?\n\nAnother example: In computers, you have a certain number of zeros and ones, and both are needed in an entropic limited system to give those zeros and ones meaning. 1 and 15 zeros in a row can mean a single number: 32768, or two numbers: 128 and 0 or 4 numbers: 8 and three 0, or even -0,\n\nI'd recommend studying statistics (along with physics) if you want to get a good answer. All of statistics is based on the premise of how you classify information in the first place, and the difficulty of actually getting a good answer."
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{
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landauer%27s_principle"
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From a physics standpoint what is information?
If it is constantly being created it can't have mass right? So is information just instructions that are "coded" onto everything?
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|
1brklz
|
How do RNA, enzymes, etc. know where to go and what is their method of movement.
|
Throughout my study of high school and college biology, it seemed that proteins, nucleic acids, RNA, etc. had an intrinsic guidance system that told them where to go. How exactly do molecules inside a cell know where to go and how do free floating molecules move?
Do they just float aimlessly until they perhaps reach their destination or are they actually "know" where they are supposed to go.
This is my first post, so any criticism would be appreciated.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c99edbh",
"c99oilo",
"c99hv8z"
],
"text": [
"They do not \"know\" where to go.\n\nThey move around randomly by diffusion (a look at \"SnapShot: Key Numbers in Biology\" [(ref)](_URL_0_) says an average protein takes ≈10ms to traverse an E. coli cell and ≈10s to traverse a HeLa cell, a small metabolite moves ≈100 times faster).\n\nAs they move they interact with other proteins/molecules, and perform their functions based on those interactions. Your favorite protein probably doesn't have strong interactions with most other proteins, it won't perform it's function until it runs into its specific binding partners.\n\nThe cell may put restrictions upon their movement. DNA is in the nucleus and can't leave through nuclear pores so it's restricted to the nucleus. Proteins that span or bind to membranes are restricted to those surfaces (movement in a 2D plane is much more restricted than movement in a 3D volume). Proteins may be restricted to performing their actions within a specific organelle (ER, goli, mitochondria etc) which will also restrict and direct movement and function.",
"A lot of people will tell you diffusion because it's a relatively understandable and good model. In reality, the cell is PACKED with huge proteins and complexes and simple diffusion can not always explain the timely movement of other big molecules through the cytoplasm.\n\nThere are mechanisms of active transport such as actin/myosin, etc which can get around this problem.\n\nSome proteins have certain domains which localize them to a certain place (membrane binding domains, nuclear localized domains, etc). Some proteins get modified after translation (phosphorylation, modifications with sugars and carbon chains, etc) which can change their localization as well.\n\nHere's a somewhat relevant review: _URL_1_",
"I agree with the commentors so far, but there are published instances of \"anomalous diffusion\" in vivo. Using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) Watt Webb has noted instances of when macromolecules move at an anomalously fast rate of movement that can't be accounted for by Brownian motion. The bulk of movement in cells is from the random walk model, but directed active transport also exists."
],
"score": [
20,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20603006",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22922002"
]
}
|
How do RNA, enzymes, etc. know where to go and what is their method of movement.
Throughout my study of high school and college biology, it seemed that proteins, nucleic acids, RNA, etc. had an intrinsic guidance system that told them where to go. How exactly do molecules inside a cell know where to go and how do free floating molecules move? Do they just float aimlessly until they perhaps reach their destination or are they actually "know" where they are supposed to go. This is my first post, so any criticism would be appreciated.
|
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|
1m5ij1
|
What happens to bodily waste in people who have very infrequent bowel movements?
|
I was under the assumption that most of the food we ingest is not digestible and exits the body as feces. Where does it all go?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cc62j55",
"cc615x0",
"cc6jcs1"
],
"text": [
"My experience here comes from human gross anatomy, so stuff at small scales may be best explained by someone else.\n\nThere's a pretty wide range in defecation frequency in humans. [Here is one study](_URL_3_) looking at a limited demographic in a single city that found a lot of variation in bowel movement habits that were otherwise considered normal. So when we talk about these rates being \"infrequent\" it's kind of a relative thing, and it doesn't necessarily mean constipation, which is I think what most people are assuming in their responses. As that source notes, defecation rate is also not a great measure of intestinal transit time, because the rates of movement through the parts of the digestive system can vary. \n\nIn these instances food is going through the normal digestive process, with some portions of digestion taking longer. [Here is a brief explanation of various transit times](_URL_1_) within different parts of the digestive tract. It takes long enough that several meals are moving through at a time, and again each portion of the digestive tract takes different amounts of time. \n\nThe gut tract is long enough to accommodate this, because the small intestine averages ~22 feet long, while the large intestine averages ~5 feet. This can vary from person to person, or can even change based on how muscles in the intestines are contracting. \n\nThe main thing about the lower digestive tract is how much water gets absorbed. Even if a large portion of a meal can't be broken down, it contains a lot of water. Our intestines absorb a lot of that, both passively (via diffusion) and actively. Exactly how much depends on the osmotic gradient, particularly in the small intestine. [Here's the water content in fruits and vegetables](_URL_0_) and [meat](_URL_2_). So by the end you've still lost mass in the form of water even if there was a lot of indigestible material. \n\nOf course as others have mentioned, there can also be health issues that lead to infrequent defecation that is not due to normal variation.",
"It just stays there. Its volume is reduced by recycling the water. Which means the eventual bowel movement is more difficult, because the fecal matter, lacking water, is more stiff.",
"Feces is a combination of a number of things, water, insoluble fiber, dead red blood cells, cellular wastes, and other things; about half the mass of dried feces in a healthy adult is said to be bacteria. Until ejected from the body, it remains in the colon. People with certain issues, like nerve damage to the enteric nerves, can retain feces for so long that it becomes a medical emergency called 'toxic megacolon', and if they can't get the bowel to evacuate, they actually remove it at that point. Leading up to this state, or with other bowel blockages, it's not uncommon for people to start vomiting chyme/fecal matter. \n\nI saw elsewhere you were asking about food poisoning, and it can affect the stomach or small intestines, but determining which meal did it is exceptionally difficult. Normal transit times are totally thrown off in food poisoning."
],
"score": [
15,
8,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www2.ca.uky.edu/enri/pubs/enri129.pdf",
"http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/basics/transit.html",
"http://dwb.unl.edu/teacher/nsf/c10/c10links/www.fsis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/watrmeat.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1379343/"
]
}
|
What happens to bodily waste in people who have very infrequent bowel movements?
I was under the assumption that most of the food we ingest is not digestible and exits the body as feces. Where does it all go?
|
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|
19ql3r
|
Which uses less energy. Accelerating down a hill and using momentum to reach the top. Or, accelerating up the hill after you free roll down?
|
If you are driving a car and encounter a row of hills all exactly the same height and perfectly symmetrical, what is the most fuel effecient way to drive over them?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8qggig",
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"c8qoi86",
"c8qo5ck"
],
"text": [
"On a coarse level, ignoring environmental friction, if you never touch the brakes, you would use the same amount of energy no matter how you drove them. Fuel efficiency is lost when you convert kinetic energy into heat. The power needed to overcome rolling resistance is linear with speed, but the power needed to overcome air resistance increases exponentially with speed [[1](_URL_0_)]; considering both factors, the most fuel efficient method will be the one which results in the slowest median speed *without touching your brakes*, since you will encounter the least rolling and air resistance at the lowest median speed, but when you use the brakes, you rob the system of kinetic energy and must reintroduce energy back into the system by burning fuel.\n\nThus, you would reach peak fuel efficiency by expending exactly as much energy as necessary to reach the top of a hill, and then coast down it without touching your brakes. You would then use your engine as needed to reach the top of the next hill and repeat.",
"If the car's engine had the same efficiency at all rotational speeds and all loads, then the only strategy for minimizing energy loss is to minimize aerodynamic drag, and that means minimizing speed. Creep up the hill slowly under engine power, then coast down the other side.\n\nOf course, real internal combustion engines don't have the same efficiency at all speeds. Steady-state conditions (nothing changing rapidly) is best for efficiency. So in that case, a driving profile which minimizes acceleration might be best.",
"I want to know what would be best specifically for a car. Wouldn't it be best to keep your rpm's as low as possible?",
"Since you aren't penalized for having gravitational energy but you are penalized for your kinetic energy (since rolling resistance and air drag increase with speed), the best strategy is to minimize your kinetic energy. In other words, you should be accelerating up the hill because you'll be putting energy into height rather than speed.",
"if your car had a rocket engine however (and perfect aerodynamics), you'd be better off by accelerating down the hill, near its bottom (at the periapsis ;), executing the so called powered slingshot manouver.\n\nsee [Oberth Effect](_URL_1_)."
],
"score": [
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=edqTZb9PbLQC&pg=PA219&lpg=PA219&dq=power+to+overcome+rolling+resistance&source=bl&ots=ywbXBGrvXT&sig=a1g7HsvOeXAm57M_2Wn-GYpi-80&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wos2UfO4OoiO2wXbnoCwDg&ved=0CFIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=power%20to%20overcome%20rolling%20resistance&f=false",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberth_effect"
]
}
|
Which uses less energy. Accelerating down a hill and using momentum to reach the top. Or, accelerating up the hill after you free roll down?
If you are driving a car and encounter a row of hills all exactly the same height and perfectly symmetrical, what is the most fuel effecient way to drive over them?
|
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