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Court of King's Bench (England)

English common law court (c. 1200–1873)

The Court of King's Bench, formally known as The Court of the King Before the King Himself, was a court of common law in the English legal system. Created in the late 12th to early 13th century from the curia regis, the King's Bench initially followed the monarch on his travels. The King's Bench finally joined the Court of Common Pleas and Exchequer of Pleas in Westminster Hall in 1318, making its last travels in 1421. The King's Bench was merged into the High Court of Justice by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, after which point the King's Bench was a division within the High Court. The King's Bench was staffed by one Chief Justice (now the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales) and usually three Puisne Justices. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the King's Bench's jurisdiction and caseload was significantly challenged by the rise of the Court of Chancery and equitable doctrines as one of the two principal common law courts along with the Common Pleas. To recover, the King's Bench undertook a scheme of revolutionary reform, creating less expensive, faster and more versatile types of pleading in the form of bills as opposed to the more traditional writs. Although not immediately stemming the tide, it helped the King's Bench to recover and increase its workload in the long term. There was a steep decline in business from 1460 to 1540. As the new reforms began to take effect the King's Bench's business was significantly boosted. Between 1560 and 1640, it rose tenfold. The Common Pleas became suspicious of the new developments, as legal fictions such as the Bill of Middlesex damaged its own business. Fighting against the King's Bench in a reactionary and increasingly conservative way, an equilibrium was eventually reached in the 17th century until the merger in 1873. The King's Bench's jurisdiction initially covered a wide range of criminal matters, any business not claimed by the other courts, and any cases concerning the monarch. Until 1830, the King's Bench acted as a court of appeal for the Exchequer of Pleas and Common Pleas, and required Parliament to sign off on its decisions. From 1585, the Court of Exchequer Chamber served for appeals of King's Bench decisions. ## History ### Origins Originally, the sole "court" was the curia regis, one of the three central administrative bodies along with the Exchequer and Chancery, from which the Court of Chancery formed. This curia was the King's court, composed of those advisers and courtiers who followed the King as he travelled around the country. This was not a dedicated court of law, instead a descendant of the curia ducis and partly of the witenagemot. In concert with the curia regis, eyre circuits staffed by itinerant judges dispensed justice throughout the country, operating on fixed paths at certain times. These judges were also members of the curia, and would hear cases on the King's behalf in the "lesser curia regis". Because the curia travelled with the King, it caused problems with the dispensation of justice; if the King went out of the country, or as Richard I did spent much of his career there, the curia followed. To remedy this a central "bench" was established, with the Court of Common Pleas, initially split from the Exchequer of Pleas, receiving official recognition in Magna Carta so that common pleas could be heard in "some fixed place". There were thus two common law courts; the curia, which followed the King, and the Common Pleas, which sat in Westminster Hall. The curia eventually became known as the King's Bench, with the King himself required for the court to sit. There is some controversy over whether the original fixed court was the Common Pleas or King's Bench. In 1178, a chronicler recorded that when Henry II: > learned that the land and the men of the land were burdened by so great a number of justices, for there were, eighteen, chose with the counsel of the wise men of his Kingdom five only, two clerks three and laymen, all of his private family, and decreed that these five should hear all complaints of the Kingdom and should do right and should not depart from the king's court but should remain there to hear the complaints of men, with this understanding that, if there should come up among them any question which could not be brought to a conclusion by them, it should be presented to a royal hearing and be determined by the king and the wiser men of the kingdom". This was originally interpreted as the foundation of the King's Bench, with the Court of Common Pleas not coming into existence until the grant of Magna Carta. The later theory was that Henry II's decree created the Court of Common Pleas, not the King's Bench, and that the King's Bench instead split from the Common Pleas at some later time. The first records of an independent King's Bench come from 1234, when distinct plea rolls are found for each court. Modern academics give 1234 as the founding date for the King's Bench as a fully independent tribunal, considering it part of the law reform which took place from 1232 to 1234. Under Edward I, the presence of the King in the court became more and more irregular, and by 1318 the court sat independent of the monarch. Its last travels around the country were in 1414 to Leicestershire, Staffordshire and Shropshire, and a visit to Northamptonshire in 1421. From then onwards, the King's Bench became a fixed court rather than one that followed the King. Like the Common Pleas, the King's Bench sat in Westminster Hall until its dissolution. ### Reform During the 15th century, the traditional superiority of the common law courts was challenged by ecclesiastical courts and the equitable jurisdiction of the Lord Chancellor, exercised through the Court of Chancery. These courts were more attractive to the common lawyers because of their informality and the simple method used to arrest defendants. The bills of complaint and subpoena used by the Chancery made court procedure far faster, and from 1460 to 1540 there was a steep decline in the number of cases in the common law courts, coinciding with a sharp increase in cases in the newer courts. This loss of business was quickly recognised by the King's Bench, which was urged by Fairfax J in 1501 to develop new remedies so that "subpoenas would not be used as often as they are at present". From 1500 the King's Bench began reforming to increase its business and jurisdiction, with the tide finally turning in their favour by 1550. The recovery of the King's Bench was thanks to its use of Chancery-like procedure; centrally, the system of bills. Prior to this, a writ would have to be issued, with different writs depending on the issue. If A wished to sue B for trespass, debt and detinue, the court would have to issue an individual writ for each action, with associated time delays and costs for A, and then ensure that B appeared in court. Bills, on the other hand, were traditionally used against court officials and the court's prisoners; as such, the defendant was assumed to already be in the court's custody and presence in court was not needed. Thus a legal fiction arose; if A wished to sue B for trespass, debt and detinue, he would have a writ issued for trespass. B would be arrested as a result, and the covenant, detinue and debt actions undertaken by bill after he had been detained. Eventually it became even more fictitious; if A wished to sue B merely for debt and detinue, a trespass writ would be obtained and then quietly dismissed when B was detained in custody. This was originally undertaken through getting a writ of trespass from the Chancery, but eventually a shorter workaround was used; since the King's Bench retained criminal jurisdiction over Middlesex, the trespass (which was fictitious anyway) would be said to have occurred there, allowing the King's Bench to issue a bill of arrest on its own. This became known as the Bill of Middlesex, and undermined the jurisdiction of the Court of Common Pleas, which would normally deal with such civil cases. The advantages to this method were that bills were substantially cheaper, and unlike writs did not tie the plaintiff down. Once the case came to court the bill could be amended to include any action or actions the plaintiff wanted to enforce. By avoiding the Chancery writ, the case was substantially cheaper. The result of this was substantial; between 1560 and 1640, the King's Bench's business rose tenfold. This period also saw a substantial broadening of the remedies available in the common law. The main remedy and method was action on the case, which justices expanded to encompass other things. In 1499 it enabled the enforcement of parol promises, which rendered Chancery subpoenas obsolete; later developments included the recovery of debts, suing for defamatory words (previously an ecclesiastical matter) and action on the case for trover and conversion. Most of this reform took place under Fineux CJ, who never lived to see the results of his work; it took over 100 years for the reforms to fully reverse the decline in business. ### Struggle with the Common Pleas While these reforms succeeded in forming an equilibrium between the old common law courts and the new courts, they were viewed with suspicion by the Common Pleas, who became highly reactionary to the changes the King's Bench attempted to introduce. While the King's Bench was more revolutionary, the Common Pleas became increasingly conservative in its attempts to avoid ceding cases. The disparity between the reformist King's Bench and conservative Common Pleas was exacerbated by the fact that the three Common Pleas prothonotaries could not agree on how to cut costs, leaving the court both expensive and of limited malleability while the King's Bench became faster, cheaper and more varied in its jurisdiction. The troubles during this period are best illustrated by Slade's Case. Under the medieval common law, claims seeking the repayment of a debt or other matters could only be pursued through a writ of debt in the Common Pleas, a problematic and archaic process. By 1558 the lawyers had succeeded in creating another method, enforced by the Court of King's Bench, through the action of assumpsit, which was technically for deceit. The legal fiction used was that by failing to pay after promising to do so, a defendant had committed deceit, and was liable to the plaintiff. The conservative Common Pleas, through the appellate court the Court of Exchequer Chamber, began to overrule decisions made by the King's Bench on assumpsit, causing friction between the courts. In Slade's Case, the Chief Justice of the King's Bench, John Popham, deliberately provoked the Common Pleas into bringing an assumpsit action to a higher court where the Justices of the King's Bench could vote, allowing them to overrule the Common Pleas and establish assumpsit as the main contractual action. After the death of Edmund Anderson, the more activist Francis Gawdy became Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, which briefly led to a less reactionary and more revolutionary Common Pleas. The struggle continued even after this point. The Interregnum granted some respite to the Common Pleas, which abolished fines on original writs, hurting the King's Bench, but in 1660 the fines were reinstated and "then the very attorneys of the Common Pleas boggled at them and carried all their finable business to the King's Bench". In 1661 the Common Pleas attempted to reverse this by pushing for an Act of Parliament to abolish latitats based on legal fictions, forbidding "special bail" in any case where "the true cause of action" was not expressed in the process. The King's Bench got around this in the 1670s; the Act did not say that the process had to be true, so the court continued to use legal fictions, simply ensuring that the true cause of action was expressed in the process, regardless of whether or not it was correct. The Bill of Middlessex disclosed the true cause of action, satisfying the 1661 statute, but did not require a valid complaint. This caused severe friction within the court system, and Francis North, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, eventually reached a compromise by allowing such legal fictions in the Common Pleas as well as the King's Bench. ### Dissolution The unintended outcome of these compromises was that by the end of Charles II's reign, all three common law courts had a similar jurisdiction over most common pleas, with similar processes. By the 18th century, it was customary to speak of the "twelve justices" of the three courts, not distinguishing them, and assize cases were shared equally between them. In 1828, Henry Brougham complained that: > [t]he jurisdiction of the Court of King's Bench, for example, was originally confined to pleas of the Crown, and then extended to actions where violence was used – actions of trespass, by force; but now, all actions are admissible within its walls, through the medium of a legal fiction, which was adopted for the purpose of enlarging its authority, that every person sued is in the custody of the marshal of the court and may, therefore, be proceeded against for any personal cause of actions. Thus, by degrees, this court has drawn over to itself actions which really belong to...the Court of Common Pleas. The Court of Common Pleas, however...never was able to obtain cognizance of – the peculiar subject of King's Bench jurisdiction – Crown Pleas... the Exchequer has adopted a similar course for, though it was originally confined to the trial of revenue cases, it has, by means of another fiction – the supposition that everybody sued is a debtor to the Crown, and further, that he cannot pay his debt, because the other party will not pay him, – opened its doors to every suitor, and so drawn to itself the right of trying cases, that were never intended to be placed within its jurisdiction. The purpose of Brougham's speech was to illustrate that three courts of identical jurisdiction were unnecessary, and further that it would create a situation where the best judges, lawyers and cases would eventually go to one court, overburdening that body and leaving the others near useless. In 1823, 43,465 actions were brought in the King's Bench, 13,009 in the Common Pleas and 6,778 in the Exchequer of Pleas. Not surprisingly, the King's Bench judges were "immoderately over burdened", the Common Pleas judges were "fully occupied in term, and much engaged in vacation also" and the Barons of the Exchequer were "comparatively little occupied either in term or vacation". In response to this and the report of a committee investigating the slow pace of the Court of Chancery, the Judicature Commission was formed in 1867, and given a wide remit to investigate reform of the courts, the law, and the legal profession. Five reports were issued, from 25 March 1869 to 10 July 1874, with the first (dealing with the formation of a single Supreme Court of Judicature) considered the most influential. The report disposed of the previous idea of merging the common law and equity, and instead suggested a single Supreme Court capable of using both. In 1870 the Lord Chancellor, Lord Hatherly, attempted to bring the recommendations into law through an Act of Parliament, but did not go to the trouble of consulting the judiciary or the leader of the Conservatives, who controlled the House of Lords. The bill ran into strong opposition from lawyers and judges, particularly Alexander Cockburn. After Hatherly was replaced by Lord Selborne in September 1872, a second bill was introduced after consultation with the judiciary; although along the same lines, it was far more detailed. The Act, passed as the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, merged the Common Pleas, Exchequer, Queen's Bench and Court of Chancery into one body, the High Court of Justice, with the divisions between the courts to remain. The Queen's Bench thus ceased to exist, holding its last session on 6 July 1875, except as the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court. The existence of the same courts as divisions of one unified body was a quirk of constitutional law, which prevented the compulsory demotion or retirement of Chief Justices. Thus all three Chief Justices (Lord Chief Justice Sir Alexander Cockburn, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas Lord Coleridge and Chief Baron of the Exchequer Sir Fitzroy Kelly) continued in post. Kelly and Cockburn died in 1880, allowing for the abolition of the Common Pleas Division and Exchequer Division by Order in Council on 16 December 1880. The High Court was reorganised into the Chancery Division, Queen's Bench Division and the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. ## Jurisdiction Due to a misunderstanding by Sir Edward Coke in his Institutes of the Lawes of England, academics thought for a long time that the King's Bench was primarily a criminal court. This was factually incorrect; no indictment was tried by the King's Bench until January 1323, and no record of the court ordering the death penalty is found until halfway through Edward II's reign. The court did have some criminal jurisdiction, with a royal ordinance in 1293 directing conspiracy cases to be brought to the King's Bench and the court's judges acting in trailbaston commissions around the country. A. T. Carter, in his History of English Legal Institutions, defines the early King's Bench jurisdiction as "to correct all crimes and misdemeanours that amounted to a breach of the peace, the King being then plaintiff, for such were in derogation of the Jura regalia; and to take cognizance of everything not parcelled out to the other courts". By the end of the 14th century much of the criminal jurisdiction had declined, although the court maintained a criminal jurisdiction over all cases in Middlesex, the county where Westminster Hall stood. The King's Bench's main jurisdiction was over "pleas of the crown"; cases which involved the King in some way. With the exception of revenue matters, which were handled by the Exchequer of Pleas, the King's Bench held exclusive jurisdiction over these cases. The Court of King's Bench did act as an appellate body, hearing appeals from the Court of Common Pleas, eyre circuits, assize courts and local courts, but was not a court of last resort; its own records were sent to Parliament to be signed off on. The creation of the Court of Exchequer Chamber in 1585 created a court from which King's Bench decisions could be appealed to, and with the expansion of the Exchequer Chamber's jurisdiction in 1830 the King's Bench ceased to be an appellate court. Thanks to the Bill of Westminster and other legal fictions, the King's Bench gained much of the Common Pleas's jurisdiction, although the Common Pleas remained the sole place where real property claims could be brought. ## Officials The head of the court was the Chief Justice of the King's Bench, a position established by 1268. From the 14th century onwards, the Chief Justice was appointed by a writ, in Latin until 1727 and in English from then on. The Chief Justice was the most senior judge in the superior courts, having superiority over the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas and Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and from 1612 the Master of the Rolls. Unlike other Chief Justices, who were appointed to serve "during the King's Pleasure", the appointment as Chief Justice of the King's Bench "did not usually specify any particular tenure". This practice ended in 1689, when all of the Chief Justices became appointed to serve "during good behaviour". The initial salary was £40 a year, with an additional £66 in 1372 and an increase to a total of £160 in 1389. An ordinance of 1646 set a fixed salary of £1,000, increased to £2,000 in 1714, £4,000 in 1733, and finally peaked at £10,000 a year in 1825. Pension arrangements were first made in 1799, peaking at £4,000 a year in 1825. The position remains to this day; after the dissolution of the Court of King's Bench, the Chief Justice has instead been the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, now the head of the Judiciary of England and Wales. A Chief Justice of the King's Bench was assisted in his work by a number of Justices of the King's Bench. Occasionally appointed before 1272, the number fluctuated considerably between 1 and 4; from 1522, the number was fixed at 3. Provisions for a fourth were established in 1830, and a fifth in 1868. Following the dissolution of the Court of King's Bench, the remaining Justices because Justices of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice. Justices were originally paid £26 a year, increasing to £66 in 1361, and £100 in 1389. An ordinance of 1645 increased this to £1,000, with the salary peaking at £5,500 in 1825. As with the Chief Justice, pension arrangements were formally organised in 1799, starting at £2,000 a year and peaking at £3,500 in 1825. ## See also - King's Bench Prison

2001 Champions Cup

The 2001 Champions Cup was a professional invitational snooker tournament held at the Brighton Centre in Brighton, England, from 11 to 19 August. It was the seventh and final edition of the eight-player Champions Cup, and was the first of four World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) invitational events of the 2001–02 season following the 2001 World Snooker Championship. It preceded the season's second invitational tournament, the 2001 Scottish Masters. John Higgins, the world number three, won the tournament, defeating two-time Champions Cup runner-up Mark Williams seven to four (7–4) in the final. It was the first and only Champions Cup success in the career of Higgins. In the semi-finals, Higgins defeated Ken Doherty, the 1997 world champion, 5–2 and Williams won against the 2001 Scottish Open victor Peter Ebdon by the same scoreline. Ebdon made the highest of 130 in the third frame of his group match over Ronnie O'Sullivan, the 2001 world champion. ## Background The tournament was created as the Charity Challenge in 1995 in which players competed for charity and prize monies donated to their respective causes. The charity aspect was discarded after five years and the tournament was re-branded the Champions Cup with a new "winner takes all" format of players who had won major tournaments from the season prior invited to compete. The 2001 Champions Cup was the first of four World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) invitational events of the 2001–02 season and was held at the Brighton Centre in Brighton, England, from 11 to 19 August 2001. The tournament preceded the 2001 Scottish Masters. This was the final year the tournament was played due to a lack of sponsorship and television coverage. The Champions Cup had a prize fund of £200,000, with £100,000 going to the winner, and was broadcast in the United Kingdom on ITV. ### Rules A total of eight players competed in the Champions Cup: five ranking competition winners from the 2000–01 season and three wildcards. The group stage matches played between 11 and 16 August were part of a round-robin format and were best-of-nine frames. They were drawn into two groups of four with a match played against the other three in their group. The winner of both groups was determined by the number of matches won. In the event of a draw, the number of frames won decided the group winner. If this method was ineffective in determining the group winner, a match between the tied players would occur. The winner of each group was drawn to play the runner-up of the opposite group in the semi-finals from 17 to 18 August. The final on 19 August was played to the best-of-13 frames. ## Group stages ### Group A The opening match of the tournament saw Ronnie O'Sullivan, the 2001 world champion, play the world number 11 Jimmy White. O'Sullivan took a 3–0 lead in 53 minutes before White won the fourth frame with a to the when O'Sullivan failed to pot the into the bottom right-hand pocket. White came from 56–0 behind in frame five to win it with a 66 clearance and then of 38 and 47 equalled the score at 3–3. The match ended 5–3 for O'Sullivan with a break of 93 in frame eight. Ken Doherty, the 1997 world champion and two-time ranking winner in the 2000–01 season, compiled breaks of 84 and 50 to defeat the 2001 Scottish Open champion Peter Ebdon, who made a 100 clearance and a 78 break, 5–2. He later took the group lead when he compiled a 45 clearance and 30 and 59 breaks in a 5–4 win over O'Sullivan after trailing 3–1 and 4–3. It was O'Sullivan's first defeat since he lost to Mark Davis five months prior. Ebdon beat White 5–3 to eliminate the latter from the competition. Breaks of 112 and 93 and a on the pink in frame three provided White with a 3–2 advantage. Ebdon took the lead from a 70 break. He won the eighth on the pink and claimed victory on the after White made an error. Ebdon made a of 130 and obtained two to defeat O'Sullivan and eliminate his opponent from the tournament, saying afterwards: "On a number of occasions fortune smiled on me, and that's something you need against a top player like Ronnie." Breaks of 70, 118, 70 and 74 in 64 minutes allowed Doherty to maintain his 100 per cent win record at the event with a 5–1 victory against White. ### Group B World number three John Higgins won 5–4 over two-time Champions Cup runner-up Mark Williams. Higgins led 3–0 until Williams tied him 3–3; the former missed a straightforward for a 5–3 victory. Williams won frame eight on the pink but was unable to convert a 36–0 score into a win. Higgins said the result was possibly due to nervousness. Tournament debutant Paul Hunter won 5–4 over the 1999 Champions Cup winner Stephen Hendry to requite a loss to Hendry at the 2001 world championship. Hendry failed to take a 3–2 lead because he missed the black while 66–0 in front and Hunter took frame five with a 70 clearance. Hunter claimed two of the next three frames to win. After breaks of 53, 52 and 72, Hendry lost for the second time in a row when match-long leader Williams defeated him 5–3 from two half-centuries. The result required Hendry to win his game against fellow Scot Higgins to qualify for the semi-finals. Higgins qualified for the semi-finals with a 5–3 win over Hunter. A 97 break won Hunter frame one before Higgins took the next two with breaks of 68 and 71 to accumulate 189 points without reply. Higgins took a 4–2 lead from breaks of 64 and 50, to which Hunter made a 95 break before Higgins sealed the win on a 74–43 scoreline. Williams defeated Hunter for the sixth straight time by 5–2. The first two frames were shared before Williams took the next two. Hunter took frame six with a 33 clearance and Williams the next two to advance to the semi-finals. Breaks of 92, 79, 98 and 56 allowed Hendry to defeat Higgins 5–4 and avoid finishing last in Group B. Higgins said he would attempt to play "110 per cent harder next time out" and was relieved to play Doherty the following day. ## Knockout stages ### Semi-finals Both of the semi-finals were held to the best-of-nine frames on 17 to 18 August. The first semi-final saw Higgins play Doherty. Higgins won the first frame with an 80 break; he was unable to complete a maximum break after he failed to pot the black into a centre pocket. A reply break of 54 from Doherty in frame two was followed by breaks of 56 and 57 from Higgins in the next frame. Higgins won the fourth frame with a 59 clearance after coming from a 32–9 deficit. He opened up a 4–1 advantage without making any major errors, before Doherty took frame six after Higgins missed the pink into the top left-hand pocket. Doherty made a 43 break in the eighth frame before he potted an incorrect ball and allowed Higgins to produce a 48 clearance to the for a 5–2 win. Higgins said he was happy to reach the final; Doherty said he was not too unsatisfied in defeat because of his form during the competition. The other semi-final was between Williams and Ebdon. Breaks of 61 and 104 in 43 minutes gave Williams a 3–0 lead; Ebdon was required to concede the third frame with one red on the table. Ebdon avoided a whitewash by winning the fourth frame on a re-spotted black to the top right-hand pocket. Two breaks of 30 won Ebdon frame five before Williams took a 5–2 victory from breaks of 52 and 63. It was the third consecutive year that Williams had made the final of the Champions Cup and his 14th in any tournament in the last 25 months. Williams said he would like to win the tournament and was aware of his record in the finals: "I'm a bit cheesed off by it all. However as long as I play OK, I'm happy with that." Ebdon praised Williams' form and said he had not taken chances: "Winning the fourth frame on the black gave me a chance but it proved academic in the end." ### Final The best-of-13 frames final between Higgins and Williams was played on 19 August. A century break of 100 and a clearance of 41 to the blue gave Williams a 2–0 lead after Higgins missed a safety shot. After Williams missed the black in frame three, Higgins made a 75 break and won the fourth when Williams went on the last red and the yellow while on a break of 56. Williams then restored a two-frame lead in the sixth after breaks of 124 and 34. Midway in frame seven, Williams failed to pot the black from its position and Higgins was able to claim the frame. Clearances of 109 in frame eight and a 67 to the pink in the ninth gave Higgins the lead. In the tenth frame, a 69 break from Williams ended with five reds left on the table. Higgins required a snooker and obtained it to achieve a 35 clearance from the final red to the pink to go two frames ahead. Williams could not get out of a snooker from behind the yellow during frame 11. This allowed Higgins to make a clearance from the yellow to the pink and claim a 7–4 victory for the tournament. It was Higgins' first Champions Cup title, and his 21st in professional play. The result meant Williams had lost in the final of the tournament for the third year in a row; he had lost 7–5 to Hendry in the 1999 final and 7–4 to O'Sullivan one year later. Higgins earned £100,000 for winning the tournament. He said of his victory: "It was a cracking match and it's a great way to start the season. I'm delighted with the way I played and even when I was bang under pressure I managed to hold myself together really well." He added that he was able to win due to his clearance, and had the opinion there were several high-quality players who could challenge over time. Williams said he was disappointed with the result: "I tried my guts out to win and blew it. This is the most sick I've felt after losing a match for five or six years." He noted that he had a potential 5–2 lead and praised Higgins' play: "It was meant to be his day." ## Results The players highlighted in bold text in the table indicate who progressed to the semi-finals. Players in bold to the right of the tables denote match winners. ### Group A - Ken Doherty 5–2 Peter Ebdon - Ronnie O'Sullivan 5–3 Jimmy White - Peter Ebdon 5–3 Jimmy White - Ken Doherty 5–4 Ronnie O'Sullivan - Ken Doherty 5–1 Jimmy White - Peter Ebdon 5–1 Ronnie O'Sullivan ### Group B - Mark Williams 5–2 Paul Hunter - Stephen Hendry 5–4 John Higgins - Paul Hunter 5–3 Stephen Hendry - John Higgins 5–4 Mark Williams - John Higgins 5–3 Paul Hunter - Mark Williams 5–3 Stephen Hendry ### Knockout draw Numbers to the left of the players' name are the tournament seedings. Players in bold indicate match winners. ### Final Scores in bold denote each of the winning frame scores and the winning player. Breaks over 50 are displayed in brackets. ## Century breaks The 2001 Champions Cup featured a total of eight century breaks. The highest break of 130 was recorded by Peter Ebdon in the third frame of his Group A match against Ronnie O'Sullivan, which earned him £5,000 prize money. - 130, 100 – Peter Ebdon - 124, 104, 100 – Mark Williams - 118 – Ken Doherty - 112 – Jimmy White - 109 – John Higgins

Anthozoa

Class of cnidarians without a medusa stage

Anthozoa is a class of marine invertebrates which includes the sea anemones, stony corals and soft corals. Adult anthozoans are almost all attached to the seabed, while their larvae can disperse as part of the plankton. The basic unit of the adult is the polyp; this consists of a cylindrical column topped by a disc with a central mouth surrounded by tentacles. Sea anemones are mostly solitary, but the majority of corals are colonial, being formed by the budding of new polyps from an original, founding individual. Colonies are strengthened by calcium carbonate and other materials and take various massive, plate-like, bushy or leafy forms. Anthozoa is included within the phylum Cnidaria, which also includes the jellyfish, box jellies and parasitic Myxozoa and Polypodiozoa. The two main subclasses of Anthozoa are the Hexacorallia, members of which have six-fold symmetry and includes the stony corals, sea anemones, tube anemones and zoanthids; and the Octocorallia, which have eight-fold symmetry and includes the soft corals and gorgonians (sea pens, sea fans and sea whips), and sea pansies. The smaller subclass, Ceriantharia, consists of the tube-dwelling anemones. Some additional species are also included as incertae sedis until their exact taxonomic position can be ascertained. Anthozoans are carnivores, catching prey with their tentacles. Many species supplement their energy needs by making use of photosynthetic single-celled algae that live within their tissues. These species live in shallow water and many are reef-builders. Other species lack the zooxanthellae and, having no need for well-lit areas, typically live in deep-water locations. Unlike other members of this phylum, anthozoans do not have a medusa stage in their development. Instead, they release sperm and eggs into the water. After fertilisation, the planula larvae form part of the plankton. When fully developed, the larvae settle on the seabed and attach to the substrate, undergoing metamorphosis into polyps. Some anthozoans can also reproduce asexually through budding or by breaking in pieces. ## Diversity The name "Anthozoa" comes from the Greek words άνθος (ánthos; "flower") and ζώα (zóa; "animals"), hence ανθόζωα (anthozoa) = "flower animals", a reference to the floral appearance of their perennial polyp stage. Anthozoans are exclusively marine, and include sea anemones, stony corals, soft corals, sea pens, sea fans and sea pansies. Anthozoa is the largest taxon of cnidarians; over six thousand solitary and colonial species have been described. They range in size from small individuals less than half a centimetre across to large colonies a metre or more in diameter. They include species with a wide range of colours and forms that build and enhance reef systems. Although reefs and shallow water environments exhibit a great array of species, there are in fact more species of coral living in deep water than in shallow, and many taxa have shifted during their evolutionary history from shallow to deep water and vice versa. ## Phylogeny Anthozoa is subdivided into three subclasses: Octocorallia, Hexacorallia and Ceriantharia, which form monophyletic groups and generally show differentiating reflections on symmetry of polyp structure for each subclass. The relationships within the subclasses are unresolved. Historically, the "Ceriantipatharia" was thought to be a separate subclass but, of the two orders it comprised, Antipatharia is now considered part of Hexacorallia and Ceriantharia is now considered an independent subclass. The extant orders are shown to the right. Hexacorallia includes coral reef builders: the stony corals (Scleractinia), sea anemones (Actiniaria), and zoanthids (Zoantharia). Genetic studies of ribosomal DNA has shown Ceriantharia to be a monophyletic group and the oldest, or basal, order among them. Classification according to the World Register of Marine Species: - subclass Hexacorallia - order Actiniaria — sea anemones - order Antipatharia — black coral - order Corallimorpharia — corallimorphs - order Rugosa † - order Scleractinia — stony corals - order Zoantharia — zoanthids - subclass Octocorallia - order Alcyonacea — soft corals and gorgonians - order Helioporacea — blue corals - order Pennatulacea — pennatules, sea feathers, sea pens, sea pansies - subclass Ceriantharia — ceriantharians, tube-dwelling anemones - order Penicillaria - order Spirularia - Anthozoa incertae sedis - genus Aiptasiodes - order Auloporida † - genus Sarcinula † Octocorallia comprises the sea pens (Pennatulacea), soft corals (Alcyonacea), and blue coral (Helioporacea). Sea whips and sea fans, known as gorgonians, are part of Alcyonacea and historically were divided into separate orders. Ceriantharia comprises the related tube-dwelling anemones. Tube-dwelling anemones or cerianthids look very similar to sea anemones, but belong to an entirely different subclass of anthozoans. They are solitary, living buried in soft sediments. Tube anemones live and can withdraw into tubes, which are made of a fibrous material, which is made from secreted mucus and threads of nematocyst-like organelles, known as ptychocysts. ## Anatomy The basic body form of an anthozoan is the polyp. This consists of a tubular column topped by a flattened area, the oral disc, with a central mouth; a whorl of tentacles surrounds the mouth. In solitary individuals, the base of the polyp is the foot or pedal disc, which adheres to the substrate, while in colonial polyps, the base links to other polyps in the colony. The mouth leads into a tubular pharynx which descends for some distance into the body before opening into the coelenteron, otherwise known as the gastrovascular cavity, that occupies the interior of the body. Internal tensions pull the mouth into a slit-shape, and the ends of the slit lead into two grooves in the pharynx wall called siphonoglyphs. The coelenteron is subdivided by a number of vertical partitions, known as mesenteries or septa. Some of these extend from the body wall as far as the pharynx and are known as "complete septa" while others do not extend so far and are "incomplete". The septa also attach to the oral and pedal discs. The body wall consists of an epidermal layer, a jellylike mesogloea layer and an inner gastrodermis; the septa are infoldings of the body wall and consist of a layer of mesogloea sandwiched between two layers of gastrodermis. In some taxa, sphincter muscles in the mesogloea close over the oral disc and act to keep the polyp fully retracted. The tentacles contain extensions of the coelenteron and have sheets of longitudinal muscles in their walls. The oral disc has radial muscles in the epidermis, but most of the muscles in the column are gastrodermal, and include strong retractor muscles beside the septa. The number and arrangement of the septa, as well as the arrangement of these retractor muscles, are important in anthozoan classification. The tentacles are armed with nematocysts, venom-containing cells which can be fired harpoon-fashion to snare and subdue prey. These need to be replaced after firing, a process that takes about forty-eight hours. Some sea anemones have a circle of acrorhagi outside the tentacles; these long projections are armed with nematocysts and act as weapons. Another form of weapon is the similarly armed acontia (threadlike defensive organs) which can be extruded through apertures in the column wall. Some stony corals employ nematocyst-laden "sweeper tentacles" as a defence against the intrusion of other individuals. Many anthozoans are colonial and consist of multiple polyps with a common origin joined by living material. The simplest arrangement is where a stolon runs along the substrate in a two dimensional lattice with polyps budding off at intervals. Alternatively, polyps may bud off from a sheet of living tissue, the coenosarc, which joins the polyps and anchors the colony to the substrate. The coenosarc may consist of a thin membrane from which the polyps project, as in most stony corals, or a thick fleshy mass in which the polyps are immersed apart from their oral discs, as in the soft corals. The skeleton of a stony coral in the order Scleractinia is secreted by the epidermis of the lower part of the polyp; this forms a corallite, a cup-shaped hollow made of calcium carbonate, in which the polyp sits. In colonial corals, following growth of the polyp by budding, new corallites are formed, with the surface of the skeleton being covered by a layer of coenosarc. These colonies adopt a range of massive, branching, leaf-like and encrusting forms. Soft corals in the subclass Octocorallia are also colonial and have a skeleton formed of mesogloeal tissue, often reinforced with calcareous spicules or horny material, and some have rod-like supports internally. Other anthozoans, such as sea anemones, are naked; these rely on a hydrostatic skeleton for support. Some of these species have a sticky epidermis to which sand grains and shell fragments adhere, and zoanthids incorporate these substances into their mesogloea. ## Biology Most anthozoans are opportunistic predators, catching prey which drifts within reach of their tentacles. The prey is secured with the help of sticky mucus, spirocysts (non-venomous harpoon cells) and nematocysts (venomous harpoon cells). The tentacles then bend to push larger prey into the mouth, while smaller, plankton-size prey, is moved by cilia to the tip of the tentacles which are then inserted into the mouth. The mouth can stretch to accommodate large items, and in some species, the lips may extend to help receive the prey. The pharynx then grasps the prey, which is mixed with mucus and slowly swallowed by peristalsis and ciliary action. When the food reaches the coelenteron, extracellular digestion is initiated by the discharge of the septa-based nematocysts and the release of enzymes. The partially digested food fragments are circulated in the coelenteron by cilia, and from here they are taken up by phagocytosis by the gastrodermal cells that line the cavity. Most anthozoans supplement their predation by incorporating into their tissues certain unicellular, photosynthetic organisms known as zooxanthellae (or zoochlorellae in a few instances); many fulfil the bulk of their nutritional requirements in this way. In this symbiotic relationship, the zooxanthellae benefit by using nitrogenous waste and carbon dioxide produced by the host while the cnidarian gains photosynthetic capability and increased production of calcium carbonate, a substance of great importance to stony corals. The presence of zooxanthellae is not a permanent relationship. Under some circumstances, the symbionts can be expelled, and other species may later move in to take their place. The behaviour of the anthozoan can also be affected, with it choosing to settle in a well lit spot, and competing with its neighbours for light to allow photosynthesis to take place. Where an anthozoan lives in a cave or other dark location, the symbiont may be absent in a species that, in a sunlit location, normally benefits from one. Anthozoans living at depths greater than 50 m (200 ft) are azooxanthellate because there is insufficient light for photosynthesis. With longitudinal, transverse and radial muscles, polyps are able to elongate and shorten, bend and twist, inflate and deflate, and extend and contract their tentacles. Most polyps extend to feed and contract when disturbed, often invaginating their oral discs and tentacles into the column. Contraction is achieved by pumping fluid out of the coelenteron, and reflation by drawing it in, a task performed by the siphonoglyphs in the pharynx which are lined with beating cilia. Most anthozoans adhere to the substrate with their pedal discs but some are able to detach themselves and move about, while others burrow into the sediment. Movement may be a passive drifting with the currents or in the case of sea anemones, may involve creeping along a surface on their base. Gas exchange and excretion is accomplished by diffusion through the tentacles and internal and external body wall, aided by the movement of fluid being wafted along these surfaces by cilia. The sensory system consists of simple nerve nets in the gastrodermis and epidermis, but there are no specialised sense organs. Anthozoans exhibit great powers of regeneration; lost parts swiftly regrow and the sea anemone Aiptasia pallida can be vivisected in the laboratory and then returned to the aquarium where it will heal. They are capable of a variety of asexual means of reproduction including fragmentation, longitudinal and transverse fission and budding. Sea anemones for example can crawl across a surface leaving behind them detached pieces of the pedal disc which develop into new clonal individuals. Anthopleura species divide longitudinally, pulling themselves apart, resulting in groups of individuals with identical colouring and patterning. Transverse fission is less common, but occurs in Anthopleura stellula and Gonactinia prolifera, with a rudimentary band of tentacles appearing on the column before the sea anemone tears itself apart. Zoanthids are capable of budding off new individuals. Most anthozoans are unisexual but some stony corals are hermaphrodite. The germ cells originate in the endoderm and move to the gastrodermis where they differentiate. When mature, they are liberated into the coelenteron and thence to the open sea, with fertilisation being external. To make fertilisation more likely, corals emit vast numbers of gametes, and many species synchronise their release in relation to the time of day and the phase of the moon. The zygote develops into a planula larva which swims by means of cilia and forms part of the plankton for a while before settling on the seabed and metamorphosing into a juvenile polyp. Some planulae contain yolky material and others incorporate zooxanthellae, and these adaptations enable these larvae to sustain themselves and disperse more widely. The planulae of the stony coral Pocillopora damicornis, for example, have lipid-rich yolks and remain viable for as long as 100 days before needing to settle. ## Ecology Coral reefs are some of the most biodiverse habitats on earth, supporting large numbers of species of corals, fish, molluscs, worms, arthropods, starfish, sea urchins, other invertebrates and algae. Because of the photosynthetic requirements of the corals, they are found in shallow waters, and many of these fringe land masses. With a three-dimensional structure, coral reefs are very productive ecosystems; they provide food for their inhabitants, hiding places of various sizes to suit many organisms, perching places, barriers to large predators and solid structures on which to grow. They are used as breeding grounds and as nurseries by many species of pelagic fish, and they influence the productivity of the ocean for miles around. Anthozoans prey on animals smaller than they are and are themselves eaten by such animals as fish, crabs, barnacles, snails and starfish. Their habitats are easily disturbed by outside factors which unbalance the ecosystem. In 1989, the invasive crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) caused havoc in American Samoa, killing 90% of the corals in the reefs. Corals that grow on reefs are called hermatypic, with those growing elsewhere are known as ahermatypic. Most of the latter are azooxanthellate and live in both shallow and deep sea habitats. In the deep sea they share the ecosystem with soft corals, polychaete worms, other worms, crustaceans, molluscs and sponges. In the Atlantic Ocean, the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa forms extensive deep-water reefs which support many other species. Other fauna, such as hydrozoa, bryozoa and brittle stars, often dwell among the branches of gorgonian and coral colonies. The pygmy seahorse not only makes certain species of gorgonians its home, but closely resembles its host and is thus well camouflaged. Some organisms have an obligate relationship with their host species. The mollusc Simnialena marferula is only found on the sea whip Leptogorgia virgulata, is coloured like it and has sequestered its defensive chemicals, and the nudibranch Tritonia wellsi is another obligate symbiont, its feathery gills resembling the tentacles of the polyps. A number of sea anemone species are commensal with other organisms. Certain crabs and hermit crabs seek out sea anemones and place them on their shells for protection, and fish, shrimps and crabs live among the anemone's tentacles, gaining protection by being in close proximity to the stinging cells. Some amphipods live inside the coelenteron of the sea anemone. Despite their venomous cells, sea anemones are eaten by fish, starfish, worms, sea spiders and molluscs. The sea slug Aeolidia papillosa feeds on the aggregating anemone (Anthopleura elegantissima), accumulating the nematocysts for its own protection. ## Paleontology Several extinct orders of corals from the Paleozoic era 570–245 million years ago are thought to be close to the ancestors of modern Scleractinia: - Numidiaphyllida † - Kilbuchophyllida † - Heterocorallia † - Rugosa † - Heliolitida † - Tabulata † - Cothoniida † - Tabuloconida † These are all corals and correspond to the fossil record time line. With readily-preserved hard calcareous skeletons, they comprise the majority of Anthozoan fossils. ## Interactions with humans Coral reefs and shallow marine environments are threatened, not only by natural events and increased sea temperatures, but also by such man-made problems as pollution, sedimentation and destructive fishing practices. Pollution may be the result of run-off from the land of sewage, agricultural products, fuel or chemicals. These may directly kill or injure marine life, or may encourage the growth of algae that smother native species, or form algal blooms with wide-ranging effects. Oil spills at sea can contaminate reefs, and also affect the eggs and larva of marine life drifting near the surface. Corals are collected for the aquarium trade, and this may be done with little care for the long-term survival of the reef. Fishing among reefs is difficult and trawling does much mechanical damage. In some parts of the world explosives are used to dislodge fish from reefs, and cyanide may be used for the same purpose; both practices not only kill reef inhabitants indiscriminately but also kill or damage the corals, sometimes stressing them so much that they expel their zooxanthellae and become bleached. Deep water coral habitats are also threatened by human activities, particularly by indiscriminate trawling. These ecosystems have been little studied, but in the perpetual darkness and cold temperatures, animals grow and mature slowly and there are relatively fewer fish worth catching than in the sunlit waters above. To what extent deep-water coral reefs provide a safe nursery area for juvenile fish has not been established, but they may be important for many cold-water species.

Hurricane Rick (1985)

Category 4 Pacific hurricane in 1985

Hurricane Rick was a powerful hurricane that threatened Hawaii during September 1985, but ultimately passed with minimal effects. The storm was the twentieth tropical cyclone, eighteenth named storm, eighth hurricane, and fifth major hurricane of the very active 1985 Pacific hurricane season. Rick originated from a tropical wave moved slowly westward over the warm waters south of Salina Cruz. Moving westward, the EPHC upgraded the low into a tropical depression on 0000 UTC September 1. The depression was upgraded into Tropical Storm Rick midday on September 2. Initially, further intensification was slow to occur; the storm did not attain hurricane status until September 7, nearly a week after it first formed. After becoming a hurricane, Rick began to intensify more rapidly. Early the next day, the EPHC re-assessed the intensity of Rick to Category 4 status. Shortly thereafter, Rick reached its peak intensity of 145 mph (233 km/h). A weakening trend commenced on September 10; Hurricane Rick began to rapidly deteriorate while turning northwest. Within a few hours, the storm had weakened considerably. By September 11, Tropical Storm Rick merged with a trough. Early forecasts noted uncertainty in the storm's path; the hurricane approached the Hawaiian island group, coming close enough to require a high surf advisory. Even though Hurricane Rick turned north sooner than Pauline, the surf did rise slightly. ## Meteorological history Hurricane Rick originated from a tropical wave that moved slowly westward south of Salina Cruz. Despite warm waters, the wave was slow to develop due to strong vertical wind shear in the vicinity of the system. It moved westward because a strong ridge that extended from the Hawaiian Islands to the Southwestern United States was north of the disturbance. Satellite imagery indicated that the thunderstorm activity had increased in the vicinity of the wave on August 31. A surface circulation began to form; subsequently, the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center (EPHC) upgraded the low into Tropical Depression Eighteen at 0000 UTC on September 1. The depression continued west, and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Rick midday on September 2. Initially expected to turn north and approach the Baja California Peninsula, the system briefly slowed and turned southwest while the ridge dough southward, but the storm resumed a westerly course on September 4. Despite being situated over warm waters and in a low wind shear environment, further intensification was initially slow to occur since Rick was 800 mi (1,285 km) east of Hurricane Pauline. Rick did not attain hurricane status until the evening hours of September 6 while located over 1,000 mi (1,610 km) west-southwest of Cabo San Lucas. After becoming a hurricane, Rick began to intensify more rapidly. About 30 hours after becoming a hurricane, Rick attained Category 2 status on the present-day Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (SSHWS). By 1200 UTC on September 8, Rick reached Category 3 status. Early the next day, the EPHC re-assessed the intensity of Rick to 140 mph (230 km/h), making Rick a Category 4 hurricane while developing a large and well-defined eye. Six hours later, the storm's forecast responsibility was handed over to the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC). Around that time, Rick reached its peak intensity of 145 mph (233 km/h), with gusts up to 170 mph (270 km/h). At peak, one newspaper described Rick as "one of the strongest and best developed [hurricanes] on record". Moreover, Hurricane Rick was, at that time, the second intense hurricane on record in the CPHC's area of responsibility; only Hurricane Patsy during the 1959 Pacific hurricane season exceeded Rick in intensity. Since then, however, many storms have suppressed Rick in terms of both wind speed and pressure. Following a path similar to Pauline, the hurricane moved northwest, encountering increased southwesterly shear, which commenced a weakening trend. On September 10, Rick's eye started to become ragged and cloud-filled, when it was downgraded into a Category 3 hurricane. A dropsonde released into the eye of Hurricane Rick showed a central pressure of 951 mbar (951.00 hPa; 28.08 inHg). Recurving away from Hawaii, the system began to rapidly deteriorate and was reduced to a Category 1 hurricane during the evening hours of September 10. The next day, Rick was downgraded into a tropical storm roughly 600 mi (965 km) east of Hilo. Later that day, the tropical storm merged with the same trough that absorbed Hurricane Pauline several days earlier. Despite this, a weak low-level circulation persisted for several more days. ## Preparations and impact Early forecasts remarked the potential to be more of a threat to Hawaii than Pauline because Rick was further south than Pauline and thus less likely to weaken since Rick was over of warmer sea surface temperatures than Pauline. It did indeed approached the islands, coming close enough to require a high surf advisory. Even though Rick's intensity was much greater than Pauline's, Hurricane Pauline re-curved sooner than Rick. While the surf did rise somewhat, the waves were significantly lower than the heights experienced during Pauline. The U.S. Coast Guard received a report of an overdue sailing vessel en route to the Hawaiian Island group. However, it is unknown if Pauline or Rick affected the boat's course. ## See also - List of Hawaii hurricanes - Timeline of the 1985 Pacific hurricane season

Interstate 359

Auxiliary Interstate Highway in Tuscaloosa County, Alabama, United States

Interstate 359 (I-359) is a part of the Interstate Highway System in the US state of Alabama. It is a spur route that runs for 2.76 miles (4.44 km) entirely within the city limits of Tuscaloosa. Its terminuses are just south of I-20/I-59 interchange on the south side of town and U.S. Route 43 (US 43) in downtown Tuscaloosa. The entire length is concurrent with US 11 and State Route 69 (SR 69), with both continuing as at grade thoroughfares north and south of the shorter Interstate. ## Route description I-359 begins just south of the I-20/I-59 interchange at the western terminus of US 11 (SR 7, Skyland Boulevard) and SR 69. From this point, the route travels in a northerly direction, where it meets I-20/I-59 at a partial cloverleaf interchange. The route reaches its first exit at 35th Street in a half cloverleaf configuration, which provides access to the University of Alabama. I-359 then continues in a northerly direction paralleling Greensboro Avenue to its northern terminus just north of 15th Street, where the limited access freeway transitions into an at-grade thoroughfare as it enters downtown Tuscaloosa. From its crossing of the Alabama Great Southern Railroad (AGS) through the northern terminus, the highway in its entirety is elevated along a continuous bridge span. I-359 also features a wrong-way concurrency for its entire duration with travel from downtown Tuscaloosa being signed as both I-359 and SR 69 south and US 11 north, and with travel from the south being signed both I-359 and SR 69 north and US 11 south. ## History In the early 1960s, local planners and elected officials stated the need for direct access to I-59 from the city of Tuscaloosa. As annexation had not yet brought the city limits to the I-59 corridor, I-359 was originally to be the only access provided to I-59 directly from Tuscaloosa. The route, as originally envisioned, was to have no exits for the duration of its route between its southern terminus at I-59 and its northern terminus at 15th Street in downtown Tuscaloosa. Actual planning for I-359 commenced in 1961, and, by 1971, the Alabama Department of Transportation (ALDOT) announced that federal funding would be sought for its construction. Planning for the corridor continued throughout the 1970s, only to stall briefly due to complications with the required environmental impact assessment associated with the project. By 1976, it was announced I-359 would have an exit both at 35th Street and 15th Street to improve access to both the University of Alabama and Stillman College. In 1977, ALDOT publicly unveiled the final routing of the route and presented it at a series of public meetings in August 1977. The selected route resulted in the slight relocation of 35th Street, the construction of a bridge along 31st Street over the freeway, and the construction of a continuous viaduct along the final leg of the freeway through its 15th Street junction. Plans were also unveiled to add an additional travel lane in each direction along I-20/I-59 between its junction with I-359 and McFarland Boulevard. Following the acquisition of the necessary right-of-way, phasing of the project was released in June 1979. The first phase included the completion of the interchange at I-20/I-59 and lane expansion; the second phase included the segment between I-20/I-59 and the AGS railroad crossing; and the third phase included the elevated segment through the northern terminus in downtown Tuscaloosa. Construction would commence in 1980 on the first phase, with the bid for the second phase setting a then-record for cost for a Tuscaloosa road project at \$11.9 million (equivalent to \$ in ). As construction was wrapping up on phase two, phase three of the project again set a record cost at \$17.4 million (equivalent to \$ in ) in January 1982. The phase included the completion of the viaduct section of the freeway, constructed at an average elevation of 22 feet (6.7 m) above grade. The first segment of I-359 opened to traffic in October 1982 between I-20/I-59 and exit 1. Costing \$41 million (equivalent to \$ in ) at completion, I-359 was officially dedicated and opened for traffic on September 13, 1983. ## Exit list ## See also

HMS Seraph (1918)

Royal Navy S class destroyer

HMS Seraph was an S-class destroyer, which served with the Royal Navy during the Russian Civil War. The S class were a development of the previous R class, with minor differences, constructed at the end of the First World War. Seraph had a career as an evacuation vessel more than as a warship. Launched in 1918 by Denny, Seraph was originally destined for the Grand Fleet but, after the Armistice, the destroyer transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet based at Malta. The destroyer was sent into the Black Sea to support the White Russian forces in their fight against the Communists. The role involved supporting the movement of troops rather than firing at the enemy. Ultimately, the Communists won and Seraph helped the evacuation of White Russian troops from Crimea, returning to Malta in 1921. The destroyer was then stationed in the Eastern Mediterranean in 1923 in response to the tensions in Turkey. In 1927, the ship was sent to Hong Kong to serve under the Commander-in-Chief, China. In 1929, the vessel was once again called to evacuate, this time Christian missionaries from the Chinese Red Army. Once again, the evacuation took place without bloodshed. With the introduction of more modern destroyers, the Royal Navy started retiring the S class and, in 1934, Seraph was sold to be broken up. ## Design and development Seraph was one of thirty-three Admiralty S class destroyers ordered by the British Admiralty on 7 April 1917 as part of the Eleventh War Construction Programme. The design was a development of the R class introduced as a cheaper and faster alternative to the V and W class. Differences with the R class were minor, such as having the searchlight moved aft. Seraph had an overall length of 276 ft (84 m) and a length of 265 ft (81 m) between perpendiculars. Beam was 26 ft 8 in (8.13 m) and draught 9 ft 10 in (3.00 m). Displacement was 1,075 long tons (1,092 t) normal and 1,221 long tons (1,241 t) deep load. Three Yarrow boilers fed steam to two sets of Brown-Curtis geared steam turbines rated at 27,000 shaft horsepower (20,000 kW) and driving two shafts, giving a design speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph) at normal loading and 32.5 knots (60.2 km/h; 37.4 mph) at deep load. Two funnels were fitted. A full load of 301 long tons (306 t) of fuel oil was carried, which gave a design range of 2,750 nautical miles (5,090 km; 3,160 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph). Armament consisted of three QF 4 in (102 mm) Mk IV guns on the ship's centreline. One was mounted raised on the forecastle, one on a platform between the funnels and one aft. The ship also mounted a single 2-pounder 40 mm (1.6 in) "pom-pom" anti-aircraft gun for air defence. Four 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes were carried in two twin rotating mounts aft. Four depth charge chutes were also fitted aft. Typically ten depth charges were carried. The ship was designed to mount two additional 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes either side of the superstructure but this required the forecastle plating to be cut away, making the vessel very wet, so they were removed. The weight saved enabled the heavier Mark V 21-inch torpedo to be carried. Fire control included a training-only director, single Dumaresq and a Vickers range clock. The ship had a complement of 90 officers and ratings. ## Construction and career Laid down on 10 October 1917 by William Denny and Brothers in Dumbarton with the yard number 1099, Seraph was launched on 8 July the following year. The vessel was the first with the name to serve in the Royal Navy, and the second of six of the class to be built by the yard. Seraph was completed on 25 December shortly after the Armistice that ended the First World War. The vessel was destined to join the Fourteenth Destroyer Flotilla of the Grand Fleet. However, with the dissolution of the Grand Fleet as the Royal Navy adjusted to peacetime operations, Seraph joined the Sixth Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet and was transferred to Malta. Increasing awareness of the conflicts in the region, both the Greco-Turkish War and the Russian Civil War, meant that the Royal Navy transferred a number of warships into the Black Sea to assist the evacuation efforts. Seraph was sent to Crimea to support the White Russian forces, arriving in the Sea of Azov with sister ship Speedy in time to support their attack on Mariupol. On 29 June 1919, Seraph assisted the Russian cruiser Kagul in the landing 300 Russian troops that captured Koktebel. The destroyer was then posted to Feodosia arriving on 4 July. Three days later, Seraph was sent to Constantinople to support the peaceful dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. As it became increasingly clear that the White Russians had lost the war, the ship was also involved in the evacuation of the Crimea. The vessel carried over typically 300 troops at a time, helping to rescue 5,500 people in one night, on 26 March 1920, and was involved in the evacuation of Sevastopol on 11 November. The destroyer returned to Malta on 9 February 1921. However, increasing tension between the new Greek and Turkish states meant the navy built up forces in the Eastern Mediterranean. Seraph was sent to Chanak along with three other destroyers under the flotilla leader Montrose. Returning to Malta on 3 May 1923 for a respite, the destroyer returned to the area 21 days later. With the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July, the Mediterranean Fleet was able to be reduced and the destroyers returned to UK waters. On 4 December, Seraph was placed in the Reserve Fleet at Devonport. On 7 January 1927, the destroyer was recommissioned with a full complement and left on 8 February to join the Eighth Destroyer Flotilla, operating under the Commander-in-Chief, China. By 4 June, the destroyer had joined a multinational force, with warships from the Japanese and US Navies, based in Nanking, in the aftermath of the Nanking incident. On 1 October 1929, the vessel was recommissioned, having arrived in Hong Kong. On 26 December, the destroyer was called upon to sail to Shanwei to evacuate Christian missionaries threatened by the advancing Chinese Red Army. Taking the Apostolic vicar, Enrico Valtorta, as an interpreter, Seraph arrived the following day, and set a cutter to negotiate, containing Valtorta and fifty soldiers, under a flag of truce. The negotiations were successful and no shots were fired. On 22 April 1930, the London Naval Treaty was signed, which limited total destroyer tonnage in the Royal Navy. The force was looking to introduce more modern destroyers and so needed to retire some of the older vessels. Seraph was retired and, on 7 May 1934, sold to Thos. W. Ward to be broken up at Pembroke Dock. ## Pennant numbers

Tropical Storm Arlene (2011)

Atlantic tropical storm in 2011

Tropical Storm Arlene, the first named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season, brought blustery conditions to much of eastern Mexico in late June to early July 2011. Arlene originated from an Atlantic tropical wave, which crossed the Yucatán Peninsula before emerging over warm waters in the Bay of Campeche. Despite moderate wind shear, the disturbance strengthened and developed a surface circulation, prompting the National Hurricane Center to declare it a tropical storm on June 28. Arlene remained vigorous for most of its existence; the storm peaked in intensity with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h) on June 30, just before making landfall on the coast of Veracruz. Crossing the mountains of eastern Mexico, Arlene weakened to a depression before dissipating early on July 1. The precursor disturbance to Arlene brought significant rainfall to parts of Central America, killing three people and triggering widespread flooding and landslides. Throughout Mexico, prolonged rains from Arlene and subsequent flooding affected hundreds of homes and several roads, causing many residents to seek shelter. At the height of the storm, power was lost to 285,000 homes. At least 22 people in Mexico were killed by Arlene. Elsewhere, rainfall from the storm alleviated ongoing drought conditions in southern Texas and Florida. ## Meteorological history The origins of Tropical Storm Arlene can be traced to a distinct tropical wave, embedded within an area of deep atmospheric moisture, that emerged off the coast of Africa on June 13, 2011. The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic for several days, reaching the western Caribbean Sea in late June. By June 24, it began interacting with the extension of a monsoon trough in the region, generating broad cyclonic flow and scattered convection in conjunction with an upper trough to its northwest. The amplified wave slowly proceeded west-northwestward along Central America, bringing heavy rainfall to the area. Initially, the disturbance's development was impeded by the trough aloft and adjacent land, though the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis over the Bay of Campeche, coupled with abating wind shear. On June 26, the disturbance moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula, emerging into the bay the next day as it produced a surface low. Despite moderate shear, a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system revealed that a closed wind circulation had formed at sea level. Thunderstorm activity became more concentrated, and the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Arlene at midnight June 29, after the cyclone's surface winds increased to 40 mph (65 km/h) about 280 mi (450 km) south-southeast of Tampico, Tamaulipas. Over the following hours, deep convection increased around the broad storm, though its circulation center continued to lack in organization. Arlene curved to the west in response to a ridge of high pressure to its north and northwest. As the shear over the region further decreased, the large storm began to strengthen gradually, developing spiral convective bands closer to its center. Although forecast models supported intensification to hurricane status, significant development was compromised by a lack of distinguishable central features. On June 30, just before Arlene made landfall, Dvorak satellite estimates indicated the storm had reached a peak intensity of 65 mph (100 km/h) while accelerating off the coast of Veracruz. Arlene moved ashore near Cabo Rojo as a strong tropical storm by 09:00 UTC, with the severest winds confined to the north of the center. Farther inland, Arlene turned to the west-southwest along the building ridge. The storm decreased in strength upon doing so; its mid- and low-level circulations became increasingly decoupled, with the latter turning elongated and ill-defined. Early on July 1, the NHC downgraded Arlene to a tropical depression, and the cyclone dissipated over the high terrain of the Sierra Madre Mountains shortly thereafter. Arlene's remnants continued to produce heavy precipitation over central Mexico, and with high air pressures offshore a tight pressure gradient generated a strong easterly breeze along the country's Pacific coastlines. ## Preparations Due to the threat of heavy rainfall from Arlene's precursor, authorities issued a green alert in Honduras for 13 departments on the afternoon of June 24, which remained in effect for 72 hours. In El Salvador, the departments of La Unión, Ahuachapán, and Sonsonate were put under green alerts on June 26 after rains persisted over the region. Across the Yucatán Peninsula, officials and emergency workers braced for heavy rains as the system developed. Marine and fishing operations were suspended, while schools in Benito Juárez were closed on June 28. In response to Arlene's formation, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for coastal areas from Barra de Nautla northward to Bahia Algodones on June 29. Later that day, a hurricane watch was put into effect for the area extending from Tuxpan to La Cruz, after the storm showed signs of strengthening. They were both extended shortly after, with the watch then reaching to Barra de Nautla and the warning further southward to Palma Sola, though the latter was simultaneously discontinued for areas to the north of La Pesca. Prior to landfall, the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) activated a contingency plan for risk zones in the states of Veracruz and Tamaulipas. Emergency crews and medical teams were subsequently dispatched to the area in order to supply medical care to possible victims and manage power plant water pumps in case of flooding. An alert was declared for Pemex—a major oil company within the storm's projected path—in consideration of possible impact to refineries and other facilities. Over 50 temporary shelters were made available in flood-prone areas across various municipalities in Veracruz. Authorities in Tamaulipas prepared five shelters and mobilized of 10 emergency teams to evacuate up to 20,000 people in anticipation of adverse weather conditions. In Hidalgo, 250 shelters were opened and emergency workers were dispatched as a safety measure. At the risk of flash flooding, public storm shelters were made available in parts of Oaxaca. ## Impact ### Central America For several days, the precursor disturbance to Arlene dropped significant amounts of rain along coastal Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula. In Honduras, floods killed one person and collapsed a major bridge near the Goascorán River, leaving about 600 families isolated from surrounding areas. Elsewhere in the country, a rockslide occurred along a road to San José de Colinas, and several rivers overflowed due to the effects of the storm. In neighboring El Salvador, maximum rainfall amounts totaled 8.34 in (212 mm). Two people drowned in San Miguel, while 25 others were displaced in La Unión due to the floods. Scattered moderate showers also affected several parts of Nicaragua, triggering mudslides and overflowing a river in Cuapa. Along the riverside, 30 homes suffered inundations and 94 people evacuated the area. ### Mexico Tropical Storm Arlene and its remnants produced hours of prolonged rainfall over much of northeastern and south-central Mexico. Widespread floods and landslides impacted multiple states, prompting evacuations and causing copious damage to property and infrastructure. At the height of the storm, about 285,000 households lost power throughout Mexico, though service was quickly restored to 210,000 homes. Schools remained closed in the morning throughout Hidalgo, as well as in parts of San Luis Potosí, Guerrero, Puebla, and Oaxaca. Throughout the country, Arlene resulted in 22 confirmed fatalities and left one person missing. #### La Huasteca Region Arlene brought strong thunderstorms and showers to much of eastern Mexico, with gale-force winds along adjacent coastlines. Upon landfall in Veracruz, Arlene produced wind speeds to 60 mph (100 km/h) and up to 9.11 in (231.5 mm) of rainfall. The winds and rain uprooted trees and caused extensive flooding, prompting at least 1,786 people throughout the state to evacuate their homes. A total of 67 landslides took place in the state; one such landslide collapsed two houses in Tlalnelhuayocan, killing one inhabitant and injuring 10 others. Mudslides and rockfall also uprooted trees and damaged eight cars in Banerilla, though no injuries were linked to the incident. In Tihuatlán, a rescue worker was killed during the passage of the storm. Overall, Arlene affected 3,358 residences across 50 municipalities in Veracruz; about 2,000 homes were damaged in El Higo. Continued downpours brought on the overflow of 28 rivers, as well as the isolation of 116 communities statewide. Other effects in Veracruz included considerable infrastructural failure, localized land subsidence, and three damaged schools in Coacoatzintla. The costs of road reconstructions totaled Mex\$126 million (US\$10.2 million). In response to the devastation, the government declared a state of emergency for 65 percent of the state; by July 5, 62 municipalities remained under alert. Heavy rains fell over Taumalipas, with 348.8 mm measured along the Tamesí River. Widespread flooding forced some 400 families to evacuate throughout the state; 70 trapped families in El Mante had to be rescued from their flooded homes. At the height of the storm, high-voltage electrocutions due to downed power lines caused two deaths in the municipalities of Tampico and Reynosa while critically injuring two workers in Matamoros. By July 4, two more deaths were reported in the state, though their causes remain unspecified. Approximately 40,000 residents suffered property damage to their homes. A state of emergency was declared in the municipalities of Tampico, Ciudad Madero, Altamira, and González in light of the damage. Broken drains and sewers in the storm's wake increased the risk of cholera through contaminated water. Damage estimates in Tamaulipas exceeded Mex\$67 million (US\$5.8 million). In neighboring San Luis Potosí, Arlene dropped 12.18 in (309.4 mm) of rain and claimed the lives of five people, two due to drownings. Landslides left dozens of communities isolated, and more than 600 residents fled from flooded areas, particularly in Ciudad Valles, Tamazunchale, El Naranjo, and Xilitla. Farther inland, in Hidalgo, about 100 families required evacuation across the municipalities of Tlanchinol and Orizatlán due to heavy rain, with 7.09 in (180.1 mm) recorded in the latter. The rainfall triggered more than 80 landslides statewide, and two were killed in a rockslide near the town of Jacala. Swollen rivers in El Arenal and Huejutla caused two drownings. Total damage from Arlene reached Mex\$2.6 billion (US\$207.4 million) across Hidalgo. In response, the state government allocated a total Mex\$17 million (US\$1.45 million) for rehabilitation works. Downpours in the state of Puebla triggered landslides that cut off roads to traffic. Toppled trees struck a home in the municipality of Zihuateutla, killing its inhabitant. In Tlacotepec municipality, a girl was left missing after falling into a rushing stream; by July 4, officials confirmed she had drowned. After hours of prolonged rainfall, concerns arose over the potential overflow of a dam in the municipality of Tlatlauquitepec. Three houses sustained damage in Eloxochitlán as a consequence of excessively saturated soils, and another collapsed in Atempan. Elsewhere in Puebla, mud and flood waters reached 1.6 ft (0.5 m) in a school after a nearby river overflowed. #### Elsewhere Upon moving ashore near Quintana Roo, the system spread cloudiness and precipitation across much of the Yucatán Peninsula, resulting in widespread flooding. In southern Mexico, Chiapas received rainfall amounts of 9.3 in (237 mm) in Tapachula and Soconusco over a 36-hour time span. Floods, landslides, and strong winds damaged more than 450 homes in the state. Emergency workers evacuated about 150 families after two rivers in the region reached dangerous water levels. In the wake of Arlene, one fatality was confirmed in Chiapas. Rainfall in Oaxaca inflicted damage to multiple roads and collapsed one bridge; communication was lost with over 12,000 people from Mixe–Zapotec communities. The storm's remnants caused a landslide that overturned a taxi, killing one of its nine passengers. Weather conditions in Michoacán—which was still recovering from the impact of Pacific Hurricane Beatriz—deteriorated significantly; 1,600 homes sustained additional damage, while damaged roads and bridges secluded multiple coastal communities in Aquila. In Guerrero, three people were killed in traffic accidents due to inclement weather. Torrential rainfall throughout the state flooded 210 homes and left one person missing, with some uprooted trees and rockfall occurring along mountainous areas. ### United States In Florida, moisture tracing behind Arlene produced showers, alleviating ongoing extreme drought conditions in the state. The National Weather Service warned for the potential of flooding rains in the drought-stricken region of southern Texas. Officials in Cameron County ordered the preparation of sandbags, as well as the inspection of water pumps and vehicles to deal with floodwaters. In Hidalgo County, the storm spawned a weak tornado that damaged roofs, toppled vehicles, and injured one person prior to moving into Mexico. ## See also - Other storms of the same name - Tropical Storm Bret (2005) - Tropical Storm Gert (2005) - Tropical Storm Jose (2005) - Hurricane Stan (2005) - Hurricane Karl (2010)

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management

1861 book by Isabella Beeton

Mrs. Beeton's Book of Household Management, also published as Mrs. Beeton's Cookery Book, is an extensive guide to running a household in Victorian Britain, edited by Isabella Beeton and first published as a book in 1861. Previously published in parts, it initially and briefly bore the title Beeton's Book of Household Management, as one of the series of guidebooks published by her husband, Samuel Beeton. The recipes were highly structured, in contrast to those in earlier cookbooks. It was illustrated with many monochrome and colour plates. Although Mrs. Beeton died in 1865, the book continued to be a best-seller. The first editions after her death contained an obituary notice, but later editions did not, allowing readers to imagine that every word was written by an experienced Mrs. Beeton personally. Many of the recipes were copied from the most successful cookery books of the day, including Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery for Private Families (first published in 1845), Elizabeth Raffald's The Experienced English Housekeeper (originally published in 1769), Marie-Antoine Carême's Le Pâtissier royal Parisien (1815), Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy (1747), Maria Eliza Rundell's A New System of Domestic Cookery (1806), and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli (1805–1876). This practice of Mrs. Beeton's has in modern times repeatedly been described as plagiarism. The book expanded steadily in length until by 1907 it reached 74 chapters and over 2000 pages. Nearly two million copies were sold by 1868, and as of 2016 it remained in print. Between 1875 and 1914 it was probably the most often-consulted cookery book. Mrs. Beeton has been compared on the strength of the book with modern "domestic goddesses" like Nigella Lawson and Delia Smith. ## History The author, Isabella Beeton, was 21 years old when she started working on the book. It was initially serialised in 24 monthly instalments, in her husband Samuel Orchart Beeton's publication The Englishwoman's Domestic Magazine; the first instalment appeared in 1859. On 1 October 1861, the instalments were collected into one volume with the title The Book of Household Management, comprising information for the Mistress, Housekeeper, Cook, Kitchen-Maid, Butler, Footman, Coachman, Valet, Upper and Under House-Maids, Lady's-Maid, Maid-of-all-Work, Laundry-Maid, Nurse and Nurse-Maid, Monthly Wet and Sick Nurses, etc. etc.also Sanitary, Medical, & Legal Memoranda: with a History of the Origin, Properties, and Uses of all Things Connected with Home Life and Comfort. In its preface she wrote: > I must frankly own, that if I had known, beforehand, that this book would have cost me the labour which it has, I should never have been courageous enough to commence it. What moved me, in the first instance, to attempt a work like this, was the discomfort and suffering which I had seen brought upon men and women by household mismanagement. I have always thought that there is no more fruitful source of family discontent than a housewife's badly-cooked dinners and untidy ways. Beeton's half-sister, Lucy Smiles, was later asked about her memories of the book's development. She recalled: > Different people gave their recipes for the book. That for Baroness pudding (a suet pudding with a plethora of raisins) was given by the Baroness de Tessier, who lived at Epsom. No recipe went into the book without a successful trial, and the home at Pinner was the scene of many experiments and some failures. I remember Isabella coming out of the kitchen one day, 'This won't do at all,' she said, and gave me the cake that had turned out like a biscuit. I thought it very good. It had currants in it. Previously published as a part-work, it was first published as a book in 1861 by S. O. Beeton Publishing, 161 Bouverie Street, London, a firm founded by Samuel Beeton. The book was an immediate best-seller, selling 60,000 copies in its first year and totalling nearly two million by 1868. In 2010 a copy of the first edition of Household Management in "top condition" was stated to be worth more than £1,000. In 1863 a revised edition was issued. In 1866, a year after Isabella's death, Samuel was in debt due to the collapse of Overend and Gurney, a London discount house to which he owed money. To save himself from bankruptcy he sold the copyright to all of his publications for a little over £19,000. Of that, the rights to Household Management were sold to publishers Ward, Lock and Tyler for £3,250. The early editions included an obituary notice for Beeton, but the publishers insisted it be removed "allowing readers to imagineperhaps even as late as 1915that some mob-capped matriarch was out there still keeping an eye on them". Revisions to Household Management by its publisher have continued to the present day. The effort has kept the Beeton name in the public eye for over 125 years, although current editions are far removed from those published in Mrs. Beeton's lifetime. By 1906 the book had 2,056 pages, "exclusive of advertising", with 3,931 recipes and was "half as large again" as the previous edition. ## Book ### Contents The following description refers to the 1907 edition; the book was greatly extended in the decades since Mrs. Beeton's death (in 1865) to 74 chapters and over 2000 pages; the first edition had 44 chapters. The book begins with general chapters on the duties of the "mistress", the housekeeper, and the cook. There follow chapters on the kitchen itself, "marketing" (choosing good-quality produce at the market), and an introduction to cookery (Chapter 6). Together, these take up over 100 pages. Chapters seven to 38 (roughly 1000 pages) cover English cooking, with recipes for soups, gravies, fish, meat (principally veal, beef, mutton and lamb, and pork), poultry, game, preserves, vegetables, pastries, puddings, sweets, jams, pickles, and savouries. Chapter 39 describes the "art of carving at table", supported by eleven illustrations. Chapters 40 to 50 (some 200 pages) give instructions for dairy products, vegetarian and invalid (sick person) cookery, making bread, biscuits and cakes, and beverages. Chapters 51 to 59 describe cooking in various international styles including French, German, Spanish, Jewish, Australian, South African, Indian, American, and Canadian cookery. Chapters 60 to 68 guide on matters from trussing poultry to the definitions of culinary terms, arranging meals, decorating the table, making menus, and the duties of domestic servants. Chapters 69 to 73 describe "household recipes" and medical preparations. The final chapter, 74, offers "legal memoranda". There is a detailed index. The edition includes advertisements for products such as "Lemco" beef extract and "Cadbury's Cocoa". ### Approach The preface sets out the book's goal of providing "men" with such well-cooked food at home that it may compete with what they could eat "at their clubs, well-ordered taverns, and dining-houses". Mrs. Beeton claims that: > I have attempted to give, under the chapters devoted to cookery, an intelligible arrangement to every recipe, a list of the ingredients, a plain statement of the mode of preparing each dish, and a careful estimate of its cost, the number of people for whom it is sufficient, and the time when it is seasonable She explains that she was thus attempting to make the basics of cookery "intelligible" to any "housewife". The first chapter sets the tone of the book with a quotation from the Book of Proverbs, and in early editions cites also The Vicar of Wakefield with: > The modest virgin, the prudent wife, and the careful matron, are much more serviceable in life than petticoated philosophers, blustering heroines, or virago queens. She who makes her husband and her children happy, who reclaims the one from vice and trains up the other to virtue The book thus advocates early rising, cleanliness, frugality, good temper, and the wisdom of interviewing servants rather than relying on written references. Cookery is introduced with words about "the progress of mankind from barbarism to civilization", with a mention of man "in his primitive state, [living] upon roots and the fruits of the earth", rising to become in turn "a hunter and a fisher"; then a "herdsman" and finally "the comfortable condition of a farmer." It is granted that "the fruits of the earth, the fowls of the air, the beasts of the field, and the fish of the sea, are still the only food of mankind", but that: > [T]hese are so prepared, improved, and dressed by skill and ingenuity, that they are the means of immeasurably extending the boundaries of human enjoyments. The text then swiftly passes to a description of simple measures like a table-spoonful, and the duties of servants. The whole rest of the book is taken up with instructions for cooking, with an introduction in each chapter to the type of food it describes. The first of these, on soups, begins "Lean, juicy beef, mutton, and veal form the basis of all good soups; therefore it is advisable to procure those pieces which afford the richest succulence, and such as are fresh-killed." The account of how to make soup consists of a single essay, divided into general advice and numbered steps for making any kind of (meat-based) soup. This is followed in early editions by a separate chapter of recipes for soups of different kinds. Each recipe is structured into a title, a list of ingredients (with quantities, either naturalas a number of eggs or vegetables, a number of slices of hamor measured in Imperial unitsounces of salt, quarts of water. The actual instructions are headed "Mode", as "Cut up the veal, and put it with the bones and trimmings of poultry". A separate section gives the overall preparation time, and the average cost as, for example, "9d. per quart". Many recipes state in separate brief sections when a recipe is "seasonable and for how many persons it is "sufficient". Finally, a "note" gives any required advice, such as "When stronger stock is desired, double the quantity of veal, or put in an old fowl." This highly structured presentation was the book's main innovation. ### Oddities Despite professing to be a guide of reliable information about every aspect of running a house for the aspirant middle classes, the original edition devotes 23 pages to household management, then discusses cooking for almost all of the other 900. Even with the emphasis on food, some of her cooking advice is so odd as to suggest that she had little experience preparing meals. For example, the book recommends boiling pasta for an hour and forty-five minutes. Like many other British people of her social class and generation, Mrs. Beeton adopted a distaste for unfamiliar foods, saying that mangoes tasted like turpentine, lobsters were indigestible, garlic was offensive, potatoes were "suspicious; a great many are narcotic, and many are deleterious", cheese could only be consumed by sedentary people, and tomatoes were either good or bad for a range of reasons. Unlike earlier cookbook authors, such as Hannah Glasse, the book offered an "emphasis on thrift and economy". It also discarded the style of previous writers who employed "daunting paragraph[s] of text with ingredients and method jumbled up together" for what is a recognisably modern "user-friendly formula listing ingredients, method, timings and even the estimated cost of each recipe". ### Plagiarism In a critical letter, Mrs. Beeton's acquaintance Mrs. Henrietta Mary Pourtois English advised her that "Cookery is a Science that is only learnt by Long Experience and years of study which of course you have not had. Therefore my advice would be to compile a book from recipes from a Variety of the Best Books published on Cookery and Heaven knows there is a great variety for you to choose from." The recipes were largely copied from the most successful cookery books of the day, the copying in several cases unacknowledged in the text. The "variety" included Eliza Acton's Modern Cookery for Private Families and her The English Bread–Book, Elizabeth Raffald's The Experienced English Housekeeper, Marie-Antoine Carême's Le Pâtissier royal Parisien, Louis Eustache Ude's The French Cook, Alexis Soyer's The Modern Housewife or, Ménagère and The Pantropheon, Hannah Glasse's The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, Maria Eliza Rundell's A New System of Domestic Cookery, and the works of Charles Elmé Francatelli. In modern times Mrs. Beeton's practice has been criticised as plagiarism; Beeton's modern biographer Kathryn Hughes talks of her "lifting" and "brazenly copying" recipes from others, and says that this was "the way that cookery books had been put together from time immemorial ...". The New York Times said, "Isabella [Beeton] plagiarised only the best". This led to the comment that "Mrs Beeton couldn't cook but she could copy". Hughes recounts that Beeton's "first recipe for Victoria sponge was so inept that she left out the eggs" and that her work was "brazenly copied ... almost word for word, from books as far back as the Restoration". The influential 20th-century food writer Elizabeth David dismissed her as "a plagiarist" and later wrote: "I wonder if I would have ever learned to cook at all if I had been given a routine Mrs. Beeton to learn from". ### Illustrations The 1907 edition runs to some 30 full-page colour plates and over 100 full-page illustrations in monochrome. These include photographs, such as of the housekeeper standing with hands behind her back in her kitchen (pictured), facing the first page of Chapter two, "The Housekeeper". An idea of the amount of detail may be gained from the fact that there are eleven illustrations of types of fish (one pictured), such as "steamed sole" and "soused mackerel", and another of "fish entrées". One full-page colour plate (pictured) illustrated a range of puddings, showing jelly, raspberry cream, a centre dish piled high with fruits, a trifle, and an ornamental flowerpot containing a strawberry plant. Another full-page colour plate (pictured) showed a variety of fruits including apricots, white and black cherries, white, red, and black currants, a melon, strawberries, and varieties of plums, all piled high on circular dishes or fruit stands. ## Influence and legacy ### Contemporary The preface of Wilhelmina Rawson's Queensland Cookery and Poultry Book (1878), published in Australia, observes that: "Mrs. Lance Rawson's Cookery Book ... is written entirely for the Colonies, and for the middle classes, and for those people who cannot afford to buy a Mrs. Beeton or a Warne, but who can afford the three shillings for this." The Oxford English Dictionary recognised that, by the 1890s, Beeton's name "was adopted as a term for an authority on all things domestic and culinary". The Robert Mondavi Institute for Wine and Food Science observed that "it was probably found in more homes than any other cookery book, and [was probably] the most often consulted, in the years 1875 to 1914". A chapter of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's novel A Duet, with an Occasional Chorus (1899) is entitled, "Concerning Mrs. Beeton"; a character declares: "Mrs. Beeton must have been the finest housekeeper in the world, therefore Mr. Beeton must have been the happiest and most comfortable man". ### Modern Mrs. Beeton has been described as "the grandmother of modern domestic goddesses", like Nigella Lawson and Delia Smith, who saw, as Beeton did, the need to provide reassuring advice on culinary matters for the British middle classes. However, while Lawson and Smith "insist that cooking can be easy, fun and uncomplicated", Beeton "acknowledges the labour and skill required to cook well". The food writer and chef Gerard Baker tested and revised 220 of Beeton's recipes, and published the result as Mrs. Beeton: How To Cook (2011). For the book's 150th anniversary in 2011, the Royal Society of Chemistry planned to feature one of Beeton's recipes. Due to the financial climate at the time in wake of the Great Recession, the Society selected Beeton's toast sandwich, a dish that Beeton included to cater to the less well-off. In 2012 the food economist for the British television period drama Downton Abbey described Beeton's book as an "important guide" for the food served in the series. In 2019, during Season 1 Episode 2 of "Good Omens" a Victorian style hardback book is used as a prop by the archangel Gabriel (played by Jon Hamm) as he visits the angel Aziraphale (played by Michael Sheen) at his book shop, and the binding is displayed at 1:17 into the episode. While the title of the episode is referring to a different book, the close-up shot of the binding and the width make it clear to the viewer that Jon Hamm's character is holding the 2,000 page full text, with "Modern Edition" added below the title on the spine. ## Editions The book has appeared in many editions, including:

Ellis Island

Island in New York Harbor in New York and New Jersey, United States

Ellis Island is a federally owned island in New York Harbor, situated within the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York, that was the busiest immigrant inspection and processing station in the United States. From 1892 to 1954, nearly 12 million immigrants arriving at the Port of New York and New Jersey were processed there under federal law. Today, it is part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and is accessible to the public only by ferry. The north side of the island is the site of the main building, now a national museum of immigration. The south side of the island, including the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is open to the public only through guided tours. In the 19th century, Ellis Island was the site of Fort Gibson and later became a naval magazine. The first inspection station opened in 1892 and was destroyed by fire in 1897. The second station opened in 1900 and housed facilities for medical quarantines and processing immigrants. After 1924, Ellis Island was used primarily as a detention center for migrants. During both World War I and World War II, its facilities were also used by the US military to detain prisoners of war. After the immigration station's closure, the buildings languished for several years until they were partially reopened in 1976. The main building and adjacent structures were completely renovated in 1990. The 27.5-acre (11.1 ha) island was greatly expanded by land reclamation between the late 1890s and the 1930s. Jurisdictional disputes between New Jersey and New York State persisted until the 1998 US Supreme Court ruling in New Jersey v. New York. ## Geography and access Ellis Island is in Upper New York Bay, east of Liberty State Park and north of Liberty Island. While most of the island is in Jersey City, New Jersey, a small section is an exclave of New York City. The island has a land area of 27.5 acres (11.1 ha), much of which is from land reclamation. The natural island and contiguous areas comprise 4.68 acres (1.89 ha) within New York, and are located on the northern portion of the present-day island. The artificial land is part of New Jersey. The island has been owned and administered by the federal government of the United States since 1808 and operated by the National Park Service since 1965. ### Land expansion Initially, much of the Upper New York Bay's western shore consisted of large tidal flats with vast oyster beds, which were a major source of food for the Lenape. Ellis Island was one of three "Oyster Islands," the other two being Liberty Island and the now-subsumed Black Tom Island. In the late 19th century, the federal government began expanding the island by land reclamation to accommodate its immigration station, and the expansions continued until 1934. The fill was acquired from the ballast of ships, as well as material excavated from the first line of the New York City Subway. It also came from the railyards of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey. It eventually obliterated the oyster beds, engulfed one of the Oyster Islands, and brought the shoreline much closer to the others. The current island is shaped like a "C", with two landmasses of equal size on the northeastern and southwestern sides, separated by what was formerly a ferry pier. It was originally three separate islands. The current north side, formerly called island 1, contains the original island and the fill around it. The current south side was composed of island 2, created in 1899, and island 3, created in 1906. Two eastward-facing ferry docks separated the three numbered landmasses. The fill was retained with a system of wood piles and cribbing, and later encased with more than 7,700 linear feet of concrete and granite sea wall. It was placed atop either wood piles, cribbing, or submerged bags of concrete. In the 1920s, the second ferry basin between islands 2 and 3 was infilled to create the great lawn, forming the current south side of Ellis Island. As part of the project, a concrete and granite seawall was built to connect the tip of these landmasses. ### State sovereignty dispute The circumstances which led to an exclave of New York being located within New Jersey began in the colonial era, after the British takeover of New Netherland in 1664. A clause in the colonial land grant outlined the territory that the proprietors of New Jersey would receive as being "westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson's river." As early as 1804, attempts were made to resolve the status of the state line. The City of New York claimed the right to regulate trade on all waters. This was contested in Gibbons v. Ogden, which decided that the regulation of interstate commerce fell under the authority of the federal government, thus influencing competition in the newly developing steam ferry service in New York Harbor. In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit to clarify the border, but the case was never heard. The matter was resolved with a compact between the states, ratified by U.S. Congress in 1834. This set the boundary line at the middle of the Hudson River and New York Harbor; however, New York was guaranteed "exclusive jurisdiction of and over all the waters of Hudson River lying west of Manhattan and to the south of the mouth of Spuytenduyvil Creek; and of and over the lands covered by the said waters, to the low-water mark on the New Jersey shore." This was later confirmed in other cases by the U.S. Supreme Court. New Jersey contended that the artificial portions of the island were part of New Jersey, since they were outside New York's border. In 1956, after the closure of the U.S. immigration station two years prior, the Mayor of Jersey City Bernard J. Berry commandeered a U.S. Coast Guard cutter and led a contingent of New Jersey officials on an expedition to claim the island. Jurisdictional disputes reemerged in the 1980s with the renovation of Ellis Island, and then again in the 1990s with the proposed redevelopment of the south side. New Jersey sued in 1997. The lawsuit was escalated to the Supreme Court, which ruled in New Jersey v. New York. The border was redrawn using geographic information science data: It was decided that 22.80 acres (9.23 ha) of the land fill area are territory of New Jersey and that 4.68 acres (1.89 ha), including the original island, are territory of New York. This caused some initial confusion, as some buildings straddled the interstate border. The ruling had no effect on the status of Liberty Island. Although the island remained under federal ownership after the lawsuit, New Jersey and New York agreed to share jurisdiction over the land itself. Neither state took any fiscal or physical responsibility for the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of the historic properties, and each state has jurisdiction over its respective land areas. Jersey City and New York City then gave separate tax lot numbers to their respective claims. ### Public access Two ferry slips are located on the northern side of the basin that bisects Ellis Island. No charge is made for entrance to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries travel from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Battery in Lower Manhattan. The NPS also offers guided public tours of the south side as part of the "Hard Hat Tour". A bridge to Liberty State Park was built in 1986 for transporting materials and personnel during the island's late-1980s restoration. Originally slated to be torn down in 1992, it remained after construction was complete. It is not open to the public. The city of New York and the island's private ferry operator have opposed proposals to use it or replace it with a pedestrian bridge, and a 1995 proposal for a new pedestrian bridge to New Jersey was voted down in the United States House of Representatives. The bridge is not strong enough to be classified as a permanent bridge, and any action to convert it into a pedestrian passageway would require renovations. ## History ### Precolonial and colonial use The present-day Ellis Island was created by retreating glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation about 15,000 years ago. The island was described as a "hummock along a plain fronting the west side of the Hudson River estuary," and when the glaciers melted, the water of the Upper New York Bay surrounded the mass. The native Mohegan name for the island was "Kioshk", meaning "Gull Island", in reference to Ellis Island's former large population of seagulls. Kioshk was composed mostly of marshy, brackish lowlands that disappeared underwater at high tide. The Native American tribes who lived nearby are presumed to have been hunter-gatherers who used the island to hunt for fish and oysters, as well as to build transient hunting and fishing communities there. It is unlikely that the Native Americans established permanent settlements on Kioshk, since the island would have been submerged at high tide. In 1630, the Dutch bought Kioshk as a gift for Michael Reyniersz Pauw, who had helped found New Netherland. When the Dutch settled the area as part of New Netherland, the three islands in Upper New York Bay—Liberty, Black Tom, and Ellis Islands—were given the name Oyster Islands, alluding to the large oyster population nearby. The present-day Ellis Island was thus called "Little Oyster Island", a name that persisted through at least the early 1700s. Little Oyster Island was then sold to Captain William Dyre c. 1674, then to Thomas Lloyd on April 23, 1686. The island was then sold several more times, including to Enoch and Mary Story. During colonial times, Little Oyster Island became a popular spot for hosting oyster roasts, picnics, and clambakes because of its rich oyster beds. Evidence of recreational uses on the island was visible by the mid-18th century with the addition of commercial buildings to the northeast shore. By the 1760s, Little Oyster Island became a public execution site for pirates, with executions occurring at one tree in particular, the "Gibbet Tree". However, there is scant evidence that this was common practice. Little Oyster Island was acquired by Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker and merchant from Wrexham, Wales, in 1774. He unsuccessfully attempted to sell the island nine years later. Ellis died in 1794, and as per his will, the ownership of Ellis Island passed to his daughter Catherine Westervelt's unborn son, who was also named Samuel. When the junior Samuel died shortly after birth, ownership passed to the senior Samuel's other two daughters, Elizabeth Ryerson and Rachel Cooder. ### Military use and Fort Gibson Ellis Island was also used by the military for almost 80 years. By the mid-1790s, as a result of the United States' increased military tensions with Britain and France, a U.S. congressional committee drew a map of possible locations for the First System of fortifications to protect major American urban centers such as New York Harbor.A small part of Ellis Island from "the soil from high to low waters mark around Ellis's Island" was owned by the city. On April 21, 1794, the city deeded that land to the state for public defense purposes. The following year, the state allotted \$100,000 for fortifications on Bedloe's, Ellis, and Governors Islands, as well as the construction of Castle Garden (now Castle Clinton) along the Battery on Manhattan island. Batteries and magazines were built on Ellis Island in preparation for a war. A jetty was added to the northwestern extremity of the island, possibly from soil excavated from an inlet at the northeastern corner; the inlet was infilled by 1813. Though the military threat never materialized, further preparations were made in the late 1790s, when the Quasi War sparked fears of war with France; these new preparations were supervised by Ebenezer Stevens. The military conflict also failed to occur, and by 1805, the fort had become rundown. Stevens, who observed that the Ellis family still owned most of the island, suggested selling off the land to the federal government. Samuel Ryerson, one of Samuel Ellis's grandsons, deeded the island to John A. Berry in 1806. The remaining portion of the island was acquired by condemnation the next year, and it was ceded to the United States on June 30, 1808, for \$10,000. Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams, placed in charge of New York Harbor defenses in the early 1800s, proposed several new fortifications around the harbor as part of the Second System of fortifications. The new fortifications included increased firepower and improved weaponry. The War Department established a circular stone 14-gun battery, a mortar battery (possibly of six mortars), magazine, and barracks. The fort was initially called Crown Fort, but by the end of the War of 1812 the battery was named Fort Gibson, in honor of Colonel James Gibson of the 4th Regiment of Riflemen, who was killed in the war during the Siege of Fort Erie. The fort was not used in combat during the war, and instead served as a barracks for the 11th Regiment, as well as a jail for British prisoners of war. Immediately after the end of the War of 1812, Fort Gibson was largely used as a recruiting depot. The fort went into decline due to under-utilization, and it was being jointly administered by the U.S. Army and Navy by the mid-1830s. Around this time, in 1834, the extant portions of Ellis Island was declared to be an exclave of New York within the waters of New Jersey. The era of joint administration was short-lived: the Army took over the fort's administration in 1841, demoted the fort to an artillery battery, and stopped garrisoning the fort, leaving a small Navy guard outside the magazine. By 1854, Battery Gibson contained an 11-gun battery, three naval magazines, a short railroad line, and several auxiliary structures such as a cookhouse, gun carriage house, and officers' quarters. The Army continued to maintain the fort until 1860, when it abandoned the weapons at Battery Gibson. The artillery magazine was expanded in 1861, during the American Civil War, and part of the parapet was removed. At the end of the Civil War, the fort declined again, this time to an extent that the weaponry was rendered unusable. Through the 1870s, the Navy built additional buildings for its artillery magazine on Ellis Island, eventually constructing 11 buildings in total. Complaints about the island's magazines started to form, and by the 1870s, The New York Sun was publishing "alarming reports" about the magazines. The guns were ordered removed in 1881, and the island passed under the complete control of the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance. ### First immigration station The Army had unsuccessfully attempted to use Ellis Island "for the convalescence for immigrants" as early as 1847. Across New York Harbor, Castle Clinton had been used as an immigration station since 1855, processing more than eight million immigrants during that time. The individual states had their own varying immigration laws until 1875, but the federal government regarded Castle Clinton as having "varied charges of mismanagement, abuse of immigrants, and evasion of the laws", and as such, wanted it to be completely replaced. The federal government assumed control of immigration in early 1890 and commissioned a study to determine the best place for the new immigration station in New York Harbor. Among members of the United States Congress, there were disputes about whether to build the station on Ellis, Governors, or Liberty Islands. Initially, Liberty Island was selected as the site for the immigration station, but due to opposition for immigration stations on both Liberty and Governors Islands, the committee eventually decided to build the station on Ellis Island. Since Castle Clinton's lease was about to expire, Congress approved a bill to build an immigration station on Ellis Island. On April 11, 1890, the federal government ordered the magazine at Ellis Island be torn down to make way for the U.S.'s first federal immigration station at the site. The Department of the Treasury, which was in charge of constructing federal buildings in the U.S., officially took control of the island that May 24. Congress initially allotted \$75,000 to construct the station and later doubled that appropriation. While the building was under construction, the Barge Office at the Battery was used for immigrant processing. During construction, most of the old Battery Gibson buildings were demolished, and Ellis Island's land size was almost doubled to 6 acres (2.4 ha). The main structure was a two-story structure of Georgia Pine, which was described in Harper's Weekly as "a latterday watering place hotel" measuring 400 by 150 ft (122 by 46 m). Its outbuildings included a hospital, detention building, laundry building, and utility plant that were all made of wood. Some of the former stone magazine structures were reused for utilities and offices. Additionally, a ferry slip with breakwater was built to the south of Ellis Island. Following further expansion, the island measured 11 acres (4.5 ha) by the end of 1892. The station opened on January 1, 1892, and its first immigrant was Annie Moore, a 17-year-old girl from Cork, Ireland, who was traveling with her two brothers to meet their parents in the U.S. On the first day, almost 700 immigrants passed over the docks. Over the next year, over 400,000 immigrants were processed at the station. The processing procedure included a series of medical and mental inspection lines, and through this process, some 1% of potential immigrants were deported. Additional building improvements took place throughout the mid-1890s, and Ellis Island was expanded to 14 acres (5.7 ha) by 1896. The last improvements, which entailed the installation of underwater telephone and telegraph cables to Governors Island, were completed in early June 1897. On June 15, 1897, the wooden structures on Ellis Island were razed in a fire of unknown origin. While there were no casualties, the wooden buildings had completely burned down after two hours, and all immigration records from 1855 had been destroyed. Over five years of operation, the station had processed 1.5 million immigrants. ### Second immigration station #### Design and construction Following the fire, passenger arrivals were again processed at the Barge Office, which was soon unable to handle the large volume of immigrants. Within three days of the fire, the federal government made plans to build a new, fireproof immigration station. Legislation to rebuild the station was approved on June 30, 1897, and appropriations were made in mid-July. By September, the Treasury's Supervising Architect, James Knox Taylor, opened an architecture competition to rebuild the immigration station. The competition was the second to be conducted under the Tarsney Act of 1893, which had permitted private architects to design federal buildings, rather than government architects in the Supervising Architect's office. The contest rules specified that a "main building with annexes" and a "hospital building", both made of fireproof materials, should be part of each nomination. Furthermore, the buildings had to be able to host a daily average of 1,000 and maximum of 4,000 immigrants.Several prominent architectural firms filed proposals, and by December, it was announced that Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring had won the competition. Tilton and Boring's plan called for four new structures: a main building in the French Renaissance style, as well as the kitchen/laundry building, powerhouse, and the main hospital building. The plan also included the creation of a new island called island 2, upon which the hospital would be built, south of the existing island (now Ellis Island's north side). A construction contract was awarded to the R. H. Hood Company in August 1898, with the expectation that construction would be completed within a year, but the project encountered delays because of various obstacles and disagreements between the federal government and the Hood Company. A separate contract to build the 3.33-acre (1.35 ha) island 2 had to be approved by the War Department because it was in New Jersey's waters; that contract was completed in December 1898. The construction costs ultimately totaled \$1.5 million. #### Early expansions The new immigration station opened on December 17, 1900, without ceremony. On that day, 2,251 immigrants were processed. Almost immediately, additional projects commenced to improve the main structure, including an entrance canopy, baggage conveyor, and railroad ticket office. The kitchen/laundry and powerhouse started construction in May 1900 and were completed by the end of 1901. A ferry house was also built between islands 1 and 2 c. 1901. The hospital, originally slated to be opened in 1899, was not completed until November 1901, mainly due to various funding delays and construction disputes. The facilities proved barely able to handle the flood of immigrants that arrived, and as early as 1903, immigrants had to remain in their transatlantic boats for several days due to inspection backlogs. Several wooden buildings were erected by 1903, including waiting rooms and a 700-bed barracks, and by 1904, over a million dollars' worth of improvements were proposed. The hospital was expanded from 125 to 250 beds in February 1907, and a new psychopathic ward debuted in November of the same year. Also constructed was an administration building adjacent to the hospital. Immigration commissioner William Williams made substantial changes to Ellis Island's operations, and during his tenure from 1902 to 1905 and 1909–1913, Ellis Island processed its peak number of immigrants. Williams also made changes to the island's appearance, adding plants and grading paths upon the once-barren landscape of Ellis Island. Under Williams's supervision, a 4.75-acre (1.92 ha) third island was built to accommodate a proposed contagious-diseases ward, separated from existing facilities by 200 ft (61 m) of water. Island 3, as it was called, was located to the south of island 2 and separated from that island by a now-infilled ferry basin. The government bought the underwater area for island 3 from New Jersey in 1904, and a contract was awarded in April 1905. The islands were all connected via a cribwalk on their western sides (later covered with wood canopy), giving Ellis Island an overall "E"-shape. Upon the completion of island 3 in 1906, Ellis Island covered 20.25 acres (8.19 ha). A baggage and dormitory building was completed c. 1908–1909, and the main hospital was expanded in 1909. Alterations were made to the registry building and dormitories as well, but even this was insufficient to accommodate the high volume of immigrants. In 1911, Williams alleged that Congress had allocated too little for improvements to Ellis Island, even though the improvement budget that year was \$868,000. Additional improvements and routine maintenance work were completed in the early 1910s. A greenhouse was built in 1910, and the contagious-diseases ward on island 3 opened the following June. In addition, the incinerator was replaced in 1911, and a recreation center operated by the American Red Cross was also built on island 2 by 1915. These facilities generally followed the design set by Tilton and Boring. When the Black Tom explosion occurred on Black Tom Island in 1916, the complex suffered moderate damage; though all immigrants were evacuated safely, the main building's roof collapsed, and windows were broken. The main building's roof was replaced with a Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling by 1918. The immigration station was temporarily closed during World War I in 1917–1919, during which the facilities were used as a jail for suspected enemy combatants, and later as a treatment center for wounded American soldiers. Immigration inspections were conducted aboard ships or at docks. During the war, immigration processing at Ellis Island declined by 97%, from 878,000 immigrants per year in 1914 to 26,000 per year in 1919. Ellis Island's immigration station was reopened in 1920, and processing had rebounded to 560,000 immigrants per year by 1921. There were still ample complaints about the inadequate condition of Ellis Island's facilities. However, despite a request for \$5.6 million in appropriations in 1921, aid was slow to materialize, and initial improvement work was restricted to smaller projects such as the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3. Other improvements included rearranging features such as staircases to improve pedestrian flow. These projects were supported by president Calvin Coolidge, who in 1924 requested that Congress approve \$300,000 in appropriations for the island. The allocations were not received until the late 1920s. #### Conversion to detention center With the passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, the number of immigrants being allowed into the United States declined greatly, ending the era of mass immigration. Following the Immigration Act of 1924, strict immigration quotas were enacted, and Ellis Island was downgraded from a primary inspection center to an immigrant-detention center, hosting only those that were to be detained or deported (see ). Final inspections were now instead conducted on board ships in New York Harbor. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 further decreased immigration, as people were now discouraged from immigrating to the U.S. Because of the resulting decline in patient counts, the hospital closed in 1930. Edward Corsi, who himself was an immigrant, became Ellis Island commissioner in 1931 and commenced an improvement program for the island. The initial improvements were utilitarian, focusing on such aspects as sewage, incineration, and power generation. In 1933, a federal committee led by the Secretary of Labor, Frances Perkins, was established to determine what operations and facilities needed improvement. The committee's report, released in 1934, suggested the construction of a new class-segregated immigration building, recreation center, ferry house, verandas, and doctors/nurses' quarters, as well as the installation of a new seawall around the island. These works were undertaken using Public Works Administration funding and Works Progress Administration labor, and were completed by the late 1930s. As part of the project, the surgeon's house and recreation center were demolished, and Edward Laning commissioned some murals for the island's buildings. Other improvements included the demolition of the greenhouse, the completion of the infilling of the basin between islands 2 and 3, and various landscaping activities such as the installation of walkways and plants. However, because of the steep decline in immigration, the immigration building went underused for several years, and it started to deteriorate. With the start of World War II in 1939, Ellis Island was again utilized by the military, this time being used as a United States Coast Guard base. As during World War I, the facilities were used to detain enemy soldiers in addition to immigrants, and the hospital was used for treating injured American soldiers. So many combatants were detained at Ellis Island that administrative offices were moved to mainland Manhattan in 1943, and Ellis Island was used solely for detainment. By 1947, shortly after the end of World War II, there were proposals to close Ellis Island due to the massive expenses needed for the upkeep of a relatively small detention center. The hospital was closed in 1950–1951 by the United States Public Health Service, and by the early 1950s, there were only 30 to 40 detainees left on the island. The island's closure was announced in mid-1954, when the federal government announced that it would construct a replacement facility on Manhattan. Ellis Island closed on November 12, 1954, with the departure of its last detainee, Norwegian merchant seaman Arne Pettersen, who had been arrested for overstaying his shore leave. At the time, it was estimated that the government would save \$900,000 a year from closing the island. The ferryboat Ellis Island, which had operated since 1904, stopped operating two weeks later. ### Post-closure #### Initial redevelopment plans After the immigration station closed, the buildings fell into disrepair and were abandoned, and the General Services Administration (GSA) took over the island in March 1955. The GSA wanted to sell off the island as "surplus property" and contemplated several options, including selling the island back to the city of New York or auctioning it to a private buyer. In 1959, real estate developer Sol Atlas unsuccessfully bid for the island, with plans to turn it into a \$55 million resort with a hotel, marina, music shell, tennis courts, swimming pools, and skating rinks. The same year, Frank Lloyd Wright designed the \$100 million "Key Project", which included housing, hotels, and large domes along the edges. However, Wright died before presenting the project. Other attempts at redeveloping the site, including a college, a retirement home, an alcoholics' rehabilitation center, and a world trade center were all unsuccessful. In 1963, the Jersey City Council voted to rezone the island's area within New Jersey for high-rise residential, monument/museum, or recreational use, though the new zoning ordinance banned "Coney Island"-style amusement parks. In June 1964, the National Park Service published a report that proposed making Ellis Island part of a national monument. This idea was approved by Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall in October 1964. Ellis Island was added to the Statue of Liberty National Monument on May 11, 1965, and that August, President Lyndon B. Johnson approved the redevelopment of the island as a museum and park. The initial master plan for the redevelopment of Ellis Island, designed by Philip Johnson, called for the construction of the Wall, a large "stadium"-shaped monument to replace the structures on the island's northwest side, while preserving the main building and hospital. However, no appropriations were immediately made, other than a \$250,000 allocation for emergency repairs in 1967. By the late 1960s, the abandoned buildings were deteriorating severely. Johnson's plan was never implemented due to public opposition and a lack of funds. Another master plan was proposed in 1968, which called for the rehabilitation of the island's northern side and the demolition of all buildings, including the hospital, on the southern side. The Jersey City Jobs Corpsmen started rehabilitating part of Ellis Island the same year, in accordance with this plan. This was soon halted indefinitely because of a lack of funding. In 1970, a squatters' club called the National Economic Growth and Reconstruction Organization (NEGRO) started refurbishing buildings as part of a plan to turn the island into an addiction rehabilitation center, but were evicted after less than two weeks. NEGRO's permit to renovate the island were ultimately terminated in 1973. #### Restoration and reopening of north side In the 1970s, the NPS started restoring the island by repairing seawalls, eliminating weeds, and building a new ferry dock. Simultaneously, Peter Sammartino launched the Restore Ellis Island Committee to raise awareness and money for repairs. The north side of the island, comprising the main building and surrounding structures, was rehabilitated and partially reopened for public tours in May 1976. The plant was left unrepaired to show the visitors the extent of the deterioration. The NPS limited visits to 130 visitors per boat, or less than 75,000 visitors a year. Initially, only parts of three buildings were open to visitors. Further repairs were stymied by a lack of funding, and by 1982, the NPS was turning to private sources for funds. In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca with former President Gerald Ford as honorary chairman, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. The plan for Ellis Island was to cost \$128 million, and by the time work commenced in 1984, about \$40 million had been raised. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group eventually raised more than \$350 million in donations for the renovations of both the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island. Initial restoration plans included renovating the main building, baggage and dormitory building, and the hospital, as well as possibly adding a bandshell, restaurant, and exhibits. Two firms, Notter Finegold & Alexander and Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the renovation. In advance of the renovation, public tours ceased in 1984, and work started the following year. As part of the restoration, the powerhouse was renovated, while the incinerator, greenhouse, and water towers were removed. The kitchen/laundry and baggage/dormitory buildings were restored to their original condition while the main building was restored to its 1918–1924 appearance. The main building opened as a museum on September 10, 1990. Further improvements were made after the north side's renovation was completed. The Wall of Honor, a monument to raise money for the restoration, was completed in 1990 and reconstructed starting in 1993. A research facility with online database, the American Family Immigration History Center, was opened in April 2001. Subsequently, the ferry building was restored for \$6.4 million and reopened in 2007. The north side was temporarily closed after being damaged in Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, though the island and part of the museum reopened exactly a year later, after major renovations. In March 2020, the island was closed temporarily due to the COVID-19 pandemic; it reopened in August 2020, initially with strict capacity limits. ## Structures The current complex was designed by Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring, who performed the commission under the direction of the Supervising Architect for the U.S. Treasury, James Knox Taylor. Their plan, submitted in 1898, called for structures to be located on both the northern and southern portions of Ellis Island. The plan stipulated a large main building, a powerhouse, and a new baggage/dormitory and kitchen building on the north side of Ellis Island; a hospital on the south side; and a ferry dock with covered walkways at the head of the ferry basin, on the west side of the island. The plan roughly corresponds to what was ultimately built. ### North side The northern half of Ellis Island is composed of the former island 1. Only the areas associated with the original island, including much of the main building, are in New York; the remaining area is in New Jersey. #### Main building The present three-story main structure was designed in French Renaissance style. It is made of a steel frame, with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond ornamented with limestone trim. The structure is located 8 ft (2.4 m) above the mean waterline to prevent flooding. The building was initially composed of a three-story center section with two-story east and west wings, though the third stories of each wing were completed in the early 1910s. Atop the corners of the building's central section are four towers capped by cupolas of copper cladding. Some 160 rooms were included within the original design to separate the different functions of the building. Namely, the first floor was initially designed to handle baggage, detention, offices, storage and waiting rooms; the second floor, primary inspection; and the third floor, dormitories. However, in practice, these spaces generally served multiple functions throughout the immigration station's operating history. At opening, it was estimated that the main building could inspect 5,000 immigrants per day. The main building's design was highly acclaimed; at the 1900 Paris Exposition, it received a gold medal, and other architectural publications such as the Architectural Record lauded the design. The first floor contained detention rooms, social service offices, and waiting rooms on its west wing, a use that remained relatively unchanged. The central space was initially a baggage room until 1907, but was subsequently subdivided and later re-combined into a single records room. The first floor's east wing also contained a railroad waiting room and medical offices, though much of the wing was later converted to record rooms. A railroad ticket office annex was added to the north side of the first floor in 1905–1906. The south elevation of the first floor contains the current immigration museum's main entrance, approached by a slightly sloped passageway covered by a glass canopy. Though the canopy was added in the 1980s, it evokes the design of an earlier glass canopy on the site that existed from 1902 to 1932. A 200 by 100 ft (61 by 30 m) registry room, with a 56 ft (17 m) ceiling, is located on the central section of the second floor. The room was used for primary inspections. Initially, there were handrails within the registry room that separated the primary inspection into several queues, but c. 1911 these were replaced with benches. A staircase from the first floor formerly rose into the middle of the registry room, but this was also removed around 1911. When the room's roof collapsed during the Black Tom explosion of 1916, the current Guastavino-tiled arched ceiling was installed, and the asphalt floor was replaced with red Ludowici tile. There are three large arched openings each on the northern and southern walls, filled-in with grilles of metal-and-glass. The southern elevation retains its original double-height arches, while the lower sections of the arches on the northern elevations were modified to make way for the railroad ticket office. On all four sides of the room, above the level of the third floor, is a clerestory of semicircular windows. The east wing of the second floor was used for administrative offices, while the west wing housed the special inquiry and deportation divisions, as well as dormitories. On the third floor is a balcony surrounding the entire registry room. There were also dormitories for 600 people on the third floor. Between 1914 and 1918, several rooms were added to the third floor. These rooms included offices as well as an assembly room that were later converted to detention. The remnants of Fort Gibson still exist outside the main building. Two portions are visible to the public, including the remnants of the lower walls around the fort. #### Kitchen and laundry The kitchen and laundry structure is a two-and-a-half-story structure located west of the main building. It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a granite base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond. Originally designed as two separate structures, it was redesigned in 1899 as a single structure with kitchen-restaurant and laundry-bathhouse components, and was subsequently completed in 1901. A one-and-a-half-story ice plant on the northern elevation was built between 1903 and 1908, and was converted into a ticket office in 1935. It has a facade of brick in English and stretcher bond. Today, the kitchen and laundry contains NPS offices as well as the museum's Peopling of America exhibit. The building has a central portion with a narrow gable roof, as well as pavilions on the western and eastern sides with hip roofs; the roof tiling was formerly of slate and currently of Ludowici terracotta. The larger eastern pavilion, which contained the laundry-bathhouse, had hipped dormers. The exterior-facing window and door openings contain limestone features on the facade, while the top of the building has a modillioned copper cornice. Formerly, there was also a two-story porch on the southern elevation. Multiple enclosed passageways connect the kitchen and laundry to adjacent structures. #### Bakery and carpentry shop The bakery and carpentry shop is a two-story structure located west of the kitchen and laundry building. It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south. It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a flat roof, and a facade of brick in Flemish bond. The building was constructed in 1914–1915 to replace the separate wooden bakery and carpentry shop buildings, as well as two sheds and a frame waiting room. There are no exterior entrances, and the only access is via the kitchen and laundry. The first floor generally contained oven rooms, baking areas and storage while the second floor contained the carpentry shop. #### Baggage and dormitory The baggage and dormitory structure is a three-story structure located north of the main building. It is made of a steel frame and terracotta blocks, with a limestone base and a facade of brick in Flemish bond. Completed as a two-story structure c. 1908–1909, the baggage and dormitory building replaced a 700-bed wooden barracks nearby that operated between 1903 and 1911. The baggage and dormitory initially had baggage collection on its first floor, dormitories and detention rooms on its second floor, and a tiled garden on its roof. The building received a third story, and a two-story annex to the north side, in 1913–1914. Initially, the third floor included additional dormitory space while the annex provided detainees with outdoor porch space. A detainee dining room on the first floor was expanded in 1951. The building is mostly rectangular except for its northern annex and contains an interior courtyard, skylighted at the second floor. On its facade the first story has rectangular windows in arched window openings while the second and third stories have rectangular windows and window openings. There are cornices below the second and third stories. The annex contains wide window openings with narrow brick piers outside them. The roof's northwest corner contains a one-story extension. Multiple wings connect the baggage and laundry to its adjacent buildings. #### Powerhouse The powerhouse of Ellis Island is a two-story structure located north of the kitchen and laundry building and west of the baggage and dormitory building. It is roughly rectangular and oriented north–south. Like the kitchen and laundry, it was completed in 1901. It is made of a steel frame with a granite base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, and decorative bluestone and limestone elements. The hip roof contains dormers and is covered with terracotta tiling. A brick smokestack rises 111 ft (34 m) from ground level. Formerly, the powerhouse provided almost all power for Ellis Island. A coal trestle at the northwest end was used to transport coal for power generation from 1901 to 1932, when the powerhouse started using fuel oil. The powerhouse also generated steam for the island. After the immigration station closed, the powerhouse deteriorated and was left unrepaired until the 1980s renovation. The powerhouse is no longer operational; instead, the island receives power from 13,200-volt cables that lead from a Public Service Electric & Gas substation in Liberty State Park. The powerhouse contains sewage pumps that can dispose of up to 480 U.S. gal/min (1,800 L/min) to the Jersey City Sewage Authority sewage system. A central heating plant was installed during the 1980s renovation. ### South side The southern side of Ellis Island, located across the ferry basin from the northern side, is composed of island 2 (created in 1899) and island 3 (created in 1906). The entire southern side of the island is in New Jersey, and the majority of the site is occupied by the hospital buildings. A central corridor runs southward from the ferry building on the west side of the island. Two additional corridors split eastward down the centers of islands 2 and 3. #### Island 2 Island 2 comprises the northern part of Ellis Island's southern portion. The structures share the same design: a brick facade in Flemish bond, quoins, and limestone ornamentation. All structures were internally connected via covered passageways.The laundry-hospital outbuilding is south of the ferry terminal, and was constructed in 1900–1901 along with the now-demolished surgeon's house. The structure is one and a half stories tall with a hip roof and skylights facing to the north and south. Repaired repeatedly throughout its history, the laundry-outbuilding was last restored in 2002. It had linen, laundry, and disinfecting rooms; a boiler room; a morgue with autopsy room; and quarters for the laundry staff on the second floor. To the east is the psychopathic ward, a two-story building erected 1906–1907. The building is the only structure in the hospital complex to have a flat roof, and formerly also had a porch to its south. It housed 25 to 30 beds and was intended for the temporary treatment of immigrants suspected of being insane or having mental disorders, pending their deportation, hospitalization, or commitment to sanatoria. Male and female patients were segregated, and there were also a dayroom, veranda, nurse's office, and small pantry on each floor. In 1952 the psychopathic ward was converted into a Coast Guard brig. The main building is directly east of the psychopathic ward. It is composed of three similarly designed structures: from west to east, they are Hospital Building No. 1 (built 1900–1901), the Administration Building (1905–1907), and Hospital Building No. 2 (1908–1909). The 3.5-story building no. 1 is shaped like an inverted "C" with two 2.5-story rectangular wings facing southward; the wings contain two-story-tall porches. The administration building is smaller but also 3.5 stories. The 3.5-story building no. 2 is similar to building no. 1, but also has a three-story porch at the south elevation of the central pavilion. All three buildings have stone-stoop entrances on their north facades and courtyards on their south. #### Recreation hall The recreation hall and one of the island's two recreation shelters are located between islands 2 and 3 on the western side of Ellis Island, at the head of the former ferry basin between the two landmasses. Built in 1937 in the Colonial Revival style, the structures replaced an earlier recreation building at the northeast corner of island 2. The recreation hall is a two-story building with a limestone base, a facade of brick in Flemish bond, a gable roof, and terracotta ornamentation. The first floor contained recreational facilities, while the second floor was used mostly for offices. It contains wings on the north, south, and west. The recreation shelter, a one-story brick pavilion, is located directly to the east. A second shelter of similar design was located adjacent to the power plant on the island's north side. #### Island 3 As part of the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, the contagious disease hospital comprised 17 pavilions, connected with a central connecting corridor. Each pavilion contained separate hospital functions that could be sealed off from each other. Most of the structures were completed in 1911. The pavilions included eight measles wards, three isolation wards, a power house/sterilizer/autopsy theater, mortuary, laboratory, administration building, kitchen, and staff house. All structures were designed by James Knox Taylor in the Italian Renaissance style and are distinguished by red-tiled Ludowici hip roofs, roughcast walls of stucco, and ornamentation of brick and limestone. The office building and laboratory is a 2.5-story structure located at the west end of island 3. It housed doctors' offices and a dispensary on the first floor, along with a laboratory and pharmacists' quarters on the second floor. In 1924, the first floor offices were converted into male nurses' quarters. A one-story morgue is located east of the office building, and was converted to the "Animal House" circa 1919. An "L"-shaped powerhouse and laundry building, built in 1908, is also located on the west side of island 3. It has a square north wing with boiler, coal, and pump rooms, as well as a rectangular south wing with laundry and disinfection rooms, staff kitchen, and staff pantry. The powerhouse and laundry also had a distinctive yellow-brick smokestack. Part of the building was converted into a morgue and autopsy room in the 1930s. To the east are the eight measles pavilions (also known as wards A-H), built in phases from 1906 to 1909 and located near the center of island 3. There are four pavilions each to the west and east of island 3's administration building. All of the pavilions are identical, two-story rectangular structures. Each pavilion floor had a spacious open ward with large windows on three sides and independent ventilation ducts. A hall leading to the connecting corridor was flanked by bathrooms, nurses' duty room, offices, and a serving kitchen. The administration building is a 3.5-story structure located on the north side of island 3's connecting corridor, in the center of the landmass. It included reception rooms, offices, and a staff kitchen on the first floor; nurses' quarters and operating rooms on the second floor; and additional staff quarters on the third floor. A one-story kitchen with a smokestack is located opposite the administration building to the south. The eastern end of island 3 contained three isolation pavilions (wards I-K) and a staff building. The isolation pavilions were intended for patients for more serious diseases, including scarlet fever, diphtheria, and a combination of either of these diseases with measles and whooping cough. Each pavilion is a 1.5-story rectangular structure. Wards I and K are located to the south of the connecting corridor while ward J is located to the north; originally, all three pavilions were freestanding structures, but covered ways were built between wards I and K and the center corridor in 1914. There were also nurses' quarters in each attic. The staff building. located at the extreme east end of island 3's connecting corridor, is a 2.5-story building for high-ranking hospital staff. Living and dining rooms, a kitchen, and a library were located on the first floor while bedrooms were located on the second floor. ### Ferry building The ferry building is at the western end of the ferry basin, within New Jersey. The current structure was built in 1936 and is the third ferry landing to occupy the site. It is made of a steel-and-concrete frame with a facade of red brick in Flemish bond, and limestone and terracotta ornamentation, in the Moderne architectural style. The building's central pavilion is mostly one story tall, except for a two-story central section that is covered by a hip roof with cupola. Two rectangular wings are located to the north and south and are oriented east–west. The south wing was originally reserved for U.S. Customs while the north wing contained a lunchroom and restrooms. A wooden dock extends east from the ferry building. The ferry building is connected to the kitchen and laundry to the north, and the hospital to the south, via covered walkways. The structure was completely restored in 2007. ## Immigration procedures By the time Ellis Island's immigration station closed, almost 12 million immigrants had been processed by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration. It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed for points across the United States from the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal nearby. Others would have used one of the other terminals along the North River/Hudson River at that time. At the time of closure, it was estimated that closer to 20 million immigrants had been processed or detained at Ellis Island. Initial immigration policy provided for the admission of most immigrants to the United States, other than those with mental or physical disabilities, or a moral, racial, religious, or economic reason for exclusion. At first, the majority of immigrants arriving were Northern and Western Europeans, with the largest numbers coming from the German Empire, the Russian Empire and Finland, the United Kingdom, and Italy. Eventually, these groups of peoples slowed in the rates that they were coming in, and immigrants came in from Southern and Eastern Europe, including Jews. These people immigrated for a variety of reasons including escaping political and economic oppression, as well as persecution, destitution, and violence. Often among these groups were Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Greeks, Syrians, Turks, and Armenians. Immigration through Ellis Island peaked in the first decade of the 20th century. Between 1905 and 1914, an average of one million immigrants per year arrived in the United States. Immigration officials reviewed about 5,000 immigrants per day during peak times at Ellis Island. Two-thirds of those individuals emigrated from eastern, southern and central Europe. The peak year for immigration at Ellis Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 immigrants processed, and the all-time daily high occurred on April 17 of that year, when 11,747 immigrants arrived. Following the Immigration Act of 1924, which both greatly reduced immigration and allowed processing overseas, Ellis Island was only used by those who had problems with their immigration paperwork, as well as displaced persons and war refugees. This affected both nationwide and regional immigration processing: only 2.34 million immigrants passed through the Port of New York from 1925 to 1954, compared to the 12 million immigrants processed from 1900 to 1924. Average annual immigration through the Port of New York from 1892 to 1924 typically numbered in the hundreds of thousands, though after 1924, annual immigration through the port was usually in the tens of thousands. ### Inspections #### Medical inspection Beginning in the 1890s, initial medical inspections were conducted by steamship companies at the European ports of embarkation; further examinations and vaccinations occurred on board ship during the voyage to New York. On arrival at the port of New York, ships halted at the New York state quarantine station near the Narrows. Those with serious contagious diseases (such as cholera and typhus) were quarantined at Hoffman Island or Swinburne Island, two artificial islands off the shore of Staten Island to the south. The islands ceased to be used for quarantine by the 1920s due to the decline in inspections at Ellis Island. For the vast majority of passengers, since most transatlantic ships could not dock at Ellis Island due to shallow water, the ships unloaded at Manhattan first, and steerage passengers were then taken to Ellis Island for processing. First- and second-class passengers typically bypassed the Ellis Island processing altogether. To support the activities of the United States Bureau of Immigration, the United States Public Health Service operated an extensive medical service. The medical force at Ellis Island started operating when the first immigration station opened in 1892, and was suspended when the station burned down in 1897. Between 1897 and 1902, medical inspections took place both at other facilities in New York City and on ships in the New York Harbor. A second hospital called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43 or the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital was built in 1902 and operated through 1930. Uniformed military surgeons staffed the medical division, which was active in the hospital wards, the Battery's Barge Office, and Ellis Island's Main Building. Immigrants were brought to the island via barge from their transatlantic ships. A "line inspection" was conducted in the main building. In the line inspection, the immigrants were split into several single-file lines, and inspectors first checked for any visible physical disabilities. Each immigrant was inspected by two inspectors: one to catch any initial physical disabilities, and another to check for any other ailments that the first inspector did not notice. The doctors then observed immigrants as they walked, to determine any irregularities in their gait. Immigrants were asked to drop their baggage and walk up the stairs to the second floor. The line inspection at Ellis Island was unique because of the volume of people it processed, and as such, used several unconventional methods of medical examination. For example, after an initial check for physical disabilities, inspectors used special forceps or the buttonhook to examine immigrants for signs of eye diseases such as trachoma. Following each examination, inspectors used chalk to draw symbols on immigrants who were suspected to be sick. Some immigrants supposedly wiped the chalk marks off surreptitiously or inverted their clothes to avoid medical detention. Chalk-marked immigrants and those with suspected mental disabilities were then sent to rooms for further inspection, according to a 1917 account. The symbols used for chalk markings were: - B – Back - C – Conjunctivitis - TC – Trachoma - E – Eyes - F – Face - FT – Feet - G – Goiter - H – Heart - K – Hernia - L – Lameness - N – Neck - P – Physical and Lungs - PG – Pregnancy - S – Senility - SC – Scalp (favus) - X – Suspected mental defect - x – Definite signs of mental defect #### Primary inspection Once immigrants had completed and passed the medical examination, they were sent to the Registry Room to undergo what was called primary inspection. This consisted of interrogations conducted by U.S. Immigrant Inspectors to determine if each newcomer was eligible for admission. In addition, any medical certificates issued by physicians were taken into account. Aside from the U.S. immigrant inspectors, the Bureau of Immigration work force included interpreters, watchmen, matrons, clerks and stenographers. According to a reconstruction of immigration processes in 1907, immigrants who passed the initial inspections spent two to five hours at Ellis Island to do these interviews. Arrivals were asked a couple dozen questions, including name, occupation, and the amount of money they carried. The government wanted to determine whether new arrivals would be self-sufficient upon arrival, and on average, wanted the immigrants to have between \$18 and \$25 (worth between \$ and \$ as of ). Some immigrants were also given literacy tests in their native languages, though children under 16 were exempt. The determination of admissibility was relatively arbitrary and determined by the individual inspector. U.S. Immigrant Inspectors used some other symbols or marks as they interrogated immigrants in the Registry Room to determine whether to admit or detain them, including: - SI – Special Inquiry - IV – Immigrant Visa - LPC – Likely or Liable to become a Public Charge - Med. Cert. – Medical certificate issued Those who were cleared were given a medical certificate or an affidavit. According to a 1912 account by physician Alfred C. Reed, immigrants were medically cleared only after three on-duty physicians signed an affidavit. Those with visible illnesses were deported or held in the island's hospital. Those who were admitted often met with relatives and friends at the Kissing Post, a wooden column outside the registry room. Between 1891 and 1930, Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted immigrants, of which 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 were barred from entry. Approximately 4.4% of immigrants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled or diseased, and one percent of immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes. The proportion of "diseased" increased to 8.0% during the Spanish flu of 1918–1919. More than 3,000 attempted immigrants died in the island's hospital. Some unskilled workers were deemed "likely to become a public charge" and so were rejected; about 2% of immigrants were deported. Immigrants could also be excluded if they were disabled and previously rejected; if they were Chinese, regardless of their citizenship status; or if they were contract laborers, stowaways, and workaways. However, immigrants were exempt from deportation if they had close family ties to a U.S. permanent resident or citizen, or if they were seamen. Ellis Island was sometimes known as the "Island of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island" for these deportees. If immigrants were rejected, appeals could be made to a three-member board of inquiry. ### Mass detentions and deportations Ellis Island's use as a detention center dates from World War I, when it was used to house those who were suspected of being enemy soldiers. During the war, six classes of "enemy aliens" were established, including officers and crewmen from interned ships; three classes of Germans; and suspected spies. After the American entry into World War I, about 1,100 German and Austrian naval officers and crewmen in the Ports of New York and New London were seized and held in Ellis Island's baggage and dormitory building. A commodious stockade was built for the seized officers. A 1917 New York Times article depicted the conditions of the detention center as being relatively hospitable. Anti-immigrant sentiments developed in the U.S. during and after World War I, especially toward Southern and Eastern Europeans who were entering the country in large numbers. Following the Immigration Act of 1924, primary inspection was moved to New York Harbor, and Ellis Island only hosted immigrants that were to be detained or deported. After the passage of the 1924 act, the Immigration Service established multiple classes of people who were said to be "deportable". This included immigrants who entered in violation of previous exclusion acts; Chinese immigrants in violation of the 1924 act; those convicted of felonies or other "crimes of moral turpitude"; and those involved in prostitution. During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Island was used to hold German merchant mariners and "enemy aliens"—Axis nationals detained for fear of spying, sabotage, and other fifth column activity. When the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, Ellis Island held 279 Japanese, 248 Germans, and 81 Italians removed from the East Coast. Unlike other wartime immigration detention stations, Ellis Island was designated as a permanent holding facility and was used to hold foreign nationals throughout the war. A total of 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese were ultimately detained at Ellis Island. The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of communist or fascist organizations from immigrating to the United States. Two notable communists known to have been imprisoned on Ellis Island include Billy Strachan, a pioneer of black civil rights in Britain, and Ferdinand Smith who co-founded the first desegregated union in the history of the United States. Ellis Island saw detention peak at 1,500, but by 1952, after changes to immigration laws and policies, only 30 to 40 detainees remained. One of the last detainees was the Indonesian Aceh separatist Hasan di Tiro who, while a student in New York in 1953, declared himself the "foreign minister" of the rebellious Darul Islam movement and was subsequently stripped of his Indonesian citizenship and held as an "illegal alien". ### Eugenic influence When immigration through Ellis Island peaked, eugenic ideals gained broad popularity and made heavy impact on immigration to the United States by way of exclusion of disabled and "morally defective" people. Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century believed human reproductive selection should be carried out by the state as a collective decision. For many eugenicists, this was considered a patriotic duty as they held an interest in creating a greater national race. Henry Fairfield Osborn's opening words to the New York Evening Journal in 1911 were, "As a biologist as well as a patriot...," on the subject on advocating for tighter inspections of immigrants of the United States. Eugenic selection occurred on two distinguishable levels: - State/Local levels which handles institutionalization and sterilization of those considered defective as well as the education of the public; marriage laws; and social pressures such as fitter-family and better-baby contests. - Immigration control, the screening of immigrants for defects, was notably supported by Harry Laughlin, superintendent of the Eugenics Record Office from 1910 to 1939, who stated that this was where the "federal government must cooperate." At the time, it was a broadly popular idea that immigration policies had ought to be based on eugenics principles in order to help create a "superior race" in America. To do this, defective persons needed to be screened by immigration officials and denied entry on the basis of their disability. During the line inspection process, ailments were marked using chalk. There were three types of illness that were screened for: - Physical – people who had hereditary or acquired physical disability. These included sickness and disease, deformity, lack of limbs, being abnormally tall or short, feminization, and so forth. This was covered by most of the chalk indications. - Mental – people who showed signs or history of mental illness and intellectual disability. These included "feeble-mindedness", "imbecility", depression, and other illnesses that stemmed from the brain such as epilepsy and cerebral palsy. - Moral – people who had "moral defects". These included homosexuals, paraphiliacs, criminals, the impoverished, and other "degenerates" who deviated from what American society then considered normal. The people with moral or mental disability, who were of higher concern to officials and under the law, were required to be excluded from entry to the United States. Persons with physical disability were under higher inspection and could be turned away on the basis of their disability. Much of this came in part of the eugenicist belief that defects are hereditary, especially those of the moral and mental nature those these are often outwardly signified by physical deformity as well. As Chicago surgeon Eugene S. Talbot wrote in 1898, "crime is hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily defects." Likewise, George Lydston, a medicine and criminal anthropology professor, wrote in 1906 that people with "defective physique" were not just criminally associated but that defectiveness was a primary factor "in the causation of crime." ### Leadership Within the U.S. Bureau of Immigration, there were fifteen commissioners assigned to oversee immigration procedures at the Port of New York, and thus, operations at Ellis Island. The twelve commissioners through 1940 were political appointees selected by the U.S. president; the political parties listed are those of the president who appointed each commissioner. One man, William Williams, served twice as commissioner. 1. 1890–1893 John B. Weber (Republican) 2. 1893–1897 Joseph H. Senner (Democrat) 3. 1898–1902 Thomas Fitchie (Republican) 4. 1902–1905 William Williams (Republican) 5. 1905–1909 Robert Watchorn (Republican) 6. 1909–1913 William Williams (Republican) 7. 1914–1919 Frederic C. Howe (Democrat) 8. 1920–1921 Frederick A. Wallis (Democrat) 9. 1921–1923 Robert E. Todd (Republican) 10. 1923–1926 Henry H. Curran (Republican) 11. 1926–1931 Benjamin M. Day (Republican) 12. 1931–1934 Edward Corsi (Republican) 13. 1934–1940 Rudolph Reimer (Democrat) The final three commissioners held a non-partisan position of "district director". The district directors were: 1. 1933–1942 Byron H. Uhl 2. 1942–1949 W. Frank Watkins 3. 1949–1954 Edward J. Shaughnessy ### Name-change myth According to a myth, immigrants were unwillingly forced to take new names, though there are no historical records of this. Rather, immigration officials simply used the names from the manifests of steamship companies, which served as the only immigration records for those entering the United States. Records show that immigration officials often actually corrected mistakes in immigrants' names, since inspectors knew three languages on average and each worker was usually assigned to process immigrants who spoke the same languages. Many immigrant families Americanized their surnames afterward, either immediately following the immigration process or gradually after assimilating into American culture. Because the average family changed their surname five years after immigration, the Naturalization Act of 1906 required documentation of name changes. The myth of name changes at Ellis Island still persists, likely because of the perception of the immigration center as a formidable port of arrival. ## Current use The island is administered by the National Park Service, though fire protection and medical services are also provided by the Jersey City Fire Department. In extreme medical emergencies, there is also a helicopter for medical evacuations. ### Museum and Wall of Honor The Ellis Island Immigration Museum opened on September 10, 1990, replacing the American Museum of Immigration on Liberty Island, which closed in 1991. The museum contains several exhibits across three floors of the main building, with a first-floor expansion into the kitchen-laundry building. The first floor houses the main lobby within the baggage room, the Family Immigration History Center, Peopling of America, and New Eras of Immigration. The second floor includes the registry room, the hearing room, Through America's Gate, and Peak Immigration Years. The third floor contains a dormitory room, Restoring a Landmark, Silent Voices, Treasures from Home, and Ellis Island Chronicles, as well as rotating exhibits. There are also three theaters used for film and live performances. The third floor contains a library, reading room, and "oral history center", while the theaters are located on the first and second floors. There are auditoriums on all floors. On the ground floor is a gift shop and bookstore, as well as a booth for audio tours. In 2008, by act of Congress and despite opposition from the NPS, the museum's library was officially renamed the Bob Hope Memorial Library in honor of one of the station's most famous immigrants, comedian Bob Hope. On May 20, 2015, the Ellis Island Immigration Museum was officially renamed the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration, coinciding with the opening of the new Peopling of America galleries in the first floor of the kitchen-laundry building. The expansion tells the entire story of American immigration, including before and after the periods that Ellis Island processed immigrants. The Wall of Honor outside of the main building contains a list of 775,000 names inscribed on 770 panels, including slaves, Native Americans, and immigrants that were not processed on the island. The Wall of Honor originated in the late 1980s as a means to pay for Ellis Island's renovation, and initially included 75,000 names. The wall originally opened in 1990 and consisted of copper panels. Shortly afterward it was reconstructed in two phases: a circular portion that started in 1993, and a linear portion that was built between 1998 and 2001. The Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation requires potential honorees to pay a fee for inscription. By 2019, the wall was mostly full and only five panels remained to be inscribed. NPS offers several educational opportunities, including self-guided tours and immersive, role-playing activities. These educational programs and resources cater to over 650,000 students per year and aim to promote discussion while fostering a climate of tolerance and understanding. ### South side The south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is abandoned and remains unrenovated. Disagreements over its proposed use have precluded any development on the south side for several decades. The NPS held a competition for proposals to redevelop the south side in 1981 and ultimately selected a plan for a conference center and a 250-to-300-room Sheraton hotel on the site of the hospital. In 1985, while restoration of the north side of Ellis Island was underway, Interior Secretary Donald P. Hodel convened a long-inactive federal commission to determine how the south side of Ellis Island should be used. Though the hotel proposal was dropped in 1986 for lack of funds, the NPS allowed developer William Hubbard to redevelop the south side as a convention center, though Hubbard was not able to find investors. The south side was proposed for possible future development even through the late 1990s. Save Ellis Island led preservation efforts of the south side of the island. The ferry building remains only partially accessible to the general public. As part of the National Park Service's Centennial Initiative, the south side of the island was to be the target of a project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been rehabilitated. In 2014, the NPS started offering guided public tours of the south side as part of the "Hard Hat Tour", which charges an additional fee that is used to support Save Ellis Island's preservation efforts. The south side also includes "Unframed – Ellis Island", an art installation by the French street artist JR, which includes murals of figures who would have occupied each of the respective hospital buildings. ## Cultural impact ### Commemorations The Ellis Island Medal of Honor is awarded annually to American citizens, both native-born and naturalized. According to the award's sponsors, the medal is given to those who "have distinguished themselves within their own ethnic groups while exemplifying the values of the American way of life." Past medalists include seven U.S. presidents, several world leaders, several Nobel Prize winners, and other leaders and pioneers. The USPS issued an Ellis Island commemorative stamp on February 3, 1998, as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series. ### Historical designations Ellis Island has been part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, which also includes the Statue of Liberty and Liberty Island, since 1965. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966. Ellis Island has also been on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places since 1971, and the main building was made a New York City designated landmark in 1993. In addition, it was placed on UNESCO's list of tentative World Heritage Sites in 2017. ## See also - Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, in Jersey City, the departure point for immigrants heading to points west and south after processing through Ellis Island - Geography of New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary - List of Ellis Island immigrants – (Notable persons) - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan on Islands - National Register of Historic Places listings in Hudson County, New Jersey - National Register of Historic Places listings in New York County, New York

Mount & Blade

2008 medieval action role-playing game

Mount & Blade is a 2008 medieval strategy action role-playing game for Microsoft Windows, developed by Turkish company TaleWorlds Entertainment, and published by Swedish company Paradox Interactive. In the game, the player controls a customized character to battle, trade, and manage a fief in the medieval land of Calradia. The game was developed by Armağan Yavuz and his wife İpek Yavuz, the founders of TaleWorlds Entertainment. The game was fully released on September 16, 2008, though alpha versions of the game were available prior to the full release. Mount & Blade initially received a mixed critical reception. Reviewers praised the game for its innovative combat mechanics, complex character skill system, and large modding community, but criticized it for its low graphics quality, as well as its repetitive dialogue and locations. A standalone expansion, Mount & Blade: Warband, was released in March 2010, and a spin-off expansion, Mount & Blade: With Fire & Sword, was released in May 2011. A proper sequel, Mount & Blade II: Bannerlord, was released in early access on March 30, 2020, and was fully released on October 25, 2022. ## Gameplay Mount & Blade is a single-player, action-oriented role-playing game, which takes place in a medieval land named Calradia. The game features a sandbox gameplay style, and though the player can complete quests, there is no overarching storyline present. The player is able to join one of the five battling factions, fight as a mercenary, assume the role of an outlaw, or remain neutral. At the start of the game, the player is offered a set of options to customize the character. The player answers a series of multiple-choice questions about the character's past and sex, which generate the character's initial attributes. The player has the option to sculpt their character's facial features. Traveling to other locations, or interacting with other parties is done by pointing and clicking the desired destination. Upon encountering enemy parties, the player can try to avoid a conflict or can engage in a battle with them. In Mount & Blade each battle is attributed a "renown value", according to the number and power of the members of each party. The player gains the renown points if he or she wins the battle. With a high enough renown, the player may be offered vassalage by the leaders of one of the five factions. By becoming a vassal, the player is given control over a certain fief, which they can manage and collect taxes from. By solving quests or defeating opponents the player is awarded experience points, which can be used to improve attributes, skills, and weapon proficiencies to further develop the character. Weapon proficiencies can be improved over time by inflicting damage on other opponents. ### Combat There are four main areas where battles take place: on the open map when two or more hostile parties meet, in tournaments organized in town arenas, in siege combat where the player is either defending or attacking a fortification, or in settlements after triggering an event. Events include villages being infested by bandits, the player getting caught in a hostile settlement, the player plundering a village, or villagers rebelling against the player for collecting taxes. The number of soldiers each party can hold is limited by the "leadership" skill and the renown of the leader. Participants in a battle can be either mounted or on foot. The player has to indicate the direction in which he or she wants to swing by moving the mouse accordingly, unless they have changed the options so that the game automatically chooses it for them. Aiming with a ranged weapon is also done by using the mouse. The amount of damage is dependent on multiple factors including weapon's quality, weapon proficiency, and the speed of the player relative to the target: for example, a javelin thrown while running or riding a horse will be potentially more damaging than a javelin thrown while standing still. Weapons also have certain range of damage where they are most and least effective, giving each weapon type different playing styles. A spear will do minimal damage when used close to the player, while a hammer will cause maximum damage up close. ## Development and release The game originated as an independent project of Armağan Yavuz, founder of TaleWorlds Entertainment, and his wife, İpek Yavuz. The two began making the game in their garage, with Armağan working on code and İpek on graphics. According to Armağan, the game's inspirations include Sid Meier's Pirates!, The Elder Scrolls II: Daggerfall, Frontier: Elite II, and older Koei strategy video games such as Genghis Khan, as well as historical fiction novels, particularly those by Bernard Cornwell. Prior to its retail release, alpha versions of the game were published on the developer's website beginning in 2004, and feedback was given to the developers. In January 2008, Paradox Entertainment announced they would publish the game and scheduled to release within the second quarter of that year. The game was released on Microsoft Windows via Steam on September 16, 2008. ## Reception Mount & Blade received a score of 72 out of 100 based on 28 critic reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Reviewers acknowledged the game's potential, but also said it suffers from poor production values. GameSpot concluded that the game "feels more underdeveloped than it does flat-out bad", and Eurogamer made a similar review, saying that Mount & Blade has "foundations [...] for something really quite special, but in its current state the game is nowhere close to delivering on its promises". Beyond the combat, little of the game was praised by most reviewers. IGN in contrast, praised the game, stating, "Mount & Blade may be the best game about medieval life ever made". GamePro also gave a positive review and calling it, "the first, great medieval role-playing game". Mount & Blade has received negative criticism for its repetitive dialogues and locations, as well as its graphics quality. IGN criticized the world map and character models, calling them crude and awkward. However, also praised the combat animation and load times of the game. GameSpot criticized the dialogue in the game, stating that conversations with NPCs feel more like "consulting a travel guidebook for Calradia than actually speaking to a human being", as well as calling much of the landscape "very, very ugly". In addition, GameSpot saw faults in the lack of variety among NPC types and towns, saying that "one medieval architect seems to have designed the entire land." Eurogamer had similar criticisms, stating that the towns and villages all look like copies and the NPCs all share the same line of text. When reviewing the combat, it received more positive commentary from multiple reviewers. Eurogamer, IGN, and GamePro praised the combat for being physics-based and aim-based, as opposed to many other RPGs. Gamespot stated that it was "the one place where Mount & Blade truly shines," and GamePro called it "far and above the best rendition of medieval warfare yet put onto computer screens." PC Zone, however, criticized the melee combat and claimed that it felt random in its effectiveness on both foot and horseback. But the complexity and thoroughness of the character skill system was well received. The fan community has received positive attention from both developers and critics. During an interview, TaleWorlds Entertainment stated to be "most proud" of its community, considering that "Mount & Blade has arguably some of the best mods developed for a computer game". Reviewers such as GamePro and Game Industry News also admired the number of mods made available for the beta versions even before the game's official retail release. ## Follow-up and sequels TaleWorlds Entertainment produced a standalone expansion for the game, titled Mount & Blade: Warband, which includes multiplayer support with up to 250 players as well as improved diplomacy, graphics, and artificial intelligence. Warband also has an updated map and a sixth faction. The expansion was set to be released in Q3 2009, but was delayed until March 2010. Closed beta testing began in August 2009, and became open in February 2010, before the sequel's release on March 30, 2010. Paradox Interactive, returned the Mount & Blade license to TaleWorlds Entertainment on January 31, 2014. Paradox released a spin-off titled Mount & Blade: With Fire & Sword, based on the historical novel With Fire and Sword (Polish: Ogniem i Mieczem) by Henryk Sienkiewicz, developed by Snowberry Connection, Sich Studio, and TaleWorlds Entertainment. The game is set in Eastern Europe, and includes the playable factions Poland–Lithuania, Cossack Hetmanate, Russia, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate. The game was released on May 4, 2011. On December 11, 2014, TaleWorlds published a DLC for Mount & Blade: Warband titled Viking Conquest. The DLC is sprung out of community-made mod called Brytenwalda, which popularity gained TaleWorlds' attention and resulted in its development as official expansion of Warband. A sequel, Mount & Blade II: Bannerlord, entered alpha on March 30, 2020, reaching over 170,000 concurrent players on Steam at its peak. The sequel features better graphics, character creation, battles, dialogue, relationship mechanics, and multiplayer, as well as further exploration into other gameplay paths. The success of the franchise has spawned many derivatives, including games made with the same engine as Mount & Blade. Such derivatives for example are Blood & Gold: Caribbean, Freeman: Guerilla Warfare, and Sands of Salzaar.

Yorktown campaign

1781 military campaign of the American Revolutionary War

The Yorktown campaign, also known as the Virginia campaign, was a series of military maneuvers and battles during the American Revolutionary War that culminated in the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781. The result of the campaign was the surrender of the British Army force of General Charles Earl Cornwallis, an event that led directly to the beginning of serious peace negotiations and the eventual end of the war. The campaign was marked by disagreements, indecision, and miscommunication on the part of British leaders, and by a remarkable set of cooperative decisions, at times in violation of orders, by the French and Americans. The campaign involved land and naval forces of Great Britain and France, and land forces of the United States. British forces were sent to Virginia between January and April 1781 and joined with Cornwallis's army in May, which came north from an extended campaign through the southern states. These forces were first opposed weakly by Virginia militia, but General George Washington sent first Marquis de Lafayette and then "Mad" Anthony Wayne with Continental Army troops to oppose the raiding and economic havoc the British were wreaking. The combined American forces, however, were insufficient in number to oppose the combined British forces, and it was only after a series of controversially confusing orders by General Sir Henry Clinton, the British commander-in-chief, that Cornwallis moved to Yorktown in July and built a defensive position that was strong against the land forces he then faced, but was vulnerable to naval blockade and siege. British naval forces in North America and the West Indies were weaker than the combined fleets of France and Spain, and, after some critical decisions and tactical missteps by British naval commanders, the French fleet of Paul de Grasse gained control over Chesapeake Bay, blockading Cornwallis from naval support and delivering additional land forces to blockade him on land. The Royal Navy attempted to dispute this control, but Admiral Thomas Graves was defeated in the key Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5. American and French armies that had massed outside New York City began moving south in late August, and arrived near Yorktown in mid-September. Deceptions about their movement successfully delayed attempts by Clinton to send more troops to Cornwallis. The siege of Yorktown began on September 28, 1781. In a step that probably shortened the siege, Cornwallis decided to abandon parts of his outer defenses, and the besiegers successfully stormed two of his redoubts. When it became clear that his position was untenable, Cornwallis opened negotiations on October 17 and surrendered two days later. When the news reached London, the government of Lord North fell, and the following Rockingham ministry entered into peace negotiations. These culminated in the Treaty of Paris in 1783, in which King George III recognized the independent United States of America. Clinton and Cornwallis engaged in a public war of words defending their roles in the campaign, and British naval command also discussed the navy's shortcomings that led to the defeat. ## Background By December 1780, the American Revolutionary War's North American theatres had reached a critical point. The Continental Army had suffered major defeats earlier in the year, with its southern armies either captured or dispersed in the loss of Charleston and the Battle of Camden in the south, while the armies of George Washington and the British commander-in-chief for North America, Sir Henry Clinton watched each other around New York City in the north. The national currency was virtually worthless, public support for the war, about to enter its sixth year, was waning, and army troops were becoming mutinous over pay and conditions. In the Americans' favor, provincial recruiting in the south had been checked with a severe blow at Kings Mountain in October. ### French and American planning for 1781 Virginia had largely escaped military notice before 1779, when a raid destroyed much of the state's shipbuilding capacity and seized or destroyed large amounts of tobacco, which was a significant trade item for the Americans. Virginia's only defenses consisted of locally raised militia companies, and a naval force that had been virtually wiped out in the 1779 raid. The militia were under the overall direction of Continental Army General Baron von Steuben, a prickly Prussian taskmaster who, although he was an excellent drillmaster, alienated not only his subordinates, but also had a difficult relationship with the state's governor, Thomas Jefferson. Steuben had established a training center in Chesterfield for new Continental Army recruits, and a "factory" in Westham for the manufacture and repair of weapons and ammunition. French military planners had to balance competing demands for the 1781 campaign. After a series of unsuccessful attempts at cooperation with the Americans (leading to failed assaults on Newport, Rhode Island, and Savannah, Georgia), they realized more active participation in North America was needed. However, they also needed to coordinate their actions with Spain, where there was potential interest in making an assault on the British stronghold of Jamaica. It turned out that the Spanish were not interested in operations against Jamaica until after they had dealt with an expected British attempt to reinforce besieged Gibraltar, and merely wanted to be informed of the movements of the West Indies fleet. As the French fleet was preparing to depart Brest in March, several important decisions were made. The West Indies fleet, led by the Comte de Grasse, after operations in the Windward Islands, was directed to go to Cap-Français (present-day Cap-Haïtien) to determine what resources would be required to assist Spanish operations. Due to a lack of transports, France also promised six million livres to support the American war effort instead of providing additional troops. The French fleet at Newport was given a new commander, the Comte de Barras. De Barras was ordered to take the Newport fleet to harass British shipping off Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and the French army at Newport was ordered to combine with Washington's army outside New York. In orders that were deliberately not fully shared with General Washington, De Grasse was instructed to assist in North American operations after his stop at Cap-Français. The French general, the Comte de Rochambeau was instructed to tell Washington that de Grasse might be able to assist, without making any commitment. (Washington learned from John Laurens, stationed in Paris, that de Grasse had discretion to come north.) The French fleet sailed from Brest on March 22. The British fleet was busy with preparations to resupply Gibraltar, and did not attempt to oppose the departure. After the French fleet sailed, the packet ship Concorde sailed for Newport, carrying the Comte de Barras, Rochambeau's orders, and credits for the six million livres. In a separate dispatch sent later, de Grasse also made two important requests. The first was that he be notified at Cap-Français of the situation in North America so that he could decide how he might be able to assist in operations there, and the second was that he be supplied with 30 pilots familiar with North American waters. ### British planning for 1781 General Clinton never articulated a coherent vision for what the goals for British operations of the coming campaign season should be in the early months of 1781. Part of his problem lay in a difficult relationship with his naval counterpart in New York, the aging Vice Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot. Both men were stubborn, prone to temper, and had prickly personalities; due to repeated clashes, their working relationship had completely broken down. In the fall of 1780 Clinton had requested that either he or Arbuthnot be recalled; however, orders recalling Arbuthnot did not arrive until June. Until then, according to historian George Billias, "The two men could not act alone, and would not act together". Arbuthnot was replaced by Sir Thomas Graves, with whom Clinton had a somewhat better working relationship. The British presence in the south consisted of the strongly fortified ports of Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina, and a string of outposts in the interior of those two states. Although the strongest outposts were relatively immune to attack from the Patriot militia that were their only formal opposition in those states, the smaller outposts, as well as supply convoys and messengers, were often the target of militia commanders like Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion. Portsmouth had most recently been occupied in October 1780 by a force under the command of Major General Alexander Leslie, but Lieutenant General Charles, Earl Cornwallis, commanding the British southern army, had ordered them to South Carolina in November. To replace General Leslie at Portsmouth, General Clinton sent 1,600 troops under General Benedict Arnold (recently commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier) to Virginia in late December. ## British raiding in Virginia Part of the fleet carrying General Arnold and his troops arrived in Chesapeake Bay on December 30, 1780. Without waiting for the rest of the transports to arrive, Arnold sailed up the James River and disembarked 900 troops at Westover, Virginia, on January 4. After an overnight forced march, he raided Richmond, the state capital, the next day, encountering only minimal militia resistance. After two more days of raiding in the area, they returned to their boats, and made sail for Portsmouth. Arnold established fortifications there, and sent his men out on raiding and foraging expeditions. The local militia were called out, but they were in such small numbers that the British presence could not be disputed. This did not prevent raiding expeditions from running into opposition, as some did in skirmishing at Waters Creek in March. When news of Arnold's activities reached George Washington, he decided that a response was necessary. He wanted the French to send a naval expedition from their base in Newport, but the commanding admiral, Chevalier Destouches, refused any assistance until he received reports of serious storm damage to part of the British fleet on January 22. On February 9, Captain Arnaud de Gardeur de Tilley sailed from Newport with three ships (ship of the line Eveille and frigates Surveillante and Gentile). When he arrived off Portsmouth four days later, Arnold withdrew his ships, which had shallower drafts than those of the French, up the Elizabeth River, where de Tilley could not follow. De Tilley, after determining that the local militia were "completely insufficient" to attack Arnold's position, returned to Newport. On the way he captured HMS Romulus, a frigate sent by the British from New York to investigate his movements. Congress authorised a detachment of Continental forces to Virginia on February 20. Washington assigned command of the expedition to the Marquis de Lafayette, who left Peekskill, New York the same day. His troops, numbering about 1,200, were three light regiments drawn from troops assigned to Continental regiments from New Jersey and New England; these regiments were led by Joseph Vose, Francis Barber, and Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat. Lafayette's force reached Head of Elk (present-day Elkton, Maryland, the northern navigable limit of Chesapeake Bay) on March 3. While awaiting transportation for his troops at Annapolis, Lafayette traveled south, reaching Yorktown on March 14, to assess the situation. ### American attempts at defense De Tilley's expedition, and the strong encouragement of General Washington, who traveled to Newport to press the case, convinced Destouches to make a larger commitment. On March 8 he sailed with his entire fleet (7 ships of the line and several frigates, including the recently captured Romulus), carrying French troops to join with Lafayette's in Virginia. Admiral Arbuthnot, alerted to his departure, sailed on March 10 after sending Arnold a dispatch warning of the French movement. Arbuthnot, whose copper-clad ships could sail faster than those of Destouches, reached Cape Henry on March 16, just ahead of the French fleet. The ensuing battle was largely indecisive, but left Arbuthnot free to enter Lynnhaven Bay and control access to Chesapeake Bay; Destouches returned to Newport. Lafayette saw the British fleet, and pursuant to orders, made preparations to return his troops to the New York area. By early April he had returned to Head of Elk, where he received orders from Washington to stay in Virginia. The departure of Destouches' fleet from Newport had prompted General Clinton to send Arnold reinforcements. In the wake of Arbuthnot's sailing he sent transports carrying about 2,000 men under the command of General William Phillips to the Chesapeake. These joined Arnold at Portsmouth on March 27. Phillips, as senior commander, took over the force and resumed raiding, targeting Petersburg and Richmond. By this time, Baron von Steuben and Peter Muhlenberg, the militia commanders in Virginia, felt they had to make a stand to maintain morale despite the inferior strength of their troops. They established a defensive line in Blandford, near Petersburg (Blandford is now a part of the city of Petersburg), and fought a disciplined but losing action on April 25. Von Steuben and Muhlenberg retreated before the advance of Phillips, who hoped to again raid Richmond. However, Lafayette made a series of forced marches, and reached Richmond on April 29, just hours before Phillips. ## Cornwallis and Lafayette To counter the British threat in the Carolinas, Washington had sent Major General Nathanael Greene, one of his best strategists, to rebuild the American army in North Carolina after the defeat at Camden. General Cornwallis, leading the British troops in the south, wanted to deal with him and gain control over the state. Greene divided his inferior force, sending part of his army under Daniel Morgan to threaten the British post at Ninety Six, South Carolina. Cornwallis sent Banastre Tarleton after Morgan, who almost wiped out Tarleton's command in the January Battle of Cowpens, and almost captured Tarleton in the process. This action was followed by what has been called the "race to the Dan," in which Cornwallis gave chase to Morgan and Greene in an attempt to catch them before they reunited their forces. When Greene successfully crossed the Dan River and entered Virginia, Cornwallis, who had stripped his army of most of its baggage, gave up the pursuit. However, Greene received reinforcements and supplies, recrossed the Dan, and returned to Greensboro, North Carolina to do battle with Cornwallis. The earl won the battle, but Greene was able to withdraw with his army intact, and the British suffered enough casualties that Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Wilmington for reinforcement and resupply. Greene then went on to regain control over most of South Carolina and Georgia. Cornwallis, in violation of orders but also in the absence of significant strategic direction by General Clinton, decided to take his army, now numbering just 1,400 men, into Virginia on April 25; it was the same day that Phillips and von Steuben fought at Blandford. Phillips, after Lafayette beat him to Richmond, turned back east, continuing to destroy military and economic targets in the area. On May 7, Phillips received a dispatch from Cornwallis, ordering him to Petersburg to effect a junction of their forces; three days later, Phillips arrived in Petersburg. Lafayette briefly cannonaded the British position there, but did not feel strong enough to actually make an attack. On May 13, Phillips died of a fever, and Arnold retook control of the force. This caused some grumbling amongst the men, since Arnold was not particularly well respected. While waiting for Cornwallis, the forces of Arnold and Lafayette watched each other. Arnold attempted to open communications with the marquis (who had orders from Washington to summarily hang Arnold), but the marquis returned his letters unopened. Cornwallis arrived in Petersburg on May 19, prompting Lafayette, who commanded under 1,000 Continentals and about 2,000 militia, to retreat to Richmond. Further British reinforcements led by the Ansbacher Colonel von Voigt arrived from New York shortly after, raising the size of Cornwallis's army to more than 7,000. Cornwallis, after dispatching General Arnold back to New York, set out to follow General Clinton's most recent orders to Phillips. These instructions were to establish a fortified base and raid rebel military and economic targets in Virginia. Cornwallis decided that he had to first deal with the threat posed by Lafayette, so he set out in pursuit of the marquis. Lafayette, clearly outnumbered, retreated rapidly toward Fredericksburg to protect an important supply depot there, while von Steuben retreated to Point of Fork (present-day Columbia, Virginia), where militia and Continental Army trainees had gathered with supplies pulled back before the raiding British. Cornwallis reached the Hanover County courthouse on June 1, and, rather than send his whole army after Lafayette, detached Banastre Tarleton and John Graves Simcoe on separate raiding expeditions. Tarleton, his British Legion reduced by the debacle at Cowpens, rode rapidly with a small force to Charlottesville, where he captured several members of the Virginia legislature. He almost captured Governor Jefferson as well, but had to content himself with several bottles of wine from Jefferson's estate at Monticello. Simcoe went to Point of Fork to deal with von Steuben and the supply depot. In a brief skirmish on June 5, von Steuben's forces, numbering about 1,000, suffered 30 casualties, but they had withdrawn most of the supplies across the river. Simcoe, who only had about 300 men, then exaggerated the size of his force by lighting a large number of campfires; this prompted von Steuben to withdraw from Point of Fork, leaving the supplies to be destroyed by Simcoe the next day. Lafayette, in the meantime, was expecting the imminent arrival of long-delayed reinforcements. Several battalions of Pennsylvania Continentals under Brigadier General Anthony Wayne had also been authorised by Congress for service in Virginia in February. However, Wayne had to deal with the aftereffects of a mutiny in January that nearly wiped out the Pennsylvania Line as a fighting force, and it was May before he had rebuilt the line and begun the march to Virginia. Even then, there was a great deal of mistrust between Wayne and his men; Wayne had to keep his ammunition and bayonets under lock and key except when they were needed. Although Wayne was ready to march on May 19, the force's departure was delayed by a day because of a renewed threat of mutiny after the units were paid with devalued Continental dollars. Lafayette and Wayne's 800 men joined forces at Raccoon Ford on the Rappahannock River on June 10. A few days later, Lafayette was further reinforced by 1,000 militia under the command of William Campbell. After the successful raids of Simcoe and Tarleton, Cornwallis began to make his way east toward Richmond and Williamsburg, almost contemptuously ignoring Lafayette in his movements. Lafayette, his force grown to about 4,500, was buoyed in confidence, and began to edge closer to the earl's army. By the time Cornwallis reached Williamsburg on June 25, Lafayette was 10 miles (16 km) away, at Bird's Tavern. That day, Lafayette learned that Simcoe's Queen's Rangers were at some remove from the main British force, so Lafayette sent some cavalry and light infantry to intercept them. This precipitated a skirmish at Spencer's Ordinary where each side believed the other to be within range of its main army. ## Allied decisions While Lafayette, Arnold, and Phillips manoeuvred in Virginia, the allied leaders, Washington and Rochambeau, considered their options. On May 6 the Concorde arrived in Boston, and two days later Washington and Rochambeau were informed of the arrival of de Barras as well as the vital dispatches and funding. On May 23 and 24, Washington and Rochambeau held a conference at Wethersfield, Connecticut where they discussed what steps to take next. They agreed that, pursuant to his orders, Rochambeau would move his army from Newport to the Continental Army camp at White Plains, New York. They also decided to send dispatches to de Grasse outlining two possible courses of action. Washington favored the idea of attacking New York, while Rochambeau favored action in Virginia, where the British were less well established. Washington's letter to de Grasse outlined these two options; Rochambeau, in a private note, informed de Grasse of his preference. Lastly, Rochambeau convinced de Barras to hold his fleet in readiness to assist in either operation, rather than taking it out on expeditions to the north as he had been ordered. The Concorde sailed from Newport on June 20, carrying dispatches from Washington, Rochambeau, and de Barras, as well as the pilots de Grasse had requested. The French army left Newport in June, and joined Washington's army at Dobb's Ferry, New York on July 7. From there, Washington and Rochambeau embarked on an inspection tour of the British defenses around New York while they awaited word from de Grasse. De Grasse had a somewhat successful campaign in the West Indies. His forces successfully captured Tobago in June after a minor engagement with the British fleet. Beyond that, he and British Admiral George Brydges Rodney avoided significant engagement. De Grasse arrived at Cap-Français on July 16, where the Concorde awaited him. He immediately engaged in negotiations with the Spanish. He informed them of his intent to sail north, but promised to return by November to assist in Spanish operations in exchange for critical Spanish cover while he sailed north. From them he secured the promise to protect French commerce and territories so that he could bring north his entire fleet, 28 ships of the line. In addition to his fleet, he took on 3,500 troops under the command of the Marquis de St. Simon, and appealed to the Spanish in Havana for funds needed to pay Rochambeau's troops. On July 28, he sent the Concorde back to Newport, informing Washington, Rochambeau, and de Barras that he expected to arrive in the Chesapeake at the end of August, and would need to leave by mid-October. He sailed from Cap-Français on August 5, beginning a deliberately slow route north through a little-used channel in the Bahamas. ## British decisions The movement of the French army to the New York area caused General Clinton a great deal of concern; letters written by Washington that Clinton had intercepted suggested that the allies were planning an attack on New York. Beginning in June he wrote a series of letters to Cornwallis containing a confusing and controversial set of ruminations, suggestions, and recommendations, that only sometimes contained concrete and direct orders. Some of these letters were significantly delayed in reaching Cornwallis, complicating the exchange between the two. On June 11 and 15, apparently in reaction to the threat to New York, Clinton requested Cornwallis to fortify either Yorktown or Williamsburg, and send any troops he could spare back to New York. Cornwallis received these letters at Williamsburg on June 26. He and an engineer inspected Yorktown, which he found to be defensively inadequate. He wrote a letter to Clinton indicating that he would move to Portsmouth in order to send troops north with transports available there. On July 4 Cornwallis began moving his army toward the Jamestown ferry, to cross the broad James River and march to Portsmouth. Lafayette's scouts observed the motion, and he realised the British force would be vulnerable during the crossing. He advanced his army to the Green Spring Plantation, and, based on intelligence that only the British rear guard was left at the crossing, sent General Wayne forward to attack them on July 6. In reality, the earl had laid a clever trap. Crossing only his baggage and some troops to guard them, he sent "deserters" to falsely inform Lafayette of the situation. In the Battle of Green Spring, General Wayne managed to escape the trap, but with significant casualties and the loss of two field pieces. Cornwallis then crossed the river, and marched his army to Suffolk. Cornwallis again detached Tarleton on a raid into central Virginia. Tarleton's raid was based on intelligence that supplies might be intercepted that were en route to General Greene. The raid, in which Tarleton's force rode 120 miles (190 km) in four days, was a failure, since supplies had already been moved. (During this raid, some of Tarleton's men were supposedly in a minor skirmish with Peter Francisco, one of the American heroes of Guilford Court House.) Cornwallis received another letter from General Clinton while at Suffolk, dated June 20, stating that the forces to be embarked were to be used for an attack against Philadelphia. When Cornwallis reached Portsmouth, he began embarking troops pursuant to Clinton's orders. On July 20, with some transports almost ready to sail, new orders arrived that countermanded the previous ones. In the most direct terms, Clinton ordered him to establish a fortified deep-water port, using as much of his army as he thought necessary. Clinton took this decision because the navy had long been dissatisfied with New York as a naval base, firstly because sand bars obstructed the entrance to the Hudson River, damaging the hulls of the larger ships; and secondly because the river often froze in winter, imprisoning vessels inside the harbour. Arbuthnot had recently been replaced and to show his satisfaction at this development, Clinton now acceded to the Navy's request, despite Cornwallis's warning that the Chesapeake's open bays and navigable rivers meant that any base there "will always be exposed to sudden French attack." It was to prove a fatal error of judgement by Clinton, since the need to defend the new facility denied Cornwallis any freedom of movement. Nevertheless, having inspected Portsmouth and found it less favourable than Yorktown, Cornwallis wrote to Clinton informing him that he would fortify Yorktown. Lafayette was alerted on July 26 that Cornwallis was embarking his troops, but lacked intelligence about their eventual destination, and began manoeuvring his troops to cover some possible landing points. On August 6 he learned that Cornwallis had landed at Yorktown and was fortifying it and Gloucester Point just across the York River. ## Convergence on Yorktown Admiral Rodney had been warned that de Grasse was planning to take at least part of his fleet north. Although he had some clues that he might take his whole fleet (he was aware of the number of pilots de Grasse had requested, for example), he assumed that de Grasse would not leave the French convoy at Cap-Français, and that part of his fleet would escort it to France as Admiral Guichen had done the previous year. Rodney made his dispositions accordingly, balancing the likely requirements of the fleet in North America with the need to protect Britain's own trade convoys. Sixteen of his twenty-one battleships, therefore, were to sail with Hood in pursuit of de Grasse to the Chesapeake before proceeding to New York. Rodney, who was ill, meanwhile took three other battleships back to England, two as merchant escorts, leaving his remaining two in dock for repairs. Hood was well satisfied with these arrangements, telling a colleague that his fleet was "equal fully to defeat any designs of the enemy, let de Grasse bring or send what number of ships he might in aid of Barras." What neither Rodney or Hood knew was de Grasse's last minute decision to take his entire fleet to North America, thus ensuring a French superiority of three to two in battleship strength. Blissfully unaware of this development, Hood eventually sailed from Antigua on August 10, five days after de Grasse. During the voyage, one of his smaller ships carrying intelligence about the American pilots was captured by a privateer, thus further depriving the British in New York of valuable information. Hood himself, following the direct route, reached the Chesapeake on August 25, and found the entrance to the bay empty. He then sailed on to New York to meet with Admiral Sir Thomas Graves, in command of the New York station following Arbuthnot's departure. On August 14 General Washington learned of de Grasse's decision to sail for the Chesapeake. The next day he reluctantly abandoned the idea of assaulting New York, writing that "[m]atters having now come to a crisis and a decisive plan to be determined on, I was obliged ... to give up all idea of attacking New York..." The combined Franco-American army began moving south on August 19, engaging in several tactics designed to fool Clinton about their intentions. Some forces were sent on a route along the New Jersey shore, and ordered to make camp preparations as if preparing for an attack on Staten Island. The army also carried landing craft to lend verisimilitude to the idea. Washington sent orders to Lafayette to prevent Cornwallis from returning to North Carolina; he did not learn that Cornwallis was entrenching at Yorktown until August 30. Two days later the army was passing through Philadelphia; another mutiny was averted there when funds were procured for troops that threatened to stay until they were paid. Admiral de Barras sailed with his fleet from Newport, carrying the French siege equipment, on August 25. He sailed a route that deliberately took him away from the coast to avoid encounters with the British. De Grasse reached the Chesapeake on August 30, five days after Hood. He immediately debarked the troops from his fleet to assist Lafayette in blockading Cornwallis, and stationed some his ships to blockade the York and James Rivers. News of de Barras' sailing reached New York on August 28, where Graves, Clinton, and Hood were meeting to discuss the possibility of making an attack on the French fleet in Newport, since the French army was no longer there to defend it. Clinton had still not realized that Washington was marching south, something he did not have confirmed until September 2. When they learned of de Barras' departure they immediately concluded that de Grasse must be headed for the Chesapeake (but still did not know of his strength). Graves sailed from New York on August 31 with 19 ships of the line; Clinton wrote Cornwallis to warn him that Washington was coming, and that he would send 4,000 reinforcements. On September 5, the British fleet arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake to see the French fleet anchored there. De Grasse, who had men ashore, was forced to cut his cables and scramble to get his fleet out to meet the British. In the Battle of the Chesapeake, de Grasse won a narrow tactical victory. After the battle, the two fleets drifted to the southeast for several days, with the British avoiding battle and both fleets making repairs. This was apparently in part a ploy by de Grasse to ensure the British would not interfere with de Barras' arrival. A fleet was spotted off in the distance on September 9 making for the bay; de Grasse followed the next day. Graves, forced to scuttle one of his ships, returned to New York for repairs. Smaller ships from the French fleet then assisted in transporting the Franco-American army down the Chesapeake to Yorktown, completing the encirclement of Cornwallis. ## Yorktown On September 6, General Clinton wrote a letter to Cornwallis, telling him to expect reinforcements. Received by Cornwallis on September 14, this letter may have been instrumental in the decision by Cornwallis to remain at Yorktown and not try to fight his way out, despite the urging of Banastre Tarleton to break out against the comparatively weak Lafayette. General Washington, after spending a few days at Mount Vernon for the first time in years, arrived in the camps outside Yorktown on September 17. That same day, the British military leadership in New York held a council, in which they agreed that Cornwallis could not be reinforced until they had regained control of the Chesapeake. Historian Richard Ketchum describes the decision of the council as leaving Cornwallis "dangling in the wind." One day earlier, Cornwallis wrote a desperate plea for help: "I am of the opinion that you can do me no effectual service but by coming directly to this place." Before dispatching the letter on the 17th, Cornwallis added, "If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must prepare to hear the worst." Washington, Rochambeau, and de Grasse then held council aboard de Grasse's flagship Ville de Paris to finalize preparations for the siege; de Grasse agreed to provide about 2,000 marines and some cannons to the effort. During the meeting, de Grasse was convinced to delay his departure (originally planned for mid-October) until the end of October. Upon the return of the generals to Williamsburg, they heard rumors that British naval reinforcements had arrived at New York, and the French fleet might again be threatened. De Grasse wanted to pull his fleet out of the bay as a precaution, and it took the pleas of Washington and Rochambeau, delivered to de Grasse by Lafayette, to convince him to remain. The siege formally got underway on September 28. Despite a late attempt by Cornwallis to escape via Gloucester Point, the siege lines closed in on his positions and the allied cannons wrought havoc in the British camps, and on October 17 he opened negotiations to surrender. On that very day, the British fleet again sailed from New York, carrying 6,000 troops. Still outnumbered by the combined French fleets, they eventually turned back. A French naval officer, noting the British fleet's departure on October 29, wrote, "They were too late. The fowl had been eaten." ## Aftermath ### Disposition of the British army The negotiations for surrender were complicated by two issues. When American forces surrendered at Charleston in 1780, they were not granted customary terms of capitulation that included flying colors and the playing of an enemy tune. Washington insisted that these terms be applied to the surrender of the British army at Yorktown, his negotiators pointing out that the defenders had in both instances acted with valor. The second issue concerned the disposition of provincials in the British camp. This issue was finessed with the addition of a clause to the terms that allowed one British vessel, the sloop Bonetta, to be sent without any sort of inspection to carry dispatches from Cornwallis to New York; Americans, suspecting that either runaway slaves or provincials might be aboard, were prevented from searching the vessel. When the British garrison marched out of their positions on October 19 to surrender, it was with colors cased, possibly playing the British tune "The World Turned Upside Down". Cornwallis, claiming illness, did not attend the ceremony, sending his deputy General O'Hara to deliver his sword. O'Hara at first sought to deliver it to a French officer, but he was finally directed to one of Washington's officers, Benjamin Lincoln, the defeated commander at Charleston. Lincoln briefly held the proffered sword and then returned it to O'Hara. Over the following weeks, the army was marched under guard to camps in Virginia and Maryland. Cornwallis and other officers were returned to New York and allowed to return to England on parole. The ship on which Cornwallis sailed in December 1781 also carried Benedict Arnold and his family. ### Disposition of the allies The local militia that supported the siege were dismissed from service. Some of the American Continental forces were returned to the New York City region, where Washington continued to stand against the British presence until the end of the war; others were sent south to assist in General Greene's efforts in the Carolinas. Issues of pay and condition were an ongoing problem until the war ended, but Washington fought no more battles. The French forces that came with de Grasse were reembarked, and he sailed for the West Indies, with the fleet of de Barras, in early November. After recapturing a number of British-held targets there, de Grasse was preparing to join with the Spanish for an assault on Jamaica when Admiral Rodney defeated him in the April 1782 Battle of the Saintes, capturing him and his flagship. The forces of General Rochambeau wintered in Virginia, and marched back to Rhode Island the next summer. ### Disposition of the slaves During the Yorktown campaign, numerous enslaved African-Americans had fled from their enslavers towards British lines in hope of freedom. On October 25, Washington issued an order which stipulated that all fugitive slaves who had joined the British were to be rounded up by the Continental Army and placed under the supervision of armed guards in fortified positions on both sides of the York River. There, they were to remain until "arrangements could be made to return them to their enslavers." Historian Gregory J. W. Urwin describes Washington's action as "[converting] his faithful Continentals—the men credited with winning American independence—into an army of slave catchers." ### Reactions General Washington's aide, Lieutenant Tench Tilghman, was dispatched to deliver the news to Congress. Arriving in Philadelphia on October 22, he was two days behind the first notice of the surrender, which had been expressed from Baltimore ahead of him. The news electrified Congress and the populace. Church bells pealed, and the Liberty Bell was reportedly rung, actions that were repeated as the news traveled through the colonies. Some Congressmen introduced a resolution calling on General Washington to arrest and hang General Cornwallis; after "[t]he debate continue'd several Day's", the resolution was voted down. The news put British-occupied New York City into mourning. At first met with some skepticism, the news was finally confirmed on October 27, although the city still awaited news of Clinton's abortive relief effort. Clinton was recalled to London, and left the city in March 1782. He was replaced by General Guy Carleton, who was under orders to suspend offensive operations. When the news reached London on November 25, Lord Germain described the reaction of Lord North to the news: "he would have taken a ball on his breast. For he opened his arms exclaiming wildly as he paced up and down the apartment, during the few minutes, 'Oh God! It is all over!'" King George was reported to receive the news with calmness and dignity, although he later became depressed as the news sank in, and even considered abdication. The king's supporters in Parliament were depressed, and the opposition elated. A resolution calling for an end to the war was introduced on December 12, and failed to pass by a single vote. Lord Germain was dismissed in early 1782, and the North administration fell shortly afterward. Peace negotiations followed, and the war was formally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783. General Cornwallis, despite being the commander who surrendered, was not blamed for the defeat. He was well-received on his return to London, and one writer echoed a common sentiment that "Lord Cornwallis's army was sold." General Clinton spent the rest of his life defending his own reputation; he was "laughed at by the rebels, despised by the British, and cursed by the loyalists." In 1783, he published a Narrative of the Campaign of 1781 in North America in which he attempted to lay the blame for the 1781 campaign failures on General Cornwallis. This was met with a public response by Cornwallis, who leveled his own criticisms at Clinton. The highly public debate included the publication of much of their correspondence. Admiral Graves also did not suffer due to his defeat by de Grasse; he was eventually promoted to full admiral and given a peerage. However, many aspects of the Battle of the Chesapeake have been the subject of both contemporary and historical debate, beginning right after the battle. On 6 September, Admiral Graves issued a memorandum justifying a confusing use of signals, indicating that "[when] the signal for the line of battle ahead is out at the same time with the signal for battle, it is not to be understood that the latter signal shall be rendered ineffectual by a too strict adherence to the former." Hood, in commentary written on the reverse of his copy, observed that this eliminated any possibility of engaging an enemy who was disordered, since it would require the British line to also be disordered. Instead, he maintained, "the British fleet should be as compact as possible, in order to take the critical moment of an advantage opening ..." Others criticise Hood because he "did not wholeheartedly aid his chief", and that a lesser officer "would have been court-martialled for not doing his utmost to engage the enemy." The Comte de Rochambeau dispatched two messengers to deliver the news to Paris in a move that had unusual consequences in French military politics. The Duc de Lauzun and the Comte de Deux-Pontes, both of whom had distinguished themselves in the siege, were sent on separate ships to bring the news. Deux-Pontes was accompanied by a favorite of the French naval minister the Marquis de Castries, the Comte de Charlus, who Lauzun had urged Rochambeau to send in his stead for political reasons. King Louis XVI and his ministers received the news warmly, but Castries and the snubbed Charlus ensured that Lauzun and Rochambeau were denied or delayed in the receipt of rewards for the success. Deux-Ponts was rewarded with the Order of Saint Louis and command of a regiment. ## Analysis Historian John Pancake describes the later stages of the campaign as "British blundering" and that the "allied operations proceeded with clockwork precision." Naval historian Jonathan Dull has described de Grasse's 1781 naval campaign, which encompassed, in addition to Yorktown, successful contributions to the French capture of Tobago and the Spanish siege of Pensacola, as the "most perfectly executed naval campaign of the age of sail", and compared the string of French successes favorably with the British Annus Mirabilis of 1759. He also observes that a significant number of individual decisions, at times against orders or previous agreements, contributed to the success of the campaign: 1. French ministers Montmorin and Vergennes convinced the French establishment that decisive action was needed in North America in order to end the war. 2. The French naval minister Castries wrote orders for de Grasse that gave the latter sufficient flexibility to assist in the campaign. 3. Spanish Louisiana Governor Bernardo de Gálvez released ships and troops to cover French territories while de Grasse sailed north with most of the French military establishment in the West Indies. 4. Spanish Cuban colonial official Francisco Saavedra cooperated in the decision-making that enabled de Grasse's northward expedition. 5. General Rochambeau and Chevalier Luzerne both urged de Grasse to decide on the Chesapeake. 6. Admiral de Barras violated his orders to operate off Newfoundland, making possible the timely delivery of the French siege train to Yorktown. 7. George Washington decided against an attack on New York and instead embarked on a risky march to Virginia. 8. Admiral De Grasse agreed to overstay his planned time in the Chesapeake, understanding the importance of the undertaking there. Of de Grasse's negotiations with the Spanish that secured the use of his fleet and his order to the economic fleet to remain in the West Indies, Royal Navy Captain Thomas White, in his 1830 analysis of the 1781 campaign, wrote that "[i]f the British government had sanctioned, or a British admiral had adopted such a measure, [...] the one would have been turned out, and the other would have been hung: no wonder they succeeded and we failed." ## Legacy The principal points of commemoration of the events of this campaign are managed by the National Park Service in the Colonial National Historical Park. In addition to the battlefield at Yorktown, the park includes the Cape Henry Memorial, where the French naval victory by de Grasse is remembered. ## See also - List of American Revolutionary War battles

ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron

1993 video game

ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron is a platform video game developed by Johnson Voorsanger Productions and published by Sega in 1993 for the Sega Genesis. The game is the sequel to cult video game ToeJam & Earl, released in 1991. The game concerns two alien protagonists, ToeJam and Earl, both of whom have escaped from Earth, where they had crash landed. After returning to their home planet of Funkotron, the duo discover a number of antagonistic Earthlings have stowed away on the spacecraft and are wreaking havoc across the planet. The player must hunt down these Earthlings and imprison them in jars before sending them back to Earth. The game's platform format was a departure from the original ToeJam & Earl, a treasure hunt game with randomly generated levels, inspired by the game Rogue. Creators Greg Johnson and Mark Voorsanger originally began designing a game built on the concepts of the original, but changed to a more generic type of game due to a lack of support for their vision on the part of Sega. The game was critically well received, with reviewers praising the graphics, soundtrack, fluid action and two-player mode. It was also a commercial success, but fans of ToeJam & Earl were disappointed and confused by the radical change in direction. Since its release, ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron has been criticized for being too sharp a departure from the first game, and some later reviewers felt that the developers had been more interested in the publisher's wishes than the fans. Johnson and Voorsanger have stated they regret moving away from their prototype sequel in the vein of ToeJam & Earl. Research has suggested that a significant minority of fans favor ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron as the best in the series. Together with its predecessor, the game comprises one of the Mega Drive's key exclusive franchises, but following Johnson and Voorsanger's split with Sega the series went inactive. A third installment appeared in 2002, but it was a commercial failure with mixed reviews. ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron was re-released in 2007 for the Wii's Virtual Console, receiving mixed reviews. The game was released on PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade alongside its prequel in November 2012. In August 2014, ToeJam & Earl 2 was listed on GamesRadar at \#10 on "Best Sega Genesis/Mega Drive games of all time". ## Plot The game follows on the events of the first game, in which funky aliens ToeJam and Earl crash landed on Earth. After managing to rebuild their spaceship and returning safely to their home planet of Funkotron, the duo soon learn that a bunch of Earthlings had stowed away on their craft and have now invaded Funkotron. With the humans spreading panic across the planet's citizens, even scaring the source of all funk, Lamont the Funkapotomus, away to another dimension, it is up to ToeJam and Earl to clean up the mess they've made and send all the Earthlings they brought with them back to where they came from. ## Gameplay Unlike its predecessor, Panic on Funkotron is a side-scrolling platform game in which up to two players play as ToeJam and Earl as they travel across Funkotron to capture antagonistic Earthlings that had stowed away. Players accomplish this by using a radar to locate an Earthling's proximity (some Earthlings may be hidden in the environment) and attack them with jars in order to trap and collect them. Once all Earthlings have been found, the player can move on to the next level. Players can collect presents containing various bonuses, such as super jars, radar scans, and teleporting moves. Coins can be used with parking meters to trigger events in the environment or participate in minigames such as Jam Outs and Fungus Olympics. Players can also enter gateways leading to the Hyper Funk Zone, where the player must avoid obstacles in order to earn more presents. Hidden throughout the game are ten objects belonging to Lamont the Funkapotamus; collecting all of which will earn the player the best ending upon completion. ## Development The game is the sequel to ToeJam & Earl, a treasure hunt game inspired by computer game Rogue and featuring randomly generated levels. After the success of the original game, Johnson Voorsanger Productions began work on a sequel in 1992. The developer spent three to four months building on the original mechanics, adding elements such as indoor areas and additional terrain types, though the randomly generated levels were removed. The plot of this prototype would see ToeJam and Earl "return to Earth to stage a rap concert, only to find they've lost their CDs" which would form the basis of the game's treasure hunt. According to the Johnson and Voorsanger, the game would feature "more default items" for the characters to "use all the time", new items and characters, and more detail and secret areas allowed by the fixed (rather than randomly generated) levels. The game employed a larger development team than the first installment and was originally projected for a Christmas 1992 release, and titled ToeJam & Earl 2. Sega however conferred that they did not "understand" the game and though the "decision was still ultimately with Johnson and Voorsanger", the developer started work on a more generic side-scrolling platform game, a concept to which Sega had been more receptive. The increased size of the game's cartridge over the original allowed for greater graphical detail. The soundtrack, including the original theme, was remixed and given a more layered quality. ## Reception and legacy The game was met with considerable anticipation, positive reviews and commercial success according to IGN, with GamaSutra also recalling a positive critical reaction. A contemporary review in the Chicago Tribune called it a "beautifully designed game", as well as praising the Herbie Hancock-inspired soundtrack and non-violent action. The Washington Times also gave a positive verdict, stating: "This is one of the funniest games we've ever seen. The graphics are superb, and the action and control are flawless." Business Week wrote that "Sega knows what the kids find cool" with reference to the game. Mega placed the game at \#14 in its Top Mega Drive Games of All Time. Fans of the original ToeJam & Earl, however, were disappointed and confused by the game's departure from the original concept to a more generic platforming format, with GameSpot and Shacknews later asserting that the game disappointed upon its initial release. ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron and ToeJam & Earl comprised one of the Mega Drive's key exclusive franchises. However, following its release relations between Sega and the developers became antagonistic. Johnson and Voorsanger regained the rights to ToeJam & Earl from Sega in 1995. In early 1998 they said they were interested in making a new ToeJam & Earl game and asked fans to write in saying whether they preferred it to be like the first game or the second game and what platform they wanted it to be on, offering only non-Sega platforms as options. Their relationship with Sega softened in enough time for them to start work on a ToeJam & Earl game for the Dreamcast with Sega slated as the publisher, but Sega pulled support for the Dreamcast before it could be completed. A third instalment, ToeJam & Earl III: Mission to Earth, was released for Microsoft's Xbox in 2002. The game returned to the concepts of the original game, but generated mixed reviews and poor sales. Since its release, ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron has developed a negative reputation as a selling-out of a daring design. With hindsight, Johnson and Voorsanger have stated they regret moving from the prototype sequel to a side-scrolling platform game, though Johnson maintains "ToeJam & Earl 2 was a very original side-scrolling game". Johnson has further asserted that Toyoda Shinobu, who had been Sega's Vice President of Development, "admitted that it was probably a mistake on Sega's part to jump to a side-scroller". A survey by IGN found that a majority of the franchise's fans favored the original ToeJam & Earl as the best game in the series; however, a significant minority of respondents preferred ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron at 28%. Research by the game's developers showed that a majority of fans preferred ToeJam & Earl, though the developers also claimed that "Panic on Funkotron was loved and admired by many". The game was re-released on the Wii's Virtual Console on June 1, 2007 in Europe and June 4, 2007 in North America. IGN felt the original game was superior, but praised the two-player cooperative mode, fluid animations and the "fair number of extras that add a lot of depth". GameSpot, however, called the game "mediocre", "forgettable" and "not much fun", though it noted the detailed "unique look" and parallax scrolling. Eurogamer, which gave the ToeJam & Earl re-release a negative review, praised the departure from the predecessor's concept, saying: "It gets some kudos at least for not following the 'more of the same' game sequel mentality." The reviewer praised the "forward thinking" environment interaction, but ultimately decided to give the game a middling score, saying: "For all its bold ideas, the basic platforming mechanic is pretty shonky". The game was released alongside its predecessor as part of Sega's Heritage Collection on Xbox Live Arcade on November 7, 2012 and individually for PlayStation Network on November 6, 2012 in North America and November 7, 2012 in Europe.

Blaster Master (video game)

Video game for Nintendo Entertainment System

Blaster Master is a platform and run and gun video game released by Sunsoft for the Nintendo Entertainment System. It is a localized version of a Japanese Famicom game titled , which was released on June 17, 1988. The game was released in North America in November 1988 and in Europe on April 25, 1991. The game is the first in the Blaster Master series, and it spawned two spin-off games as well as two sequels. The game features a character named Jason who follows his pet frog Fred down a hole in the earth. There he finds a tank and uses it to battle radioactive mutants. The player controls Jason and the tank Sophia the 3rd through eight levels of gameplay to find the whereabouts of Fred and to defeat the mutants and their leader, the Plutonium Boss. The game was praised for its smooth play control and level designs, detailed and clean graphics, and music, and it was criticized for its high difficulty level and lack of passwords or save points. The game was novelized by Peter Lerangis, as part of the Worlds of Power series published by Scholastic Books. ## Plot In the Japanese version (Chō Wakusei Senki Metafight), the plot is only explained in the manual. The game takes place on the planet Sophia the 3rd, located near the center of the Epsilon Galaxy, in which an advanced civilization flourished. In the year 2052 of the space age calendar, the Invem Dark Star Army, led by the universe's most feared tyrant Goez, invade and conquer Sophia the 3rd. The Science Academy of NORA, a satellite orbiting near Sophia the 3rd that somehow managed to avoid the invasion, built a weapon, an all-purpose tank called the "Metal Attacker", in a last-ditch effort to defeat Goez's army. A young soldier named Kane Gardner is chosen as the pilot of this weapon. The game's opening sequence shows Metal Attacker dropped into the battlefield. The plot of the adapted Western release (Blaster Master) is shown at the beginning in a cinematic slideshow as ominous music plays in the background. The game starts with a person named Jason who has a pet frog named Fred who, one day, decides to leap out of his fish bowl, out the door, and down a hole in the back yard. Fred then touches a radioactive chest, and he grows to an enormous size; Fred and the chest then fall deeper into the hole in the earth. Jason chases Fred down the hole, which leads to a large cavern. While most sources say that Jason chased Fred down the hole, the game's instruction manual says that Jason fell into the hole while trying to reach for Fred. There, he finds an armored tank named SOPHIA THE 3RD – a vehicle designed to battle radioactive mutants that live inside the earth. Jason mounts SOPHIA to find the whereabouts of Fred and to destroy the mutants and their leader – the Plutonium Boss. ## Gameplay Blaster Master has two modes of gameplay that depend on the situation and location of the player: the first mode is where the player controls Jason; either on foot or piloting a tank named SOPHIA in a two–dimensional platform mode; the second mode is where the player controls Jason on foot in a top-down perspective. Gameplay in the top-down perspective consists of a series of labyrinths in which players navigate and defeat enemies along the way. Gameplay is non-linear, and players must return to earlier levels in order to advance to later levels in the game. The objective is to complete all eight levels and destroy the mutants and their bosses with various weaponry such as guns, grenades, and special weapons. While Jason is inside SOPHIA in the 2D platforming mode, the player can attack the mutants with the main cannon (which can shoot up, left, and right determined by the orientation of the tank) or with one of three special weapons. Special weapons have limited ammunition which must be collected from exploring the game. They include the following: homing missiles that, when fired, shoot 1 missile at each enemy on screen up to 4; "Thunder Break", which fires a high-damage lightning bolt downward; and "Multi Warhead Missiles", which simultaneously fires a set of three missiles at enemies in front of and diagonally up and down. Players select their special weapon and monitor the amounts of each special weapon left by accessing the Menu Screen by pressing the Start button. The player switches between the 2D platforming mode and the top-down perspective by leaving the tank and entering small doorways located throughout the game. While in the top-down perspective, players can move Jason in any direction and destroy mutants with a gun or with hand grenades. In this mode, players upgrade the gun by collecting gun capsules, but the gun degrades by one point if Jason receives damage from mutants or hazardous objects. Here players obtain additional vehicle functions by destroying bosses; these functions include weapon upgrades as well as abilities to swim freely underwater, drive on walls and ceilings, and hover above the ground. The game has a glitch – colloquially known as the "grenade glitch" – to easily defeat four of the game's underbosses. To exploit this glitch, the player throws a grenade at the boss, and while the grenade is exploding and causing damage on the boss, the player pauses the game. While the remainder of the action on the screen freezes, the grenade remains active, continuing to damage the boss. After fifteen seconds the player unpauses the game to find that the boss is destroyed. Jason and SOPHIA have separate power meters, and they decrease whenever they sustain damage by an enemy or any other hazardous object or whenever Jason falls from a high place. Players can replenish these power meters by collecting power capsules that appear throughout the game. Also, the player can replenish Jason's health to full at any time by re-entering SOPHIA. The player loses a life if either power meter runs out, and the game ends when all lives are lost. Players get four continues that allow them to restart the game at the same level in which they have lost all their lives. A "hover gauge" monitors the amount of thrust remaining in SOPHIA and is located on the left side of the screen above the power meter; additional thrust can be obtained by collecting hover capsules. ## Development The game was released by Sunsoft in Japan as Chô Wakusei Senki Metafight (also simply called Metafight) on June 17, 1988 (1988-06-17). It was released with the title Blaster Master in North America in November 1988 and in Europe on April 25, 1991. Metafight, along with Ripple Island, was re-released for the PlayStation in Volume 4 of Sunsoft's Memorial Series in 2002. The game was released for the Wii's Virtual Console service in North America on December 14, 2009 (2009-12-14). The game's Virtual Console release marked Sunsoft's first North American release since returning to developing video games for the Western market through its partnership with Gaijinworks. Metafight was released for the Virtual Console in Japan on June 29, 2010 (2010-06-29), for the Wii and on September 5, 2012 (2012-09-05), for the Nintendo 3DS. It was also released in North America for the 3DS on July 24, 2014 (2014-07-24), along with another Sunsoft game, Ufouria: The Saga for the Wii U. Blaster Master was created by Kenji Sada (credited as Senta), who also led the development of The Wing of Madoola and wrote its main code. The game was made by a part-time development team of about five people, which included team leader and main-programmer Sada, sub-programmer Kenji Kajita (Kanz), character designer Hiroyuki Kagoya (Fanky), art designer Yoshiaki Iwata (PGM F-1), and sound programmer Naohisa Morota (Marumo). Iwata, who would direct the re-imagining Blaster Master: Overdrive, did the game's opening sequence and designed the map, overall layout, and bosses. In a 2010 interview, Iwata said: "We were trying to make the best action game to date, with all that entails. With SOPHIA (the game's vehicle), we wanted to bring to life a sense of action that incorporated all 360° of the environment in a way that players hadn't really experienced up to that point. Along with that, we wanted large, expansive maps so that we could support that vision". The game's art design came from Iwata, who was able to translate his original ideas directly into the game as far as the NES's graphical capabilities could be taken at that time. He said: "The goal was really to try to pull off the best graphics on the NES to date. Simple graphics were more or less the standard on the NES at the time but I had this firm belief that it was possible to do something better, something prettier. I feel like we pulled it off and were able to show people what could be done [on the NES]. It left an impression around the office, and from what I've heard [the visuals] influenced the work of other games that were later made by other NES developers as well". The game's music and sound were designed in cooperation between Sunsoft's staff and an outside composer, Naoki Kodaka, who had previously worked on scores for many of the company's other games. Iwata credited him for giving the company a good reputation for video game music in the late 1980s and lamented that "none of those people are working together anymore since they've all separated from Sunsoft [over the years]". Sada created the system of alternating between the 2D platforming and top-down modes. During the game's planning, he came up with the idea that SOPHIA would eventually be able to go anywhere in the game, including navigating on the ceilings and walls. He created the top-down portions to allow Jason to shoot in all directions and to enable the team to "express large bosses that really had an impact". He did not want to design the gameplay in a linear progression; instead he drew inspiration from and was influenced by Nintendo's Metroid to create a game that allowed players to freely move between levels. According to Iwata: "We wanted the player to experience the feeling of excitement that comes from discovering something after endeavoring through a difficult search, which is why we composed a map that allowed the player to move freely between different areas. We really put a great deal of thought into that element of the game design and, I mean this in the best possible way, but we wanted the player to have to struggle". ## Release Chô Wakusei Senki Metafight was released for the Famicom in Japan on June 17, 1988. While Sunsoft's development team, headed by Iwata, were confident that they produced a great game, it did not sell well in Japan and, as a result, was not received well within Sunsoft. The game was released in North America in November 1988. The game was localized from Metafight in Japan to Blaster Master for Western markets. In North America, plot elements normally present in anime (as featured in Metafight) were not yet popular; Sunsoft's U.S. division asked the Japanese development team to change the game's original plot elements. Hence, the game's plot changed to that of Jason and his pet frog Fred, and name of the planet "Sophia the 3rd" in Metafight became the name of Jason's tank in Blaster Master. The original staff also omitted a portion of the map in the fourth level in which "the player was forced to control Jason and make a desperate suicide-leap for a ladder suspended in mid-air", after complaints from the U.S. staff. The game has received notable recognition in gaming magazines. It is featured on the cover of the premiere issue of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment in December 1988. Electronic Gaming Monthly listed the game at \#1 in its "Top Ten Games" list in the premiere issue. In Nintendo Power, the game debuted at \#12 in its "Top 30" NES games list in its March–April 1989 issue; it later climbed to \#6 from May to August 1989, before it peaked at \#5 in September, behind Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, Super Mario Bros. 2, Ninja Gaiden, and The Legend of Zelda. Scholastic Books published a novelization of Blaster Master, written by Peter Lerangis under the pen name "A.L. Singer". The book was part of the Worlds of Power series – a collection of loose novelizations of various NES games. He wrote similar novelizations for Ninja Gaiden, Infiltrator, and Bases Loaded II: Second Season. As with the other books in the series, all acts of violence portrayed in the games, including any death scenes, were removed. As a result, the bosses were portrayed in the book as "holographic projections placed over formless blobs". Shawn Struck and Scott Sharkey from 1UP.com said that Blaster Master was the hardest book for Lerangis to write because of the lack of a middle plot; he had to come up with details that were not in the game to connect the game's actual opening and conclusion. Sunsoft would use Lerangis' novel as the plot for the game's sequel, Blaster Master: Blasting Again, making the novel the only one in the Worlds of Power series to be canonized in a video game series. ## Reception Blaster Master received praise from reviewers for its gameplay. Electronic Game Player (later known as Electronic Gaming Monthly) review, Steve Ryno lauded the concept of combining two "radically different" video game genres into one continuous game. He added that the top-down portion contributes further to the depth of gameplay and said that "everything works well without the game becoming crowded or unbalanced". The game was featured as one of the "Truly Awesome" games in Game Players' 1988 buyer's guide. In a 1992 review in UK magazine Mean Machines, Julian Rignall, praised the overall gameplay and the tank's control and movements, while co-reviewer Matt Regan enjoyed the game's fast-paced gameplay and abundance of rooms and bonus areas to explore. Jeremy Parish from 1UP.com praised the gameplay, saying that the player can explore the map "Metroidvania style" in a large, responsive tank while occasionally having to leave the tank to explore on foot – something that he compares to the Warthog sequences in the original Halo video game. Nintendo Life's Corbie Dillard praised the game's responsive controls and for its non-linearity. GamesRadar ranked it the 21st best NES game ever made and felt that it was ahead of its time. The game received positive reviews for its graphics and sound. Ryno praised the attention to detail in the graphics, adding that they transition well between levels as new and diverse environments are introduced. He also praised the fluid animation and movement of creatures in the top-down perspective and its music; he found music "pleasing" and noted that different tracks were scored for each separate level. Dillard praised the game's impressive graphics, saying that the graphics are varied, distinctive, and well-drawn; he adds that Sunsoft "did their homework" in this regard. He called the music in the game as one of the best chiptunes in the 8-bit era, noting the up-tempo tracks and high-quality sound effects. IGN's Mark Syan Sallee described the music "as memorable as anything from Nintendo", while Regan said that the game's sound effects and music bolster the gameplay and graphical atmosphere. One of the main criticisms of Blaster Master has been its difficulty. IGN's Levi Buchanan mentioned the lack of passwords or save features as used in Metroid; the game had to be completed in one sitting. They added that some players need to exploit the "grenade glitch" to beat some of the bosses. Buchanan criticized the game for its difficulty in the on-foot portions, saying that the bosses are too difficult to beat, that the enemies regenerate upon re-entering a screen, and that players can lose a life from falling too far in the 2D platforming mode. IGN's Lucas Thomas agreed about the lack of passwords or save features, saying that because of the game's difficulty, dying near the end of the game and having to restart the game all over again without passwords or save points have caused much frustration for players. Parish criticized the game for having a limited number of continues and for the graphics in the top-down perspective, saying that the display is "incredibly cutesy compared to the tank sections, with the protagonist's head providing about 50% of his total body mass". Some reviewers have found other criticisms in the gameplay. Buchanan mentioned that the character holds his gun in his right hand, requiring the player to compensate by moving left before shooting enemies (if the player can move left on the screen). Thomas echoed Buchanan's concerns in a later review, adding that this requires players to mentally adjust and to target enemies off-center. Thomas criticized the control of the tank, in particular the lack of traction, which he said may cause players to roll off a platform or cliff. Parish criticized the gameplay in the top-down perspective, saying that the gun the players use is too weak; he continued by adding that there are too few upgrades for it and that, whenever the player takes damage, it downgrades from a "high-powered beam of death" to "a stupid unreliable peashooter of mild discomfort". Nintendo Power reviewed the game in its February 1993 issue, as part of an overview of NES games that the magazine felt were overlooked or otherwise did not sell well. The review said that Sunsoft should have used a licensed character to improve sales. However, they praised its graphics and gameplay, saying that "the action switches between side-scrolling stages and stages that have a Zelda-ish view". ### Legacy The game has since appeared on many lists for the best games on the console. Later, in its 100th issue in September 1997, Nintendo Power listed the game as 63rd in its "100 Best Games of All Time" list, citing its "fast and furious" gameplay. Electronic Gaming Monthly listed it at \#184 in its "Top 200 Games of Their Time" list. IGN listed it as \#22 in its "Top 100 NES Games" list. 1UP.com listed the game as the 11th best NES game of all time in its "Top 25 NES Games" list; the 1UP.com staff said the game was "an action game that worked like a mishmash of every NES game before it", noting the expansive map like in Metroid. Paste magazine ranked Blaster Master as the 2nd greatest NES game of all time, behind The Legend of Zelda; they cited the tank's additional abilities as a main reason behind its ranking. In a 2010 interview with Iwata, he was surprised about the game's reception outside Japan, which retrogamers have named it as one of their favorite and most memorable 8-bit titles. He said: > It's kind of funny that the first time I ever really had any sense of the game's success was about 10 years following the original release of Blaster Master, when a young staff member from the U.S. office said something to me like, "You'd definitely have become a super-famous game designer if you were an American". Alex Neuse, creator of the Bit.Trip series, reminisced his memories of playing Blaster Master as a child. He acknowledged that the game was a clone of Metroid that featured a tank that could jump and a corny storyline, but he said it was all "presented in a way that it felt meaningful". He added that the game's music convinced him "that video game music could be high-quality, memorable, and evocative". ## Sequels and versions At the 1992 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Sunsoft announced that they were planning to develop a sequel for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, but it never came to be. Instead, Software Creations developed the North American–exclusive sequel Blaster Master 2 for the Sega Genesis. Later releases include Blaster Master Boy for the Game Boy, Blaster Master: Enemy Below (released in Japan as MetaFight EX) for the Game Boy Color, and Blaster Master: Blasting Again for the PlayStation. A re-imagining of the first game, Blaster Master: Overdrive, was released for Nintendo's WiiWare service in North America on February 8, 2010 (2010-02-08). Iwata incorporated many of the gameplay elements in Blaster Master: Overdrive, which his goal was "for players to recall and think back upon (the original) Blaster Master, and so my goal was to find a way to evoke that through this game". On April Fools' Day on April 1, 2010 (2010-04-01), Sunsoft announced that a sequel to the game would be released on the Wii Virtual Console titled Blaster Master: Destination Fred. According to their press release, the game was only purported to be tested on several PlayChoice-10 machines in the Los Angeles area between 1988 and 1989. Sunsoft later confirmed on their website that the sequel was an April Fools' Day hoax. In November 2016, at the 20th Anniversary Fan Festa event in Ichikawa, Japan, Inti Creates acquired the license of the original Blaster Master game from Sunsoft, and on March 9, 2017, Blaster Master Zero, a retro 8-bit style reboot of the original NES game, was released for the Nintendo 3DS eShop and Nintendo Switch. A sequel, Blaster Master Zero 2, was released on March 20, 2019, for the Switch. A second sequel, Blaster Master Zero 3, was released in 2021. Sophia III appears as an unlockable transformation in Shantae: Half-Genie Hero, added as part of an update on July 31, 2018. A version of the game is planned to be ported to the Evercade as part of its Sunsoft Collection 1 in September 2023.

Deus Ex: Human Revolution

2011 video game

Deus Ex: Human Revolution is an action role-playing game developed by Eidos-Montréal and published by Square Enix's European branch in August 2011 for Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. A version for OS X was released the following year. It is the third game in the Deus Ex series and a prequel to the original Deus Ex (2000). The gameplay—combining first-person shooter, stealth, and role-playing elements—features exploration and combat in environments connected to multiple city-based hubs, in addition to quests that grant experience and allow customization of the main character's abilities with items called Praxis Kits. Conversations between characters feature a variety of responses, with options in conversations and at crucial story points affecting how some events play out. Set in the year 2027, players control Adam Jensen, a security officer for Sarif Industries, a company which develops controversial artificial organs dubbed "augmentations". After an attack on Sarif, Jensen undergoes extensive augmentation and investigates the shadowy organization behind the attack. The story explores themes of transhumanism and the growing power of megacorporations and their impact on social class. It also uses the series' cyberpunk setting and conspiracy theory motif. Development of Human Revolution began in 2007 with a small team within the fledgling Eidos-Montréal studio after failed attempts to create a sequel at original developer Ion Storm following Deus Ex: Invisible War (2003). The two key influences were the myth of Icarus, a thematic element carried over from Deus Ex, and the artwork and ideas of the Renaissance, which influenced the story, graphics, and music while combining with the series' typical cyberpunk elements. The open-ended gameplay was tricky for the team to achieve; the boss battles were outsourced to another developer due to time constraints. The music, composed by Michael McCann, focused on ambience and three-layered compositions over character themes and overt melodies. Human Revolution was announced in 2007, soon after its beginning development. Its title and release window were announced in 2010. After release, a downloadable episode, The Missing Link, was developed, featuring gameplay improvements. A director's cut, featuring further improvements and additional content, was released in 2013 for the original platforms and Wii U. Human Revolution received acclaim for its player-driven plot, gameplay, and freedom of choice in the story and character customization. The major criticisms went to its boss fights and technical problems. The director's cut was praised for its revamped gameplay. By November 2011, the original version had sold 2.18 million units. It was followed by a spin-off, Deus Ex: The Fall, and a sequel, Deus Ex: Mankind Divided. ## Gameplay Deus Ex: Human Revolution is an action role-playing game incorporating first-person shooter and stealth mechanics. Players take the role of Adam Jensen, a man equipped with mechanical cybernetic implants called augmentations. The game's environments, ranging from open world hubs to more scripted environments, are explored in first-person, although actions such as hiding behind cover, conversing with non-playable characters (NPCs), and some attack animations switch to a third-person view. In these environments, players can find NPCs who will advance both the main story quest and optional side quests: completing quests, along with other actions such as combat with enemies, rewards Adam with experience points, which raise his experience level. Also accessible are black market vendors that supply equipment and weapons for Credits, the in-game currency. Interactive objects within environments can be highlighted, although these options are either turned off on the hardest difficulty or can be turned off in the options menu by the player. There are various ways to approach the game's situations: players can use a violent approach and shoot their way through environments while using cover to hide from enemy fire. Alternatively, Adam can take a stealthy approach, avoiding guards and security devices and using cover to avoid enemy sight lines. Adam can move between cover elements and around corners while staying hidden. The melee takedown system offers lethal and non-lethal options, in addition to an assortment of lethal and non-lethal weapons. Adam can also move the bodies of enemies into hiding places, preventing them from being seen and raising an alarm. A crucial part of Adam's abilities are augmentations, which can be acquired and upgraded using Praxis Kits either bought from particular vendors, found in the game environments, or are automatically unlocked by leveling up: higher-level augmentations require more Praxis Kits to unlock. Augmentation functions can range from passive enhancements to Adam's vision or damage resistance to active upgrades such as allowing Adam to fall from great heights without injury or increase his strength. Some augmentations depend on Adam's energy level, deactivating after an amount of energy has been drained. At multiple points within the game, Adam partakes in conversations with NPCs related to main and side quests. When talking, Adam is presented with three different conversation options that affect the outcome of conversations: choosing the right option can help with completing objectives while choosing the wrong option closes off that route and forces the player to find an alternate solution. A "Social" augmentation enables better reading of an NPC's expression and judging their psychological profile, improving chances of selecting the correct dialogue option. While in the game's environments, Adam finds terminals and computers that can be accessed with a password or through hacking. When hacking, the hacking screen is summoned, which shows the pathway through a device's security system to access the information: the pathway is accessed by opening "directory" nodes to reach the registry. Different nodes have different ratings, affecting how easily they can be accessed. Various devices have different grades of difficulty, which dictate how often hacking may be attempted. Each hacking attempt activates a Diagnostic Sub-Routine that works to stop the hack, activating a time limit once it is alerted. Adam can use additional skills and items to lengthen the time, such as software to stop or instantly capture nodes or fortify captured nodes to increase the time limit. Successful hacks yield experience points, Credits, and sometimes additional items. ## Synopsis ### Setting Human Revolution takes place in the year 2027, 25 years prior to the original Deus Ex. The Deus Ex series is set in a cyberpunk future rife with secret organizations and conspiracies: among these forces is the Illuminati. Leading up to Human Revolution, there have been marked improvements in human society, with people actively fighting global warming, finding cures for various diseases, and improving green energy. Alongside this, global megacorporations have come to eclipse government authority in power and influence, while private military forces dwarf the sanctioned armies of First World countries. Advances in biotechnology and cybernetics have led to the development of "augmentations", advanced artificial organs capable of significantly improving and enhancing the human body's performance. The development of augmentation technology has triggered a new social divide: those with augmentations become the world's new upper-class citizenry and are touted as the future of humanity, while normal humans form the majority of the lower-class population. Augmentations also require taking Neuropozyne, a limited and expensive immunosuppressive drug that stops the body from rejecting the technology. By the events of Human Revolution, society is being divided between "augs", humans who have accepted augmentation technology, and ordinary humans who are either morally opposed to it, too poor to afford it, or whose bodies actively reject it. The tensions between the two factions begin generating open conflict. ### Characters The main protagonist is Adam Jensen: coming from a humble background in Detroit, he worked as a leader with the local SWAT squad until he refused to follow a questionable order and was turfed out. After this, he is taken on as a security manager at Sarif Industries, a local company at the leading edge of augmentation technology. A fellow at the company is Megan Reed, a researcher for Sarif and Adam's ex-girlfriend. His employer is company CEO David Sarif, who is instrumental in saving Adam after he was left near-dead at the beginning of the game. Adam meets many key characters during his missions between Detroit, Montreal, and the new Shanghai metropolis of Hengsha. These include Sarif's chief pilot Faridah Malik; Sarif systems engineer Frank Pritchard; Eliza Cassan, a media personality and public face of Picus Communications; William Taggart, founder of the anti-augmentation group Humanity Front; Hugh Darrow, who founded augmentation technology but is one of those genetically incapable of using them; Zhao Yun Ru, CEO of the Tai Yong Medical megacorporation; and the "Tyrants" mercenary squad, composed of leader Jaron Namir and his associates Lawrence Barrett and Yelena Fedorova. ### Plot Note: While the general plot of Human Revolution follows a distinct path, many elements are subject to the player's decisions. The game also offers several subplots that the player may or may not encounter, depending on their actions within the game. This synopsis concentrates on the main, unavoidable plot thread of the game. On the eve of unveiling a way to end Neuropozyne dependence, Sarif Industries is attacked by a group of augmented terrorists, the Tyrants, who slaughter the staff. Megan Reed and many other scientists are presumed dead in the attack, and Jensen, the head of security, is grievously wounded. Sarif saves Jensen by giving him advanced augmentations. Six months later, Jensen is summoned to deal with another terrorist attack by a group of anti-augmentation radicals. Jensen finds an augmented terrorist trying to steal information, but he commits suicide before Jensen can capture him. Pritchard discovers that the terrorist was controlled remotely and tracks the hacking signal to an abandoned factory in Highland Park. Jensen discovers the Tyrants guarding a FEMA detention camp, but they are moving out after the Sarif raid failed. Jensen defeats one of the mercenaries, Barrett, who tells him to go to the Hengsha megacity in China before launching a failed suicide attack. Jensen travels to Hengsha and tracks down the hacker, Arie van Bruggen, who is being hunted by private security company Belltower Associates and hidden by local triad leader Tong Si Hung. Van Bruggen directs Adam to Tai Yong Medical, the world's largest augmentation technology manufacturer and Sarif's main rival. Infiltrating Tai Yong, Jensen finds footage of a call between Namir and Zhao Yun Ru, which confirms that Megan and the other scientists are alive and that Eliza Cassan is involved. Confronting Zhao, he learns she is allied to an organization controlling global interests before she forces him to leave. Jensen tracks down Eliza, who is revealed to be an artificial intelligence construct designed to influence the media, who has begun to question her role and offers to help Jensen. He defeats Fedorova, another Tyrant, and Eliza directs him to Isaias Sandoval, an aide to William Taggart. In Detroit, Sarif admits that the Illuminati are behind the attacks. Jensen infiltrates a Humanity Front rally and discovers Sandoval's location. Sandoval admits his involvement in the kidnapping and gives Jensen a lead to find the researchers. In Sarif HQ, Jensen meets Hugh Darrow, who is working to stave off global warming with the Panchaea Facility in the Arctic. Jensen and other augmented people start experiencing glitches, with authorities urging them to have a biochip replacement. Pritchard locates the tracking beacon of one of the kidnapped scientists, taking Jensen back to Hengsha, where Belltower ambushes him and Malik. The beacon leads Jensen to Tong Si Hung, who has been implanted with the now-deceased scientist's arm. With Tong's help, Jensen stows away in a stasis pod, waking up in a secret Singapore base days later. He finds the scientists and learns that the biochip malfunctions were staged to distribute a new biochip to control augmented humans. Jensen and the scientists stage a distraction, allowing him to infiltrate the facility's secret bunker. Here he defeats Namir and finds Megan. Megan tells him that she was kidnapped for her research into augmentation rejection and confesses that her research was based on Jensen's DNA. Moments later, Darrow broadcasts a modified signal that throws any augmented person with the new biochip into a murderous frenzy. Jensen evacuates the scientists and commandeers an orbital flight module to reach Panchaea. He confronts Darrow, who reveals that he wants humanity to abandon augmentation technology, believing it will destroy human identity. Jensen sets out to disable Panchaea's Hyron Project supercomputer and end the broadcast; on the way, he encounters Taggart and Sarif, who each urge him to side with them and further their agendas. At the heart of Panchaea, Jensen confronts Zhao Yun Ru, who tries to hijack the signal, and then Eliza, who offers Jensen four choices. Jensen can either broadcast the truth and distance humanity from augmentations; rig the broadcast, so it blames Humanity Front and allows the development of augmentation technology; send out a report to benefit the Illuminati; or destroy Panchea, leaving no one to "spin the story". Jensen's final narration varies depending on his choice and use of lethal force throughout the game. In a post-credits scene, Megan meets with Bob Page to discuss her employment in "the nanite virus chimera" and "D project": prior to this, Page instructs his cohort Morgan Everett to search the Hyron Project for salvageable technology for the 'Morpheus Initiative', setting up Deus Ex. ## Development The original Deus Ex and its sequel Invisible War were developed by Ion Storm, with varying involvement of series creator and studio co-founder Warren Spector and designer Harvey Smith. After the release of Invisible War, multiple attempts were made to develop a sequel, even after Spector left Ion Storm. The two main projects were dubbed Deus Ex: Insurrection, which used the same engine as Invisible War while moving away from its divisive mechanics, and Deus Ex 3, which aimed to be an open-world game with a branching narrative. An aborted attempt, intended as the fourth Deus Ex project following Insurrection, led to the development of Project Snowblind. Future development on the third Deus Ex game was halted when, following further staff departure and financial difficulties, the studio's owner Eidos Interactive closed them down in 2005. Concept development on Human Revolution began in early 2007, shortly after the founding of Eidos-Montréal. The team at this point was pretty small, consisting of producer David Anfossi, director Jean-François Dugas, senior designer François Lapikas, and art director Jonathan Jacques-Belletête. The early period was devoted to research before performing brainstorming sessions to create the game's basic concepts. One of the concepts established early on was that it would be an ambitious project, and they needed to bring the key staff on board as early as possible. They started with playing the first two games, determining what they liked and disliked about the original Deus Ex and how they could carry over or improve these points. An early decision was to remain faithful to the series' core values, despite Human Revolution being essentially a series reboot. When presenting their project to Eidos management, they presented multiple sheets of their concept, and after two days, the game was green-lit. The entire main staff were newcomers to the Deus Ex series, providing a significant challenge to the development team. During the early design process, one of the things that worked well was the blueprint testing process and cutting items that would either not fit into the game or make the project too large to handle. The most challenging period for the development team was the opening two-year period, which was described as a "vertical slice" through the game concepts when they were trying to bring a piece of Human Revolution to retail quality before extending that out across the whole game. Human Revolution was planned for consoles and Microsoft Windows systems, and Dugas insisted that the PC version would not be a port of the console versions. With this in mind, the two versions needed to be as close as possible in gameplay feel. The full motion cutscenes were created collaboratively by Eidos-Montréal, Square Enix's CGI department Visual Works, and Vancouver-based company Goldtooth Creative. Goldtooth created initial concepts based on the game; then, the animation proper was handled by Visual Works. Visual Works has been involved with the project since 2009, following the acquisition of Eidos by Square Enix. It was later stated that, despite the need to incorporate multiple story-telling methods into the game, the team felt that the cutscene creation process was turned into a multi-studio effort due to time constraints. Time limits also forced them to drop real-time cutscenes. For the engine, the team used the Crystal Engine, developed by Crystal Dynamics for use in their upcoming next-generation Tomb Raider. This was part of a technology-sharing policy that would further improve the engine for distribution in an enhanced form. Despite the initial intentions and an early tech demo going smoothly, the engine quickly proved inadequate to the team's needs as Eidos-Montréal and Crystal Dynamics were pulling the engine's design in different directions. Eidos-Montréal was permitted to branch away from the core engine so they could make the game work, adding new production tools that made it work in the new environment. ### Game design Lapikas was responsible for multiple aspects of the game as lead designer, including the cover system, augmentations, conversations, hacking, combat and stealth AI, interactive objects, and general balancing. When creating the gameplay, the team settled on four pillar concepts: "Combat", "Stealth", "Hacking", and "Social". While gameplay took place primarily in first-person, a feature that had been part of the Deus Ex series since its inception, the camera switched to a third-person view during specific actions. This was because the team wanted to create a connection between players and Adam despite the risk that it might break immersion. Augmentations were designed to be customizable by players depending on playstyle, but unlike the previous two Deus Ex games, mechanical augmentations and switches to third-person view enabled the player to see their changes affect Adam's appearance. For combat, multiple references were used. These included Rainbow Six: Vegas for the cover system and tactical combat; F.E.A.R. for the design of AI; BioShock for the interlinking of weapon and obstacle types; the Call of Duty series for the regenerating health system; and Resident Evil 4 for multiple aspects including the inventory system, game economy and contextual actions. Regenerating health ended up divisive among the fanbase during the game's run-up to release, despite being seen as a necessary inclusion in the modern gaming market. Combat was intended to be easy to understand and visceral, with enemy types ranging from normal humans to augmented humans to robots, all mixed and matched for different combat situations. For stealth gameplay, the team used Metal Gear Solid as a reference for the AI and alert systems and The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay for the general organic feel of stealth. They had similar precepts to combat, wanting to make this style's rules and rewards clear to players. Interactive hacking was one of the earliest things the team had decided upon, alongside not including quick time events. The Hacking mechanics were inspired by the tabletop role-playing game Shadowrun. They were designed to invoke tension and require a survey of the surroundings and the security system while simultaneously providing rewards. Social interactions followed similar patterns, becoming an extension of the general gameplay with a similar risk-reward system. The team had initially wanted to create the game's boss battles in-house around the game's similar elements of player choice, with their initial design inspired by the boss fights in Metal Gear Solid. As the development of the story and gameplay framework took priority, boss battles became less and less of a focus. It eventually reached a point when the main development team could not complete them in time for the game's release. The team contemplated cutting them, but that would have negatively impacted the story and other areas of the game's design. In the end, the development of the boss battles was outsourced to Grip Entertainment. Having been given access to the game's engine, Grip Entertainment was tasked with creating the boss battles and incorporating them into the framework of Human Revolution. For this, they needed to incorporate their technology into the system, working from Eidos' specifications while bringing their development style to bear on the project. They also attempted to balance the boss fights' action-focused approach with the other elements within Human Revolution so it would be accessible to all players. ### Scenario The script of Human Revolution was written by Mary DeMarle, the narrative director and main writer. While she acted as chief writer, DeMarle also worked with many others throughout development so that the story could be conveyed through environments and dialogue, along with handling how player choices influenced its progression. Sheldon Pacotti, the main writer for the first two Deus Ex games, was a story consultant during early development and was contacted regularly through production to ensure that the storyline fitted adequately within the series chronology. A total of four writers worked on the game, including author James Swallow. DeMarle was brought onto the project four months into its development after it had been decided that it would be a prequel to the first game, focusing on mechanical rather than nanotechnological enhancement technology. As part of her research, DeMarle looked up multiple subjects, from speculated conspiracy theories to the current level of biotechnology: the final story was largely influenced by her reading of non-fiction and writings concerning transhumanism. DeMarle compared the game's study of transhumanism through the main character, Adam, to that in the 1982 film Blade Runner while also using the video game medium to put questions surrounding the ethics and motivations surrounding transhumanism in a nuanced way. She also stated that Adam being forced to confront these issues in person was the narrative's central irony, which had previously been explored using different narrative elements in Deus Ex. The ending, which was ultimately decided using a choice of buttons, was chosen because of technical and time constraints while retaining player interaction. While the gameplay evolved continually through development and some elements required cutting, the story remained almost unchanged, instead being further refined and improved to work out plot holes. When creating the character of Adam Jensen, DeMarle wanted to give him a well-defined personality, which necessitated balancing it with the narrative's player-driven nature. One of the biggest challenges was creating the various dialogue choices, as she needed to imagine what a character would say if they were hostile when she might typically portray them as benign. Multiple layers of dialogue were created within these variances to create different atmospheres within the narrative. There was standard dialogue with minor characters, more complex dialogue with major characters in quests, and what DeMarle termed "conversation boss fights", dialogue tied to the gameplay where social skill could help the player reach an objective. When creating characters, the team drew inspiration from the character portrayals in the Metal Gear series. When designing the corporate side, DeMarle particularly cited the backgrounds of Howard Hughes, Richard Branson and Bill Gates as inspiration for the influential CEO figures in the narrative of Human Revolution. She also noted how corporations had gained greater power than governments in the narrative, which paralleled political comments on corporate power at the time. The world of Human Revolution was designed to parallel the Greek myth of Icarus; in the myth, Icarus was flying with artificial wings, but flew too close to the sun and destroyed his wings, causing his fatal fall. The world's new reliance on and experimentation with augmentation technology mirrored the myth, with the game's narrative taking place at a crucial tipping point, the outcome of which would be decided by the player. The general focus on technology and its effect on human society is also tied into the game's visual themes. The development team used multiple sources as references while creating the world and scenario. The Children of Men was used to capture the setting and resultant chaotic drama; BioShock gave them a reference for handling mature themes, while the television series Rome showed how influential people's ambitions shaped history. The sense of tension between augmented and normal humans was inspired by the similar tension between humans and mutants in the X-Men franchise. For the conspiracy elements of the plot, the team used the novels Deception Point, The Firm, and Frank Herbert's Dune saga as inspiration. The Grand Theft Auto and Mass Effect franchises directly inspired he desired quality of cutscenes and dialogue. DeMarle termed the final product as a study in contrasts, as the implementation of augmentation technology had created a new form of a divided social class system when other social barriers had fallen. Other themes used earlier in Deus Ex, such as exploring a culture of fear; the workings of a surveillance state; and the exploitation created by economic inequality, were paralleled in Human Revolution. The team created supplementary written material such as emails, e-books, and cell phone-like devices called pocket secretaries to add more depth to the world and narrative. ### Art design Jonathan Jacques-Belletête acted as the game's art director, being in charge of creating its look. The two key visual themes were the Icarus myth and the artwork of the Renaissance: both were woven in on a narrative and visual level. In terms of colors, the team drew inspiration from notable Renaissance artists, including Johannes Vermeer and Rembrandt. The color scheme was dominated by black and gold: black represented the game's dystopian aspects, while gold represented humanity and hope for the future. The Renaissance styling originally permeated everything, but they ended up with crates looking like baroque furniture, so they toned it down and blended it with modern and cyberpunk elements. During development, the team coined the term "cyber-renaissance" to define their blending of Renaissance styling, cyberpunk elements, and the Icarus myth. An extensive amount of concept art was created for the game: while the majority was handled by artists Richard Dumont and Eric Gagnon, other contributors included Jim Murray, Brian Dugan, Theirry Doizon, Trong Nguyen and Sébastien Larroudé. While cyberpunk remained a core part of the game, the team were faced with the trouble that no-one really knew what cyberpunk was anymore: the most recent game and film references they had were from the early 2000s, as many works that might have been classed as cyberpunk were now being treated as science fiction. While they could easily have replicated the atmosphere of films like Blade Runner, the team wanted to create something original within the genre. Something that concerned the team was about portraying the world of Human Revolution in relation to the original Deus Ex, which chronologically took place 25 years later: while the original Deus Ex used technological elements common at the time it was made such as 4:3 aspect ratio monitors and landline telephones, Human Revolution used mobiles and wide-screen televisions. According to Jacques-Belletête, this separation was ultimately put down to the differing portrayals of the world between the two games: while Deus Ex was set in poor communities and focused on the social impact of new technology, Human Revolution focused on the high end of society and technology's physical impact. Jacques-Belletête worked on character designs with Murray, whose previous work included artwork for the comic series 2000 AD. Before designing character costumes, Jacques-Belletête looked extensively at modern fashion. As focusing purely on Renaissance styling would have resulted in clothing styles deemed "too allegoric" to work in the game, they redesigned them so they included Renaissance and cyberpunk elements while resembling clothing people would wear in the present day and not appearing clichéd. For Adam's character design, the team looked at multiple protagonist from cyberpunk fiction, from Blade Runner to the original Deus Ex. Their main wishes were to incorporate sunglasses and a trench coat. Jacques-Belletête moderated his design to combine Renaissance aesthetics with the cyberpunk thematics: he defined it as being able to see Adam's augmented state in combat during the brief third-person camera moments while still seeing him having a meal in a high-class restaurant. One design which had him sleeveless throughout the game was scrapped as it made him "look like a douche". Instead, they created two looks: a sleeveless action-oriented look for missions, and a sleeved trench coat with a high collar and geometric patterning to portray the Renaissance elements. In total, it took two years and a half to finalize Adam's design, with multiple designs being rejected as they failed to properly balance the cyberpunk and Renaissance elements. The team wanted to make the game as consistently realistic as possible, wishing to avoid the situation of realistic character models standing in front of low-resolution backgrounds. They created varying degrees of technical advancement for different locations: the most realistic location they created was the Detroit hub, while the most advanced was the two-level fictional metropolis of Hengsha. Architecture in the Detroit area was inspired by then-modern buildings from Japan and Europe. Jacques-Belletête spent a long time researching furniture designs while creating interiors for in-game environments, joking that they could fill an IKEA catalog with the results. Multiple other hub locations were planned, including the upper levels of Hengsha, and an area of Montreal dubbed "Plateau" that featured "very specific architecture, called tri-plexes, with twirling exterior staircases made of [...] old metal". At the beginning of production, there were even plans to feature a hub location in India. When it became clear how much work it would be, the team cut out what could not be managed. Upper Hengsha was built but never finished before being scrapped. ### Music The music of Human Revolution was composed by Michael McCann, who worked on the score from 2008 to 2011. McCann also handled production, performance, mixing, and arranging. Additional arrangements were done by Francois Arbour and Eric Arvisais. Vocals were provided by Andrea Revel and Courtney Wing. McCann, when comparing Human Revolution with his prior work on Ubisoft's Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Double Agent, stated that the latter could be scored more like a feature film due to its linear nature, while Human Revolution's non-linear approach to both gameplay and story made composition more challenging. McCann's music for Human Revolution was focused around the game's multilayered dualistic themes, which he described as "technology/nature, past/future, wealth/poverty", all of which were encompassed by the general transhumanist theme. McCann and sound director Steve Szczepkowski initially started out using dark electronic scoring typical of the cyberpunk genre, but during the three-year period he worked on the game the music gradually became more "organic". He was influenced by the visuals' Renaissance styling, convincing him to blend organic and traditional cyberpunk elements. The electronic elements were influenced by the film music of John Carpenter, Vangelis, and the band Tangerine Dream. The acoustic mood elements were inspired by the work of Lisa Gerrard, Ennio Morricone and Elliot Goldenthal. Outside films, he was strongly influenced by electronic bands and musicians, such as Amon Tobin and the band Massive Attack. The musical structure was defined by him as "three-sided", mimicking the thematic use of triangles in the game. His three musical elements were acoustics (vocals, strings) representing the past; electronic music representing the future; and the present being a mixture of the two in both style and instrumentation. Vocals also evoked slight religious overtones, which again connected to the use of the number three due to the number's multiple religious associations, in turn suggested and influenced by the Renaissance atmosphere. Another example of three-fold design was the ambient music, which needed to vary between quiet, tense, and active, depending on Adam's situation: each piece was constructed as a standalone cue that would interact with its fellows depending on the flow of gameplay. This presented a challenge to McCann about the handling of themes and melodies, as short cues might grow repetitive over time. Individual environments were also designed to contrast each other musically. An example given by McCann was different areas of the main city hubs: in the wealthy areas of Hengsha, the music evokes light and wealth, while in the poor areas of Detroit, it would be dark to reflect lawlessness and the surrounding decay. This necessity of intertwining music with the environment meant that McCann needed to keep the music minimal enough to be unobtrusive while still being noticeable. McCann did not design any specific character themes, instead keeping any recurring themes ambiguous. He gave both stylistic and technical reasons for this: technically the music system was too simple to allow for a large number of unique musical cues, and stylistically it worked on a technical and musical level for there to be no specific musical themes influencing the player's judgement of characters and situations. The cues for hacking sequences were created fairly early in the process, and was one of a group of cues McCann created during a break from the project. A piece he commented on in 2010 was "Icarus", the game's main theme. He created special versions for the game's reveal trailer, including a six-minute version broken into five sections for the director's cut of the trailer. He worked on creating the theme for two months, starting out with piano, vocals and minimal synthesizer work before building the full layers onto it. The final layer added were "synth arpeggios" that completed the piece's transformation into a full piece of cyberpunk-themed music. The "Icarus" theme, and by extension the soundtrack, also tied into the game's overall themes and motifs. A soundtrack disc was included in the limited "Augmented Edition". An official album, Deus Ex: Human Revolution Original Soundtrack, was released on November 15, 2011. It was released through Sumthing Else Music Works as a physical and digital release. The album contained 25 tracks created from 50 out of the 200 pieces created for the game. The tracks included both cues from the game and arranged versions used in trailers. McCann chose the tracks to represent the game's story, drawing on the various styles of the music as a whole. He used the official album release to accentuate what he had been doing for the soundtrack as a whole. He initially wanted the soundtrack to be two discs, but realized that this would lead to repetition, so limited himself to a single disc. The remaining unreleased pieces were left out because of that potential repetition. The soundtrack received praise from multiple music critics: Original Sound Version's Gideon Dabi, commenting on the game's music prior to the album's commercial release, was highly positive about McCann's work, calling it "a tremendous upgrade over its predecessors" and praising its low-key impact. Simon Elchlepp, writing for Video Game Music Online, gave the album 4/5 stars: he called it "a very satisfying experience", praising the score's connection to the game's themes and overall quality despite some perceived missteps about use of its main theme. RPGFan's Liz Maas said that, while it trended towards being generic, with the track "Barrett Boss Fight" being most guilty of this, it managed to remain consistent with its themes and was worth buying. ## Release A third entry in the Deus Ex series was stated to be in development at Eidos-Montréal in May 2007 by Eidos France director Patrick Melchior during an interview on MusiquePlus. At the time, Eidos did not comment on the story. Eidos-Montréal project manager Stéphane D'Astous confirmed the game's existence in November, stating that concept approval had only just been granted. An initial teaser trailer was released on November 26, 2007. The title, first details, and original release window were announced at the 2010 Game Developers Conference. It was published worldwide by Square Enix. While originally scheduled for 2010, the game was shifted to beyond April the following year so the team could further polish the gameplay. It was released for PlayStation 3 (PS3), Xbox 360, and Microsoft Windows personal computers (PC). The gameplay was identical across all platforms barring control schemes. Originally Eidos had intended to make the PC retail version of the game region locked. The reason behind this was due to DVD limitations which meant the languages on the game had to be split. However, due to negative reaction from the public, this lock was not implemented. The PC port was outsourced by Eidos-Montréal to Nixxes Software, who also worked with Eidos on multiple projects including the PC port of Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light. The decision to outsource the PC port was made because the team wanted to make a quality port, but their team could not handle the three different versions. Nixxes were chosen as they had already been collaborating with the project, were a trusted port developer, and had a deep understanding of the game's engine. The two teams kept in constant contact, working from the same code base so the PC and console versions were as close as possible in terms of content and graphics. To create the port, Nixxes developed a DirectX 11 renderer that the PC version would use, which enabled the inclusion of multiple graphical tweaks and extra touches such as adding tessellation and extra anti-aliasing options. The controls and HUD were customized to work with a computer keyboard. The initial response to the announcement of the PC port's outsourcing was mixed, which made the teams more determined to deliver a high-quality port. Further technical assistance was provided by Advanced Micro Devices. The game was also ported to Apple Inc.'s OS X platform. First announced in September 2011 after the other versions were released, the porting was handled by Feral Interactive, who had made their name porting games such as BioShock and Max Payne to the platform. It released in August 2011 in major Western regions: it released in North America on August 23, Australia on August 25, and Europe on August 26. In addition to the standalone releases, special editions were created featuring extra content in North America and Europe. The "Explosive Mission Pack" included a mission focusing on a central character from Deus Ex along with additional weapons and equipment. The "Augmented Edition" included all content from the "Explosive Mission Pack" in addition to new equipment and in-game bonuses. The European version sported a few extra items than the North American version. A separate pack included codes to unlock Deus Ex-themed items for Team Fortress 2 for pre-orders on Steam. The OS X port released on April 26, 2012. The version released was the "Ultimate Edition", including all pre-order content in addition to downloadable content (DLC) released the previous year. A minor controversy arose around the PC version when video game retailer GameStop started removing content from the original packaging. GameStop had instructed employees to remove coupons for free access to Human Revolution on OnLive, an online game service, stating that the coupon promoted a competitor of one of its subsidiaries, Spawn Labs and Impulse, which it had recently acquired. As an apology, GameStop began giving customers a \$50 gift card in-store to those who purchased copies of Deus Ex: Human Revolution for PC prior to August 26 and who brought the issue to their staff. The game was localized for and released in Japan for PS3 and Xbox 360, and included all pre-order content. The PS3 version also included the English voice track. The game's subtitle was cut for Japan, releasing simply as Deus Ex (デウスエクス, Deusuekusu). It was given a "Z" rating by country's CERO entertainment rating board, equivalent to the North American ESRB's "Adults Only" rating, although it still underwent editing to remove some overtly violent and suggestive content, the display of which is prohibited under Japanese law. Initially planned for release alongside Bandai Namco's Tales of Xillia, it was pushed forward into the following month due to CERO requesting a further edit. It eventually released on October 20. ### The Missing Link A DLC episode set during the main game, Deus Ex: Human Revolution – The Missing Link, released digitally on October 18 for Steam and Xbox Live, and October 19 for PlayStation Network (PSN). It likewise debuted in Japan for the console versions: it released on PSN on March 7, 2012, and March 20 for Xbox Live. Set during a transitional event in-game, the plot sees Adam captured and stripped of his augmentations, having to escape and navigate a cargo ship and then a base operated by Belltower. Plans for DLC were first announced in August 2010, with it being planned as an extension of the game. The developers initially did not plan for DLC, with it beginning development later in the game's production when the visual theme was finalized. Despite using only core team members, development was slow due to the main focus being on Human Revolution. For The Missing Link, the team improved the lighting, gameplay mechanics, player freedom, and character animation. The DLC was developed entirely at Eidos-Montréal, and this gave the team the opportunity of developing a boss fight with multiple solutions, something they regretted not being able to do with the main game. ### Director's Cut A director's cut of Human Revolution, Deus Ex: Human Revolution – Director's Cut, was announced in April 2013. It was co-produced by Eidos-Montréal, Australian developer Straight Right — who had previously handled the Wii U port of Mass Effect 3 — and Canada-based Snowed In Studios. Originally announced as a Wii U exclusive, it was later announced that it would also release on its original platforms. One of the major changes was the boss arenas: while they could not create non-lethal options to take down bosses, the team created alternative strategies for players who took a stealthy and otherwise non-lethal path. They also made adjustments to the energy system, improved enemy AI, and upgrades to the lighting and shading systems. These changes were carried over from the development of The Missing Link, which had been developed based on the team's wishes to improve on aspects of the main game. While previous ports of major games for Wii U had been underwhelming in the eyes of the gaming public, Eidos-Montréal saw it as a chance to create the "ultimate" version of Human Revolution. The Wii U version of Director's Cut was priced higher than the other console versions: according to the staff, this was because of its added features. Console versions included a second screen option for some functions: the Wii U GamePad was used for the Wii U, PlayStation Vita for the PS3 version, Xbox SmartGlass for the Xbox 360 version. When originally developed for the Wii U, it was intended to make playing the game easier, along with evoking some of the early impressions from the initial CGI trailer from 2010. The decision to port Director's Cut to multiple platforms was based on fan feedback requesting a multiplatform release. The Director's Cut included all the additional content alongside the main game, from the added equipment to the DLC episode The Missing Link, here incorporated into the main game. Also included was audio commentary from the developers activated using icons scattered through levels, and a documentary on the game's creation. For owners of the original version, a cheap upgrade option was offered, with the price varying depending on how much of the additional content owners possessed. It released for Wii U, PC, PS3 and Xbox 360 on October 22, 2013. It released on OS X, April 16, 2014. Like the main game, its port was handled by Feral Interactive. ### Related media A promotional limited comic series was produced in the run up to the game's release. The comic was written by Robbie Morrison, and drawn by Sergio Sandoval and Trevor Hairsine. The cover art was handled by Murry, while both McMarle and Jacques-Belletête took supervisory roles for the story and artwork respectively. The comic was published by DC Comics between February 9 and June 20, 2011. A spin-off novel, Deus Ex: Icarus Effect, was written by Swallow. It was a story set around the same time as the main game, following new characters Ben Saxon and Anna Kelso as they uncover a hidden conspiracy. First announced in July 2010, it was published by Titan Books on February 22, 2011. A second novel by Swallow, Deus Ex: Fallen Angel, was released as a free online download alongside the release of the Director's Cut: the novel details Malik's early life in Hengsha. A film adaptation was also announced, planned by Eidos-Montréal and CBS Films: based on the story of Human Revolution, Scott Derrickson was attached as director and co-writer, C. Robert Cargill as co-writer, and Roy Lee and Adrian Askarieh as producers. ## Reception The game received widespread critical acclaim upon release. Review aggregate site Metacritic gave the game scores of 90/100 for PC, and 89/100 for PS3 and Xbox 360. These were based on 52, 50 and 70 critic reviews respectively. Reception of Director's Cut was also generally positive: Metacritic gave the Wii U and PC versions scores of 88/100 and 91/100, respectively based on 30 and 4 critic reviews. Tom Bramwell of Eurogamer praised the story's fit within the game mechanics, additionally praising the side quests for how they fleshed out the world and positively comparing the dialogue and character interaction to a boxing match. Game Informer's Andrew Reiner called the story and world "riveting" despite Jensen being a weak character. Kevin VanOrd, writing for GameSpot, positively noted the story's style and exploration of contemporary themes. Arthur Gies of IGN found the story held up throughout despite some awkward writing. PC Gamer's Tom Francis did not comment much on the story, rather noting its scale and the various environmental details that fleshed it out for players. Mike Channell of Official Xbox Magazine called the game one of the most intelligently-written games for the console, praising both the main narrative and side quests despite some supporting characters' stories being left unfinished. Famitsu noted that the game had a high amount of player choice, positively referencing the conversation choices presented to them. Bramwell was positive about the overall gameplay, citing hacking as his favorite activity, although he noted that the game's limitations stood out because of the overall quality. Reiner was positive about the general experience, but found fault in the enemy AI and general balancing issues. VanOrd praised the freedom of choice and playtime, but found the weak enemy AI distracted from the overall experience. Gies likewise praised the amount of choice offered to players, finding its stealth and action gameplay equally strong. Francis positively compared the number of options open to the player to the original Deus Ex despite some linear design choices, praised the hacking for its more interactive form than earlier Deus Ex games, and enjoyed both the action and stealth gameplay. Channell, while noting that pre-augmentation combat was "clumsy", was generally positive about the way combat evolved and praised its focus on stealth and conversation mechanics. Famitsu was highly positive about the gameplay, feeling that it successfully hybridized the role-playing and first-person shooter genres, praising character customization and enemy AI. Unanimous criticism was directed at the boss battles, which multiple critics found either poorly executed or at odds with the rest of the experience. Bramwell positively noted the level design while criticizing repetition within interior environments. Reiner found Jensen's voice actor inexpressive and facial animations "robotic", but praised the soundtrack despite its similarity to the music of Mass Effect and generally lauded the world design. VanOrd, while praising the visuals, found the facial animations dated and noted long load times as being among some of the technical problems encountered. Gies greatly praised the game's artstyle and music, while also noting technical difficulties and faulting the voice acting. Frances similarly called the mission environments "gorgeous". Channel praised its visuals, and called its voice acting "impeccable". In his review of the Director's Cut, IGN's Brian Albert, despite noting inconsistencies in enemy behavior, shared much of his praised with the original version in addition to the added gameplay mechanics and improved boss battles. GameSpot's VanOrd again noted dated facial animations and poor AI, but generally praised other aspects of the Director's Cut, particularly pointing out the improvements to boss battles. Bramwell, again writing for Eurogamer, particularly praised the revamped boss battles and the inclusion of additional content such as The Missing Link that did not function properly as a standalone release. He also echoed much of his praise for the original game. Michael Gapper of Official Nintendo Magazine stated that all the changes made to the game for the Director's Cut had improved it for the better, praising its gameplay balance and freedom of choice in addition to the new features. ### Sales Upon its release in North America, despite coming in during the later half of the month, Human Revolution became the top-selling video game in August. It remained in the top ten bestselling games in September, dropping to sixth place. In the United Kingdom, the game likewise debuted in first place in the all-format game software charts, not including digital sales: the majority of sales were on Xbox 360, with a 57% ratio. 31% was sold on PS3, while 13% of sales were for PCs. Its total sales in its first week were nearly one million units, described as "just 26,000 units away from Invisible War's lifetime sales". It was later classed as the second bestselling game of the month behind Zumba Fitness. In the following weeks, it continued to rank high in the top ten bestselling games for the region: it remained the top seller in the second week despite a 47% sales drop, while by late September it had dropped to fifth place. It was the UK's 21st bestselling game of 2011. Total sales of Human Revolution, as reported in November 2011, reached 2.18 million copies in North America and Europe: 800,000 were sold in North America, while Europe showed stronger sales of 1.38 million. The positive sales of Human Revolution contributed to publisher Square Enix posting triple its predicted profits for the April–September period, with the publisher calling the sales a "favorable result". By May 2022, Human Revolution (including the Director's cut) and Mankind Divided had sold a combined 12 million units. ## Sequels Following the release of Human Revolution, a mobile spin-off, Deus Ex: The Fall, was developed by N-Fusion Interactive. The Fall is a sequel to Icarus Effect, following the later adventures of protagonists Saxon and Kelso. It released in July 2013 for iOS, and 2014 for Android and PC. A new entry in the series was announced as being in development in 2013, alongside the release date for the Director's Cut. The game, Deus Ex: Mankind Divided, is a direct sequel to Human Revolution, taking place two years after the ending where Adam destroyed Panchea, in a world that has rejected augmentation technology and segregated those who possess it. It was released in August 2016. Mankind Divided forms part of a series-wide project dubbed the "Deus Ex Universe", with both games and additional media designed to expand upon the series setting.

Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII

2007 video game

is an action role-playing game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation Portable. First released in 2007, the game is a prequel to the 1997 video game Final Fantasy VII and is a part of the metaseries Compilation of Final Fantasy VII, which includes other products related to the original game. The game primarily focuses on Zack Fair, a young member of the paramilitary organization SOLDIER, who is assigned to look for the missing SOLDIER Genesis Rhapsodos. As he searches for Genesis, Zack discovers Genesis' origin, Project G, and how it is related to two other high-ranking SOLDIERs, Sephiroth and Angeal Hewley. The game's storyline takes the player from the war between the megacorporation Shinra and the people of Wutai to the events in Nibelheim, ending just before the beginning of Final Fantasy VII. The game was directed by Hajime Tabata, with Tetsuya Nomura serving as creative producer and character designer. Before development, the Square Enix staff initially planned to make a PlayStation Portable port of the mobile phone game Before Crisis: Final Fantasy VII, but after discussion, they decided to create a new game. The plot is based on a scenario Kazushige Nojima had in mind when working on Final Fantasy VII. Crisis Core enjoyed strong sales, selling over two million units worldwide. Critical reception was generally positive with focus on its simplistic story but mixed responses on its combat system. A remaster of the game, Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII Reunion, was released on December 13, 2022. Its storyline will also be recreated in the mobile game Final Fantasy VII: Ever Crisis. ## Gameplay Crisis Core is an action role-playing game in which the player controls Zack Fair. The player moves Zack through and between open areas, allowing him to talk with non-player characters, interact with the environment, and engage monsters in battle. At save points, the player may opt to take one of the available side missions, and if so, Zack is moved to a special area to complete the mission, which usually involves defeating one or more monsters. If the mission is successfully completed, the player is rewarded with beneficial items, and often new missions become available. Whether the player is successful in the side mission or not, upon completion, Zack is returned to the save point in the main game. Crisis Core uses a real-time combat system in which the player can move Zack around, initiate attacks, special abilities and spells, use items, and block or dodge attacks. Zack's abilities in battle are set by what materia he currently has equipped. Up to six Materia can be equipped at any one time, which can impart special attacks, magic spells, or passive bonuses such as health increases or the ability to display the statistics of the current foe in combat. Materia is gained throughout the game through exploration, as rewards from side missions, as spoils of battle, or from shops. Materia can be fused together to make more powerful versions with improved bonuses; for example, fusing an attack Materia with an elemental magic Materia can create a new attack skill Materia that inflicts elemental magic damage in addition to physical damage. Special items collected in the game can also be used in Materia fusion to further increase the Materia's power. Crisis Core uses a slot machine-like mechanic to affect the combat system. The "Digital Mind Wave" (DMW) features two sets of three spinning wheels; one set with numbers one through seven, and another with pictures of characters that Zack befriends during the game. The DMW automatically spins as long as Zack has at least 10 "Soldier Points", which are awarded to the player by defeating foes. If the DMW stops with the same three pictures lined up, Zack will then perform an appropriate Limit Break attack that can greatly harm an enemy or significantly heal Zack. Additionally, in this case, if the number slots give two or more of the same number, the Materia in that slot will power up. Should the numbers line up as "777", Zack will gain an experience level, increasing his health, soldier points, and ability points. Leveling up is based on luck and is somewhat random, no longer determined by experience points. If there is no match in the pictures, matching numbers on the slots will grant temporary bonuses, such as limited invincibility or zero-cost use of skills and abilities. The chance of matching pictures is tied to the current Limit level, which is raised by taking damage in battle and reduced upon successful battles, and after certain storyline events. After collecting certain items in the game, the pictures on the DMW may also randomly change to summonable creatures, which have more destructive and beneficial Limit Breaks should the pictures match up. Following completion of the game, the player will obtain a New Game Plus option. The North American and European releases of Crisis Core also have an added difficulty mode, which increases the power and health of enemies. ## Plot ### Characters Crisis Core begins seven years before the events of Final Fantasy VII, and many characters from that game and other related works appear. However, the primary characters in the game are from either SOLDIER (the Mako enhanced superhuman soldiers made by Shinra to work for them), or from their covert branch of operatives, the Turks. The main protagonist is Zack Fair, a young and friendly SOLDIER. His mentor and friend is Angeal Hewley, a 1st class SOLDIER who is also friends with fellow SOLDIER members Sephiroth and Genesis, who ultimately becomes the game's primary antagonist. The SOLDIER operatives work under Director Lazard, the illegitimate son of President Shinra. Zack is also friends with the Turks, particularly their leader Tseng, and one of their female operatives, Cissnei. During the course of the game, Zack encounters and befriends Aerith, a young woman tending flowers from a ruined church in the Midgar slums. He also befriends Cloud, a Shinra infantryman. ### Story SOLDIER's Zack Fair and his stern but kind mentor Angeal Hewley are dispatched to Wutai to support the Shinra war effort. However, during the fighting, Angeal disappears. Zack is appointed to find both him and another missing SOLDIER, Genesis Rhapsodos. Zack, accompanied by Tseng, learns that Genesis and Angeal deserted Shinra. Zack and Sephiroth are assigned to kill them. With help from Dr. Hollander, a scientist with a vendetta against Shinra, Genesis creates an army of clones to attack Shinra headquarters. After the forces are defeated, Zack and Sephiroth track down Hollander's secret laboratory. They learn Hollander used both Genesis and Angeal as part of "Project G", an attempt to create supersoldiers infused with the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova's cells. Sephiroth faces off against Genesis, while Zack pursues Hollander. Angeal, intent on keeping Hollander alive so he can be returned to normal, prevents Zack from killing the doctor. He knocks Zack into the slums of Midgar. Zack recovers, finding Aerith tending to him. After spending some time together, Zack returns to SOLDIER headquarters, now under attack by Genesis. Zack re-allies with Angeal, who has developed doubts about his and Genesis' actions. As Angeal, Zack and Sephiroth protect the headquarters, Angeal confronts Genesis before both disappear. Zack is subsequently ordered to investigate Modeoheim, where Genesis has been spotted. En route, Zack meets Shinra infantryman Cloud, and they become friends. Near Modeoheim, Zack encounters and defeats Genesis, who appears to commit suicide by throwing himself into the depths of a reactor. Zack travels on to Modeoheim, finding both Angeal and Hollander. Tired of the fighting and his gradual degradation, Angeal summons and fuses with his own clones (which resemble canines). He mutates into a monster, forcing Zack to kill him. Before dying, Angeal gives Zack his Buster Sword, telling him to protect his honor. Whilst Shinra continues the pursuit of Hollander, Genesis re-emerges producing clones. Some of them appeared in Midgar, forcing Zack to return to protect Aerith. Leaving her with an Angeal clone that protects her, Zack travels with Sephiroth and Cloud to investigate a Mako reactor near Nibelheim. Confronting Genesis at the reactor, Sephiroth learns that he is also an experiment, implanted with Jenova's cells before birth. Genesis explains that his body is degrading, and he needs Sephiroth's cells to survive, but Sephiroth refuses. Overcome with the recent revelations regarding his past, Sephiroth locks himself in Nibelheim Mansion. He sets Nibelheim ablaze a week later, going to the Mako reactor to take Jenova's body, wrongfully believing her to be his mother. When Zack fails to stop him, Cloud throws Sephiroth into the Lifestream below the reactor. Zack awakens, finding that Shinra covered-up the Nibelheim incident. Zack also discovers that both he and Cloud have become part of Professor Hojo's experiments on Jenova cells and Mako exposure. However, Zack is able to escape, taking a catatonic Cloud with him. They immediately become high priority targets for Shinra. While fleeing, Zack learns that Genesis and Hollander are still trying to stabilize Genesis' mutation, and their plan to use Cloud's cells (since he is the only one with Sephiroth's genes). Hollander tries to get to Cloud, but is killed by Zack. Zack then finds Director Lazard who, now mutated into a humanoid Angeal clone, has turned against Shinra. Lazard directs Zack to the remains of Banora to find Genesis, where he defeats Genesis. Upon returning, he discovers Shinra has located them and killed Lazard. The Angeal clone that was left guarding Aerith arrives, but is also killed. Zack discovers a note he had carried from Aerith, learning he and Cloud were subjected to Hojo's experiments for four years. As Cloud slowly begins dying of Mako poisoning, he and Zack are hunted by the Turks. Zack convinces them to look the other way, carrying Cloud towards Midgar. Genesis' body is collected by two soldiers: Nero the Sable and Weiss the Immaculate of Deepground. Shinra pursue Zack and Cloud, catching up with them just outside Midgar. Tseng and the Turks attempt to rescue Zack against Shinra's wishes, but are too late. Leaving the still semi-conscious Cloud hidden away, Zack fights off an enormous number of Shinra troops, but is fatally wounded. Cloud manages to crawl to Zack's body after Shinra leaves. Zack, in his dying breath, bequeaths the Buster Sword to Cloud, as Angeal had done to him. Cloud begins stumbling towards Midgar. Zack is welcomed into the Lifestream by Angeal and wonders if he has become a hero. The epilogue recreates the opening scenes of Final Fantasy VII, as Cloud claims to be a former SOLDIER. ## Development The idea of Crisis Core originated when Hajime Tabata was chosen as director for an upcoming Final Fantasy title for the PlayStation Portable. After discussing with Tetsuya Nomura and Yoshinori Kitase, Tabata decided that the game should be another installment in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII, feeling that the pressure of producing a game from a popular series would motivate both the staff and himself. The original idea was to make a PlayStation Portable port of Before Crisis: Final Fantasy VII, as it had been released for mobile phones and the staff wanted to expand it, but after deciding Zack was going to be the protagonist of the new game, the idea of a Before Crisis port was canceled. Kitase wanted to make sure the game exceeded fans' expectations, so he made sure that rather than making it a "tribute" to Final Fantasy VII, it shared important links with other titles from Compilation of Final Fantasy VII. Similarly, Tabata explained that he and the staff were very wary throughout the production of altering the fans' perception of Final Fantasy VII's characters. For example, one of the main background events from Final Fantasy VII, Nibelheim's destruction, had been changed somewhat in the OVA Last Order: Final Fantasy VII, and due to negative fan reaction to these change, the game staff decided not to make any major changes in Crisis Core. However, they also operated on the principle that this game dealt with those characters' "younger days", so that new elements could be added without changing the characters too much. One of the primary reasons Zack was chosen as the protagonist was because his fate was predetermined. Kitase said that Zack's story had "been cooking for 10 years" as, despite being a minor character in Final Fantasy VII, Nomura had already developed conceptual artwork, and Kazushige Nojima had already worked out a story. The game was originally meant to have more scenes depicting Zack and Cloud's flight to Midgar, so as to expand on their friendship and unrealized plans, but these scenes were removed due to UMD limitations, and so the staff focused more on Zack's background as a formidable warrior. The addition of the character of Genesis to the story came about after discussions between producer Hideki Imaizumi and the character's Japanese voice actor, Gackt, as Imaizumi had been impressed with the characters' brief appearance in the secret ending to Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII, and felt there was great room to expand the character. Sephiroth's role was specifically written to give him a more human side. The game's logo represents various main characters; the blue sky symbolizes Zack; the white feather symbolizes Angeal; and the water symbolizes Aerith. Crisis Core was first envisioned as an action game, but because almost all of the staff had more experience designing RPGs, they decided to modify it, making battles more similar to the ones found in standard RPGs. However, they also added more action-orientated elements to the battles, resulting in the game becoming more of an action RPG than a traditional RPG. The Materia system was designed so that players could choose between "RPG-oriented enhancements" and "action-oriented enhancements", as well as to help with the game's balance. Additionally, the Digital Mind Wave system (DMW) was added to give gameplay an element of luck, as well as to prevent combat feeling repetitive. Nomura and Kitase wanted to include this in the game because of their enthusiasm for pachinko machines. The game was first announced at the 2004 E3, prior to the release of the PlayStation Portable. Its first trailer consisted of clips from Last Order. In an interview for Famitsu, Nomura said that a playable demo of the game would be ready by the end of 2006, but there was no mention of whether the demo would be openly available to PSP owners. By May 2005, Nomura designed the concept art for the game, with the gameplay set to be "interesting" and "previously unseen". In May 2007, both Nomura and Tabata revealed that the game was 90% complete, and that completing its story mode and all side quests would take about 100 hours of gameplay. A playable demo was made available at Jump Festa '06. ## Soundtrack The game's soundtrack was released on October 10, 2007, containing fifty-five songs on two discs. The music was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto, with a few tracks orchestrated by Kazuhiko Toyama. The soundtrack also included remixes of various music from Final Fantasy VII composed by Nobuo Uematsu and Last Order: Final Fantasy VII, which was also composed by Ishimoto. The game's ending theme, "Why", was performed by Ayaka. The addition of "Why" was revealed by Square Enix in May 2007, with Ayaka stating that she was fascinated by Crisis Core's story and felt she "would like to deliver "Why" alongside Zack's fate to the hearts of many people". The single "Why" was released in Japan on September 5 the same year. ## Release On September 13, 2007, Square Enix released a special edition bundle for Crisis Core; a special silver-colored PlayStation Portable Slim and Lite with Final Fantasy VII's 10th Anniversary insignia on the back and on one side. As with many limited edition Final Fantasy VII-related releases by Square Enix, the bundle was limited to 77,777 units. Crisis Core was released in North America on March 25, 2008. If pre-ordered from certain retailers, such as GameStop, the buyer could receive a Shinra UMD case, depending on how long supplies lasted; if pre-ordered from Best Buy, the buyer could receive Crisis Core with a metallic foil cover. Two versions of the game were released in Europe: a standard edition, and a limited edition, which was only available online, and then only when pre-ordered. This limited edition included special slipcase packaging and a book of promotional CG artwork entitled The Art of Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII. In Europe, a bundle containing the game and the limited edition Crisis Core-engraved silver PlayStation Portable was released on June 20. As with several games from the company, Square released an Ultimania guidebook in Japan, on October 18, 2007. After Crisis Core's release, Kitase expressed surprise at the quality of the cutscenes, to the point where he felt it could almost be a PlayStation 2 game. He also enjoyed the game's ending, surprised by how moving Zack's story became. ## Reception ### Critical response Crisis Core has received generally favorable reviews according to review aggregator Metacritic. GameSpot awarded it an "Editor's Choice" label, praising its storyline, combat system, and its presentation. VideoGamer.com found its fighting system "addictive". Similarly, GamePro gave it a positive review, calling it the "best looking PSP title" and praising how it incorporated elements from the Compilation, and at the same time created new aspects. In regards to the gameplay, the fight system was often praised, though critics were more divided on DMW System; responses to such feature depended from positive from negative with GamesRadar's AJ Glasser recommending players to try the Hard Mode as a result of how overpowered it is, while PALGN found it as the game's weakest point. Meanwhile, Eurogamer criticized how winning battles often depend on luck rather than skills. Nevertheless, CvG stated that the combat system "never becomes tiresome". X-Play criticized the unskippable cutscenes and considered the dialogue "poor", and the gameplay "repetitive". On April Fools' Day, in response to criticism for their original review, they "decided to give the game a second look and give it a re-review, this time with a clear unbiased perspective", sarcastically dubbing over the original and giving it an impossibly high 6/5. There were several comments also in regards to the narrative. 1UP.com called it one of the best prequels of all time, arguing that it "does a better job of putting players in FFVII's world than even the original game did". Computer and Video Games mentioned that despite the game's main story only lasting 12 hours, the side-quests helped expand the game's length. Despite initial mixed reactions to Zack, the protagonist was found likable due to his bonds with other characters. It also received a place in the "Editor's Choice" gallery of recommended games for the PSP platform. The characterization of the villain Sephiroth was also praised for giving him more humanity in the prequel before his eventual fall into madness. On a more critical reaction, Eurogamer criticized that "for the twenty-six, twenty-eight, thirty-year-olds who it's aimed at, the game has little to offer beyond polished sentimentality". The presentation was also praised including CGI, character designs and backgrounds, making the game stand out within the PSP games. Takeharu Ishimoto's remixes of the original Final Fantasy VII background themes were also praised. Rick Gomez's work as Zack was also the subject of positive response. ### Accolades Crisis Core has also received a number of awards from different publications. It was nominated by GameSpot for the "Best of 2008" awards, in the "Best Story", "Best RPG Game" and "Best PSP Game" categories, winning "Best PSP Game". It was also listed as the tenth best PSP game of all the time by IGN. Four IGN articles concerning the game were in "The Top 10 PSP Stories of 2008", with the review article listed at number one. In IGN's Best of 2008, Crisis Core won in the categories "Best RPG for the PSP" and "Best Story for the PSP", and was nominated as "Best Overall RPG". Videogamer.com placed it fifteenth and fourth in their articles "Best Games of 2008" and "Top 10 PlayStation exclusives of 2008", respectively. GamePro featured it as one of the five games PSP gamers should play, one of the 31 best PSP titles in 2009, and as the seventh best video game prequel. It was also voted to third place in the Dengeki poll of most tear-inducing games of all time. In 2011, it was voted second place in the Famitsu readers' poll on the same topic. ### Sales Crisis Core sold 350,000 copies in Japan on its release date, including the 77,777 Limited Edition PSP/Crisis Core bundles. Crisis Core was the best-selling game across all regions from April through September 2007, with 710,000 copies sold in Japan. Selling 790,705 units as of August 2008, it became the third best-selling game for the PSP in Japan. In March 2008, Crisis Core sold 301,600 copies in its first month of release in the United States, behind the sales of God of War: Chains of Olympus, which sold 340,500 copies, making Crisis Core the second best-selling game for the PSP during the month of March and the sixth best-selling game overall. As of March 2009, Crisis Core had sold 2.1 million units worldwide, with 830,000 of those sales coming from Japan. About 840,000 units of the game, including 550,000 in Europe, were sold during Square Enix's 2009 fiscal year. In response to the game's sales, Square Enix labeled Crisis Core their best PSP game of the year, calling it "an incredible success". Doug Bone, Square Enix's UK sales director, called it "the must-have PSP game of 2008". ## Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII Reunion ### Background and development In 2022, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the original Final Fantasy VII, a remaster, entitled Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII Reunion, was released on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S. Co-developed with Tose, who previously collaborated with Square Enix for World of Final Fantasy (2016), the graphics have been converted to HD, including new 3D models for all elements. The game also includes a newly arranged soundtrack and full voice acting for all dialogue. Originally, there were no plans for a big update in graphics until the team decided it would look similar to Remake. While the story remains the same from the original version, Reunion is part of the larger Final Fantasy VII Remake project, being considered a prequel to the three-part remake series. Reunion also features an updated combat system that is a combination of the original battle system and "something close" to the one featured in Final Fantasy VII Remake. While Square expanded new elements from the story of Remake, Reunion was made to come across as faithful as possible to the original game. Camerawork and motions have also been adjusted and all of the summons cutscenes have been completely remade. A hard mode was added for the Japanese version for the first time as the Western one had it. Many characters are voiced by their English-dubbed voice actors from Final Fantasy VII Remake, including Zack Fair (Caleb Pierce), Sephiroth (Tyler Hoechlin), Aerith Gainsborough (Briana White), Cloud Strife (Cody Christian), Tseng (Vic Chao), and Tifa Lockhart (Britt Baron), with additional characters and voice actors including Angeal Hewley (Bill Millsap), Genesis (Shaun Conde), Cissnei (Kayli Mills), Lazard (Francis Ausley), Hollander (Jason Marnocha), and Yuffie Kisaragi (Brandilyn Cheah). Reunion was released on December 13, 2022. Crisis Core is regarded by executive producer Yoshinori Kitase as a bridge to play between Final Fantasy VII Remake and Rebirth. However, since the original Crisis Core was released only for the PlayStation Portable, the game was remastered into Reunion in order to make it accessible. Creative director Tetsuya Nomura wanted Crisis Core to be seen as its own story when compared with other games from the recently released Remake. Plans for developing Reunion started during the making of Remake. One of the biggest reasons was to expand on the character of Zack who would become more prominent in the narrative. Though new actors were implemented for the English version, the story was not altered. Since Remake altered parts from Crisis Core, Kitase aims players to explore more the connections between the story. In the making of Reunion, several improvements to the original Crisis Core were implemented. Producer Mariko Sato stated that the gameplay was altered to avoid interruptions in the middle of the combat while retaining the base elements of the Digital Mind Wave system. A "skip" function has also been added. Other improvements have also been made to the "hit stop" mechanic as well as adjusting the magic speed for the improvement. Sato says that it was difficult but they believe that players would be pleased with the final product as the game was released to several consoles instead of the original which was PlayStation Portable exclusive. ### Critical reception In Metacritic, all ports received similar positive response by video game critics. Critics were divided in regards to the narrative with Eurogamer seeing Zack's character arc as unnecessary fanservice that does not expand on anything from the original Final Fantasy VII with an overdramatic tone. On the other hand, GameSpot and IGN felt the remaster makes Crisis Core more memorable due to its improved adaptation and felt Zack and Sephiroth are more likable than former SOLDIERs Angeal and Genesis thanks to their more human portrayals, most notably Tyler Hoechlin's work as Sephiroth. GamesRadar was more critical to Zack's initial portrayal as "stupid hero" only to come to like him in his final moment, finding Sephiroth instead as a more memorable character with Tifa's and Aerith's characters being demoted to cameos when compared to Final Fantasy VII or Remake. The graphics were praised for being superior to the original game but still not as comparable to newly released titles. Critics felt the gameplay was improved in the remaster comparable to previous entries but still not as much as Remake with GamesRadar finding it "fantastic", while VG247 found it highly superior to Crisis Core thanks to the advantages of the ports. GameSpot did not find several differences between Reunion and its original PSP game but still found the gameplay appealing, most notably the DMW system being complimented as improved. Digital Trends also found the DMW enjoyable but found the overall fight system repetitive and the side missions "dull". The use of summoning creatures were noted to be impressive due to the improved visuals. IGN also panned the handling of sidequest and noted the DMW system comes across as divisive for how much it can alter a player's reaction to the combat. Sales The game sold over 150,000 units upon being released in Japan. In the United Kingdom, it debuted at 8th place in the boxed charts. The next week, it was 30th place in the UK boxed charts.

German destroyer ZH1

Watercraft

ZH1 was the lead ship of her class of four destroyers built for the Royal Netherlands Navy in the late 1930s. Originally named Gerard Callenburgh, the ship was scuttled while still incomplete by the Dutch during the German invasion of the Netherlands in May 1940, but she was salvaged by the Germans a few months later and commissioned in the Kriegsmarine (German Navy) in 1942 as ZH1. After many delays, the ship was transferred to France in late 1943 where she escorted Axis blockade runners and submarines through the Bay of Biscay. After the Allied landings in Normandy on 6 June 1944, she was one of the few remaining destroyers in French waters and they were ordered to attack the invasion shipping off the beaches. During the Battle of Ushant several days later, ZH1 was crippled and scuttled to prevent her capture, most of her crew being rescued by the Allies. ## Design and description The latest Japanese destroyers far outclassed the Royal Netherlands Navy's existing Admiralen-class destroyers when the Gerard Callenburgh-class destroyers were designed in the mid-1930s with assistance from the British company, Yarrow Shipbuilders. In response to the threat they were larger, faster and more heavily armed than the older ships. They did retain the floatplane carried by the Admiralen class for reconnaissance purposes. ZH1 had an overall length of 106.7 metres (350 ft 1 in) and was 105.2 metres (345 ft 2 in) long at the waterline. The ship had a beam of 10.6 metres (34 ft 9 in), and a maximum draught of 3.52 metres (11 ft 7 in). She displaced 1,604 long tons (1,630 t) at standard load and 2,228 long tons (2,264 t) at deep load. The two geared steam turbine sets, each driving one propeller shaft, were designed to produce 45,000 shaft horsepower (34,000 kW) using steam provided by three water-tube boilers for a designed speed of 36 knots (67 km/h; 41 mph). ZH1 reached 37.5 knots (69.5 km/h; 43.2 mph) from 53,000 shp (40,000 kW) during her sea trials. The ship carried a maximum of 520 tonnes (512 long tons) of fuel oil which gave a range of 2,700 nautical miles (5,000 km; 3,100 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Her crew consisted of 12 officers and 218 sailors. The ship carried five Bofors 12-centimetre (4.7 in) QF Mk 8 guns in two twin-gun turrets, fore and aft of the superstructure and a single gun mount positioned on top of the rear deckhouse, superimposed over the rear turret. ZH1's anti-aircraft armament consisted of four 3.7-centimetre (1.5 in) SK C/30 guns in two twin mounts and four 2-centimetre (0.8 in) C/38 guns in single mounts. The ship carried eight above-water 53.3-centimetre (21 in) torpedo tubes in two power-operated mounts. She had four depth charge launchers and rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 24 mines. ## Construction and career The ship was laid down as Gerard Callenburgh on 12 October 1938 at the Rotterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij (RDM) shipyard in Rotterdam and launched a year later. While she was still fitting out, Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and the Royal Netherlands Navy decided to scuttle her to prevent her from falling into German hands five days later. The Germans, however, refloated the ship on 14 July and towed her to the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg for repair on 11 October, renaming her ZH1, standing for Zerstörer, [destroyer] Holland. The Kriegsmarine did not make many modifications as they wished to compare the ship to their own designs, retaining the main armament, propulsion machinery, and the gun and torpedo fire-control systems, despite the criticism of the latter systems. They did replace the original anti-aircraft armament of four 40-millimetre (1.6 in) Bofors guns and four 12.7-millimetre (0.5 in) anti-aircraft machineguns with German weapons. She was towed back to RDM for completion and was commissioned after many delays on 11 October 1942. ZH1 sailed for the Baltic Sea on the 25th to begin working up. The ship began a brief refit in Hamburg on 18 January 1943. She collided with the Danish cargo ship Douro on 11 April, but was only lightly damaged. While under repair in June, ZH1 was further damaged during air raids on the dockyard, delaying the completion of her repairs, and she was not deemed combat worthy until October. During this time she was fitted with a FuMO 24/25 radar set above the bridge. On 31 October ZH1 and the destroyer Z27 departed Kiel for France. During the voyage to Le Verdon-sur-Mer, both ships were slightly damaged by splinters from British coastal artillery as they passed through the English Channel. On 5 November they were unsuccessfully attacked by British motor torpedo boats off Cap d'Antifer, damaging several of their assailants. Now assigned to the 8. Zerstörerflotille (8th Destroyer Flotilla), the ship was one of the escorts for the 6,951-gross register ton (GRT) blockade runner through the Bay of Biscay, but salinity problems in her condensers forced her turbines to be shut down on 26 December and she had to be towed to port by the torpedo boat T25. Repairs were not finished until March 1944. Early that month ZH1, the destroyer Z23, and the torpedo boats T27 and T29 escorted the Japanese submarine I-29 to Lorient. Later that month the ships escorted U-boats through the Bay of Biscay. After word of the Allied landings at Normandy on 6 June was received by Kapitän zur See (Captain) Theodor von Bechtolsheim, commander of the 8. Zerstörerflottile, ordered his three remaining destroyers, ZH1, Z24, Z32, and the torpedo boat T24, to sail for Brest, France to begin operations against the invasion fleet. They were attacked by Beaufighters during their journey, with Z32 damaged by a pair of rockets and one aircraft forced to ditch. By this time, ZH1's armament had already been increased to four quadruple 2 cm mounts. On the night of 8/9 June, the four ships set out from Brest for Cherbourg, but were intercepted by eight Allied destroyers of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla in the Battle of Ushant. The German ships had been spotted first and the British opened fire first, with the Germans responding with a four-torpedo salvo from each destroyer that missed when the Allied ships turned to evade them. The British fire was extremely effective with ZH1 badly damaged by HMS Ashanti and HMS Tartar only moments after firing her first salvo. The most damaging hit was one that severed the main steam line in the engine room and another that flooded the forward boiler room, knocking out all power. The two British destroyers then shifted their fire to Z24 and lost track of ZH1 in the darkness. They later fired at Z32 which, in turn, engaged Tartar and set her aflame. Ashanti was preparing to turn to engage Z32 when ZH1 drifted into the area and fired at Tartar with her rear guns in manual mode. Ashanti then torpedoed ZH1, blowing off her bow; despite this, her forward turret continued to fire at the British ship. ZH1 also fired off her remaining torpedoes one at a time under manual control, missing with all four. Her situation hopeless, her captain ordered her crew to abandon ship and rigged depth charges to scuttle the ship at . Three officers and thirty-six crewmen were killed during the battle. One boat with a single officer and twenty-seven men reached the French coast and the British rescued one hundred and forty men.

Church Avenue station (IND Culver Line)

New York City Subway station in Brooklyn

The Church Avenue station is an express station on the IND Culver Line of the New York City Subway. Located at Church and McDonald Avenues in Kensington, Brooklyn, it is served by the F and G trains at all times (the latter of which terminates here), and by the \<F\> train during rush hours in the peak direction. The Church Avenue station was constructed by the Independent Subway System (IND). It opened on October 7, 1933, as the new terminal of the Culver Line, which was known as the Smith Street Line or the South Brooklyn Line at the time. In 1954, this station ceased to be the line's terminal with the completion of the Culver Ramp, which connected the South Brooklyn Line and the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT)'s Culver Line and allowing service to run to Coney Island. Though the Church Avenue station contains four tracks and two island platforms, as with many express stations in the New York City Subway, the inner tracks see limited use, being used only by peak-direction \<F\> trains. ## History The Church Avenue station was the original southern terminus of the IND Culver Line, which was built as part of Mayor John Hylan's Independent Subway System (IND) to Coney Island. The line was planned to be extended to the south via a connection to the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT)'s Culver Line. To connect this line to the Eighth Avenue Line – the main trunk of the IND – a subway line was to run from Brooklyn Borough Hall south under Jay Street, Smith Street, Ninth Street, and several other streets to Cortelyou Road (later Church Avenue) and McDonald Avenue, just north of the Ditmas Avenue elevated station. A ramp would then lead onto the elevated BMT Culver Line. As originally designed, service to and from Manhattan would have been exclusively provided by Culver express trains, while all local service would have fed into the IND Crosstown Line. On October 7, 1933, this station opened as the new terminal of the line, as the line was extended from Bergen Street. Construction on the Culver Ramp, also referred to as the Culver Line Connection, between this station and the Ditmas Avenue station, began in June 1941 and was scheduled to be completed by the end of the year. The ramp was expected to cost \$2 million, and along with new signals, and rehabilitation of the Culver elevated and lengthening of its stations to IND standards, the total cost of the project was estimated at over \$11 million. Though the ramp was nearly complete, including rails and signal work, construction was halted later that year because of America's entrance into World War II. When the project was restarted in 1946, completion was delayed further due to continued material shortages and a lack of rolling stock to facilitate the new service. On October 30, 1954, the connection between the IND Brooklyn Line at Church Avenue and the BMT Culver Line at Ditmas Avenue opened, allowing IND trains to operate all the way to the Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue terminal. In 1958, there was a program in which subway riders could get their clothes dry cleaned at the station for a fee. ### Service changes The station was originally served by the A train. In 1936, the A was rerouted to the IND Fulton Street Line and was replaced by E trains from the Queens Boulevard Line. In 1937, the connection to the IND Crosstown Line opened and (later renamed the G) trains were extended to Church Avenue, complementing the E. In December 1940, after the IND Sixth Avenue Line opened, E trains were replaced by the , and the GG was cut back to Smith–Ninth Streets. Following the completion of the Culver Ramp in 1954, Concourse Express trains replaced F service to Coney Island. In November 1967, the Chrystie Street Connection opened and D trains were rerouted via the Manhattan Bridge and the BMT Brighton Line to Coney Island. F trains were extended once again via the Culver Line. The center tracks at the station were used for F express service starting in June 1968, while G trains were extended from Smith–Ninth Streets to Church Avenue to provide local service. Express service between Bergen and Church ended in 1976 due to budgetary concerns and passenger complaints, and the GG, later renamed the G, was again terminated at the Smith–Ninth Streets station. In July 2009, the G was extended from its long-time terminus at Smith–Ninth Streets to a more efficient terminus at Church Avenue to accommodate the rehabilitation of the Culver Viaduct. The G extension was made permanent in July 2012. In July 2019, the MTA revealed plans to restore express service on the Culver Line between Jay Street and Church Avenue. Express service started on September 16, 2019. ### Incidents Jack Lovelock, a 1936 Olympic gold medalist from New Zealand, fell onto the tracks at the Church Avenue station on December 28, 1949, after complaining to his wife about dizziness; he was then killed by an oncoming train. On August 2, 1974, a robbery suspect was killed by a plainclothes police officer in the station. The former was suspected to have robbed a token booth in the station shortly beforehand. ## Station layout This underground station, located in Kensington, has four tracks and two island platforms. Both outer track walls have a maroon trim line with a Tuscan red border and small tile captions below them reading "CHURCH" in white lettering on a black background. This tile band is set in a two-tile-high course, an arrangement normally seen at local stations. The tiles were part of a color-coded tile system used throughout the IND. The tile colors were designed to facilitate navigation for travelers going away from Lower Manhattan. Because Church Avenue was an express station, it uses a different tile color from the next station to the north, Fort Hamilton Parkway. All I-beam columns in the station are colored Hunter green. The station signs are in the standard black name plates with white lettering. There is a four-track train storage yard known as Church Avenue Yard south of the station beneath the revenue tracks, which is used by terminating G trains. South of the connection to the yard, there is a switch from the southbound express track to the southbound local track. As of 2022, a switch from the southbound local to the southbound express, as well as a diamond crossover between the two northbound tracks, are being installed south of the yard ramps. The line then ramps up to become a three-track elevated line before entering the Ditmas Avenue station; the two express tracks merge into a single track, with switches to or from the local tracks just before the merge. Though this station is a part of the IND Division, the Culver elevated portion directly to the south of this station is controlled by BMT radio dispatch and supervision, so train operators change between the IND (B-2) and BMT (B-1) radio frequencies at this point or station. During off-peak hours, the express tracks can be used for staging subway cars without interfering with normal service. ### Exits This station has a full-length mezzanine above the platforms and tracks with two fare control areas. The full-time one is at the extreme south end. Two staircases and one elevator from each platform go up to the mezzanine, where public restrooms at the center are available and a turnstile bank provides entrance/exit to/from the station. Outside fare control, there is a token booth and staircases going up to all four corners of Church and McDonald Avenues. There is also a ramp leading to an elevator that goes up to the west side of Church Avenue. The three elevators, installed during a 2008 renovation, make the station ADA accessible. The station's other fare control area at the north end is un-staffed. Three staircases from each platform go up to a mezzanine, where exit-only and High Entry/Exit Turnstiles provide entrance/exit to/from the station. Outside fare control, there are two staircases facing in different directions that go up to either southern corners of Albemarle Road and McDonald Avenues. Crew facilities at the center of the mezzanine separate the two fare control areas.

Long Live (Taylor Swift song)

2010 song by Taylor Swift

"Long Live" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift for her third studio album, Speak Now (2010). Produced by Swift and Nathan Chapman, "Long Live" is a heartland rock song featuring girl group harmonies and chiming rock guitars. The lyrics are about Swift's gratitude for her fans and bandmates, using high-school and royalty imagery to describe the accomplishments in the narrator's life. After Speak Now was released, "Long Live" entered and peaked at number 85 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Some music critics deemed it an album highlight and lauded the production and lyrics, but others felt it was generic and unmemorable. A remix featuring verses written and sung in Portuguese by Brazilian singer Paula Fernandes, accompanied by a music video, was released as a digital single in Brazil in January 2012 to promote the live album Speak Now World Tour – Live; it peaked at number five on the Brasil Hot 100 Airplay chart. Swift included the song on the set lists of three of her world tours – the Speak Now World Tour (2011–2012), Reputation Stadium Tour (2018), and The Eras Tour (2023–2024) – and performed it on select dates of the Red Tour (2013–2014) and the 1989 World Tour (2015). A re-recorded version, titled "Long Live (Taylor's Version)", was released as part of Swift's third re-recorded album Speak Now (Taylor's Version) on July 7, 2023. ## Composition American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift released her third studio album, Speak Now, on October 25, 2010. She wrote all 14 tracks on the standard album by herself and co-produced them with Nathan Chapman. "Long Live" is the closing track of Speak Now's 14-track standard edition. Musically, "Long Live" is a heartland rock song, featuring contemporary country elements, chiming rock guitars, loud cymbal beats, and girl group harmonies. Rob Sheffield in Rolling Stone compared the song's guitars to those on "Hysteria" by Def Leppard. Musicologist James E. Perone compared the song's production to rock music from the 1980s, specifically the music of Irish band U2. ## Lyrical interpretation Swift dedicated "Long Live" to her bandmates and fans. The lyrics celebrate moments of triumph in the narrator's life, featuring royalty (kings and queens) and high school imagery ("You traded your baseball cap for a crown / And they gave us our trophies / And we held them up for our town") to describe the accomplishments in life. The narrator describes herself as a queen who, with a king by her side, fights dragons to protect her kingdom. Swift also acknowledges that her triumph will fade some day, and there are bittersweet and poignant moments ("If you have children someday, when they point to the pictures, please tell them my name"). Towards the end, Swift sings, "Will you take a moment / Promise me this / That you'll stand by me forever," which Billboard interpreted as her message to her fans. Perone commented that the lyrical theme of overcoming odds to achieve victory, coupled with the "near anthem-like structure", resembles David Bowie's 1977 classic "Heroes". Brittany Spanos from Rolling Stone agreed with this interpretation, saying that "Long Live" throws back to "Heroes" by how "it portrays two lovers who have amicably parted ways but not without leaving an unforgettable mark on one another". In Vulture, Nate Jones commented that despite Swift's intention to dedicate the track to her bandmates and fans, the "adolescent self-mythologizing" lyrics are universal enough to be taken as a graduation song. Jonathan Keefe from Slant Magazine commented that the track features fairy-tale imagery recalling Swift's 2008 album Fearless. In an analysis for the New Statesman, Anna Leszkiewicz deemed the imagery of crowns, kings, and queens in "Long Live" a representation of Swift's optimism towards her life and career, and her earnestness with her fans. Leszkiewicz noted that in some of Swift's later songs, such as "Blank Space" (2014) and "Call It What You Want" (2017), the imagery became darker and represented the pitfalls of celebrity. Some lyrics of the song are included in one of Swift's journal entries from June 2010, printed in the liner notes of her 2019 studio album Lover. ## Live performances Swift's first live performance of "Long Live" was for an NBC Speak Now Thanksgiving Special, which broadcast on November 25, 2010. The television special showcased the making of the album along with live performances on a rooftop in New York City. She also included the song as part of the set list of the Speak Now World Tour, performing it as the last song before the encore. Swift performed "Long Live" on select dates of her later tour, including the Red Tour (Vancouver, June 2013), and the 1989 World Tour (Melbourne, third night, December 2015). On her Reputation Stadium Tour (2018), she performed a mashup of "Long Live" and "New Year's Day" on piano. Following the release of Speak Now (Taylor's Version) (2023), Swift included "Long Live" on the setlist of the Eras Tour beginning with the first show in Kansas City as part of the Speak Now act. ## Reception After Speak Now was released, "Long Live" debuted and peaked at number 85 on the US Billboard Hot 100. In a review of Speak Now for Rolling Stone, Sheffield stated that it is "a ridiculously over-the-top prom anthem". He placed "Long Live" sixth on his list ranking all songs in Swift's discography, and called it "a song nobody else could have written, as she rides those power chords home". In BBC Music, Matthew Horton noted the track as an example of Swift's maturing songwriting. In a 2021 retrospective for Consequence, Natalia Barr picked "Long Live" as the best song from Speak Now; he lauded its anthemic production and lyrical sentiments and opined that the song "has only gotten better with time". PopMatters editor Dave Heaton compared the song favorably to "Change" from Fearless; he found "Long Live" somewhat generic, but that the ambiguity of its subject matter strengthened the song's appeal as an anthem. Spanos picked it among the 10 best deep cuts in Swift's discography and wrote: "Swift can make falling in love sound like every holiday is happening at once." On a less positive side, Keefe believed that the high-school imagery showcased Swift's lack of repertoire in her songwriting. In her review for HitFix, Melinda Newman deemed "Long Live" too long and lyrically unsophisticated compared to the sharper lyricism of other tracks. Mikael Wood from Spin selected the song as one of Speak Now's most forgettable, alongside "Sparks Fly". NME's Hannah Mylrea, in a 2020 ranking of Swift's catalog, regarded "Long Live" as a generic filler on Speak Now. ## Paula Fernandes version In 2012, Swift recorded and released a new version of "Long Live" featuring Brazilian singer Paula Fernandes. It features Portuguese verses written and sung by Fernandes, and was released to promote the Brazilian edition of Swift's 2011 live album, Speak Now World Tour – Live. The version was released onto the Brazilian iTunes Store on January 3, 2012, through Universal Music Group. The music video for the song, directed by Eduardo Levy, includes scenes of Fernandes singing the song in a studio in Brazil and Swift performing it during a U.S. concert. In Billboard, Taylor Weatherby praised Fernandes's deeper vocals complementing Swift's lighter tones. Swift and Fernandes performed the song live at a Rio de Janeiro concert held at Citibank Hall on September 13, 2012. The version featuring Fernandes reached the top five on Billboard Brasil's Hot 100 Airplay chart. "Long Live" was later included on Fernandes's studio album Meus Encantos (2012) as a bonus track, and her live album Multishow Ao Vivo: Um Ser Amor (2013). ## Charts ## "Long Live (Taylor's Version)" After signing a new contract with Republic Records, Swift began re-recording her first six studio albums in November 2020. The decision came after a 2019 public dispute between Swift and talent manager Scooter Braun, who acquired Big Machine Records, including the masters of Swift's albums the label had released. By re-recording her catalog, Swift had full ownership of the new masters, including the copyright licensing of her songs, devaluing the Big Machine-owned masters. A re-recorded version of "Long Live", titled "Long Live (Taylor's Version)", was released on July 7, 2023, via Republic Records as part of Speak Now (Taylor's Version), Swift's third re-recorded album. ### Personnel Adapted from Speak Now (Taylor's Version) digital album inline notes - Taylor Swift – vocals, background vocals, songwriter, producer - Christopher Rowe – producer, vocal engineer - David Payne – recording engineer - Lowell Reynolds – assistant recording engineer, editor - Derek Garten – engineer, editor, programming - Serban Ghenea – mixing - Bryce Bordone – mix engineer - Randy Merrill – mastering - Matt Billingslea – drums, percussion - Amos Heller – bass guitar - Paul Sidoti – electric guitar - Mike Meadows – acoustic guitar, Hammond B-3, background vocals - Max Bernstein – electric guitar, synthesizer - David Cook – piano - Brian Pruitt – drum programming - Caitlin Evanson – background vocals ### Charts [Single chart usages for Billboardhot100](Category:Single_chart_usages_for_Billboardhot100 "wikilink") [Single chart called without song](Category:Single_chart_called_without_song "wikilink") [Single chart making named ref](Category:Single_chart_making_named_ref "wikilink")

SMS Hertha

Protected cruiser of the German Imperial Navy

SMS Hertha was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class, built for the German Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine) in the 1890s. Hertha was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1895, launched in April 1897, and commissioned into the Navy in July 1898. The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Hertha served abroad in the German East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career; she served briefly as the Squadron flagship in 1900. She contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Uprising in 1900. After returning to Germany in 1905, she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1908, following the completion of the refit. She conducted a series of training cruises, and several notable officers served aboard the ship as cadets, including Karl Dönitz and Ernst Lindemann. At the outbreak of World War I, Hertha was mobilized into V Scouting Group, but served in front-line duty only briefly. She was used as a barracks ship after 1915, and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920. ## Design In the early 1890s, elements in the German naval command structure grappled with what type of cruiser ought to be built to fulfill the various needs of the fleet. The Reichsmarineamt (RMA—Imperial Navy Office) preferred to build a combination of large cruisers of around 6,000 t (5,900 long tons) along the lines of SMS Kaiserin Augusta and significantly smaller vessels of about 1,500 t (1,476 long tons) to support them, while the Oberkommando der Marine (Naval High Command) argued that a uniform force of 3,000 t (2,953 long tons) cruisers was preferable. In the event, the RMA carried the day and three 6,000-ton cruisers were authorized in 1895. They resembled the larger Kaiser Friedrich III-class battleships, designed at the same time, albeit at reduced scale. Hertha was 110.6 meters (363 ft) long overall and had a beam of 17.4 m (57 ft) and a draft of 6.58 m (21.6 ft) forward. As designed, she displaced 5,660 t (5,570 long tons), and at full load, her displacement rose to 6,491 t (6,388 long tons). Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines, each driving a single screw propeller, with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Belleville boilers. Her engines were rated for 10,000 metric horsepower (9,900 ihp), and provided a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). The ship had a range of approximately 3,412 nautical miles (6,319 km; 3,926 mi) at 12 kn (22 km/h; 14 mph). She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men. The ship was armed with a main battery of two 21 cm (8.3 in) SK L/40 guns in single gun turrets, one forward and one aft. The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each. They had a range of 16,300 m (53,500 ft). Hertha also carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm (5.9 in) SK L/40 guns. Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates, two abreast the conning tower and the others abreast the mainmast. These guns had a range of 13,700 m (44,900 ft). She also carried ten 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/35 guns for defense against torpedo boats. The gun armament was rounded out by ten 3.7 cm (1.5 in) Maxim machine cannon. She was also equipped with three 45 cm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes, two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow, all below the waterline. The ship was protected with Krupp armor; their deck was 4 cm (1.6 in) on the horizontal with sloped sides that were 10 cm (3.9 in) thick. Her main and secondary battery turrets had 10 cm thick sides and the secondary casemates had the same level of protection. The conning tower had 15 cm thick sides. ## Service history ### Construction and initial service Hertha, named after the earlier screw frigate Hertha, was ordered under the contract name "K" and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in October 1895. She was launched on 14 April 1897, and Ludwig, the son of Luitpold, Prince Regent of Bavaria, christened the ship at the launching ceremony. The incomplete ship was then moved to the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Kiel for fitting-out work, and while there, she was lightly rammed by the ironclad Baden. Named for the earlier steam frigate Hertha, the ship was commissioned into the German navy on 23 July 1898 to begin sea trials. Korvettenkapitän (Corvette Captain) Guido von Usedom was the ship's first commander. During her trials, her measured mile tests were filmed with Oskar Messter's black-and-white kinetoscope. The ship's initial testing revealed problems with her boilers, but she nevertheless was sent with the aviso Hela to escort Kaiser Wilhelm II aboard his yacht Hohenzollern on a voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. Hertha got underway from Kiel on 18 September, stopped in Gibraltar, and arrived in Venice, Italy, on 4 October, where she met Hohenzollern and Hela. The ships then visited a number of ports in the region, including Constantinople, Jaffa, Haifa, Beirut, and Port Said in the Ottoman Empire. While in Beirut on 11 November, the unit was disbanded and Hertha was assigned to relieve the old ironclad Oldenburg in the International Squadron that had been assembled in response to the Cretan Revolt. But Hertha's boilers had suffered serious damage during the voyage, owing to design defects, and she was instead forced to go to Genoa, Italy, on 14 November at low speed for repairs. While entering the port on the night of 26–27 November, Hertha was struck by a merchant vessel that was torn from its moorings by a strong gale. The ship damaged Hertha's upper deck and tore off a boat davit. She then entered the Gio. Ansaldo & C. shipyard for repairs; while the work was ongoing, Hertha received orders to sail for the East Asia Squadron once she was ready for service again. ### East Asia Squadron After completing repairs, Hertha briefly conducted trials to ensure that her propulsion system was in working order before departing for East Asia on 11 April 1899. She stopped in Singapore on 21 May and arrived at Qingdao in the Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory, Germany's colonial possession in China, on 8 June. Her arrival allowed the old ironclad Kaiser to return to Germany. At the same time, Konteradmiral (KAdm—Rear Admiral) Ernst Fritze, the deputy commander of the East Asia Squadron, temporarily made Hertha his flagship. The vessel then began a tour of the northern part of the station, sometimes cruising with other vessels of the squadron, before turning south, arriving in Amoy, China, on 2 November. There, she met her sister ship Hansa, which Fritze made his new flagship. From there, Hertha cruised to Hong Kong in company with the squadron flagship, the old ironclad Deutschland. While there, Hertha went into dry dock for maintenance that lasted three months while Deutschland left for home; the squadron commander, Vizeadmiral (Vice Admiral) Felix von Bendemann, transferred his flag to Hertha on 17 February 1900. In early April, Hertha began a tour of Japan, where she was visited by Emperor Meiji. At that time, the East Asia Squadron consisted of Hertha, Hansa, the protected cruisers Kaiserin Augusta and Irene, and the unprotected cruiser Gefion. The five cruisers rendezvoused in Qingdao on 23 April for squadron training exercises that lasted into early May. The ships then dispersed for cruises through the region; Hertha and Gefion steamed up the Yangtze river as far as Hankou in mid-May. Later that month, the ships all returned to Qingdao. Hertha was scheduled to steam to Tianjin to take Bendemann and the German Minister to China, Clemens von Ketteler, to visit the Qing imperial court, but on 29 May, early reports of the Boxer Uprising had reached the Germans, leading them to cancel the visit. #### Boxer Uprising The Europeans in the region were not initially concerned with the unrest, but as the situation worsened, the British Vice Admiral Edward Seymour, the longest-serving vice admiral in the area, contacted the other European naval commanders and requested a meeting to discuss what measures should be taken. Bendemann ordered his squadron, less Irene, which was to remain behind to guard Qingdao, to meet the ships of the British China Station off Taku at the mouth of the Hai River. Hertha and the rest of the squadron arrived off Taku on 8 June, and Bendemann met with Seymour the next day. The two admirals did not initially agree on a course of action, owing to the lack of information about the general situation, since the telegraph line to the embassies in Beijing had been cut. Bendemann nevertheless sent a landing party of one hundred men drawn from all four of his cruisers ashore to reinforce the men in Tianjin that had been gathered from the Eight Nation Alliance, which had formed to combat the Boxers. Shortly after midnight on 10 June, Seymour informed Bendemann of a telegram he had received informing him of the critical situation at the Legation Quarter in Beijing. Seymour decided to lead a relief force from the European ships' crews, which would march from Tianjin to Beijing to relieve the garrison there. Bendemann contributed a force of 20 officers, 2 doctors, and 487 sailors to the Seymour Expedition, about a quarter of the international force, which also included men from French, Russian, Italian, Austro-Hungarian, Japanese, and United States' warships. Hertha's contribution consisted of 4 officers and 120 sailors, led by Usedom; while the captain was ashore, the ship was commanded by the executive officer, Kapitänleutnant (KL—Captain Lieutenant) Hecht. The expedition failed after encountering strong Chinese resistance from both Boxers and government soldiers. In the meantime, concerned about the situation of the expedition and having received word of Chinese reinforcements to the nearby Taku Forts, Bendemann urged action, which resulted in the Battle of the Taku Forts on 17 June. At the same time, the men who had initially gone ashore to defend Tianjin on 9 June came under repeated Chinese attacks, and further men were sent ashore; Hertha contributed another sixty men and four non-commissioned officers, led by KL Adolf von Trotha. The battered force under Seymour's command arrived back in Tianjin on 23 June and further strengthened the forces occupying the city. Fighting continued through mid-July, but by the 18th, most of the men were returned to their ships. Following the failure of Seymour's expedition, the Eight Nation Alliance gathered forces from British India, French Indochina, the Philippines, eastern Russia, and Japan to make another attempt to march on Beijing by mid-August. Hertha and Hansa contributed 150 and 200 men, respectively, to the force, which arrived in Beijing on 18 August, having met light Chinese resistance on the way. In the meantime, the new armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck had arrived off China and on 17 August, Bendemann transferred his flag to the ship. By 5 September, reinforcements sent from Germany had arrived, allowing the landing parties from Hertha and the other vessels to be withdrawn to their ships by 15 September. The new units arrived under the command of Generalfeldmarschall (General Field Marshal) Alfred von Waldersee; Hertha embarked Waldersee in Wusong near Shanghai and carried him to Taku. Because of his experience during the campaign, Usedom was assigned to Waldersee's staff, leaving Hertha again under the command of Hecht. On 1 October, Hertha took part in the occupation of coastal fortifications at Shanhaiguan. That month, Fregattenkapitän (FK—Frigate Captain) Carl Derzewski arrived to take command of the ship. She otherwise saw little activity, spending most of her time at Qingdao and Yantai. In the course of fighting during the Boxer Uprising, Hertha had suffered seven men killed. #### Subsequent operations Hertha cruised off the Chinese coast through 1901. On 8 June, she once again embarked Waldersee for a visit to Kobe, Japan, that lasted until 19 June and included a meeting with Meiji. Hertha then sailed to Nagasaki, Japan, where Waldersee transferred to the hospital ship Gera, which carried him back to Germany. Hertha then returned to Qingdao, where she remained for some time before making another visit to Japan. On 21 October, Fürst Bismarck went into dry dock in Hong Kong for periodic maintenance and Bendemann temporarily returned to Hertha. The cruiser then embarked on a tour of the Dutch East Indies that lasted into 1902; she stopped in Singapore on 19 February, where VAdm Richard Geissler came aboard to replace Bendemann as the squadron commander. By that time, work on Fürst Bismarck had been completed, and she arrived in Singapore at the same time to take aboard the new commander. Hertha then steamed north to Uraga, Japan, where she was dry docked for repairs that lasted from 25 March to 5 May. After the ship reached Japan, Kapitän zur See (KzS–Captain at Sea) Friedrich von Ingenohl arrived to take command. After completing repairs in Nagasaki, Hertha returned to Qingdao, where she remained before again visiting Japanese cities. While steaming off Formosa on 9 August, she was struck by a typhoon that caused significant flooding. KzS Malte von Schimmelmann relieved Ingenohl in November. Later that year, she visited ports in the Philippines, the Dutch East Indies, and Singapore. In early 1903, she returned to Nagasaki for another overhaul. Hertha then steamed back to Qingdao, where she lay for four months, before visiting ports in Russia, Korea, and Japan. The ship saw little activity of note in 1904, apart from a voyage up the Yangtze in company with Fürst Bismarck up to Hankou, followed by a cruise to Singapore. By the end of the year, Hertha was in need of a more thorough overhaul than could be accomplished in the shipyards available in East Asia, prompting her return to Germany. She got underway on 31 December, passing through Mahé in the Seychelles and Dar es Salaam in German East Africa. She entered the Mediterranean on 5 April, where she met Wilhelm II, who was cruising aboard Hohenzollern. The two vessels steamed together through 8 April, when Hertha continued on to home, arriving in Kiel, where she was decommissioned on 12 May. ### Later career In 1906, Hertha went into the shipyard at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Danzig for a thorough overhaul that included replacing her boilers and alterations to her armament. The boiler uptakes were altered to vent through two funnels. The work was completed by early 1908, and she was recommissioned under the command of KzS Hugo Louran on 7 April for service as a training ship for naval cadets and apprentice seamen. From 6 to 11 June, she carried Prince Ludwig to Bornholm and then to Swinemünde. She then steamed to Bremerhaven with a class of naval cadets aboard, embarking on a training cruise abroad. She visited ports in Norway, Scotland, and Ireland before steaming south to the Mediterranean Sea, stopping in Funchal, Madeira, and Las Palmas in the Canary Islands on the way. While in the Mediterranean, she made port calls in Palma de Mallorca, Alexandria, Egypt, and several cities in Italy. She stopped in Corfu on 30 December, where she met her sister Victoria Louise. The two ships then steamed to Messina to render humanitarian assistance after an earthquake struck the area. Hertha carried some 20 t (20 long tons; 22 short tons) of food and other supplies to the city, arriving there the next day. On 1 January 1909, she embarked 120 badly injured people and evacuated them to Naples before returning to Messina the following day. Her crew went ashore and assisted with efforts to dig out people trapped in the rubble. As thanks for the ship's assistance, Queen Elena of Italy visited the ship on 5 January and King Vittorio Emanuele III issued a daily order thanking the crew. Both cruisers anchored off Corfu the next day; Hertha began the voyage back to Germany on 21 January and arrived in Kiel on 15 March. In April, FK Walter Engelhardt relieved Louran as the ship's commander. After taking on another group of cadets, Hertha went on a short training cruise in home waters, beginning on 5 June. On 7 August, she left Germany to visit the United States to represent Germany at the Hudson–Fulton Celebration; she joined Victoria Louise and the light cruisers Dresden and Bremen at the celebration, which took place in late September and early October. Hertha thereafter cruised in the Caribbean Sea, which included a stop in Kingston, Jamaica, from 9 to 11 January 1910, where she assisted the HAPAG steamship SS Prinz Joachim von Preussen, which had run aground there. Hertha's crew assisted in the unloading of some 300 t (300 long tons; 330 short tons) of cargo and transferring passengers to another steamer before Prinz Joachim von Preussen could be pulled free. Hertha then resumed her voyage and arrived back in Kiel on 8 March. Hertha went on another short training cruise to Norway and in the Baltic Sea in mid-1910, before departing for another extended voyage in the Mediterranean on 15 August. The cruise concluded in Kiel on 7 March 1911. In April, FK Ernst-Oldwig von Natzmer took command of the ship. A short cruise in the Baltic followed, which included a stop in Stockholm, Sweden, after which Hertha visited Norway and Scotland before returning to Wilhelmshaven, Germany. That year's long-range cruise went to the West Indies and lasted from 21 August to 11 March 1912. The annual training cruise began in early August and went to the mid-Atlantic, and included stops in the Azores and Madeira. While in Funchal, Natzmer assisted the captain of the steamer SS Lotte Menzel by arresting several sailors who had been involved in a mutiny and then transferring them to another vessel that carried them back to Germany. Hertha then steamed to Barcelona, Spain, where she received orders to join the newly created Mediterranean Division on 2 November. The unit, centered on the battlecruiser Goeben, had been sent to defend German interests during the Balkan Wars. After visiting numerous ports in the region through early 1913, Hertha was detached in mid-February and arrived back in Kiel on 7 March. After her return, she went into dry dock for periodic maintenance. In April, FK Heinrich Rohardt became the ship's captain. Hertha departed with another crew of naval cadets on 29 May for a short training cruise to Norway that concluded in Wilhelmshaven on 3 August. Twelve days later, she got underway again for the annual overseas voyage, which went to North America and the Caribbean. While there, she received orders to go to Veracruz, Mexico, to protect German interests during the Mexican Revolution; she stayed there from 21 October to 2 November. She thereafter visited the Antilles and ultimately returned to Kiel on 13 March 1914. Hertha embarked on her final peacetime training cruise on 2 June with a contingent of 75 cadets. She steamed first in the central Baltic before visiting Norway. She then crossed the North Sea to Edinburgh, Scotland, where she stayed from 22 to 25 July; the ship was the last German vessel to visit a British port before the start of World War I. ### World War I After returning to Germany in late July, Hertha had begun preparations for the annual training cruise, but these were interrupted by the outbreak of war at the end of the month. Hertha was assigned to V Scouting Group, and was initially employed on guard duty in the western Baltic in August and September. She joined her sister Vineta and the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl for a sweep into the eastern Baltic from 24 to 26 October; the commander of V Scouting Group, KAdm Gisberth Jasper, temporarily made Hertha is flagship for the operation. The Germans' intention was to penetrate as far as the Gulf of Finland, and while ships encountered no opposition, reports of enemy submarines led Jasper to cancel the operation while off Lyserort. On 28 October, Jasper returned to his previous flagship, Hansa. By the end of 1914, however, the ships were again removed from service, owing to their vulnerability to mine and torpedo attacks. Hertha, which had been stationed in Swinemünde, withdrew to the west on 30 October. On 16 November, she was decommissioned and thereafter converted into a barracks ship. Based in Flensburg, she supported the crews of the seaplane base there through the end of the war. Following Germany's defeat in November 1918, Hertha was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship-breakers in Audorf-Rendsburg. and was scrapped the following year.

Emergency on Planet Earth

Emergency on Planet Earth is the debut studio album by English funk and acid jazz band Jamiroquai, released on 14 June 1993 under Sony Soho Square. Prior its release, the band debuted in 1992 with "When You Gonna Learn" under Acid Jazz Records, and front-man Jay Kay was given a major-label deal with Sony Music. The album was produced as Kay formed the band and is characterised by its acid jazz foundations, layers of instrumentation and socially charged lyrics. Critical reviews of the album were generally positive and noted its 1970s stylings. It reached number one in the UK Albums Chart and sold over 1,200,000 copies worldwide. Its single "Too Young to Die" peaked at number 10 in the UK Singles Chart. A remastered version of the album was released in 2013 to coincide with the 20th anniversary of the album's release. ## Background and composition While Jay Kay was sending songs to record companies, he wrote the first track "When You Gonna Learn" after taking inspiration from Native American and First Nation peoples and their philosophies, and from his anger towards the shooting of elephants in a television programme. The song also "takes on everything from racism to corporate greed" according to Interview. Kay said the track laid down "the sound, the flavor [and] the concept" of the album. After he had it recorded, Kay fought with his producer, who took out half the lyrics and produced the song based on what was charting at the time. With the track restored to his preference, the experience helped Kay realise he "wanted a proper live band with a proper live sound". The band would be named "Jamiroquai", a blend of the words "jam" and the name of a Native American confederacy, the Iroquois. Kay gradually gathered band members, including Wallis Buchanan, who played the didgeridoo, and Stuart Zender, who became the band's bassist by audition. Kay's manager scouted keyboardist Toby Smith, who joined the group as Kay's songwriting partner. Together, they wrote the second track "Too Young to Die", a song also inspired by Kay's anger towards the wars he had seen on television. Regarding how the track was written, Kay said in 2013: "I have a very limited musical ability in terms of playing", so he would sing the instruments as Smith would work out the chords. The two tracks would shape up the album, they follow up to the "high-kicking" funk track "Hooked Up". With the fourth track "If I Like It I Do It" Kay said it reminded him of "Harvest for the World" by Isley Brothers. The former song's lyrics have been described as anarchist: "The kids want the system breaking down/Not higher education/If it ain't no natural law/Then you can keep your regulations". "Music of the Mind" is a laid-back Latin fusion track that takes inspiration from Flora Purim's song "Moon Dreams". With the title track, Kay said that it ultimately defined the concept of the album: "The whole groove of it, all the syncopation, the strings gliding over the top... and the lyrics were hammer to the nail: 'The kids need education/and the streets are never clean/... is that life that I am witnessing/or just another wasted birth'". Kay wanted to re-create the Headhunters' song "God Made Me Funky" with his own track "Whatever It Is, I Just Can't Stop", and he credits having "a real drummer" for its "funky feel". "Blow Your Mind" is a soft track intended to last eight and half minutes long. The track was recorded in one take; Kay said: "the brass was feeling so nice that when we got to the end I didn't want it to stop, so I motioned to the guys to go again, which is why there's the reprise." For the ten-minute track "Revolution 1993", the track has "paramilitary drums" and "grinding bass". With the lyrics, Kay said "it rounded off all the other things I've been saying on the album". It also has "crisscrossed ascending and descending lines, James Brown-like brass punches, a female rhythm and blues choir, Mitch Mitchellesque drums, African percussion, up-front funk bass and elements of hip hop, fusion, acid jazz, technopop and ragamuffin." The album ends with the "didgeridoo workout" track "Didgin' Out". ## Release Emergency on Planet Earth was released on 17 June 1993 under Sony Soho Square. In the United States, it was released under Columbia. Its inner sleeve contains a manifesto by Kay regarding the environment. The album reached number 1 in the UK albums chart and was certified Platinum, indicating it has sold 300,000 copies in the country. It became the fastest selling album in the country since Faith (1987) by George Michael. In France, it ranked number 7 in its SNEP Album Charts. In the country's year end chart, it ranked number 14. The album ranked number 5 in the Swiss Album Charts, where it was certified Gold. In Japan, it ranked number 40 in the Oricon Charts, receiving a Platinum certification. The album reached number 15 in the Dutch Album Top 100 and sold 50,000 copies, certifying it as Gold. It also reached number 84 on its year end chart. Overall, the album sold 1,200,000 copies. In 2013, Emergency on Planet Earth was one of the first three albums to be re-issued on the band's 20th anniversary campaign, also containing a bonus disc with remixes, demos, live performances and b-sides. "When You Gonna Learn" was released as the lead single from the album on 19 October 1992 via Acid Jazz Records. The band were offered major label contracts after its release and Kay signed with Sony. The single charted at number 52 in the UK Singles Chart. The music video for the song "mix[es] images of cruelty, blight, disaster and genocide". Because it featured the Holocaust, it was banned in American MTV. "Too Young to Die" was released as the second single from the album on 1 March 1993, reaching number 10 in the UK. "Blow Your Mind" was released as the third single from the album on 24 May 1993. The single peaked at \#12 on the UK Singles Chart. "Emergency on Planet Earth" was released as the fourth single from the album on 2 August 1993. The track peaked at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart. "When You Gonna Learn" was re-released by Sony Records as the fifth and final single from the album on 13 September 1993. The re-release was slightly more successful than the original, peaking at number 28 on the UK Singles Chart. ## Reception Critics have noted the layers of instrumentation on Emergency on Planet Earth, including its horn and string arrangements and the digeridoo, which "few '70s soul artists employed", according to J.D. Considine. Praising Kay's vocals, Christopher Dawes of Melody Maker said "Stevie Wonder and Aaron Neville were the instant reference points." Entertainment Weekly described the album as helping the band "turn out gritty organic grooves with enthusiasm." Q magazine gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, describing it as "A funky and beautiful record, a contender for best British soul album of the '90s, and frankly better than anything Stevie Wonder has made since Hotter Than July." BBC Music claims – "it laid the foundations for an acid-jazz sound that the band would continue to build upon for the next decade and a half." Mike Zwerin of The New York Times called the album "a rare treasure, contemporary pop music with mass potential worth a detour". Tony Parsons of The Daily Telegraph stated that the band "take[s] every cliche in the soul handbook and somehow turn it into a thing of beauty. [Kay] calls women 'sexy ladies' and says things like 'you blow my mind' and 'no more wars,' yet somehow these stale sentiments are rendered fresh and fragrant and really rather wonderful." A Billboard Magazine reviewer argued that "although Kaye [sic] tries to bring a modern vibe to his music, mostly he operates within '70s parameters." David Sinclair of The Times wrote that the band "have recorded a debut which combines youthful brio with musicianship of the very highest order. And, so long as one takes the absurdly earnest, politically correct tone of the lyrics with a sizable pinch of salt, it's a lot of fun too." Mark Jenkins of The Washington Post questioned the band's socially charged lyrics, and further wrote of the album: "Derived from the lush, silky '70s funk and soul of Philadelphia International and Stevie Wonder, Jamiroquai's sound is about as revolutionary as a nonreturnable bottle of Pepsi." ### Accolades A year after the album's release, Jamiroquai were nominated for Brit Award for Best New Artist, Best British Group and Best British Dance Act. Emergency on Planet Earth was nominated for Best British Album and the music video for "Too Young to Die" was nominated for Best British Video. In 1996, Mixmag placed the album at number 17 in its The 50 Best Dance Albums of All Time list. Fnac ranked the album at 229 in its 1000 Best Albums of All Time and listed it as a Key album in The Ideal Discography: 823 Indispensables Albums (2015). In their year end lists, The Face ranked it at number 14 while Musikexpress at number 34. The album also was listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. ## Track listing ## Personnel Credits for Emergency on Planet Earth adapted from album liner notes. Jamiroquai - Jay Kay – vocals, production - Wallis Buchanan – didgeridoo - Toby Smith – keyboard, string arrangements, production - Stuart Zender – bass - Nick Van Gelder – drums - Gary Barnacle – flute, saxophone, brass arrangement - Andrew Levy – bass (track 1) - Gavin Dodds – guitar - Simon Bartholomew – guitar - Glen Nightingale – guitar - DJ D-Zire – turntables - Kofi Kari Kari – percussion - Maurizio Ravalico – percussion - Richard Edwards – trombone - John Thirkell – trumpet, flugelhorn Additional musicians - Linda Lewis – additional background vocals - Vanessa Simon – additional background vocals - Mike Smith – additional saxophone, flute - Mike Nielsen – production - The Reggae Philharmonic Strings – strings - Jono Podmore – String Arrangements ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications and sales

Ersatz Monarch-class battleship

Austro-Hungarian dreadnought class

The Ersatz Monarch class (also informally known as the Improved Tegetthoff class) was a class of four dreadnought battleships which were intended to be built between 1914 and 1919 for the Austro-Hungarian Navy (kaiserliche und königliche Kriegsmarine). Design work on a class of battleships to succeed the Tegetthoff class and replace the aging Monarch class began in 1911. After going through several different design proposals, Anton Haus, Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, secured passage of a naval expansion program through the Austro-Hungarian government to fund the construction of the battleships in April 1914. Work on the first battleship was scheduled to begin a few months later, with the final ship was expected to be launched in mid-1919. However, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June halted work just days before the keel of the first ship in the class was scheduled to be laid down. With the start of World War I a month later, construction on the ships was postponed until September, when the war with Serbia was expected to be over. The Hungarian government attempted to cancel the ships in October, but it was agreed in February 1915 that any work on the battleships would be indefinitely suspended until the end of the war. The ships were eventually canceled in 1917 as the war entered its third year, although some of the guns ordered for them were completed and saw service. ## Background On 22 February 1913, Rudolf Montecuccoli retired as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy (Marinekommandant) and Chief of the Naval Section of the War Ministry (Chef der Marinesektion). His successor was Admiral Anton Haus, who inherited an Austro-Hungarian Navy which had grown to be the sixth-largest navy in Europe and the eighth-largest navy in the world. At the time of Haus' promotion, it was approaching its goal of 16 battleships, which Montecuccoli had outlined in a memorandum to Emperor Franz Joseph I in January 1909. However, this number included three obsolete 20-year-old "battleships" of the Monarch class, which had been long since relegated to the role of coastal defense ships. By 1913, Austria-Hungary's latest class of battleships, the Tegetthoff class, were nearing completion and each ship was almost four times the size of the Monarch class. The need to replace the aging Monarch-class ships had presented itself prior to Haus' promotion of a new class. In October 1912, Montecuccoli had petitioned for two dreadnought battleships to succeed the Monarch class. In March 1913, Carl von Bardolff, Chief-of-Staff to Archduke Franz Ferdinand, suggested to Haus that he explore the option of constructing a "second dreadnought division". Bardolff was acting on Franz Ferdinand's orders, who had a keen interest in expanding the navy since being named an admiral in 1902. Ferdinand's plan was for this new class of dreadnoughts to replace the Monarch class, and he wished to have the new class laid down as soon as possible in order to keep Austria-Hungary's shipyards busy with new construction contracts. Like the Tegetthoff class before, several major shipbuilding enterprises in Austria-Hungary such as the Witkowitz Ironworks, the Škoda Works, Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, and the Creditanstalt Bank, all offered to begin construction on a new class dreadnoughts at their own financial risk before any budget from the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments passed the additional funds necessary to pay for the new ships. By the spring of 1913, Ferdinand and Bardolff had also obtained bank loans to fund the project on behalf of the navy until a formal budget could be passed. ### Proposals The construction of the Tegetthoff-class battleships had already begun in 1910 when Škoda made the first of many attempts to obtain approval for a new generation of superdreadnoughts to replace the aging Monarch-class ships. The original proposal, laid forth on 18 April 1911, consisted of a class of ships which would contain 34.5-centimeter (13.6 in) guns with three guns each in two superimposed turrets. The Austro-Hungarian Naval Technical Committee (Marinetechnische Komitee (MTK)) later submitted three proposals by naval architect Franz Pitzinger, Constructor General (Generalschiffbauingenieur) of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, on the general characteristics of the new class in December 1911. The first of the three proposals called for a 22,000-metric-ton (21,653-long-ton) battleship with 30.5-centimeter (12.0 in) guns. A later proposal had the new class displacing 23,000 metric tons (22,637 long tons) and equipped with 35-centimeter (13.8 in) guns. The last proposal had the battleship weighing as much as 24,500 metric tons (24,100 long tons). The final decision on the size and number of the main guns was to be a modified and slightly larger version of the original proposal by Škoda, with the main turrets to be equipped with 35-centimeter guns. The final decision for the main turrets' caliber was influenced by the Imperial German Navy, which had adopted this caliber on its new Mackensen-class battlecruisers. By January 1913, the MTK delivered its first official proposal for the new Ersatz Monarch-class battleships. The committee decided to choose the largest of the three initial proposals, with each ship displacing roughly 24,100 metric tons (23,719 long tons). The battleships were to be armed with a total of ten 35-centimeter, eighteen 15-centimeter (5.9 in) and twenty-two 9-centimeter (3.5 in) guns. It took another year and a half for Haus to secure the necessary funding and for this final design to be formally approved in July 1914. ## Funding Haus, not wishing to begin his tenure as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy by circumventing the Austro-Hungarian government for funding, refused to begin construction on any new class of dreadnoughts before a budget was passed by the Austrian Reichsrat and Hungarian Diet. Haus' proposal for a naval expansion met immediate opposition in Hungary. The suggestion that construction begin before the Austro-Hungarian government had an opportunity to approve any new budget led to Hungarian Prime Minister László Lukács threatening to resign. The lack of a Hungarian government to approve any budget had delayed construction on the Tegetthoff class in 1909 when Sándor Wekerle's government in Budapest collapsed. Not wishing to repeat the same sort of budget crisis which had left those ships without any formal governmental approval for a year, Haus chose not to include plans for a new class of battleships in his 1914 budget proposal to the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments. In October 1913 however, Haus did obtain support from the Austro-Hungarian Ministerial Council to construct four dreadnoughts to replace the three Monarch-class ships, as well as Habsburg, Austria-Hungary's oldest pre-dreadnought battleship. Haus' entire naval construction program was estimated cost over 420 million Kronen, and it included the construction of six destroyers, three cruisers, and four dreadnought battleships. Securing the necessary funding for the battleships was made easier as Lukács's government had fallen in June 1913. Lukács was succeeded as Prime Minister by István Tisza, who had previously secured passage of the 1910 and 1911 naval budgets to authorize construction of the Tegetthoff class. Tisza had done this after being promised that the contract to construct one ship from the class would be awarded to the Ganz-Danubius shipyard in Hungarian Fiume. Since the negotiations over funding for the Tegetthoffs, Tisza had become even more committed to the cause of Austro-Hungarian naval expansion. When the Austrian and Hungarian delegations to the Ministerial Council met in Vienna at the end of 1913 to pass a budget for the first six months of 1914, proponents of the project used the occasion to rally support for the battleships. Albert von Mühlwerth, a German member of the Reichsrat from Bohemia, made the justification that expanding and modernizing the Austro-Hungarian Navy was necessary in order to replace the obsolete Monarch class; stating, "If my coat is old and threadbare, I buy myself a new one...it is the same with warships." These efforts were made even though Haus had no plans to submit any proposal to obtain funding for the proposed ships until the next year. ### Passage of the 1915–1919 naval program When the reconvened session opened in the Hungarian capital in early 1914, Haus made his formal proposal for funding the 1915–1919 naval program. His project was to cost between 426.8 and 427.8 million Kronen, and was to be spaced out over a period of five years. The Hungarians, led by Tisza, supported the proposal after Haus had promised that six destroyers, two river monitors, and two of the four dreadnoughts in the expansion program would be constructed in Fiume, much like the battleship Szent István. As with past budgets approving large increases in naval funds, Austria's Social Democratic Party opposed the budget. Karl Leuthner, a Social Democrat from Lower Austria and editor of the party's newspaper Arbeiter-Zeitung, criticized the budget as fiscally irresponsible and stated that the ships of the Ersatz Monarch class would be launched "into the ocean of the Austrian state debt." The Social Democrats were joined in opposition by the Young Czech Party, which had been supportive of constructing the previous Tegetthoff-class battleships. Karel Kramář, leader of the party, stated that while he had "a certain partiality for the navy", his party was opposed to many of the pro-German arguments being presented to justify the ships. Many German nationalists from Austria had voiced their support for the battleships' construction on the grounds that their existence made Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany more powerful. Heinrich von Lützow, a member of the Austrian House of Lords and former Austro-Hungarian Ambassador to Italy, went so far as to argue that "every supporter of the Triple Alliance...must vote for the strengthening of our navy." Unlike previous battleships, the Ersatz Monarch class were ordered at a time when relations between Austria-Hungary and Italy appeared to be improving. Austria-Hungary and Italy had both signed a renewed naval agreement in the summer of 1913 to coordinate their efforts in the event of a hypothetical war between the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. Thus when the time came for the Austro-Hungarian government to debate the funding and approval for a new class of battleships, the role Italy played in these discussions was not one of being a potential enemy, but rather it was expected that Italy would remain an ally of Austria-Hungary in any naval operations in the Mediterranean Sea against France and Russia, and that a new class of battleships was necessary to help maintain Austria-Hungary's relationship with its Italian allies. Russia now took the place of Austria-Hungary's main naval opponent in the event of a war, and the Ersatz Monarch class were thus intended to counter any potential Russian fleets operating south of the Dardanelles. The Budapest session overwhelmingly supported Haus' naval expansion program, the objections of the Social Democrats and Young Czechs notwithstanding. Indeed, it took the Hungarian delegation less than half an hour of debate before passing the program. With the passage of the budget, discussions then shifted to the allocation of the funds contained within it, the Hungarians being focused on ensuring that many industrial components for the battleships would be purchased within Hungary. Despite opposing the project, the Young Czech Party worked to ensure that as large a sum as possible out of the appropriated funds would be spent in Bohemia and Moravia. Concluding that his party was "happy when Škoda has business", Kramář attempted to obtain even more funds for Bohemia and Moravia's smaller firms outside of the Witkowitz Ironworks and the Škoda Works. His party's efforts failed as the bulk of both the Austrian and Hungarian delegations refused to spend more naval money in a region of the Empire which would already be slated to construct much of the armor and weaponry of the battleships. The Social Democrats also worked to influence how the funds would be allocated after it became clear the appropriations would pass. Leuthner petitioned Haus that the Austro-Hungarian Navy should use a portion of its new funds to improve the working conditions of the thousands of workers across the Austria-Hungary who worked in the Empire's shipbuilding and armaments industries. ### Public reaction The Austrian Naval League's annual meeting had taken place at the same time that the Budapest session passed Haus' program, and news of the passage of a budget which included funds for a new series of dreadnought battleships was met with enthusiasm among the membership of the league. The reaction among the general public of Austria-Hungary to the news of a new class of battleships being approved was largely positive as well. With the budget passing both the Austrian and Hungarian delegations in quick succession, the Vienna-based newspaper Neue Freie Presse favorably covered the story of the budget negotiations and the ships they authorized, commenting that the funds had been approved with "little resistance". Indeed, the paper used many of the same arguments for the battleships which had been used by the delegation members themselves, stating that the construction of a new class of dreadnoughts to accompany the Tegetthoffs would ensure Austro-Hungarian dominance of the Adriatic Sea, which the paper described as "one of the main arteries through which the monarchy draws its blood." ## Design Designed by Pitzinger, the Ersatz Monarch class would have been the largest battleships built by the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Because several design sketches were put forth that all had slight differences, the exact final appearance of the Ersatz Monarch class is not known. However, the ships would have essentially been enlarged and improved versions of the Tegetthoff-class battleships. The superstructure of each ship was to be kept to a minimum, and all ships of the class would have been built with raised forecastles rather than a flush deck like their predecessors, the Tegetthoff class. This design was inspired by British warship designs of the era, and was implemented in order to give the ships greater seaworthiness outside of the Adriatic Sea. Had they been built, the Ersatz Monarch class would have become the first of any ships in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to be constructed for operation on the open ocean. The battleships would have also been equipped with lattice masts that would hold searchlight platforms. The displacement for the Ersatz Monarch class was to be 24,500 metric tons (24,100 long tons) per ship. The overall length of each ship should would have been 172 to 175.2 meters (564 ft 4 in to 574 ft 10 in), with a beam of 28.5 meters (93 ft 6 in), and a draft of 8.4 meters (27 ft 7 in). Each battleship was to be manned by a crew of 1,050 to 1,100 officers and men. ### Propulsion The Ersatz Monarch-class ships were intended to be equipped with four steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by 15 Yarrow water-tube boilers, of which nine would be coal-fired and six would be oil-fired. These oil-burning boilers would have been a first for the Austro-Hungarian Navy, as previous battleships had relied entirely upon coal. The turbines were designed to produce 31,000 shaft horsepower (23,000 kW) to give the ships a top speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). Naval historian Milan Vego commented that their speed "would have been clearly inferior to their counterparts in other navies." The ships would have carried 1,425 metric tons (1,402 long tons) of coal and 1,425 metric tons (1,402 long tons) of fuel oil., enough to give them a range of 5,000 nautical miles (9,300 km; 5,800 mi) at a speed of 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Designed for operations on the open ocean, the Ersatz Monarch class were intended to have substantially greater reserve stability and a smaller angle of list in heavy seas and poor weather compared to previous Austro-Hungarian battleships. ### Armament According to the approved gun designs from January 1913, the members of the Ersatz Monarch class were initially designed to have ten 35 cm (13.8 in) guns, fourteen 15.2 cm (6 in) guns, twenty 8.9 cm (3.5 in) guns, two 4.7 cm (1.9 in) guns and six 53.3 cm (21 in) torpedo tubes. Other early plans for the battleships included ten 38-centimeter (15 in) guns, but this was ultimately scaled down in April 1914 after it was realized the displacement of each ship would have to increase to 30,000 metric tons (29,526 long tons) to accommodate the greater size and weight of the main battery. The Navy ultimately chose to equip each ship with ten 35.5 cm Marinekanone L/45 M. 16 main guns, to be constructed at the Škoda Works in Plzeň, Bohemia. The new guns that were approved for the final design were modified to increase the effect of a broadside. However, in order to keep a stable balance between the ships' protection, stability, and firepower, the battleships were to only be equipped with 10 guns as opposed to the 12 gun layout of the Tegetthoff-class battleships. This new layout was unusual, having a turret with three guns superimposed over a turret with two guns both fore and aft of the superstructure. Like the Tegetthoff class before, the Ersatz Monarch class would have their secondary armament divided between two levels abreast of the funnels and bridge of each ship. Design changes throughout the planning process for the Ersatz Monarch class ships resulted in different proposals for the ships' secondary battery. The Ersatz Monarch class would ultimately have been equipped with a secondary armament of fourteen 50-caliber 15 cm (5.9 in) Škoda K10 guns, eight 45-caliber 90-millimeter (3.5 in) guns, two 47 mm Škoda SFK L/44 S guns, and a pair of 7-centimeter (2.8 in) Škoda 7 cm G. L/18 landing guns. Each ship was also designed to have five to six 53.3 cm (21 in) torpedo tubes. In February 1914, it was announced that anti-aircraft guns and "strong screens for protection against aerial attack" would be included on the Ersatz Monarch class ships. Their anti-aircraft defenses were designed to consist of eight or twelve 45-caliber 90-millimeter guns on high-angle mounts, with some of them mounted on the roofs of the main-gun turrets. ### Armor The Ersatz Monarch-class ships would have been protected at the waterline with an armored belt measuring 310 mm (12.2 in) thick amidships. This armor belt was to be located between the midpoints of the fore and aft barbettes, and would have thinned to 140 mm (5.5 in) further towards the ends of the ships. Their deck would have been 36 to 72 mm (1.4 to 2.8 in) thick. The main-gun turrets were designed to have 80 to 340 mm (3.1 to 13.4 in) of armor, while the casemates would have been shielded by armor plates 150 mm (5.9 in) thick. The conning tower of each ship was designed to be protected by 320 mm (12.6 in) armor. The underwater defenses of the battleships were a drastic change from previous Austro-Hungarian battleships, with the design being similar to contemporary French and Russian warships. The Ersatz Monarch-class ships were also designed to be built with an 85 mm (3.3 in) torpedo bulkhead. ## Ships ## Construction and cancellation On 28 April 1914, the Austro-Hungarian government approved Haus' 1915–1919 naval expansion program. The provisions would come into force on 1 July that same year. Shortly afterwards, the navy placed orders for four ships. The Austro-Hungarian Navy followed the traditional German custom of not naming the new ships until they were formally launched. As a result, the Navy only referred to them as "replacements" for the old Monarch-class ships. The costs to construct the Ersatz Monarch-class battleships would have been enormous by the standards of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. While the older Habsburg, Erzherzog Karl, Radetzky, and the Tegetthoff classes cost the navy roughly 18, 26, 40, and 60 million Kronen, respectively, per ship, each ship of the Ersatz Monarch class was projected to cost over 81.6–83 million Kronen. The four ships themselves were simply referred to as "Battleships VIII–XI" ("Schlachtschiff VIII–XI"). Construction on "Battleship VIII" was ready to begin by the start of July, and Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino had acquired the raw materials and equipment necessary to lay down the battleship, but the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by Serbian agents on 28 June led to a delay in the ship's keel being laid down. After the July Crisis and Austria-Hungary's subsequent declaration of war on Serbia a month later that started World War I, construction for the battleship was pushed back to September, when the war with Serbia was expected to be over. In August, with Austria-Hungary embroiled in a world war with Serbia, Russia, Montenegro, Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom, the Austro-Hungarian government suspended all contracts which had been awarded as part of Haus' naval program, including the four ships of the Ersatz Monarch class. By October, the Hungarian finance ministry had attempted to cancel the projects outright. While the navy was unwilling to begin work on the ships until after the war, Haus objected to a cancellation of the project and in February 1915 a compromise was reached where construction would be halted until after the war, but the project would be suspended, not formally canceled. The main guns were built by the Škoda Works and the guns for "Battleship VIII" had been ordered prior to the beginning of the war. These were the only orders that the Austro-Hungarian Navy had placed for any part of the four battleships which were ultimately fulfilled. It was assumed that following a victorious conclusion to the war, which Austria-Hungary expected to be short, work on the battleships would resume. As the war continued, four of the guns were handed over to the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1916. The rest of the completed guns were later taken by the French as war prizes following the end of the war. In late 1917, with the war entering its third year, the construction on all four vessels was finally canceled.

Revolution of the Ganhadores

1857 strike in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

The Revolution of the Ganhadores, also known as the 1857 African porters' strike, was a labor strike that involved African porters, known as ganhadores, in the Brazilian city of Salvador, Bahia. The strike began following the passage of a city ordinance that changed the way the ganhadores operated in the city. The strike ended in a partial victory for the strikers, as the city council replaced the ordinance with another one that did away with some of the more unpopular provisions. During the 1800s, ganhadores were crucial to the transportation of goods through Salvador. The trade was dominated by both enslaved and free people of African descent who worked together in self-governing groups known as cantos. While the ganhadores were given a great deal of freedom to move through the city, fears of a slave revolt, in the vein of the Malê revolt of 1835, prompted the government to try to exert more control over the ganhadores. In 1836, the provincial government of Bahia enacted a law that required ganhadores to register with the government, wear identification tags, and operate under the direct supervision of captains, which replaced the canto system. The law proved extremely unpopular, not just with the ganhadores, but with the general public as well, and by the following year, the canto system was restored, and the law became unenforced. In 1857, the city council of Salvador enacted a new law modeled after the 1836 act which again required ganhadores to register and wear metal identification tags around their necks. Ganhadores were required to pay a fee for the tags, while freedmen also had to provide a guarantor who would take responsibility for the ganhador. To protest the new law, ganhadores in the city went on strike on 1 June, the same date that the law went into effect. The strike effectively shut down transportation inside the city. Local newspapers reported on the strike with front-page stories and noted the impact that the action was having on the local economy. Within days, the president of the province, João Lins Cansanção, Viscount of Sinimbu, ordered the city council to rescind the fee requirement from the law. However, the strike continued, and within a week, the city council announced that they were repealing the law, replacing it with a new one. This new law still required ganhadores to register and wear identification tags around their necks, but it removed the registration fee and changed the rules regarding freedmen so that they no longer had to have a guarantor, but instead just a "certificate of guarantee" from an authority or a respectable citizen. With these changes, the strike continued, but more ganhadores registered and returned to work, and by 13 June, the Jornal da Bahia newspaper reported that the strike had effectively ended. According to Brazilian historian João José Reis, the strike was the first general strike in Brazil's history. He attributes the partial success of the strike to the solidarity among Salvador's Afro-Brazilian community and sees the event as an early example of pan-Africanism that would become more common throughout Bahia in the late 1800s. ## Background ### Urban slavery in Salvador In 1857, Salvador, the capital city of the Brazilian province of Bahia and a major port in the Atlantic slave trade, had a population of over 50,000. White Brazilians made up about 30 percent of the population, while black people constituted about 40 percent of the population. Altogether, Afro-Brazilians, which included slaves, freedmen, and mixed-race people of African descent, made up a majority of the city's population. Slaves made up between 30 and 40 percent of the population, with a majority of them having been born in Africa. Many were Nagos, or members of the Yoruba people from the area around the Bight of Benin. The system of urban slavery in Salvador differed in some ways from plantation slavery. Many of the slaves in Salvador were allowed a comparatively high freedom of movement and engaged in various forms of manual street labor, in trades such as bricklaying or carpentry. It was not uncommon for masters to let their slaves rent residences away from their homes and return only once per week to give their masters a part of the money that they had earned through their labor, with the slaves allowed to keep the remainder. In many cases, these slaves worked alongside freedmen, and some slaves were able to save enough money to eventually purchase their manumission. ### Ganhadores Many black people in Salvador worked as laborers known as ganhadores ('earners'). These ganhadores worked as porters, transporting goods, cargo, and people throughout the city. Transportation in the city was largely dependent on these ganhadores, as other forms of transportation were either unavailable or economically unfeasible for most merchants. At the time, it was a profession held entirely by black people, with no white people or pardo Brazilians (people of mixed race or ethnicity) working in that field. During an 1847 visit to Salvador, Alexandre, Baron Forth-Rouen des Mallets of France, wrote that black people constituted "the majority of the Bahia's population" and were "the only ones to be seen in the streets, like beasts employed to carry all kinds of burdens, and which circulate laden with heavy loads". A similar observation was made by German explorer Robert Christian Avé-Lallemant during an 1858 stay in Salvador, where he said, "Everything that runs, shouts, works, everything that transports and carries is black". About 30 percent of the Nagos slaves in Salvador worked exclusively as ganhadores, and a majority worked either full-time or part-time as such. The ganhadores of Salvador organized themselves into work groups known as cantos, with each canto covering a particular area of the city. These cantos also functioned as important public spaces for Africans in Salvador, as they served as gathering places where people could interact, buy and sell goods, and engage in religious practices. Each canto was led by an individual known as the capitão-do-canto ('captain of the canto'), who was selected from among the ganhadores of the canto and could be either freedmen or slaves. ### Malê revolt and its aftermath Between 1807 and 1835, slaves in Bahia staged over 20 slave rebellions that scared many slave owners in the region. In 1835, a group of Muslim slaves and freedmen in Salvador, a majority of whom were Yoruba, revolted in what historian João José Reis called "the most dramatic urban slave rebellion in Brazilian history". The uprising was ultimately suppressed, and in the aftermath, about half of the prisoners who were indicted for involvement were ganhadores. Additionally, 17 percent of the individuals were artisans who probably worked in the cantos and had acted as the main conspirators in the uprising. In June of that year, in response to the uprising, the Provincial Legislature enacted Law 14, which replaced the cantos with capatazias. Under this system, the capatazias would be overseen by a capataz (transl. foreman) who would receive a salary directly from the ganhadores he oversaw and, according to the law, would "police the ganhadores". Additionally, ganhadores would be required to register themselves with the government and wear metal bracelets with identification tags. The ganhadores were required to register monthly and would face a fee of 10,000 réis for failure to do so. A system of inspectors was established to oversee their registrations, police the areas to which they were assigned, and to serve as the capatazes' superiors. The law, which took effect in April 1836, was unpopular among the ganhadores and the wider public. An article published in the Diário da Bahia in May 1836 criticized the capatazes and the identification tags, arguing that they would lead to increased prices and would hinder the movement of the ganhadores around the city. Additionally, the newspaper felt that the province should not become involved in laws regarding ganhadores, which they felt was a matter best left to the city government. Authorities had difficulties in enforcing the law, as many ganhadores refused to register, gave false information, refused to pay fines, and relocated to parts of the city where the law wasn't strongly enforced. Businesspeople and merchants in some areas complained about the effect that the law had on their business, with the number of active ganhadores in these areas dropping considerably. Ultimately, by 1837, authorities gave in, cantos were restored, and the law went unenforced. ### 1857 city ordinance Despite the failure of Law 14, Brazilian authorities continued to try to exert control over the ganhadores over the decades that followed. Around March 1857, the city government of Salvador promulgated an ordinance that stated that ganhadores would have to register for a permit with the city council in order to continue to work in that profession. The total cost of registration was 5,000 réis, roughly the price of 10 kilograms (22 lb) of meat, with 3,000 réis going towards a metal plaque with the slave's registration number engraved on it. This plaque was to be worn around their necks at all times while working. A similar policy had existed since the early 1840s regarding the ganhadores in Rio de Janeiro, the capital of the Brazilian Empire. Additionally, ganhadores who were freedmen needed to present guarantors who would take responsibility for their behavior. A similar city ordinance that was already in place at the time applied to ganhadeiras, black women who worked in the streets as grocery vendors, who had to pay an annual fee of 20,000 réis. The ordinance would came into effect on 1 June. ## Course of the strike The strike action began on 1 June, the day that the act became enforceable. Transportation in the city was immediately paralyzed. The following day, the Jornal da Bahia published a front-page story on the strike, saying that there were no active ganhadores in the city and that nothing had left the customs house except for some small items and goods that were carried by slaves of the parties involved. The newspaper would continue to published front-page updates for the duration of the strike. On 1 June, the Commercial Association, a group that represented some of the largest merchants in the city, protested the ordinance to Bahia's provincial president, João Lins Cansanção, Viscount of Sinimbu. Cansanção, an economically liberal politician, immediately ordered the council to stop charging a registration fee and distribute the tags free of charge. This resulted in a schism between the president and the city council, with the president arguing that the council did not have the authority to levy the tax against the ganhadores without the consent of the provincial government and that the burden of the fee would be passed on to consumers. Despite objections from some of the aldermen, the council agreed to waive the registration fee. At the onset of the strike, there was confusion amongst different groups regarding what had been its main cause. The Commercial Association argued that the registration tax was the main item to blame, while the editors of the Jornal stated that the mandatory identification tags were responsible, while the ganhadores viewed them as an obvious sign of humiliation and dehumanization. The city council, meanwhile, stated that the strike had begun because the ganhadores "wish to dispense with any type of supervision". With the financial portion of the ordinance repealed, the ganhadores continued to strike over the regulations found in the law, specifically the provision that they needed to wear metal identification tags. On 2 June, the Jornal reported that there had been some movement of goods from the customs house, but that overall transportation was near-nonexistent. By the third day, however, some slaves began to defect and return to work. Many had had their tags acquired for them by their owners and faced retribution from their owners for continuing to strike. According to archives kept by the city council, there were 40 registrations made on 4 June, after owners were made aware that they would not have to pay the fee, compared to just three registrations that had been made prior to that date. The Jornal reported that some slaves who wore their tags in public were attacked with stones by strikers, and others chose to take off their tags and resume striking after pressure from other Africans. Despite these incidents, solidarity remained relatively strong among the strikers and the supporting community, with evidence that some ganhadeiras allowed the strikers to purchase food on credit. On 5 June, the Jornal called the strike a "dangerous crisis, a revolution" led by "new revolutionaries", labeling it the "revolution of ganhadores". Many white Brazilians in the city were alarmed at the impact that the strike was having and were fearful of an all-out slave rebellion. On 8 June, some ganhadores began to return to work without wearing their identification tags. This number continued to increase in the days that followed. On 9 June, the city council voted to repeal the ordinance and replaced it with a new one that did away entirely with the tax. Additionally, freedmen were no longer required to have guarantors, but instead only had to have a "certificate of guarantee" from an official or reputable citizen. However, the new law still required all ganhadores to wear their tags in public. Following this new law, many freedmen began to collect certificates of guarantee and register with the city government, and by 12 June, many ganhadores had returned to work, wearing their tags. However, a significant number returned to work without tags, either as a form of continued protest or because the city government had run out of tags. The following day, the Jornal reported that commerce was resuming to pre-strike levels, with the strike effectively over. ## Aftermath The strike had a large short-term impact on Salvador's and economy and history, as it had effectively shut down transportation within the city for a week. In 1997, Reis called the event the first general strike in Brazil's history, occurring several years prior to a more well-known strike involving printers in Rio de Janeiro in 1858. Ultimately, the strike was partially successful in opposing the city ordinance. While ganhadores were still required to register and wear tags, they were not required to pay for them, and freedmen found it much easier to attain a "certificate of guarantee" than to find a guarantor. According to Reis, the partial success of the strike can be attributed in large part to the organized nature of the cantos, which allowed for a form of organized labor amongst the ganhadores. Additionally, the strong ethnic ties among the Nagos helped to foster solidarity among the strikers and the larger Afro-Brazilian community in Salvador, with Reis stating that the strike represented an early form of pan-Africanism that became more widespread through Bahia in the later 1800s. Reis also states that the shortcomings of the strike may be attributed to the large number of slaves who worked alongside freedmen as ganhadores and were more likely to defect, ultimately serving as unintentional strikebreakers. In 1880, new legislation removed the requirement for the ganhadores to wear metal tags, though it still required them to wear registration identification on the right sleeves of their shirts. Additionally, the new legislation required them to register with the police and not directly with the city council. Over the next several decades, the percentage of slaves working as ganhadores declined, and by 1888, the year that slavery was abolished in Brazil, slaves constituted only about 2.5 percent of Salvador's population.

Star Trek: Voyager (season 4)

The fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager commenced airing on UPN in the United States on September 3, 1997, and concluded on May 20, 1998, after airing 26 episodes. Set in the 24th century, the series followed the adventures of the Starfleet and Maquis crew of the starship USS Voyager after they were stranded in the Delta Quadrant, far from the rest of the Federation. Season Four featured the debut of new main cast member Jeri Ryan as Seven of Nine, nicknamed Seven, and the departure of Jennifer Lien, who portrayed Kes during the first three seasons of the show. At the end of the season, co-creator and executive producer Jeri Taylor retired. With the addition of Seven, a series of episodes focused on her backstory and relationship with other characters. The season opened with a Nielsen rating of 8.8% for "Scorpion", which was higher than any episode since the pilot. "Unforgettable", despite having special guest star Virginia Madsen, received the lowest rating with 3.4%. The fanbase initially responded negatively to Ryan's addition to the cast, raising concerns over Seven's sexual attractiveness, which had the potential to overshadow the story. But following the airing of the episodes, critics applauded Ryan's acting skills and her role as Seven, noting that it would improve the quality of the stories and the series itself. Acclaimed episodes like "Scorpion", "Year of Hell", and "Hope and Fear", led critics to describe the fourth season as one of the best. The episode "Living Witness", directed by Tim Russ, received special critical accommodation as one of the best episodes of the entire series. ## Plot overview The fourth season of Voyager introduces Seven of Nine (Seven) as a new crew member as she becomes separated from the Borg collective after the crew help the Borg to defeat Species 8472. Captain Kathryn Janeway mentors Seven and helps her to rediscover her individuality and her humanity. Kes leaves the vessel after her powers increase, but pushes Voyager ten years closer to home as she departs. B'Elanna Torres faces her Klingon heritage, while the Doctor confronts the rights of sentient holograms for the first time. After the construction of a new Astrometrics lab, the crew enter Krenim space and go through the "Year of Hell" foretold in the season three episode "Before and After". But the events of this year are undone with the destruction of the Krenim timeship. Voyager continues to encounter the Borg and enters Hirogen space, establishing contact with Starfleet for the first time since being stranded in the Delta Quadrant. The crew are cloned by an intelligent silver liquid on a demon class planet and the season ends with an alien seeking revenge who tries to trick the crew with a fake Starfleet vessel that can take them home to Earth. ## Cast ### Main cast ### Recurring cast ## Episodes ## Production ### Casting An audition process was held for Seven of Nine (Seven), a new character in the fourth season. Jeri Ryan attended for readings, and was cast in the role. She previously appeared in the science fiction television series Dark Skies on NBC, and found the change of characters amusing. "I was fighting the collective, the Hive on 'Dark Skies'. Now I'm part of the collective, the Borg", she remarked. Ryan described Seven as "a dark character, stronger and more forceful than many female characters have been on Star Trek so far." The initial fan reaction to Seven was mixed. Some fans accused the show of adding her to attract more 18–35 male audience members, which co-executive producer Brannon Braga denied. The original Borg costume Ryan wore during the second part of "Scorpion" took approximately two and a half hours to apply. When Ryan was first measured for the outfit, the costume designers failed to take into account the full head prosthetic required for the first and second episodes of the season. Because of this error in measurement, the costume cut off Ryan's carotid artery, causing her to pass out. After a nurse was called twice to supply oxygen, the costume was modified to prevent it from happening again. A new costume was required for Ryan once Seven had the majority of her Borg implants removed. She wore a new silver jumpsuit for the following several episodes. During the filming of the episode "Day of Honor", director Jesús Salvador Treviño criticized the outfit, saying that "almost any camera angle inevitably winds up emphasizing her sexuality." Ryan described the new costume as "a little snug"; she wore a corset-like device which gave her the appearance of mechanical ribs. Treviño praised Ryan's third costume, which replaced the silver jumpsuit, noting how it reduced her sexual characteristics: "It is much more sensible, because she's still an attractive person but then you get away from that titillation stuff which I think is so demeaning not only to the audience, but it's kind of demeaning to what Star Trek is about". Season four also saw the departure of Jennifer Lien as Kes after her contract was not renewed. Lien appeared in the first two episodes of the season before being written out. Braga said that the character was not working on the show and that they needed to make room for Ryan in the cast. Lien later reprised her role as Kes in the season six episode "Fury". Robert Picardo thought that the writers were partly responsible for the problems with Lien's character due to the limitations they placed on Kes in the original concept for Voyager. As a member of the Ocampa species, for example, Kes was only allowed a short, nine-year lifespan. Tim Russ, who portrays Tuvok, described the departure of Kes from the series as "gracious" and "poignant". ### Writing Michael Piller had left the staff of Voyager a year previously at the beginning of the third season to work on other projects, leaving Jeri Taylor to take over as executive producer. Brannon Braga was promoted to co-executive producer at the beginning of the fourth season after Taylor sought to reduce her involvement on the show. Braga originally joined the franchise when he was an intern on Star Trek: The Next Generation; he went on to write more than 40 episodes as well as Star Trek Generations (1994) and Star Trek: First Contact (1996). After Taylor left the show at the end of the season, Braga became the executive producer. With the addition of Seven to the crew, the writers incorporated the character's backstory into the show. "The Raven" explores how Seven arrived in the Delta quadrant, while a variety of episodes show Seven rediscovering her humanity. Seven also brought a third-party view of humanity that had previously been missing from Voyager. This outsider perspective was used earlier in the franchise, with the roles of Spock in Star Trek: The Original Series, Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation as well as Odo in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Russ felt that the majority of the episodes during the fourth season concentrated on the new character of Seven. The writers also introduced relationships between Voyager's crew, focusing on developing the connection between Tom Paris and B'Elanna Torres, Tuvok and Neelix, and Kathryn Janeway and Chakotay. Both Russ and Kate Mulgrew believed that the writing improved during the fourth season. ## Reception ### Ratings The season opened to a Nielsen rating of 8.8 percent for the second part of "Scorpion" when it aired on September 3, 1997. A Nielsen rating of 8.8 percent means the episode was watched by 8.8 percent of those watching television at the time of broadcast. This was the highest rating for the series since "Caretaker", the original pilot episode. Ratings for "The Gift", the second episode of the fourth season, dropped to 5.6 percent. However, only two other episodes during season four had ratings of 5 percent or higher, with "Revulsion" and the second part of "Year of Hell" gaining ratings of 5 percent and 5.2 percent respectively. "Unforgettable" received the lowest rating of the season with 3.4 percent. The season closed with "Hope and Fear", which received a Nielsen rating of 4.1%. The series remained UPN's highest rated show. In September 1997, Dean Valentine, the incoming chief of the network, promised to increase promotion of the show. In November 1997, Voyager swapped timeslots with The Sentinel, moving from a 9 p.m. to 8 p.m. slot. The timeslot was changed because Voyager received higher ratings. It was hoped that the swap would have a lead-in effect into The Sentinel. This timeslot change placed Voyager in direct competition against 3rd Rock from the Sun on NBC, The Drew Carey Show on ABC and Party of Five on Fox. Nevertheless, local providers started to swap from UPN to The WB in early 1998, and ratings suffered. To combat this problem, the series was moved back to 9 p.m. from May onwards. ### Reviews Some members of the online Star Trek community complained about the addition of Seven of Nine (Seven) to the show before the season premiere, referring to Voyager as "Melrose Space". The nickname amused Ryan, who hoped the fans would be won over during the course of the season. Once the episodes started to air for the first time, Ryan's character increased in popularity amongst the fan base. Two months after the start of the season, Ryan attended her first science fiction convention; she was overwhelmed by the fan response. The critics credited Seven's presence on Voyager as a significant improvement, with the Seattle Post-Intelligencer concluding that Voyager had "finally...found its groove". Writing for Dreamwatch, Gary Russell said that Ryan's character worked well on the season from her first appearance. However, the Boston Herald argued that the show had swapped "sci-fi for sex appeal" during the fourth season, but acknowledged Ryan was a good actress. It gave the season three out of five stars at the time of the DVD release. In a review of "Scorpion, Part II", the first episode of the fourth season, Tony Norman of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette noted several new elements. The episode, according to Norman, established the first ideological debate between Janeway and Chakotay since the original series pilot. Norman also noted that the new character of Seven would create a "source of tension" and "infuse the show with the edginess it desperately needs". The addition of a Borg crew member, Norman argued, was the same type of "bold move" that occurred when Worf was added to the USS Enterprise in Star Trek: The Next Generation. Writing for Den of Geek, Juliette Harrisson described the fourth season as the best of the series. She praised Seven's introduction as an opportunity for existing characters, such as Tuvok. Harrisson highlighted several of the episodes of the season, pointing to "Living Witness" as a candidate for the best of the entire series. She criticized "Mortal Coil" and "Retrospect" for concentrating too much on the relationship between Seven and Janeway, to the detriment of other characters. On the website Blastr, Lisa Granshaw included "Scorpion", "Year of Hell", "Living Witness" and "Hope and Fear in an unordered list of the top ten episodes of Voyager. In 2019, CBR rated Season 4 of Star Trek: Voyager as the 8th best season of all Star Trek seasons up to that time, noting the introduction of the character Seven of Nine (played by Jeri Ryan). ### Accolades The series was nominated for two Emmy Awards following the fourth season: "Year of Hell" was nominated for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series, while "The Killing Game" received a nomination for Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series. Kate Mulgrew won the Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television for her performance as Captain Janeway. The Satellite Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series - Drama was awarded to Jeri Ryan at the 3rd Golden Satellite Awards. ## Home media release

Love's Train

1982 single by Con Funk Shun

"Love's Train" is a song by American R&B and funk band Con Funk Shun from their tenth studio album, To the Max (1982). The song was written by Michael Cooper and Felton C. Pilate II, and produced by Con Funk Shun. Cooper wrote the song to a music track created by Pilate, which had different lyrics. It is an R&B, funk and quiet storm song that includes a "steering bass guitar", "glittering keys", and "synth-centric flair of '80s R&B". Lyrically, the song is about a love triangle, involving Cooper and Pilate. Since its release, the song has received praise from music critics, with the majority commending the band's vocals. While the song was never released as a single, it has since become an audience favorite and a signature song for the band. The song has since appeared on multiple compilation albums, and has been re-recorded and remastered in 2010. The song was covered by Dru Hill on their 1996 eponymous album and by Silk Sonic in 2022, as a commemorative song for Valentine's Day; the latter's version peaked at number 47 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. ## Background During an interview with Vibe, Felton Pilate affirmed that he wrote a song called "Baby Please Come Home", which was the original version of "Love's Train", for the To the Max album. After Michael Cooper heard the song, he asked for a copy of the track without the original lyrics. Cooper decided to create new lyrics to the song, these made the final cut of the track. Initially, Pilate didn't enjoy the new lyrics and it took a week "before the other group members were able to convince" him. Pilate explained, that the "original version was a softer, more laid-back thing", while Cooper's version "was full of hard, gritty emotion". Usually, Con Funk Shun would listen to the finished songs together and they would vote the songs they wanted to submit to Mercury Records. Initially, they heard Pilate's original track, along with other songs, and only afterward Cooper's reworked version was played. At this point, they affirmed having already listened to the song, but Cooper said that his version was different. Only "halfway through the song" the band noticed the lyrics concerned "what had happened between Pilate and Cooper" and "started staring at the floor". When they counted the votes, "Love's Train" received the most votes. Later, Pilate wanted to remove his music, which, according to Cooper "would've killed the song." Danny Thomas, Con Funk Shun's keyboard player, told Pilate "in an expletive-laden rant" he needed to be crazy because the song was a hit. Pilate bowed and replied he was sorry, then "they all began laughing". ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "Love's Train" is a R&B, funk, and quiet storm ballad. Its instrumentation includes a "steering bass guitar", "glittering keys", and "synth-centric flair of '80s R&B". The song was written by Cooper and Pilate II, and produced by Con Funk Shun. It was mastered by Chris Bellman at Allen Zentz in Los Angeles. "Love's Train" was written about "a love triangle Cooper and Pilate found themselves in, both lovelorn and yearning". The songwriters have acknowledged there was no awkwardness during the writing sessions. One day, a young lady showed up at the studio in San Francisco and Pilate "moved on her quickly". After a month of relationship, she told Cooper that she wanted him, instead of Pilate. At this point, Cooper thought the woman had left Pilate, but she was "juggling" both of them. One night Cooper showed up at her apartment and she was with Pilate. The former told Pilate "[i]f by chance you let me come up, we can talk about this"; these words would become the bridge in "Love's Train". Cooper decided to go home and poured out his sorrow into the lyrics of a song, which started "warm night, can't sleep, too hurt, too weak, gotta call her up". Cooper wrote the song to a music track created by Pilate, but with different lyrics. ## Reception and promotion According to AllMusic's Craig Lytle, "the romance in the song is manifested by the guitar and piano rhythms". Lytle, affirmed the lead tenor, performed by Cooper, was "husky and smooth". Matt Doria from NME described Con Funk Shun's vocals as "ultra-suave and honeyed". Since its release, "Love's Train" has become an audience favorite and a signature song for the band. "Love's Train" was included as the seventh track on Con Funk Shun's tenth studio album To the Max, released in 1982 by Mercury Records. The original recording was never released as a single. "Love's Train" has appeared on numerous compilation albums, including The Best of Con Funk Shun (1993), 20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection: The Best of Con Funk Shun (2002), and Touch/Con Funk Shun 7/To the Max (2011). The song was re-recorded and remastered in 2010. Con Funk Shun first performed "Love's Train" on Soul Train in 1983 and later for Funky Nights: United We Funk All Stars, which was released on a DVD in 2003. In 1996, the song was covered by Dru Hill on their eponymous album. After listening to Dru Hill's cover, Pilate was "surprised and honored." ## Silk Sonic version The American superduo Silk Sonic, which consists of Bruno Mars and Anderson .Paak, recorded a version of "Love's Train" as a commemorative song for Valentine's Day. It was released on February 14, 2022, by Aftermath Entertainment and Atlantic Records. The song was selected as the fourth single from their debut album An Evening With Silk Sonic (2022) and was first issued to airplay in Italy on March 18, 2022. It was later added to the album An Evening With Silk Sonic on streaming services and is also included on the webstore exclusive vinyl recording. A soul and funk song, it features new production by Bruno Mars and D'Mile. "Love's Train" was well received by music critics, who praised Mars and .Paak's vocals and their commitment to the original version of the song. To promote "Love's Train", Silk Sonic performed it at the 2022 Billboard Music Awards. The song won Outstanding Duo, Group or Collaboration (Traditional) at the 54th NAACP Image Awards. ### Background Felton Pilate confessed that the group was surprised by the Silk Sonic's cover, as not only the latter didn't contact them, but Con Funk Shun's publishing company didn't tell Pilate about Silk Sonic's intention to record a cover of "Love's Train". He was grateful and humbled that Silk Sonic chose their song. Regarding the cover's production Pilate felt that Mars and .Paak were able "to keep the original emotion, and the energy behind it". He furthered, that Silk Sonic and D'Mile studied the original song in order to recapture its authenticity, and added some new sounds that Con Funk Shun could have done if they "had another shot at covering" their own track. On February 14, 2022, Mars announced the release of Con Funk Shun's "Love's Train" cover, via Instagram. He also affirmed that it is one of his and .Paak's favorite songs to play and cover. .Paak wrote on his Instagram account, "We wanna dedicate this to that special someone!" In a similar publication, Silk Sonic typed on Twitter, "We love this song so much we wanted to sing it for y'all". A press release also describes the track as one of Mars and .Paak’s "favorite songs". ### Production "Love's Train" was written by Michael Cooper and Felton C. Pilate II. The cover version features new production by Mars and D'Mile. Kameron Whalum sang background vocals and played the trombone. John Fossit played the piano, while Maurice Brown was in charge of the trumpet and Dwayne Dugger played the sax. Jamareo Artis played the bass, Mateus Asato the guitar fuzz, and Ella Feingold the rhythm guitar. Jimmy King played the tambourine as Eric Hernandez was in charge of the congas. Emma Kummrow, Luigi Mazzocchi, and Blake Espy played violin with Gared Crawford, Charlene Kwas, and Ghislaine Fleischmann. Jonathan Kim and Yoshihiko Nakano were on the viola. Larry Gold, with assistant Steve Tirpak, did the arrangement and conduction of the strings at Milkboy Studios, while Cody Cichowski did the recording of the strings. Charles Moniz, with engineering assistant Alex Resoagli, engineered and recorded the song at Shampoo Press & Curl Studios. Serban Ghenea mixed "Love's Train" at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach, with mix engineer Bryce Bordone. It was mastered by Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound, NYC. ### Composition Musically, the "Love's Train" cover is a "silky and smooth" 1970s funk and soul song. It is composed in the key of A Major with a tempo of 70 beats per minute. The singers' vocal ranges span from the low note of E4 to a high note of E6. According to Rolling Stone's Larisha Paul, Mars and D'Mile "added the bounce of Silk Sonic's signature groove, picking up the pace of the original". The cover version kept most of the original instrumentation. However, the 1980s R&B synths were replaced with "balmy horns and analogue production", as the Silk Sonic version is centered around the 1970s decade. Andy Bustard, writing for HipHopDX, said the duo go back far in time "by swapping the '80s production for lush, analog instrumentation that would sound at home in the previous decade". Bustard added that they "apply a fresh sonic coat to the love ballad". Uproxx's Aaron Williams described the bass as "buzzing" and the horns as "soaring". ### Release "Love's Train" was released on February 14, 2022, by Aftermath Entertainment and Atlantic Records as a commemorative song for Valentine's Day. On March 18, Warner Music Group (WMG) issued the track for radio airplay in Italy. On April 21, 2022, Billboard reported that "Love's Train" was the album's fourth single, with no official date of release in the United States. In February, the song was added to Silk Sonic's debut album An Evening With Silk Sonic on digital and streaming services and it was also included on the webstore exclusive vinyl recording. ### Reception "Love's Train" was met with acclaim from music critics. The song was included on Under the Radar's Songs of the Week on February 18, 2022, as part of the Honorable Mentions. Eddie Fu, writing for Consequence, dubbed the song as Silk Sonic's latest "soundtrack for...ahem adult activities". Fu commented that both Mars and .Paak stayed "true" to Con Funk Shun's original and "easily slip into their seductive role". Similarly, Doria also found Silk Sonic to be "largely faithful to the five-minute jam". Doria called Silk Sonic's version "expectedly sensual...soulful and groove-laden". Billboard's Jason Lipshutz compared the best songs on An Evening With Silk Sonic to the cover version of "Love's Train", saying "the homage pops with modern production and two self-assured vocal performances". Bustar affirmed that "Silk Sonic's rendition stays faithful" to the original version. Bustar praised the merge of Mars "soaring falsetto", and .Paak's "raspy timber" as it "adds more sensuality to the Valentine's Day jam." Jordan Darville of The Fader commented that while "the aesthetic of Silk Sonic may seem tongue-in-cheek, the music and the duo's appreciation for the era they're channeling certainly isn't". In a mixed review, Uproxx's Williams called Silk Sonic's vocals "velvety", and noted that despite being a love song, "it's as much about the messiness as anything on their debut album". "Love's Train" peaked at number 47 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. It failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100, though entered the Bubbling Under Hot 100, which acts as an extension of the former chart, peaking at number 111. "Love's Train" spent thirteen weeks on the top spot of the Billboard Adult R&B Songs chart. The song won Outstanding Duo, Group or Collaboration (Traditional) at the 54th NAACP Image Awards. ### Live performances Silk Sonic performed the song live at the 2022 Billboard Music Awards. They were joined on stage by a band and two backup singers. Silk Sonic and the backup singers wore "maroon leisure suits", while the band used "complementing outfits". The performance included a "fully choreographed routine" by Silk Sonic and everyone on stage. The performance was well received by critics. Entertainment Tonight's Zach Seemayer‍ dubbed Silk Sonic's performance as one of the show highlights, saying "Just flawless '70s crooning that is every bit as smooth as their name wound lead you to expect." Melissa Ruggieri writing for USA Today placed Silk Sonic's performance as the fifth-best of the show. Ruggieri noticed the "pelvic thrusts and Temptations-styled dancing". Austin Williams from Vibe commended Silk Sonic's singing and choreography. Starr Bowenbank of Billboard magazine praised "their smooth dance skills". They also sang "Love's Train" during the concert residency, An Evening with Silk Sonic at Park MGM (2022). ### Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of An Evening with Silk Sonic. - Bruno Mars – vocals, production - Anderson .Paak – vocals, drums - Kameron Whalum – background vocals, trombone - Michael Cooper – songwriting - Felton C. Pilate II – songwriting - D'Mile – production - John Fossit – piano - Maurice Brown – trumpet - Dwayne Dugger – sax - Jamareo Artis – bass - Mateus Asato – guitar fuzz - Ella Feingold – rhythm guitar - Jimmy King – tambourine - Eric Hernandez – congas - Larry Gold – strings conduction, arrangement - Steve Tirpak – arrangement assistant - Cody Chicowski – strings recording - Emma Kummrow – violin - Luigi Mazzocchi – violin - Blake Espy – violin - Gared Crawford – violin - Charlene Kwas – violin - Ghislaine Fleischmann – violin - Jonathan Kim – viola - Yoshihiko Nakano – viola - Glenn Fischbach – cello - Charles Moniz – recording, engineering - Alex Resoagli – engineering assistant - Serban Ghenea – mixing - Bryce Bordone – mixing engineering - Randy Merrill – mastering ### Charts ### Release history

Ontario Highway 63

Ontario provincial highway

King's Highway 63, commonly referred to as Highway 63, is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario. The 63.5-kilometre (39.5 mi) route travels from Highway 11 and Highway 17 (the Trans-Canada Highway) in North Bay northeast to the Ontario-Quebec provincial boundary, where it continues as Route 101 into Témiscaming. The route was assumed in 1937, following the merger of the Department of Northern Development (DND) into the Department of Highways (DHO), predecessor to the modern Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO). It travelled from what was then Highway 11 (Main Street) in downtown North Bay northeast to its present terminus. The highway follows the same route today, with the exception of the westernmost 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi), which were transferred to the City of North Bay in 1998. ## Route description Highway 63 begins at Highway 11 and Highway 17 (the Trans-Canada Highway) in North Bay and travels 63.5 kilometres (39.5 mi) northeast to the Ontario–Quebec provincial boundary, where Route 101 continues into Témiscaming. It travels through the communities of Feronia, Redbridge, Balsam Creek, Eldee and Thorne. Prior to 1998, the route included a 1.9-kilometre (1.2 mi) section of Cassells Street extending into downtown North Bay. Highway 63 is 63.5 kilometres (39.5 mi) long, situated entirely within Nipissing District. Beginning in North Bay near Lake Nipissing, the source of the French River which flows down to Georgian Bay, Highway 63 travels east through suburbs. It exits the city and travels along the northern shores of Trout Lake, which serves as the headwaters of the Mattawa River, which flows into the Ottawa River and eventually the St. Lawrence River. The portion of Highway 63 west of Trout Lake travels between these water systems. The highway curves northeast to pass through the communities of Feronia and later Redbridge and Balsam Creek, after which it enters thick wilderness dominated by the Canadian Shield and Boreal Forest, with few residences or services outside of communities. It meanders northward, meeting the northern end of Highway 533, which travels south to Mattawa, approximately two-thirds of the distance between North Bay and the Quebec border. For the remainder of the highway, the route passes through isolated forests, travelling north, then curving east towards the Ottawa River. It passes through the community of Eldee before turning north alongside the river, following it up through Thorne. North of Thorne, the highway turns east and crosses the river into Quebec, becoming Route 101 and entering Témiscaming. ## History On August 25, 1937, the North Bay – Témiscaming Road was assumed by the DHO as Highway 63, connecting Highway 11 (Main Street) in downtown North Bay with the Ontario–Quebec border at Témiscaming. The road existed prior to this point as a northern development road. However, on April 1, 1937, the DND merged into the DHO. As a result, numerous highways were assumed in the northern regions of Ontario in mid-1937. The highway remained unchanged for over 60 years, until January 1, 1998, when the Connecting Link agreement through North Bay from Main Street to Highway 11 / Highway 17 - the North Bay Bypass - was rescinded. As a result, Highway 63 was shortened by 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi). ## Major intersections

Mary Stuart Smith

American author and translator

Mary Stuart Harrison Smith (February 10, 1834 – December 8, 1917) was an American author, translator, and women's advocate. Her Virginia Cookery Book (1885) is one of the country's early modern cookbooks. In addition to other original works, she published over fifty translated compositions, primarily from the German to English. She was a descendant of the Harrison family of Virginia, and also authored numerous book reviews for various periodicals. In 1893, Smith attended and spoke on behalf of Virginia women at the Chicago World's Congress, which was designed to highlight women's rights. In 1895 she was among the women invited by the Virginia governor to represent the commonwealth's female workers at the Board of Women's convention at the International Exposition in Atlanta. Smith is prominently memorialized at the University of Virginia chapel—she was likely a participant in the funding and creation of the chapel as a resident of the campus at the time. ## Early life and family Smith was born at the University of Virginia, in Charlottesville, on February 10, 1834. She was the second child of Professor Gessner Harrison and wife Eliza Lewis Carter Tucker. Professor Harrison was the son of Dr. Peachy Harrison and Mary (née Stuart). Dr. Harrison was a physician and politician in Harrisonburg, which was founded by his grandfather, Daniel Harrison. Eliza Tucker was the daughter of Prof. George Tucker and Maria Ball Carter. Smith’s education was provided by family and private tutors—her grandfather and father taught philosophy and ancient languages, respectively. She studied Latin, German, French, Italian, and Greek, and she demonstrated a proclivity for poetry beginning at age 13. On July 31, 1853, she married Francis H. Smith (1829–1928), son of Daniel Grove Smith and Eleanor Buckey. He was a Professor and Faculty Chairman at the university and they made their 69-year residence on the Lawn in Pavilion V there. The Smiths had eight children in addition to four who died in infancy: - Eliza Lewis Carter—died 1880; married William W. Walker - Eleanor Annabel—married 1st, Fielding Miles, married 2nd, Dr. Charles W. Kent - Lelia Maria—portraitist; married Lucien Cocke - Gessner Harrison—1861–1892 - George Tucker, M.D.—Rear Admiral, U.S.N; died 1939 - Mary Stuart—died 1900 - Eleanor Rosalie—1870–1956; married Isaac Carrington Harrison, M.D. - James Duncan—1879–1934; portraitist ## Career ### Original works After the American Civil War, Smith's nascent interest in writing began to flourish with her Art of Housekeeping in 1878, which first appeared as a series of papers written for the New York Fashion Bazar. Her first original book Heirs of the Kingdom was published in Nashville in 1880, for which a prize of \$300 was awarded by a select committee. Smith's Virginia Cookery Book was one of the early modern efforts made of that genre in America, in 1885. In the preface, Smith provided her principal motivation for the book, as one of “expediency” in light of “old domestic institutions being done away with.” She then gave reverence to her forebears in cookery, saying, “Enough it will be for the Virginia Cookery Book to take its place on the housekeeper’s pantry-shelf alongside the similar works of Miss Leslie, Marion Harland, Mrs. Henderson, and Mrs. Hale.” Smith further emphasized the role of her book as “a memento of the past, as well as a help in the present,” extolling Mary Randolph‘s Virginia Housewife (1824), of which there was then no authorized edition extant. Smith then reproduced the introduction to Randolph's book, which was written for that lady by Smith's grandfather, Professor Tucker. Smith's Lang Syne, or the Wards of Mt. Vernon was published on the occasion of the Washington Centennial, held in New York in April 1887. Her series of Letters from a Lady in New York was published (date unknown) in the Religious Herald. ### Translations Critics thought Smith had a special gift for translating German poetry, including her Chidhe in the Overland Monthly. She authored many translations for leading periodicals and publishing houses. From Ernst Werner, she translated A Hero of the Pen, Hermann, Good Luck, What the Spring Brought, St. Michael, A Judgment of God, and Beacon Lights. Her translations from other German writers were Lieschen, The Fairy of the Alps, The Bailiff's Maid, Gold Elsie, Old Ma'amselle's Secret, The Owl House, The Lady With the Rubies, Serapis, The Bride of the Nile, and Lace by Paul Lindau, and others. She also translated from the French, The Salon of Mine and Necker. Her work includes books for children, also translations from the German, such as The Canary Bird and Other Stories and Jack the Breton Boy. Other children's works were adaptations from the French, including How Lillie Spent Her Day and Little May and Her Lost A. ### Review articles Some of Smith's articles were in the form of reviews for the Southern Review, the Southern Methodist Quarterly, and the Church Review. Among her best review articles were Askaros Kassis Karis, Robert Emmet, Queen Louisa of Prussia, John of Barneveldt, What the Swallows Sang, The Women of the Revolution, The Women of the Southern Confederacy, Madame de Stael and Her Parents, The Necker Family, Madam Recamier, Mary and Martha Washington, and The Virginia Gentlewoman of the Olden Time. Smith also made numerous contributions of practical articles in Harper's Bazar, as well as others in the American Agriculturist, Good Housekeeping, and other periodicals. ### Advocacy for women Smith attended the Congress of Representative Women held at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893. The Congress focused on the political, social, and technical agendas of women, including suffrage, and was attended by activists including Jane Addams, Bertha Palmer, Lucy Stone, and Susan B. Anthony. Smith spoke on "The Virginia Woman of Today" and included an anecdote reflecting the admitted, but officially unacknowledged, ability of Virginia women in the fine arts: > "Mr. Lewis Ginter, one of Richmond's wealthiest citizens, sent an order to New York for two watercolor drawings...and the art dealer there sent him two that were executed by Miss Williams of Mr. Ginter's own city. But, you observe, the New York seal was required upon this Southern work before its value was acknowledged at home. The failure to recognize and cherish the genius of her own artists and literary workers is one of the blots on Virginia's escutcheon. May it be the happy portion of the present generation to wipe out this reproach." Smith in her speech also reviewed the remarkable efforts of Dr. Orianna Moon as an example of indomitable feminine spirit—Dr. Moon of Scottsville, Virginia, became a pioneer for women seeking a career as a medical doctor. Smith concluded her remarks as follows: > “Sisters of other states! Few experiences has the writer found more thrilling than to converse at this Congress with women of other lands and different training. ...Let the last word now spoken concerning Virginia women be a greeting on their part of warm good-will to those who preside over these Congresses, and to the genial, liberal women assembled here from all parts of the world.” The World’s Fair ended abruptly with the tragic assassination of Chicago's Mayor, and Smith's distant cousin, Carter Harrison, Sr. In 1895 Smith was in a group commissioned by Virginia Governor Charles T. O’Ferrall to represent the Virginia Dept. of Women Workers at the Board of Women of the Cotton States International Exposition in Atlanta. The Virginia legislature was not then in session and, there being no funds available for the journey and stay in Atlanta, the women's group resolved to raise the funds by individually creating patriotic song lyrics for compilation and sale. Smith therefore served as editor in producing From Virginia to Georgia, A Tribute in Song by Virginia Women, that included three entries of her own, one of which, The Ideal Wife, is at margin. ## University of Virginia memorial The University of Virginia Christian community remembers Smith positively. A stained glass window 4.0 m (13 ft) high at the University Chapel is dedicated to her memory. Smith's connection with the chapel is not otherwise documented. Record of the original funding and construction of the chapel, which coincide with Smith's lifelong campus residency, indicates the formation in 1883 of the Ladies Chapel Aid Society, prior to the laying of the chapel's cornerstone in 1885 and completion in 1889. The chapel's exhibit at the university's library indicates, "A chapel was finally built on the grounds in the 1880s after a successful campaign led by women dedicated to the spiritual needs of the University community." Library records further show total funds raised were about \$36,000. Smith is interred in the university cemetery with her husband. ## Gallery–University of Virginia Chapel and Cemetery ## Works

Street Gang

Non-fiction book by Michael Davis

Street Gang: The Complete History of Sesame Street is a non-fiction book chronicling the history of the children's television program Sesame Street. Street Gang is journalist and writer Michael Davis's first book, published by Viking Press in 2008. On bookshelves in time for the show's 40th anniversary in 2009, the book developed out of a TV Guide article Davis wrote to commemorate the show's 35th anniversary in 2004. Davis spent five years researching and writing the book, and conducted hundreds of interviews with the show's creators, cast, and crew. Street Gang begins with a description of Muppet creator Jim Henson's 1990 funeral, from the perspective of co-creator Joan Ganz Cooney. Its first twelve chapters describe the origin, development, and early years of Sesame Street and the Children's Television Workshop, the organization created to oversee the production of the show and other projects. Davis includes the biographies of many of the key people involved with the creation and production of Sesame Street. Subsequent chapters chronicle the rest of the show's history, up to its 40th anniversary in 2009. Reviews of Street Gang were mostly positive. Most reviewers were impressed by Davis' research and attention to detail, but some felt that it was too episodic and was more of an oral history than a dispassionate history of the show's history. One reviewer predicted that the book would become the definitive source of Sesame Street. Street Gang was made into an audio book, narrated by Caroll Spinney, the same day it was published. A second edition was published later that year. The 2021 documentary Street Gang: How We Got to Sesame Street directed by Marilyn Agrelo is based on the book. ## Background Michael Davis, a senior editor for TV Guide from 1998 to 2007, wrote an article in the magazine to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the children's television show Sesame Street in 2004. Street Gang developed out of the article. Davis spent five years researching and writing the book and worked with the cooperation of co-creator Joan Ganz Cooney. In 2009, Sesame Street celebrated its 40th anniversary. It was the fifteenth-highest rated children's television show in the United States and had won 8 Grammy Awards and over 100 Emmy Awards—more than any other children's show. By 2006, there were independently produced versions, or "co-productions", of Sesame Street broadcast in twenty countries. In 2001 there were over 120 million viewers of these international versions, and by 2009, it was broadcast in more than 140 countries. A 1996 survey found that 95% of all American preschoolers had watched the show by the time they were three years old. In 2008, it was estimated that 77 million Americans had watched the series as children. ## Summary Prologue: A description of the funeral of Muppet creator Jim Henson in New York City in 1990, from the viewpoint of Joan Ganz Cooney, one of the creators of Sesame Street. Chapters 1—12: The origins and development of the show and the creation of the Children's Television Workshop (CTW). Sesame Street was created after a dinner party hosted by Cooney and her husband in early 1966, attended by Carnegie Foundation vice-president Lloyd Morrisett and Cooney's boss at New York City educational television station WNDT, Lewis Freedman. The discussion inspired them to create a children's television program, different from what was offered at the time, that could "master the addictive qualities of television" and help young children, especially from low-income families, learn and prepare for school. Davis includes the biographies of key players in the show's development: Cooney, Morrisett, Jon Stone, Sam Gibbon, Tom Whedon, Evelyn Payne Davis, Jim Henson, Caroll Spinney, Gerald S. Lesser, Edward Palmer, Joe Raposo, Loretta Long, Bob McGrath, Will Lee, and Matt Robinson. There is also a discussion of the history of early children's television; specifically, Captain Kangaroo and The Howdy Doody Show. Davis emphasizes the coincidence that many involved with the show had first names that started with the letter J: Joan Cooney, Jon Stone, Jim Henson, Jerry Nelson, and Joe Raposo. Chapter 13 ("Intermission"): A description of the first episode of Sesame Street, which debuted on PBS on November 10, 1969. As Davis states, "To see that first episode today—and the four succeeding ones in Sesame's first week—is to be transported back to 1969". The first show was sponsored by the letters W, S, and E and by the numbers 2 and 3. Chapter 14: The influence of Sesame Street during its first season, and a description of its success and critics. Chapter 15—16: The 1970s. These chapters include a description of the production team, the cast who joined the show, and the Muppets that were created during this time. The biographies that Davis depicts are of producer Dulcy Singer, Christopher Cerf, Sonia Manzano, Northern Calloway, Emilio Delgado, Linda Bove, Richard Hunt, and Fran Brill. The Muppet characters Cookie Monster and Roosevelt Franklin were also created during these years. Davis describes the music of Sesame Street, Jim Henson's struggle with fame, the end of Cooney's marriage, and CTW's funding difficulties. Chapter 17: The late 70s and 1980s. Davis describes the production of the show's first special (Christmas Eve on Sesame Street), the decompensation and death of Calloway, the death of Lee and the groundbreaking way Sesame Street dealt with it, the creation of Elmo and biography of his portrayer, Kevin Clash, and the wedding of Maria and Luis. Davis calls the show's depiction of Mr. Hooper's death and the wedding "the poles that held up the canvas tent that was Sesame Street in the 1980s, a reflection of the sometimes silly, sometimes sad, always surprising, relentlessly spinning cyclical circus of life". The biography of Alison Bartlett-O'Reilly is also described. Chapter 18: The 1990s and 2000s. This chapter describes the cast's responses to the deaths of Calloway, Henson, Raposo, Connell, and Stone. It discusses Henson's business dealings with Disney in 1990, a few months before Henson's death, and Sesame Street's ratings decrease. In 1993, the show went through substantial changes in response to the show's decline ("Around the Corner"); the only thing that ultimately survived this restructuring of the show was the Muppet character Zoe, performed by Brill. There were also attempts to include more female Muppet characters. Davis discusses the "Tickle Me Elmo" phenomenon of Christmas 1996, Avenue Q, "Elmo's World", and the character Mr. Noodle. Epilogue: Davis ends his book as he begins it, focusing on Joan Ganz Cooney, during her retirement years. He also discusses the development of Sesame Street's newest character, Abby Cadabby, and the show's international influence. ## Critical reception Judith Fitzgerald of The Philadelphia Inquirer, who predicts that Street Gang will become the definitive source of the show, calls "a compulsively readable compendium of all things Sesame Street", as well as informative, heartbreaking, hilarious, and eye-opening". She credits its complicated and often funny story with the cooperation Davis received from Cooney when writing his book. Fitzgerald also praises Davis, calling him "a sensitive and subtly brilliant writer who conveys the soul of the program". Reviewer Drew Toal calls Street Gang a "swift narrative" and "a sensitive, honest account", and credits the large number of cast stories and amount of controversy recounted in the book with the hundreds of interviews Davis conducted. Frazier Moore of the Associated Press states that the book is a fascinating account of the creation of Sesame Street, and that Davis writes thoroughly and with affection. James Panero, reviewer for The New York Times, called Street Gang a "behind the lens story" and the "first comprehensive account" of Sesame Street. Panero found Davis' history tireless, but objected to Davis' emphasis on unimportant details. As a result, and due to Davis' inclusion of every anecdote and biography of everyone involved with its creation and history, Panero considers the book an oral history rather than a tightly organized narrative. Other reviewers note that Street Gang is too much like its subject, episodic and unfocused. Diana Wagman of The L.A. Times states that Davis choice of what to focus on is odd; for example, there is a great deal of focus in the book on things like the licensing and merchandising agreement of the Muppets, but very little attention on Mississippi's 1970 ban of the show. Wagman states, "Yes, we get a little past-tense womanizing, a lot of drinking and a psychotic breakdown later in the book, but it all seems sad, not salacious, and not germane to the basic story". Nick Gillespie of The Washington Post agrees. He calls Jim Henson, who is mentioned often in the book, "an almost completely enigmatic character". Wagman takes issue with the way Davis moves from topic to topic and time period to time period. Davis gives long personal histories of the principal players in his history, but fails to explain the reason they are important, and is compelled to repeat every positive claim made about Sesame Street. In spite of this, Wagman states, Davis demonstrates the love and respect Cooney and the show's cast and crew had for each another. For example, when Calloway was diagnosed with a mental illness, the show never fired him, and Wagman calls Henson's funeral "heartbreaking". Gillespie finds the "nasty backstage wrangling" and behind-the-scenes stories compelling. Alex Altman of Time Magazine agrees, and calls Davis "an unabashed fan of the show's charms rather than a dispassionate historian". He also considers Davis' use of language breathless and his portrayals of the show's creators overly flattering. Reviewer Molly O'Donnell states that the book is "broad in scope yet exercises a meticulous attention to detail". O'Donnell views Davis as balanced in his account because although Davis praises Sesame Street, he describes the public criticism the show has received and relates the personality flaws of the people who helped create it. Even with the book's lulls, which O'Donnell attributes to the large number of personal histories Davis has to tell to give a complete picture of the show's creation, she says that the book is interesting. The reviewer from Publishers Weekly agrees, praising Street Gang as continuously interesting, honest, and well-researched. The reviewer goes on to state, "Any grown-up fan will relish this account, gaining an even greater appreciation for the cultural contributions of Kermit, Big Bird, Oscar the Grouch and all their neighbors". ## Publication history The publication of the book was announced in 2006 by the television industry trade magazine Broadcasting and Cable, which anticipated a buzz about the project. The magazine stated, "A dozen of New York’s top publishers are eager to get their hands this week on the story of how Sesame Street emerged as the iconic program that shaped the minds of countless kiddies around the globe". The audio version of Street Gang, narrated by Caroll Spinney, was released at the same time as the book. A video version by Marilyn Agrelo was under production in 2017. The film Street Gang: How We Got to Sesame Street was released in 2021.

40th Infantry Division Slavonska

Royal Yugoslav Army formation

The 40th Infantry Division Slavonska was an infantry formation of the Royal Yugoslav Army that formed part of the 4th Army during the German-led Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941. It was partly mobilised from the Osijecka military district, and, like all Yugoslav infantry divisions of the time, was a very large and unwieldy formation which was almost entirely reliant on animal transport for mobility. Commanded by Brigadni đeneral Ratko Raketić, it was largely manned by Croat troops, many of whom saw the Germans as potential liberators from Serbian oppression during the interwar period, and the division also lacked modern arms and sufficient ammunition. The preliminary attacks launched across the Drava by the Germans on 6 April were enough to spark revolts within the units of the division. One of its three infantry regiments rebelled the following day, and by 8 April the rebels had taken over Bjelovar. The division continued to disintegrate over the following days, then crumbled in the face of the combined arms assault of the 8th Panzer Division when it broke out of its bridgehead at Barcs on 10 April. A few mainly Serb remnants of the division continued to withdraw into Bosnia over the next week until a ceasefire was negotiated on 15 April. The Yugoslav Army surrendered on 18 April. ## Background The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created with the merger of Serbia, Montenegro and the South Slav-inhabited areas of Austria-Hungary on 1 December 1918, in the immediate aftermath of World War I. The Army of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was established to defend the new state. It was formed around the nucleus of the victorious Royal Serbian Army, as well as armed formations raised in regions formerly controlled by Austria-Hungary. Many former Austro-Hungarian officers and soldiers became members of the new army. From the beginning, much like other aspects of public life in the new kingdom, the army was dominated by ethnic Serbs, who saw it as a means by which to secure Serb political hegemony. The army's development was hampered by the kingdom's poor economy, and this continued during the 1920s. In 1929, King Alexander changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, at which time the army was renamed the Royal Yugoslav Army (Serbo-Croatian Latin: Vojska Kraljevine Jugoslavije, VKJ). The army budget remained tight, and as tensions rose across Europe during the 1930s, it became difficult to secure weapons and munitions from other countries. Consequently, at the time World War II broke out in September 1939, the VKJ had several serious weaknesses, which included reliance on draught animals for transport, and the large size of its formations. Infantry divisions had a wartime strength of 26,000–27,000 men, as compared to contemporary British infantry divisions of half that strength. These characteristics resulted in slow, unwieldy formations, and the inadequate supply of arms and munitions meant that even the very large Yugoslav formations had low firepower. Generals better suited to the trench warfare of World War I were combined with an army that was neither equipped nor trained to resist the fast-moving combined arms approach used by the Germans in their invasions of Poland and France. The weaknesses of the VKJ in strategy, structure, equipment, mobility and supply were exacerbated by serious ethnic disunity within Yugoslavia, resulting from two decades of Serb hegemony and the attendant lack of political legitimacy achieved by the central government. Attempts to address the disunity came too late to ensure that the VKJ was a cohesive force. Fifth column activity was also a serious concern, not only from the Croatian nationalist Ustaše but also from the country's Slovene and ethnic German minorities. ## Structure ### Peacetime organisation According to regulations issued by the VKJ in 1935, the headquarters of the 40th Infantry Division Slavonska (40th ID) would be created at the time of mobilisation. Unlike most other Yugoslav divisions, the 40th ID did not have a corresponding divisional district in peacetime, and would be allocated units from other divisional districts and the VKJ reserve when it was formed. The division was named for the region of Slavonia. ### Wartime organisation The wartime organisation of the VKJ was laid down by regulations issued in 1936–37, which set the strength of an infantry division at 26,000–27,000 men. A total of 11,200 horses and other pack and draught animals were required to provide mobility for each infantry division. The theoretical wartime organisation of a fully mobilised Yugoslav infantry division was: - headquarters - divisional infantry headquarters, with three or four infantry regiments - divisional artillery headquarters, with one or two artillery regiments - a cavalry battalion with two squadrons, a bicycle squadron and a machine gun platoon - a pioneer battalion of three companies - an anti-tank company, equipped with twelve 37 mm (1.5 in) or 47 mm (1.9 in) anti-tank guns - a machine gun company - an anti-aircraft machine gun company - a signals company - logistics units Each infantry regiment was to consist of three to four infantry battalions, a machine gun company, and the divisional artillery regiments were animal-drawn and largely equipped with World War I-vintage pieces. An artillery regiment consisted of four battalions, one of 100 mm (3.9 in) light howitzers, one of 65 mm (2.6 in) or 75 mm (3.0 in) mountain guns, and two of 75 mm (3.0 in) or 80 mm (3.1 in) field guns. In September 1939, after the German invasion of Poland, the 40th ID underwent a trial mobilisation which included a large proportion of its units. The 40th ID was included on the wartime order of battle in "Defence Plan S", which was developed by the Yugoslav General Staff in 1938–1939. It was to be formed using mainly Croat-manned units. These comprised the Bjelovar-based 42nd Infantry Regiment from the Osijecka divisional district, and the 43rd and 108th Infantry Regiments and 40th Artillery Regiment from the VJK reserve. ## Planned deployment The 40th ID was a component of the 4th Army as part of the 1st Army Group, which was responsible for the defence of north and northwestern Yugoslavia. The 4th Army was to deploy in a cordon along the western sector of the Hungarian border, with the 40th ID opposite the Hungarian town of Barcs, between Kloštar Podravski and Čađavica, with the main line of defence along the northern slopes of the Bilogora mountain range, and divisional headquarters at Pivnica Slavonska. On the left flank of the division was the 27th Infantry Division Savska (27th ID) opposite the Hungarian village of Gyékényes, and on the right flank was the 17th Infantry Division Vrbaska (17th ID) of the 2nd Army, which formed part of the 2nd Army Group, with the boundary running from just east of Slatina through Požega towards Banja Luka. The only border guard unit in the division's area was the 2nd Battalion of the 393rd Reserve Regiment. ## Operations ### Mobilisation After unrelenting pressure from Adolf Hitler, Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941. On 27 March, a military coup d'état overthrew the government that had signed the pact, and a new government was formed under the Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force commander, Armijski đeneral Dušan Simović. A general mobilisation was not called by the new government until 3 April 1941, out of fear of offending Hitler and thus precipitating war. However, on the same day as the coup Hitler issued Führer Directive 25 which called for Yugoslavia to be treated as a hostile state, and on 3 April, Führer Directive 26 was issued, detailing the plan of attack and command structure for the invasion, which was to commence on 6 April. As the Axis invasion began, the 40th ID was partially mobilised, with some elements of the division still mobilising, some in concentration areas, and only a small proportion actually deployed in their planned positions: - the divisional commander Brigadni đeneral Ratko Raketić and his headquarters staff were mobilising in Bjelovar - the 42nd Infantry Regiment with two battalions was marching towards their positions near Daruvar, while the rest of the regiment was mobilising in Bjelovar and could not move due to lack of draught animals - the 43rd Infantry Regiment, with about 75–80 percent of its troops and 30 percent of its animals, was marching from its mobilisation centre in Požega towards Našice, but had only reached Jakšić, 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) northeast of Požega - the 108th Infantry Regiment was marching from Bjelovar but had only reached Severin - the 40th Artillery Regiment was still mobilising with the headquarters and one battalion in Osijek and two battalions in Varaždin - the divisional cavalry battalion and machine gun battalion were unable to deploy from Virovitica due to lack of animals, although on 5 April, Nedeljković had requisitioned private cars for the machine gun battalion and ordered it to concentrate at Lukač northeast of Virovitica - the remainder of the divisional units were at their mobilisation centres in and around Bjelovar The 43rd Infantry Regiment was ordered to march east to join the 17th ID, which was part of the 2nd Army Group's 2nd Army. The 89th Infantry Regiment, originally allocated to the 17th ID, was ordered to march from its mobilisation location in Sisak and join the 40th ID to replace the 43rd Infantry Regiment. The divisional cavalry battalion did not receive sufficient horses, and had to deploy on foot as infantry. The division was without artillery support throughout the fighting because the 40th Artillery Regiment did not complete mobilisation. ### 6 April German Army headquarters wanted to capture the bridges over the Drava intact, and from 1 April had issued orders to the 2nd Army of Generaloberst Maximilian von Weichs to conduct preliminary operations aimed at seizing the bridge at Barcs and the railway bridge northeast of Koprivnica by coup de main. As a result, limited objective attacks were launched along the line of the Drava by the XXXXVI Motorised Corps, commanded by General der Panzertruppe Heinrich von Vietinghoff, despite the fact that they were not expected to launch offensive operations until 10 April. During the day, the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) bombed and strafed Yugoslav positions and troops on the march, and by the evening it had become clear to the Germans that the Yugoslavs would not be resisting stubbornly at the border. XXXXVI Motorised Corps was then ordered to begin seizing bridges over the Drava, including at Barcs. The local attacks were sufficient to inflame dissent among the Croat troops of the 4th Army, who refused to resist Germans they considered their liberators from Serbian oppression during the interwar period. The continuing mobilisation and concentration of the 4th Army was hampered by escalating fifth column activities and propaganda fomented by the Ustaše. Some units stopped mobilising, or began returning to their mobilisation centres from their concentration areas. The Yugoslav radio network linking the division with the 4th Army and flanking divisions was sabotaged by the Ustaše on 6 April, and radio communications within the 4th Army remained poor throughout the fighting. ### 7 April About 19:00 on 7 April, German units in regimental strength with a few tanks began to cross the Drava near Barcs in the divisional sector. They quickly overcame the resistance of the 2nd Battalion of the 393rd Reserve Regiment, which was influenced by Ustaše propaganda. The border guards abandoned their positions and weapons and retreated to Virovitica. The 108th Infantry Regiment of the division had mobilised in Bjelovar and on 7 April was marching towards Virovitica to take up positions. That night, Croat members of the regiment revolted, arresting the Serb officers, non-commissioned officers and soldiers. The regiment then marched back to Bjelovar, where it joined up with other rebellious units about noon on 8 April. As the 108th Infantry Regiment was responsible for the right sector of the divisional defence, this meant that the 42nd Infantry Regiment, which was originally responsible only for the left sector, had to extend across the entire divisional frontage. During the night, the commander of the divisional cavalry battalion sent patrols towards the German bridgehead, but local Ustaše sympathisers misled them into believing the Germans were already across the Drava at Barcs in strength. The Germans were subsequently able to consolidate their bridgehead at Barcs overnight. ### 8 April On 8 April, the German XXXXVI Motorised Corps continued with its limited objective attacks to expand their bridgehead at Barcs. A German regiment broke through the border troops and approached Virovitica. At this point, the entire divisional sector was defended by a single unit, the divisional cavalry battalion, which had been transported there in requisitioned cars due to the lack of horses. Two understrength and wavering battalions of the 42nd Infantry Regiment arrived at Pčelić, 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) southwest of Virovitica. By noon, the rebels of the 108th Infantry Regiment were approaching Bjelovar, and were joined by elements of the 42nd Infantry Regiment and other units of the division. The leader of the rebels in Bjelovar was Kapetan Ivan Mrak, a reserve aviator. When 4th Army commander Armijski đeneral Petar Nedeljković became aware of the rebels' approach, he ordered the local gendarmerie commander to maintain order, but was advised this would not be possible, as local gendarmerie conscripts would not report for duty. His headquarters reported the presence of the rebels to the headquarters of the 1st Army Group, suggesting that the Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force could bomb the rebel units. The 8th Bomber Regiment at Rovine was even warned to receive orders to use its Bristol Blenheim Mk I light bombers to bomb the 108th Infantry Regiment, but the idea was subsequently abandoned. Instead, it was decided to request that the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, Vladko Maček, intervene with the rebels. Josip Broz Tito and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, then located in Zagreb, along with the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Croatia, sent a delegation to 4th Army headquarters in Bjelovar urging them to issue arms to workers to help defend Zagreb. Pavle Gregorić, who was a member of both Central Committees, went to the headquarters twice, and was able to speak briefly with Nedeljković, but could not convince him to do so. On the same day, Maček, who had returned to Zagreb after briefly joining the post-Yugoslav coup d'état government of Dušan Simović, agreed to send an emissary to the 108th Infantry Regiment urging them to obey their officers, but they did not respond to his appeal. Later in the day, two trucks of rebels arrived at 4th Army headquarters with the intention of killing the staff. The headquarters guard force prevented this, but the operations staff immediately withdrew from Bjelovar to Popovača. After the rebels issued several unanswered ultimatums, around 8,000 rebels attacked Bjelovar, assisted by fifth-columnists within the city. The city then surrendered, and many Yugoslav officers and soldiers were captured by the rebels. When Nedeljković heard of the fall of the city, he called the Mayor of Bjelovar, Julije Makanec and threatened to bomb the city if the prisoners were not immediately released. Detained officers from 4th Army headquarters and the 108th Infantry Regiment were then sent to Zagreb. About 16:00, Nedeljković informed the Ban of Croatia, Ivan Šubašić, of the revolt, but Šubašić was powerless to influence events. About 18:00, Makanec proclaimed that Bjelovar was part of an independent Croatian state. ### 9 April On the morning of 9 April, the German bridgehead at Barcs had expanded to Lukač, 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) north of Virovitica. Following up the withdrawal of the divisional cavalry battalion, the Germans seized Suho Polje, west of Virovitica, cutting the main road to Slatina, and the rebel Croat troops at Bjelovar made contact with them. By 11:00, the divisional front line consisted of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 42nd Infantry Regiment and a company of the divisional cavalry battalion on the right, and the 4th Battalion of the 42nd Infantry Regiment and a company of the divisional cavalry battalion on the left. The 3rd Battalion of the 42nd Infantry Regiment was held in depth. The left flank was screened by the rest of the divisional cavalry battalion deployed around Pitomača. The 89th Infantry Regiment, marching from its concentration area in Sisak, arrived at divisional headquarters at Pivnica Slavonska, to replace the 43rd Infantry Regiment, which had been transferred to the 17th ID. Other reinforcements included elements of the 4th Army anti-aircraft units sent from Lipik, but the divisional artillery regiment had not completed mobilisation. The rebels in Bjelovar issued false orders to the 1st Battalion of the 42nd Infantry Regiment, directing it to fall back to Bjelovar. At 11:15, Nedeljković arrived at divisional headquarters and shortly afterwards ordered Raketić to launch a counterattack on the German bridgehead at Barcs at dawn the following day. Nedeljković also visited Divizijski đeneral Dragoslav Milosavljević, the commander of the 17th ID on the right flank of the 4th Army, to arrange support from that division during the pending attack. However, because the majority of that division's troops had yet to arrive from Bosnia, all it was able to do was advance its left flank, stationing battalions in Čačinci and Crnac west of Slatina. The 40th ID spent the remainder of the day preparing for the counterattack, but were hindered by German artillery and air attacks. In an indication of the state of his division, during a visit to the front line, Raketić and his chief of staff were fired at by troops of the 42nd Infantry Regiment. Elements of the 4th Army began to withdraw southwards on 9 April. On the night of 9/10 April, those Croats that had remained with their units also began to desert or turn on their commanders, and in the 40th ID, almost all the remaining troops were Serbs. Due to the increasing momentum of the revolt, the commander of the 1st Army Group, Armijski đeneral Milorad Petrović concluded that the 4th Army was no longer an effective formation and could not resist the Germans. Maček issued a further ineffectual plea to calm the rebellion. On the evening of 9 April, Weichs was ready to launch major offensive operations from the bridgeheads on the following day. His plan involved two main thrusts. The first would be spearheaded by the 14th Panzer Division of Generalmajor Friedrich Kühn breaking out of the Zákány bridgehead and drive towards Zagreb. The second would see Generalmajor Walter Neumann-Silkow's 8th Panzer Division break out of the Barcs bridgehead and turn east between the Drava and Sava rivers to attack towards Belgrade. ### 10 April The 40th ID was battered by German artillery fire during the night 9/10 April. Seriously depleted by desertion and weakened by revolt, it was unable to mount the ordered counterattack against the Barcs bridgehead on the morning of 10 April. The 42nd Infantry Regiment could only muster 600 men, and the 89th Infantry Regiment only slightly more. The divisional cavalry battalion was also heavily reduced in strength, and divisional artillery amounted to one anti-aircraft battery. The border units, responsible for demolition tasks on the line from Bjelovar south to Čazma, refused to follow orders. Having abandoned the counterattack, Raketić decided to establish a defensive line at Pćelić to hinder German movement east towards Slatina. Soon after dawn, the main thrust of the XXXXVI Motorised Corps, consisting of the 8th Panzer Division crossed the Drava at Barcs, leading the 16th Motorised Infantry Division of Generalmajor Sigfrid Henrici. Anti-tank fire destroyed a few of the lead tanks, but after the Germans reinforced their vanguard, the resistance of the 40th ID had been broken by noon. The remaining troops of the 42nd Infantry Regiment were either captured or fled into the hills to the south. Units of the 89th Infantry Regiment, which had been providing depth to the defensive position, began retreating south towards Slavonska Požega. Ustaše sympathisers and Yugoslav Volksdeutsche (ethnic German) troops either ran away or surrendered. By 13:30, the hard-pressed divisional cavalry battalion began to withdraw south towards Daruvar, attacking rebelling troops along their route. Raketić himself fled to Nova Gradiška via Voćin and Slavonska Požega, during which his car was again fired on by rebel troops. The 8th Panzer Division continued southeast between the Drava and Sava rivers, and meeting almost no further resistance, had reached Slatina by evening. Right flank elements of the 8th Panzer Division penetrated south into the Bilogora range, reaching Daruvar and Voćin by evening. Late in the day, as the situation was becoming increasingly desperate throughout the country, Simović, who was both the Prime Minister and Yugoslav Chief of the General Staff, broadcast the following message: > All troops must engage the enemy wherever encountered and with every means at their disposal. Don't wait for direct orders from above, but act on your own and be guided by your judgement, initiative, and conscience. The XXXXVI Motorised Corps encountered little resistance from the 40th ID, and by the evening of 10 April the whole 4th Army was disintegrating. About 23:00, German 2nd Army headquarters directed the 8th Panzer and 16th Motorised Infantry Divisions to drive to the north of Belgrade to link up with the First Panzer Group which was thrusting to towards Belgrade from the east. At midnight, 2nd Army headquarters declared that the Yugoslav northern front had been decisively defeated, and tasked corps engineer units to consolidate bridging across the major rivers. The main body units of the XXXXVI Motorised Corps moved forward to Virovitica and Slatina. At midnight, Vietinghoff issued orders for the 8th Panzer Division to continue towards Belgrade via Osijek, but directed the 16th Motorised Infantry Division to thrust west as far as Sremska Mitrovica then turn south to drive towards Sarajevo via Zvornik. ### 11 April On 11 April, the rear area staff of 4th Army headquarters were captured by Ustaše at Topusko, and were soon handed over to the Germans by their captors. Nedeljković and his operations staff escaped, and made their way to Prijedor. Other units were retreating into Bosnia, including two battalions and 2–3 artillery batteries from the 40th ID. Nedeljković attempted to deploy rear area units of the 17th ID into a defensive line along the Una at Bosanska Dubica, Bosanska Kostajnica, Bosanski Novi, Bosanska Krupa and Bihać, and called Yugoslav Supreme Command in Sarajevo to request reinforcements. With his remaining troops, Raketić attempted to establish a defensive line along the Sava between Jasenovac and the mouth of the Vrbas. These efforts were significantly hampered by Ustaše propaganda. The German orders for the following day were to pursue the remnants of the Yugoslav Army through Bosnia towards Sarajevo, where they would be met by the First Panzer Group attacking from the south and east. The 8th Panzer Division and 16th Motorised Infantry Division faced almost no resistance as they drove east towards Belgrade, capturing Našice, Osijek, Vinkovci and Vukovar during the day. On the night of 11/12 April, they captured Sremska Mitrovica, Ruma and secured a crossing over the Danube via an undamaged bridge near Bogojevo. ### Fate The following day, the northern column of the 14th Panzer Division drove via Glina and crossed the Una at both Bosanska Kostajnica and Bosanski Novi before continuing its push east. Elements of the LI Corps also pushed east, establishing bridgeheads over the Kupa. A fragment of the 40th ID, numbering around 300 troops, which had been holding a position on the Sava at Bosanska Gradiška, retreated to Jajce via Banja Luka. When they arrived at Jajce, Nedeljković ordered them to take up blocking positions in the narrow Vrbas valley at Krupa on the road between Banja Luka and Mrkonjić Grad. The rear area units of the 17th ID were ordered to block the road from Kotor Varoš to Doboj. In response to Nedeljković's request for reinforcements, Simović had sent a number of units by rail via Tuzla. These included a cadet battalion and a company of the 27th Infantry Regiment, detached from the 1st Infantry Division Cerska. By the time the reinforcements arrived, Banja Luka had been evacuated in the face of German tanks and an Ustaše-led revolt. The cadet battalion was redirected to Ključ to block the road Ključ – Mrkonjić Grad – Jajce. Nedeljković did not have the option of withdrawing via Bugojno or Prozor as those towns had been taken over by the Ustaše. On 14 April, under pressure from the 14th Panzer Division, remnants of the 4th Army continued to withdraw towards Sarajevo via Jajce and Travnik. The cadet battalion at Ključ managed to briefly delay the German advance through Mrkonjić Grad, but were overcome by tanks and air attacks. The bridge at Jajce was demolished at 23:15, and Nedeljković withdrew his headquarters to Travnik. The remaining units of the 4th Army continued to disintegrate. The vanguard of the northern column of 14th Panzer Division surged forward to Teslić, with the central column only reaching Jajce. Early on 15 April, the northern column of the 14th Panzer Division closed on Doboj, and after overcoming resistance around that town, arrived in Sarajevo at 20:45. Before noon, Nedeljković received orders that a ceasefire had been agreed, and that all 4th Army troops were to remain in place and not fire on German personnel. After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document, the Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12:00 on 18 April. Yugoslavia was then occupied and dismembered by the Axis powers, with Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria and Albania all annexing parts of its territory. Almost all of the Croat members of the 40th ID taken as prisoners of war were soon released by the Axis powers, as 90 per cent of those held for the duration of the war were Serbs.

Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)

"Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey, from her twelfth studio album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel (2009). It was co-written and co-produced by Carey, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, James "Big Jim" Wright and The-Dream. The song was recorded at several recording locations, including The Boom Boom Room in Burbank, California, the Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas, Nevada and at Honeywest Studios in New York City. The lyrics revolve around the idea of outing a cheating boyfriend publicly on television, and Carey makes a reference to Oprah Winfrey and her chat show. "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" garnered mixed responses from music critics. Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine wrote that the song was "promising," however, Jon Caramanica for The New York Times criticized the song's lackluster arrangement and Carey's vocal execution. Upon the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel, the song peaked at number 66 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart in October 2009, and remained on the chart for a total of two weeks. ## Background After Carey finished her The Adventures of Mimi Tour (2006) in support of her tenth studio album The Emancipation of Mimi (2005), she began to work on material for her eleventh studio effort, the yet untitled E=MC2 (2008). E=MC2 was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums to be released in 2008, with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success, following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi. After the release and success of "Touch My Body", the project's lead single, subsequent singles of the album failed to garner airplay or significant charting, Island Records halted promotion of the album. Since the album's release, Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of E=MC2, describing its production and direction in several interviews. When asked to describe the tour's theme, Carey explained "I'm thinking elaborate. I like elaborate. We only do substantial. That's what my jeweler says. I haven't gotten the looks in mind just yet, but we're going to figure it out soon enough." Although plans for a tour were underway, and Carey's announcement for a tour during her promotional appearance on The X Factor in the United Kingdom in November 2008, the tour was suddenly cancelled in the following month. Because of the tour's cancellation, various media outlets circulated speculation that Carey had become pregnant, and had abandoned her plans for a tour as a result. Many reports were made claiming that Carey had been visiting a famed gynecologist's office in Los Angeles. Carey did not address those rumours until two years later on October 28, 2010, which was the same day she announced her new pregnancy; she admitted that she had indeed been pregnant during that time period in late 2008, and suffered a miscarriage. For that reason, she cancelled the tour, and lost the child only two months later. Carey later opted to record a new album, that would be released during the summer of 2009. During the later stages of the project, Carey released the title, Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel, that would serve as the singer's twelfth studio album. ## Production "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" was co-written by Carey, Christopher Stewart, James Wright and Terius Nash. It was also produced by the foursome, with Stewart credited as Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, Wright as James "Big Jim" Wright and Nash as The-Dream. It was recorded by Brian Garten and Brian "B-Luv" Thomas at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank, California, Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas, Nevada and Honeywest Studios, New York City. Luis Navarro served as Garten and "B-Luvs recording assistant. Additional engineering was carried out by Andrew Wuepper. It was mixed by Jaycen-Joshua Fowler and Dave Pencado at Larrabee Studios in Universal City, California. They were assisted in the process by Giancarlo Lino. Keys and Hammond B3 were performed by "Big Jim" and "Tricky" Stewart. "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" is the opening song on the album, and lasts for a duration of 4 minutes exactly. As the album's opening track, Carey sing's "Welcome to a day of my life" as the first line of the song, as she begins to sing about the downfalls and shortcomings of love. According to Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine, Carey sings in a taunting, schoolyard nature when she performs the lyrics "I'm gon' la-la-la-la-la-laugh." The song's lyrical content revolves around the protagonist getting a their own back to their estranged and cheating lover publicly on TV, as Carey sings "Oprah Winfrey whole segment, for real." Becky Bain for Idolator interpretation of the lyrics were that it is from a female perspective who sings about an adulterous man. The remix featuring R. Kelly leaked in July 2011, and draws influence from R&B. In 2014, Carey announced that the remix would appear on her fourteenth studio album, Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse, as a deluxe edition bonus track. ## Critical reception "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" garnered mixed responses from music critics. Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine wrote that "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" is a "promising" song. James Reed for the Boston Globe was complimentary of the song because he felt that the first half of the track list better represented Carey, writing "halfway in, 'Memoirs' starts to sag under its own weight, and the sweetness that initially was so irresistible starts to get a little too sticky." Jon Caramanica for The New York Times was critical of the song, noting that her collaborators of choice on the album have delivered "largely listless arrangements", writing that Carey is "mumbling" on "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)". He likened her singing style on the song to other tracks on the album "Ribbon" and "Insepareable", writing that "talk-singing" is usually "the preserve of far worse singers." When the "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" remix featuring R. Kelly surfaced online, Becky Bain for Idolator wrote that the "stream-of-consciousness, the various voices for multiple players, the cheating plotline" is a reworking of his series of songs entitled Trapped in the Closet (2005). ## Credits and personnel Recording - Recorded at The Boom Boom Room, Burbank, California; Studio at the Palms, Las Vegas, Nevada and Honeywest Studios, New York City. - Mixed at Larrabee Studios in Universal City, California. Personnel - Songwriting – Mariah Carey, Christopher Stewart, James Wright and Terius Nash - Production – Mariah Carey, Christopher "Tricky" Stewart, James "Big Jim" Wright and The-Dream - Recording – Brian Garten and Brian "B-Luv" Thomas - Recording assistant – Luis Navarro - Mixing – Jaycen-Joshua Fowler and Dave Pencado - Assistant mixing – Giancarlo Lino - Keys and Hammond B3 – "Big Jim" and "Tricky" Stewart Credits adapted from the liner notes of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel. ## Charts Upon the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel, "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)" debuted and peaked at number 66 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart on October 17, 2009. The song spent two weeks on the chart in total. It debuted at number three and peaked at number one on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. ## Remix Following the announcement of plans for the Angels Advocate Tour in support of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel, Carey revealed that she was going to release a remix album of the standard edition, including new featured artists and songs from the album's recording sessions which did not make the final cut. American singer and songwriter R. Kelly was confirmed to be the featured artist on the remix of "Betcha Gon' Know (The Prologue)". Angels Advocate had been planned to be released in March 2010, but for unknown reasons was cancelled. The remix featuring R. Kelly, with the shortened title of "Betcha Gon' Know", was included as a deluxe edition bonus track on her fourteenth studio album Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse, which was released on May 27, 2014. Upon the release of the album, "Betcha Gon' Know'" debuted on the South Korean International Gaon Single Chart at number 67 for the week ending May 31, 2014.

Roaring Creek (Pennsylvania)

Tributary of the Susquehanna River

Roaring Creek is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Columbia County and Montour County, in Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is slightly more than 20 miles (32 km) long and flows through Roaring Creek Township, Locust Township, Catawissa Township, Cleveland Township, and Franklin Township in Columbia County and Mayberry Township in Montour County. The watershed of the creek has an area of 87.3 square miles (226 km²). It has three named tributaries: South Branch Roaring Creek, Lick Run, and Mill Creek. The creek is not considered to be impaired and is not affected by coal mining. However, its watershed has been impacted by human land use. Claystones, conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and shales all occur within the watershed. The creek flows through a gorge in its lower reaches, along the border between Columbia County and Montour County. Most of the watershed of Roaring Creek is in Columbia County, but small areas are in Montour County, Northumberland County, and Schuylkill County. More than 40 percent of the watershed is forested and nearly 40 percent is agricultural land. State game lands and state forests are also in the watershed. A total of approximately 3,500 people inhabit the watershed, as of 2000. The creek's drainage basin is a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery upstream of Lick Run. Downstream of Lick Run, the main stem is a Trout Stocked Fishery and Migratory Fishery. A reach of the creek above Lick Run is designated as Class A Wild Trout Waters. 31 species of fish were observed at 20 sites in the watershed in 2003 and 2004. Roaring Creek was historically known as Popemetang, but it was known as Roaring Creek by the late 1700s. Settlers such as Quakers first arrived in the area in the 1770s. In the 19th century, various mills and furnaces were constructed on the creek and several bridges were constructed. Agriculture was also a major industry in the watershed in the early 20th century. More bridges were constructed across the creek in the 20th century. The Roaring Creek Valley Conservation Association formed in February 2006. Part of the creek is navigable by canoe. ## Course Roaring Creek begins on Catawissa Mountain in Roaring Creek Township, Columbia County. It flows west-southwest for a short distance before turning south for a few tenths of a mile. It then turns west for a few miles and flows off Catawissa Mountain before eventually crossing State Route 2003, passing Mill Grove, and entering Locust Township. The creek turns north-northwest for a few tenths of a mile and reenters Roaring Creek Township before turning west and reentering Locust Township. It then flows west-northwest for more than a mile and receives Mill Creek, its first named tributary, from the right, as well as receiving the tributary Lick Run from the left. The creek then turns northwest for more than a mile and enters Slabtown before turning west for several tenths of a mile and crossing Pennsylvania Route 42. After this, it turns northwest for several tenths of a mile before meandering west-southwest for a few miles, passing Queen City, Parrs Mill, and a lake known as Lake Glory. In this stretch, the creek leaves Locust Township and crosses the border between Catawissa Township and Cleveland Township three or four times before entering Franklin Township. Near Pennsyl's Mill, The creek then meanders northwest for a few miles, crossing Pennsylvania Route 487 and receiving South Branch Roaring Creek, its least named tributary, from the left. Upon reaching the Montour County line, the creek turns north for a few miles, flowing along the border between Franklin Township, Columbia County and Mayberry Township, Montour County. In this reach, it passes through a gorge with Sharp Ridge on the west. After a few miles, the creek leaves the gorge and crosses State Route 3012. A few tenths of a mile further downstream, it reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River. Roaring Creek joins the Susquehanna River 142.36 miles (229.11 km) upriver of its mouth. ### Tributaries Roaring Creek has three named tributaries: South Branch Roaring Creek, Lick Run, and Mill Creek. South Branch Roaring Creek joins Roaring Creek 4.28 miles (6.89 km) upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of 35.9 square miles (93 km²). Lick Run joins Roaring Creek 14.08 miles (22.66 km) upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of 5.97 square miles (15.5 km²). Mill Creek joins Roaring Creek 15.02 miles (24.17 km) upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of 4.98 square miles (12.9 km²). ## Hydrology The concentration of alkalinity in Roaring Creek upstream of Lick Run is 9 milligrams per liter. Many nearby watersheds have been rendered nearly devoid of aquatic life due to acid mine drainage caused by coal mining. However, Roaring Creek has not been affected by this, although it has been still impacted by human land use. Sedimentation, siltation, and agricultural impacts occur in the watershed. The only impaired stream in the watershed is a small unnamed tributary that is impaired by siltation. From a chemical standpoint, Roaring Creek is infertile. The specific conductance of Roraing Creek ranges from 11 micro-siemens per centimeter at site 2 to 127 micro-siemens per centimeter at site 4. In 2003 and 2004, the pH of the creek ranged from 7.0 to 7.2. In a later survey, it was found to be acidic at sites 1 and 2 (6.50 and 6.89, respectively), but alkaline at sites 3 and 4 (7.34 and 8.27, respectively). The concentration of alkalinity in the creek ranges from 5.1 milligrams per liter at site 1 to 32 milligrams per liter at site 2. The concentration of water hardness ranges from 28 milligrams per liter at river mile 4.04 to 44 milligrams per liter at river mile 8.54. The discharge of the creek is 12.2 liters per second at site 1, 243.5 liters per second at site 2, 216.7 liters per second at site 3, and 271.6 liters per second at site 4. The concentration of nitrogen in Roaring Creek ranges from 956.5 micrograms per liter at site 1 to 2343.1 micrograms per liter at site 2. The phosphorus concentration ranges from 12.6 micrograms per liter at site 1 to 28.6 micrograms per liter at site 2. ## Geography, geology, and climate The elevation near the mouth of Roaring Creek is 453 feet (138 m) above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,660 and 1,680 feet (510 and 510 m) above sea level. From 1,100 to 700 feet (340 to 210 m) above sea level, the gradient of the creek is 57.1 feet per mile. From 700 feet (210 m) above sea level to its mouth, the gradient is 25.7 feet per mile. The topography at the headwaters of Roaring Creek is mountainous. However, much of the watershed is rough and hilly and the creek flows through a valley surrounded by broken hills. It flows through a narrow gorge for its last 3 miles (4.8 km). The creek's channel is sinuous. There are cobbly and rocky rapids on some reaches of the creek. In the gorge, the creek flows past cliffs and over ledges and waterfalls. A set of wet limestone ledges known as the Roaring Creek Bluffs are located along the creek in Franklin Township and Montour County. Power lines also cross the creek in this reach. Some strainers occur on the creek upstream of State Route 3012. A ridge known as Sharp Ridge is located near the creek. Roaring Creek is located in the ridge and valley physiographic province. A dividing ridge separates the creek from the Susquehanna River. One reach of the creek is a mid-sized coldwater stream. Another reach is a large freestone stream. Roaring Creek flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale. Rocks in the watershed include claystones, conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and shales from the Devonian and Mississippian. Outcroppings of calcareous beds, limestones, and marine fossils occur in the watershed as well. Some mineable coal is present in the watershed of South Branch Roaring Creek. The Genesee beds appear along the creek and are the lowest beds that are visible above the water line. To the east, they are covered by Chemung beds. A soil known as the Albrights Series is found along the creek. It is a reddish-brown soil that is slightly poorly or moderately well drained and is made from glaciated red shale and sandstone. Roaring Creek has a 100 year floodplain. The average annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Roaring Creek ranges from 35 to 50 inches (89 to 127 cm). In July 2003 and June 2004, the water temperature of the creek was found to range from 14.7 °C (58.5 °F) at river mile 10.98 to 19.4 °C (66.9 °F) at river mile 6.02. The air temperature near the creek ranged from 17.0 °C (62.6 °F) at river mile 8.54 to 30.0 °C (86.0 °F) at river mile 6.02. ## Watershed The watershed of Roaring Creek has an area of 87.3 square miles (226 km²). The watershed occupies parts of Columbia County, Montour County, Northumberland County, and Schuylkill County. Most of the watershed is in Columbia County and smaller areas are in Montour County and Northumberland County. Only a very small area in its upper reaches is in Schuylkill County. The watershed is in the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin. The creek's mouth is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Danville. However, its source is in the quadrangle of Shumans. The creek also passes through the quadrangle of Catawissa. Other quadrangles that the watershed is in include Shamokin, Ashland, and Mount Carmel. The creek flows in a generally northwesterly direction and serves as the border between Montour County and Columbia County in its last 2 miles (3.2 km). Roaring Creek is one of three major streams draining the southern part of Columbia County. More than 40 percent of the watershed of Roaring Creek is on forested land, including evergreen and deciduous forests, as well as mixed forests. A significant portion of the forested land in the watershed is a 9,000 acres (3,600 ha) tract of land along South Branch Roaring Creek. This tract was acquired by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources in 2003. A large tract of forested land on a ridge running from Moosic to the Susquehanna River passes through the watershed of Roaring Creek. State forest land occurs along the southern edge of the watershed and Pennsylvania State Game Lands (Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 58) occur along the eastern edge. Nearly 40 percent of the watershed is on agricultural land. This land use occurs in the creek's valley, as does open space. Upstream of Lick Run, 13 percent of Roaring Creek is on public land that is open to access. The remaining 87 percent is on private land that is closed to access. The remaining reaches of the creek are entirely on private land, but open to access. As of 2000, approximately 3,500 people live in the watershed. In section 01, the population density of the watershed is 18 people per square kilometer as of 2000. In section 02, the population density is 22 people per square kilometer and in section 03, the population density is 16 people per square kilometer. In section 01 of the creek, 50 percent of its length is within 100 meters of a road, 89 percent is within 300 meters, and 91 percent is within 500 meters. In section 02, 28 percent is within 100 meters, 87 percent is within 300 meters, and 100 percent is within 500 meters. In section 03, 96 percent of its length is within 100 meters of a road, 98 percent is within 300 meters of one, and 100 percent is within 500 meters of one. The creek flows through a remote-seeming farm valley for a substantial part of its length. Major roads in or near the watershed include Pennsylvania Route 487, Pennsylvania Route 54, and Pennsylvania Route 42. Visual assessment of Roaring Creek was carried out by Roaring Creek Valley Conservation Association volunteers at four locations in October and November 2007. The scores ranged from 15.5 out of 28 (55 percent; the lowest value in the entire watershed) to 23 out of 28 (82 percent). ## History and etymology Roaring Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1185166. Roaring Creek was known to the Lenni Lenape as Popemetang, which means "Roaring Creek" in English. This name likely originates from the waterfalls and rapids on the creek's lower reaches. The creek was known as Popemetang until the late 1700s. However, several maps were referring to it as Roaring Creek as early as 1792. Its name appears as Roaring Creek in even the earliest survey warrants in the area. The Centre Turnpike was constructed in 1770 and provided access to the valley of Roaring Creek, roughly following the current course of Pennsylvania Route 487 and Pennsylvania Route 54. The Reading Road was later constructed in the watershed and ran in a southeasterly direction. Quakers were living in the valley of the creek by the 1770s and land on the creek was patented to Samuel Shakespeare in 1773. A number of settlers arrived in the valley from the Philadelphia area via the Reading Road. Soon after the end of the American Revolutionary War, farms were appearing along the creek's banks. The second-oldest mill in what is now Columbia County was built in a gorge on Roaring Creek, near its mouth, in the 1780s. This mill was known as the Cleaver Mill. A second mill, which was similar to the first, was later constructed at the site. John Hauch constructed a furnace on the creek in 1816. It was the first furnace in the area. The first iron furnace in Montour County was built near the creek's mouth in 1839 or 1840. The furnace was known as the Roaring Creek Anthracite Water Power Furnace. It was altered in 1854. In 1856, the furnace produced 2350 tons of iron from ore on Montour Ridge, despite low water. The only post office in Mayberry Township up to 1915 was built at the mouth of the creek in 1895. It was known as Howelsville, after W.B. Howell, its first postmaster. In the early 1900s, major industries in the watershed of Roaring Creek included agriculture. However, the creek was also used as water power for a small gristmill. During this time period, major communities in the watershed included Roaring Creek and Bear Gap. Their populations were 407 and 124, respectively. In the early 1900s, the only major industries in Franklin Township were gristmills on the creek on the border between it and Cleveland Township. There were historically proposals to use the creek as a water supply for Danville, transferring the water via pipes under the Susquehanna River. Andrew Trone once constructed a hotel on the creek. Many bridges have been constructed across Roaring Creek and a number of covered bridges can be seen from the creek. The first bridge over the creek was constructed in 1874 at Slabtown for a cost of \$1500. It was replaced in 1913 for a cost of \$5500. The Davis Covered Bridge was built northwest of Slabtown in 1875 and repaired in 1997. It is 86.9 feet (26.5 m) long and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Snyder Covered Bridge No. 17 was built over the creek southeast of Slabtown in 1876 and repaired in 2010. It is 60.0 feet (18.3 m) long and is also on the National Register of Historic Places. The two-span Esther Furnace Covered Bridge was built over the creek in Cleveland Township in 1905. It is 95.1 feet (29.0 m) long and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 2012 was constructed over Roaring Creek in 1908 and repaired in 1996. It is 27.9 feet (8.5 m) long and is situated east of Mill Grove. A concrete tee beam bridge was built over the creek in 1940 north of Aristes. This bridge is 33.1 feet (10.1 m) long and carries Pennsylvania Route 42. A two-span steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 3003 was constructed across the creek southwest of Catawissa in 1950 and repaired in 2011. This bridge is 86.0 feet (26.2 m) long. Two bridges of the same type (but with only one span) were constructed over the creek in Slabtown and Mill Grove in 1956, carrying Creek Road and State Route 2001. Their lengths are 64.0 feet (19.5 m) and 46.9 feet (14.3 m); the first was repaired in 2011. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 42 over the creek was built in 1959 south of Catawissa. Its length is 68.9 feet (21.0 m) and it was repaired in 2010. A bridge of a similar type was built over the creek in 1964 for T314. It is 73.2 feet (22.3 m) long and is situated to the south of Catawissa. A prestressed stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying State Route 3012 was built across the creek in 1966. It is west of Catawissa and is 64.0 feet (19.5 m) long. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge was built across the creek in 1974 south of Catawissa. It is 84.0 feet (25.6 m) long and carries Pennsylvania Route 487. A bridge of the same type, but carrying T468, was built over the creek in 1981. It is situated south of Mill Grove and has a length of 50.9 feet (15.5 m). A steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying Mill Road was built over the creek in 1985 and repaired in 2012. This bridge is 34.1 feet (10.4 m) long and is situated southeast of Slabtown. In 2003, Martin Friday assessed streams in the watershed of Roaring Creek at 37 locations, using the United States Environmental Protection Agency's rapid assessment protocol. In 2004, Robert Wnuk carried out fisheries surveys on every named stream in the watershed. The Roaring Creek Valley Conservation Association formed in February 2006 to conserve the natural and cultural resources of the Roaring Creek watershed. ## Biology Upstream of the tributary Lick Run, the drainage basin of Roaring Creek is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. From Lick Run downstream to its mouth, the main stem of the creek is a Trout-Stocking Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to 11,154 feet (3,400 m) upstream of its mouth, a distance of 18.15 miles (29.21 km). They also naturally reproduce throughout the entire length of every other named tributary of the creek. Roaring Creek is considered by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission to be Class A Wild Trout Waters for brown trout from its headwaters downstream to Lick Run, a distance of 6.1 miles (9.8 km). In 2003 and 2004, 31 fish species were found at 20 sites in the watershed of Roaring Creek. Eastern blacknose dace are the most common fish species in the watershed and were observed at 85 percent of the sites. White suckers and brown trout occurred at 80 percent of the sites, longnose dace occurred at 70 percent of the sites, cutlips minnows occurred at 65 percent of the sites, and bluegills occurred at 60 percent of the sites. Fallfish, golden shiners, yellow bullheads, and American eels were all historically observed in the watershed, but were not found during the survey. However, redside dace, creek chubsuckers, green sunfish, and fathead minnows were observed in the watershed for the first time during the 2003/2004 survey. The most common game species was wild brown trout, although smaller numbers of brook trout were observed as well. Other game fish in the creek's drainage basin include rainbow trout. smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, and chain pickerel. The biomass of wild brown trout in section 02 of Roaring Creek was estimated in the early 2000s to be 9.53 kilograms per hectare. There were an estimated 42 brown trout of legal size per kilometer of stream. This equates to an estimated 815 brown trout between 7 and 16 inches (18 and 41 cm) in length in that section. The trout in section 02 of the creek are up to approximately 400 millimetres (16 in) in length and some brown trout in the creek can reach lengths of up to 22 inches (56 cm). Waterfowl have been known to inhabit the watershed of Roaring Creek. Various macroinvertebrate taxa inhabit Roaring Creek. At one site, there is one abundant macroinvertebrate taxon, with 25 to 100 individuals being observed. At this site, there are five common taxa and five present taxa, with 10 to 25 and 3 to 9 individuals being observed, respectively. Eleven taxa are rare, with fewer than three individuals being observed. At another site, there are two abundant taxa, three common taxa, four present taxa, and eight rare taxa. At a third site on the creek, there are three abundant taxa, four common taxa, three present taxa, and seven rare taxa. Hardwood trees and hemlocks occur on the slopes of the valley of Roaring Creek. Hemlocks also occur in the creek's gorge. The canopy coverage at four sites on the creek ranges from 0 percent to 75 percent. The algal biomass of the creek ranges from 0.01 to 1.21 in terms of chlorophyll a per square centimeter. The Roaring Creek Bluffs are listed on the Columbia County Natural Areas Inventory. Jeweled shooting-star, which is threatened in Pennsylvania, occurs at this site. Other plant species in this area include hydrangea, fragile fern, maidenhair spleenwort, golden saxifrage. However, several weedy plants also grow in the area. ## Recreation It is possible to canoe on 13.0 miles (20.9 km) of Roaring Creek, from Slabtown to the mouth during fast snowmelt or within three days of heavy rain. The difficulty rating of the creek ranges from 1 to 2+. Edward Gertler's book Keystone Canoeing describes the scenery as being "fair to good". The book describes the creek itself as being "a small and easy-to-overlook wet weather stream". There are two painted canoe gauges on the creek, one at Pennsylvania Route 42 and the other at Pennsylvania Route 487. Roaring Creek is one of the major fishing area in Columbia County. Knoebels Amusement Park is in the western part of the creek's watershed. In the 1990s, the creek was a candidate for Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers status. ## See also - Little Roaring Creek, the next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver - Catawissa Creek, the next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver - List of rivers of Pennsylvania

Lowthian Bell

19th-century industrial chemist, ironmaster, and politician

Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, 1st Baronet, FRS (18 February 1816 – 20 December 1904) was a Victorian ironmaster and Liberal Party politician from Washington, County Durham, in the north of England. He was described as being "as famous in his day as Isambard Kingdom Brunel". Bell was an energetic and skilful entrepreneur as well as an innovative metallurgist. He was involved in multiple partnerships with his brothers to make iron and alkali chemicals, and with other pioneers including Robert Stirling Newall to make steel cables. He pioneered the large-scale manufacture of aluminium at his Washington works, conducting experiments in its production, and in the production of other chemicals such as the newly discovered element thallium. He was a director of major companies including the North Eastern Railway and the Forth Bridge company, then the largest bridge project in the world. He was a wealthy patron of the arts, commissioning the architect Philip Webb, the designer William Morris and the painter Edward Burne-Jones on his Yorkshire mansions Rounton Grange and Mount Grace Priory. ## Early life Bell was the son of Thomas Bell, one of the founders of the iron and alkali company Losh, Wilson and Bell, and his wife Katherine Lowthian. He was born in Newcastle-upon-Tyne and educated at Dr Bruce's academy in Percy Street, Newcastle, followed by studying physical science at Edinburgh University and the Sorbonne University, Paris. He gained experience in manufacturing alkalis at Marseilles before returning to Newcastle in 1836 to work in his father's Walker iron and chemical works. ## Industry Bell's industrial life was complex: involvement in up to three different partnerships at the same time created a conflict of loyalties, causing allegiances to each to vary over the years. Inspired to become an entrepreneur he took over the Walker ironworks on his father's death in 1845. In 1850 at Washington, County Durham, Bell made a breakthrough discovering a new process for manufacturing lead oxychloride. His partners and co-founders of the Washington chemical company, named after his home, were his brother-in-law Robert Benson Bowman and his father-in-law Hugh Lee Pattinson. Pattinson was the inventor responsible for the process separating silver from lead that bears his name. Under an 1850 Indenture, Charles Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, Pattinson and Bell declared themselves "chemical manufacturers and co-partners in trade". Bell decided the partnership might be incompatible with his continued involvement in the running of Losh, Wilson and Bell. In September 1849 he wrote to Losh and Wilson informing them that the partnership with Pattinson "would necessitate my relinquishing the office I at present hold in your firm". Establishing a partnership with Robert Stirling Newall in 1850, Bell set up the first factory in the world with machines able to manufacture steel rope and submarine cable. Two years later his brothers Thomas Bell and John Bell joined him to build a major iron works at Port Clarence, Middlesbrough on the north bank of the River Tees. By 1853 there were three blast furnaces, each with a capacity of just over 6000 cubic feet, making them the largest in Britain at the time. The works produced iron for bridges and steel rails for railways across the British Empire including the North Eastern Railway company, of which Bell was a director from 1864 onwards, and deputy chairman from 1895 until his death. The Bell brothers' company operated its own ironstone mines at Normanby and Cleveland, and its own limestone quarries in Weardale, employing about 6000 men in mining and manufacturing. By 1878 the firm was producing 200,000 tons of iron per annum. Bell was a professional metallurgist and industrial chemist, constantly pioneering processes such as the recycling of heat from escaping flue gases, and trialling many process improvements. In 1859 Bell opened Britain's first factory able to manufacture aluminium, a metal which had been as costly as gold because of the difficulty of chemically reducing the metal from an oxide. On the day it opened at Washington, Bell toured Newcastle in his carriage, saluting the crowds with an aluminium top hat. The plant used the new Deville sodium process. he described how critical it was to make aluminium pure in The Technologist: > Now, it happens, that the presence of foreign matters, in a degree so small as almost to be infinitesimal, interferes so largely with the colour, as well as with the malleability of the aluminium, that the use of any substance containing them is of a fatal character. Nor is this all, for the nature of that compound which hitherto has constituted the most important application of this metal — aluminium-bronze — is so completely changed by using aluminium containing the impurities referred to [silica, iron, or phosphorus] that it ceases to possess any of those properties which render it valuable. In 1863, Bell exhibited "several pounds" of the recently discovered element thallium when the British Association met in Newcastle that autumn. The metal was obtained from the flue deposits (mainly lead sulphate) from the manufacture of sulphuric acid from pyrites, one of the products of the Washington works. All the credit was given to researcher Henri Brivet, who was "chief" of the laboratories at Washington, having experienced "languor and headache" then known to be caused by breathing thallium fumes. The Cleveland ironstone had been considered inferior for steelmaking, as it contained a relatively high percentage of phosphorus at 1.8 to 2.0%, weakening the resulting iron. Bell directed large-scale experiments at a cost of up to £50,000, resulting in a basic steel process which produced steel rails containing no more than 0.07% phosphorus. His obituary in The Times of 1904 noted, as a sign of the progress that Bell himself had brought about, that Bell could recall "seeing wooden rails in use on the tramroads by which coal was brought down to the River Tees". In 1867 and 1868, Bell gave papers on the state of the manufacture of iron and that of foreign competitors, in particular France, Belgium and Germany. Britain's great strength lay in its "incomparable fields of coal which constitute so important a feature in our mineral wealth". He stated that although the price and quality of coal were better in Britain, the cost of labour could be as much as 20–25% lower, particularly in Germany. In 1882, Bell successfully drilled for salt at Port Clarence, finding an exploitable salt bed at a depth of 1200 feet. He used the salt for making soda, but the borehole was sold to the Salt Union in 1888. In 1875, Bell began to move out of working in industry by retiring from his partnership with Robert Benson Bowman and Robert Stirling Newall, leaving the two of them to continue to run the chemical works until 1878, when Newall bought out Bowman. He continued to own shares in Bell companies and the North Eastern Railway. In 1901, at age 85, after a long period of difficulty for heavy industry and with fears of worse to come as manufacturing grew in Germany, America and Japan, he made a decisive move to guard the family's wealth. He sold his railway interests to the North Eastern Railway company, and the sale of a majority holding in his manufacturing companies to rival Dorman Long was completed in 1903. From the fortune thus released, he gave £5,000 to each of his many nephews, nieces and grandchildren. ## Politics For 30 years from 1850, Bell was active on the town council of Newcastle upon Tyne. He became sheriff of the town in 1851, mayor in 1854 and alderman in 1859. Once again he was elected mayor for Newcastle in 1862. Bell was elected as the Member of Parliament for North Durham from February to June 1874, and for The Hartlepools from 1875 to 1880. He lost his seat in North Durham in 1874 on the grounds that his agents were guilty of intimidation. ## Honours, awards and achievements Bell founded the Iron and Steel Institute and was its president from 1873 to 1875. In 1874 he became the first recipient of the gold medal instituted by Sir Henry Bessemer. Bell became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1874 for his distinction in chemistry and metallurgy, especially of iron. An international figure with a scientific profile, he was invited to serve as a juror at International Exhibitions in Philadelphia in 1876, and again in Paris in 1878. He was accordingly made an honorary member of the American Philosophical Institution and an officer of the Legion d'Honneur. In 1877 he founded the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain (later the Royal Institute of Chemistry). being nominated a fellow of the Chemical Society of London, and president of the Society of Chemical Industry. During the 1881 Census, taken on 3 April, Bell was recorded as a visitor at his daughter Maisie's house. Her husband the Hon. Edward L. Stanley, M.P. in Harley Street, London was the Head of the Household, recording Bell's occupation as "Magistrate, Deputy Lieutenant, Iron Master". In 1882 he became a director of the Forth Bridge company. At that time this was the world's largest bridge project. Bell became president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1884 and was made a baronet in 1885. With an inherited title he adopted the motto Perseverantia (perseverance) and the arms "Argent on a Fess between three Hawk's Lures Azure as many Hawk's Bells of the first". In 1886 Bell became the 10th president of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers. He was awarded the George Stephenson Medal from the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1890, and the Telford Medal (then called the Telford Premium) from the same institution, both for papers that he presented there. In 1895 Bell was awarded the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, in recognition of the services he has rendered to Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, by his metallurgical researches and the resulting development of the iron and steel industries. ## Works Bell wrote many papers on chemistry and metallurgy. In his Iron Trade, he correctly predicted the outstripping of Britain by Germany in industrial production, unsuccessfully urging government action to avoid this. His major works include: - The Manufacture of Iron in connection with the Northumberland and Durham Coalfields, The Industrial resources of the District the three northern rivers, the Tyne, Wear and Tees: including the reports on the local manufactures, read before the British Association. - On the Manufacture of Aluminium, The Industrial resources of the District the three northern rivers, the Tyne, Wear and Tees: including the reports on the local manufactures, read before the British Association. (pp 73–119) Baron William George Armstrong, 1863. - The Manufacture of Aluminium, The Technologist, July 1864. - The Manufacture of Thallium, British Association, 1864. - The present state of the manufacture of iron in Great Britain, and its position as compared with that of some other countries (from the report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1867), M & M.W. Lambert, Newcastle upon Tyne, 1867. - The Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting: An Experimental and Practical Examination of the Circumstances Which Determine the Capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature of the Air, and the Proper Condition of the Materials to Be Operated Upon (collection of papers published as a book, 435pp), Routledge, London, 1872. - The Iron Trade of the United Kingdom Compared with that of the Other Chief Ironmaking Nations, Literary and Philosophical Society, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1875. - Mr I Lowthian Bell and the Blair Direct Process. James M'Millin, 1875. - Sir Lowthian Bell and his presidential address. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers (vol. 36) 1875. - On the Hot Blast, with an explanation of its Mode of Action in Iron Furnaces of Different Capacities. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers (vol. V pp 56–81) May 1876 to February 1877. - The Principles of the Manufacture of Iron and Steel with some notes on the economic conditions of their production , George Routledge & Sons, London, 1884. - On the manufacture of salt near Middlesbrough (with James Forrest). Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1887. - On the Probable Future of the Manufacture of Iron. - Memorandum as to the wear of rails, Ben Johnson, 1896. - Memorandum(No.2) as to the wear of rails & broken rails, Leeds Chorley & Pickersgill 1900. ## Family life On 20 July 1842 Bell, known as Lowthian, married Margaret Pattinson, daughter of his business partner Hugh Lee Pattinson and Phebe Walton. Margaret's younger sisters married Bell's business partners Robert Benson Bowman and Robert Stirling Newall: all three brothers-in-law were members of Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club and the Natural History Society of Northumberland. Their children were Sir Thomas Hugh Bell, 2nd Baronet, known as Hugh, who was father of the explorer and diplomat Gertrude Bell, Florence, Mary Katherine, known as Maisie, who in 1873 married Edward Stanley, 4th Baron Stanley of Alderley, Ada, Charles, and Ellen (who died in infancy). He had about 60 grandchildren. In 1854, he built Washington New Hall, a few miles south of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1872 an illegally young chimney sweep, aged 7, died in a chimney in the Hall. Bell promptly moved into the newly built Rounton Grange near Northallerton, leaving Washington Hall empty for nineteen years until he donated it as a home for poor children, named at his request "Dame Margaret's Hall". According to his granddaughter's biographer Georgina Howell, he was "a formidable giant of a man" and somewhat abrasive. The family prepared a Christmas alphabet in 1877 at Rounton Grange, including "C is the Crushing Contemptuous Pater", which Bell's daughter Elsa later annotated "Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell". In Howell's view, another event also hinted at Bell's character: one cold winter's night, his coachman was found, according to some papers found in Mount Grace Priory, "frozen stiff on the box-seat of his carriage". Howell notes that the coachman could simply have had a heart attack, and not have died of exposure at all, but still, in her view "consideration for others was not, perhaps, Lowthian's principal quality". Rounton Grange was finished in 1876, under the architect Philip Webb; it was at that time his largest project. The house was five storeys high, of yellow brick with a pantiled roof, enormous mock mediaeval chimneys and "gothic" features. It was set in an estate of 3000 acres with lawns, a wood full of daffodils, a rose garden, and two lakes. Inside was an immense arched gallery that stretched the full width of the house, a wide curved staircase and baronial fireplace. In the main drawing room there was an Adamesque fireplace, and two grand pianos on a vast carpet. There was a large tapestry frieze of Chaucer's Romaunt of the Rose designed by William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones, and made by Lady Bell and her daughters over several years. Given his huge wealth, Margaret and he lived relatively simply, preferring the relatively humble Arts and Crafts style for his three-year refurbishment of the medieval Mount Grace Priory near Osmotherley, which was in serious disrepair when he purchased it in 1898 as a weekend retreat. The house was decorated by the best designers of the day in the "Aesthetic" style, with William Morris's "Double Bough" wallpaper hand-printed using 22 apple wood printing blocks. For the restoration of 2010 the original blocks were used to produce a close replica of the original wallpaper, each roll taking a week to print by hand. While decorating the great house, Morris spoke of "ministering to the swinish luxury of the rich". Bell died on 20 December 1904 at his house in London, 10 Belgrave Terrace. He left £750,000 to his son Hugh Bell on his death in 1904. ## Legacy After his death, the Institution of Mining Engineers resolved that > It is impossible to estimate the value of the services that Sir Lowthian Bell rendered to the Institution of Mining Engineers in promoting its objects, and in devoting his time and energies to the advancement of the Institution. Gertrude Bell's biographer, Georgina Howell, writes of Lowthian Bell that through his writings such as The Chemical Phenomena of Iron Smelting he was seen as the "high priest of British Metallurgy". She observes that he was noted also for his wealth and for the innovations he made, such as the use of steel-making slag as phosphate fertilizer, and that he was arguably Britain's "foremost industrialist". Among his friends were famous Victorians such as Charles Darwin, Thomas Huxley, William Morris and John Ruskin. However, Howell writes, "Lowthian was admired rather than loved, and appears to have been dictatorial and harsh towards his family." She observes that "There is to this day no biography of the man who was as famous in his day as Isambard Kingdom Brunel."

Holler (Spice Girls song)

2000 single by Spice Girls

"Holler" is a song by British girl group Spice Girls, from their third studio album, Forever (2000). It was written by the group, with additional writing by Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, LaShawn Daniels and Fred Jerkins III, with Darkchild also serving as the producer. The track was released on 23 October 2000 in the United Kingdom by Virgin Records as the lead single from Forever, as a double A-side single with "Let Love Lead the Way"; the group had previously premiered the song on their official website on 11 September. "Holler" is an R&B and dance song, depicting a departure from the group's past bubblegum pop works. Lyrically, it consists on the members singing "come-ons" to a male. "Holler" received mixed reviews from music critics; while some complimented the song's production and the Spice Girls' vocals, others found it too similar to works by Destiny's Child, Sister Sledge and TLC and thought it was too different from the group's previous sounds. The song was a commercial success, topping the UK Singles Chart and becoming the band's ninth number-one single in the region. This gave the Spice Girls the record for being the girl group with the most number-one singles. Internationally, it was also commercially successful, peaking inside the top ten in countries such as Canada, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, and Spain. In the United States, it did not reach the Billboard Hot 100, but managed to reach number 12 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. The music video for "Holler" was directed by Jake Nava, and filmed around the same time as the video for "Let Love Lead the Way". It depicted the girls playing one of the four elements each, with them also appearing together inside a glass pyramid. The song was promoted by the Spice Girls with performances on British televised shows such as SMTV Live, CD:UK, and Top of the Pops, as well as on the 2000 MTV Europe Music Awards in Stockholm, Sweden. "Holler" was performed on three of their concert tours, Christmas in Spiceworld Tour (1999), The Return of the Spice Girls Tour (2007-08) and the Spice World - 2019 Tour (2019). ## Background and release After finishing the Spiceworld Tour in September 1998 and releasing their single "Goodbye" in December, the Spice Girls went into a hiatus period, during which the members of the group focused on their personal lives. The group resumed work on their third studio album, Forever, in August 1999. They recruited American recording producers such as Rodney Jerkins and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis to work on the album; the former was signed up to give the project a "tougher" sound. He stated that he hoped to bring an "urban, danceable" feel to the project, with "a little harder" beats, while still maintaining a pop appeal. Darkchild traveled to London to work with the group, and together they wrote three songs in five days; the producer also revealed that although he knew he had scheduled recording sessions with them 10 months beforehand, he did not write anything before meeting the girls in London. He also revealed that "everybody I've been playing them for can't believe it's the Spice Girls". The girls embarked on the brief Christmas in Spiceworld Tour in December 1999, where they debuted three new tracks recorded for Forever, "Right Back at Ya", "W.O.M.A.N." and "Holler", known at the time as "Holler Holler". In May 2000, member Melanie Chisholm told Heat magazine that the lead single from Forever would be a ballad titled "Let Love Lead the Way" and would be released in August; however, months later, a representative for the group stated that the first single had not been chosen yet. Finally, in late July, Chisholm confirmed to BBC Radio 1 that the lead single would be a double A-side of "Let Love Lead the Way" and "Holler", with the latter being available for streaming through the band's official website on 11 September. The girls wrote on their official website that the decision was made because they "love[d] both just as much as each other and couldn't decide which to release [first]". The single was released in the United Kingdom on 23 October 2000 as a CD and cassette single. "Holler" was later sent to US contemporary hit radio on 24 October 2000. ## Composition "Holler" was recorded in September 1999 at Sarm Hook End and Whitfield Street Studios in London, United Kingdom by Brad Gilderman, who also provided audio mixing for the track. It was written by the members of the group along with Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, LaShawn Daniels and Fred Jerkins III. Production was handled by Darkchild, while vocal production was done by LaShawn Daniels. Mason Jr. was in charge of the Pro Tools for the track, whereas Dave Russell and Ian Robertson served as assistants during its production. "Holler" was mixed at Larrabee North Studios in Los Angeles, California, by Gilderman and Darkchild, while being mastered by Bernie Grundman at Bernie Grundman Mastering, along with all other tracks present on Forever. Musically, "Holler" is an R&B and dance song, representing a shift from the previous bubblegum pop works from the group, transitioning into a more mature and sexier sound. Quentin Harrison from Albumism also noted a "contemporaneous electronic sheen" into its composition. The track also contains vocoder effects on the vocals. It starts with Darkchild's voice announcing, "Spice Girls, Darkchild, 2000"; he became the first male vocalist to be featured on a Spice Girls track. During the song, the members sing "come-ons" to a male, with lyrics such as "Let me take you into my fantasy room" and "I wanna make you holler, and hear you scream my name". At one point, Chisholm sings "I want to make you do things you thought you'd never do". Luke Abrahams for the London Evening Standard commented on the lyrical content, "Geri [Halliwell] was gone, and so was all the subtlety." According to Billboard's Chuck Taylor, "each of the girls is given the chance to shine" on the song. Emma Bunton commented on "Holler"'s production: > "[I]t's a real dance track that everyone can groove to. Then, as soon as you hear our voices and our melodies, you can tell straight away that it's the Spice Girls, and that is what we wanted to achieve. We wanted to make it funkier, and we're all grown up [...] But we still wanted it to have a Spice-y feel, and I think it's definitely worked out well." ## Critical reception Upon its release, "Holler" received mixed reviews from music critics. Taylor highlighted the quality and confidence of the members' vocals, as well as the "bold, saucy attitude evident here that's more convincing than in the past." He also complimented the "swift, clever, kicky" production. Craig Seymour of Entertainment Weekly gave the track a B− rating, writing that the girls "sound like they really, really wanna be Destiny's Child" on the song. Seymour also praised "its charms", praising the "easy yet funky groove, their exaggerated British accents", as well as Darkchild's "familiar slapping, kinetic beats". He also called it "their most compelling reason to dance" since their single "Say You'll Be There" (1996). Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic simply picked the song as one of the best from Forever. According to Jackson Langford from MTV Australia, "Holler" was "easily the biggest surprise the Spice Girls ever managed to pull off", but it "feels so far apart from what fans are used to", although being "at least somewhat enjoyable". Similarly, Julia Jafaar from the New Straits Times wrote, "Those who have heard the hit single, Holler, from the new album, would probably attest that the music arrangement and style" were atypical of the group and its previous hits. Jenny North from Dotmusic considered the track "slick, fun, as catchy as crabs and the girls are sounding sexier than ever before", predicting it would "lodge itself in your head with the rest of their back catalogue" after a few listens. Writing for the same website, Cyd Jaymes wrote that "Holler" and "Let Love Lead The Way" were the best songs on Forever "by a country mile", but they still did not "deserve to be singles". Whitney Matheson of USA Today called it similar to the works of Sister Sledge, Destiny's Child and Nu Shooz songs, writing that, "while the No Scrubs-y vibe briefly tempted me to shout a dirty word and bare my navel, styrofoam phrases such as 'Don't be afraid to play my game' are more Teletubby than T-Boz." Arion Berger of The Washington Post compared the track to "catching your little sister making out with some guy at the mall". In a review for the album, the Lincoln Journal Star staff considered that "attempts at uptempo, funky sounds" such as "Holler" "fall flat almost instantly". Retrospective reviews for the single have also been mixed. Will Stroude of Attitude considered the track "funky, attitude-filled", but acknowledged that retrospective reviews of the song "haven’t always been kind, but they make the mistake of defining the era based on the cultural craze that had come before, rather than taking it on its own terms", but asserted that "connoisseurs know that ‘Holler’ still slaps almost two decades later." While reviewing their Greatest Hits album, Nick Levine of Digital Spy stated that "Jerkins' slick, stuttering R&B numbers" from Forever, which included "Holler", failed to capitalise on the group's "very British sense of mischief". According to The Guardian's Alexis Petridis, Jerkins was a "great signing" as producer, although his "more avant tendencies" were "hemmed in by the necessity of making Spice Girls records with direct pop appeal"; hence, he described "Holler" as "serviceable, rather than thrilling". Dom Passantino of Stylus Magazine rated the single 3/10, saying the song is his "personal pick for the worst production job in musical history, ol' Darkchild took the most unique, epoch-defining, cultural maelstrom of a group he could find, and turned them into a facsimile of Fanmail-era TLC." Tom Ewing of e-zine Freaky Trigger said the song "shifts and shuffles in a competent, modish way", but criticized the group and the producer for "not trying to change any games". He also described the intro as sounding dated: "Like 'Holler' needed to sound any more 2000." ## Chart performance On 24 October 2000, early sales figures reported that "Holler"/"Let Love Lead the Way" was set to debut at number one on the UK Singles Chart, selling 31,000 copies during the first day on sale. On 29 October 2000, the song debuted at the top of the charts, selling 106,000 copies on its first week. With this feat, the Spice Girls became the first female group to have nine number-one singles, sharing the same amount with ABBA. They were placed only behind The Beatles, Elvis Presley, Cliff Richard and Madonna overall. The song also became Chisholm's 11th number-one single as a songwriter in the region, making her the female artist with more number ones than any other in chart history at the time. She remains the only female performer to top the charts as a solo artist, as part of a duo, quartet and quintet. The single stayed at number one for one week, remaining inside the chart for 21 weeks, and was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) only four days after it was released, on 27 October 2000. As of May 2019, it has sold 287,000 copies in the United Kingdom, becoming their 10th biggest selling single in the region. Around the world, "Holler"/"Let Love Lead the Way" was also successful. In Europe, it reached number two on the Eurochart Hot 100; and reached number one in Scotland; peaked inside the top ten in countries such as Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Italy, and Spain; and inside the top twenty in Belgium's Walloon region, Germany and the Netherlands. In Oceania, the release entered at its peak of number two on Australia's ARIA Charts, staying there for another week, becoming their highest charting-single in the country since "Viva Forever" (1998). It remained on the chart for 15 weeks, and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In New Zealand, "Holler"/"Let Love Lead the Way" debuted at number 47 on the charts, remaining for another week at the position. The following weeks, it rose to its peak of number two, becoming the band's 10th consecutive top-10 single, and was certified gold by Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ). "Holler" was released separately from "Let Love Lead the Way" in Canada. It debuted at number two on the chart compiled by Nielsen Soundscan, only behind the Backstreet Boys' "Shape of My Heart", whereas "Let Love Lead the Way" peaked at number five the same week. On the RPM magazine's chart, the song managed to reach number 12, until publication was ceased in November 2000. In the United States, the track peaked at number 12 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, an extension of the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "Holler" additionally reached numbers 31 and 40 on the Dance Club Songs and Rhythmic charts, compiled by Billboard. ## Music video The music video for "Holler" was filmed at the Elstree Studios in Borehamwood, England, during summer 2000, and was directed by Jake Nava. It was filmed around the same time as the music video for "Let Love Lead the Way". Before its release, Chisholm revealed that the girls would play one of the four elements each – water, air, fire and earth – in both videos: "We liked the theme coz' we’re all so different and we all come together and make the Spice Girls and the elements come together to make the earth." For her part, Brown described the visual as "very, very futuristic and it's very funky. We had a great time doing it." The clip first premiered through the Spice Girls' official website on 11 September 2000, before airing on television for the first time through MuchMusic the following day. The video begins zooming into a seemingly glass pyramid where the four girls are dancing on a square platform in a circle. Melanie Brown represents fire as she sits in a dark room with fire rolling along the floor. Chisholm is seen levitating above cracked mud inside a room with wooden walls as the floor blooms into plant life, representing earth. Bunton wears a short blue dress with a white coat, while dancing in a blue room under water with reflections bouncing off the walls. Finally, Victoria Beckham, who embodies the element of air, is seen inside a wind tunnel playing with shiny prisms as they are blown by. All the girls are then seen together in the pyramid watching their respective male dancers – who are seen in each of their solo shots – dancing on the square platform. At the end of the video, the group embrace in a hug. Rockol website commented that "the four put aside striped trousers and improbable outfits with preposterous colors to focus, also in this case, on black and above all on sexy winks and at least naughty necklines." According to Mark Elliott from Yahoo! Music, it "suggests much of what might have proved a fascinating new musical direction if the band hadn’t taken a lengthy break after the album’s release." Niellah Arboine of Bustle noted that "it all feels a bit more grown. Mel B’s gone blonde, Emma’s not in pink, and can we take a moment to appreciate Victoria Beckham with long hair in a white jumpsuit and sunglasses getting Matrix-style blown around in a wind tunnel?". John Dingwall from the Daily Record compared the video to works by Robbie Williams and Kylie Minogue, as the group "squeezed into leather and looking mean and moody". The clip received the "Worst Video" prize at the 2000 Smash Hits Poll Winners Party. ## Live performances The group first performed "Holler" on their Christmas in Spiceworld tour in December 1999, as one of the songs to be included on their then-upcoming third studio album. The song was later performed at the 2000 Brit Awards and was excluded from the TV broadcast due to technical problems arising during the performance but the song was heard on the live radio broadcast. During the ceremony, the Spice Girls received an award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. In order to promote Forever, the group performed it on British televised shows such as SMTV Live, Top of the Pops and CD:UK. They also performed the track at the 2000 MTV Europe Music Awards on 16 November 2000 in Stockholm, Sweden; before the performance, Chisholm declared that it could be their last appearance together before going on a hiatus to focus on their solo careers. For the number, the group wore leather outfits, ending with them going through the floor with large orange pyrotechnic flames blazing up. The Spice Girls performed the song on their first reunion tour, The Return of the Spice Girls Tour in 2007 and 2008. They were dressed in dominatrix leather outfits, and had their dancers on leashes, on their knees. Jon Pareles from The New York Times considered the performance the "raciest stage moment" of the show, while according to Chicago Tribune's Alison Bonaguro, the number "took things too far with the Spice Girls dressed in black leather and the dancers in collars and leashes." Though Halliwell had returned to the group at this point, she did not take part in the performance. For their second reunion tour, the Spice World - 2019 Tour, "Holler" was performed with elements of "Sound Off"; it also marked the first time Halliwell performed the song live with the group. Holly Williams from The Independent reacted negatively to the number, saying it reminds "why they stopped making music". She also called a "real misstep" when "over a marching band (very budget Beyoncé) they revive their old chant 'we know how we got this far/strength and courage in a Wonderbra'. As a vision of feminism, this maybe – maybe – passed muster in the Nineties, but sounds woefully out of step in 2019". ## Track listings - UK CD 1 / Australian CD 2 1. "Holler" (radio edit) – 3:55 2. "Let Love Lead the Way" (radio edit) – 4:15 3. "Holler" (MAW Remix) – 8:30 4. "Holler" (video) – 4:11 - Japanese CD single 1. "Holler" (radio edit) – 3:55 2. "Let Love Lead the Way" (radio edit) – 4:15 3. "Holler" (Video) – 4:11 4. "Let Love Lead the Way" (Video) – 4:14 5. "Let Love Lead the Way" (4x30 sec Behind the Scenes Clips) - Digital EP 1. "Holler" (radio edit) – 3:55 2. "Let Love Lead the Way" (radio edit) – 4:15 3. "Holler" (MAW Remix) – 8:30 4. "Holler" (MAW Remix Instrumental) – 8:30 - Digital EP (MAW Remixes) 1. "Holler" (MAW Tribal Vocal) – 7:10 2. "Holler" (MAW Spice Beats) – 3:12 3. "Holler" (MAW Dub) – 6:46 4. "Holler" (MAW Tribal Instrumental) – 7:15 - European CD single 1. "Holler" (radio edit) – 3:55 2. "Let Love Lead the Way" (radio edit) – 4:15 - UK 12-inch single A1. "Holler" (MAW Remix) – 8:30 A2. "Holler" (MAW Spice Beats) – 3:12 B1. "Holler" (MAW Tribal Vocal) – 7:10 B2. "Holler" (MAW Dub) – 6:46 C1. "Holler" (MAW Remix Instrumental) – 8:30 C2. "Holler" (MAW Tribal Instrumental) – 7:15 ## Credits and personnel - Spice Girls – lyrics, vocals - David Adams - Backing vocals - Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins – lyrics, production, audio mixing - LaShawn Daniels – lyrics, vocal production - Fred Jerkins III – lyrics - Harvey Mason Jr – Pro Tools - Brad Gilderman – recorder, audio mixing - Dave Russell – assistant - Ian Robertson – assistant Published by Rodney Jerkins Productions/EMI Music Publishing Ltd., Fred Jerkins Music Publishing/Famous Music Corp, EMI Music Publishing (WP) Ltd. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history

Rufus (Kim Possible)

Fictional character

Rufus is a fictional character in the American animated television series Kim Possible (2002–2007) and its 2019 live-action film adaptation. Voiced by actress Nancy Cartwright, Rufus is a pet naked mole-rat owned by Ron Stoppable – Kim Possible's best friend and sidekick – and first appears in the show's pilot episode "Crush", which premiered on June 7, 2002. Residing and traveling in his owner's pocket, Rufus accompanies Kim and Ron on missions to protect the world from evildoers, at times proving beneficial to their success. The Series creators Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle created Rufus at the behest of Disney Channel executives who insisted that the animated series should feature an animal sidekick. Inspired by the naked mole-rat exhibit at the Philadelphia Zoo, the creative duo conceived the character as a naked mole-rat to trick the network into uttering the word "naked" whenever possible. The writers took several creative liberties that differentiate Rufus from real naked mole-rats, such as a longer lifespan and more palatable appearance. The character is anthropomorphic, but apart from the occasional spoken word communicates using mostly squeaks and giggles, improvised by Cartwright. After considering having the character portrayed by either a live or puppeted mole-rat in the live-action film, the filmmakers opted to make Rufus computer-animated instead, spending several months finalizing a design that was realistic yet appealing. The character has been called a fan favorite and one of the series' most popular characters by reviewers. Cartwright was nominated for a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program for her performance. Rufus has also been named the most famous naked mole-rat by various media and scientific publications, and is credited with introducing the species into mainstream popular culture. ## Role Rufus is the anthropomorphic pet naked mole-rat of Ron Stoppable, who is Kim Possible's best friend and sidekick. Living and traveling in Ron's pants pocket, Rufus accompanies Kim and Ron on international missions as a member Team Possible, during which his actions sometimes jeopardize their missions. However, Rufus has proven both intelligent and capable for a mole-rat, helping his teammates whenever possible and proving adept at overcoming electronic and mechanical obstacles; he typically emerges from Ron's pocket to either offer assistance or eat food. Rufus also shares a strong affinity for nachos with Ron, and is considered to be his owner's best friend, apart from Kim. Josh Weiss of Syfy Wire observed that the character is "capable of infectious energy and non-verbal comedy all the same", despite communicating mostly via squeaks and grunts. Rufus is one of the show's primary sources of comic relief, alongside Ron. As revealed in "The Naked Mole Rap", a song written about Rufus, Ron obtains Rufus because his father is allergic to all animal furs, leading him to settle for a hairless pet and ultimately discover Rufus on the Internet. ## Development ### Creation and voice Writers Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle conceived Kim Possible as an animated television series about a teenage girl who can seemingly do anything, and her best friend who struggles to do the same, into which Rufus was incorporated once the show's "basic foundation" was written. Rufus was conceived at the behest of Disney Channel executives, who insisted that all children's animated series could benefit from at least one animal sidekick. The addition of a pet character was among the earliest notes the creators received from the network. Although Schooley and McCorkle did not mind the note themselves, some staff writers were dismissive towards the suggestion. Deciding the show's resident pet should be as unique as possible, Schooley was inspired by his children's fascination with the naked mole-rat exhibit at the Philadelphia Zoo, describing the animals as "ugly, gross, but somehow still cute creatures". Already weary of constant network edits and suggestions, the creators allegedly tricked the executives by conceiving Rufus as a naked mole-rat, which in turn forces everyone to say the word "naked" whenever the character's species is mentioned throughout the children's program. The reason for the character's existence being that Ron's father is allergic to animal fur was not conceived until much after Rufus' introduction into the show. Despite the character's eventual popularity, the writers maintained using him sparingly throughout the series, in which he is "only peppered in there occasionally" apart from occasional brief gag-orientated episodes focusing on the character. Rufus is voiced by American actress Nancy Cartwright, following a common trend in which animated male characters are voiced by women. Cartwright's dialogue for Rufus consists of almost entirely squeaks, gurgles and giggles, believing that the character offers comedy and "a little levity to the show." However, the character occasionally utters words and phrases considered to be Kim Possible hallmarks, such as "boo-yah". Cartwright researched naked mole-rats in preparation for the role, discovering that they "are tunnel dwellers and social animals who live in large communities" who also "don’t do well out in the sunlight". Cartwright also found them to be “kind of disgusting looking", likening them to "overcooked hot dogs.” The actress typically improvised and performed the role without a written script, borrowing direction from the character's emotions during particular scenes that vary from excited to sad. Cartwright voiced Rufus while voicing Chuckie Finster from Rugrats. Cartwright reprised her voice role in the show's 2019 live-action film adaptation, having hoped Disney would invite her back once the project was announced. Cartwright considers Rufus the film's only truly animated aspect, hoping that the character's inclusion "adds this little extra thing that inspires kids." Cartwright shared behind the scenes footage of herself voicing the character on her social media accounts. Actor Sean Giambrone, who plays Ron in the film, expressed admiration for Cartwright's "ability to bring Rufus to life with her voice", feeling that he bonded with the character despite being unable to see or interact with him while filming. Despite being best known for voicing Bart Simpson in The Simpsons, Cartwright considers voicing Rufus a highlight of her career, enjoying fans' surprised reactions when she demonstrates her Rufus impression for them: "it’s kind of surprising that I’m like five feet tall, I’ve got children of my own, I’m a grandma, and these sounds come out of this little package here. I think it’s fun for everyone”. ### Design and characterization Rufus differs significantly from real naked mole-rats found in nature. Unlike the character, naked mole-rats are unlikely to survive if kept as pets and prone to die in captivity. Rufus' lifespan is also uncharacteristically long for a naked mole-rat. When the live-action adaptation of Kim Possible was first green-lit, the directors had considered having a live mole-rat portray Rufus, but Schooley and McCorkle determined that this would not benefit the creature itself or viewers, opting for the character to be computer-animated instead. 15 years prior, the original series had aired an episode jokingly entitled "And the Mole Rat Will Be CGI" revolving around Hollywood filmmakers and actors producing a film based on Kim's life. Before deciding on CGI, the filmmakers had also considered depicting Rufus using puppets before ultimately determining that computer animation was "the only way to capture his expressiveness ... We really worked hard with the animators to make him feel real, because we didn’t want a Roger Rabbit situation going on where the world is live-action and then you have this cartoon character. We wanted Rufus to be part of their world and grounded, even though he is expressive, cute and fun." The visual effects studio Pixomondo was responsible for animating Rufus, a task they found challenging because, according to director Zach Lipovsky, the animals "are pretty disgusting creatures", finding it "hilarious to have one of the grossest animals be the [show and film's] comedic relief." Because the computer-animated character needed to be more realistic than his cuter, stylized traditionally animated counterpart, the Pixomondo artists worked for several months to determine a suitable "balance between cute and real". The character's origins and his relationship with Ron are altered for the film, in which Ron discovers Rufus in a science lab. Giambrone explained, "Ron knew that that [Rufus] was like a missing part of him ... Then we get to see how they help each other out for the rest of the movie". The actors did not see Rufus's final design until the character's visual effects were completely rendered, instead looking at either Giambrone's shoulder or a figurine that they found hardly resembled Rufus while filming. Giambrone was pleased with the character's design upon seeing it for the first time, expounding, "I knew that was exactly what he should look like and it just felt like I was reunited with a buddy, seeing the movie with Rufus in it.” ## Reception and impact The New York Times television critic Julie Salamon wrote "the cheerful presence of Rufus ... signals that ... executive producer and director, Chris Bailey, doesn't mind getting cute in obvious ways." USA Today's Alex Kane cited Rufus among the show's "charming cast" of memorable characters, while the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette's Rob Owen identified him as its breakout character. Rufus is considered by reviewers to be one of the show's most popular characters and components, establishing himself as a fan favorite. McCorkle believes Rufus is the series' most popular character among younger viewers, an observation with which Judith S. Gillies of The Washington Post agreed. Dylan Kickham of Elite Daily named Rufus both "iconic" and "Everyone's favorite naked mole-rat". Similarly, the Rockford Register Star called Rufus "our favorite naked mole-rat". Andy Swift of TVLine deemed Rufus an "iconic" character. Furthermore, Kickham believes Rufus' role in the series is "the reason why so many young adults have actually heard of naked mole-rats." Cartwright's performance earned her a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program at the 31st Daytime Emmy Awards in 2004. MovieWeb's Jeremy Dick hailed Rufus as "one of Cartwright's best roles". Fans of the series were initially outraged when the film adaptation's first trailer did not feature Rufus. Fans were eventually delighted to learn that Cartwright would be reprising her role in the film. While Blair Marnell of Nerdist opined that producers should be open to recasting the film's main characters in favor of more diverse actors, she insisted that "As long as Nancy Cartwright wants to reprise her role as the voice of Rufus, she should be able to do that for life." Reviewing the film, Polygon's Petrana Radulovic described Rufus as "just silly enough as to not be jarring." Despite being disappointed with the overall film and Rufus' comparative lack of screentime, Aydan Rossovich of The Bear River Current felt he was "The only acceptable character ... while it’s disappointing that he was barely in it, if he had been in the movie more than he was, it would have just made it even more annoying." STEM Jobs crowned Rufus "one of the most faithful, yet smallest sidekicks of all time." Rufus has been called the most famous naked mole-rat in the world. Kristy Pirone of Screen Rant believes Rufus "will live in perpetuity as the most famous naked mole-rat of all time". Massive Science credits Rufus and Kim Possible with introducing naked mole-rats into mainstream popular culture, while Yasmeen Gharnit of Nylon credits the character with bringing awareness to the existence of naked mole-rats. The Liberty Science Center observed that most people may "only know about naked mole rats via cartoon characters", such as Rufus. The Field Museum of Natural History wrote that "Rufus stole the hearts of all who watched him save the day. In many episodes, Rufus is the hero, and like Kim and Ron, scientists agree that naked mole-rats are pretty cool."

Tales of Xillia

2011 video game

Tales of Xillia (Japanese: テイルズ オブ エクシリア, Hepburn: Teiruzu Obu Ekushiria) is an action role-playing game released exclusively for the PlayStation 3. It is the thirteenth main installment of the Tales series and is developed by Namco Tales Studio with Namco Bandai Games as the publisher. The game was released in Japan on September 7, 2011, and was localized in North America and PAL region in August 2013. The game takes place in a fictional world called Rieze Maxia where humans and ethereal spirits live in harmony. It follows Jude Mathis and Milla Maxwell who elude government officials after sabotaging a weapon of mass destruction known as the Lance of Kresnik. The plot's central theme is . Tales of Xillia's reception in Japan was highly positive. At the time of its release in Japan, it was the most preordered Tales game in the series and sold half a million copies in a week, before eventually shipping over 1 million copies worldwide. The game also won awards from Sony and Famitsu. The English localization received positive reception for its battle system, neutral to positive reviews for its plot and characters, and criticism for the map designs. The sequel, Tales of Xillia 2, was released in November 2012 in Japan and in August 2014 in North America and PAL region. ## Gameplay Tales of Xillia consists primarily of two major areas: the field map and the battle screen. The field map is a realistically scaled 3D environment where the player character traverses and interacts with non-player characters, items, or mob avatars. On the field map, character interactions between the party can also be viewed in the form of a sketch story; these sketch stories are referred to as skits and consist of animated portraits and voice acting. When coming into contact with a mob avatar, the environment switches to the battle screen, a 3D representation of an area in which the player commands the characters in battles against the CPU-controlled mobs. During battle sequences, the game uses the Dual Raid Linear Motion Battle System, a variation of the Linear Motion Battle used in the Tales series. Four characters from the party are chosen to battle and characters not controlled by a player are controlled by artificial intelligence with instructions set by the players beforehand. The enemy mob's number, appearances, behavior, vary and are dependent on the mob's avatar. Both sides' objective is to deplete the other side's health points (HP) using attacks and skills. When a party member's health falls to zero, the party member faints until revived with items, by a healer, or resting at an inn on the field map; Mobs with zero HP disappear from the arena. Killing all the mobs will yield experience points, items, and allows the player to return to the field map. If all four participating party members are defeated, a game over will occur. Skill and attribute development is based on a system of orbs placed on the nodes of a hexagonal web called the Lilium Orb. When characters level up, they receive GP which can then be allocated to the orbs on the web in a uni-linear path. Each orb activated contains either a new skill or an attribute upgrade. Battles take place in real-time. Player actions include moving, dashing, standard attacks, and artes; artes are special attacks which consume "Technical Points" (TP), the in-game synonym for magic points. Dashing, standard attacks, and artes usage are also restricted by the "Assault Counter" (AC), a synonym for action points. Party members are able to link to each other to perform unified attacks called linked artes. While linked, the supporting partner provides unique abilities to the character, while also increasing the Linked Artes Gauge. When the Linked Artes Gauge is full, the player character can enter Over Limit which gives them immunity to stagger, unlimited AC, and allows them to use linked artes in succession. ## Plot Two millennia ago, humans developed spyrix, a power source which absorbs spirits. In response, the spirit Maxwell gathered humans, who share a symbiotic relationship with spirits, onto an isolated land protected by a barrier; the isolated land became known as Rieze Maxia and the outer lands as Elympios. As spirits are needed to sustain nature, Maxwell waits for the day all humans on Elympios die off before dispelling the barrier. Twenty years prior to the present, an Elympion cruise ship becomes trapped in Rieze Maxia, eventually forming a terrorist group known as Exodus. Exodus works with the Elympios military to find a way to destroy the barrier. In the present era, Rieze Maxia is ruled by two countries called Rashugal and Auj Oule. While the two countries appear to live in harmony, they both initiate black operations in attempts to conquer the other in hopes of uniting Rieze Maxia as a single country. In the present, medical student Jude Mathis investigates a military research facility in order to search for his missing professor. There he witnesses a spyrix-powered weapon called the Lance of Kresnik absorb his professor. The military prep Jude as the next victim, but he is saved by Milla Maxwell, Maxwell's successor. In response, the military activates the lance which absorbs Milla's spirit companions forcing her and Jude to retreat. Jude and Milla decide to confront Rashugal's king who had endorsed the Lance's creation. During their travel, they are joined by Alvin, Elize Lutus, Rowen J. Illbert and Leia Rolando. After Rashugal's king is defeated, Exodus obtains and uses the Lance to temporarily disable the barrier protecting Rieze Maxia, allowing Elympios' army to invade. Assisted by Auj Oule's king, Gaius, the party defeats Exodus at the cost of Milla's life. After mourning her death, Jude leads the party to meet Maxwell and attempts to persuade him to dispel the barrier and save Elympios. Reunited with Milla, who has been reborn as a spirit, they convince Maxwell of their cause. However, Gaius and the spirit named Muzét seal Maxwell within the Lance of Kresnik, intent on sustaining the barrier until all spyrixs are destroyed; Maxwell sends the party to Elympios before he is completely subdued. There, the party learns about Elympios' dependence on spyrix and an ongoing research on spyrite, a power source harmless to spirits. With renewed conviction, the party confronts and defeats Gaius and Muzét. Maxwell dispels the barrier and disperses its energy to temporarily power spyrixes until the completion of spyrites. The party returns to their daily lives with Jude joining a spyrite research team, Milla resuming her role as Maxwell, and Gaius uniting Rieze Maxia under his rule. ## Development and release The game began development after Tales of Hearts was completed. A Tales game for the PlayStation 3 was announced on July 28, 2010's Weekly Shonen Jump and officially announced by Namco Bandai Games on August 2, 2010; On December 15, 2010 Tales of Xillia was unveiled in Weekly Shonen Jump and its official website was launched. Its staff, battle system and two main characters were revealed along with the game's main theme, . Between January and March 2011, Namco released information about the other four playable characters. In May the game's release date, a Xillia themed PS3, and the game's theme song, "Progress" by Ayumi Hamasaki were revealed, with the Japanese vocals being retained in the Western release. Before the game's release, a Korean game guide of the game was leaked onto the internet forcing Namco to issue a response. Due to time constraints, some planned features were excluded such as an onsen scene and having Gaius or Muzét as playable characters. The game was released on September 8, 2011, and was made available on the Japanese PlayStation Store a year later. The game was re-released under PlayStation 3 The Best label on October 9, 2014. In March 2012, Tales of Xillia was trademarked in Europe and North America. A Western localization was officially announced by Namco Bandai Games Europe on July 6, 2012, through Twitter. On November 5, 2012, Ted Tsung, the North American producer for Tales of Xillia, announced the completion of the English voice recordings. On the same day, Europe's localization was announced to have subtitles in English, French, Spanish, German, and Italian. In April 2013, Namco announced the game would be released in August for North America and PAL region; also announced was the collector's edition of the game. In North America, the first print of the game were released as a limited edition bundle. The game was translated by 8-4 and dubbed by Cup of Tea Productions. ### Downloadable content Tales of Xillia had several downloadable content (DLC) which changed a character's appearance or provided in-game bonuses such as items, currency, or levels. The majority of the DLC were released weekly between September 8 until October 6, 2011 on the PlayStation Store. Costumes were themed and released in sets; in order of release the sets were, Star Driver, The Idolmaster 2, swimwear, steward and maid, school, and Tales series. Accompanying these costume releases were hair styles, accessories, palette swaps, and in-game bonuses DLC. Two DLC codes were bundled with physical releases: Ayumi Hamasaki's album Five contains Milla's songstress costume; the first print of the game contains a Tales of Phantasia outfit for Jude and a Tales of Destiny outfit for Milla. The final DLC was the Santa Claus costume set and was released on the PlayStation Store on December 1, 2011. In the English localization, the Tales of Phantasia and Tales of Destiny costumes were given with preorders of the collector's edition; North America's Limited Edition and the PAL region's day one edition also contained the codes. Excluding Star Driver, the Japanese PlayStation Store's contents were released bi-weekly for North America and PAL region between August 6 and September 3, 2013. The final DLC, the Santa Claus costume set, was released on November 26, 2013. ## Media adaptions ### Manga Tales of Xillia spawned four manga adaptions: two anthology collections and two traditional manga series. Ichijinsha were the publishers for the anthology collections. The first anthology collection is . Its two volumes were released on November 25, 2011, and February 25, 2012. The second anthology collection is . Its three volumes were released between December 24, 2011, and July 25, 2012. The two traditional manga series are by ASCII Media Works and by Media Factory; they are adaptions of the game's storyline and follows one of the two protagonists. The Jude manga has four volumes released between February 2012 and March 2013, while the Milla manga has five volumes between February 2012 and October 2013. ### Books Shueisha, Yamashita Books, and Enterbrain each published a strategy guide for the game. Tales of Xillia was adapted into a novel series under the same name. It is published by ASCII Media Works and three volumes were released between November 10, 2011, and March 10, 2012. A play diary by Famitsu was published by Enterbrain on December 8, 2011. is a book by the game's character designers and was released on December 27, 2011, by Ichijinsha. It provides details on the characters' back story and how their design came to be. On the same day, was released by Yamashita Books and expands on Tales of Xillia's lore. ### Audio CDs Five drama CDs based on the game's plot were produced by Frontier Works. volumes 1 and 2 were released on May 23 and June 20, 2012. volumes 1 and 2 were released on September 26 and October 24, 2012. was released on January 26, 2013, in a regular and limited edition. It contains a cameo from Tales of Xillia 2's Ludger Will Kresnik and Elle Mel Marta. soundtrack was released by Avex Group on September 7, 2011, in a regular and limited edition; it peaked 31st on Oricon's charts. ## Reception At the time of its release in Japan, Tales of Xillia was the most preordered Tales game in the series and sold half a million copies in a week. In North America, Tales of Xillia was one of the top selling games on the PlayStation Network in August 2013. As of December 2013, the game has shipped over 1 million copies worldwide. The game was re-released in Japan under the PlayStation 3 The Best label in 2014. Due to the amount of sales, Sony awarded Tales of Xillia the Gold Prize during the PlayStation Awards; the game also received the User's Choice award from the PlayStation Awards online poll. Famitsu's review of the game was highly positive; they praised the game for its attentive visuals, accessibility, and fast battle system. In the "Newtype Anime Awards" from 2011, Xillia won the "Game Opening Animation" award. The English localized version of the game was also a nominee for the Satellite Award for Outstanding Role Playing Game in 2013, but lost to Ni no Kuni: Wrath of the White Witch, another game from Bandai Namco Entertainment. All English reviewers agreed the battle system was fast and engaging; however, Electronic Gaming Monthly, Game Informer, GameSpot, and PlayStation Official Magazine panned the map designs calling them repetitive, lifeless and bland. The plot received neutral to positive reception. Game Revolution wrote "There's a pleasing inertia to the way plotlines form, unfold, and reach a conclusion that propels our heroes ever-forward, never stopping long enough to feel meandering but never feeling rushed or forced either.", praising the narrative to be one of the qualities to the game. Game Informer described the plot as "investing" and liked the balance in tragic and lighthearted moments. Joystiq lauded the execution of the plot for avoiding the usual JRPG "info dumps" and how small plot-lines intertwined into a larger conflict. PlayStation Official Magazine considered the plot as average and called it a let-down compared to the combat system. Reviewers have also noted the dual-protagonist execution caused incoherency in Milla's story. Reviewers had mixed opinions on the characters. Generally, reviewers liked the character interactions. IGN praised the diverse characters but panned Milla's English voice acting. Game Revolution felt the characters were relatable and agreed with IGN about Milla's voice noting it sounded robotic and forced. Electronic Gaming Monthly described the characters as rather normal and competent compared to the previous Tales games, adding that they could imagine the cast having lives and dreams outside of the party's journey. Edge described the character interactions as engaging, well written, and praised how the characters avoided the cliché found in manga and anime. Oppositely, PlayStation Official Magazine felt the characters "fall into the familiar anime archtypes" and that "flat voice acting and a melodramatic script" made it difficult to feel invested in the cast; Polygon agreed about the character archetypes and called it a lazy strategy used to make the characters understandable.

O ewiges Feuer, o Ursprung der Liebe, BWV 34

Church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach

O ewiges Feuer, o Ursprung der Liebe (O eternal fire, o source of love), BWV 34 (BWV 34.1), is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed it in Leipzig for Pentecost Sunday, and it was the basis for a later wedding cantata, BWV 34a, beginning with the same line. Bach led the first performance on 1 June 1727. The librettist of the cantata is unknown. A central contemplative aria for alto, accompanied by two flutes and muted strings, is framed by recitatives, while the two outer movements are performed by the chorus and a festive Baroque instrumental ensemble of three trumpets, timpani, two oboes, strings and continuo. The last movement quotes the conclusion of Psalm 128, "Friede über Israel" (Peace upon Israel). The themes of eternal fire, love, dwelling together and peace suit both occasions, wedding and Pentecost. ## History and text Bach adapted movements 1, 3 and 5 of this cantata for Pentecost Sunday in a later wedding cantata, O ewiges Feuer, o Ursprung der Liebe, BWV 34a. Formerly it was believed that BWV 34a (as BWV 34.2 was then called) was the older work. In Bach's Leipzig, the readings for Pentecost were from the Acts of the Apostles, on the Holy Spirit (), and from the Gospel of John, in which Jesus announces the Spirit who will teach, in his Farewell Discourse (). The workload of the composer and his musicians was high for Christmas, Easter and Pentecost, because in Leipzig they were all celebrated for three days. The texts are of unknown authorship. The beginning of the text of the wedding cantata could be kept unchanged, because the image of the flames and the spirit of love suit the Pentecostal events as well as a wedding: the author had only to replace the reference to "vereinigtes Paar" (united couple) with a reference to the gospel. Movement 5 quotes the conclusion of Psalm 128, "Friede über Israel" (Peace upon Israel, ). This quote was already part of movement 4 of the wedding cantata, which quotes in movement 3 verses 4–6a from the same psalm. Bach led the first performance on 1 June 1727 in the Nikolaikirche. The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann notes that a printed libretto for the congregation was recently found in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg, containing the texts for the three feast days of Pentecost and Trinity of 1727. Until then the work had been dated much later, such as 1746 when a revival took place for which performance material exists. As the music of the 1727 version is lost, the timing of Bach's revisions to the wedding cantata is not known. It is likely that he revised it further in the 1740s because he wrote a new score. ## Structure and scoring Bach structured the cantata in five movements, with two choral movements framing a sequence of recitative–aria–recitative. Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists (alto, tenor, bass), a four-part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of three trumpets (Tr), timpani (Ti), two flauti traversi (Ft), two oboes (Ob), two violins (Vl), viola (Va) and basso continuo. The Bach scholar Christoph Wolff describes the "large-scale instrumental scoring" as "suited to the festive occasion". In the following table of the movements, the scoring follows the Neue Bach-Ausgabe. The continuo, playing throughout, is not shown. ## Music ### 1 The opening chorus, "O ewiges Feuer, o Ursprung der Liebe" (O eternal fire, o source of love), illustrates two contrasting subjects, "ewig" (eternal) and "Feuer" (fire). While "ewig" appears as long notes, held for more than one measure, the flames (or tongues) of the fire are set in "lively figuration from the strings and agile coloraturas from the voices". The instrumental ritornello comprises a sustained trumpet entry, active strings, and "flickering" oboes, drums, and trumpets. Unlike in most da capo movements, this ritornello appears only at the beginning and end. The basses enter first, "holding a top D for most of five bars to symbolise the 'eternal', the other three parts aglitter with 'fiery' embellishments", as John Eliot Gardiner notes. The middle section develops these themes in minor keys, in "dance-like vocal pairings", before the ritornello returns one more time to reprise the first section. ### 2 A tenor recitative, "Herr, unsre Herzen halten dir dein Wort der Wahrheit für" (Lord, our hearts keep Your word of truth fast), adopts an authoritative tone, is in minor mode, and begins with a bass pedal. It expands the concept of God abiding with his people, as outlined in the gospel. ### 3 An alto aria, "Wohl euch, ihr auserwählten Seelen, die Gott zur Wohnung ausersehn" (It is well for you, you chosen souls, whom God has designated for his dwelling), conveys images of contentment by incorporating a lilting berceuse-like rhythm, with an obbligato melody played by muted violins and flutes in octaves and tenths. It is accompanied by a tonic pedal in the continuo. The aria is in adapted ternary form. The pastoral character suited the original text, "Wohl euch, ihr auserwählten Schafe" (It is well for you, you chosen sheep), which alludes to the bridegroom, a pastor or "shepherd of souls". Gardiner notes "the tender sensuousness of the pastoral writing, the pairings of thirds and sixths, the blending of flutes and muted strings and the satisfying textures and calm enchantment disturbed only momentarily by modulation", and considers that the piece possibly had some "deeper personal significance". ### 4 The bass recitative, "Erwählt sich Gott die heilgen Hütten, die er mit Heil bewohnt" (If God chooses the holy dwellings that He inhabits with salvation), is quite similar in character to the tenor recitative. The last two measures form an introduction to the closing movement. ### 5 The closing chorus, "Friede über Israel" (Peace upon Israel), opens with a solemn rendering of the psalm text, marked Adagio. The violins and oboes first play an ascending figure. Gardiner notes that the section is "reminiscent of and equivalent in grandeur to the opening exordium to the B minor Mass". The slow music on the psalm text is contrasted by a "spirited and very secular-sounding march, setting "Dankt den höchsten Wunderhänden" (Thank the exalted wondrous hands). Both sections appear first as instrumental and are then repeated by the chorus. Hofmann notes that this music is reminiscent of Bach's works for the Köthen court, composed for Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen. Gardiner concludes: > There is an extended stretch of thrilling orchestra writing before the choir returns to the ‘Peace upon Israel’ theme, this time within the Allegro pulse, with a final shout of joy from the sopranos on a top B bringing this irresistible Whit Sunday cantata to a glorious conclusion. ## Selected recordings The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach-Cantatas website. - J. S. Bach: Cantatas BWV 34 & BWV 56 – Jonathan Sternberg, Wiener Kammerchor, Wiener Symphoniker. Bach Guild/Artemis Classics 1950. - J. S. Bach: Cantatas BWV 187 & BWV 34 – Diethard Hellmann, Kantorei & Kammerorchester of Christuskirche Mainz. Cantate 1958. - Les Grandes Cantates de J. S. Bach Vol. 8 – Fritz Werner, Heinrich-Schütz-Chor Heilbronn, Pforzheim Chamber Orchestra. Erato 1961. - Die Bach Kantate Vol. 36 – Helmuth Rilling, Gächinger Kantorei, Bach-Collegium Stuttgart. Hänssler 1972. - J. S. Bach: Das Kantatenwerk – Sacred Cantatas Vol. 2 – Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Wiener Sängerknaben, Chorus Viennensis (Chorus Master: Hans Gillesberger), Concentus Musicus Wien. Teldec 1973. - Bach Cantatas Vol. 3 – Ascension Day, Whitsun, Trinity – Karl Richter, Münchener Bach-Chor, Münchener Bach-Orchester. Archiv Produktion 1975. - J. S. Bach: Cantatas BWV 11 & BWV 34 – Philip Ledger, King's College Choir Cambridge, English Chamber Orchestra. HMV 1981. - Bach: Cantatas 34, 50, 147 – Harry Christophers, The Sixteen. Collins Classics 1990. - J. S. Bach: Whitsun Cantatas – John Eliot Gardiner, Monteverdi Choir, English Baroque Soloists. Archiv Produktion 1999. - J. S. Bach: Kantaten – Alt.: Karl-Friedrich Beringer, Windsbacher Knabenchor, Deutsche Kammer-Virtuosen Berlin. Rondeau Production 1999. - Bach Cantatas Vol. 26: Long Melford – John Eliot Gardiner, Monteverdi Choir, English Baroque Soloists. Soli Deo Gloria 2000. - Bach Edition Vol. 21 – Cantatas Vol. 12 – Pieter Jan Leusink, Holland Boys Choir, Netherlands Bach Collegium. Brilliant Classics 2000. - J. S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 21 – Ton Koopman, Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir. Antoine Marchand 2001. - J. S. Bach: The Ascension Oratorio and Two Festive Cantatas – Greg Funfgeld, Bach Choir of Bethlehem, The Bach Festival Orchestra. Dorian Recordings 2001. - Eröffnungskonzert zum Bachfest Leipzig 2005 "Bach und die Zukunft” – Georg Christoph Biller, Thomanerchor, Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin, Matthias Rexroth, Martin Petzold, Matthias Weichert, MDR Figaro 2005 - Thomanerchor Leipzig – Das Kirchenjahr mit Bach, Vol. 7: Pfingsten · Pentecost – Cantatas BWV 34, 74, 172 – Georg Christoph Biller, Thomanerchor, Gewandhausorchester Leipzig. Rondeau Production 2007 - J. S. Bach: Kantate BMV 34 "O ewiges Feuer, O Ursprung der Liebe" – Rudolf Lutz, Vokalensemble der Schola Seconda Pratica, Schola Seconda Pratica. Gallus Media 2009.

X (The X-Files)

Fictional character in The X-Files

X, sometimes referred to as Mr. X, is a fictional character on the American science fiction television series The X-Files. He serves as an informant, leaking information to FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully to aid their investigation of paranormal cases, dubbed X-Files. The character serves as a replacement for Deep Throat, who had been killed off in the first season finale, "The Erlenmeyer Flask". X himself would be killed off after appearing in several seasons, eventually being replaced by Marita Covarrubias. X is portrayed in the series by Steven Williams, and made his debut in the second season episode "The Host", although the character would not appear on-screen until "Sleepless", two episodes later. The role had originally been conceived as female, with Natalija Nogulich cast in the role; however, her initial scenes were deemed unsatisfactory by the producers, leading to her replacement. Williams' portrayal of X was intended to introduce a personality completely different from the character's predecessor, Deep Throat, and was positively received by critics and fans. ## Conceptual history The character of X was originally intended to be a woman, and Natalija Nogulich had been cast in the role. However, Nogulich was replaced by Steven Williams after shooting her first scene, as the writing staff felt Nogulich was not able to create the "right chemistry" with her co-stars. Williams had previous experience with writers Glen Morgan and James Wong, although it was series creator Chris Carter who suggested him for the part. Williams' portrayal of the role was intended to act as a counterpoint to Jerry Hardin's portrayal of X's predecessor, Deep Throat. Whereas Deep Throat had been a selfless character, X was written and performed as a scared, selfish character. Prior to the episode "One Breath", Glen Morgan had felt that the character of X was not "going over too well" with fans of the series, as he seemed to simply be a copy of Deep Throat. Believing Williams to be an actor worth having as a series regular, he included in the episode a scene in which X murders witnesses who have seen him speaking to Fox Mulder. Morgan felt that such a scene reflected X's paranoia and the difference between him and his predecessor, noting that "Deep Throat was a guy willing to lose his life for letting out the secret, whereas X is a guy who's still scared". Williams has stated that he has never attempted to rationalize the character's motives or imagine a backstory for him, preferring to play the role with as little background as possible; he once stated "the less I know about him, the more interesting he becomes." Williams' background in fight choreography, stemming from his role in Missing in Action 2: The Beginning (1985), allowed him to prepare for, and to help create, the character's action scenes, including choreographing the character's brawl with Mitch Pileggi's character Walter Skinner in the episode "End Game". Williams has also stated that his portrayal of the role is based in part on Avery Brooks' character Hawk on the series Spenser: For Hire. ## Character arc X was introduced on the series via a phone call made to Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) in the second season episode "The Host", telling Mulder that he had "a friend in the FBI". However, the character did not appear on-screen until "Sleepless", two episodes later, aiding Mulder in an investigation by leaking information on a secret military project from the Vietnam War. While X's loyalties and his own agenda were often unclear, he proved more than once that he at least does not want Mulder dead. In the episode "End Game", he is approached by Dana Scully (Gillian Anderson), who pleads that she needs to know where Mulder is, believing his life to be in danger. Initially X refuses, and is subsequently confronted by Walter Skinner (Mitch Pileggi), who seemed to recognize X. He relinquishes Mulder's location, though not until after a brief but intense scuffle with Skinner. In the episode "731", X's loyalty to Mulder is further confirmed. Trapped on a train car equipped with a time bomb, Mulder, about to escape, is attacked brutally by the Red Haired Man, a Men in Black assassin. X fatally shoots the Red Haired Man as he is about to step off the car, then boards the car with only enough time left to save either Mulder or the alien-human hybrid the car was transporting. He opts to save Mulder, and carries him off to safety just as the car explodes. In the season 4 opener "Herrenvolk", X's position as an informant is discovered by the Syndicate. When suspicion arises after the finding of photographs that were taken of The Smoking Man (William B. Davis) by X, false information is planted at the First Elder's behest, in order to root out the leak. Attempting to relay the information to Mulder, X goes to his apartment and is surprised by fellow Men in Black operative, the Gray Haired Man, who fatally shoots him. With his last strength, X crawls to Mulder's doorstep and writes in his own blood "SRSG", meaning "Special Representative to the Secretary General" of the United Nations, and thus, this clue leads Mulder to Marita Covarrubias (Laurie Holden). After his death, X appears two more times—in The Lone Gunmen origin story "Unusual Suspects," set before his death, and as a ghost in the season 9 finale, "The Truth". ## Reception The character of X has been well-received by critics. Entertainment Weekly included the character in the list of the top 20 Black Sci-Fi Icons in 2009, at number 17. Emily VanDerWerff, writing for The A.V. Club, has praised the "gravitas" of Williams' acting, adding that she wished that the writers "had figured out a way to have him around more often than they did". VanDerWerff's fellow writer Zack Handlen felt that the character's assassination in "Herrenvolk" was "appropriately shocking", calling the scene "one of the most memorable death's [sic] in the series"; although he felt that the immediate introduction of the character's successor, Marita Covarrubias, "deflates the importance of X's loss" in the episode. Handlen has also called X "the best of Mulder's informants", explaining that this is "because he's always pissed off, he's always reluctant to provide information, and you can't ever be sure what play he's really running". Series writer Frank Spotnitz has called X "the meanest, nastiest, most lethal killer on the planet". Steven Williams has noted that he feels the episodes "Nisei" and "731" were chiefly responsible for the character's popularity with fans. In 1997, Williams was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series for his work as X, alongside Gillian Anderson, William B. Davis, David Duchovny and Mitch Pileggi.

Warfare in early modern Scotland

Military activity in the 16th–18th centuries

Warfare in early modern Scotland includes all forms of military activity in Scotland or by Scottish forces, between the adoption of new ideas of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the military defeat of the Jacobite movement in the mid-eighteenth century. In the late Middle Ages, Scottish armies were assembled on the basis of common service, feudal obligations and money contracts of bonds of manrent. In 1513 these systems produced a large and formidable force, but in the mid-sixteenth century there were difficulties in recruitment. Individuals were expected to provide their own equipment, including axes and pole arms. Highland troops often brought bows and two-handed swords. Heavy armour was abandoned after the Flodden campaign. Highland lords tended to continue to use lighter chainmail and ordinary highlanders dressed in the plaid. The crown took an increasing role in the supply of equipment. The pike replaced the spear and the Scots began to convert from the bow to gunpowder firearms. Feudal heavy cavalry were replaced with light horse, often drawn from the Borders. James IV established a gun foundry in 1511 and gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture. In the 1540s and 1550s, Scotland was given a defended border of earthwork forts and additions to existing castles. There were attempts to create royal naval forces in the fifteenth century. James IV founded a harbour at Newhaven and a dockyard at the Pools of Airth. He acquired a total of 38 ships including the Great Michael, at that time the largest in Europe. Scottish ships had some success against privateers, accompanied the king on his expeditions to the islands, and intervened in Scandinavia and the Baltic, but were sold after the Flodden campaign. Scottish naval efforts subsequently relied on privateering captains and hired merchantmen. Despite truces with England there were periodic outbreaks of a guerre de course. James V built a new harbour at Burntisland in 1542. The chief use of naval power in his reign were a series of expeditions to the Isles and France. The Union of Crowns in 1603 ended conflict with England, but England's foreign policy opened up Scottish shipping to attack. In 1626 a squadron of three ships were bought and equipped for protection and there were marque fleets of privateers. In 1627, the Royal Scots Navy and privateers participated in the major expedition to Biscay. The Scots also returned to West Indies and in 1629 took part in the capture of Quebec. In the early seventeenth century large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years' War. As armed conflict between the Covenanter regime in Scotland and Charles I in the Bishops' Wars became likely, many mercenaries returned home, including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie and these veterans played an important role in training recruits. Covenanter armies intervened in the Civil Wars in England and Ireland. Scottish infantry were generally armed with a combination of pike and shot, but individuals may have had weapons including bows and polearms. Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords, but may have included lancers. Royalist armies, like those led by James Graham, Marquis of Montrose (1643–44) and in Glencairn's rising (1653–54), were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot. Montrose's forces were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry. During the Bishops' Wars, Scottish privateers took English prizes. After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts, known collectively as the "Scotch Guard". The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649–51 and Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Commonwealth fleet. During the English occupation, more fortresses in the style of the trace italienne were built. At the Restoration, infantry regiments and a few troops of horse were established and there were attempts to found a national militia on the English model. The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerrilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East. Pikemen became less important and after the introduction of the socket bayonet disappeared altogether, while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock. On the eve of the Glorious Revolution the standing army in Scotland was about 3,250 men. The Scots were drawn into King William II's continental wars. Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment, but a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea-coast burghs. There were now Royal Navy patrols in Scottish waters even in peacetime. Scottish privateers played a major part in the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In the 1690s a fleet of five ships was established for the Darien Scheme, and a professional navy of three warships to protect local shipping. After the Act of Union in 1707, these vessels were transferred to the Royal Navy. At the Union, the standing army was seven units of infantry, two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards, besides varying levels of fortress artillery. As part of the British Army, Scottish regiments took part in a series of wars on the European continent. The first official Highland regiment to be raised for the British army was the Black Watch in 1740, but the growth of Highland regiments was delayed by the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion. The bulk of Jacobite armies were made up of Highlanders, serving in clan regiments. The Jacobites often started campaigns poorly armed, but arms became more conventional as the rebellions progressed. ## Sixteenth century ### Royal armies In the later Middle Ages, Scottish armies were still largely assembled on the basis of common service and feudal obligations, with the addition of troops maintained by money contracts of bonds or bands of manrent. Common service theoretically called all men between the ages of 16 and 60 for a maximum of 40 days in one year. Such troops were expected to serve at their own expense and to bring their own supplies, a factor that severely limited the ability of Scottish armies to take part in sustained campaigning. Feudalism had been introduced to Scotland in the twelfth century, meaning that knights held castles and estates in exchange for service, providing troops on a 40-day basis, particularly heavily armed noble cavalry. Bonds of manrent were similar to English indentures of the same period, used to retain more professional troops, particular men-at-arms and archers. Scotland relied on these systems longer than was the case in England. In practice, forms of service tended to blur and overlap, and major Scottish lords continued to bring contingents from their kindred. In 1513 for the Flodden campaign these systems were successful in producing a large and formidable force, but in the religious and politically divided mid-sixteenth century there is evidence that the authorities were experiencing increasing difficulty in recruitment. A series of musters or wapenshaws, between two and four times a year, checked that potential soldiers maintained suitable equipment. Individuals were expected to equip themselves for war according to their estates. Instructions given to sheriffs in 1513 indicated that gentlemen were expected to muster in plate armour, while common soldiers were to come in jacks and sallets. After the disaster at Flodden there seems to have been a deliberate abandonment of plate armour by the nobility, perhaps because of the difficulties it created in handling a pike, and by 1547 many noblemen were virtually indistinguishable from the majority of troops. Highland lords continued to use lighter chainmail and ordinary highlanders dressed in the plaid, leaving their lower legs naked. In place of a jack, they often had a patchwork linen garment, covered with wax or pitch. A clan leader like John Grant of Freuchie in 1596 could muster from his kin, friends, and servants 500 men able to fight for James VI and the Sheriff of Moray. Of these 40 had habergeons, two handled swords, and helmets, and another 40 were armed "according to the Highland custom" with bows, helmets, swords, and targes. Weapons included various forms of axes and pole arms, including spears, the Lochaber axe, Leith axe and Jedburgh stave. Highland troops often brought bows, two-handed swords (claidheamh mór) and axes. The crown took an increasing role in the supply of equipment. There were attempts to replace polearms with longer pikes of 15.5 feet (5 m) to 18.5 feet (6 m) in the later fifteenth century, in emulation of successes over mounted troops in the Netherlands and Switzerland, but this does not appear to have been successful until the eve of the Flodden campaign in early sixteenth century. By the mid-sixteenth century the pike had emerged as the most important infantry weapon in Scottish armies. Modelling themselves on Swiss and German infantry, Scottish tactics tended to focus on rapidly engaging the enemy, particularly necessary to counter the advantage enjoyed by the English in missile power. Like most European nations the Scots in this period began to convert from the bow to gunpowder firearms. Handguns were present in Scottish armies in small numbers from the fifteenth century and there are increasingly frequent references to handguns and arquebus in records. An account of the Scottish vanguard at Haddon Rig in 1542 suggests that half the troops were missile men and half of those were arquebusiers. Equal proportions of missile to melee troops seems to have been an aim of Scottish commanders for most of the century, although it was not always possible in the field. The main source of firearms were the French, who seem to have extensively rearmed the Scottish after the English invasions of the Rough Wooing. The English enjoyed a marked superiority over the Scots in cavalry, particularly with the resurgence of heavy cavalry with their use of demi-lancers. The feudal heavy cavalry had begun to disappear from Scottish armies after Bannockburn in 1314. It was limited by the shortage of suitable horses. James V imported great horses and mares from Denmark in an attempt to improve the quality of Scottish breading stock. In the mid-sixteenth century the Scots still lacked sufficient heavy cavalry. In their place they fielded relatively large numbers of light horse, often drawn from the Borders and usually wearing jacks of leather or mail, mounted on small horses and using light lances. As firearms became available they began to field relatively large numbers of mounted arquebusiers. ### Artillery and siege warfare James IV brought in experts from France, Germany and the Netherlands and established a gun foundry in 1511. Edinburgh Castle had a house of artillery where visitors could see cannon cast for what became a formidable train, allowing him to send cannon to France and Ireland and to quickly subdue Norham Castle in the Flodden campaign. However, his 18 heavy artillery pieces had to be drawn by 400 oxen and slowed the advancing Scots army, proving ineffective against the longer-range and smaller-calibre English guns at the Battle of Flodden Field. Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture from the mid-fifteenth century, with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of "keyhole" gun ports, platforms to mount guns and walls being modified to resist bombardment. Ravenscraig, Kirkcaldy, begun about 1460, is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort, incorporating "D-shape" bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted. In the period of French intervention in the 1540s and 1550s, at the end of the Rough Wooing, Scotland was given a defended border of a series of earthwork forts and additions to existing castles. These included the erection of single bastions at Edinburgh (by Migliorino Ubaldini), Stirling and Dunbar; the creation of the Scots' Dike on the western end of the border; trace italienne fortresses at Leith, Inchkeith (by Lorenzo Pomarelli) and Langholm; work was also begun at Jedburgh and plans made for works at Kelso. The most aggressive move was a fortified artillery park at Eyemouth, only 6 miles (10 km) from the English border stronghold of Berwick. ### Royal navy There were various attempts to create royal naval forces in the fifteenth century. James IV put the enterprise on a new footing, founding a harbour at Newhaven in May 1504, and two years later ordering the construction of a dockyard at the Pools of Airth. The upper reaches of the Forth were protected by new fortifications on Inchgarvie. The king acquired a total of 38 ships for the Royal Scottish Navy, including the Margaret, and the carrack Michael or Great Michael. The latter, built at great expense at Newhaven and launched in 1511, was 240 feet (73 m) in length, weighed 1,000 tons, had 24 cannon, and was, at that time, the largest ship in Europe. Scottish ships had some success against privateers, accompanied the king in his expeditions in the islands and intervened in conflicts in Scandinavia and the Baltic. In the Flodden campaign the fleet consisted of 16 large and 10 smaller craft. After a raid on Carrickfergus in Ireland, it joined up with the French and had little impact on the war. After the disaster at Flodden the Great Michael, and perhaps other ships, were sold to the French. The king's ships disappeared from royal records after 1516 and Scottish naval efforts would rely on privateering captains and hired merchantmen during the minority of James V. In the Italian War of 1521–26, in which England and Scotland became involved on opposing sides, the Scots had six men-of-war active attacking English and Imperial shipping and they blockaded the Humber in 1523. Although prizes were taken by Robert Barton and other captains, the naval campaign was sporadic and indecisive. James V entered his majority in 1524. He did not share his father's interest in building a navy, relying on French gifts such as the Salamander, or captured ships like the English Mary Willoughby. Scotland's shipbuilding remained largely at the level of boat building and ship repairs and fell behind the Low Countries which led the way into semi-industrialised ship building. Despite truces between England and Scotland there were periodic outbreaks of commerce raiding in the 1530s with at least four of a known six men-at-war were royal naval vessels on the Scottish side. James V built a new harbour at Burntisland in 1542, called 'Our Lady Port' or 'New Haven,' described in 1544 as having three blockhouses with guns and a pier for great ships to lie in a dock. The chief use of naval power in his reign were a series of expeditions to the Isles and France. In 1536 the king circumnavigated the Isles, embarking at Pittenween in Fife and landing Whithorn in Galloway. Later in the year he sailed from Kirkcaldy with six ships including the 600 ton Mary Willoughby, and arrived at Dieppe to begin his courtship of his first wife Madeleine of Valois. After his marriage he sailed from Le Havre in the Mary Willoughby to Leith with four great Scottish ships and ten French. After the death of Queen Madeleine, John Barton, in the Salamander returned to France in 1538 to pick up the new prospective queen, Mary of Guise, with the Moriset and Mary Willoughby. In 1538 James V embarked on the newly equipped Salamander at Leith and accompanied by the Mary Willoughby, the Great Unicorn, the Little Unicorn, the Lion and twelve other ships sailed to Kirkwall on Orkney. Then he went to Lewis on the West, perhaps using the newly compiled charts from his first voyage known as Alexander Lindsay's Rutter. Scottish privateers and pirates preyed on shipping in the North Sea and off the Atlantic coast of France. Scotland's Admiralty court judged whether a captured ship was a lawful prize and dealt with the recovery of goods. As the court was entitled to a tenth of the value of a prize, it was a profitable business for the admiral. The privateers Andrew and Robert Barton were still using their letters of reprisal of 1506 against the Portuguese in 1561. The Bartons operated down the east coast of Britain from Leven and the Firth of Forth, while others used the French Channel ports such as Rouen and Dieppe or the Atlantic port of Brest as bases. During the Rough Wooing in 1542, the Mary Willoughby, the Lion, and the Salamander under the command of John Barton, son of Robert Barton, attacked merchants and fishermen off Whitby. They later blockaded a London merchant ship called the Antony of Bruges in a creek on the coast of Brittany. In 1544 Edinburgh was attacked by an English marine force and burnt. The Salamander and the Scottish-built Unicorn were captured at Leith. The Scots still had two royal naval vessels and numerous smaller private vessels, but would have to rely on privateers until the re-establishment of a royal fleet in the 1620s. When, as a result of the series of international treaties, the emperor Charles V declared war upon Scotland in 1544, the Scots were able to engage in a highly profitable campaign of privateering that lasted six years and the gains of which probably outweighed the losses in trade with the Low Countries. They also operated in the West Indies from the 1540s, joining the French in the capture of Burburuta in 1567. English and Scottish naval warfare and privateering broke out sporadically in the 1550s. In 1559, English captain William Winter was sent north with 34 ships and dispersed and captured the Scottish and French fleets, leading to the eventual evacuation of the French from Scotland, and a successful coup of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation. Scottish and English interests were re-aligned and the naval conflict subsided. ## Early seventeenth century ### Royal and marque fleets After the Union of Crowns in 1603 conflict between Scotland and England ended, but Scotland found itself involved in England's foreign policy, opening up Scottish shipping to attack. In the 1620s, Scotland found herself fighting a naval war as England's ally, first against Spain and then also against France, while simultaneously embroiled in undeclared North Sea commitments in the Danish intervention in the Thirty Years' War. In 1626 a squadron of three ships were bought and equipped at a cost of least £5,200 sterling, to guard against privateers operating out of Spanish-controlled Dunkirk and other ships were armed in preparation for potential action. The acting High Admiral John Gordon of Lochinvar organised at least three marque fleets of privateers. It was probably one of Lochinvar's marque fleets that was sent to support the English Royal Navy defending Irish waters in 1626. In 1627, the Royal Scots Navy, and accompanying contingents of burgh privateers, participated in the major expedition to Biscay. The Scots also returned to the West Indies, with Lochinvar taking French prizes and founding the colony of Charles Island. In 1629 two squadrons of privateers led by Lochinvar and William Lord Alexander, sailed for Canada, taking part in the campaign that resulted in the capture of Quebec from the French, which was handed back after the subsequent peace. ### Covenanter armies In the early seventeenth century relatively large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years' War, with 20–30,000 in Swedish service, a Scots brigade in the Netherlands, and 5–6,000 raised for Danish service in the period 1626–27, 11,000 for France and large numbers in the armies of eastern Europe, including German states, Poland and Russia. As armed confrontation between Scotland and the Charles I looked increasingly likely from 1637, the Standing Committee of the Tables began to function as a war council. It appointed two lairds in every parish to draw up lists of men suitable for military service, arms and the names of Scots serving abroad so that they could be recalled. Three commissioners were appointed in each shire, two residing in Edinburgh and another remaining in the locality, where presbyteries appointed commissioners to communicate instructions to the parishes. Hundreds of Scots mercenaries returned home from foreign service, including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie. These veterans played an important role in training the parish recruits. Nobles were able to raise regiments, which usually bore their name as colonel, and they could appoint company commanders, but the lieutenant colonel and sergeant major of the regiment, and the lieutenant and sergeant of each company, were to be professional soldiers. The returning soldiers also brought expertise in fortification and trace italliene fortifications were added at Leith, Burntisland and Greenock. They would play a major role in the siege of Edinburgh in 1650. The appointment of Leslie as field marshal avoided a contest between inexperienced nobles for leadership and his reputation made the service by Scottish mercenaries in Covenanter armies more likely. He became an ex offico member of the Tables, enabling him to influence policy and take part in issuing dispatches. Although producing a relatively large and efficiently organised army, it was hastily assembled, and short of money and supplies. The Covenanting regime had to make assessments on parishes and relied on loans from Edinburgh merchants, making a long campaign difficult to sustain. In the view of historian James Scott Wheeler, the first Covenanter army was "marginally trained, irregularly armed, poorly paid and badly supplied", but it proved sufficient to the task. Between the two Bishops' Wars the Covenanters maintained one regiment of infantry and many of their officers who had drilled the local militias on half pay. The militas were now armed with firearms purchased in the Netherlands. The Tables were replaced with a committee of estates, with wide-ranging powers, and kept to same system of commissioners. One in four able bodied men were able to muster when mobilisation began for renewed confrontation in 1640. The army was paid for by more loans and a new national tax known as the "tenth" or "tenth penny". These systems would form the basis of the Covenanter armies that operated in Ireland, intervened in the First Civil War (1642–46) in England on the side of Parliament and subsequently, and less successfully, on the side of the king in the Second (1648–49) and Third Civil Wars (1649–51). Scottish infantry were generally armed, as was almost universal in Western Europe, with a combination of pike and shot. Pikes were theoretically 16 feet (5 m) long, but were often shortened by a foot or two to make them more manageable, this had disastrous consensuses at the Battle of Benburb (1646), where the Confederate Irish defeated the Scots because they possessed longer pikes. Musketeers were mainly armed with matchlock muskets, with some firelocks (probably mainly reserved for troops defending the baggage and ammunition) and there were a handful of troops that brought more accurate rifled guns. Continental experience tended to increasingly emphasise firepower over melee and this was reflected in the greater proportions of shot to pike, usually in proportions of three to two. Scottish armies may also have had individuals with weapons including bows, Lochaber axes, and halberds. as recruits who lacked pike and shot were told to report with these. Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords, although there is some evidence that they included lancers. Royalist armies, like those led by James Graham, Marquis of Montrose (1643–44) and in Glencairn's rising (1653–54) were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot. Montrose's army also included a contingent of Irish Confederate troops and Scottish recruits from Highland clans hostile to the Clan Campbell, under the under leadership of Alasdair Mac Colla. Glencairn's rising gained some support from Lowland Scottish lords and at its height had 3,500 infantry and 1,500 cavalry. The forces under Montrose's command reached about the same numbers of infantry, but were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry, about 300, supplied from the estate of the Earls of Huntly. ### Covenanter navies During the Bishops' Wars the king attempted to blockade Scotland, disrupting trade and the transport of returning troops from the continent. The king planned amphibious assaults from England on the east coast and from Ireland to the west, but they failed to materialise. Scottish privateers took English prizes and the Covenanters planned to fit out Dutch ships with Scottish and Dutch crews to join the naval war effort. After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts, known collectively as the "Scotch Guard". These patrols guarded against Royalist attempts to move men, money and munitions and raids on Scottish shipping, particularly from ships based in Wexford and Dunkirk. They consisted mainly of small English warships, controlled by the Commissioners of the Navy based in London, but it always relied heavily on Scottish officers and revenues, and after 1646, the West Coast squadron became much more a Scottish force. The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649–51. The Scottish ships and crews were divided among the Commonwealth fleet. ### Fortifications During the English occupation of Scotland under the Commonwealth, fortresses in the style of the trace italienne were built. These were polygonal in plan with triangular bastions, as at Ayr, Inverness and Leith. Twenty smaller forts were built as far away as Orkney and Stornoway. Control of the Highlands was secured by strongpoints at Inverlocky and Inverness. These were built at a massive cost in money and manpower. The citadel at Inverness, begun in 1652 and using stone shipped from as far away as Aberdeen, had cost £50,0000 when it was still unfinished by 1655. Inverlochy had a garrison of 1,000 and from 1654 became the centre for a new administrative region of Lochaber, made up of three of the most remote and lawless shires. ## Later seventeenth century ### Restoration army At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force of an unknown number of infantry regiments and a few troops of horse. The Commonwealth fortresses were abandoned, but garrisons were placed in Edinburgh, Stirling, Dumbarton and Blackness castles. There were attempts to found a national militia on the English model. The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East. Units included a regiment of foot guards, later known as the Scots Guards and Le Regiment of Douglas, formed and serving in France since 1633, it returned, eventually became the Royal Regiment of Foot. Pikemen became less important in the late seventeenth century and after the introduction of the socket bayonet, a process complete by 1702, disappeared altogether, while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock. Three troops of Scots Dragoons were raised in 1678 and another three were added to make The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons in 1681. On the eve of the Glorious Revolution the standing army in Scotland was about 3,000 men in various regiments and another 268 veterans in the major garrison towns, at an annual cost of about £80,000. After the Glorious Revolution the Scots were drawn into King William II's continental wars, beginning with the Nine Years' War in Flanders (1689–97). ### Restoration navy Although Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment onto English men-of-war under Charles II, a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea-coast burghs during the second half of the seventeenth century. Royal Navy patrols were now found in Scottish waters even in peacetime, such as the small ship-of-the-line HMS Kingfisher, which bombarded Carrick Castle during the Earl of Argyll's rebellion in 1685. Scotland went to war against the Dutch and their allies in the Second (1665–67) and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars (1672–74) as an independent kingdom. Scottish captains, at least 80 and perhaps 120, took letters of marque, and privateers played a major part in the naval conflict of the wars. By 1697 the English Royal Navy had 323 warships, while Scotland was still dependent on merchantman and privateers. In the 1690s, two separate schemes for larger naval forces were put in motion. As usual, the larger part was played by the merchant community rather than the government. The first was the Darien Scheme to found a Scottish colony in Spanish controlled America. It was undertaken by the Company of Scotland, who created a fleet of five ships, including the Caledonia and the St. Andrew, built or chartered in Holland and Hamburg. It sailed to Isthmus of Darien in 1698, but the venture failed and only one ship returned to Scotland. In the same period it was decided to establish a professional navy for the protection of commerce in home waters during the Nine Years' War, with three purpose-built warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696. These were the Royal William, a 32-gun fifth rate, and two smaller ships, the Royal Mary and the Dumbarton Castle, each of 24 guns and generally described as frigates. After the Act of Union in 1707, the Scottish Navy merged with that of England and the three vessels of the small Royal Scottish Navy were transferred to the Royal Navy. ## Early eighteenth century ### Royal army By the time of the act of Union, the Kingdom of Scotland had a standing army of seven units of infantry, two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards, besides varying levels of fortress artillery in the garrison castles of Edinburgh, Dumbarton, and Stirling. Their role was of such importance that the Scots Parliament forced Queen Anne to give royal assent to the controversial 1704 Act of Security by threatening to withdraw Scottish forces back out of the Confederate armies. The new British Army created by the Act of Union in 1707 incorporated existing Scottish regiments, such as the Scots Guards, The Royal Scots 1st of Foot, King's Own Scottish Borderers 25th of Foot, The Cameronians 26th of Foot, Scots Greys and the Royal Scots Fusiliers 21st of Foot. The new armed forces were controlled by the War Office and Admiralty from London. During this period, Scottish soldiers and sailors were instrumental in supporting the expansion of the British Empire and became involved in international conflicts, including the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–13), the Quadruple Alliance (1718–20), wars with Spain (1727–29) and (1738–48) and the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48). The first official Highland regiment to be raised for the British army was the Black Watch, the 43rd (later 42nd) regiment, in 1740. It marked the beginning of a major role for Highlanders within the British military structure, but the growth of Highland regiments was delayed by the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion and would not begin in earnest until the late 1750s. ### Jacobite armies The bulk of Jacobite armies were made up of Highlanders, serving in clan regiments. They were 70 per cent of the forces in the 1715 rebellion and over 90 per cent of those in 1745. Most were forced to join by their clan chiefs, landlords or feudal superiors and desertion was a major problem during campaigns. The Jacobites suffered from a lack of trained officers. A typical clan regiment was made up of a small minority of gentlemen (tacksmen) who would bear the clan name. The clan gentlemen formed the front ranks of the unit and were more heavily armed than their impoverished tenants who made up the bulk of the regiment. Because they served in the front ranks, the gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties than the common clansman. The Jacobites often started campaigns poorly armed. In the rising of 1745, at the Battle of Prestonpans, some only had swords, Lochaber axes, pitchforks and scythes, but arms tended to become more conventional as the campaigns progressed. Only officers and gentlemen were equipped with a broadsword, targe and pistol. After the Battle of Culloden in 1746, the Hanoverian commander the Duke of Cumberland reported that there were 2,320 firelocks recovered from the battlefield, but only 190 broadswords.

Kena: Bridge of Spirits

2021 video game

Kena: Bridge of Spirits is a 2021 action-adventure video game developed and published by Ember Lab. The story follows Kena, a young spirit guide who uses her magical abilities to help deceased people move from the physical to the spirit world. The game is presented through a third-person perspective. The player uses Kena's staff for attacking enemies, and her pulse ability for defending against attacks. They are tasked with collecting small spirit companions known as the Rot, who help to complete tasks and battle against enemies. The game's development was led by brothers Mike and Josh Grier, founders of Ember Lab. Having spent five years creating commercials and branded applications, the development team shifted to creating an original video game after 2016. They partnered with Sony Interactive Entertainment for a console-exclusive deal, and grew the team to 15 core employees. The game's art was created in collaboration with Vietnamese animation studio Sparx, and its fictional world is inspired by Eastern locations such as Japan and Bali. The original score was composed by Jason Gallaty, who collaborated with Balinese ensemble group Gamelan Çudamani to create gamelan music respectful to the culture. Kena: Bridge of Spirits was showcased at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2021. Following some delays, partly due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the game was released on September 21, 2021, for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. It received generally positive reviews, with particular praise directed at its artistic design, original music, and the use of the Rot; critics were divided on the gameplay, narrative, and characters. It received several awards and nominations from video game publications and awards ceremonies. ## Gameplay Kena: Bridge of Spirits is an action-adventure game played from a third-person perspective. The player controls Kena, a young spirit guide with magical abilities. In combat, the player uses Kena's staff for light, heavy, and charged attacks. An upgrade transforms the staff into a bow, which can be used to attack enemies, act as a grappling hook, or hit crystals to solve puzzles. When defending against enemies, the player can activate Kena's pulse ability, which acts as a shield and has a health meter that depletes when attacked; it serves to provide clues and activate objects, and an upgrade allows the player to dash forwards, which can be used to pass through barriers to the Spirit Realm, dodge attacks and stun enemies, and corporealize spirit enemies. Activating the pulse ability before an attack stuns the enemy. The player gains the ability to use Spirit Bombs, which can be used to float shimmering rocks for platforming or as a stun attack against enemies. The player is tasked with collecting small spirit companions known as the Rot. They can be directed to complete tasks, such as moving objects, taking certain shapes, or distracting enemies. The player must damage enemies to collect enough courage before the Rot can join battles. Directing the Rot to complete a task during battle will expend courage, which can be regained by continuing to attack enemies and collecting the dropped courage. The Rot can infuse the player's arrows or bombs to provide a stronger attack. The Rot can be customized with different hats, which are discovered by completing tasks or opening chests; when discovered, they become available at the Rot Hat Cart, where they are purchasable using Gems earned and discovered throughout the game world. The player earns karma by completing tasks and finding collectibles, which is used to unlock upgrades and abilities such as more powerful attacks or a stronger shield. Throughout the world, the player may discover spirit mail, which is used to unlock areas within the village and free the spirits within. The player may find locations to meditate; doing so will increase their overall health meter. The game utilizes the DualSense controller's haptic feedback for features such as Kena's spirit bow. ## Plot In the world of Kena: Bridge of Spirits, deceased people can remain between the physical and spirit worlds if they are traumatized or feel unfinished. The task of spirit guides is to understand their difficulties and help them to move on. In the game, a young spirit guide named Kena (Dewa Ayu Dewi Larassanti) travels to an abandoned village in search of the sacred Mountain Shrine. She collects small companions called the Rot, who help her throughout her journey. On the way to the village, she confronts a powerful masked spirit who reveals himself to be the cause of corruption in the forest, forcing it to decay and unleashing deadly monsters on the land. Kena insists she can help his spirit move on, but he refuses and leaves. In the village, Kena meets former elder Zajuro (Vlasta Vrána), who informs her she must help the trapped spirits before being granted passage to the shrine. Kena follows the spirits of two young children, Saiya (Sam Cavallaro) and Beni (Joshua Vincent), whose older brother Taro (Tod Fennell) is a restless spirit struggling to move on. After discovering relics of Taro's memories, Kena defeats the corruption that has overtaken him. Taro tells her, after a sickness killed their parents and spread throughout the village, he took his siblings and sought help from Rusu (Alan Adelberg) but they were told to return to the village. On the journey back, Taro witnessed the explosion of the Mountain Shrine; its impact wiped out the village. As a spirit, he desperately searched for his siblings, but the corruption overwhelmed him. Kena tells Taro to forgive himself, and that his siblings need him; he embraces them, and their spirits move on. Kena seeks to help the village's Woodsmith, Adira (Amber Goldfarb); on the way, she encounters the spirit of Adira's partner, Hana (Gita Miller). After Kena finds relics of Adira's memories, Adira tells her she and Hana had discovered how to focus the energy of the Mountain within the Village Heart, but it had started to fade. When the sickness began to spread throughout the village, Hana left to search for food and supplies, but never returned. To help Hana find her way home, Adira built a tower and put the Village Heart at the top of it; while doing so, the Mountain Shrine exploded, wiping her out. Kena tells Adira to forgive herself, and the work she built with Hana would forever be a part of the land; Adira and Hana embrace, and their spirits move on. To reach the Mountain Shrine, Kena attempts to help the powerful masked spirit, revealed to be the former village leader Toshi (Masashi Odate), but his corruption overpowers her. Kena finds relics of Toshi's past in the spirit realm and attempts to free him of corruption, but he overpowers her again and takes control of the Rot. She confronts him atop the mountain, where he fuses the Rot with corruption to create a giant corrupted Rot monster. Kena takes back the Rot and defeats the creature. Toshi tells Kena he sought answers after the village was overcome with sickness; Zajuro told him it was the natural cycle of the Rot God and they must find a new home, but Toshi refused. He confronted the Rot God atop the Mountain to inquire about the suffering inflicted upon his people. The Rot God did not answer, provoking Toshi to kill it and causing the explosion that wiped out the village and its inhabitants. Kena tells Toshi to forgive himself, and his and Zajuro's spirits move on. Kena bids farewell to the Rot, revealed to be fragments of the Rot God. The Rot combines to restore the spirit of the Rot God while Kena meditates on the Mountain Shrine. ## Development Kena: Bridge of Spirits was developed by Ember Lab, an independent studio based in Los Angeles. Founded in 2009 by brothers Mike and Josh Grier, the studio worked on several animated commercials and branded game applications, and in 2016 released a viral short film based on The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask titled Terrible Fate. Following the release of Terrible Fate, the development team felt creating a video game was the "natural next step". While developing the story for Kena: Bridge of Spirits, Ember Lab considered an animated film or series; after creating the Rot, they realized a video game would be more appropriate as the creatures provided a connection between gameplay and narrative. Along with a small team, Mike used his experience with programming to create a prototype over several years, before employing staff with more development experience. Once the prototype was complete, in March 2017 the team began pitching to potential publishing partners with assistance from industry veteran Tina Kowalewski. They found several publishers were familiar with Terrible Fate. Ember Lab signed a console-exclusive deal with Sony Interactive Entertainment in October 2017; Sony assisted with funding and marketing. The team grew to 15 core employees, with assistance outsourced to other studios. Mike Grier handled the creative elements of the studio, while Josh worked with the business and managerial side. The final game was larger in scope than originally envisioned. In October 2020, former designer Brandon Popovich claimed Ember Lab did not fully compensate him for his work on the game and failed to honor promises made regarding equity and a promotion; an anonymous source issued similar claims, accusing the company of unpaid overtime and unfulfilled promises of a full-time position. Ember Lab responded, claiming it had records of all invoices being paid and denying any promises of equity or promotions. ### Art and gameplay design For the game's art, Ember Lab partnered with Vietnamese animation studio Sparx. The team visited the studio in Vietnam early in development to ensure a smooth process. Lead environment artist Julian Vermeulen, who worked with Mike Grier on the original prototype in 2016, worked with both studios. An early prototype used the Unity game engine, but later shifted to Unreal Engine 4. The majority of development took place on PlayStation 4; the team was unsure if they would be provided a development kit for the PlayStation 5, but Sony eventually approved. The team wanted to make a "rich experience" that could be completed in a weekend. The game's fictional world is inspired by several Eastern locations, including Japan and Bali. The symbols throughout the game are inspired by Japanese and South East Asian cultures. Combat designer James Beck, who started on the project as animator and lighting/shading artist before transitioning to combat, found working on character animations and enemy behavior simultaneously led to a more seamless integration. For some time during development, Kena had a separate spirit meter for each ability; however, the team ultimately wanted difficulty in combat to derive from enemies and their attacks rather than resource management—they wanted gameplay to be enjoyable with some depth, but ultimately simple for the player to understand. The ability to cancel animations during gameplay was seen as imperative as it allowed better pacing and responsiveness. Mike and Josh Grier often delayed game testing throughout development as they wanted to present a higher quality product to testers; they ultimately felt testing should have begun earlier in development. ### Character design Earlier prototypes of the game focused on the Rot as antagonists, and did not feature Kena. When the team created Kena, she was initially younger—around seven or eight years old—but they felt the story and themes required a more experienced and mature protagonist. She originally lacked many powers and relied more heavily on the Rot to complete tasks, which Mike Grier compared to the 2009 game A Boy and His Blob. After exploring more concepts, the team made Kena strong on her own, but more powerful when teamed with the Rot. Lead character designer Vic Kun designed Kena's appearance to match the world while standing out. At one point, Kena had a long cape, but its animation was deemed too distracting and it was replaced with a shawl. Kun intended her clothes to feel asymmetrical, handmade, and practical. The original 3D prototype model of Kena was built by Rodrigo Gonçalves, who refined the real-time rendering on details such as the character's hair. For Kena's hair, the team discovered a blend between solid geometry (for effective lighting and defined shapes) and alpha planes (for individual hair details). Similar work was applied to Kena's clothing and staff, intended to reflect the character's tradition and devotion. The team created a digital library for Kena's facial expressions, hair, and hands, allowing a fast method to select different poses and ensure refinement and consistency in the character. Kena is a young Asian girl. Josh Grier said the team "always planned for a unique lead character that gamers haven't seen before". Dewa Ayu Dewi Larassanti, who voices Kena, originally became involved in the project through her parents, who founded the Balinese ensemble group Gamelan Çudamani and worked with Ember Lab on the game's score; Larassanti performed on some of the songs. Larassanti was chosen for the role partly due to her connections to both Balinese and American cultures, having frequently traveled between the two countries as a child. She found the game's themes were aligned with her life experiences in Bali, and used her knowledge of Balinese culture from her father when interpreting Kena; for example, she would speak in a softer and more formal tone when interacting with her elders. Similarly, she treated the Rot akin to how Balinese people treat the Sesuhunan, the sacred spirits from whom they often ask for blessings and protection. Larassanti found her studies—a major in world arts and cultures and a minor in ethnomusicology at the University of California, Los Angeles—helped with "opening [her] mind up" for the role. She regularly recorded with Ember Lab on weekends to avoid disruptions with class. Larassanti often rehearsed with her mother, a voice actress, before performing for the role; she used her mother's home recording studio to record her performance. She studied interactions between actors in games like Grand Theft Auto, as well as static or fighting sounds from shows like Avatar: The Last Airbender and The Legend of Korra. The physicality of the role led Larassanti to move while recording, often hitting the microphone or the walls of the recording booth. She would intentionally argue with her brother before recording combat sequences in order to make her performance more believable. She performed most of her recording in mid-2020. The game's characters were hand-animated using keyframe animation to add more detailed personality. The team wanted the player to feel connected to the Rot by using subtleties of emotion during the game, and use this bond for effective combat gameplay; the creatures were often the focus of development when achieving a specific tone. For his portrayal as Taro, Tod Fennell "made [his] voice a little more vulnerable" to contrast with the corrupted version of Taro (played by a different actor). When depicting Taro's pain and grief, Fennell recalled his feelings of "anger, vulnerability, sadness, and guilt" he felt at 23 when his mother died. He said, after losing a loved one, "it's really hard not to go over what you think you should or could have done differently". Fennell felt working with the smaller team at Ember Lab made the process of his performance more "accessible", and he was surprised by the length and content of the script compared to his previous video game work. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic preventing travel, Ember Lab sent recording equipment to Masashi Odate's home in Japan so he could record his lines for Toshi; while recording fight scenes, he was visited by a concerned security guard. For her role as Saiya, Sam Cavallaro took inspiration from her own life as a protective big sister. She recorded her lines while talking to the development team on Zoom. ### Music production The game's original score was composed by Jason Gallaty. Gallaty listened to gamelan music for inspiration, and reached out to gamelan groups in 2017 to seek a collaboration, wanting to remain respectful to the culture. He originally reached out to Balinese ensemble group Gamelan Sekar Jaya, who referred him to Gamelan Çudamani. Çudamani's associate director and lead singer Emiko Saraswati Susilo was initially hesitant, not wanting traditional gamelan music to be featured in a video game, but agreed to collaborate after speaking to the team and resonating with the game's themes; she presented an "orientation" of Balinese culture to Gallaty and the development team, ensuring they would be respectful. Gallaty and Mike Grier traveled to Bali to record with the group. Çudamani's founding director, Dewa Putu Berata, created original compositions based on footage and descriptions of the game. When Gallaty presented samples of sacred music, Berata would inform him if it was inappropriate, and instead create a new composition with a similar feeling. For one piece of music, Gallaty was inspired by an Indonesian funeral chant; upon discovering its origin, Susilo and Berata used it as inspiration for a new piece, not wanting to disrespect its original usage. The game features music with vocals from Larassanti, Susilo and Berata's daughter, who voices Kena; her performance was recorded "last-minute" while on tour in 2018. Despite being influenced by the films of Disney, the team avoided in-game musical performances to keep the game more grounded. ## Release and promotion The game was announced alongside its debut trailer on June 11, 2020, at PlayStation's Future of Gaming event, scheduled for release in late 2020 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows. In September 2020, Ember Lab delayed the game to Q1 2021, citing development delays as a result of working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. In a Sony trailer at the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2021, the game's release window was noted in fine print as March 2021; Sony later removed the fine print from the trailer. During Sony's State of Play presentation in February 2021, a release date of August 24 was set alongside the release of a new trailer. In July 2021, Ember Lab delayed the game again to September 21, citing a need for more time to ensure the game was polished across all platforms. The final pre-release trailer was published on September 20, 2021. The game is a timed console exclusive, and the Windows release was exclusive to the Epic Games Store for one year; it was released on Steam on September 27, 2022. Players who purchase the PlayStation 4 version are able to upgrade for free to the PlayStation 5 version. Kena: Bridge of Spirits was showcased at the 2021 Tribeca Film Festival, allowing virtual attendees to play an hour-long demo; it competed for the inaugural Tribeca Games Award. The Tribeca Game Spotlight included a new trailer for the game, showcasing new gameplay. Reception to the game's demo was positive; critics compared it to Pikmin, The Legend of Zelda, and the films of Pixar. Lauren Morton of PC Gamer described the game as "a compact, confident action adventure in a world that belongs on a theater screen", and Sam Loveridge of GamesRadar+ called it one of the most anticipated games of the year. On September 20, 2021, Ember Lab announced the game would feature a photo mode, allowing photographs to be taken in-game. A physical version of the game for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 was announced, released by Maximum Games on November 19, 2021. Following the game's release, Mike Grier said Ember Lab was considering possible expansions to the game's combat, and Josh Grier said they would consider releases on other platforms after launch. Josh Grier said the team was unsure if they would make a sequel, but they are willing to explore other mediums like television or film. Three Halloween-style Rot hats were added to the game for a limited time in October 2021, followed by three Christmas-style hats in December, and a tiger hat for Lunar New Year in February 2022. The game received a content update for its first anniversary on September 27, 2022, adding New Game+, accessibility features, selectable outfits for Kena, equipable charmstones that adjust gameplay, and a new game mode called the Spirit Guide Trials. The team wanted the outfits to take some player expertise to obtain, and remind the player of the characters they had met throughout the story; each outfit is based on a different set of characters and takes elements from each, such as Rusu's cape and Hana's satchel. The addition of the outfits allowed the animation team to revisit cloth physics, often requiring hand animation for specific poses. The outfits are unlocked as the player complex Spirit Guide Trials, which become available through story progression, and color variants of the outfits are unlocked by completing bonus objectives during the Spirit Guide Trials. Deluxe Edition owners received an exclusive outfit. The original soundtrack was remastered and expanded for the anniversary. The game was added to the PlayStation Plus Game Catalog in April 2023, and an avatar of Kena for PlayStation Network, illustrated by Jesús Martínez del Vas, was published for subscribers to celebrate the one-year anniversary of the service's revamp in June. ## Reception ### Critical response Kena: Bridge of Spirits received "generally favorable reviews", according to review aggregator Metacritic. Mitchell Saltzman of IGN described it as "a wonderful first game from Ember Lab, combining its outstanding pedigree in art and animation with some really solid combat, fantastic world design, and a great balance of action, platforming, puzzle solving, and exploration". Giovanni Colantonio of Digital Trends called it an "exquisitely crafted adventure that fuses classic and modern game design concepts with ease", while Phil Hornshaw of GameSpot wrote it is "an exciting, often heartbreaking journey that will make you want to explore every corner and crevice to see all that you can". In a less positive review, Kotaku's Alex Walker described it as a "mechanically comforting and a constant visual pleasure, albeit lacking in a little ambition". Reviewers particularly praised the game's artistic design; some critics were unsurprised considering Ember Lab's previous work, and several drew comparisons to the films of Pixar, DreamWorks Animation, and Studio Ghibli. IGN's Saltzman lauded the facial animation and character designs, and PCMag's Tony Polanco wrote they added personality to the characters. Ozzie Mejia of Shacknews considered the game's visuals among the best of the PlayStation 5, and Colantonio of Digital Trends wrote the developer was "pushing video game animation to its limits". Rachel Weber of GamesRadar+ praised the enemy designs, noting they continued to feel alive even when duplicated. The detailed environments and variation of color in the art design was praised. Some critics noticed a discrepancy between the gameplay and cutscenes, with the latter produced at a lower frame rate; Alan Wen of NME considered this outdated, comparing it to PlayStation 2 games. VentureBeat's Mike Minotti lauded the art design but found it began to become "a little monotonous", while Eurogamer's Malindy Hetfeld questioned the use of Balinese and Japanese iconography due to the absence of explanation. Several critics found the game's exploration and puzzles to be satisfying, imaginative, and rewarding, while others felt the puzzles became repetitive, or their solutions were too simple. Colantonio of Digital Trends appreciated the clear purpose of each tool and mechanic, and GamesRadar+'s Weber thought the best puzzles in the game were the most challenging. Push Square's Stephen Tailby appreciated the game's progression and pacing, while IGN's Saltzman considered it more limiting in terms of player growth. Mejia of Shacknews felt the bow improved the game's traversal puzzles, but the bombs began to "feel awkward and clumsy". GamesRadar+'s Weber found the explanation of the new skills unclear, and Video Games Chronicle's Jordan Middler wrote they added little to the combat sequences. Several critics lauded the challenge and satisfaction of the combat; GameSpot's Hornshaw called it "generally tough and exciting" and the addition of the Rot made it "feel fun and intelligent". Conversely, some reviewers found the combat basic or uninspired, and the dodge and parry to be inconsistent or useless; Eurogamer's Hetfeld said the difficulty was unbalanced between standard fights and boss battles. Reviewers praised the game's fast loading times on PlayStation 5 and the integration of the DualSense; on Windows, PC Gamer's Kemp noted some dips in frame rate during the game's second half. The game's Rot creatures were praised by critics, many of whom drew comparisons to the titular creatures of the Pikmin series. Several reviewers lauded the Rot's involvement in the game's combat; GameSpot's Hetfeld wrote the Rot "makes Kena stand apart from similar games", and GamesRadar+'s Weber felt they "heighten every other aspect" of the game. Paul Tamburro of GameRevolution said the creatures demonstrated the developer's animation skills and appreciated their customization. Push Square's Tailby found the creatures enjoyable in all interactions, and NME's Wen considered them to have more personality than Kena. Conversely, Middler of Video Games Chronicle wrote the Rot "almost feels like an exercise in marketing". Mejia of Shacknews found the game's narrative to be powerful and emotional, noting it was "so touching that mechanical shortcomings can be forgiven". Colantonio of Digital Trends favorably compared the game's story to Hayao Miyazaki films like Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and Princess Mononoke, considering it one of the game's best elements. Push Square's Tailby thought the narrative was predictable but "hits an optimistic yet bittersweet tone, akin to any number of animated films" from the last decade. Middler of Video Games Chronicle remarked a discrepancy in the game's story and the player's actions, and described the writing as a "something you'd see in a B-tier Illumination animation". Matusiak of Gry-Online and Wen of NME found the narrative unmemorable; similarly, Tamburro of GameRevolution considered it forgettable, noting the lack of emotion in its delivery of its themes of bereavement and loss were unaffecting. PC Gamer's Kemp said the story felt incomplete. Shubhankar Parijat of GamingBolt felt the backstory and details of the game's world told a better story than the main narrative. GameSpot's Hornshaw wrote the character interactions made each area of the world feel more alive. Mejia of Shacknews considered the character arcs to be "heartbreaking". Conversely, some reviewers thought the characters were undeveloped or uninteresting. Kotaku's Walker lauded the developer's skill in character animation, though Push Square's Tailby found some character designs to be "a bit lacking"; Eurogamer's Hetfeld wrote the Pixar-inspired character designs "made it difficult for me to tell if all these characters with Japanese names were in fact Japanese". Several reviewers criticized the lack of character development for the protagonist, Kena; IGN's Saltzman wanted to learn more, and PC Gamer's Kemp was curious enough about her story to keep playing. Some critics lauded the cast's performances—Antistar of Jeuxvideo.com praised Larassanti's performance as Kena, and Walker of Kotaku applauded Odate as Toshi—while others criticized the voice acting; NME's Kemp noted a preference for a silent protagonist and gibberish-speaking supporting characters. Reviewers lauded the game's music. Jeuxvideo.com's Antistar appreciated its atmosphere and attention to detail, considering it unforgettable. Hornshaw of GameSpot described the score as "excellent" and "immersive", and Jordan Devore of Destructoid found it "tranquil" with "a few earworms". GameRevolution's Tamburro praised the reflection of the Balinese music on the game's cultural influence. Andrew Reiner of Game Informer "found [himself] humming along to the excellently composed low-key melodies". Gry-Online's Matusiak praised the atmospheric soundtrack, though noted a lack of effective sound design during combat. Several critics commented on the game's originality and its borrowing of successful elements from other popular games, with both favorable and unfavorable comparisons to Beyond Good & Evil, Jak and Daxter, and The Legend of Zelda. Colantonio of Digital Trends found its familiar structural beats "warm" and "comforting", and Saltzman of IGN considered it "simple and formulaic, but it works elegantly". Kotaku's Walker compared the game to PlayStation-era platformers like Spyro the Dragon and Ty the Tasmanian Tiger, though noted critical comparisons felt harsh for a first-time production from a small studio like Ember Lab. Push Square's Tailby appreciated the callback to PlayStation 2-era action platformers; similarly, Devore of Destructoid compared it to "a gorgeous, modern-day take on a tried-and-true older-era platformer", which he considered "basic". Antistar of Jeuxvideo.com noted a feeling of familiarity in the game, but appreciated its uniqueness in its personality. Ewan Wilson of Polygon wrote the "absence of any original identity" signaled a lack of imagination, highlighting particular similarities with Studio Ghibli and its films like Princess Mononoke; Wilson described the game as "God of War without the gruesome finishing moves ... Ghost of Tsushima without the expansive cast of characters ... Horizon Zero Dawn without the sprawling scope". Wen of NME hoped Ember Lab would continue to build on its inspirations for a more original project in future. ### Accolades Kena: Bridge of Spirits was awarded Game of the Year from Houston Press, and was ranked among the year's best by Ars Technica, GameSpot, GamesRadar+, and USA Today. It was nominated for PlayStation Game of the Year at the 39th Annual Golden Joystick Awards. At The Game Awards 2021, it won Best Independent Game and Best Debut Indie Game; it was nominated for Best Art Direction and was included in the first round of 30 games selected for the audience-voted Players' Voice award. From PlayStation Blog, the game won Independent Game of the Year and was fourth runner-up for Best Graphical Showcase. It won Best Indie at the inaugural Arab Game Awards, and was nominated for one award at the 49th Annie Awards, 18th British Academy Games Awards, 33rd GLAAD Media Awards, and 11th Annual New York Game Awards, two at the 22nd Game Developers Choice Awards, and four at the 25th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards. It led the nominees at the SXSW Gaming Awards with four nominations, of which it won one, and it won one of its two nominations at the Webby Awards. The main theme music, "Beneath Worlds", won Best Main Theme at the 20th Annual Game Audio Network Guild Awards. ## Sales Kena: Bridge of Spirits broke-even within one month; Josh Grier said Sony was "happy" with the results. It was the most-downloaded PlayStation 5 game of September 2021 in Europe, and the third-most in North America; the PlayStation 4 version was 16th in Europe. In October, it was the fifth-most-downloaded PlayStation 5 game in Europe and fifteenth in North America; in December, it was ninth in North America. For the year overall, it was the seventh-most-downloaded PlayStation 5 game in Europe, and the twentieth in North America. In January 2022, it ranked twelfth in Europe and eighteenth in North America; it ranked seventeenth in Europe in February, and thirteenth in Europe and nineteenth in North America in April. According to Ember Lab, players had "found over 40 million Rot and over 8 million unique hats" by April 2023.

Seungsahn

Korean Buddhist monk (1927–2004)

Seungsahn Haengwon (, August 1, 1927 – November 30, 2004), born Duk-In Lee, was a Korean Seon master of the Jogye Order and founder of the international Kwan Um School of Zen. He was the seventy-eighth Patriarch in his lineage. As one of the early Korean Zen masters to settle in the United States, he opened many temples and practice groups across the globe. He was known for his charismatic style and direct presentation of Zen, which was well tailored for the Western audience. Known by students for his many correspondences with them through letters, his utilization of dharma combat and expressions such as "only don't know" or "only go straight" in teachings, he was conferred the honorific title of Dae Jong Sa in June 2004 by the Jogye Order for a lifetime of achievements. Considered the highest honor to have bestowed upon one in the order, the title translates "Great Lineage Master" and was bestowed for his establishment of the World Wide Kwan Um School of Zen. He died in November that year at Hwagaesa in Seoul, South Korea, at age 77. ## Early life and education Seung Sahn was born in 1927 as Duk-In Lee (modern romanisation: Yi Deog'in) in Sunchon (순천), South Pyongan Province of occupied Korea (now North Korea) to Presbyterian parents. In 1944, he joined an underground resistance movement in response to the ongoing occupation of Korea by the Empire of Japan. He was captured by Japanese police shortly after, avoided a death sentence, and spent time in prison. Upon his release, he studied Western philosophy at Dongguk University. One day, a monk friend of his lent him a copy of the Diamond Sutra. While reading the text, he became inspired to ordain as a monk and left school, receiving the prātimokṣa precepts in 1948. Seung Sahn then performed a one-hundred day solitary retreat in the mountains of Korea, living on a diet of pine needles and rain water. It is believed he attained enlightenment on this retreat. While seeking out a teacher who could confirm his enlightenment, he found Kobong, who told him to keep a not-knowing mind. In the fall of 1948, Seung Sahn learned dharma combat while sitting a one-hundred day sesshin at Sudeoksa—where he was known to stir up mischief, nearly being expelled from the monastery. After the sesshin was concluded, he received dharma transmission (inka) from two masters, Keumbong and Keum'oh. He then went to see Kobong, who confirmed Seungsahn's enlightenment on January 25, 1949, and gave him dharma transmission as well. Seung Sahn is the only person Kobong gave Dharma transmission to. He spent the next three years in observed silence. ## Career Drafted into the Republic of Korea Army in 1953, he served as an army chaplain and then as a captain for almost five years, taking over for Kobong as abbot of Hwagaesa in Seoul, South Korea in 1957. In the next decade, he would go on to found Buddhist temples in Hong Kong and Japan. While in Japan, he was acquainted with the kōan (Korean gong'an) tradition of the Rinzai school of Zen, likely undergoing kōan study with a Rinzai master. Coming to the United States in 1972, he settled in Providence, Rhode Island and worked at a laundromat as a repairman, spending much of his off time improving upon his English. Shortly after arriving, he found his first students at nearby Brown University, most of whom came by way of a recommendation from a professor there. Among these first students was Jacob Perl (Wubong), who helped to found the Providence Zen Center with the others. In 1974, Seung Sahn began founding more Zen centers in the United States—his school still yet to be established—beginning with Dharma Zen Center in Los Angeles—a place where laypeople and the ordained could practice and live together. That following year, he went on to found the Chogye International Zen Center of New York City, and then, in 1977, Empty Gate Zen Center. Meanwhile, in 1979, the Providence Zen Center moved from its location in Providence to its current space in Cumberland, Rhode Island. The Kwan Um School of Zen was founded in 1983 and, unlike more traditional practice in Korea, Seungsahn allowed laypersons in the lineage to wear the robes of full monastics, upsetting some in the Jogye Order by allowing lay Dharma teachers to wear long robes. Celibacy was not required and the rituals of the school are unique. Although the Kwan Um School does utilize traditional Seon and Zen rituals, elements of their practice also closely resemble rituals found often in Pure Land Buddhism, Chan Buddhism, and the Huayan school. In 1986, along with a former student and Dharma heir Dae Gak, Seungsahn founded a retreat center and temple in Clay City, Kentucky called Furnace Mountain—the temple name being Kwan Se Um San Ji Sah (or, Perceive World Sound High Ground Temple). The center functions independently of the Kwan Um organization today. Over his tenure as Guiding Teacher, Seungsahn appointed many Dharma heirs. He created the title Ji Do Poep Sa Nim (JDPSN) for those not ready for full dharma transmission but capable of teaching at a higher capacity. In 1977, Seungsahn was hospitalized for cardiac arrhythmia and it was then discovered that he had advanced diabetes. He had been in and out of hospitals for heart complications for years preceding his death, and in 1987 began spending much less time at his residence in the Providence Zen Center. Starting in 1990, and under invitation from Mikhail Gorbachev, Seungsahn began making trips to the Soviet Union to teach. His student, Myong Gong Sunim, later opened a practice center in the country (Novgorod Center of Zen Meditation). ### Teaching style Seungsahn implemented the use of simple phraseology to convey his messages, delivered with charisma, which helped make the teachings easier to consume for Western followers. Some of his more frequently employed phrases included "only go straight" or "only don't know". He even went so far as to call his teachings "Don't Know Zen", which was reminiscent of the style of Bodhidharma. Seungsahn used correspondences between him and his students as teaching opportunities. Back-and-forth letters allowed for a kind of dharma combat through the mail and made him more available to the school's students in his absence. This was another example of his skillful implementation of unorthodox teaching methods, adapting to the norms of Western culture and thus making himself more accessible to those he taught. He was a supporter of what he often termed "together action"—encouraging students to make the lineage's centers their home and practice together. Seungsahn also developed his own kōan study program for students of the Kwan Um School, known today as the "Twelve Gates". These twelve kōans are a mixture of ancient cases and cases which he developed. Before receiving inka to teach (in Kwan Um, inka is not synonymous with Dharma transmission), students must complete the Twelve Gates, though often they will complete hundreds more. One of the more well known cases of the Twelve Gates is "Dropping Ashes on the Buddha", the Sixth Gate, which is also the title of one of his books. In the book The Compass of Zen, this kong-an is transcribed as follows: "Somebody comes to the Zen center smoking a cigarette. He blows smoke and drops ashes on the Buddha." Seungsahn then poses the question, "If you are standing there at that time, what can you do?" Not included in this version of the kōan is the Kwan Um School of Zen's following side note on the case, "[H]ere is an important factor in this case that has apparently never been explicitly included in its print versions. Zen Master Seung Sahn has always told his students that the man with the cigarette is also very strong and that he will hit you if he doesn't approve of your response to his actions." When Seungsahn first began teaching in the United States, there was an underemphasis in his message on the significance of zazen. Under advice from some students, however, he soon came to incorporate zazen into the curriculum more frequently. More than a few of his earliest students had practiced Zen previously under the Sōtō priest Shunryū Suzuki, laying out a convincing argument about how zazen and Zen were seen as inseparable in the Western psyche. ## Later life Throughout the 1990s, Seung Sahn made trips to Israel, which led to the 1999 opening of the Tel Aviv Zen Center. His remaining years were spent in particularly poor health. He had a pacemaker put in his chest in 2000, followed by renal failure in 2002. In June 2004, he was given the honorific title Dae Jong Sa "Great Lineage Master" by the Jogye Order in commemoration of his accomplishments, the highest title the order can grant. ### Death Seung Sahn died on November 30, 2004, at the age of 77 in Seoul, South Korea at Hwagaesa, the first temple where he served as abbot. ## Controversies In 1988, Seung Sahn admitted to having sexual relationships with several students. Because Seung Sahn was understood to be a celibate monk, the revelation of the affairs caused some members to leave the school. Seung Sahn did two repentance ceremonies and the Kwan Um School of Zen has since developed an ethics policy that has guidelines for teacher/student relationships and consequences for unethical behavior. According to Sandy Boucher in Turning the Wheel: American Women Creating the New Buddhism: > The sexual affairs were apparently not abusive or hurtful to the women. By all accounts, they were probably strengthening and certainly gave the women access to power. (However, no one can know if other women were approached by Soen Sa Nim, said nothing, and may have been hurt or at best confused, and left silently.) No one questions that Soen Sa Nim is a strong and inspiring teacher and missionary, wholly committed to spreading the Dharma, who has helped many people by his teachings and by his creation of institutions in which they can practice Zen. In his organization he has empowered students, some of them women, by giving them the mandate to teach and lead. And he has speculated, in a positive vein, on the coming empowerment of women in religion and government. Even his critics describe him as a dynamic teacher from whom they learned a great deal. ## Seung Sahn's lineage The following list documents Seung-Sahn Haeng-Won's transmission lineage, starting with the Buddha and the First Patriarch. India China Korea ## Dharma heirs - Bo Mun - Bon Yeon - Dae Gak - Dae Kwang - Hae Kwang - Soeng Hyang - Su Bong - Won Gwang - Wu Bong - Wu Kwang - Ji Haeng ## Other media ### Audio - 2000 Chanting Instructional CD - Perceive World Sound Zen Chanting CD (from 1978) ### Video - 1992 Wake Up! On the Road with a Zen Master (DVD and VHS) - Watch on YouTube - 1993 Sun Rising East (VHS) ## See also - Buddhism in the United States - Buddhist Patriarch - The Compass of Zen - Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States

Josh Walker (footballer, born 1989)

British footballer (born 1989)

Joshua Walker (born 21 February 1989) is an English footballer who plays as a defender or midfielder for Dunbar United. Walker started his career at Middlesbrough, progressing through the club's youth academy and was part of the club's FA Youth Cup winning team in 2004. He subsequently made his first-team debut for Middlesbrough in 2006, and made a handful of appearances during his four-year professional tenure at the club. During his time at Middlesbrough, Walker was loaned out on four occasions, playing for Football League clubs in the form of AFC Bournemouth, Northampton Town, and Rotherham United respectively, as well as Scottish Premier League club Aberdeen. Walker joined Championship side Watford on a free transfer in August 2010. He made four appearances for Watford, before joining Stevenage on loan in November 2010. He was subsequently loaned out to Northampton Town in January 2011, Stevenage in August 2011 and Scunthorpe United in January 2012. In April 2012, Walker agreed a permanent move to Scunthorpe United and signed for the team on 1 July. After playing for non-league Gateshead between 2013 and 2014, he joined Indian club Bengaluru FC as the club's marquee signing. Walker has represented England in various youth levels and has also captained the team at 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup. ## Club career ### Middlesbrough Josh Walker was born on 21 February 1989 in Newcastle upon Tyne and graduated from Middlesbrough's youth academy. Having been part of Middlesbrough's FA Youth Cup winning team of 2003–04, Walker made his team debut, scoring the final goal in a 4–2 friendly victory over Carlisle United in July 2005. His league debut came on the last game of the 2005–06 season, when Middlesbrough fielded a team largely filled with academy graduates in a 1–0 defeat to Fulham, where he came as a 62nd-minute substitute for Malcolm Christie. During the 2008–09 season, Walker came on as a substitute in Middlesbrough's 5–1 home win over Yeovil Town in the League Cup. In January 2009, he started his first game for the club, playing the whole 90 minutes in the club's 2–1 FA Cup victory against Barrow. His performance led to him starting once more the following week, in a 1–1 draw with Sunderland in the Tees–Wear derby. Just four days later, Walker was ruled out for six weeks after tests showed torn lateral ligaments. In February 2009, after impressing Middlesbrough manager Gareth Southgate, Walker signed a new two-year contracting, keeping him at Middlesbrough until 2011. In total, Walker featured nine times during the club's 2008–09 campaign. The following season, Walker did not play in the first-team until February 2010, when he started in Middlesbrough's 1–0 home win over Peterborough United – after injuries forced Middlesbrough manager Gordon Strachan to play Walker. It was to be his only appearance of the season for the club, and admitted he "could still be on his way out". Walker remained at the club ahead of the 2010–11 season, and he started in their 2–1 away win at Chesterfield in the League Cup. However, ten days later, Walker was allowed to leave the club, and joined fellow Championship side Watford on a free transfer. #### Loan moves Towards the latter stages of the 2006–07 season, Walker signed on a month's loan for AFC Bournemouth. He made his debut for Bournemouth in a 3–1 away loss at Northampton Town, and played in a further five games as Bournemouth narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to Middlesbrough in April 2007 to see if his future lay at the club, and also expressed an interest in joining Bournemouth if, according to Bournemouth manager Kevin Bond, "Middlesbrough were interested". Walker joined Aberdeen on 29 January 2008, where he was on loan until the end of the 2007–08 season. It was announced shortly afterwards that he had signed a new one-year contract with Middlesbrough, keeping him at the club until June 2009. Walker scored his first career goal while on loan at Aberdeen on 14 February 2008 against Bayern Munich in the UEFA Cup Round of 32. Walker played 13 games in all competitions for Aberdeen, scoring once, before returning to his parent club in May 2008. On 19 November 2009, Walker joined Northampton Town on loan until January 2010, but this was cut short due to injury. He made just one appearance for the club, playing the whole match in a 2–2 draw at home to Crewe Alexandra. In February 2010, Walker was loaned to League Two side Rotherham United on an initial month's loan, making his debut in a 1–0 win against Burton Albion at the Pirelli Stadium. He scored his first goal for Rotherham from 25 yards in the club's 2–1 away defeat to Accrington Stanley. Four days later, he was on the scoresheet again, this time scoring the only goal of the game from 25 yards as Rotherham beat Bury 1–0. On 25 March 2010, his loan deal was extended until the end of the 2009–10 season. Walker played 15 times for Rotherham, scoring three goals. He played his last game for the club in a 0–0 draw with Crewe Alexandra, before returning to his parent club in May 2010. ### Watford In August 2010, Walker signed for Watford on a free transfer, signing a two-year contract, with Watford having the option on a third year. He made his Watford debut a day after joining the club, coming on as a 76th-minute substitute in a 0–0 draw away at Hull City. Walker also came on as a late substitute in three more games in September 2010, including in Watford's 3–1 victory against his former employers, Middlesbrough. Having made just four substitute appearances for Watford, Walker said "If I'm being honest, I expected to do more than I have done at Watford, I still believe I should have played a lot more than I have so far". Walker returned to Watford ahead of the 2011–12 season, under new management in the form of Sean Dyche. He made his first appearance of the season in Watford's 0–0 away draw against Coventry City, coming on as an 89th-minute substitute. Three days later, on 23 August, Walker started in the club's 1–1 League Cup fixture against Bristol Rovers, a game which the club lost on penalties. #### Loan moves In November 2010, Walker joined League Two side Stevenage on loan until January 2011. He made his club debut just a day after signing for the club, starting in Stevenage's televised FA Cup tie away at AFC Wimbledon. It was to be a scoring debut for Walker, scoring a free-kick that went in off the post to give Stevenage the lead in a 2–0 victory. He made his first league appearance for Stevenage in the club's 1–0 home loss to Northampton Town in December 2010, a game in which Walker hit the crossbar from a free-kick. Despite being due to stay at Stevenage until the beginning of January 2011, Walker was recalled by his parent club Watford on 23 December, in order to provide cover for the injured Stephen McGinn. Walker made two appearances for Stevenage, scoring one goal, as his loan spell at the club was disrupted by fixture postponements. Walker re-joined League Two side Northampton Town on loan until the end of the 2010–11 season in January 2011. He had previously played for Northampton during the 2009–10 campaign. He made his second debut for the club on 1 February, playing the whole game as Northampton beat Crewe Alexandra 6–2 at Sixfields. Walker made 19 appearances for Northampton as the club narrowly avoided relegation, finishing five points above the relegation zone. A week after Walker's first starting appearance of the 2011–12 season, he signed for Stevenage on loan until January 2012. It was announced that Walker's loan deal was made with a view to a permanent move come the January transfer window. He made his second debut for the club on 3 September, coming on as a substitute in a 4–2 home win against Rochdale. Walker scored his first goal for Stevenage during his second spell at the club on 1 October, coming on as a 90th-minute substitute and scoring two minutes later in a 2–1 defeat to F.C. Notts County. After making just six substitute appearances for Stevenage in all competitions, Walker's loan spell with the club was cut short, with the player returning to Watford on 17 November 2011. After returning to Watford, manager Graham Westley said Walker's loan spell at Stevenage was the best option for both clubs, saying: > "It didn't really work out for Josh as he would have liked, as I would have liked, He has got a lot of talent as a footballer. He came in and I knew he wasn't going to walk straight into the side but I was hoping he was going to develop and evolve and give us another option down the right-hand side.However, it hasn't quite worked out and he has gone back to his parent club which is the best thing for everybody." ### Scunthorpe United On 13 January 2012 Walker joined Scunthorpe United on a one-month emergency loan deal. Walker's move to Scunthorpe United permanently was changed to Loan because Fifa's rules which mean players can only play for two clubs in a season apply for standard but not emergency loans. Walker scored on his debut for Scunthorpe United in a 1–1 draw against Colchester United. His debut impressed manager Alan Knill and he told the club official website: "Josh is a good player and fits in well in there. We lost [Manchester United loanee] Oliver Norwood, but we have Josh, who is a bit more streetwise and very good on the ball." On 18 February, Walker scored his second goal and set up a goal for Jon Parkin in a 3–1 win over Leyton Orient. On 20 February, Walker extended his loan spell at Scunthorpe for another month after making five appearances and scoring twice. On 6 March, Walker provided a double assist in the late second half for David Mirfin and Garry Thompson respectively in a 2–1 win over Oldham Athletic. On 31 March, Walker scored his third goal and set up a goal for Jordan Robertson in a 4–1 win over Chesterfield. On 19 April 2012, Walker signed for the club on a permanent basis on free transfer, which took effect on 1 July. He was injured during the latter part of the 2012–13 season at the end of which his contract would expire. ### Gateshead Walker signed for Conference Premier side Gateshead on 17 July 2013. He made his debut on 10 August 2013 against Kidderminster Harriers. Walker scored his first goals for the club on 7 September 2013, scoring both goals in a 2–1 home win against Hereford United. He again scored a brace, this time netting in a 3–1 victory against Salisbury City. He scored the final goal for the club against Lincoln City. At the end of the 2013–14 season, Walker was released by the club. He ended the season scoring six goals in 34 matches. ### Bengaluru On 7 July 2014, Walker signed for reigning I-League champions Bengaluru FC, on a one-year contract qualifying as their club's "marquee player". He said "I am very excited to start this chapter of my career with the champions of India." Walker later asserted that the quality of Indian football was "a lot better than what I imagined". In his first season with the Indian club, the club won the Federation Cup defeating Dempo in the final. On 18 March 2015, he scored his first goal for the club, in an AFC Cup match against Warriors, scoring a penalty in the 36th minute. He scored his first I-League goal, by opening the scoring of a 4–1 victory over Sporting Clube de Goa. Walker extended his contract for a further year with Bengaluru at the end of the season, which will keep him at the club until the end of the 2015–16 I-League season. In January 2016, Walker was injured during an off season training session, with Goal reporting that it would take five months for him to recover. Missing the first two matches against Salgaocar and Aizawl FC, Bengaluru FC owner Parth Jindal confirmed his injury through his Twitter account. He was subsequently released and replaced by Irish midfielder Michael Collins, his former teammate at Scunthorpe. ### Edinburgh City On 4 January 2017, Walker, who was still recovering from the injury sustained while playing in India, signed an 18 month long deal with Scottish League Two club Edinburgh City. He scored his first goal for the club in a league match against Montrose in February. The goal was his fifteenth league goal of his career. He said that the goal was one of the better goals of his career. Walker was appointed as the club captain in May. He also signed a contract that was due to keep him with the club until May 2020. Ongoing knee injuries meant that he retired from playing football in August 2019. ## International career Walker captained the under-15 team for the first time in October 2004 against Wales under-15, and also scored a goal in the match. He captained England's under-16 and under-17 and under-20 teams. He was also England's captain in 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup. ## Career statistics ## Honours Bengaluru FC - Federation Cup : 2014–15

Sonic Heroes

2003 platform video game

is a 2003 platform game developed by Sonic Team USA and published by Sega as part of the Sonic the Hedgehog series. The player races a team of series characters through levels to amass rings, defeat robots, and collect the seven Chaos Emeralds needed to defeat Doctor Eggman. Within each level, the player switches between the team's three characters, who each have unique abilities, to overcome obstacles. Sonic Heroes abandons the action-adventure and exploration-based gameplay of its predecessors Sonic Adventure (1998) and Sonic Adventure 2 (2001) and instead returns to the linear style of Sega Genesis-era Sonic games. Heroes was the first multi-platform Sonic game, produced for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, and Windows. Sonic Team USA's Yuji Naka and Takashi Iizuka led the game's 20-month development. The team wanted Sonic Heroes to appeal beyond Sonic series fans and so designed a game that did not depend on the continuation of its predecessors. The team revived elements not seen since the Genesis Sonic games, such as special stages and the Chaotix characters. Sega released Sonic Heroes in Japan in December 2003 and worldwide in early 2004. It was a commercial success, with 3.41 million copies sold by 2007, but received mixed reviews. Critics praised the focus on fast gameplay and similarities to the series' original 2D entries, a choice that some considered an improvement from the Sonic Adventure games. Reviewers also highlighted its graphic design and detailed environments and textures. However, they felt it did not address the problems of previous Sonic games, such as the camera and voice acting. ## Gameplay Sonic Heroes is a 3D platformer. While the preceding Sonic Adventure games for the Dreamcast featured elements of action-adventure and exploration, Sonic Heroes focuses on linear platforming and action, similar to the Sonic the Hedgehog games for the Sega Genesis. The story is also simpler than those of the Sonic Adventure games. In it, series antagonist Doctor Eggman threatens to use a weapon to destroy the world and sends out legions of robots. Four groups of three characters from the franchise's history separately team up to put a stop to Eggman's plans. The player navigates using one of the teams, who serve as the player characters. The teams include Team Sonic, which consists of series regulars Sonic the Hedgehog, Miles "Tails" Prower, and Knuckles the Echidna; Team Dark, which includes Shadow the Hedgehog and Rouge the Bat from Sonic Adventure 2, and new character E-123 Omega (considered a spiritual successor to E-102 Gamma from Sonic Adventure); Team Rose, which has Amy Rose, Cream the Rabbit from Sonic Advance 2, and Big the Cat from Sonic Adventure; and Team Chaotix, consisting of Espio the Chameleon, Charmy Bee, and Vector the Crocodile from Knuckles' Chaotix. Each team has its own campaign, called a story. Each also represents a different difficulty. Amy's team, for example, is designed for beginners, while Shadow's is aimed at more experienced players. The game begins with a tutorial followed by fourteen normal levels and seven boss fights. Gameplay is generally similar in each story: the player must race through levels to advance the story and collect rings for protection and lives. Level themes vary from beaches to casinos. When the player reaches the end of a level, they are graded based on their performance; an "A" rank is highest, while an "E" is lowest. Enemy robots are scattered around levels and must be defeated by jumping on them or other means of attack. The level designs differ slightly between each story. Espio, Charmy, and Vector's levels are distinguished from the other teams' because they are mission-based, requiring players to fulfill a specific objective, like collecting items, to clear a level. Teams contain three character types: Speed (such as Sonic), Flight (such as Tails), and Power (such as Knuckles), which the player toggles between. Speed characters can perform attacks that allow them to lock onto enemies and objects, dash across lines of rings, and can form whirlwinds to climb up poles. Flight characters can temporarily fly and attack airborne enemies, while Power characters can break through objects and glide on gusts of air. By acquiring certain items or enemies, characters can level up, becoming more efficient when fighting enemies. By collecting keys hidden within levels and reaching the end of a level without getting hit, players can enter special stages. In special stages, players dash across a tube, collecting spheres containing boost power while avoiding obstacles. There are two types of special stages: Bonus Challenge and Emerald Challenge. Bonus Challenges are optional and award the player with extra lives. Emerald Challenges task the player with catching a Chaos Emerald before it disappears. If players collect all seven Emeralds and clear each story, an additional Last Story is unlocked. The Last Story reveals the plot was orchestrated by Metal Sonic, Eggman's top enforcer and a robotic copy of Sonic, in an effort to destroy his namesake. Outside the main game, players can unlock promotional trailers to view and music to listen to. The game also features a split screen multiplayer mode, in which two players can race or battle. Challenges in the multiplayer mode include kart racing and collecting as many rings as possible. ## Plot Sonic, Tails, and Knuckles receive a letter from Doctor Eggman, telling them in three days he will launch his Egg Fleet in an attempt to take over the world, challenging them to stop him. Rouge infiltrates one of Eggman's bases, where she discovers a surprisingly alive Shadow, who she awakens from his status, and one of Eggman's robots, E-123 Omega. The three reluctantly agree to work together, with Omega wanting revenge for being locked up and Shadow, who has amnesia, wanting answers regarding who he is. Amy helps Big and Cream track down Froggy and Chocola Chao, who have both gone missing. The Chaotix Detective Agency receive a job offer from a mysterious client, where they execute a series of tasks to prove themselves. The four teams chase down Eggman through various zones, crossing paths with each other at several points, until they all end up on the Egg Fleet. Meanwhile, Rouge discovers an armada of Shadow Androids, wondering if their Shadow is just one of them too. The Chaotix end up rescuing their mystery client, who just so happens to be Eggman. He reveals that he was locked up and betrayed by Metal Sonic, now going by "Neo Metal Sonic", who had adopted the guise of Eggman and taken control of the Egg Fleet to prove himself superior to Sonic. Using the data he collected from observing all the teams in action, he transforms into his ultimate state, the "Metal Overlord". Using the power of the Chaos Emeralds all the teams had collected, they work together to take down Metal, with Sonic turning Super (accompanied by Tails and Knuckles) to defeat him. After Metal Sonic reverts back to his original form, Sonic and everyone go their separate ways, while the Chaotix chase after Eggman demanding payment. ## Development Sonic Heroes was developed by the 19-member Sonic Team USA in San Francisco to commemorate the Sonic series' 12th anniversary. Development was led by producer Yuji Naka and director/lead designer Takashi Iizuka, and lasted 20 months. The majority of the development team had worked on previous Sonic games. Iizuka did not want to make a sequel to Sonic Adventure 2 (2001), as he worried it would only appeal to Sonic fans. Interested in returning to gameplay similar to the Genesis games, Sonic Team decided to design Sonic Heroes so casual players not familiar with Sonic could adapt. Iizuka said the development period of Sonic Heroes was the most stressful of his career because of deadlines and Sega management. A fellow designer became ill, so he worked relentlessly, lost 22 pounds (10 kg), and suffered from insomnia. Sonic Heroes was the first multi-platform Sonic game: it was developed for the GameCube, PlayStation 2 (PS2), and Xbox. Unlike the Sonic Adventure games, made using proprietary software, Sonic Team partnered with Criterion Software to use the RenderWare game engine so the game could be programmed and ported with ease to each platform. Though Sonic Team was able to transfer some textures and models from the Sonic Adventure games into Sonic Heroes, most of their work started from scratch. Sonic Team found challenges in working with the Xbox and PS2, platforms with which they had little experience. The content in all versions is the same, but the PS2 version runs at 30 frames per second (FPS) in contrast to the other versions running at 60 FPS. Sega's Noah Musler explained that running the PS2 version at 60 FPS would have caused performance problems. Iizuka also noted the system is less powerful than the GameCube and Xbox. Iizuka and Naka decided against including console-exclusive content so players could have the same experience regardless of console. Sonic Team was interested in making Sonic Heroes's narrative feature characters teaming up to overcome evil, rather than Sonic Adventure's approach of individual character stories. This led to the conception of the "team action" concept. Iizuka stated Sonic Team had a considerable amount of freedom in designing the game due to its new scope. The Chao-raising system—a staple of the Sonic Adventure games—was removed because Sonic Team feared it would disrupt the pace. To improve replay value, the grading system was made more difficult. The special stages from the 2D games were revived to "refresh players' minds" and change the pace. Player reactions to previous games influenced the design; for example, the team did not include modes like Big's fishing from Sonic Adventure and Tails' shooting from Sonic Adventure 2 after both were criticized. The Chaotix, who had appeared in the 1995 spinoff game Knuckles' Chaotix, were revived for Sonic Heroes because Sonic Team thought they were unique and had never used them. Iizuka said he did not consider the Chaotix in Sonic Heroes the same team from Knuckles' Chaotix, claiming to have created new characters using the same designs from 1995. The game marks the debut of E-123 Omega in the Sonic series. Sonic Team wanted to include as many teams as possible, but time constraints and a desire to keep the gameplay balanced prevented this. The game features several computer animated cutscenes produced by Vision Scape Interactive. Jun Senoue composed the majority of the soundtrack. His band Crush 40 performed the main theme, "Sonic Heroes", and the final boss theme, "What I'm Made Of". The theme songs for each team were performed by Ted Poley, Tony Harnell, Kay Hanley, Julien-K, and Gunnar Nelson. Iizuka said that the intention was for the music "to return to the roots of the Sonic experience" and be exciting and fast-paced. Naka believed that Sonic Heroes, a Sonic-themed McDonald's Happy Meal toy line, and the anime series Sonic X would expose the franchise to a new generation. Sega released Sonic Heroes in Japan on December 30, 2003, two weeks later than intended, to ensure there were "no compromises" in the final product. The GameCube version was released in North America on January 6, 2004, followed by the Xbox and PS2 versions on January 27. The European version was released on February 2, 2004. A Windows version was released in North America on November 16, 2004, followed by Europe on November 26 and Japan on December 9. The game was rereleased through the Sonic PC Collection for Windows on October 2, 2009, and the PS2 Classics line for the PlayStation 3 (PS3) on February 22, 2012. ## Reception Sonic Heroes received generally "mixed or average" reviews, according to the review aggregator Metacritic. Some reviewers felt the game was better than the previous 3D Sonic games but still below the quality of the 2D games. The PS2 and PC's version's reviews were considerably worse than others; reviewers noted clipping, graphic faults, and its lower frame rate. The aesthetics and sound were generally well received. IGN lauded detailed, varied, and realistic character models, and wrote that the textures were detailed and crisp. They also praised the realistic shading and lighting effects. Although GameSpot thought the graphics were not much of an improvement from previous games—comparing them to "a glorified Dreamcast game"—they still praised its steady frame rate, art design, and vibrant colors. Eurogamer disliked the shiny models, but was still pleased by the imaginative aesthetics. In regards to the soundtrack, Game Revolution found it upbeat and catchy, offering particular praise for the music of Bingo Highway. Although they called the music laughable and not an improvement from previous games, IGN thought the rest of the sound was high quality, and praised its "perfectly implemented" sound effects running in Dolby Pro Logic II. Multiple reviewers found the gameplay similar to that of the Genesis Sonic games. GameSpot found Sonic Heroes the closest Sonic Team ever got to recreating the classic 2D Sonic gameplay in 3D. They praised the game for stripping away the shooting and hunting elements from the Sonic Adventure games, and called it "a purer, more action-packed Sonic experience" than previous games. IGN considered Sonic Heroes a major improvement from Sonic Adventure, writing "Sonic Heroes does an absolutely sensational job of re-creating the intensely fast and unpredictable looping, corkscrewing stages from the classic games in 3D". 1UP.com and GameSpy agreed that the game was a step in the right direction for the series. Levi Buchanan of the Chicago Tribune wrote that "when Sonic is in charge, Sonic Heroes is a pure action game. It's an enjoyable throwback to the Genesis era, when Sonic was all about speed, running circles around Mario, collecting rings while Nintendo's plumber searched high and low for his shape-altering mushrooms. And for gamers who have been numb in the thumb long enough to remember those heady days, the return to form is most welcome. (Especially after those underwhelming Dreamcast Sonic Adventure games that Sega ported to the GameCube.)" Reviewers called the casino level, Bingo Highway, a highlight. Reviewers were generally divided over the team-based gameplay. GameSpy argued it was well-balanced and thought it greatly increased the replay value. IGN offered similar praise, praising its easy-to-learn, strategic controls. Game Revolution wrote the system added diversity. However, IGN also thought it was not as ambitious as expected and did not change the overall experience. GameSpot agreed the controls were easy, but considered the large number of teams unnecessary: "no one cares about these peripheral characters... People play Sonic games to play as Sonic the Hedgehog". 1UP found the concept was more repetitive than innovative. Eurogamer considered the gameplay original but "boring and obvious" and thought that the controls were clunky and unorthodox. While Eurogamer argued Sonic Heroes was not difficult, Game Revolution described it as hard to a fault, exclaiming they "[died] all the time." Buchanan wrote that "when you switch away from Sonic and Tails, the game itself kind of stops cold. Especially when you play as one of the other three teams that feature ancillary characters from Sonic’s stable as they play through similar levels with slightly different goals." Charles Herold of The New York Times wrote that "getting stuck on the fourth level exposed one of the game's major flaws: the levels are fairly static. The old 2-D Sonic games always seemed to have several different routes through different landscapes. Jump across a chasm, and you could take a mountainside path; miss the jump, and you would run through the valley below. You could play these levels repeatedly and rarely take the exact same route. But while in Heroes you occasionally come to a fork in the road, you are likely to find yourself running basically the same trail every time you go through a level. This is disappointing, and especially surprising considering the team play element. With three characters whose different abilities let them overcome different challenges, it would make sense to have dozens of areas per level where the various characters can lead you to different paths. But the game too rarely capitalizes on this potential." The game was criticized for not addressing the problems of prior Sonic games. 1UP wrote the problems with the camera and "hit-or-miss lock-on attacks that leave you plunging to your doom" that plagued the Sonic Adventure games were still present in Sonic Heroes and hurt the experience greatly. GameSpot said although the camera worked well most of the time, coordination between camera position and character movement caused problems, such that pushing forward may not move the character in the same direction the camera is facing. They also wrote that the game suffered from problems with the collision detection and noted all the shortcomings were present in the Sonic Adventure games. IGN agreed the camera had not been improved. The voice acting was especially derided; IGN joked players should "turn down the volume during cut-scenes", and GameSpy compared the voice work to the likes of Playskool. The editors of GameSpot ultimately named Sonic Heroes the best GameCube game of January 2004, and called it "the fastest and most authentic 3D Sonic experience we've seen yet." ### Sales Sonic Heroes was a major commercial success. By October 2004, the game had sold over one million copies in Europe. The PlayStation 2 version received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association, indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. According to Sega's financial reports, Sonic Heroes sold 1.42 million units from its release to March 2004 (850,000 in the U.S., 420,000 in Europe, and 150,000 in Japan), 1.57 million units from March 2004 to March 2005, and 420,000 units in the U.S. from March 2006 to March 2007, for total sales of at least 3.41 million. By the end of 2004, it had been branded as part of the Player's Choice line on the GameCube, the Greatest Hits line on the PS2, and the Platinum Hits line on the Xbox. ## Legacy After Sonic Heroes, Sonic Team USA was renamed Sega Studios USA. Their next project was Shadow the Hedgehog (2005), a spinoff starring Shadow set shortly after the events of Sonic Heroes. In 2008, after working on a few more games, the division was merged with Sonic Team in Japan. In 2017 series retrospective, USgamer ranked Sonic Heroes among the franchise's bottom half of games. They wrote that the system of switching between characters was unwieldy and annoying, but still interesting because it made the game feel like a puzzle video game. They also praised the design of E-123 Omega. Sonic Heroes marked the debut of recurring Sonic character E-123 Omega, and reintroduced the obscure Chaotix. Its concept of switching between characters as necessary was reused in Sonic Team's Sonic Forces (2017) and Sumo Digital's Team Sonic Racing (2019); Sumo Digital cited it as inspiration for their game. The Seaside Hill level reappears in the 20th anniversary game Sonic Generations for PS3, Xbox 360, and Windows, while the Nintendo 3DS version includes the special stages and the Egg Emperor boss fight. Seaside Hill has also appeared in Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games (2009), Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing (2010), and its 2012 sequel.

British Aerospace Sea Harrier

British VTOL jet fighter aircraft

The British Aerospace Sea Harrier is a naval short take-off and vertical landing/vertical take-off and landing jet fighter, reconnaissance and attack aircraft. It is the second member of the Harrier family developed. It first entered service with the Royal Navy in April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the "Shar". Unusual in an era in which most naval and land-based air superiority fighters were large and supersonic, the principal role of the subsonic Sea Harrier was to provide air defence for Royal Navy task groups centred around the aircraft carriers. The Sea Harrier served in the Falklands War and the Balkans conflicts; on all occasions it mainly operated from aircraft carriers positioned within the conflict zone. Its usage in the Falklands War was its most high profile and important success, when it was the only fixed-wing fighter available to protect the British Task Force. The Sea Harriers shot down 20 enemy aircraft during the conflict; 2 Sea Harriers were lost to enemy ground fire. They were also used to launch ground attacks in the same manner as the Harriers operated by the Royal Air Force. The Sea Harrier was marketed for sales abroad, but India was the only other operator after attempts to sell the aircraft to Argentina and Australia were unsuccessful. A second, updated version for the Royal Navy was made in 1993 as the Sea Harrier FA2, improving its air-to-air abilities and weapons compatibilities, along with a more powerful engine; this version was manufactured until 1998. The aircraft was withdrawn from service early by the Royal Navy in 2006, but remained in service with the Indian Navy for a further decade until its retirement in 2016. ## Development In the post-World War II era, the Royal Navy began contracting in size. By 1960, the last battleship, HMS Vanguard, was retired from the Navy, having been in service for less than fifteen years. In 1966 the planned CVA-01 class of large aircraft carriers was cancelled. During this time, requirements within the Royal Navy began to form for a vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) carrier-based interceptor to replace the de Havilland Sea Vixen. The first V/STOL tests on a ship began with a Hawker Siddeley P.1127 landing on HMS Ark Royal in 1963. A second concept for the future of naval aviation emerged in the early 1970s when the first of a new class of "through deck cruisers" was planned. These were very carefully and politically designated as cruisers, deliberately avoiding the term "aircraft carrier" to increase the chances of funding in a hostile political climate against expensive capital ships. The resulting Invincible-class carriers were considerably smaller than the CVA-01 design, but came to be widely recognised as aircraft carriers. Almost immediately upon their construction, a ski-jump was added to the end of the 170-metre deck, enabling the carriers to effectively operate a small number of V/STOL jets. The naval staff were able to build an effective political argument for acquiring V/STOL aircraft, on the grounds that anti-submarine groups operating in the NATO Atlantic area, the intended main role of the through deck cruisers, would be vulnerable to attack by Soviet anti-ship missiles. These could be launched at a considerable distance by a submarine or surface ship, but needed to be guided in by a maritime patrol aircraft; fast jets carried onboard would be able to shoot these down. No mention was made of the other capabilities that these aircraft would have. The Royal Air Force's Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR1s had entered service in April 1969. A navalised variant of the Harrier was developed by Hawker Siddeley to serve on the upcoming ships; this became the Sea Harrier. In 1975, the Royal Navy ordered 24 Sea Harrier FRS.1 (standing for 'Fighter, Reconnaissance, Strike') aircraft, the first of which entered service in 1978. During this time Hawker Siddeley became part of British Aerospace through nationalisation in 1977. By the time the prototype Sea Harrier was flown at Dunsfold on 20 August 1978, the order had been increased to 34. The Sea Harrier was declared operational in 1981 on board the first Invincible-class ship HMS Invincible, and further aircraft joined the ageing HMS Hermes aircraft carrier later that year. In 1984, approval was given to upgrade of the fleet to FRS.2 standard (later known as FA2) following the lessons learned during the aircraft's deployment in the 1982 Falklands War. The first flight of the prototype took place in September 1988 and a contract was signed for 29 upgraded aircraft in December that year. In 1990, the Navy ordered 18 new-build FA2s, at a unit cost of around £12 million, four further upgraded aircraft were ordered in 1994. The first aircraft was delivered on 2 April 1993. ## Design The Sea Harrier is a subsonic aircraft designed for strike, reconnaissance and fighter roles. It features a single Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine with two intakes and four vectorable nozzles. It has two landing gear on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear on the wings. The Sea Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying weapons and external fuel tanks. Use of the ski jump allowed the aircraft to take off from a short flight deck with a heavier payload than would otherwise be possible, although it can also take off like a conventional loaded fighter without thrust vectoring from a normal airport runway. The Sea Harrier was largely based on the Harrier GR3, but was modified to have a raised cockpit with a "bubble" canopy for greater visibility, and an extended forward fuselage to accommodate the Ferranti Blue Fox radar. Parts were changed to use corrosion resistant alloys, or coatings were added, to protect against the marine environment. After the Falklands War, the Sea Harrier was fitted with the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile. The Blue Fox radar was seen by some critics as having comparatively low performance for what was available at the time of procurement. The Sea Harrier FA2 was fitted with the Blue Vixen radar, which was described as one of the most advanced pulse doppler radar systems in the world; The Blue Vixen formed the basis of the Eurofighter Typhoon's CAPTOR radar. The Sea Harrier FA2 carried the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile, the first UK aircraft with this capability. An upgraded model of the Pegasus engine, the Pegasus Mk 106, was used in the Sea Harrier FA2. In response to the threat of radar-based anti aircraft weapons electronic countermeasures were added. Other improvements included an increased air-to-air weapons load, look-down radar, increased range, and improved cockpit displays. The Sea Harrier's cockpit includes a conventional centre stick arrangement and left-hand throttle. In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectorable nozzles. The nozzles point rearward with the lever in the forward position for horizontal flight. With the lever back, the nozzles point downward for vertical takeoff or landing. The utility of the vertical landing capability of the Sea Harrier was demonstrated in an incident on 6 June 1983, when Sub Lieutenant Ian Watson lost contact with the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious and had to land Sea Harrier ZA176 on the foredeck of the Spanish cargo ship Alraigo. In 1998, the UK Defence Evaluation and Research Agency test-fitted an FA2 with AVPRO UK Ltd's Exint pods, small underwing compartments intended to be used for deployment of special forces. In 2005, a Sea Harrier was modified with an 'Autoland' system to allow the fighter to perform a safe vertical landing without any pilot interaction. Despite the pitching of a ship posing a natural problem, the system was designed to be aware of such data, and successfully performed a landing at sea in May 2005. ## Operational history ### Royal Navy #### Entry into service The first three Sea Harriers were a development batch and were used for clearance trials. The first production aircraft was delivered to RNAS Yeovilton in 1979 to form an Intensive Flying Trials Unit, 700A Naval Air Squadron. In March 1980 the Intensive Flying Trials Unit became 899 Naval Air Squadron and would act as the landborne headquarters unit for the type. The first operational squadron, 800 Naval Air Squadron, was also formed in March 1980 initially to operate from HMS Invincible before it transferred to HMS Hermes. In January 1981, a second operational squadron 801 Naval Air Squadron was formed to operate from HMS Invincible. #### Falklands War Sea Harriers took part in the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) of 1982, flying from HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes. The Sea Harriers performed the primary air defence role with a secondary role of ground attack; the RAF Harrier GR3 provided the main ground attack force. A total of 28 Sea Harriers and 14 Harrier GR3s were deployed in the theatre. The Sea Harrier squadrons shot down 20 Argentine aircraft in air-to-air combat with no air-to-air losses, although two Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire and four to accidents. Out of the total Argentine air losses, 28% were shot down by Harriers. One Sea Harrier alone, flown by RAF Flight Lieutenant David Morgan, shot down two Skyhawks in a single encounter. A number of factors contributed to the failure of the Argentinian fighters to shoot down a Sea Harrier. Although the Mirage III and Dagger jets were faster, the Sea Harrier was considerably more manoeuvrable. Moreover, the Harrier employed the latest AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles and the Blue Fox radar. Contrary to contemporary reports that "viffing" proved decisive in dogfights, the maneuver was not used by RN pilots in the Falklands as it was only used in emergencies against enemies unfamiliar with the aircraft. The British pilots noticed Argentinian pilots occasionally releasing weapons outside of their operating parameters. This is now thought to have been Mirages (IAI Neshers) releasing external fuel tanks to improve their maneuverability for air combat. British aircraft received fighter control from warships in San Carlos Water, although its effectiveness was limited by their being stationed close to the islands, which severely limited the effectiveness of their radar. The differences in tactics and training between 800 Squadron and 801 Squadron have been a point of criticism, suggesting that the losses of several ships were preventable had Sea Harriers from Hermes been used more effectively. Both sides' aircraft were operating in adverse conditions. Argentine aircraft were forced to operate from the mainland because airfields on the Falklands were only suited for propeller-driven aircraft. The bombing of Port Stanley airport by a British Vulcan bomber was also a consideration in the Argentinians' decision to operate them from afar. As most Argentine aircraft lacked in-flight refuelling capability, they were forced to operate at the limit of their range. The Sea Harriers also had limited fuel reserves due to the tactical decision to station the British carriers out of Exocet missile range and the dispersal of the fleet. The result was that an Argentine aircraft only had five minutes over the islands to search for and attack an objective, while a Sea Harrier could stay near to 30 minutes waiting in the Argentine approach corridors and provide Combat Air Patrol coverage for up to an hour. The Sea Harriers were outnumbered by the available Argentinian aircraft, and were on occasion decoyed away by the activities of the Escuadrón Fénix or civilian jet aircraft used by the Argentine Air Force. They had to operate without a fleet airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) system that would have been available to a full NATO fleet in which the Royal Navy had expected to operate, which was a significant weakness in the operational environment. It is now known that British units based in Chile did provide early radar warning to the Task Force. Nonetheless, the lack of AEW&C cover resulted in air superiority as opposed to air supremacy; the Sea Harriers could not prevent Argentine attacks during day or night nor could they completely stop the daily C-130 Hercules transports' night flights to the islands. #### Operations in the 1990s The Sea Harrier saw action in war again when it was deployed in the 1992–1995 Bosnian War. It launched raids on Serb forces and provided air-support for the international taskforce units conducting Operations Deny Flight and Deliberate Force against the Army of Republika Srpska. On 16 April 1994, a Sea Harrier of the 801 Naval Air Squadron, operating from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal, was brought down by an Igla-1 surface-to-air missile fired by the Army of Republika Srpska while attempting to bomb two Bosnian Serb tanks. The pilot, Lieutenant Nick Richardson, ejected and landed in territory controlled by friendly Bosnian Muslims. It was used again in the 1999 NATO campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in Operation Allied Force, where Sea Harriers operating from Invincible frequently patrolled the airspace to keep Yugoslavian MiGs on the ground. They were also deployed on board Illustrious in 2000 as part of Operation Palliser, the British intervention in Sierra Leone. #### Retirement The UK is procuring the STOVL F-35B to be operated from the Royal Navy's Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers. The Sea Harrier was withdrawn from service in 2006 and the last remaining aircraft from 801 Naval Air Squadron were decommissioned on 29 March 2006. The MoD argued that significant expenditure would be required to upgrade the fleet for only six years of service to meet the F-35s then planned in-service date. Both versions of Harrier experienced reduced engine performance (Pegasus Mk 106 in FA2 – Mk 105 in GR7) in the higher ambient temperatures of the Middle East, which restricted the weight of payload that the Harrier could return to the carrier in 'vertical' recoveries. This was due to the safety factors associated with aircraft landing weights. The option to install higher-rated Pegasus engines would not have been as straightforward as on the Harrier GR7 upgrade and would have likely been an expensive and slow process. Furthermore, the Sea Harriers were subject to a generally more hostile environment than land-based Harriers, with corrosive salt spray a particular problem. A number of aircraft were retained by the School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose. The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm would continue to share the other component of Joint Force Harrier. Harrier GR7 and the upgraded Harrier GR9 were transferred to Royal Navy squadrons in 2006, but were retired in 2010 due to budget cuts. Although withdrawn from active Royal Navy service, Sea Harriers are used to train naval aircraft handlers at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations. ### Indian Navy In 1977, the Indian government approved plans to acquire the Sea Harrier for the Indian Navy. In November 1979, India placed its first order for six Sea Harrier FRS Mk 51 fighters and two T Mk 60 Trainers; the first three Sea Harriers arrived at Dabolim Airport on 16 December 1983, and were inducted the same year. Ten more Sea Harriers were purchased in November 1985; eventually a total of 30 Harriers were procured, 25 for operational use and the remainder as dual-seat trainer aircraft. Until the 1990s, significant portions of pilot training was carried out in Britain due to limited aircraft availability. The introduction of the Sea Harrier allowed for the retirement of India's previous carrier fighter aircraft, the Hawker Sea Hawk, as well as for the Navy's aircraft carrier, , to be extensively modernised between 1987 and 1989. India has operated Sea Harriers from both the aircraft carriers INS Vikrant and INS Viraat. The Sea Harrier allowed several modern missiles to be introduced into naval operations, such as the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile, and the Matra Magic air-to-air missile. Other ordnance has included 68 mm rockets, runway-denial bombs, cluster bombs, and podded 30 mm cannons. There have been a significant number of accidents involving the Sea Harrier; this accident rate has caused approximately half the fleet to be lost with only 11 fighters remaining in service. Following a crash in August 2009, all Sea Harriers were temporarily grounded for inspection. Since the beginning of operational service in the Indian Navy, seven pilots have died in 17 crashes involving the Sea Harrier, usually during routine sorties. In 2006, the Indian Navy expressed interest in acquiring up to eight of the Royal Navy's recently retired Sea Harrier FA2s in order to maintain their operational Sea Harrier fleet. Neither the Sea Harrier FA2's Blue Vixen radar, the radar warning receiver or AMRAAM capability would have been included; certain US software would also be uninstalled prior to shipment. By October 2006, reports emerged that the deal had not materialised due to the cost of airframe refurbishment. In 2006, the Indian Navy started upgrading up to 15 Sea Harriers, installing the Elta EL/M-2032 radar and the Rafael 'Derby' medium-range air-to-air BVR missile. This enabled the Sea Harrier to remain in Indian service beyond 2012. By 2009, crashes had reduced India's fleet to 12 (from original 30). India purchased the deactivated Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov in 2004. After refurbishment and trials, the ship was formally inducted into the Indian Navy as INS Vikramaditya in June 2014. Sea Harriers operated from INS Viraat for the last time on 6 March 2016. On 11 May 2016, a ceremony was held at INS Hansa, Dabolim, Goa to commemorate the phasing out of Sea Harriers from INAS 300 "White Tigers" and their replacement by the MiG-29K/KUB fighters. Aircraft of both types performed an air display at the ceremony, marking the final flight of the Sea Harriers after 33 years of service in the Indian Navy. The Indian Navy operates MiG-29K/KUB STOBAR fighters from Vikramaditya. ## Variants Sea Harrier FRS.1 57 FRS1s were delivered between 1978 and 1988; most survivors converted to Sea Harrier FA2 specifications from 1988. Sea Harrier FRS.51 Single-seat fighter, reconnaissance, and attack aircraft made for the Indian Navy, similar to the British FRS1. Unlike the FRS1 Sea Harrier, it is fitted with Matra R550 Magic air-to-air missiles. These aircraft were later upgraded with the Elta EL/M-2032 radar and the Rafael Derby BVRAAM missiles. Sea Harrier F(A).2 Upgrade of FRS1 fleet in 1988, featuring the Blue Vixen pulse-doppler radar and the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile. ## Operators India - Indian Navy - Indian Naval Air Arm (1983–2016) - Indian Naval Air Squadron 300 (1983–2016) - Indian Naval Air Squadron 551 (1990–2005) - Indian Naval Air Squadron 552 (2005–2016) United Kingdom - Royal Navy - Fleet Air Arm (1978–2006) - 800 Naval Air Squadron (1980–2004) - 801 Naval Air Squadron (1981–2006) - 809 Naval Air Squadron (1982) - 899 Naval Air Squadron (1980–2005) - School of Flight Deck Operations (2006–2020) ## Surviving aircraft Several surviving Sea Harriers are held by museums and private owners, and some others are at the Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations at RNAS Culdrose and other military bases for training. The following is list of those not used by the military for training. ### India On display - Sea Harrier FRS 51 (IN-621) at the Naval Aviation Museum (India) in Goa, India - Sea Harrier T Mk.60 (IN-654) at the Rashtriya Indian Military College in Dehradun, India. - Sea Harrier FRS 51 (IN-606) at the Sea Harrier Museum in Visakhapatnam, India. - Sea Harrier FRS 51 (IN-617) at Bandstand Promenade, Bandra in Mumbai, India. ### United Kingdom In use - The Royal Navy School of Flight Deck Operations still uses Harriers to train Aircraft Handlers who train on the dummy deck at RNAS Culdrose. Many are in a working condition, although in a limited-throttle setting. Although they are unable to fly, they still produce a loud sound to aid training. On display - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD610 at Aerospace Bristol - Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ457 at the Boscombe Down Aviation Collection, Old Sarum, Wiltshire - Sea Harrier FRS.1 XZ493 at the Fleet Air Arm Museum, Yeovilton, Somerset - Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ494 at the Castle Farm Camping and Caravanning, Wedmore, Somerset - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZA175 at the Norfolk & Suffolk Aviation Museum, Flixton, Norfolk. - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZA176 at the Newark Air Museum, Newark, Nottinghamshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD607 at the Defence Storage and Distribution Agency, Bicester, Oxfordshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD613 on the roof of a building at the Cross Green Industrial Estate, Leeds, West Yorkshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZE691 at Woodford Park Industrial Estate, Winsford, Cheshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZE694 at the Midland Air Museum, Coventry, Warwickshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ459 at Tangmere Military Aviation Museum in West Sussex, arrived in 2020 Stored or under restoration - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH803, formerly at SFDO at RNAS Culdrose, is owned by FLY HARRIER LTD, and gained civil registration with the CAA on 7 August 2019 as G-RNFA. As of July 2020, it is listed as being at St Athan Airport in Wales. - Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ497 with a private collection at Charlwood, Surrey - Sea Harrier FA.2 XZ499 with the Fleet Air Arm Museum storage facility Cobham Hall, Yeovilton - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD582 with a private collection at Aynho, Northamptonshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD612 with a private collection at Topsham, Devon - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZD614 with a private collection Walcott, Lincolnshire - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZE697 at the former RAF Binbrook, Lincolnshire (as of 2016) - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZE698 with a private collection at Charlwood, Surrey - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH798, formerly at RNAS Culdrose, was auctioned off in 2020 to Jet Art Aviation, who restored the aircraft to be taxi- and ground-run capable. - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH799 with a private collection at Ballarat, Australia. - Sea Harrier FA.2 ZH806, ZH810, and ZH812 with a dealer near Ipswich, Suffolk ### United States Airworthy - Sea Harrier FA2 registered N94422 (formerly Royal Navy serial number XZ439) Nalls Aviation St Mary's County, Maryland. The former Royal Navy Sea Harrier FA2 was purchased in 2006 by Art Nalls, who spent the next two years restoring it to flying condition. In December 2007, it was damaged in a hard landing, while undergoing testing at Naval Air Station Patuxent River and had to be repaired. The aircraft made its first public appearance at an air show in Culpeper, Virginia, in October 2008. The aircraft is the only privately owned, civilian-flown Harrier in the world. ## Specifications (Sea Harrier FA.2) ## Notable appearances in media The Harrier's unique characteristics have led to it being featured a number of films and video games. ## See also

Wonder Wheel

Ferris wheel at Coney Island

The Wonder Wheel is a 150-foot-tall (46 m) eccentric Ferris wheel at Deno's Wonder Wheel Amusement Park at Coney Island in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. The wheel is located on a plot bounded by West 12th Street to the west, Bowery Street to the north, Luna Park to the east, and the Riegelmann Boardwalk to the south. As with other eccentric Ferris wheels, some of the Wonder Wheel's passenger cabins are not fixed directly to the rim of the wheel, but instead slide along winding sets of rails between the hub and the rim. Built in 1920 as one of several Ferris wheels on Coney Island, the Wonder Wheel was designed by Charles Hermann and operated by Herman J. Garms Sr. for six decades. Despite the subsequent economic decline of Coney Island, the Wonder Wheel continued to operate each summer through the 20th century. In 1983, Herman Garms's son Fred sold the ride to the Vourderis family, who restored the attraction and continue to run the wheel as of 2023. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Wonder Wheel as an official New York City landmark in 1989, and minor modifications were subsequently made to the attraction. ## History At the time of the Wonder Wheel's construction, Coney Island was one of the largest amusement areas in the United States. The first Ferris wheel in Coney Island was built for nearby Steeplechase Park in 1894 and was erroneously billed as "the world's largest". Several variations of the Ferris wheel were erected in the neighborhood in the 1900s and 1910s. The Wonder Wheel was unusual in that only one-third of its 24 cars were stationary, while the other two-thirds rolled on tracks within the wheel itself. ### Garms ownership The Wonder Wheel was designed by Charles Hermann as an improvement on G.W.G. Ferris's giant wheel, and it was built for Herman J. Garms Sr. between 1918 and 1920 by the Eccentric Ferris Wheel Company. Coney Island landowner William J. Ward provided the land for the Wonder Wheel's construction. Garms, who had no formal financial experience, sold stock to family, other Coney Island business holders, and steelworkers. Meanwhile, Hermann sold all his shares in the wheel to raise money for construction and operation. The wheel was opened on Memorial Day in 1920. Hermann originally called it the "Dip-the-Dip", promising to combine in his new invention "the thrill of a scenic railway, the fun of a Ferris wheel, and the excitement of the Chute-the-Chutes". According to a Science and Invention article, the Wonder Wheel provided a "real thrill like you have probably never had before—at least not at this great height." The wheel was later known as the "Eccentric Ferris Wheel" before being renamed the Wonder Wheel by 1940. To help with the Wonder Wheel's upkeep, the Garms family lived under the Wonder Wheel during the summers. By the 1960s, Herman Garms's son Alfred "Fred" Garms took over operation of the Wonder Wheel. Coney Island started to decline during the mid-20th century, and by 1964, it had seen its lowest number of visitors in 25 years. Despite subsequent failed attempts to redevelop the area as a casino area or theme park, the Wonder Wheel continued to operate. Furthermore, it had not had any significant incidents in its history, making it a relatively well-off ride when other Coney Island attractions were closing. To prevent against crime, the wheel and surrounding attractions were protected by two German Shepherds at night: one at the wheel's base and the other on an adjacent roof; during the day, the dogs rode around in one of the Wonder Wheel's cars, where the operator provided food and water for them. Off-duty security officers were also hired to avoid conflicts with the mafia. ### Vourderis ownership Fred Garms was looking to sell the wheel by 1983, as he was getting older and unable to manage the wheel. At the time, Deno D. Vourderis had been interested in buying the wheel whenever Garms was willing to sell. At the time, Vourderis was in a hospital recovering from a stabbing attack, but Garms approached Deno's son Dennis on the possibility of purchasing the ride. On June 7, 1983, Vourderis bought the Wonder Wheel from Garms and his cousin Walter Kerner Sr., and it became "Deno's Wonder Wheel". According to The New York Times, the only maintenance instructions given to the Vourderis family were the words "Good Luck" scribbled on a cardboard cigarette box. The Vourderis family restored the Wonder Wheel and made it the central attraction of Deno's Wonder Wheel Amusement Park. They spent \$250,000 to restore the wheel, in addition to the \$250,000 cost of buying it. Vourderis stated that part of the wheel's allure had come from when he had proposed to his future wife Lula atop the wheel 36 years prior to the purchase: he had promised to give the wheel to his wife as a future gift. In 1989, the Wonder Wheel was made a New York City designated landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. By the early 1990s, the Wonder Wheel had offered free advertising space to the McDonald's fast-food chain, which had two franchises near the wheel. Fearing that the distinctive McDonald's logo would overshadow the Wonder Wheel itself, the Landmarks Preservation Commission voted against allowing a McDonald's logo on the wheel, despite allowing Vourderis to put "Deno's" above the "Wonder Wheel" sign on the wheel's hub. Upon Deno's death in the mid-1990s, control of the wheel and the amusement park passed to Dennis Vourderis. In the 2000s, Deno's grandchildren also became involved in the operation of the wheel. Despite the redevelopment of Coney Island and the erection of the nearby Luna Park in 2010, the wheel and associated amusement park continued to operate. The Wonder Wheel received a new solar-powered lighting system in 2012, replacing a lighting system that had been broken for three decades. Even during the aftermath of 2012's Hurricane Sandy, when Deno's Amusement Park was flooded, the Wonder Wheel was only slightly damaged and reopened the next year. As of 2020, the Wonder Wheel is the oldest continuous operating ride at Coney Island, and Dennis Vourderis and his brother Steve continue to operate the Wonder Wheel and the amusement park. Deno's Wonder Wheel Amusement Park is the last family-operated amusement park in Coney Island, and even though several developers have made offers for the amusement park and wheel, the Vourderis family has refused to sell. The Vourderis family had planned to celebrate the Wonder Wheel's centenary with a three-day celebration in May 2020, but this was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, which shuttered all businesses deemed non-essential. The 2020 season was the first in which the Wonder Wheel did not operate at all; the Wonder Wheel ultimately reopened in April 2021. The centennial celebration was rescheduled for after the 2021 reopening. ## Description ### Design The Wonder Wheel is located at 3059 West 12th Street, just north of the Riegelmann Boardwalk. Its entrance plaza is composed of a steel structure with plywood-and-corrugated metal. The hub of the wheel, supported by two blue-painted legs shaped like the letter "A", contains an illuminated sign with orange letters spelling "wonder wheel" in all capital letters. There are sixteen spokes extending from the hub, each connected at their outer ends by a hexadecagonal frame and braced by green beams, each connected through rivets and gusset plates. The eight stationary cars on the hexadecagonal frame are painted white while the sixteen motion-capable cars are painted red-and-yellow or blue-and-yellow. At West 12th Street is a neon sign weighing 700 pounds (320 kg), overhangs the sidewalk by 7.5 feet (2.3 m), and is raised 10 feet (3.0 m) above the sidewalk; the sign contains letters spelling "wonder wheel" and arrows pointing to the actual wheel. Yet another Wonder Wheel sign with arrows is located on a southern approach to the wheel. The wheel itself is 150 feet (46 m) tall, weighs 200 short tons (180 long tons) and is powered by a 40 horsepower (30 kW) motor. It has 24 fully enclosed passenger cars, each able to carry six people, giving a total capacity of 144 passengers. Sixteen of the cars slide inward on snaking tracks, falling outward as the wheel rotates. The remaining eight cars are fixed to the rim, giving a traditional Ferris wheel experience to passengers. Originally, the Wonder Wheel was located on two large blocks of concrete above a 15-foot (4.6 m) pool of water. ### Rides There is no height restriction for the Wonder Wheel. In 2015, a Newsday article estimated that 200,000 people ride the Wonder Wheel every year. As of 2018, over 35 million rides have been taken on the wheel since it first opened. There are separate queues for the stationary and moving cars. A ride on the Wonder Wheel costs 10 credits; the cost of each credit varies depending on how many are purchased, but generally cost \$1 if purchased individually. Each ride consists of two rotations around the Wonder Wheel. ### Safety The Wonder Wheel has had a strong safety record. The former owner-operator of the ride, Fred Garms, told the New York Daily News in 1981 that "I put my money into maintenance. [...] My father used to say, 'The dollar you don't put in today will cost you \$2 tomorrow.'" News outlets reported in 2000 that the Wonder Wheel had not experienced any significant incidents in its history, operating every summer season since its opening; this remained true even after Hurricane Sandy flooded the surrounding amusement park in 2012. The wheel was also designed with an emergency hand crank in case of power losses. The ride's first owner-operator, Herman Garms, overhauled and painted the ride each year, to protect it from the harsh weather associated with New York winters. The tradition of winter maintenance continued with the Wonder Wheel's subsequent owners. The only time the wheel stopped while not under the control of the operator was during the New York City blackout on July 13, 1977. The owners hand cranked the wheel around to evacuate the passengers. ## Critical reception A writer for the St. Louis Post-Dispatch stated in 2000 that when "the cars begin to swing like a pendulum [...] you swear the entire structure is collapsing." The same year, a writer for the Central New Jersey Home News praised the views from the Wonder Wheel, saying that "a trip would not be complete without a spin on the Cyclone, a trip to the top of Deno's Wonder Wheel or a corn dog at Nathan's." In 2015, a Newsday reporter contrasted the two experiences of the Wonder Wheel's stationary and moving cars: the stationary-car experience was described as being "so pleasant a baby can ride it without alarm", but the swinging-car experience was "more like a catch-your-breath thrill". ## Cultural influence The New York Times called the Wonder Wheel "the jewel of the showy, boomtown Coney Island that rose along the newly widened beach in the Roaring Twenties". The Wonder Wheel has inspired at least two replicas. Pixar Pal-A-Round, a 150-foot-tall (46 m) eccentric Ferris wheel at Disney California Adventure, opened in 2001 and was initially known as Sun Wheel and Mickey's Fun Wheel. There was also a replica in Yokohama Dreamland, Japan. Due to its prominence on Coney Island, the Wonder Wheel has been depicted in numerous movies and TV shows, such as the film The Warriors, the film Remo Williams: The Adventure Begins, the TV series Mr. Robot, and the TV series The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel. At least one film is named after the attraction: Wonder Wheel (2017), set on Coney Island in the 1950s. In addition, the Wonder Wheel has been the setting for many engagements and weddings throughout its history. In August 2020, historian Charles Denson published a book about the Wonder Wheel, titled Coney Island’s Wonder Wheel Park. ## See also - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Brooklyn

Battle of the Basque Roads

1809 naval battle during the Napoleonic Wars

The Battle of the Basque Roads, also known as the Battle of Aix Roads (French: Bataille de l'île d'Aix, also Affaire des brûlots, rarely Bataille de la rade des Basques), was a major naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars, fought in the narrow Basque Roads at the mouth of the Charente River on the Biscay coast of France. The battle, which lasted from 11–24 April 1809, was unusual in that it pitted a hastily-assembled squadron of small and unorthodox British Royal Navy warships against the main strength of the French Atlantic Fleet. The circumstances were dictated by the cramped, shallow coastal waters in which the battle was fought. The battle is also notorious for its controversial political aftermath in both Britain and France. In February 1809 the French Atlantic Fleet, blockaded in Brest on the Breton coast by the British Channel Fleet, attempted to break out into the Atlantic and reinforce the garrison of Martinique. Sighted and chased by British blockade squadrons, the French were unable to escape the Bay of Biscay and eventually anchored in the Basque Roads, near the naval base of Rochefort. There they were kept under observation during March by the British fleet under the dour Admiral Lord Gambier. The Admiralty, desiring an attack on the French fleet, ordered Lord Cochrane, an outspoken and popular junior captain, to lead an attack, over the objections of a number of senior officers. Cochrane organised an inshore squadron of fireships and bomb vessels, including a converted frigate, and personally led this force into Basque Roads on the evening of 11 April. The attack caused little direct damage, but in the narrow waters of the channel the fireships panicked the sailors of the French fleet and most of their ships grounded and were left immobile. Cochrane expected Gambier to follow his attack with the main fleet, which could then destroy the vulnerable French force, but Gambier refused. Cochrane continued the battle over the next several days, successfully destroying several French ships, but with little support from Gambier. This allowed most of the French fleet to refloat and retreat up the Charente to safety. Gambier recalled Cochrane on 14 April and sent him back to Britain, withdrawing most of the inshore squadron at the same time, although scattered fighting continued until 24 April. The increasingly marginalised French fleet was badly damaged and trapped in its home ports; several captains were court-martialled for cowardice and one was shot. In Britain the battle was celebrated as a victory, but many in the Navy were dissatisfied with Gambier's behaviour and Cochrane used his position as a Member of Parliament to publicly protest Gambier's leadership. Incensed, Gambier requested a court-martial to disprove Cochrane's accusations and the admiral's political allies ensured that the jury was composed of his supporters. After bitter and argumentative proceedings Gambier was exonerated of any culpability for failings during the battle. Cochrane's naval career was ruined, although the irrepressible officer remained a prominent figure in Britain for decades to come. Historians have almost unanimously condemned Gambier for his failure to support Cochrane; even Napoleon opined that he was an "imbécile". ## Background By 1809 the Royal Navy was dominant in the Atlantic. During the Trafalgar Campaign of 1805 and the Atlantic campaign of 1806 the French Atlantic Fleet had suffered severe losses and the survivors were trapped in the French Biscay ports under a close blockade by the British Channel Fleet. The largest French base was at Brest in Brittany, where the main body of the French fleet lay at anchor under the command of Contre-amiral Jean-Baptiste Willaumez, with smaller French detachments stationed at Lorient and Rochefort. These ports were under observation by the Channel Fleet, led off Brest by Admiral Lord Gambier. Gambier was an unpopular officer, whose reputation rested on being the first captain to break the French line at the Glorious First of June in 1794 in HMS Defence. Since then he had spent most of his career as an administrator at the Admiralty, earning the title Baron Gambier for his command of the fleet at the Bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807. A strict Methodist, Gambier was nicknamed "Dismal Jimmy" by his men. ### Willaumez's cruise British superiority at sea allowed the Royal Navy to launch operations against the French Overseas Empire with impunity, in particular against the lucrative French colonies in the Caribbean. In late 1808, the French learned that a British invasion of Martinique was in preparation, and so orders were sent to Willaumez to take his fleet to sea, concentrate with the squadrons from Lorient and Rochefort and reinforce the island. With Gambier's fleet off Ushant Willaumez was powerless to act, and it was only when winter storms forced the blockade fleet to retreat into the Atlantic in February 1809 that the French admiral felt able to put to sea, passing southwards through the Raz de Sein at dawn on 22 February with eight ships of the line and two frigates. Gambier had left a single ship of the line, Captain Charles Paget's HMS Revenge to keep watch on Brest, and Paget observed the French movements at 09:00, correctly deducing Willaumez's next destination. The blockade squadron off Lorient comprised the ships of the line HMS Theseus, HMS Triumph and HMS Valiant under Commodore John Beresford, watching three ships in the harbour under Contre-amiral Amable Troude. At 15:15 Paget, who had lost sight of the French, reached the waters off Lorient and signalled a warning to Beresford. At 16:30, Beresford's squadron sighted Willaumez's fleet, tacking to the southeast. Willaumez ordered his second-in-command, Contre-amiral Antoine Louis de Gourdon to drive Beresford away and Gourdon brought four ships around to chase the British squadron, with the remainder of the French fleet following more distantly. Beresford turned away to the northwest, thus clearing the route to Lorient. His objective achieved, Gourdon rejoined Willaumez and the fleet sailed inshore, anchoring near the island of Groix. In the early morning of 23 February, Willaumez sent the dispatch schooner Magpye into Lorient with instructions for Troude to sail when possible and steer for the Pertuis d'Antioche near Rochefort, where the fleet was due to assemble. Willaumez then took his fleet southwards, followed from 09:00 by Beresford's squadron. The French fleet passed between Belle Île and Quiberon and then around Île d'Yeu, passing the Phares des Baleines on Île de Ré at 22:30. There the fleet was sighted by frigate HMS Amethyst under Captain Michael Seymour, the scout for the Rochefort blockade squadron of HMS Caesar, HMS Defiance and HMS Donegal under Rear-Admiral Robert Stopford, which was anchored off the Phare de Chassiron on Ile d'Oléron. Signal rockets from Amethyst alerted Stopford to Willaumez's presence and Stopford closed with Willaumez during the night, but was not strong enough to oppose his entry into the Basque Roads at the mouth of the Charente River on the morning of 24 February. ### Gambier's blockade Assuming that the French fleet had sailed from Brest, Stopford sent the frigate HMS Naiad under Thomas Dundas to warn Gambier. The British commander had discovered the French fleet missing from its anchorage on 23 February and responded by sending eight ships under Rear-Admiral John Thomas Duckworth south to block any French attempt to enter the Mediterranean while Gambier turned his flagship, the 120-gun first rate HMS Caledonia, back to Plymouth for reinforcements. In the English Channel Naiad located Caledonia and passed on Stopford's message. Gambier continued to Plymouth, collected four ships of the line anchored there, and immediately sailed back into the Bay of Biscay, joining Stopford on 7 March to form a fleet of 13 ships, later reduced to 11 after Defiance and Triumph were detached. Shortly after departing Stopford's squadron off the Basque Roads, Naiad had sighted three sail approaching from the north at 07:00 on 24 February. These were Italienne, Calypso and Cybèle; a French frigate squadron sent from Lorient by Troude, whose ships of the line had been delayed by unfavourable tides. The lighter frigates had put to sea without the battle squadron and sailed to join Willaumez the previous morning. Their passage had been observed by the British frigate HMS Amelia and the sloop HMS Doterel, which had shadowed the French during the night. To the south, Dundas had signaled Stopford and the admiral left Amethyst and HMS Emerald to observe the French fleet while he took his main squadron in pursuit of the French frigates. Trapped between the two British forces, French Commodore Pierre-Roch Jurien took his ships inshore under the batteries of Les Sables d'Olonne. Stopford followed the French into the anchorage and in the ensuing battle drove all three French ships ashore where they were damaged beyond repair. Willaumez made no move to challenge Stopford or Gambier, although he had successfully united with the Rochefort squadron of three ships of the line, two frigates and an armed storeship, the captured British fourth rate ship Calcutta, commanded by Commodore Gilbert-Amable Faure. Together the French fleet, now numbering 11 ships of the line, withdrew from the relatively open Basque Roads anchorage into the narrow channel under the batteries of the Île-d'Aix known as the Aix Roads. These waters offered greater protection from the British fleet, but were also extremely hazardous; on 26 February, as the French manoeuvred into the shallower waters of their new anchorage the 74-gun Jean Bart grounded on the Palles Shoal off Île Madame, and was wrecked. The channel in which Willaumez chose to position his fleet formed a strong defensive position: an assailant had to cross the open Basque Roads and advance past the long and dangerous Boyart Shoal hidden just below the surface. On entering the channel, an attacking force would then come under fire from fortified gun batteries on Île-d'Aix before finally encountering the French fleet. The anchorage had been successfully attacked before, such as during the Raid on Rochefort in 1757, but more recent efforts in 1803, and 1807 had ended in failure. The developing stalemate saw activity on both sides of the bay. Among the French fleet there was dissatisfaction that Willaumez had not attacked Stopford when he enjoyed numerical superiority, taking the opportunity to break out of the anchorage and pursue his objectives in the Caribbean. Captain Jacques Bergeret was so incensed that he wrote a letter criticising Willaumez to the Minister of Marine Denis Decrès, and warning that the Aix Roads were highly vulnerable to British attack. Although Emperor Napoleon apparently shared Willaumez's opinion, Decrès removed and censured both Willaumez and Bergeret, replacing the admiral with Zacharie Allemand on 16 March. Word had arrived that a British expeditionary force had captured Martinique in late February, and so Allemand, lacking further instructions, prepared his defences. The French position was strengthened with a heavy boom formed from chains and tree trunks laid between the Boyart shoal and Île-d'Aix. This boom measured 0.5 nautical miles (1,000 yd) long and 31.5 inches (80 cm) wide, weighted in place with 5 1/4 tons of anchors, and yet was installed so subtly that the British fleet did not observe it. More than 2,000 French conscripts were deployed on the Île-d'Aix, supporting batteries of 36-pounder long guns, although attempts to build a fort on the Boyart Shoal were identified, and on 1 April Amelia attacked the battery, drove off the construction crew and destroyed the half-finished fortification. Allemand also ordered his captains to take up a position known as a lignée endentée, in which his ships anchored to form a pair of alternating lines across the channel so that approaching warships could come under the combined fire of several ships at once, in effect crossing the T of any attempt to assault the position, with the frigates stationed between the fleet and the boom. In the British fleet there was much debate about how to proceed against the French. Gambier was concerned that an attack by French fireships on his fleet anchored in the Basque Roads might cause considerable destruction, and consequently ordered his captains to prepare to withdraw from the blockade at short notice should such an operation be observed. He also wrote to the Admiralty in London recommending British fireships be prepared but cautioning that "it is a horrible mode of warfare, and the attempt very hazardous, if not desperate". A number of officers in the fleet, in particular Rear-Admiral Eliab Harvey, volunteered to lead such an attack, but Gambier hesitated to act, failing to take soundings of the approaches or make any practical preparations for an assault. ### Mulgrave's imperative With Gambier vacillating in Basque Roads, First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Mulgrave interceded. Prime Minister Lord Portland's administration was concerned by the risk posed by the French fleet to the profits of the British colonies in the West Indies, and had determined that an attack must be made. Thus on 7 March ten fireships were ordered to be prepared. In considering who would be best suited to lead such an attack Mulgrave then made a highly controversial decision. On 11 March the frigate HMS Imperieuse anchored at Plymouth and a message instructed Captain Lord Cochrane to come straight to the Admiralty. Cochrane, eldest son of the Earl of Dundonald, was an aggressive and outspoken officer who had gained notoriety in 1801 when he captured the 32-gun Spanish privateer frigate Gamo with the 14-gun brig HMS Speedy. In the frigates HMS Pallas and Imperieuse he had caused havoc on the French and Spanish coasts with relentless attacks on coastal shipping and defences including, most relevantly, operations in the Rochefort area. He was also a highly active politician, elected as a Member of Parliament for Westminster in 1807 as a Radical, he advocated parliamentary reform and was a fierce critic of Portland's administration. At his meeting with Mulgrave, Cochrane was asked to explain a plan of attack on Basque Roads which he had drawn up some years previously. Cochrane enthusiastically described his intention to use fireships and massive floating bombs to destroy a fleet anchored in the roads. When he had finished, Mulgrave announced that the plan was going ahead and that Cochrane was to command it. Cochrane was in poor health, and under no illusions about Mulgrave's intentions: should the attack fail Cochrane would be blamed and his political career damaged. In addition, Cochrane was also well aware of the fury this decision would provoke in the naval hierarchy; the appointment of a relatively junior officer in command of such an important operation was calculated to cause offense. Cochrane refused, even though Mulgrave pleaded that he had been the only officer to present a practical plan for attacking Allemand's fleet. Again Cochrane refused the command, but the following day Mulgrave issued a direct order: "My Lord you must go. The board cannot listen to further refusal or delay. Rejoin your frigate at once." Cochrane returned to Imperieuse immediately and the frigate then sailed from Plymouth to join Gambier. The admiral had received direct orders from Mulgrave on 26 March ordering him to prepare for an attack, to which he sent two letters, one agreeing with the order and another disputing it on the grounds that the water was too shallow and the batteries on Île-d'Aix too dangerous. Gambier did not however learn of the leadership of the operation until Cochrane joined the fleet on 3 April and presented Mulgrave's orders to the admiral. The effect was dramatic; Harvey, one of Nelson's Band of Brothers who had fought at Trafalgar, launched into a furious tirade directed at Gambier, accusing him of incompetence and malicious conduct, comparing him unfavourably to Nelson and calling Cochrane's appointment an "insult to the fleet". Gambier dismissed Harvey, sending him and his 80-gun HMS Tonnant back to Britain in disgrace to face a court-martial, and then ordered Cochrane to begin preparations for the attack. Gambier also issued Cochrane with Methodist tracts to distribute to his crew. Cochrane ignored the order, but sent some of the tracts to his friend William Cobbett with a letter describing conditions with the fleet. Cobbett, a Radical journalist, wrote articles in response which later inflamed religious opinion in Britain against Cochrane during the scandal which followed the battle. ## Night attack ### Cochrane's plan As the 18 fireships prepared in Britain by Mulgrave had not yet departed by the time of Cochrane's arrival with the fleet, the captain responded by converting his own over the following week. A number of chasse-marées carrying tar and resin perfect for this role had been captured by the blockade, and Cochrane requisitioned eight military transport ships from the fleet reserve for conversion using these materials. The frigate-storeship HMS Mediator was taken over to be the centrepiece of the attack force. These vessels were laden with explosives and combustible materials such as rum-soaked hay, and crewed by volunteers from the fleet. On three of the vessels Cochrane had loaded 1,500 barrels of gunpowder, topped by hundreds of artillery shells and thousands of grenades to create an explosion ship, a floating bomb of his own design intended to detonate right in the middle of the French line. During this process an attack by French boats on the fireships was driven off, with two British sailors killed and one wounded, and on 5 April Cochrane reconnoitered the approaches to Aix Roads, firing shots at the forts and fleet to gauge their responses. He subsequently wrote to Mulgrave suggesting that with an expeditionary force of 20,000 he could seize the defences overlooking the anchorage, sink blockships in the channel and thereby permanently deprive the French of one of their most important naval bases, although his letter was ignored. On 6 April the bomb vessel HMS Aetna, equipped with a heavy mortar, arrived with William Congreve, inventor of a rocket artillery system which was to be used in the attack. It was followed by the first convoy of 12 fireships on 10 April, taking Cochrane's total to 24 fireships and explosion vessels to expend in his attack. With these ships was a transport carrying thousands of Congreve rockets, which were strapped to the masts and yards of the fireships to fire in all directions as the ships burned. Due to Gambier's failure to scout the channel, Cochrane was apparently unaware of the existence of the boom, although historian James Henderson suggests he knew of it but failed to inform Gambier lest the cautious admiral abandon the entire operation. Cochrane was intending that his force, led by the heavy Mediator and the explosion vessels, would enter the anchorage during the night and sow confusion among the French fleet. It was hoped that in the chaos some of the French ships might be destroyed by fire and others driven on shore where a concerted attack by the British fleet would destroy or capture the remainder. Allemand could see the fireships under preparation in Basque Roads, and increased his defences by stationing 73 small boats along the boom to tow fireships onto the mud flats and away from the French fleet. He also ordered all the ships of the line to remove their sails and topmasts. This rendered them largely immobile but considerably less flammable. The frigates retained their rigging as they would be required to move in the event of a major attack. His preparations complete, Cochrane ordered the attack for the evening of 11 April, although Gambier was reluctant to allow his sailors to support Cochrane in the operation, saying "if you choose to rush to self-destruction that is your own affair . . . but it is my duty to take care of the lives of others, and I will not place the crews of the fireships in palpable danger". Cochrane was furious and after a bitter argument Gambier relented and gave permission for the attack to go ahead. He stationed Imperieuse near the Boyart Shoal to the north of the boom, approximately 2.5 nautical miles (4.6 km) from the French fleet, supported by frigates HMS Aigle, HMS Unicorn and HMS Pallas. This force would collect the crews of the fireships as they abandoned their blazing charges and rowed back towards the British line, and sloops HMS Redpole and HMS Lyra were equipped as light ships to guide the fireships into the channel. With these ships were the schooner HMS Whiting and cutters Nimrud and King George, all converted into floating rocket batteries. Aetna and two brigs anchored north of the forts on Île-d'Aix, while frigate Emerald and five smaller warships were to launch a diversionary attack to the east of the island. Gambier, with the main body of the fleet, moved closer to the entrance of Aix Roads, eventually anchoring 9 nautical miles (17 km) distant; it has been suggested by one historian that he may have done so in order that he could retreat out to sea easily should the French fleet attempt to attack him in the aftermath of a failed fireship assault. ### Fireships advance As night approached it became clear that the wind, although blowing in the correct direction, was too strong to allow the fireships to be chained together in squadrons as planned, and each was instructed to operate independently. At 20:30, with the wind and tide in their favour and the night darker than expected, the fireships cut their anchor cables and began to silently sail towards the French fleet. Most of the volunteer crews ignited and abandoned their vessels too early, the blazing ships grounding long before even reaching the boom; one even threatened Imperieuse, which had to veer its anchor cable to avoid being destroyed. Other crews, including those on one of the explosion ships, lost control of their vessels and took no part in the attack. A few however, including the lead explosion ship under Cochrane's personal command, continued forward at speed, as the wind increased gradually. He was followed by the second surviving explosion vessel, on board of which was Midshipman Frederick Marryat. Cochrane delayed igniting his own ship to the last minute, and when he finally lit the fuses his escape was reportedly delayed in a search for the ship's dog. As a result, his boat was still inside the debris field when the ship exploded, although he escaped unharmed. Elsewhere, five British sailors were killed and six wounded in premature detonations. The explosion ships detonated near the French frigate Indienne at 21:30 and 21:40, although trapped by the boom they did little damage. Following them however was Mediator, which smashed a hole in the boom through which the few fireships surviving followed. Allemand's boat crews were unable to influence the passage of Cochrane's flotilla as the sea was now too rough for them to operate in the channel, and the fireship crews consequently endured great difficulty returning to the British frigate line. The Aix Road was now a scene of "sublime horror": blazing fireships drifted randomly across the anchorage, some passing amid the great hulls of the French line. Shells from Aetna and thousands of rockets burst amid the confusion as the forts and all ships fired their guns at threats real and imagined; "a scene . . . peculiarly awful and sublime." The fireships reached the French frigate line at 21:45, as the frigates cut their anchor cables and retreated southeast down the channel. The blazing vessels then struck the French line; Régulus was hit, the crew desperately fending off the fireship for 15 minutes while the drifting ship of the line crashed into Tourville. Cassard was also badly hit, losing 20 men killed and wounded to a shot from a fireship, and several other French ships were badly damaged in the confusion. At 22:00, while avoiding three drifting fireships, the overladen 120-gun flagship Océan ran aground and was badly scorched by a fireship which struck the stern. To prevent explosion the stopcocks were opened and the magazine flooded. As the crew wrestled with this threat, the drifting Tonnerre and Patriote loomed out of the darkness. Patriote turned away in time, but Tonnerre crashed into the starboard side of the flagship and caused considerable damage, although fortunately detached soon afterwards. Océan's crew then held the blazing ship alongside long enough that the drifters could escape before releasing the fireship to drift on shore. During this effort at least 50 men tumbled to their deaths in the fiery chasm between the ships as they tried to prevent the fire spreading on board. ### Gambier hesitates As dawn rose on 12 April, only Cassard and Foudroyant remained afloat, having drifted into the mouth of the Charente with the tide. The remainder, nine ships of the line, Calcutta and four frigates, were all beached along the mud and rocky shoals of the channel. Océan lay isolated on the mud within Aix Roads itself, with Ville de Varsovie and Aquilon grounded on rocks at Charenton 500 yards (460 m) away and Régulus and Jemmapes on softer ground nearby. To the north, Tonnerre had grounded hard near Île Madame and despite desperate efforts from the crew had already flooded and become a total wreck. Calcutta lay on the Palles Shoal near the remains of Jean Bart and Patriote and Tourville had grounded close to the mouth of the Charente not far from the frigate Pallas. Elsewhere Indienne lay at Pointe Aiguille and Elbe and Hortense on the Fontanelles. Cochrane, now back on Imperieuse, immediately recognised that although no French ship had been directly destroyed by the attack, there was an opportunity to annihilate the French Atlantic fleet in a single morning. Grounded and vulnerable, the isolated French ships could be simply destroyed by a concerted conventional attack on the Aix Roads, with only the batteries and the two remaining ships afloat to offer resistance. At 05:48 he frantically signalled Gambier "Half the fleet could destroy the enemy". Gambier acknowledged this communication, but made no reply and gave no orders. As the French ships started to drift with the tide, Cochrane sent more signals: at 06:40 "Eleven on shore", at 07:40 "Only two afloat". Still there was no response from the distant British fleet. At 09:30 Cochrane signalled that "Enemy preparing to heave off" as the French crews began the laborious task of refloating their ships. Cochrane ordered further, sardonic, signals "Two sail of the line are enough" and "the frigates alone can destroy the enemy", although the first was never made as the signal officer judged that it would be received by Gambier as an insult, and the second was made but never recorded in Caledonia's logbook. At 09:35 Gambier ordered his fleet to weigh anchor and then rescinded the order, instead holding a conference on the flagship for all his captains. Finally the fleet sailed at 10:45, but at 11:30 Gambier ordered a halt after only 3 nautical miles (5.6 km), and the ships anchored once more near Île-d'Aix while the admiral conducted a conference with his captains. In doing so, Gambier conspicuously avoided making any signal which might indicate he intended an attack, even spelling out some long signals to avoid using the flag which meant "prepare for battle". His behaviour at this point has been described by historian Robert Harvey as "one of the most contemptible acts of any commander-in-chief in British naval history". While Gambier hesitated, one by one the French ships which had grounded began to refloat, although several grounded again. As they had removed their topmasts before the attack, they had survived the groundings with less damage than might otherwise have been the case, and were easier to kedge off. Foudroyant and Cassard, fearing an attack by the British fleet, retreated up the Charente at 12:45 and both then grounded at Fouras. At 13:00, Cochrane, his impatience and fury rising, deliberately allowed Imperieuse to drift stern-first alone down the channel towards the French fleet, flying the signal "The enemy's ships are getting under sail", followed by "the enemy is superior to the chasing ship", and then at 13:45 "the ship is in distress, and requires to be assisted immediately". He later wrote "It was better to risk the frigate, or even my commission, than suffer a disgraceful termination to the expectations of the Admiralty". At 14:00 the frigate was within range of Calcutta and began a steady fire into the beached storeship, supported by Aetna and several of the sloops, which he ordered into position by the unexpected process of firing cannon in their direction until they had moved to the position he intended. Cochrane had forced Gambier's hand: despite his desire to avoid combat, the admiral could not allow one of his frigates to fight the entire French fleet single-handed, and reluctantly he instructed the large frigate HMS Indefatigable, the smaller Emerald, Unicorn, Aigle and Pallas and the ships of the line Valiant and Revenge, the latter now commanded by Captain Alexander Robert Kerr, to join with the inshore squadron, enter the Aix Roads and support Cochrane. ## Cochrane's fight ### Gambier's reinforcements British reinforcement entered Basque Roads at 15:20, just as the crew of Calcutta abandoned the ship, withdrawing across the shoal. Forming a line of battle, the British opened a heavy fire on the nearby, and still grounded, Ville de Varsovie while Beagle, armed with heavy carronades, nosed close inshore and took up station across the bow of Aquilon and raked the French ship repeatedly. For two hours these immobile French ships were battered by the British line with little reply, until at 17:30 both raised Union flags as an indication that they had surrendered. Shortly afterwards the crew of the wrecked Tonnerre abandoned their ship and set it on fire. The French ship was destroyed by a magazine explosion at 19:30, followed at 20:30 by Calcutta, which had been mistakenly set on fire by an over-enthusiastic British boarding party. The storeship was carrying a large quantity of munitions, reportedly worth over half a million pounds in value, and produced an enormous explosion. Most of the British ships had suffered only minor damage and casualties from fire from the gun batteries on Île-d'Aix, where Revenge had temporarily grounded during the night and suffered 18 casualties. The French losses were minor except on Ville de Varsovie, which had taken about 100 casualties in the exchange. Although Gambier had no intention of risking his fleet in the narrow waters of Basque Roads, he had permitted three more transports to be fitted out as fireships, and at 17:30 these were led into the anchorage by Stopford in Caesar, accompanied by Theseus and several launches equipped to fire Congreve rockets. At 19:40 however Caesar grounded on a shoal and remained stuck there until 22:30, close to Valiant, which had also grounded at low tide. At this point six surviving French ships; Océan, four of the line and the frigate Indienne, remained aground close to the mouth of the Charente, while the remainder of the fleet had escaped upriver to secure anchorages. During the night the wind blew from the land, rendering a fireship attack impractical, and so the British contented themselves with setting Ville de Varsovie and Aquilon on fire, both ships determined by John Bligh on Valiant, over Cochrane's objections, to have been damaged beyond repair. During this operation, one of the new fireships was wrecked on a shoal. The weather was so bad that night that the planned attack with the remaining fireships was abandoned as unfeasible. The sight of the burning wrecks in the night once again spread panic throughout the French fleet, the grounded ships opening a heavy fire on the scuttled ships in the assumption that they were fireships. Captain Lacaille of Tourville was so unnerved that he immediately ordered his crew to abandon ship and set it on fire. The evacuation was so hasty however that the fires did not spread effectively, and the following morning the ship was found to still be intact, the crew returning to their prematurely abandoned vessel. There they found that the ship's quartermaster Eugéne-Joseph-Romain Bourgeois had remained aboard, unconvinced by Lacaille's order, and had single-handedly driven off an attempt by a British boat to board and capture the ship. During the night about 30 sailors had joined him, keeping Touville in French hands until dawn came and the rest of the crew returned. ### Battle continues At 05:00 on 13 April Stopford gave the order for the inshore squadron to withdraw back to Gambier's fleet. Cochrane was again furious, and even suggested taking Imperieuse and Indefatigable on a desperate attack on the still-grounded Océan. Captain John Tremayne Rodd on the latter refused. Frustrated, Cochrane remained in the anchorage, joined by Pallas and the smaller vessels as the larger ships returned to more open waters. At 08:00 he ordered a renewed attack on the remaining grounded ships at the mouth of the Charente, and by 11:00 the small vessels were in position and opened fire on the French flagship. Although Aetna's gun split, forcing her withdrawal, the barrage otherwise continued throughout the day, although to little effect. It was not until 16:00 when the battered Océan and Régulus, most of their stores thrown overboard, were able to safely retreat towards the mouth of the Charente. During this engagement three small rocket ships reached Cochrane, whose frigate was becalmed too far from the action, from the main fleet. On board, Gambier had sent a two-part letter. The first part praised Cochrane's achievements thus far and urged Cochrane to renew the attack on Océan but indicated that Gambier felt success was unlikely. The second part, a private letter to the captain, permitting one further attack but then ordering him to withdraw that evening as Gambier wished to "send you to England as soon as possible". Cochrane replied to the first part of the letter, stating that he would renew the assault on the following day, and pointedly ignored the second. Cochrane later claimed that Gambier had ordered him directly to withdraw by signal from Caledonia, but there is no evidence that such a signal was made. ### Cochrane withdraws During the night the British did not renew the attack, and the following morning found that most of the French ships had successfully retreated up the Charente. Océan and Tourville remained accessible, both grounded anew near Foures, while a few other French ships could still be reached by long-range fire. At 09:00 Gambier made the definitive signal ordering Cochrane to withdraw directly and replacing him in command with George Wolfe on Aigle. Cochrane reluctantly returned to the fleet and had a furious meeting with Gambier, accusing the admiral of "extraordinary hesitation" and urging a new assault. Gambier refused to renew the attack and threatened that if Cochrane tried to blame Gambier for the incomplete victory he would be seen as "arrogantly claiming all the merit to yourself". Cochrane was immediately ordered to return to Britain, sailing on 15 April with Gambier's dispatches carried by Sir Harry Neale. Wolfe briefly renewed the attack during 14 April with a repaired Aetna, emptying the bomb vessel's ammunition reserves to little effect. At 02:00 on 15 April Océan finally began to move again, reaching safety upriver by 03:30. Several other ships were exposed, but without a bomb vessel they lay beyond the range of the British fleet. The French sailors made significant efforts to retrieve these ships over the following days; on 16 April Indienne was deemed too damaged to be saved, abandoned, and set on fire. The frigate exploded at midday. The following day Foudroyant and Tourville reached safety, and only Régulus now remained vulnerable. For several days in severe gales and heavy rain the ship remained stranded in the mud while Wolfe worked to bring up newly arrived replacement bomb vessel HMS Thunder. An attack on 20 April failed after the gun split almost immediately, and a larger scale attack with both bomb vessels and smaller ships failed on 24 April. No further attempts were made to destroy Régulus, and on 29 April the ship was finally refloated and brought to safety in the Charente. On the same day Gambier finally abandoned his blockade of the river and sailed his fleet for England. ## Aftermath The battle was undoubtedly a victory for the British; three French ships of the line, a fourth-rate and a frigate were destroyed and much of the remainder of the Brest fleet badly damaged and requiring extensive repairs; Océan and Foudroyant were in a particularly poor state. French casualties in the engagement are not known with certainty, but are estimated at 150–200, while British losses were only 13 killed and 30 wounded. Allemand later wrote that most significant damage resulting from the battle was to the morale of the French fleet; he wrote that "the greater part are disheartened; every day I hear them lamenting their situation, and speaking in praise of their enemy." Another French commentator told a British officer that the French sailors "had now no security from the English in their harbours, and they expected we should next go into Brest and take out their fleet". No British ships suffered more than minor damage in the two weeks of combat, and the fleet could return to its blockade with the knowledge that the Brest fleet was neutralised for some time to come and confined to Rochefort, although a powerful squadron was still under construction at Rochefort, where the defences had been swiftly repaired. This was the last time during the Napoleonic Wars that a significant French fleet was able to put to sea from the Atlantic ports; historian Richard Woodman describes it as the "biggest scare from a break-out French fleet in the post-Trafalgar period." Without naval support, the French colonies in the Caribbean were isolated, blockaded, invaded and captured shortly afterwards. ### Courts-martial Almost as serious however were the legal ramifications of the battle. In both countries there was a storm of controversy; in France four captains faced courts-martial from 21 June on charges of having abandoned their ships too easily and failing to follow orders. The captain of Tonnerre was acquitted, the captain of Indienne was acquitted on the first charge but sentenced to three months' house arrest for the second and the captain of Tourville was sentenced to two years in prison and to be dismissed from the Navy for abandoning his ship prematurely. The captain of Calcutta, Jean-Baptiste Lafon, was convicted of abandoning his ship in the face of the enemy and sentenced to death on 8 September. The execution was carried out by firing squad on the deck of Océan the following day. Woodman considers that "these wretched officers paid the penalty for Willaumez's initial timidity." Allemand's defeat is often blamed on Napoleon's instructions before the battle, which mistakenly assumed that the Aix Roads were a safe anchorage. In Britain, Cochrane arrived at Spithead on 21 April and news of the victory spread rapidly. The Times ran a dramatic account of the battle which presaged national celebrations, and the junior officers of the fleet engaged in the fireship attack were promoted, and presented with financial rewards, while James Wooldridge, captain of Mediator who had been terribly burned, was granted a gold medal and a presentation sword. In 1847 the Admiralty authorized the award of the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "Basque Roads 1809" to the 529 surviving claimants from the action. Cochrane was initially celebrated for his achievement and made a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath on 26 April. Shortly afterwards however he informed Lord Mulgrave that he intended to use his position as a member of parliament to oppose any effort to thank or reward Gambier for his part in the battle. Mulgrave immediately warned Gambier, who demanded a court-martial to investigate his behaviour. The court was convened on 26 July; the inquiry panel president was Admiral Sir Roger Curtis and his deputy was William Young, both friends of Gambier and political opponents of Cochrane. Over eight days witnesses were called and evidence presented, much of it misleading. Most seriously, the charts of Basque Roads supplied to the court had been drawn by officers from Gambier's ship and favoured Gambier's account of the action. Cochrane was questioned aggressively during his evidence and lost his temper, being repeatedly reprimanded. Ultimately Gambier was acquitted and awarded the thanks of Parliament, despite continuing determined opposition from Cochrane. Gambier continued in command until 1811, and remained in service until his death in 1833. Cochrane was disgraced and refused further service, choosing semi-retirement to pursue his political ambitions. He was later implicated in the Great Stock Exchange Fraud of 1814, convicted and publicly disgraced. He resigned his commission and joined first the Chilean Navy and then the Brazilian Navy, before becoming commander of the Greek Navy during the Greek War of Independence. He was restored to the Royal Navy with a royal pardon in 1832 and died in 1860, shortly after publishing an autobiography which furiously castigated the participants in the events 51 years earlier. ### Historical assessment Blame for the French defeat has been apportioned between Allemand and Willaumez by historians. Willaumez's hesitation in February left the French in a precarious position, in particular his reluctance to attack the squadron under Beresford, victory over which might have granted his fleet access to the Atlantic. Allemand, having inherited this situation, compounded the problem by attempting to fortify his fleet's anchorage, inviting attack, rather than effect an escape or counter-attack. Once he determined to remain at anchor in Aix Roads, a British assault became inevitable. In Britain, Gambier's conduct has been criticised by historians ever since the battle. For example, William Laird Clowes, wrote in 1901 that "there can be no question that affair of Aix Road was mismanaged by the Admiralty at home and by the Admiral on the spot" and that "a great naval commander never loses an occasion to attack when conditions are favourable to him." In 2007 historian Noel Mostert wrote "Oh Nelson! Nelson, Nelson, where were you? Never could the absence of the man from a scene of action clearly designed for his drive and decision have been more painfully alive." In the same year, David Cordingly wrote that "The boldness of the attack . . . was comparable with the exploits of a Drake, de Ruyter and Nelson. And yet the action at Basque Roads has come to be regarded as a wasted opportunity, a bungled and confused affair." Perhaps the most damning response came from an enemy. Years later, Napoleon wrote to an English correspondent that Cochrane "could not only have destroyed [the French ships], . . . but he might and would have taken them out, had your admiral supported him as he ought to have done . . . The French admiral was a fool [imbécile], but yours was just as bad."

Homer and Apu

"Homer and Apu" is the thirteenth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 10, 1994. In the episode, Homer participates in a hidden-camera investigation of spoiled food being sold at the Kwik-E-Mart. The chain's corporate office fires Apu and replaces him with actor James Woods, who is doing research for an upcoming film role. Apu misses his job, so he and Homer travel to India to persuade the head of the Kwik-E-Mart corporation to rehire him. The episode was written by Greg Daniels and directed by Mark Kirkland. James Woods made a guest appearance as himself. The episode features cultural references to films such as The Hard Way, JFK, and Lawrence of Arabia. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 13.3, and was the highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. ## Plot Several customers at the Kwik-E-Mart become angry because of Apu's high prices on cheap items. Apu scribbles out the expiration date on a package of expired ham from 1989 and then lowers the price instead of throwing it out. Homer contracts food poisoning after eating the expired ham. When he recovers, Homer complains to Apu, who gives him a pair of five-pound buckets of expired shrimp to placate him, which he accepts and becomes ill again. While recovering at home, Homer sees the Channel 6 investigative news program Bite Back with Kent Brockman. Lisa suggests asking the show's producers to investigate the Kwik-E-Mart. Kent gives Homer a giant novelty hat containing a spy camera to expose Apu for selling expired food. Homer panics and discards the hat after Apu mistakes its electronic buzzing sound for a bee, but the camera catches Apu dropping a hot dog on the floor and returning it to the roller grill. Apu is fired by corporate headquarters — despite complying with their unsanitary food-handling policies — and is replaced by actor James Woods, who is doing research for a role in an upcoming film. Apu comes to the Simpsons' house, reaching out his arms as if to strangle Homer; however, Apu's posture is merely the traditional form of apology in the Indian village where he was born. Apu hopes to work off his karmic debt for selling Homer expired food by performing household chores for the Simpsons. At first, Homer is reluctant to accept Apu's help, but soon the family appreciates his dutiful behavior. Though he pretends to be happy, Apu deeply misses his job at the Kwik-E-Mart, so Homer, feeling guilty, accompanies him to the head office in India. There they meet with the head of the Kwik-E-Mart corporation, who grants them only three questions; however, Homer wastes the questions on inane banter. An enraged Apu chokes Homer, who thinks Apu is trying to apologize again. When Apu returns to the Kwik-E-Mart to "face his demons", a robber bursts into the store with a gun. He shoots at Woods, but Apu saves him by leaping in the bullet's path. At the hospital, Dr. Hibbert says Apu survived because the bullet ricocheted off another bullet lodged in his chest from a previous robbery. Grateful for Apu's heroism, Woods gives him his job back and leaves to "battle aliens on a faraway planet", which is implied to be a real-life situation and not preparation for another movie. The Simpson family hugs Apu; Homer then notices there is still time left in the episode, and the family hugs Apu again. ## Production The episode was written by Greg Daniels, and directed by Mark Kirkland. It was the first full episode of the show that Daniels wrote. The Simpsons writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss, who were show runners during the previous two seasons, came up with the idea for the episode. They left the idea with David Mirkin, who took over the job as show runner during this season. Mirkin said he was "very excited and intrigued" with the idea of the episode. Soon thereafter, he assigned Daniels to write the script because he knew that Daniels would "step up" and "throw himself into it". In an interview with the Chicago Tribune, Mirkin stated that when he took over the show, he wanted to "bring it back" to character and story; unlike the previous season, which got "so fast-moving and so full of cutaway gags". Mirkin added: "I explored the characters a little more, took them a little further. I had one of the first episodes where Homer was really tempted by another woman, 'The Last Temptation of Homer', and Bart having a girlfriend even nastier than himself, 'Bart's Girlfriend', plus more of a focus on side characters. We did the first episode to really feature Apu as a main character. Those were my goals." Kirkland said he was grateful that he got to work with a "wonderful crew" on the episode, including Bob Anderson, who he thought was a "wonderful" director. Kirkland said that Anderson assisted him on the episode and did "fine animation throughout". When Mirkin took over as show runner, he listed actor James Woods as one of the people he would most like to guest star on the show. Michael Caine was originally supposed to be the actor in the episode who takes over Apu's job at the Kwik-E-Mart, but he rejected the role. The story was therefore rewritten so that Woods received Apu's job instead. When the season was in production, producer Bill Oakley wrote on the online fan forum alt.tv.simpsons that David Bowie was being considered for the guest role in this episode. Woods was one of animation director David Silverman's favorite guest stars. Mirkin said he provided one of the "most fantastic" performances ever on the show, and commented that he "nailed" all of his lines and was "so funny, right at the top of his head". Mirkin said that when most guest stars come in to record their lines for the show, they are a little nervous because they have never done voice-over before. Mirkin noted, however, that Woods was a "fearless guy" and he was "so excited to do it because he was a huge fan of the show". Silverman noted that in addition to his humorous ad-libbing, Woods's tendency to hesitate while speaking was "great for animation", explaining that it made the character feel more realistic. "Homer and Apu" features the popular Simpsons song "Who Needs the Kwik-E-Mart?", sung by Apu and the Simpson family. The song was written by all of the show's writers in the writer's room, and it was composed by Alf Clausen. The song later appeared on the soundtrack album Songs in the Key of Springfield, which was released on March 18, 1997, and compiled many musical numbers from the show. ## Cultural references The episode features cultural references to many American and British films. Woods becoming a convenience store clerk to prepare for a film is similar to Nick Lang (Michael J. Fox) becoming a police officer in the 1991 film The Hard Way, which Woods also starred in (this is a reversal of roles: Woods played the cop that Lang was saddled with in the film). When Kent asks Homer if he is willing to go undercover to "nail" Apu, Homer replies: "No way, man, get yourself another patsy!" This is a reference to a line in the 1991 film JFK. The scene of Homer and Apu riding on mules to the Springfield Airport, with their luggage strapped to the mules' backs, is similar to a scene from the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia. In his Kwik-E-Mart job interview, the interviewer asks Woods why he would want to work at the Kwik-E-Mart, to which he replies: "To be honest, in my upcoming movie I'm going to be playing this tightly-wound convenience store clerk and, I kind of like to research my roles and really get into it. For instance, in True Believer I actually worked in a law firm for two months. And then, the film Chaplin I had a little cameo in that. I actually traveled back in time, back to the twenties, where... Well, I've said too much," referencing the 1989 film True Believer and the 1992 film Chaplin. Woods also mentions the 1979 film The Onion Field and the 1986 film Salvador as his "previous job experience". ## Reception ### Ratings and critical reviews In its original American broadcast, "Homer and Apu" finished twenty-sixth in the ratings for the week of February 7–13, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 13.3. The episode was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. The song "Who Needs The Kwik-E-Mart?" was nominated for an Emmy Award in the "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music and Lyrics" category. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote: "One of the very best, with the gags coming thick and fast. We particularly like the spy camera concealed in Homer's massive stetson, Apu and Marge's trip to the Monster Mart, and 'Who Needs the Kwik-E-Mart?', possibly the cleverest song in the series. And the Christians harassing people at the Indian airport, and Homer's wastage of three questions, and James Woods' parting words to the Simpsons, and the footage of Apu doing a hummingbird impression..." DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson said: "The first episode to focus on Apu, this one works well. Our glimpses of Apu’s sleaziness and culture are entertaining, and the 'Who Needs the Kwik-E-Mart?' tune is one of the better musical numbers [of the show]." Jacobson went on to say: "Also count James Woods as one of the all-time best guest stars, which is likely why he gets many more lines than the average cameo voice." Total Film's Nathan Ditum named Woods' performance in the episode the 19th best guest appearance on The Simpsons. Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A+ and commented that it features one of the best musical numbers in the show's "history of great musical numbers". Adam Suraf of Dunkirkma.net named it the best episode of the season, and added: "I don’t know what it is about this episode — the 'Who Needs the Kwik-E-Mart?' song number; James Woods filling in for Apu at the store; or Homer's wise line 'I've learned that life is one crushing defeat after another until you just wish Flanders was dead' — but the entire affair is inspired. [...] It's in the little details that make this episode the year's best, and solidifies The Simpsons as the funniest sitcom of all time." AskMen.com ranked "Homer and Apu" as number six on its list of the top ten The Simpsons episodes. Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 5 out of 5. ### Analysis The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California Berkeley, where it is used to "examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects". In the book Leaving Springfield, Duncan Beard said the episode served as a parody of the peculiarities of the American convenience store. Beard particularly cited the Muzak and the dinging bell as Homer and Apu entered the Kwik-E-Mart in India, and the sign that read, "The Master Knows All (except combination to safe)". Beard said, "Here the show presents its own instance of the global culture of consumer capitalism, transplanted intact and indistinguishably unaltered from the suburbs of America to a mountain top in some indefinable region of the post-partitioned Commonwealth nation of India, purely for the purpose of parodically criticizing the banality of quick-stop stores." Paul Cantor, who analyzed the episode in his book Gilligan Unbound: Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization, said, "The Simpsons could offer no better image of the bizarre logic of contemporary globalization than a worldwide convenience store empire run by an enlightened guru from the sacred mountains of India." Cantor also specifically cited the "Master Knows" sign, which he said combined the perceived wisdom of the East with the business acumen of the West. Tasleem Shakur and Karen D'Souza write in their book Picturing South Asian culture in English that "Homer and Apu" typifies the key articulation of the character of Apu juxtaposed to Homer, "something like his alter-ego", where Homer is the all American, Duff drinking, rather lazy nuclear plant worker, and Apu is the immigrant, clean living, hard working, small businessman. Their friendship, the authors added, is typically of a strong degree of mutual respect and a kind of admiration for what the other represents.

1995 Brazilian Grand Prix

First race of the 1995 Formula One season

The 1995 Brazilian Grand Prix (formally the XXIV Grande Prêmio do Brasil) was a Formula One motor race held on 26 March 1995 at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace, São Paulo, Brazil. It was the first round of the 1995 Formula One World Championship. Michael Schumacher of the Benetton team won the 71-lap race from second position. David Coulthard finished second in a Williams car, with Gerhard Berger third in a Ferrari. Damon Hill, who started the race from pole position, spun out while leading on lap 30 with an apparent gearbox problem, which was later found to be a suspension failure. Schumacher's win came despite Benetton encountering steering problems with his car during Friday practice, leading to him crashing heavily and necessitating steering component changes for the rest of the event. Despite Schumacher's victory, Hill proved to be faster during the race and seemed to be on course for a comfortable victory before his sudden retirement. Other notable performances came from Berger, who took the final podium position despite being delayed during one of his routine pit stops due to a problem with a loose wheel nut, from Mika Häkkinen, who finished fourth for the McLaren team despite its new car proving to be uncompetitive in pre-season testing, and from Mika Salo, who drove strongly in the first half of the race to run third in his first Grand Prix for the Tyrrell team, only to suffer from a cramp and drop back to seventh place at the finish. Behind Häkkinen, the other points-scoring finishers were Jean Alesi in the second Ferrari and Mark Blundell, who drove the second McLaren. Blundell was standing in for regular driver Nigel Mansell in the second McLaren until the team could produce a wider chassis in which to accommodate him, as the car's initial cockpit design had proved to be too narrow for him to drive comfortably. Several hours after the conclusion of the race, Schumacher and Coulthard were from the race result as the chemical "fingerprint" of fuel samples from their cars taken after qualifying and the race did not match the specified sample lodged with the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) prior to the event. Berger was thus declared the winner, but the race stewards' decision to exclude them was overturned at an appeal hearing on April 13. Schumacher and Coulthard were reinstated in first and second places respectively, but the two teams did not receive their respective constructors' points. The Ferrari team was unhappy with the decision made at the appeal hearing; Berger called the sport "a joke". The rule concerning the legality of fuels had been changed for the 1995 season, as had the new standardised equipment used for refuelling during the race, the drivers' weighing-in procedure and the conditions of the drivers' racing licences; all of these changes produced controversies which at times threatened to overshadow the race, as did the excessively bumpy condition of the track. The race also marked the first Brazilian Grand Prix to take place since the death of Brazilian triple World Champion Ayrton Senna the previous year; his passing was commemorated in various ways throughout the event. ## Background The race was the first round of the 1995 Formula One World Championship after a four month break since the last race of the 1994 season in Australia. Over the winter months, the Autódromo José Carlos Pace race track was resurfaced in an attempt to reduce its bumpiness. The drivers were unhappy with the resurfacing work, though, as the track became more bumpy than in the previous year. Williams driver David Coulthard described the track as "bumpy as hell, quite unbelievable". He was also concerned about his stamina for the duration of the 71-lap race, as he had suffered from a bout of tonsillitis in the run-up to the event which had disrupted his physical training. Local Jordan driver Rubens Barrichello was even more vocal in his criticism of the track's condition, declaring that the circuit organisers were "a bunch of idiots. The track is three times bumpier than before. It is not by applying layer upon layer of tarmac that they will improve matters." Heinz-Harald Frentzen claimed that the bumping was so bad that he was close to passing out; the Sauber car handled badly over the bumps throughout the weekend. The race marked the first Brazilian Grand Prix to be held since the death of three-time champion Ayrton Senna the previous year in a racing accident at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix. As such, various tributes were paid to him throughout the weekend, including a parade lap on the back of a truck with all the drivers waving Brazilian flags; a display from the Brazilian Air Force which resulted in a large "S" trail in the sky; and the renaming of a local highway to Rodovia Ayrton Senna. The São Paulo city authorities had planned to rename the circuit after Senna, but the family of Carlos Pace, the existing dedicatee, objected. Barrichello also sported a special helmet design as a personal tribute to his compatriot. As a result of Senna's death, the event was lower-key than in recent years: fewer spectators turned out to watch practice and qualifying, but the race itself was watched by a capacity crowd. The threat of a drivers' boycott over the terms of their 1995 FIA Super Licences, which allowed the FIA to demand promotional appearances and forbade the drivers from criticising the championship, was defused by the governing body prior to the race, ensuring full driver participation in the championship. Although the Super License issue was resolved with 14 teams and 28 drivers on the official 1995 entry list, the Larrousse team with drivers Éric Bernard and Christophe Bouchut did not make an appearance at the circuit for any of the on-track sessions. This was due to the team running short of money: in the period prior to the event, with French government aid not forthcoming and a 1995 chassis not yet built, team owner Gérard Larrousse elected to miss the first two rounds of the season in the hope of competing from the onwards. The construction of some of the cars was only just completed prior to the beginning of the season; the Footwork FA16 and Simtek S951 chassis arrived at the event with virtually no testing, having been completed shortly beforehand. Of the initial 1995 drivers, Pedro Diniz was the only "complete" , having not been officially entered in any other Formula One race meetings, while Andrea Montermini started his first race after failing to qualify for the 1994 Spanish Grand Prix due to injury. Mika Salo and Domenico Schiattarella had competed in two races, with Taki Inoue competing in one race the previous season. At the front of the field, Michael Schumacher and Damon Hill in the Benetton and Williams cars respectively were the favourites to battle for the Drivers' Championship, with Schumacher anticipating a "struggle" for the championship. Bernard Dudot, Renault Sport's Chief Engineer, said that he believed Benetton was less well-prepared than Williams, as the former team had changed its engine supplier to Renault, whereas Williams had been in partnership with the company since 1989. Hill arrived at the event with the psychological advantage of having set the fastest time at the final pre-season testing session at the Autódromo do Estoril, 0.35 seconds faster than Schumacher's best around the circuit. The Williams team had also completed 2,500 miles of testing with its FW17 chassis, significantly more than Benetton; the team had encountered some reliability problems with its own B195 chassis. Heading into the new season, attention also focused on the McLaren team and its driver Nigel Mansell. He was initially announced as the partner of Mika Häkkinen; however, a week before the first race, McLaren announced that Mansell would not compete in the first two races of the new season, as he could not fit into the MP4/10 car. Mansell's arrival at McLaren was due to demand from the team's sponsors, including Philip Morris, whose brand, Marlboro, was on the car, who wanted to enjoy the publicity associated with the 1992 World Champion's return even if it meant him performing worse than teammate Häkkinen. His place at McLaren for the first two races was taken by the team's test driver, Mark Blundell, as McLaren worked to build a wider monocoque to accommodate Mansell. McLaren were also concerned about the standard refuelling equipment provided for 1995 by suppliers Intertechnique, having suffered a major leak in a test of the new rig outside of its factory. Intertechnique had redesigned the fuel equipment, which was used by all of the teams, in the wake of a pit lane fire suffered by driver Jos Verstappen during the previous year's . The new fuel rigs, in addition to being half the size of the 1994, also featured longer nozzles, and were designed to lock onto the car before any fuel could begin to flow. Intertechnique traced the problem to a faulty valve within the equipment, which caused 10 kilograms (22 lb) of fuel to leak, and modified the parts accordingly. Intertechnique and the FIA advised the teams to refuel the cars slowly and carefully during pitstops to avoid any further leaks, a situation that was considered unsatisfactory by many of the team principals and mechanics. A new regulation for 1995 also mandated the teams' fuel suppliers to send samples of their fuel to the FIA prior to each Grand Prix, which the governing body would use as a reference when conducting fuel tests at the event itself. Thus only fuel approved by the FIA in advance was allowed; any deviations from the samples on file was not permitted. As before, all cars were subject to routine fuel tests as part of the scrutineering process throughout the weekend to ensure compliance with the sport's technical regulations. The rule change had been proposed by the Elf oil company in 1993 and unanimously supported by the other F1 suppliers in order to speed up the fuel-testing process. Controversy also surrounded the new Ligier JS41 car, with rival team owners comparing it to the Benetton B195 car because of their similar design, the only apparent difference being the engine in each car. The Ligier team was being run in 1995 by Tom Walkinshaw, who had been Benetton's Engineering Director the previous season. Commenting on the design similarities, Walkinshaw said: > Mechanically it [the JS41] is totally different [from the B195] and structurally it is quite different as well. Aerodynamically, it's as close as we can make it to being the same. I don't know how you would end up with anything else if you take a core of engineers who have been working on the Benetton. Of course the damn thing looks the same. But if you go into the detail of the car, there is nothing interchangeable. One of the rule revisions stated that the minimum weight limit of 595 kilograms (1,312 lb) applied to both car and driver together. Prior to the first session of the season, all of the drivers were weighed to establish a reference weight to be used on occasions when the two were weighed separately, or if the driver was unavailable to be weighed. As such, a small competitive advantage could be established if the driver attempted to register a weight as heavy as possible, so their actual weight when driving the car would be lower. Williams Technical Director Patrick Head estimated that a weight penalty of 7 kilograms (15 lb) could cost 14 seconds over the course of 70 laps of the circuit. In the drivers' weigh-in, Schumacher weighed in at 77 kilograms (170 lb), compared to 69 kilograms (152 lb) at the beginning of the 1994 season. Sauber driver Karl Wendlinger gained the most weight compared to 1994, gaining 22 pounds (10.0 kg). Wendlinger's teammate Frentzen and Tyrrell driver Ukyo Katayama added the least amount of weight, gaining 3 pounds (1.4 kg). When Schumacher was weighed after the race, his weight had decreased to 71.5 kilograms (158 lb), although this weight, when combined with that of his car, still left it above the limit, at 599 kilograms (1,321 lb). Schumacher explained the weight gain as a consequence of a fitness regime over the winter that had converted excess fat to muscle, and also admitted to eating and drinking heavily, in addition to refraining from using the toilet, prior to the weigh-in. ## Practice and qualifying Two practice sessions were held before the race; the first was held on Friday morning, with the second held on Saturday morning. Both were held in damp conditions due to overnight rain with the track drying towards the conclusion of the respective sessions. Both sessions lasted 1 hour and 45 minutes. Qualifying was split into two one-hour sessions; the first was held on Friday afternoon with the second held on Saturday afternoon. The fastest time from either of the two qualifying sessions counted towards their final grid position. In the first practice session, Hill was fastest with a time of 1:21.664, two thousands of a second ahead of teammate Coulthard. Schumacher was third, with the Ferrari cars of Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger, who had been the leading two for most of the session, close behind. Blundell in the McLaren was sixth, with teammate Häkkinen finishing the session in 14th position, the Finnish driver complaining of steering problems with the car. The two Ferrari drivers used different pedal layouts in the 412T2 chassis: Berger's car was equipped with two pedals and a hand-operated clutch, whereas Alesi preferred the traditional three-pedal system. Hill set a provisional pole position time of 1:20.081 during the first qualifying session, ahead of Berger, Coulthard, Alesi, Häkkinen and Schumacher. The session was disrupted after Schumacher crashed heavily into the tyre barrier at turn eight, a corner normally taken at a speed of 140 miles per hour (230 km/h). As a precaution, Benetton opted to keep Schumacher's teammate, Johnny Herbert, in the garage while the team found out what was wrong with the car. This meant that Herbert did not set a time in the session, while Schumacher completed only two of his twelve allotted laps. Speaking of the incident, Schumacher said that "there was a little movement in the steering wheel at the previous corner and at the next it went completely. I spun the car backwards into the tyre barrier and the safety structure behind my head did a good job of protecting me. For sure I am not very happy about this, but I believe that the team will spend a lot of time investigating the situation for tomorrow and they will find the problem." The problem was determined to be a steering failure, specifically a joint in the car's steering column. Replacement steering components were sourced from São Paulo by Benetton engineer Tim Wright, and the team did not encounter any problems over the remainder of the weekend. The second practice session was held in wet but drying weather conditions. During the session, Schumacher went off the track at the exit of turn five, damaging his car's front wing in the process. However, he still set the fastest time of the session (1:23.607) after a change to his car's ride height proved beneficial to its performance. The top six was completed by Berger, Hill, Häkkinen, Alesi, and Olivier Panis' Ligier. Schumacher also set the fastest time in the second qualifying session with a lap of 1:20.382, but it was not good enough to beat Hill's fastest time overall set in the first session. Hill made a set-up change that he turned out not to be happy with, but maintained his pole position, his first since the 1994 British Grand Prix. The Williams and Benetton formation continued on the second row, as Coulthard was third, with Herbert qualifying fourth after a late flying lap, equalling his best-ever qualifying position, achieved at the 1994 Italian Grand Prix for the Lotus team. However, a hole was punched in the bottom of Herbert's monocoque chassis during the session as a result of damage, leading to a night of repairs in order for him to be able to take the start in his designated race car. The work required to repair both Benetton cars caused Schumacher's race engineer, Pat Symonds, to describe the weekend as "one of the hardest [...] I can remember for many years". It also meant that three British drivers started in the top four, leading Hill to joke that "the English [sic] have got Michael surrounded". Behind the leading four, the two Ferrari cars were fifth and sixth, Berger qualifying in front of Alesi. Both were optimistic on their race prospects, despite the fact that the former suffered an engine failure during the session. The two McLaren cars of Häkkinen and Blundell were seventh and ninth, the two split by Eddie Irvine in a Jordan car. Irvine set his time despite spinning off during the session; his teammate Barrichello suffered the season's first engine failure during a timed session on Friday and then gearbox problems on Saturday, before also spinning off during that day's qualifying session, restricting him to a disappointing 16th position on the grid at his home race. Katayama and Salo proved evenly-matched for Tyrrell, qualifying in 11th and 12th respectively, behind Panis. The Minardi drivers were also close, with Pierluigi Martini and Luca Badoer taking 17th and 18th positions on the grid respectively, separated from the Tyrrell drivers by Gianni Morbidelli (Footwork), Frentzen, Aguri Suzuki (Ligier) and Barrichello. Wendlinger took 19th position, the Sauber cars handling particularly badly on the bumpy track, ahead of Bertrand Gachot and Montermini (both Pacific drivers), who sandwiched Inoue in the second Footwork. At the back of the grid, the two Forti and Simtek cars covered positions 23 to 26. Schiattarella, in a Simtek, was last out of the four positions, having caused one of the two red flags in qualifying, crashing on the exit of turn three at the beginning of the second qualifying session. The Simtek team's testing time was limited on Friday as the mandatory onboard fire extinguishers for its cars failed to arrive in time; a similar problem with the late arrival of parts affecting Martini's Minardi. The times in the second session were generally quicker, with only Hill, Badoer and Wendlinger setting their quickest lap times during the first session. ### Qualifying classification ## Warm-up The conditions for the race were dry, with a capacity crowd of some 40,000 fans turning out to watch the race. The drivers took to the track on Sunday morning for a 30-minute warm-up session. Both Williams cars maintained their good performance from qualifying; Coulthard was fastest with teammate Hill in second. Schumacher completed the top three positions. Herbert and Katayama both suffered from gearbox problems with their race cars, and elected to start the race with their teams' spare cars. The Simtek team did not take part in the session, as both drivers waited for stronger suspension components flown out from the United Kingdom to be fitted to the cars for the race. Minutes before the race started, a press release from the FIA was given to all media and team personnel, notifying them that the chromatographic analysis of the Elf fuel samples taken from Schumacher's Benetton and the Coulthard's Williams during qualifying did not match the sample provided by the fuel company before the start of the season for reference purposes, thus rendering both cars illegal. Both teams were fined \$30,000 and raced under appeal, as the standard penalty for the offence was disqualification from the event. Neither Schumacher nor Coulthard were informed of the situation, as the teams did not want to unsettle their drivers before the race start. Hill and Herbert's races were not affected by the judgement, despite using the same type of fuel. Samples from Ferrari's Agip and McLaren's Mobil fuel were also tested; both were in accordance with the regulations. Though 26 cars qualified for the race, only 25 took the start: Martini retired on the parade lap, his Minardi car suffering a gearbox problem. ## Race Hill had a bad start from pole position, allowing Schumacher to overtake him into turn one. Panis, who started from tenth position in a Ligier, spun at the first corner after a nudge from Katayama, hitting the wall in the process and retiring from the race. Herbert, racing the spare Benetton chassis, dropped three places by the end of lap one, dropping behind Häkkinen and the two Ferrari cars. Blundell also made a poor start, dropping to fourteenth position after his gearbox changed from first to third gear as he accelerated away from the grid. At the end of the first lap, the race order was Schumacher leading Hill, from Coulthard, Häkkinen, Berger, Alesi, Herbert, Irvine, Katayama and Salo, with the two Tyrrell drivers switching places on the next lap. At the start of lap three, Hill attempted to overtake Schumacher heading into turn five, but Schumacher closed the door on Hill. Hill lost the advantage for a moment, with teammate Coulthard drawing alongside, but unable to get past with Hill on the inside line into turn six. Henceforth, Schumacher and Hill began to gradually pull away from Coulthard, who realised that he could not match the pace of the leaders and settled into his own rhythm, albeit one that was still comfortably faster than the cars behind him. By lap five, Herbert had dropped down to tenth position, unhappy with the handling of the spare car and having been overtaken by Irvine, Salo and Katayama. On lap ten, Schumacher lapped last-placed Diniz for the first time; the presence of slower cars a constant factor for the front-runners thereafter. On the same lap Frentzen retired from 12th position with electrical failure. He was joined by Schiattarella two laps later after his Simtek car developed a steering problem. Irvine made a pit stop earlier than expected on lap fifteen, retiring from the race with a gearbox actuator problem. On the same lap, Katayama spun at the fourth corner, stalled his car in the process and retired from the race. The two retirements meant Herbert moved back up to eighth position. Alesi was the first of the leading drivers to make a scheduled pit stop on lap 17, rejoining the track in eleventh place. Barrichello, Irvine's teammate, retired a lap later, driving into the pit lane slowly with a gearbox problem. On the same lap, Verstappen retired his Simtek car with a clutch problem. The Benetton and Williams teams were employing different pit stop strategies – the Benetton team were planning a three stop strategy whereas the Williams team were only planning for two stops. Schumacher made a pit stop on lap 18, but was momentarily baulked by the slowing Jordan car of Barrichello as he was entering the pitlane. Schumacher exited the stop behind Berger, but overtook the Austrian driver at the beginning of the next lap. Hill, who had remained close behind Schumacher before the German made a pit stop, made his own stop on lap 21, exiting the pitlane in front of Schumacher. Coulthard took the lead of the race for one lap, before pitting and dropping behind the two leaders and the yet-to-stop Häkkinen and Berger. Häkkinen and Berger were the final drivers of the leading teams to pit, however, the McLaren mechanics had trouble getting the fuel hose off the Finn's car when he stopped on lap 23, losing him ten seconds. Several other teams experienced problems with attaching and detaching the refuelling nozzles, and occasional small sprays of fuel were observed, reinforcing the problem experienced by McLaren with the equipment before the race meeting. Berger, adopting a strategy of pitting late, was the only driver not to have stopped by lap 24 and thus was third, with Hill, Schumacher, Coulthard, Alesi and Salo the other drivers in the top six places. Salo's stop had been faultless, gaining him significant time on those drivers who had been running in front of him. By this stage Gachot had retired his Pacific car after it got stuck in fifth gear. Berger made his stop on lap 27, but had problems leaving the pit lane after a communication problem between him and his mechanics nearly led to him leaving the pit lane with a loose wheel nut on the front right-hand wheel. The pit "lollipop", signalling the driver when to leave, was raised and lowered again in quick succession, preventing Berger from leaving until the wheel nut was sufficiently tightened. The miscommunication cost Berger 13 seconds, dropping him back to seventh position. Alesi fell behind Salo and Häkkinen after the first set of pit stops, Salo overtaking him on lap 25, with Häkkinen moving past three laps later as Alesi was held up behind the lapped Montermini. Once in front of Schumacher, Hill was able to gradually extend his lead to 3.4 seconds by lap 30 despite carrying a heavier fuel load for one fewer planned pit stop. However, he lost second gear during the course of that lap, and then spun off at turn two on lap 31, retiring from the race with a suspected gearbox seizure. On the same lap, Herbert also retired from the race after suffering damage in a collision with Suzuki, who himself had to make an unscheduled pit stop to replace his car's damaged nosecone. Schumacher thus assumed the lead as a result of Hill's retirement, leading by 11.5 seconds from Coulthard. Salo was third in the remaining Tyrrell, 39.4 seconds behind Coulthard. Häkkinen and the two Ferrari cars completed the top six positions. Schumacher made his second pit stop on lap 37, exiting in second position behind Coulthard. Salo and Häkkinen, both performing much better than had been expected prior to the race, battled over third position until lap 39, when Salo, suffering from cramp and driving with one hand, spun at the final bend. He made a pit stop soon after for fresh tyres, dropping to eighth position. Häkkinen, having moved up to third, made his second stop on lap 43, exiting behind the two Ferrari cars, Berger moving in front of Alesi as the latter made his stop on the following lap, rejoining in seventh. Coulthard made a pit stop from the lead on lap 47, the gap between him and Schumacher not big enough to allow him to maintain the lead. Schumacher set the fastest lap of the race, 1:30.921, extending his lead to such an extent that when he made his own final stop on lap 52, he maintained the lead. After his final stop, Schumacher gradually opened his leading margin 11 seconds, winning the race after 71 laps in a time of 1:48:49.972s, with Coulthard finishing second in his Williams. The Ferrari cars of Berger – who made his final stop on lap 49 without losing a place – and Alesi were third and fifth respectively, but off the pace as Schumacher lapped them both in the closing stages. Häkkinen, despite losing part of his rear wing after his car was struck by a bird, split them both to take fourth position. In the closing stages, Morbidelli and Blundell both overtook Salo, only for the Footwork driver to retire on lap 62 with a blocked fuel line. Blundell, who had earlier changed his steering wheel and was driving without the use of third gear, thus took the final point in sixth place, ahead of Salo, Suzuki, Montermini – who completed the race distance despite struggling with a broken floor on his chassis, taking the Pacific team's first race finish – and Diniz. The race saw a high attrition rate; only ten out of the 25 starters finished the race. Of the other late retirements, Wendlinger suffered a broken battery cable on lap 41, Roberto Moreno and Badoer retired on lap 47 due to a spin and gearbox problem respectively, and Inoue's car caught fire on lap 48. The Japanese driver was in any case due to receive the black flag for receiving an illegal push-start from the marshals following a spin on the circuit. ## Post-race Moments after his spin, Hill was interviewed by the BBC, revealing that his spin was due to a gearbox problem; the Williams car losing second gear before apparently seizing completely. Hill also said that he was "very, very disappointed" with the result, and that "we could have beaten him [Schumacher] today". Further post-race analysis conducted by the Williams team, however, found that the problem was actually a broken left-rear suspension pushrod. Schumacher felt lucky to win the race, conceding that "Damon was a little bit quicker than me...he ended up going off and that's racing, but I don't think I could have caught him." He also believed that his good start was fortunate, as it was the first one he had made in the new Benetton car; the team had not practised starts previously due to being short of time. He also specified his evasion of Barrichello's slowing car in the pit-lane entry while making his first stop as a crucial moment of the race. Coulthard admitted that he had been affected by his tonsillitis: "I wasn't able to match Michael and Damon's pace so I settled for running my own race". Berger, meanwhile, was frustrated to finish a lap down on Schumacher, saying that "He was faster everywhere: down the straights, going in and out of the corners. What can you do in these conditions? Okay, the car's roadholding is not bad. We must work very hard now. But at least I finished, that's something." After the Grand Prix, Schumacher's Benetton and Coulthard's Williams cars were from the race classification as a result of the illegal fuel sample "fingerprints", and Berger declared the new victor. Further samples of both cars' fuel were taken after the race; these also did not match the specified sample. Patrick Head was surprised by this outcome as he believed that "there was no question of disqualification until the fuel samples had been returned to Europe for further analysis". In addition to Benetton and Williams, fuel samples were taken from the Ferrari (Agip) and McLaren (Mobil) cars during the event, all of which were declared legal after FIA analysis. After an appeal was made by the two teams, the drivers were reinstated into the race classification at the hearing on April 13 (after the had taken place); however, the teams did not receive Constructors' points. The two teams were fined a further \$200,000 during the hearing. It was generally agreed that the illegal fuel did not offer a performance advantage or break any of the regulations relating to chemical composition, only that it did not precisely match the sample that had previously been lodged with the FIA. Niki Lauda, an advisor to Ferrari, was not happy with the decision made at the appeal: > I cannot separate car and driver completely. If this is a new rule, you can build an illegal car and let the team pay for victory. The whole thing is only commercial and has nothing to do with sport any more. It's like scoring a half-goal in soccer – it is not possible. Either you score a goal or not. The decision for me is the biggest defeat for the FIA, who cannot govern the sport any longer. Berger also commented on the situation, saying "I no longer understand anything. Formula One has become a joke." In the lead-up to the San Marino Grand Prix, Schumacher was quoted saying that Berger should "concentrate on racing instead of thinking how he can criticise me. I have never understood how someone can celebrate a victory like that [Brazil] one lap down and winning after someone else has been disqualified." Berger responded to Schumacher's comments by saying: > I never criticised Schumacher. I only criticised the decision [to reinstate him]. I can live with Schumacher being angry. I was declared the winner by the FIA Stewards so I have every reason to open the champagne. Max Mosley, the president of the FIA, also responded to Schumacher's comments saying that his comments "reflect poorly on the sport and show a lack of adult attitude". Mosley also commented on the weight issue surrounding Schumacher saying that "it is a pity that it became a matter for public discussion, whether he drank a huge amount of water, didn't go to the loo or had a heavy helmet. It is just a pity he didn't take care that it didn't happen". Elf was also unhappy with the way in which the episode had been handled, the company's Commercial Director Michel Bonnet declaring that "We believe the FIA acted in a high-handed manner in disqualifying our two cars so quickly. It should have declared the results provisional and waited for the results of further analysis. Acting the way it did, the FIA has affected the image of large industrial companies, of top F1 teams and of famous drivers. The fact that we have been treated as cheats by a red team – probably red with embarrassment at having finished one lap behind our cars – and by Gerhard Berger is a serious slur against us." Elf also threatened to take the matter to a tribunal if the cars were not reinstated. Company representative Valerie Jorquera also highlighted the need for a consistent chromatographic analysis of fuel samples, drawing attention to the fact that the samples provided during the event had been analysed by a different company than the reference sample, and that the differences may have been caused by the use of different analytical machines and methods. The incident was seen as unfortunate for the sport, which was trying to make a fresh start after several controversies the previous year. From the San Marino Grand Prix onwards, an FIA mobile fuel laboratory accompanied the teams to each event to permit more detailed testing at the track, in addition to ensuring consistency between events. ### Race classification ## Championship standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Constructors' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for the Drivers' standings. Only top two included for the Constructors' standings as only two teams had scored points. Benetton and Williams did not receive Constructors' points at this race.

Apollo 1

Planned United States spaceflight destroyed by accidental fire (1967)

Apollo 1, initially designated AS-204, was planned to be the first crewed mission of the Apollo program, the American undertaking to land the first man on the Moon. It was planned to launch on February 21, 1967, as the first low Earth orbital test of the Apollo command and service module. The mission never flew; a cabin fire during a launch rehearsal test at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on January 27 killed all three crew members—Command Pilot Gus Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee—and destroyed the command module (CM). The name Apollo 1, chosen by the crew, was made official by NASA in their honor after the fire. Immediately after the fire, NASA convened an Accident Review Board to determine the cause of the fire, and both chambers of the United States Congress conducted their own committee inquiries to oversee NASA's investigation. The ignition source of the fire was determined to be electrical, and the fire spread rapidly due to combustible nylon material and the high-pressure pure oxygen cabin atmosphere. Rescue was prevented by the plug door hatch, which could not be opened against the internal pressure of the cabin. Because the rocket was unfueled, the test had not been considered hazardous, and emergency preparedness for it was poor. During the Congressional investigation, Senator Walter Mondale publicly revealed a NASA internal document citing problems with prime Apollo contractor North American Aviation, which became known as the Phillips Report. This disclosure embarrassed NASA Administrator James E. Webb, who was unaware of the document's existence, and attracted controversy to the Apollo program. Despite congressional displeasure at NASA's lack of openness, both congressional committees ruled that the issues raised in the report had no bearing on the accident. Crewed Apollo flights were suspended for twenty months while the command module's hazards were addressed. However, the development and uncrewed testing of the lunar module (LM) and Saturn V rocket continued. The Saturn IB launch vehicle for Apollo 1, SA-204, was used for the first LM test flight, Apollo 5. The first successful crewed Apollo mission was flown by Apollo 1's backup crew on Apollo 7 in October 1968. ## Crew ### First backup crew (April–December 1966) ### Second backup crew (December 1966 – January 1967) ## Apollo crewed test flight plans AS-204 was to be the first crewed test flight of the Apollo command and service module (CSM) to Earth orbit, launched on a Saturn IB rocket. AS-204 was to test launch operations, ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the Apollo-Saturn launch assembly and would have lasted up to two weeks, depending on how the spacecraft performed. The CSM for this flight, number 012 built by North American Aviation (NAA), was a Block I version designed before the lunar orbit rendezvous landing strategy was chosen; therefore it lacked the capability of docking with the lunar module. This was incorporated into the Block II CSM design, along with lessons learned in Block I. Block II would be test-flown with the LM when the latter was ready. Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC-135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee, and NASA announced the crew selection on March 21, 1966. James McDivitt, David Scott and Russell Schweickart were named as the backup crew. On September 29, Walter Schirra, Eisele, and Walter Cunningham were named as the prime crew for a second Block I CSM flight, AS-205. NASA planned to follow this with an uncrewed test flight of the LM (AS-206), then the third crewed mission would be a dual flight designated AS-278 (or AS-207/208), in which AS-207 would launch the first crewed Block II CSM, which would then rendezvous and dock with the LM launched uncrewed on AS-208. In March, NASA was studying the possibility of flying the first Apollo mission as a joint space rendezvous with the final Project Gemini mission, Gemini 12 in November 1966. But by May, delays in making Apollo ready for flight just by itself, and the extra time needed to incorporate compatibility with the Gemini, made that impractical. This became moot when slippage in readiness of the AS-204 spacecraft caused the last-quarter 1966 target date to be missed, and the mission was rescheduled for February 21, 1967. ## Mission background In October 1966, NASA announced the flight would carry a small television camera to broadcast live from the command module. The camera would also be used to allow flight controllers to monitor the spacecraft's instrument panel in flight. Television cameras were carried aboard all crewed Apollo missions. ### Insignia Grissom's crew received approval in June 1966 to design a mission patch with the name Apollo 1 (though the approval was subsequently withdrawn pending a final decision on the mission designation, which was not resolved until after the fire). The design's center depicts a command and service module flying over the southeastern United States with Florida (the launch point) prominent. The Moon is seen in the distance, symbolic of the eventual program goal. A yellow border carries the mission and astronaut names with another border set with stars and stripes, trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by the crew, with the artwork done by North American Aviation employee Allen Stevens. ### Spacecraft and crew preparation The Apollo command and service module was much bigger and far more complex than any previous crewed spacecraft. In October 1963, Joseph F. Shea was named Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) manager, responsible for managing the design and construction of both the CSM and the LM. In a spacecraft review meeting held with Shea on August 19, 1966 (a week before delivery), the crew expressed concern about the amount of flammable material (mainly nylon netting and Velcro) in the cabin, which both astronauts and technicians found convenient for holding tools and equipment in place. Although Shea gave the spacecraft a passing grade, after the meeting they gave him a crew portrait they had posed with heads bowed and hands clasped in prayer, with the inscription: > It isn't that we don't trust you, Joe, but this time we've decided to go over your head. Shea gave his staff orders to tell North American to remove the flammables from the cabin, but did not supervise the issue personally. North American shipped spacecraft CM-012 to Kennedy Space Center on August 26, 1966, under a conditional Certificate of Flight Worthiness: 113 significant incomplete planned engineering changes had to be completed at KSC. That was not all; an additional 623 engineering change orders were made and completed after delivery. Grissom became so frustrated with the inability of the training simulator engineers to keep up with the spacecraft changes that he took a lemon from a tree by his house and hung it on the simulator. The command and service modules were mated in the KSC altitude chamber in September, and combined system testing was performed. Altitude testing was performed first uncrewed, then with both the prime and backup crews, from October 10 through December 30. During this testing, the environmental control unit in the command module was found to have a design flaw, and was sent back to the manufacturer for design changes and rework. The returned ECU then leaked water/glycol coolant, and had to be returned a second time. Also during this time, a propellant tank in another service module had ruptured during testing at NAA, prompting the removal from the KSC test chamber of the service module so it could be tested for signs of the tank problem. These tests were negative. In December the second Block I flight AS-205 was canceled as unnecessary; Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the backup crew for Apollo 1. McDivitt's crew was now promoted to prime crew of the Block II/LM mission, re-designated AS-258 because the AS-205 launch vehicle would be used in place of AS-207. A third crewed mission was planned to launch the CSM and LM together on a Saturn V (AS-503) to an elliptical medium Earth orbit (MEO), to be crewed by Frank Borman, Michael Collins and William Anders. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart had started their training for AS-258 in CM-101 at the NAA plant in Downey, California, when the Apollo 1 accident occurred. Once all outstanding CSM-012 hardware problems had been fixed, the reassembled spacecraft completed a successful altitude chamber test with Schirra's backup crew on December 30. According to the final report of the accident investigation board, "At the post-test debriefing the backup flight crew expressed their satisfaction with the condition and performance of the spacecraft." This would appear to contradict the account given in the 1994 book Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 by Jeffrey Kluger and astronaut James Lovell, that "When the trio climbed out of the ship, ... Schirra made it clear that he was not pleased with what he had seen," and that he later warned Grissom and Shea that "there's nothing wrong with this ship that I can point to, but it just makes me uncomfortable. Something about it just doesn't ring right," and that Grissom should get out at the first sign of trouble. After the successful altitude tests, the spacecraft was removed from the altitude chamber on January 3, 1967, and mated to its Saturn IB launch vehicle on pad 34 on January 6. Grissom said in a February 1963 interview that NASA could not eliminate risk despite precautions: > An awful lot of people have devoted more effort than I can describe to [make] Project Mercury and its successors, as safe as humanly possible ... But we also recognize that there remains a great deal of risk, especially in initial operations, regardless of planning. You just can't forecast all the things that could happen, or when they could happen. "I suppose that someday we are going to have a failure. In every other business there are failures, and they are bound to happen sooner or later", he added. Grissom was asked about the fear of potential catastrophe in a December 1966 interview: > You sort of have to put that out of your mind. There's always a possibility that you can have a catastrophic failure, of course; this can happen on any flight; it can happen on the last one as well as the first one. So, you just plan as best you can to take care of all these eventualities, and you get a well-trained crew and you go fly. ## Accident ### Plugs-out test The launch simulation on January 27, 1967, on pad 34, was a "plugs-out" test to determine whether the spacecraft would operate nominally on (simulated) internal power while detached from all cables and umbilicals. Passing this test was essential to making the February 21 launch date. The test was considered non-hazardous because neither the launch vehicle nor the spacecraft was loaded with fuel or cryogenics and all pyrotechnic systems (explosive bolts) were disabled. At 1:00 pm EST (1800 GMT) on January 27, first Grissom, then Chaffee, and White entered the command module fully pressure-suited, and were strapped into their seats and hooked up to the spacecraft's oxygen and communication systems. Grissom immediately noticed a strange odor in the air circulating through his suit which he compared to "sour buttermilk", and the simulated countdown was put on hold at 1:20 pm, while air samples were taken. No cause of the odor could be found, and the countdown was resumed at 2:42 pm. The accident investigation found this odor not to be related to the fire. Three minutes after the count was resumed the hatch installation was started. The hatch consisted of three parts: a removable inner hatch which stayed inside the cabin; a hinged outer hatch which was part of the spacecraft's heat shield; and an outer hatch cover which was part of the boost protective cover enveloping the entire command module to protect it from aerodynamic heating during launch and from launch escape rocket exhaust in the event of a launch abort. The boost hatch cover was partially, but not fully, latched in place because the flexible boost protective cover was slightly distorted by some cabling run under it to provide the simulated internal power (the spacecraft's fuel cell reactants were not loaded for this test). After the hatches were sealed, the air in the cabin was replaced with pure oxygen at 16.7 psi (115 kPa), 2 psi (14 kPa) higher than atmospheric pressure. Movement by the astronauts was detected by the spacecraft's inertial measurement unit and the astronauts' biomedical sensors, and also indicated by increases in oxygen spacesuit flow, and sounds from Grissom's stuck-open microphone. The stuck microphone was part of a problem with the communications loop connecting the crew, the Operations and Checkout Building, and the Complex 34 blockhouse control room. The poor communications led Grissom to remark: "How are we going to get to the Moon if we can't talk between two or three buildings?" The simulated countdown was put on hold again at 5:40 pm while attempts were made to troubleshoot the communications problem. All countdown functions up to the simulated internal power transfer had been successfully completed by 6:20 pm, and at 6:30 the count remained on hold at T minus 10 minutes. ### Fire The crew members were using the time to run through their checklist again, when a momentary increase in AC Bus 2 voltage occurred. Nine seconds later (at 6:31:04.7), one of the astronauts (some listeners and laboratory analysis indicate Grissom) exclaimed "Hey!", "Fire!", or "Flame!"; this was followed by two seconds of scuffling sounds through Grissom's open microphone. This was immediately followed at 6:31:06.2 (23:31:06.2 GMT) by someone (believed by most listeners, and supported by laboratory analysis, to be Chaffee) saying, "[I've, or We've] got a fire in the cockpit." After 6.8 seconds of silence, a second, badly garbled transmission was heard by various listeners as: - "They're fighting a bad fire—Let's get out ... Open 'er up", - "We've got a bad fire—Let's get out ... We're burning up", or - "I'm reporting a bad fire ... I'm getting out ..." The transmission lasted 5.0 seconds and ended with a cry of pain. Some blockhouse witnesses said that they saw White on the television monitors, reaching for the inner hatch release handle as flames in the cabin spread from left to right. The heat of the fire fed by pure oxygen caused the pressure to rise to 29 psi (200 kPa), which ruptured the command module's inner wall at 6:31:19 (23:31:19 GMT, initial phase of the fire). Flames and gases then rushed outside the command module through open access panels to two levels of the pad service structure. The intense heat, dense smoke, and ineffective gas masks designed for toxic fumes rather than smoke, hampered the ground crew's attempts to rescue the men. There were fears the command module had exploded, or soon would, and that the fire might ignite the solid fuel rocket in the launch escape tower above the command module, which would have likely killed nearby ground personnel, and possibly have destroyed the pad. As the pressure was released by the cabin rupture, the rush of gases within the module caused flames to spread across the cabin, beginning the second phase. The third phase began when most of the oxygen was consumed and was replaced with atmospheric air, essentially quenching the fire, but causing high concentrations of carbon monoxide and heavy smoke to fill the cabin, and large amounts of soot to be deposited on surfaces as they cooled. It took five minutes for the pad workers to open all three hatch layers, and they could not drop the inner hatch to the cabin floor as intended, so they pushed it out of the way to one side. Although the cabin lights remained on, they were unable to see the astronauts through the dense smoke. As the smoke cleared they found the bodies, but were not able to remove them. The fire had partly melted Grissom's and White's nylon space suits and the hoses connecting them to the life support system. Grissom had removed his restraints and was lying on the floor of the spacecraft. White's restraints were burned through, and he was found lying sideways just below the hatch. It was determined that he had tried to open the hatch per the emergency procedure, but was not able to do so against the internal pressure. Chaffee was found strapped into his right-hand seat, as procedure called for him to maintain communication until White opened the hatch. Because of the large strands of melted nylon fusing the astronauts to the cabin interior, removing the bodies took nearly 90 minutes. Deke Slayton was possibly the first NASA official to examine the spacecraft's interior. His testimony contradicted the official report concerning the position of Grissom's body. Slayton said of Grissom and White's bodies, "it is very difficult for me to determine the exact relationships of these two bodies. They were sort of jumbled together, and I couldn't really tell which head even belonged to which body at that point. I guess the only thing that was real obvious is that both bodies were at the lower edge of the hatch. They were not in the seats. They were almost completely clear of the seat areas." ## Investigation As a result of the in-flight failure of the Gemini 8 mission on March 17, 1966, NASA Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans wrote and implemented Management Instruction 8621.1 on April 14, 1966, defining Mission Failure Investigation Policy And Procedures. This modified NASA's existing accident procedures, based on military aircraft accident investigation, by giving the Deputy Administrator the option of performing independent investigations of major failures, beyond those for which the various Program Office officials were normally responsible. It declared, "It is NASA policy to investigate and document the causes of all major mission failures which occur in the conduct of its space and aeronautical activities and to take appropriate corrective actions as a result of the findings and recommendations." Immediately after the fire NASA Administrator James E. Webb asked President Lyndon B. Johnson to allow NASA to handle the investigation according to its established procedure, promising to be truthful in assessing blame, and to keep the appropriate leaders of Congress informed. Seamans then directed establishment of the Apollo 204 Review Board chaired by Langley Research Center director Floyd L. Thompson, which included astronaut Frank Borman, spacecraft designer Maxime Faget, and six others. On February 1, Cornell University professor Frank A. Long left the board, and was replaced by Robert W. Van Dolah of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The next day North American's chief engineer for Apollo, George Jeffs, also left. Seamans ordered all Apollo 1 hardware and software impounded, to be released only under control of the board. After thorough stereo photographic documentation of the CM-012 interior, the board ordered its disassembly using procedures tested by disassembling the identical CM-014 and conducted a thorough investigation of every part. The board also reviewed the astronauts' autopsy results and interviewed witnesses. Seamans sent Webb weekly status reports of the investigation's progress, and the board issued its final report on April 5, 1967. ### Cause of death According to the Board, Grissom suffered severe third-degree burns on over one-third of his body and his spacesuit was mostly destroyed. White suffered third-degree burns on almost half of his body and a quarter of his spacesuit had melted away. Chaffee suffered third-degree burns over almost a quarter of his body and a small portion of his spacesuit was damaged. The autopsy report determined that the primary cause of death for all three astronauts was cardiac arrest caused by high concentrations of carbon monoxide. Burns suffered by the crew were not believed to be major factors, and it was concluded that most of them had occurred postmortem. Asphyxiation occurred after the fire melted the astronauts' suits and oxygen tubes, exposing them to the lethal atmosphere of the cabin. ### Major causes of accident The review board identified several major factors which combined to cause the fire and the astronauts' deaths: - An ignition source most probably related to "vulnerable wiring carrying spacecraft power" and "vulnerable plumbing carrying a combustible and corrosive coolant" - A pure oxygen atmosphere at higher than atmospheric pressure - A cabin sealed with a hatch cover which could not be quickly removed at high pressure - An extensive distribution of combustible materials in the cabin - Inadequate emergency preparedness (rescue or medical assistance, and crew escape) #### Ignition source The review board determined that the electrical power momentarily failed at 23:30:55 GMT, and found evidence of several electric arcs in the interior equipment. They were unable to conclusively identify a single ignition source. They determined that the fire most likely started near the floor in the lower left section of the cabin, close to the Environmental Control Unit. It spread from the left wall of the cabin to the right, with the floor being affected only briefly. The board noted that a silver-plated copper wire, running through an environmental control unit near the center couch, had become stripped of its Teflon insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of a small access door. This weak point in the wiring also ran near a junction in an ethylene glycol/water cooling line that had been prone to leaks. Electrolysis of ethylene glycol solution with the silver anode of the wire was discovered at the Manned Spacecraft Center on May 29, 1967, to be a hazard capable of causing a violent exothermic reaction, igniting the ethylene glycol mixture in the Command Module's pure oxygen atmosphere. Experiments at the Illinois Institute of Technology confirmed the hazard existed for silver-plated wires, but not for copper-only or nickel-plated copper. In July, ASPO directed both North American and Grumman to ensure no silver or silver-coated electrical contacts existed in the vicinity of possible glycol spills in the Apollo spacecraft. #### Pure oxygen atmosphere The plugs-out test had been run to simulate the launch procedure, with the cabin pressurized with pure oxygen at the nominal launch level of 16.7 psi (115 kPa), 2 psi (14 kPa) above standard sea level atmospheric pressure. This is more than five times the 3 psi (21 kPa) partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, and provides an environment in which materials not normally considered flammable will be highly flammable and burst into flame. The high-pressure oxygen atmosphere was similar to that which had been used successfully in the Mercury and Gemini programs. The pressure before launch was deliberately greater than ambient in order to drive out the nitrogen-containing air and replace it with pure oxygen, and also to seal the plug door hatch cover. During the launch, the pressure would have been gradually reduced to the in-flight level of 5 psi (34 kPa), providing sufficient oxygen for the astronauts to breathe while reducing the fire risk. The Apollo 1 crew had successfully tested this procedure with their spacecraft in the Operations and Checkout Building altitude (vacuum) chamber on October 18 and 19, 1966, and the backup crew of Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham had repeated it on December 30. The investigation board noted that, during these tests, the command module had been fully pressurized with pure oxygen four times, for a total of six hours and fifteen minutes, two and a half hours longer than it had been during the plugs-out test. #### Flammable materials in the cabin The review board cited "many types and classes of combustible material" close to ignition sources. The NASA crew systems department had installed 34 square feet (3.2 m²) of Velcro throughout the spacecraft, almost like carpeting. This Velcro was found to be flammable in a high-pressure 100% oxygen environment. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin states in his book Men From Earth that the flammable material had been removed per the crew's August 19 complaints and Joseph Shea's order, but was replaced before the August 26 delivery to Cape Kennedy. #### Hatch design The inner hatch cover used a plug door design, sealed by higher pressure inside the cabin than outside. The normal pressure level used for launch (2 psi (14 kPa) above ambient) created sufficient force to prevent removing the cover until the excess pressure was vented. Emergency procedure called for Grissom to open the cabin vent valve first, allowing White to remove the cover, but Grissom was prevented from doing this because the valve was located to the left, behind the initial wall of flames. Also, while the system could easily vent the normal pressure, its flow capacity was utterly incapable of handling the rapid increase to 29 psi (200 kPa) caused by the intense heat of the fire. North American had originally suggested the hatch open outward and use explosive bolts to blow the hatch in case of emergency, as had been done in Project Mercury. NASA did not agree, arguing the hatch could accidentally open, as it had on Grissom's Liberty Bell 7 flight, so the Manned Spacecraft Center designers rejected the explosive design in favor of a mechanically operated one for the Gemini and Apollo programs. Before the fire, the Apollo astronauts had recommended changing the design to an outward-opening hatch, and this was already slated for inclusion in the Block II command module design. According to Donald K. Slayton's testimony before the House investigation of the accident, this was based on ease of exit for spacewalks and at the end of flight, rather than for emergency exit. #### Emergency preparedness The board noted that the test planners had failed to identify the test as hazardous; emergency equipment (such as gas masks) were inadequate to handle this type of fire; that fire, rescue, and medical teams were not in attendance; and that the spacecraft work and access areas contained many hindrances to emergency response such as steps, sliding doors, and sharp turns. ## Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere When designing the Mercury spacecraft, NASA had considered using a nitrogen/oxygen mixture to reduce the fire risk near launch, but rejected it based on a number of considerations. First, a pure oxygen atmosphere is comfortably breathable by humans at 5 psi (34 kPa), greatly reducing the pressure load on the spacecraft in the vacuum of space. Second, nitrogen used with the in-flight pressure reduction carried the risk of decompression sickness (known as "the bends"). But the decision to eliminate the use of any gas but oxygen was crystalized when a serious accident occurred on April 21, 1960, in which McDonnell Aircraft test pilot G. B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin / spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber. The problem was found to be nitrogen-rich (oxygen-poor) air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed. North American Aviation had suggested using an oxygen/nitrogen mixture for Apollo, but NASA overruled this. The pure oxygen design was judged to be safer, less complicated, and lighter in weight. In his monograph Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions, Deputy Administrator Seamans wrote that NASA's worst mistake in engineering judgment was not running a fire test on the command module before the plugs-out test. In the first episode of the 2009 BBC documentary series NASA: Triumph and Tragedy, Jim McDivitt said that NASA had no idea how a 100% oxygen atmosphere would influence burning. Similar remarks by other astronauts were expressed in the 2007 documentary film In the Shadow of the Moon. ### Other oxygen incidents Several fires in high-oxygen test environments had occurred before the Apollo fire. In 1962, USAF Colonel B. Dean Smith was conducting a test of the Gemini space suit with a colleague in a pure oxygen chamber at Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, when a fire broke out, destroying the chamber. Smith and his partner narrowly escaped. On November 17, 1962, a fire broke out in a chamber at the Navy's Air Crew Equipment Laboratory during a pure oxygen test. The fire was started because a faulty ground wire arced onto nearby insulation. After attempts to extinguish the fire by smothering it, the crew escaped the chamber with minor burns across large parts of their bodies. On February 16, 1965, United States Navy Divers Fred Jackson and John Youmans were killed in a decompression chamber fire at the Experimental Diving Unit in Washington, D.C., shortly after additional oxygen was added to the chamber's atmospheric mix. In addition to fires with personnel present, the Apollo Environmental Control System experienced several accidents from 1964 to 1966 due to various hardware malfunctions. Notable is the April 28, 1966 fire, as the subsequent investigation found that several new measures should be taken to avoid fires, including improved selection of materials and that ESC and Command Module circuits have a potential for arcing or short circuits. Other oxygen fire occurrences are documented in reports archived in the National Air and Space Museum, such as: - Selection of Space Cabin Atmospheres. Part II: Fire and Blast Hazaards [sic] in Space Cabins. (Emanuel M. Roth; Dept of Aeronautics Medicine and Bioastronautics, Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research. c. 1964–1966) - "Fire Prevention in Manned Spacecraft and Test Chamber Oxygen Atmospheres". (Manned Spacecraft Center. NASA General Working Paper 10 063. October 10, 1966) Incidents had also occurred in the Soviet space program, but due to the Soviet government's policy of secrecy, these were not disclosed until well after the Apollo 1 fire. Cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko died on March 23, 1961, from burns sustained in a fire while participating in a 15-day endurance experiment in a high-oxygen isolation chamber, less than three weeks before the first Vostok crewed space flight; this was disclosed on January 28, 1986. During the Voskhod 2 mission in March 1965, cosmonauts Pavel Belyayev and Alexei Leonov could not completely seal the spacecraft hatch after Leonov's historic first walk in space. The spacecraft's environmental control system responded to the leaking air by adding more oxygen to the cabin, causing the concentration level to rise as high as 45%. The crew and ground controllers worried about the possibility of fire, remembering Bondarenko's death four years earlier. On January 31, 1967, four days after the Apollo 1 fire, United States Air Force airmen William F. Bartley Jr. and Richard G. Harmon were killed in a flash fire while tending laboratory rabbits in the Two Man Space Environment Simulator, a pure oxygen chamber at the School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air Force Base. Like the Apollo 1 fire, the School fire was caused by an electrical spark in a pure oxygen environment. The widows of the Apollo 1 crew sent condolence letters to Bartley and Harmon's families. ## Political fallout Committees in both houses of the United States Congress with oversight of the space program soon launched investigations, including the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, chaired by Senator Clinton P. Anderson. Seamans, Webb, Manned Space Flight Administrator Dr. George E. Mueller, and Apollo Program Director Maj Gen Samuel C. Phillips were called to testify before Anderson's committee. In the February 27 hearing, Senator Walter F. Mondale asked Webb if he knew of a report of extraordinary problems with the performance of North American Aviation on the Apollo contract. Webb replied he did not, and deferred to his subordinates on the witness panel. Mueller and Phillips responded they too were unaware of any such "report". However, in late 1965, just over a year before the accident, Phillips had headed a "tiger team" investigating the causes of inadequate quality, schedule delays, and cost overruns in both the Apollo CSM and the Saturn V second stage (for which North American was also prime contractor). He gave an oral presentation (with transparencies) of his team's findings to Mueller and Seamans, and also presented them in a memo to North American president John L. Atwood, to which Mueller appended his own strongly worded memo to Atwood. During Mondale's 1967 questioning about what was to become known as the "Phillips Report", Seamans was afraid Mondale might actually have seen a hard copy of Phillips' presentation, and responded that contractors have occasionally been subjected to on-site progress reviews; perhaps this was what Mondale's information referred to. Mondale continued to refer to "the Report" despite Phillips' refusal to characterize it as such, and, angered by what he perceived as Webb's deception and concealment of important program problems from Congress, he questioned NASA's selection of North American as prime contractor. Seamans later wrote that Webb roundly chastised him in the cab ride leaving the hearing, for volunteering information which led to the disclosure of Phillips' memo. On May 11, Webb issued a statement defending NASA's November 1961 selection of North American as the prime contractor for Apollo. This was followed on June 9 by Seamans filing a seven-page memorandum documenting the selection process. Webb eventually provided a controlled copy of Phillips' memo to Congress. The Senate committee noted in its final report NASA's testimony that "the findings of the [Phillips] task force had no effect on the accident, did not lead to the accident, and were not related to the accident", but stated in its recommendations: > Notwithstanding that in NASA's judgment the contractor later made significant progress in overcoming the problems, the committee believes it should have been informed of the situation. The committee does not object to the position of the Administrator of NASA, that all details of Government/contractor relationships should not be put in the public domain. However, that position in no way can be used as an argument for not bringing this or other serious situations to the attention of the committee. Freshman Senators Edward W. Brooke III and Charles H. Percy jointly wrote an Additional Views section appended to the committee report, chastising NASA more strongly than Anderson for not having disclosed the Phillips review to Congress. Mondale wrote his own, even more strongly worded Additional View, accusing NASA of "evasiveness, ... lack of candor, ... patronizing attitude toward Congress ... refusal to respond fully and forthrightly to legitimate Congressional inquiries, and ... solicitous concern for corporate sensitivities at a time of national tragedy". The potential political threat to Apollo blew over, due in large part to the support of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who at the time still wielded a measure of influence with the Congress from his own Senatorial experience. He was a staunch supporter of NASA since its inception, had even recommended the Moon program to President John F. Kennedy in 1961, and was skilled at portraying it as part of Kennedy's legacy. Relations between NASA and North American deteriorated over the assignment of blame. North American argued unsuccessfully it was not responsible for the fatal error in spacecraft atmosphere design. Finally, Webb contacted Atwood, and demanded either he or Chief Engineer Harrison A. Storms resign. Atwood elected to fire Storms. On the NASA side, Joseph Shea resorted to barbiturates and alcohol in order to help him cope. NASA administrator James Webb became increasingly worried about Shea's mental state. Shea was asked to take an extended voluntary leave of absence, but Shea refused, threatening to resign rather than take leave. As a compromise, he agreed to meet with a psychiatrist and to abide by an independent assessment of his psychological fitness. This approach to remove Shea from his position was also unsuccessful. Finally, six months after the fire, Shea's superiors reassigned him to NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C. Shea felt that his new post was a "non-job," and left after only two months. ## Program recovery Gene Kranz called a meeting of his staff in Mission Control three days after the accident, delivering a speech which has subsequently become one of NASA's principles. Speaking of the errors and overall attitude surrounding the Apollo program before the accident, he said: "We were too 'gung-ho' about the schedule and we blocked out all of the problems we saw each day in our work. Every element of the program was in trouble and so were we." He reminded the team of the perils and mercilessness of their endeavor, and stated the new requirement that every member of every team in mission control be "tough and competent", requiring nothing less than perfection throughout NASA's programs. In 2003, following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe quoted Kranz's speech, applying it to the Columbia crew. ### Command module redesign After the fire, the Apollo program was grounded for review and redesign. The command module was found to be extremely hazardous and, in some instances, carelessly assembled (for example, a misplaced wrench socket was found in the cabin). It was decided that the remaining Block I spacecraft would be used only for uncrewed Saturn V test flights. All crewed missions would use the Block II spacecraft, to which many command module design changes were made: - The cabin atmosphere at launch was adjusted to 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at sea-level pressure: 14.7 psi (101 kPa). During ascent the cabin rapidly vented down to 5 psi (34 kPa), releasing approximately 2/3 of the gas originally present at launch. The vent then closed and the environmental control system maintained a nominal cabin pressure of 5 psi (34 kPa) as the spacecraft continued into vacuum. The cabin was then very slowly purged (vented to space and simultaneously replaced with 100% oxygen), so the nitrogen concentration gradually fell off to zero over the next day. Although the new cabin launch atmosphere was significantly safer than 100% oxygen, it still contained almost three times the amount of oxygen present in ordinary sea-level air (20.9% oxygen). This was necessary to ensure a sufficient partial pressure of oxygen when the astronauts removed their helmets after reaching orbit. (60% of five psi is three psi, compared to 60% of 14.7 psi (101 kPa) which is 8.8 psi (61 kPa) at launch, and 20.9% of 14.7 psi (101 kPa) which is 3.07 psi (21.2 kPa) in sea-level air.) - The environment within the astronauts' pressure suits was not changed. Because of the rapid drop in cabin (and suit) pressures during ascent, decompression sickness was likely unless the nitrogen had been purged from the astronauts' tissues before launch. They would still breathe pure oxygen, starting several hours before launch, until they removed their helmets on orbit. Avoiding the "bends" was considered worth the residual risk of an oxygen-accelerated fire within a suit. - Nylon used in the Block I suits was replaced in the Block II suits with Beta cloth, a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from fiberglass and coated with Teflon. - Block II had already been planned to use a completely redesigned hatch which opened outward, and could be opened in less than five seconds. Concerns of accidental opening were addressed by using a cartridge of pressurized nitrogen to drive the release mechanism in an emergency, instead of the explosive bolts used on Project Mercury. - Flammable materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing versions. - Plumbing and wiring were covered with protective insulation. Aluminum tubing was replaced with stainless steel tubing that used brazed joints when possible. Thorough protocols were implemented for documenting spacecraft construction and maintenance. ### New mission naming scheme The astronauts' widows asked that Apollo 1 be reserved for the flight their husbands never made, and on April 24, 1967, Mueller, as Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, announced this change officially: AS-204 would be recorded as Apollo 1, "first manned Apollo Saturn flight – failed on ground test". Even though three uncrewed Apollo missions (AS-201, AS-202, and AS-203) had previously occurred, only AS-201 and AS-202 carried spacecraft. Therefore, the next mission, the first uncrewed Saturn V test flight (AS-501) would be designated Apollo 4, with all subsequent flights numbered sequentially in the order flown. The first three flights would not be renumbered, and the names Apollo 2 and Apollo 3 would officially go unused. Mueller considered AS-201 and AS-202, the first and second flights of the Apollo Block I CSM, as Apollo 2 and 3 respectively. The crewed flight hiatus allowed work to catch up on the Saturn V and lunar module, which were encountering their own delays. Apollo 4 flew in November 1967. Apollo 1's (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34, later reassembled at Launch complex 37B and used to launch Apollo 5, an uncrewed Earth orbital test flight of the first lunar module, LM-1, in January 1968. A second uncrewed Saturn V AS-502 flew as Apollo 6 in April 1968, and Grissom's backup crew of Wally Schirra, Don Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, finally flew the orbital test mission as Apollo 7 (AS-205), in a Block II CSM in October 1968. ## Memorials Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee were buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Ed White was buried at West Point Cemetery on the grounds of the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. NASA officials attempted to pressure Pat White, Ed White's widow, into allowing her husband also to be buried at Arlington, against what she knew to be his wishes; their efforts were foiled by astronaut Frank Borman. The names of the Apollo 1 crew are among those of multiple astronauts who have died in the line of duty, listed on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida. President Jimmy Carter awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor posthumously to Grissom on October 1, 1978. President Bill Clinton awarded it to White and Chaffee on December 17, 1997. An Apollo 1 mission patch was left on the Moon's surface after the first crewed lunar landing by Apollo 11 crew members Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. The Apollo 15 mission left on the surface of the Moon a tiny memorial statue, Fallen Astronaut, along with a plaque containing the names of the Apollo 1 astronauts, among others including Soviet cosmonauts, who perished in the pursuit of human space flight. ### Launch Complex 34 After the Apollo 1 fire, Launch Complex 34 was subsequently used only for the launch of Apollo 7 and later dismantled down to the concrete launch pedestal, which remains at the site () along with a few other concrete and steel-reinforced structures. The pedestal bears two plaques commemorating the crew. The "Ad Astra per aspera" plaque for "the crew of Apollo 1" is seen in the 1998 film Armageddon. The "Dedicated to the living memory of the crew of the Apollo 1" plaque is quoted at the end of Wayne Hale's Requiem for the NASA Space Shuttle program. Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex includes the site during the tour of the historic Cape Canaveral launch sites. In January 2005, three granite benches, built by a college classmate of one of the astronauts, were installed at the site on the southern edge of the launch pad. Each bears the name of one of the astronauts and his military service insignia. ### Stars, landmarks on the Moon and Mars - Apollo astronauts frequently aligned their spacecraft inertial navigation platforms and determined their positions relative to the Earth and Moon by sighting sets of stars with optical instruments. As a practical joke, the Apollo 1 crew named three of the stars in the Apollo catalog after themselves and introduced them into NASA documentation. Gamma Cassiopeiae became Navi – Ivan (Gus Grissom's middle name) spelled backwards. Iota Ursae Majoris became Dnoces – "Second" spelled backwards, for Edward H. White II. And Gamma Velorum became Regor – Roger (Chaffee) spelled backwards. These names quickly stuck after the Apollo 1 accident and were regularly used by later Apollo crews. - Craters on the Moon and hills on Mars are named after the three Apollo 1 astronauts. ### Civic and other memorials - Three public schools in Huntsville, Alabama (home of George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Space & Rocket Center): Virgil I. Grissom High School, Ed White Middle School, and the Chaffee Elementary School. - Ed White II Elementary e-STEM (Elementary-Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) Magnet school in El Lago, Texas, near the Johnson Space Center. White lived in El Lago (next door to Neil Armstrong). - There are Grissom or Virgil I. Grissom middle schools in Mishawaka, Indiana, Sterling Heights, Michigan, and Tinley Park, Illinois. - Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Princeton, Iowa, and the Edward White Elementary School in Eldridge, Iowa, are both part of the North Scott Community School District also naming the other three elementary schools after astronauts Neil Armstrong, John Glenn, and Alan Shepard. - School \#7 in Rochester, New York, is also known as the Virgil I. Grissom School. - In the early 1970s, three streets in Amherst, New York, were named for Chaffee, White and Grissom. By 1991, when no homes had been built on Grissom Drive, the area was repurposed as commercial property; the Grissom street sign was removed and the street renamed Classics V Drive for the banquet hall that occupied the land. - The THUMS Islands, four man-made oil drilling islands in the harbor off Long Beach, California, are named Grissom, White, Chaffee and Theodore Freeman. - The Roger B. Chaffee Planetarium is located at the Grand Rapids Public Museum. - Roger B. Chaffee Memorial Boulevard in Wyoming, Michigan, the largest suburb of Grand Rapids, Michigan, which is today an industrial park, but exists on the site of the former Grand Rapids Airport. A large portion of the north-south runway is used today as the roadway of the Roger B. Chaffee Memorial Boulevard. - Roger B. Chaffee Scholarship Fund in Grand Rapids, Michigan, each year in memory of Chaffee honors one student who intends to pursue a career in engineering or the sciences - Three adjacent parks in Fullerton, California, are each named for Grissom, Chaffee and White. The parks are located near a former Hughes Aircraft research and development facility. A Hughes subsidiary, Hughes Space and Communications Company, built components for the Apollo program. - Two buildings on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, are named for Grissom and Chaffee (both Purdue alumni). Grissom Hall houses the School of Industrial Engineering (and was home to the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics before it moved into the new Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering). Chaffee Hall, constructed in 1965, is the administration complex of Maurice J. Zucrow Laboratories where combustion, propulsion, gas dynamics, and related fields are studied. The Chaffee Hall contains a 72-seat auditorium, offices, and administrative staff. - A tree for each astronaut was planted in NASA's Astronaut Memorial Grove at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, not far from the Saturn V building, along with trees for each astronaut from the Challenger and Columbia disasters. Tours of the space center pause briefly near the grove for a moment of silence, and the trees can be seen from nearby NASA Road 1. - In 1968, Bunker Hill Air Force Base near Peru, Indiana was renamed Grissom Air Force Base. The three-letter code for the VOR air navigation beacon at the base is GUS. ## Remains of CM-012 The Apollo 1 command module has never been on public display. After the accident, the spacecraft was removed and taken to Kennedy Space Center to facilitate the review board's disassembly in order to investigate the cause of the fire. When the investigation was complete, it was moved to the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, and placed in a secured storage warehouse. On February 17, 2007, the parts of CM-012 were moved approximately 90 feet (27 m) to a newer, environmentally controlled warehouse. Only a few weeks earlier, Gus Grissom's brother Lowell publicly suggested CM-012 be permanently entombed in the concrete remains of Launch Complex 34. On January 27, 2017, the 50th anniversary of the fire, NASA put the hatch from Apollo 1 on display at the Saturn V Rocket Center at Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex. KSC's Visitor Complex also houses memorials that include parts of Challenger and Columbia, located in the Space Shuttle Atlantis exhibit. "This is way, way, way long overdue. But we're excited about it," said Scott Grissom, Gus Grissom's older son. ## In popular culture - The accident and its aftermath are the subject of episode 2, "Apollo One", of the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. - The mission and accident are covered in the 2015 ABC television series The Astronaut Wives Club, episodes 8 "Rendezvous" and 9 "Abort". - The incident is the subject of the Public Service Broadcasting track "Fire in the Cockpit" from their 2015 album The Race for Space. - The incident is featured in the 2018 movie First Man. - A short dramatization of the accident is featured at the beginning of the 1995 film Apollo 13. - The accident and a subsequent emphasis on safety within NASA are the subject of investigation in the first two episodes of the Apple TV+ series For All Mankind. ## See also - List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents - STS-1 – First Space Shuttle flight, three technicians asphyxiated on the launch pad after a countdown test - STS-51-L – Space Shuttle Challenger, America's first in-flight fatality - STS-107 – Space Shuttle Columbia, America's first return-flight fatality - Valentin Bondarenko – a Soviet cosmonaut-in-training, died in a high-oxygen fire in an experimental chamber - Soyuz 1 – First Soviet spaceflight death - Soyuz 11 – Loss of an entire Soviet spacecraft crew

Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013

Spain participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 with the song "Contigo hasta el final" written by Raquel del Rosario, David Feito and Juan Luis Suárez. The song was performed by the band ESDM, which was internally selected by the Spanish broadcaster Televisión Española (TVE) to represent Spain at the 2013 contest in Malmö, Sweden. ESDM was announced as the Spanish representative on 17 December 2012, while the national final El Sueño de Morfeo: Destino Eurovisión was organised in order to select the song ESDM would perform. Three songs, one selected through an Internet public vote, competed in the televised show where an in-studio jury and a public televote selected "Contigo hasta el final" as the winning song. As a member of the "Big Five", Spain automatically qualified to compete in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest. Performing in position 5, Spain placed twenty-fifth out of the 26 participating countries with 8 points. ## Background Prior to the 2013 contest, Spain had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest fifty-two times since its first entry in 1961. The nation has won the contest on two occasions: in 1968 with the song "La, la, la" performed by Massiel and in 1969 with the song "Vivo cantando" performed by Salomé, the latter having won in a four-way tie with France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Spain has also finished second four times, with Karina in 1971, Mocedades in 1973, Betty Missiego in 1979 and Anabel Conde in 1995. In 2012, Spain placed tenth with the song "Quédate conmigo" performed by Pastora Soler. The Spanish national broadcaster, Televisión Española (TVE), broadcasts the event within Spain and organises the selection process for the nation's entry. TVE confirmed their intentions to participate at the 2013 Eurovision Song Contest on 10 December 2012. In 2012, TVE opted to internally select the artist that would compete at the Eurovision Song Contest, while the song was selected via a national final. The procedure was continued in order to select their 2013 entry. ## Before Eurovision ### Artist selection In June 2012, Spanish press speculated that TVE had selected David Bustamante to represent Spain at the 2013 contest, which was later denied by the singer who stated that he had no time to commit to the contest despite being open to the idea of competing. Singer Pablo Alborán was also speculated by international media to have been selected, however his record label EMI Music Spain denied such reports through a press release stating that he was preparing to promote his new album Tanto on tour. Other artists rumoured in the Spanish press included Chenoa, Malú, David Bisbal, Diana Navarro, Álex Ubago and Sergio Dalma. On 17 December 2012, TVE announced during the La 1 evening magazine programme +Gente that they had internally selected the band El Sueño de Morfeo, which would use the initials ESDM for easier understanding, to represent Spain in Malmö. The broadcaster held a press conference at the TVE Sala de Comunicación Torrespaña Headquarters in Madrid on 18 December 2012 where it was revealed that a national final would select the song ESDM would sing. During the press conference, the band stated that they had written three songs that contained a traditional Celtic influence for the national final, and were hoping to submit an additional two songs to TVE for presentation. The band also spoke of their plan to organise a meeting with former Eurovision contestant Pastora Soler who represented Spain in 2012 to exchange musical ideas and receive advice about competing in Eurovision. ### El Sueño de Morfeo: Destino Eurovisión El Sueño de Morfeo: Destino Eurovisión was the national final organised by TVE that took place on 26 February 2013 at the TVE Studios in Sant Cugat del Vallès, Barcelona, hosted by Carolina Ferre. The show was broadcast on La 1, TVE Internacional as well as online via TVE's official website rtve.es and the official Eurovision Song Contest website eurovision.tv. Three songs, one selected through an Internet round and the remaining two selected as pre-qualified songs, competed with the winner being decided upon through a combination of public televoting and an in-studio expert jury. #### Internet vote One of the competing songs in the national final was selected through an Internet public vote. Two songs, both written by ESDM members Raquel del Rosario, David Feito and Juan Luis Suárez, were revealed on 5 February 2013 via TVE's official website and users had until 11 February 2013 to vote for their favourite song. The winning song that qualified for the national final, "Atrévete", was announced on 12 February 2013. #### National final The televised final took place on 26 February 2013. All three participating songs, written by ESDM members Raquel del Rosario, David Feito and Juan Luis Suárez, were performed by the band and the winning song, "Contigo hasta el final", was selected through the combination of the votes of an in-studio jury (50%) and a public televote (50%). The three members of the in-studio jury that evaluated the entries during the final were: - José María Íñigo – Journalist, Spanish commentator for the Eurovision Song Contest - Rosa López – Singer, represented Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest 2002 - Marco Mengoni – Singer, represented Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 In addition to the performances of the competing entries, guest performers included Álex Ubago, Nek and La Musicalité, and former Eurovision contestant Pastora Soler. ### Preparation The official video of the song, directed by Pedro Castro, was filmed in March 2013 in different locations in Llanes, Asturias. The video, which features two people described as having lost their faith in love as they did not know its meaning before they met, premiered on 14 March 2013 on +Gente. The music video served as the official preview video for the Spanish entry. The English language version of the song titled "With You Until the End" was also recorded and released in April 2013. As part of the contest's graphic design, special postcards were commissioned by the Swedish host broadcaster SVT to introduce each of the participating countries before the performance of the acts. On 24 and 25 March 2013, the Spanish postcard was filmed by SVT in Asturias which observed ESDM showcasing their hobbies and rehearsing and composing their songs in a recording studio. ### Promotion To specifically promote "Contigo hasta el final" as the Spanish Eurovision entry, ESDM performed a concert during a cruise trip on 10 May, organised by Spanish cruise line Pullmantur, which departed from A Coruña on 3 May and covered several cities across Spain and Europe including Bilbao, Le Havre, Dover, IJmuiden and Hamburg before docking in Malmö on 11 May. ## At Eurovision According to Eurovision rules, all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the "Big Five" (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom) are required to qualify from one of two semi-finals in order to compete for the final; the top ten countries from each semi-final progress to the final. As a member of the "Big 5", Spain automatically qualified to compete in the final on 18 May 2013. In addition to their participation in the final, Spain is also required to broadcast and vote in one of the two semi-finals. During the semi-final allocation draw on 17 January 2013, Spain was assigned to broadcast and vote in the second semi-final on 16 May 2013. In Spain, the semi-finals were broadcast on La 2 and the final was broadcast on La 1 with commentary by José María Íñigo. The Spanish spokesperson, who announced the Spanish votes during the final, was Inés Paz. The broadcast of the final was watched by 5.639 million viewers in Spain with a market share of 33.1%. This represented a decrease of 12.4% from the previous year with 1.173 million less viewers. ### Final ESDM took part in technical rehearsals on 12 and 15 May, followed by dress rehearsals on 17 and 18 May. This included the jury final on 17 May where the professional juries of each country watched and voted on the competing entries. After the dress rehearsals were held on 15 May, the "Big 5" countries and host nation Sweden held a press conference. As part of this press conference, the artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in. Spain was drawn to compete in the first half. Following the conclusion of the second semi-final, the shows' producers decided upon the running order of the final. The running order for the semi-finals and final was decided by the shows' producers rather than through another draw, so that similar songs were not placed next to each other. Spain was subsequently placed to perform in position 5, following the entry from Finland and before the entry from Belgium. On the day of the grand final, bookmakers considered Spain the twenty-fifth most likely country to win the competition. The Spanish performance featured the lead singer of ESDM Raquel del Rosario on stage barefoot wearing a yellow dress that she designed in collaboration with Yolanda Pérez from Spanish brand Yolancris. Guitarists David Feito and Juan Luis Suárez wore more casual outfits and had no choreography for the performance, staying in one spot. The band was joined by a violinist, a drummer/bagpipe player and a bassist, all of them which also performed backing vocals. The performance began with the bagpipe player standing on the catwalk of the stage, performing the first notes of the song. The stage lighting and LED screens first displayed blue and purple rays of the sun, with imitations of waterfall-like lamps falling from the ceiling, and the rear of the stage had white star-light twinkles projected onto it. The colours changed to shades of red and orange as the song rose in tempo to reflect the warmth of the song. Del Rosario walked along the catwalk of the stage and sang into a light box that lit up in yellow. The light box then rose upwards, along with several other lamps in the audience. The stage director for the performance was Pedro Castro. The three backing performers that joined ESDM were Javi Mendéz, Mey Green and Milena Brody. Green was a backing vocalist for Spain in 2012. Spain placed twenty-fifth in the final, scoring 8 points. ### Voting Voting during the three shows consisted of 50 per cent public televoting and 50 per cent from a jury deliberation. The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent. This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on: vocal capacity; the stage performance; the song's composition and originality; and the overall impression by the act. In addition, no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently. Following the release of the full split voting by the EBU after the conclusion of the competition, it was revealed that Spain had placed twenty-sixth with both the public televote and the jury vote. In the public vote, Spain received an average rank of 22.92 and in the jury vote the nation received an average rank of 19.64. Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Spain and awarded by Spain in the second semi-final and grand final of the contest. The nation awarded its 12 points to Norway in the semi-final and to Italy in the final of the contest. #### Points awarded to Spain #### Points awarded by Spain

Destanni Henderson

American basketball player (born 1999)

Destanni Mone Henderson (born February 2, 1999) is an American professional basketball player. She previously played for the Indiana Fever, Los Angeles Sparks, and Phoenix Mercury. Henderson played college basketball for the South Carolina Gamecocks, helping her team win the national championship and earning first-team All-Southeastern Conference honors as a senior. At Fort Myers Senior High School, she won three straight state titles, was a McDonald's All-American selection and was rated as the number one point guard in her class by ESPN. Henderson competes for the United States national team and won a gold medal at the 2021 FIBA AmeriCup. ## Early life and high school career Henderson was born on February 2, 1999, in Fort Myers, Florida, to Joyel James and Derrick Henderson. She first picked up a basketball at age four, but did not play seriously until the age of 11. Henderson grew up playing against boys and male relatives, and later through the YMCA. She competed for Florida Future, a Fort Myers-based Amateur Athletic Union program, from fifth grade. Henderson played for Fort Myers Senior High School in Fort Myers. In her freshman season, she was named to the Class 7A All-State Second Team. As a sophomore, Henderson averaged 15.3 points, 4.3 assists, 3.5 rebounds and three steals per game, and led her team to its first Class 6A state championship. She earned Class 6A All-State First Team honors and was selected as The News-Press All-Area Player of the Year. In her junior season, Henderson averaged 17.7 points, 4.3 assists and four rebounds per game, and helped Fort Myers win the Class 7A state title. She repeated as The News-Press All-Area Player of the Year and was named Class 7A Player of the Year. As a senior, Henderson won the Class 7A state tournament to capture a third consecutive state championship. She finished the season averaging 15.2 points, 6.1 assists, 5.3 rebounds and 3.3 steals per game. Henderson was selected to play in the McDonald's All-American Game and Jordan Brand Classic. She was named Florida Miss Basketball, Florida Gatorade Player of the Year and Class 7A Player of the Year. The News-Press recognized her as its Female Athlete of the Year and Basketball Player of the Year. In 2020, she was awarded The News-Press Player of the Decade by the newspaper's writers and editors. ### Recruiting Henderson was considered a five-star recruit and the number one point guard in the 2018 class by ESPN. On January 15, 2017, she committed to playing college basketball for South Carolina over scholarship offers from Notre Dame, Tennessee, Ohio State, NC State and Florida State. Henderson had received an offer from South Carolina in eighth grade, and was drawn there by head coach Dawn Staley. She became the program's highest-ranked recruit since A'ja Wilson in 2014. ## College career On November 11, 2018, Henderson made her debut for South Carolina, scoring 13 points in a 94–38 win against Alabama State. On February 3, 2019, she recorded a season-high 19 points, four rebounds and two assists in an 87–79 win over Arkansas. As a freshman, Henderson averaged 5.5 points and 1.3 assists per game, and was selected to the Southeastern Conference (SEC) All-Freshman Team. On March 7, 2020, she recorded a sophomore season-high 21 points in a 90–64 victory over Arkansas at the SEC tournament semifinals. Henderson helped her team win the SEC Tournament and earned all-tournament honors. She averaged 8.5 points and 2.8 assists per game as a sophomore. With the graduation of Tyasha Harris, Henderson became a regular starter for South Carolina during her junior season. On November 29, she scored 23 points, all of which came in the second half, in a 79–72 victory over Gonzaga at the Crossover Classic. She was named most valuable player of the tournament. On January 18, 2021, Henderson registered the first double-double of her career, with 14 points and 10 assists in a 104–82 win against Arkansas. On March 7, she recorded 18 points and nine rebounds in a 67–62 victory over Georgia at the SEC tournament final, and was named to the all-tournament team. Henderson helped her team reach the Final Four of the 2021 NCAA Division I Tournament. As a junior, she averaged 12.2 points, 5.1 assists and 4.7 rebounds per game. On November 29, Henderson suffered a left leg injury against North Carolina A&T. After being sidelined for three weeks, she returned on December 21, and posted 17 points, seven assists and a career-high seven steals in a 65–61 win over second-ranked Stanford. She led South Carolina back from an 18-point deficit, making it the largest comeback in program history. In her regular season finale on February 27, 2022, Henderson scored 23 points in a 71–57 win against Ole Miss. Henderson helped South Carolina win the national championship. In the title game, she recorded a career-high 26 points, four assists and three steals in a 64–49 win over UConn. Henderson was the primary defender on Paige Bueckers, who was held to 14 points. She was named to the Final Four all-tournament team. As a senior, Henderson averaged 11.5 points, 3.9 assists and 3.1 rebounds per game. She made the First Team All-SEC and received Third Team All-American honors from the United States Basketball Writers Association. ## Professional career ### Indiana Fever (2022–2023) On April 11, 2022, Henderson was drafted in the second round, 20th overall, by the Indiana Fever in the 2022 WNBA draft. On May 16, 2023, Henderson was waived. ### Los Angeles Sparks On June 16, 2023, Henderson signed a Hardship Contract with the Los Angeles Sparks. Henderson played for the Sparks until the All-Star break, when she was released from her hardship contract on July 16, 2023. Henderson's hardship contract came to end when the Sparks activated the injured Layshia Clarendon. ### Phoenix Mercury Henderson signed a 7-Day Contract with the Phoenix Mercury on August 7, 2023. She signed a 2nd 7-Day Contract to remain with the Mercury on August 14, 2023. Following the conclusion of her 2nd 7-Day Contract, Henderson was not signed back to the Mercury. ## National team career Henderson was named to the United States team for the 2016 FIBA Under-17 World Championship for Women in Spain. On June 27, 2016, she recorded 15 points, seven rebounds and seven assists in a 79–62 win against Brazil at the Round of 16. In seven games, Henderson averaged 7.1 points, five assists and 4.4 rebounds per game, helping her team win the bronze medal. She joined the senior national team at the 2021 FIBA AmeriCup in Puerto Rico. Henderson averaged 5.5 points and 3.7 assists per game, and won a gold medal. ## Career statistics ### College \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2018–19 \| style="text-align:left;"\| South Carolina \| 31 \|\| 9 \|\| 15.7 \|\| .369 \|\| .372 \|\| .706 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .5 \|\| .1 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 5.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2019–20 \| style="text-align:left;"\| South Carolina \| 33 \|\| 0 \|\| 23.5 \|\| .416 \|\| .323 \|\| .651 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| .1 \|\| 1.9 \|\| 8.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2020–21 \| style="text-align:left;"\| South Carolina \| 31 \|\| 31 \|\| 34 \|\| .430 \|\| .414 \|\| .764 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .2 \|\| 2.8 \|\| 12.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2021–22 \| style="text-align:left;"\| South Carolina \| 34 \|\| 34 \|\| 31 \|\| .403 \|\| .399 \|\| .721 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 1.4 \|\| .1 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 11.5 Source ### WNBA #### Regular season \|- \| align="left" \| 2022 \| align="left" \| Indiana \| 36 \|\| 5 \|\| 16.4 \|\| .401 \|\| .366 \|\| .719 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 0.8 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 5.3 \|- \| align="left" \| Career \| align="left" \| 1 year, 1 team \| 36 \|\| 5 \|\| 16.4 \|\| .401 \|\| .366 \|\| .719 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 0.8 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 5.3 ## Personal life Henderson's nickname, "Boss," was passed down from her mother, whose grandfather called her "Boss Hog," in reference to the character from The Dukes of Hazzard. Her coach with the Florida Future, Jamie Outten, nicknamed her "Lil Boss" when she joined the team as a fifth-grader, and the nickname was changed to "Boss" as she grew older. Henderson majored in criminology and criminal justice at the University of South Carolina. She made the SEC Academic Honor Roll for five semesters during her first three years at South Carolina.

Endomembrane system

Membranes in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell

The endomembrane system is composed of the different membranes (endomembranes) that are suspended in the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell. These membranes divide the cell into functional and structural compartments, or organelles. In eukaryotes the organelles of the endomembrane system include: the nuclear membrane, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, endosomes, and plasma (cell) membrane among others. The system is defined more accurately as the set of membranes that forms a single functional and developmental unit, either being connected directly, or exchanging material through vesicle transport. Importantly, the endomembrane system does not include the membranes of plastids or mitochondria, but might have evolved partially from the actions of the latter (see below). The nuclear membrane contains a lipid bilayer that encompasses the contents of the nucleus. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a synthesis, and transport organelle that branches into the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells. The Golgi apparatus is a series of multiple compartments where molecules are packaged for delivery to other cell components or for secretion from the cell. Vacuoles, which are found in both plant and animal cells (though much bigger in plant cells), are responsible for maintaining the shape and structure of the cell as well as storing waste products. A vesicle is a relatively small, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances. The cell membrane is a protective barrier that regulates what enters and leaves the cell. There is also an organelle known as the Spitzenkörper that is only found in fungi, and is connected with hyphal tip growth. In prokaryotes endomembranes are rare, although in many photosynthetic bacteria the plasma membrane is highly folded and most of the cell cytoplasm is filled with layers of light-gathering membrane. These light-gathering membranes may even form enclosed structures called chlorosomes in green sulfur bacteria. Another example is the complex "pepin" system of Thiomargarita species, especially T. magnifica. The organelles of the endomembrane system are related through direct contact or by the transfer of membrane segments as vesicles. Despite these relationships, the various membranes are not identical in structure and function. The thickness, molecular composition, and metabolic behavior of a membrane are not fixed, they may be modified several times during the membrane's life. One unifying characteristic the membranes share is a lipid bilayer, with proteins attached to either side or traversing them. ## History of the concept Most lipids are synthesized in yeast either in the endoplasmic reticulum, lipid particles, or the mitochondrion, with little or no lipid synthesis occurring in the plasma membrane or nuclear membrane. Sphingolipid biosynthesis begins in the endoplasmic reticulum, but is completed in the Golgi apparatus. The situation is similar in mammals, with the exception of the first few steps in ether lipid biosynthesis, which occur in peroxisomes. The various membranes that enclose the other subcellular organelles must therefore be constructed by transfer of lipids from these sites of synthesis. However, although it is clear that lipid transport is a central process in organelle biogenesis, the mechanisms by which lipids are transported through cells remain poorly understood. The first proposal that the membranes within cells form a single system that exchanges material between its components was by Morré and Mollenhauer in 1974. This proposal was made as a way of explaining how the various lipid membranes are assembled in the cell, with these membranes being assembled through lipid flow from the sites of lipid synthesis. The idea of lipid flow through a continuous system of membranes and vesicles was an alternative to the various membranes being independent entities that are formed from transport of free lipid components, such as fatty acids and sterols, through the cytosol. Importantly, the transport of lipids through the cytosol and lipid flow through a continuous endomembrane system are not mutually exclusive processes and both may occur in cells. ## Components of the system ### Nuclear envelope The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm. It has two membranes, each a lipid bilayer with associated proteins. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane, and like that structure, features ribosomes attached to the surface. The outer membrane is also continuous with the inner nuclear membrane since the two layers are fused together at numerous tiny holes called nuclear pores that perforate the nuclear envelope. These pores are about 120 nm in diameter and regulate the passage of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm, permitting some to pass through the membrane, but not others. Since the nuclear pores are located in an area of high traffic, they play an important role in cell physiology. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the perinuclear space and is joined with the lumen of the rough ER. The nuclear envelope's structure is determined by a network of intermediate filaments (protein filaments). This network is organized into lining similar to mesh called the nuclear lamina, which binds to chromatin, integral membrane proteins, and other nuclear components along the inner surface of the nucleus. The nuclear lamina is thought to help materials inside the nucleus reach the nuclear pores and in the disintegration of the nuclear envelope during mitosis and its reassembly at the end of the process. The nuclear pores are highly efficient at selectively allowing the passage of materials to and from the nucleus, because the nuclear envelope has a considerable amount of traffic. RNA and ribosomal subunits must be continually transferred from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Histones, gene regulatory proteins, DNA and RNA polymerases, and other substances essential for nuclear activities must be imported from the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope of a typical mammalian cell contains 3000–4000 pore complexes. If the cell is synthesizing DNA each pore complex needs to transport about 100 histone molecules per minute. If the cell is growing rapidly, each complex also needs to transport about 6 newly assembled large and small ribosomal subunits per minute from the nucleus to the cytosol, where they are used to synthesize proteins. ### Endoplasmic reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous synthesis and transport organelle that is an extension of the nuclear envelope. More than half the total membrane in eukaryotic cells is accounted for by the ER. The ER is made up of flattened sacs and branching tubules that are thought to interconnect, so that the ER membrane forms a continuous sheet enclosing a single internal space. This highly convoluted space is called the ER lumen and is also referred to as the ER cisternal space. The lumen takes up about ten percent of the entire cell volume. The endoplasmic reticulum membrane allows molecules to be selectively transferred between the lumen and the cytoplasm, and since it is connected to the nuclear envelope, it provides a channel between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The ER has a central role in producing, processing, and transporting biochemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. Its membrane is the site of production of all the transmembrane proteins and lipids for most of the cell's organelles, including the ER itself, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endosomes, mitochondria, peroxisomes, secretory vesicles, and the plasma membrane. Furthermore, almost all of the proteins that will exit the cell, plus those destined for the lumen of the ER, Golgi apparatus, or lysosomes, are originally delivered to the ER lumen. Consequently, many of the proteins found in the cisternal space of the endoplasmic reticulum lumen are there only temporarily as they pass on their way to other locations. Other proteins, however, constantly remain in the lumen and are known as endoplasmic reticulum resident proteins. These special proteins contain a specialized retention signal made up of a specific sequence of amino acids that enables them to be retained by the organelle. An example of an important endoplasmic reticulum resident protein is the chaperone protein known as BiP which identifies other proteins that have been improperly built or processed and keeps them from being sent to their final destinations. The ER is involved in cotranslational sorting of proteins. A polypeptide which contains an ER signal sequence is recognised by the signal recognition particle which halts the production of the protein. The SRP transports the nascent protein to the ER membrane where it is released through a membrane channel and translation resumes. There are two distinct, though connected, regions of ER that differ in structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so named because the cytoplasmic surface is covered with ribosomes, giving it a bumpy appearance when viewed through an electron microscope. The smooth ER appears smooth since its cytoplasmic surface lacks ribosomes. #### Functions of the smooth ER In the great majority of cells, smooth ER regions are scarce and are often partly smooth and partly rough. They are sometimes called transitional ER because they contain ER exit sites from which transport vesicles carrying newly synthesized proteins and lipids bud off for transport to the Golgi apparatus. In certain specialized cells, however, the smooth ER is abundant and has additional functions. The smooth ER of these specialized cells functions in diverse metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons. Enzymes of the smooth ER are vital to the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids, and steroids. Sex hormones of vertebrates and the steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands are among the steroids produced by the smooth ER in animal cells. The cells that synthesize these hormones are rich in smooth ER. Liver cells are another example of specialized cells that contain an abundance of smooth ER. These cells provide an example of the role of smooth ER in carbohydrate metabolism. Liver cells store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. The breakdown of glycogen eventually leads to the release of glucose from the liver cells, which is important in the regulation of sugar concentration in the blood. However, the primary product of glycogen breakdown is glucose-1-phosphate. This is converted to glucose-6-phosphate and then an enzyme of the liver cell's smooth ER removes the phosphate from the glucose, so that it can then leave the cell. Enzymes of the smooth ER can also help detoxify drugs and poisons. Detoxification usually involves the addition of a hydroxyl group to a drug, making the drug more soluble and thus easier to purge from the body. One extensively studied detoxification reaction is carried out by the cytochrome P450 family of enzymes, which catalyze oxidation reactions on water-insoluble drugs or metabolites that would otherwise accumulate to toxic levels in cell membrane. In muscle cells, a specialized smooth ER (sarcoplasmic reticulum) forms a membranous compartment (cisternal space) into which calcium ions are pumped. When a muscle cell becomes stimulated by a nerve impulse, calcium goes back across this membrane into the cytosol and generates the contraction of the muscle cell. #### Functions of the rough ER Many types of cells export proteins produced by ribosomes attached to the rough ER. The ribosomes assemble amino acids into protein units, which are carried into the rough ER for further adjustments. These proteins may be either transmembrane proteins, which become embedded in the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum, or water-soluble proteins, which are able to pass through the membrane into the lumen. Those that reach the inside of the endoplasmic reticulum are folded into the correct three-dimensional conformation. Chemicals, such as carbohydrates or sugars, are added, then the endoplasmic reticulum either transports the completed proteins, called secretory proteins, to areas of the cell where they are needed, or they are sent to the Golgi apparatus for further processing and modification. Once secretory proteins are formed, the ER membrane separates them from the proteins that will remain in the cytosol. Secretory proteins depart from the ER enfolded in the membranes of vesicles that bud like bubbles from the transitional ER. These vesicles in transit to another part of the cell are called transport vesicles. An alternative mechanism for transport of lipids and proteins out of the ER are through lipid transfer proteins at regions called membrane contact sites where the ER becomes closely and stably associated with the membranes of other organelles, such as the plasma membrane, Golgi or lysosomes. In addition to making secretory proteins, the rough ER makes membranes that grows in place from the addition of proteins and phospholipids. As polypeptides intended to be membrane proteins grow from the ribosomes, they are inserted into the ER membrane itself and are kept there by their hydrophobic portions. The rough ER also produces its own membrane phospholipids; enzymes built into the ER membrane assemble phospholipids. The ER membrane expands and can be transferred by transport vesicles to other components of the endomembrane system. ### Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus (also known as the Golgi body and the Golgi complex) is composed of separate sacs called cisternae. Its shape is similar to a stack of pancakes. The number of these stacks varies with the specific function of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is used by the cell for further protein modification. The section of the Golgi apparatus that receives the vesicles from the ER is known as the cis face, and is usually near the ER. The opposite end of the Golgi apparatus is called the trans face, this is where the modified compounds leave. The trans face is usually facing the plasma membrane, which is where most of the substances the Golgi apparatus modifies are sent. Vesicles sent off by the ER containing proteins are further altered at the Golgi apparatus and then prepared for secretion from the cell or transport to other parts of the cell. Various things can happen to the proteins on their journey through the enzyme covered space of the Golgi apparatus. The modification and synthesis of the carbohydrate portions of glycoproteins is common in protein processing. The Golgi apparatus removes and substitutes sugar monomers, producing a large variety of oligosaccharides. In addition to modifying proteins, the Golgi also manufactures macromolecules itself. In plant cells, the Golgi produces pectins and other polysaccharides needed by the plant structure. Once the modification process is completed, the Golgi apparatus sorts the products of its processing and sends them to various parts of the cell. Molecular identification labels or tags are added by the Golgi enzymes to help with this. After everything is organized, the Golgi apparatus sends off its products by budding vesicles from its trans face. ### Vacuoles Vacuoles, like vesicles, are membrane-bound sacs within the cell. They are larger than vesicles and their specific function varies. The operations of vacuoles are different for plant and animal vacuoles. In plant cells, vacuoles cover anywhere from 30% to 90% of the total cell volume. Most mature plant cells contain one large central vacuole encompassed by a membrane called the tonoplast. Vacuoles of plant cells act as storage compartments for the nutrients and waste of a cell. The solution that these molecules are stored in is called the cell sap. Pigments that color the cell are sometime located in the cell sap. Vacuoles can also increase the size of the cell, which elongates as water is added, and they control the turgor pressure (the osmotic pressure that keeps the cell wall from caving in). Like lysosomes of animal cells, vacuoles have an acidic pH and contain hydrolytic enzymes. The pH of vacuoles enables them to perform homeostatic procedures in the cell. For example, when the pH in the cells environment drops, the H⁺ ions surging into the cytosol can be transferred to a vacuole in order to keep the cytosol's pH constant. In animals, vacuoles serve in exocytosis and endocytosis processes. Endocytosis refers to when substances are taken into the cell, whereas for exocytosis substances are moved from the cell into the extracellular space. Material to be taken-in is surrounded by the plasma membrane, and then transferred to a vacuole. There are two types of endocytosis, phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell drinking). In phagocytosis, cells engulf large particles such as bacteria. Pinocytosis is the same process, except the substances being ingested are in the fluid form. ### Vesicles Vesicles are small membrane-enclosed transport units that can transfer molecules between different compartments. Most vesicles transfer the membranes assembled in the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, and then from the Golgi apparatus to various locations. There are various types of vesicles each with a different protein configuration. Most are formed from specific regions of membranes. When a vesicle buds off from a membrane it contains specific proteins on its cytosolic surface. Each membrane a vesicle travels to contains a marker on its cytosolic surface. This marker corresponds with the proteins on the vesicle traveling to the membrane. Once the vesicle finds the membrane, they fuse. There are three well known types of vesicles. They are clathrin-coated, COPI-coated, and COPII-coated vesicles. Each performs different functions in the cell. For example, clathrin-coated vesicles transport substances between the Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane. COPI- and COPII-coated vesicles are frequently used for transportation between the ER and the Golgi apparatus. ### Lysosomes Lysosomes are organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that are used for intracellular digestion. The main functions of a lysosome are to process molecules taken in by the cell and to recycle worn out cell parts. The enzymes inside of lysosomes are acid hydrolases which require an acidic environment for optimal performance. Lysosomes provide such an environment by maintaining a pH of 5.0 inside of the organelle. If a lysosome were to rupture, the enzymes released would not be very active because of the cytosol's neutral pH. However, if numerous lysosomes leaked the cell could be destroyed from autodigestion. Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion, in a process called phagocytosis (from the Greek phagein, to eat and kytos, vessel, referring here to the cell), by fusing with a vacuole and releasing their enzymes into the vacuole. Through this process, sugars, amino acids, and other monomers pass into the cytosol and become nutrients for the cell. Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the cell's obsolete organelles in a process called autophagy. The lysosome engulfs another organelle and uses its enzymes to take apart the ingested material. The resulting organic monomers are then returned to the cytosol for reuse. The last function of a lysosome is to digest the cell itself through autolysis. ### Spitzenkörper The spitzenkörper is a component of the endomembrane system found only in fungi, and is associated with hyphal tip growth. It is a phase-dark body that is composed of an aggregation of membrane-bound vesicles containing cell wall components, serving as a point of assemblage and release of such components intermediate between the Golgi and the cell membrane. The spitzenkörper is motile and generates new hyphal tip growth as it moves forward. ### Plasma membrane The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer membrane that separates the cell from its environment and regulates the transport of molecules and signals into and out of the cell. Embedded in the membrane are proteins that perform the functions of the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is not a fixed or rigid structure, the molecules that compose the membrane are capable of lateral movement. This movement and the multiple components of the membrane are why it is referred to as a fluid mosaic. Smaller molecules such as carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen can pass through the plasma membrane freely by diffusion or osmosis. Larger molecules needed by the cell are assisted by proteins through active transport. The plasma membrane of a cell has multiple functions. These include transporting nutrients into the cell, allowing waste to leave, preventing materials from entering the cell, averting needed materials from leaving the cell, maintaining the pH of the cytosol, and preserving the osmotic pressure of the cytosol. Transport proteins which allow some materials to pass through but not others are used for these functions. These proteins use ATP hydrolysis to pump materials against their concentration gradients. In addition to these universal functions, the plasma membrane has a more specific role in multicellular organisms. Glycoproteins on the membrane assist the cell in recognizing other cells, in order to exchange metabolites and form tissues. Other proteins on the plasma membrane allow attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; a function that maintains cell shape and fixes the location of membrane proteins. Enzymes that catalyze reactions are also found on the plasma membrane. Receptor proteins on the membrane have a shape that matches with a chemical messenger, resulting in various cellular responses. ## Evolution The origin of the endomembrane system is linked to the origin of eukaryotes themselves and the origin of eukaryoties to the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria. Many models have been put forward to explain the origin of the endomembrane system (reviewed in). The most recent concept suggests that the endomembrane system evolved from outer membrane vesicles the endosymbiotic mitochondrion secreted, and got enclosed within infoldings of the host prokaryote (in turn, a result of the ingestion of the endosymbiont). This OMV (outer membrane vesicles)-based model for the origin of the endomembrane system is currently the one that requires the fewest novel inventions at eukaryote origin and explains the many connections of mitochondria with other compartments of the cell. Currently, this "inside-out" hypothesis (which states that the alphaproteobacteria, the ancestral mitochondria, were engulfed by the blebs of an asgardarchaeon, and later the blebs fused leaving infoldings which would eventually become the endomembrane system) is favored more than the outside-in one (which suggested that the endomembrane system arose due to infoldings within the archaeal membrane).

Soviet submarine K-222

Nuclear-powered cruise-missile submarine

K-222 was the first and only Project 661 (NATO reporting name: Papa class) nuclear-powered cruise-missile submarine built for the Soviet Navy during the Cold War. Although the Soviets saw K-222 as an unsuccessful design, upon completion it was the world's fastest submarine and the first to be built with a titanium hull. The submarine was given several names over the course of its construction and service: she was originally designated K-18, named K-162 while under construction, and renamed to K-222 in 1978. Dissatisfied with the Echo class of nuclear submarines, which had to surface to fire their missiles, in 1958 the Soviet government authorized an exceedingly ambitious program for a very fast boat equipped with missiles that could be launched while submerged. It accepted the preliminary design two years later and construction began in 1963; work proceeded very slowly as techniques for working titanium had to be developed and quality control was inconsistent. The program's objectives were generally satisfied, but the government had failed to include a requirement to minimize the submarine's acoustic signature which meant that K-222 was easily detectable at high speed. The Soviet Navy rejected a plan to place the design into series production as its flaws outweighed its advantages, but it pioneered the technology needed to work with titanium on a large scale, which enabled the subsequent construction of more successful designs using titanium. Commissioned in 1969, the-then K-162 was armed with 10 short-range, anti-ship cruise missiles and four torpedo tubes to carry out her mission of destroying American aircraft carriers. These missiles could be fitted with either conventional or nuclear warheads. The submarine served in the Soviet Red Banner Northern Fleet through the 1970s, but the discovery of hull cracks led to a lengthy repair period from 1972 to 1975. After an accident with K-222's nuclear reactor in 1980, the submarine went on her final operational patrol in 1981. She was removed from service in 1988 and scrapped in 2010. ## Background The Soviets were well aware of the drawbacks of the large SS-N-3 Shaddock family of missiles, notably its need to be launched from the surface and its complicated target-acquisition process, both of which rendered the submarines launching the missiles vulnerable to the carriers that they were intended to attack. The Council of Ministers issued a resolution on 28 August 1958 calling for a very ambitious submarine development program that called for a doubling of speed, a 50 percent increase in diving depth, smaller nuclear reactors and steam turbines, and a long-range missile system of small dimensions able to be fired while submerged, and new materials, among other objectives. Design bureau TsKB-16 began development of Project 661, an experimental cruise-missile submarine, later that year in response to the resolution. Chief designer N. N. Isanin decided to begin a clean-slate design that would use existing technology as little as possible. By July 1959 a sketch design was ready for a submarine capable of 38 knots (70 km/h; 44 mph) and the State Committee for Shipbuilding had to make decisions about what the submarine's hull would be constructed of and what type of nuclear reactor would be used. Aluminium was quickly rejected as unsuitable because of its poor resistance to corrosion and poor performance under high pressure at high speeds. While new alloys of steel were still under development, titanium had some major advantages. It was much stronger than steel for a given weight, resisted corrosion better and was non-magnetic. This would help protect it against magnetic mines and registering on magnetic anomaly detectors of anti-submarine aircraft. Disregarding the extremely high cost of titanium compared to steel and that titanium could not be welded in an oxygen atmosphere, the committee selected it. Two types of reactor were potentially available at this time, pressurized water or lead-bismuth eutectic. The Soviets had some experience with the former, but none with the latter; this proved to be the deciding factor as the committee was unwilling to wait for the lead-bismuth reactor to be developed even though it promised to be smaller for the same amount of power output. K-222 would be the first submarine built with a titanium hull. These decisions produced a design that had an underwater speed of 38 knots and was capable of carrying 10–12 missile launchers forward of the sail, but was larger than the specified displacement if fitted with two propeller shafts. The committee considered using a single shaft, but ultimately rejected it, preferring the redundancy of two reactors. It did delete the auxiliary diesel generator that earlier nuclear-powered submarines had been equipped with to compensate for using two shafts when it accepted the sketch design and authorized preliminary design work in February 1960. The final design was approved three months later. To reduce the technical risk of many of the advanced components chosen, the navy modified five existing submarines to test various systems such as the P-70 Ametist (NATO reporting name: SS-N-7 Starbright), GRAU designation: 4K66; Russian: П-70 «Аметист» 'Amethyst') missiles, sonars and other electronics. ## Description K-222 was a double-hulled design that displaced 5,197 metric tons (5,115 long tons) on the surface and 7,000 t (6,900 long tons) submerged. The boat had an overall length of 106.92 meters (350 ft 9 in), a beam of 11.5 meters (37 ft 9 in) and a draft of 8.2 meters (26 ft 11 in). The submarine's inner hull had nine watertight compartments and had an unusual configuration at the bow where the first two compartments were narrower than the rest of the hull and were superimposed in a figure 8 shape; the upper compartment housed the torpedo tubes while the lower contained the massive sonar system and some of the batteries. The third compartment was as narrow as the first two (5.9 m (19 ft 4 in)) while the rest of the compartments widened to a diameter of 9 m (29 ft 6 in). K-222 had a test depth of 400 meters (1,300 ft) and a design depth of 550 meters (1,800 ft). The crew numbered 82 officers and enlisted men. The submarine was powered by a pair of 177.4-megawatt (237,900 hp) VM-5M reactors, each supplying steam for the GTZA-618 steam turbine driving each propeller shaft. The turbines produced a total of 80,000 shaft horsepower (60,000 kW) that was intended to propel K-222 at a speed of 38 knots. The boat was equipped with two 3,000-kilowatt (4,000 shp) turbogenerators; two banks of 152-cell silver-zinc batteries were fitted in lieu of a diesel generator. The boat made 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph) on the surface, and proved to be much faster than planned underwater and reached a top speed of 42 knots (78 km/h; 48 mph) at 90 percent power during her sea trials in December 1969. During this 12-hour full-speed test, some of the external hull fittings were ripped off and portions of the grills protecting the water intakes broke loose and were ground up by the water-circulation pumps. One account of the trial wrote: > the biggest thing was the noise of the water going by. It increased together with the ship's speed, and when 35 knots (65 km/h; 40 mph) was exceeded, it was like the noise of a jet aircraft. ... In the control room was not heard simply the roar of an aircraft, but the thunder of "the engine room of a diesel locomotive". Those present believed that the noise level to be greater than 100 decibels. On a subsequent trial in 1970 at full power, K-222 reached 44.7 knots (82.8 km/h; 51.4 mph), the fastest speed attained underwater by a manned object and making K-222 the world's fastest submarine. The submarine carried enough supplies to stay at sea for 70 days. ### Armament, sensors and fire control The submarine's primary armament consisted of 10 P-70 missiles in individual tubes between the inner and outer hulls forward of sail. The tubes were positioned upwards at an angle of 32.5 degrees. As the missile used four solid-propellant boosters, it could be launched underwater at a maximum depth of 30 m (98 ft). No more than five missiles could be fired in one volley and the second volley could be fired three minutes later. The narrowness of the bow compartment prevented K-222 from being fitted with more than four 533 mm (21 in) torpedo tubes, although she stowed eight reloads for them. The torpedoes could be fired down to a depth of 200 m (660 ft). The massive cylindrical Rubin MGK-300 sonar system occupied the nose of the lower inner hull and measured 6 m (19 ft 8 in) in diameter and 3 m (9 ft 10 in) in height. It was fitted with both active and passive transducers and was intended to detect carrier battle groups at long ranges. It would transmit the data to the missiles for its initial targeting. Locating targets accurately was initially limited to about 50 kilometres (31 mi; 27 nmi) with the missiles requiring a mid-course update if attacking targets further away. Later upgrades to the sonar allowed it to extend its range to the full 70 km (43 mi; 38 nmi) limit of the P-70 missiles. Once fired, the submarine did not have to provide any further targeting data as the missile was equipped with a radar of its own. K-222 was also fitted with an Albatros RLK-101 search radar (NATO reporting name: Snoop Tray) and a Molniya (NATO reporting name: Pert Spring) satellite-communications system. ## Construction and career As large-scale fabrication of titanium was unknown anywhere in the world, techniques and equipment had to be developed from scratch by the Soviets at great cost. The Sevmash shipyard had to invest in new equipment capable of shaping plates up to 60 mm (2.4 in) thick and retrain its workers to weld in an argon atmosphere and a cleanroom environment to prevent contamination of the welds. As part of that process two half-scale sections were constructed, one for testing in a pressure chamber and the other to evaluate shock resistance in Lake Ladoga. The collapse of the section under hydraulic pressure and the presence of cracks in the welds of both structures revealed that the welders at the Severodvinsk shipyard failed to follow the strict cool down time requirements. Further consultations with metallurgical experts reached the conclusion that the steel tools used to fabricate the sections were not suitable for use with titanium. The first titanium plates were delivered in late 1961 which allowed the submarine (initially designated as K-18 and then renamed to K-162 on 27 January 1965) to be laid down on 28 December 1963. Construction of the submarine was delayed by the delivery of plates for the outer hull by the Kommunar Metallurgical Plant that were contaminated by hydrogen and cracked easily. About 20 percent of the plates for the outer hull had to be replaced which contributed to the lengthy period that the submarine remained on the slipway before being launched on 21 December 1968. Shortly afterwards, testing of the submarine revealed that 10 ballast tanks were not watertight despite careful examination and that non-titanium components were not properly isolated from the titanium hull, causing corrosion. Within the Soviet Navy, K-162 was commonly referred to as the "Golden Fish", in reference to her development and construction costs. Commissioned on 13 December 1969 and assigned to the Soviet Red Banner Northern Fleet, the boat spent most of the next two years conducting sea trials. K-162 made her first operational patrol in the North Atlantic in September–December 1971. During this patrol, the submarine trailed an American battle group centered around the carrier USS Saratoga at high speed as it returned to the United States from the Mediterranean. During a lengthy refit that lasted from October 1972 to January 1975, the shipyard discovered a large number of cracks that required repair. Three years later, K-162 was renamed K-222. During this time, the Soviets assessed the possibility of series production of more boats of the class and concluded that the design would have to be modified with longer-range missiles and more torpedoes to improve its combat worthiness. In addition the excessive noise at high speed eliminated the sonar system's ability to acquire targets and needed to be remedied. Coupled with the submarine's high cost, lengthy building time, and the limited resources available, the navy decided not to proceed with any more boats. Thus the design studies for derivatives like the improved Project 661M, the Project 661A armed with P-120 Malakhit (NATO designation: SS-N-9 Siren) missiles and the Project 661B armed with R-29 Vysota (NATO codename: SS-N-8 Sawfly) ballistic missiles were cancelled. Although K-222 was not regarded as a successful design, the technology developed for the build enabled the Soviet Union to construct the titanium-hulled Alfa-class and Sierra-class attack submarines. While having her reactor refueled in November 1980, K-222's crew lost the unique tools required to handle the nuclear fuel rods and the Severodvinsk facility had to refuel the boat without them. During the procedure, the entire crew decided to go to lunch ashore on 30 November, violating naval regulations as only shipyard workers remained aboard. This became a problem because the automatic safety system for the control rods had been shut down and they started to lift, causing the reactor to generate more heat without any water flowing to cool the core of the reactor. No one was monitoring the core's temperature and the workers only realized that there was a problem when an alarm sounded after a condenser ruptured and radioactive steam and water entered the machinery compartment. They were able to prevent the steam from spreading and turned on the main pumps to get water cooling the core. The commission investigating the incident recommended that the reactors be replaced by more modern ones and that an emergency diesel generator be installed, but the recommendations were rejected and the navy decided to simply repair the damage. After the repairs and decontamination, K-222 made her last operational patrol in 1981. In 1988, the boat was placed in reserve at the naval base in Belomorsk, not far from Severodvinsk. Having lost the tools to handle the fuel rods, the navy could not find a company or organization willing or able to defuel the submarine. By 2008 cracks started appearing in the hull and the ballast tanks started taking on water. In March 2010 Sevmash began scrapping K-222 with the reactors and nuclear fuel still on board, and this was completed by 4 June.

María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar

Mexican physician and politician and murder victim

María Santos Gorrostieta Salazar (1976 – c. 15 November 2012) was a Mexican physician and politician of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). From 2008 to 2011, she served as mayor of Tiquicheo, a small town in the Mexican state of Michoacán. In spite of three failed assassination attempts during her tenure as mayor, Gorrostieta Salazar continued to be outspoken in the fight against organized crime. In a fourth attack, Gorrostieta Salazar was kidnapped and assassinated by suspected drug traffickers on 15 November 2012. Michoacán is home to several violent drug trafficking organizations such as La Familia Michoacana and the Knights Templar Cartel. ## Career Gorrostieta Salazar was born in 1976 in Tiquicheo, a small town in the state of Michoacán, Mexico. She attended the Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo in Morelia and earned a PhD in medicine. She began her political career by joining the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and from 2008 to 2011, she served as the mayor of Tiquicheo. While in office, she survived three assassination attempts. She ran for the Chamber of Deputies of the Congress of the Union, but she did not get elected and returned to her office as mayor. After some differences with the PRI, which had urged her to resign, Gorrostieta Salazar left the party and joined the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) in August 2010. She said her Catholic faith influenced her approach to her duties as a politician. She has been described as a "heroine of the 21st century" for her opposition to Mexico's drug cartels and for refusing to take bribes. She had three children with her first husband, José Sánchez Chávez. After he was killed in the October 2009 attack, Gorrostieta Salazar later married Nereo Patiño Delgado. ## Assassination attempts ### Background In 2008, Gorrostieta Salazar was elected mayor of Tiquicheo. Several drug trafficking organizations, particularly the La Familia Michoacana and the Knights Templar Cartel, are based in the area. Michoacán is a leading producer of marijuana and opium poppy, making it a lucrative route for smugglers taking narcotics into the United States. Despite receiving threats, Gorrostieta Salazar publicly denounced the activities of these groups. The drug cartels, which are constantly fighting each other for territorial control, often target mayors who confront them. Other mayors, however, are corrupted and bribed by the cartels. Mexico has more than 2,500 municipalities, many of which are far from the capital cities and lack amenities available in other parts of the country. Many of these areas are plagued with drug-related violence, so the political parties have faced difficulties finding people interested in holding the post of mayor. It was in Michoacán that Felipe Calderón launched the country's first military-led operation in the ongoing drug war, just ten days after he took office on 11 December 2006. The military campaign spread to other states in Mexico, eventually including over 50,000 federal agents. After years of past administrations taking a passive stance against the drug cartels, Calderón had decided it was time for the government to "flex its muscles." Violence exploded in Michoacán and across the country, leaving a death toll of about 60,000 (perhaps even more than 100,000) in six years. Numerous journalists and mayors have been killed since the start of the drug war, and some members of the Mexican Armed Forces and the Federal police have been accused of human rights abuses and causing forced disappearances. The organized crime groups have diversified their criminal agendas, no longer focusing solely on drug trafficking; many of them operate kidnapping rings and extortion and protection rackets, and engage in piracy, and human trafficking. The cartels in Michoacán force the local population to pay for "protection", spy, and report suspicious activities and law enforcement presence. Calderón argued that if he had not acted, Mexico would have become a "narco-state," where the drug trafficking organizations impose law at their will. "I am sure that the Mexicans of tomorrow will remember these days as the moment when the country took the decision to defend itself, with all its force, against a voracious criminal phenomenon of transnational dimensions," Calderón said on 20 November 2012 at a ceremony for fallen soldiers. His successor, Enrique Peña Nieto, has pledged to continue the fight, but plans to adjust the strategy to reduce the level of violence. ### 2009 attacks In January 2008, three months after Gorrostieta Salazar took office, she and her husband were travelling near the rural community of Las Mojarras when an automobile ran them off the road. In that incident, the gunmen only threatened Gorrostieta Salazar by shooting in the air and warning her to resign "before it was too late." On 16 January 2009, in the rural area of El Limón de Papatzindán, the couple was attacked by armed assailants and received minor injuries that did not prevent them from continuing their public lives. The next attack occurred on 15 October 2009, when Gorrostieta Salazar was ambushed while driving through El Limón de Papatzindán with her husband. A group of armed men opened fire on Sánchez Chávez when he left the vehicle to make a phone call. Gorrostieta Salazar ran to protect her husband and was shot as well. Sánchez Chávez died that day from three gunshot wounds, but Gorrostieta Salazar survived because the gunmen believed she was dead. A few months later, Gorrostieta Salazar announced that she was still willing to work and returned to her duties as mayor. By then, she contacted the leaders of the PRI to ask for protection, but she encountered difficulties, including unanswered phone calls. ### 2010 attack On 23 January 2010, Gorrostieta Salazar was attacked by armed men in Ciudad Altamirano, Guerrero, while returning from a local event with four other people. Severely injured by bullet wounds in the abdomen, chest, and leg, she was taken to a local hospital. Also injured were the driver of the vehicle, who was shot twice; Marbella Reyes Ortoño, head of the Institute of Women in Tiquicheo; and Fanny Almazán Gómez, a journalist from El Sol de Morelia. In addition to the bullet wounds, Gorrostieta Salazar suffered further injuries when the vehicle crashed after the shooting. Her wounds left her in constant pain and she had to use a colostomy bag, but she refused to resign her post as mayor. She publicly displayed her wounds in photographs published in an issue of Contacto Ciudadano magazine, and repeated her statement that she would continue her work. > "I wanted to show you my wounded, mutilated, humiliated body because I am not ashamed of it, because it is the result of the misfortunes that have marked my life ... it is the living testimony that I am a whole and strong woman, who, despite my physical and mental wounds, continues to stand." Gorrostieta Salazar left the PRI and joined the PRD in August 2010, stating that the PRI had not supported her after the attacks. She ran for election to the National Congress with the PRD, but failed to get elected. At the end of her term as mayor, Gorrostieta Salazar retired from politics. She returned to private life, remarried, and dedicated her time to raise her three children: Malusi, José, and Deysi. Her police protection came to an end when her mayoral term expired in 2011. ## Assassination On 12 November 2012, Gorrostieta Salazar was driving her daughter to school in Morelia at around 8:30 a.m. when a vehicle ran them off the road. Two armed men descended from their vehicle and forced her out of her car as onlookers watched. Gorrostieta Salazar pleaded with her abductors to let her daughter go unharmed, and then agreed to go with the kidnappers. The family of the former mayor initially thought it was a ransom kidnapping. After not hearing from Gorrostieta Salazar or her abductors for two days, they notified the police. On 15 November, police identified the body after farm workers from the rural community of San Juan Tararameo in Cuitzeo found the corpse on their way to work. Post-mortem reports indicated that she died of a traumatic brain injury, the result of severe blows to the head. The governor of Michoacán said that organized crime was undoubtedly involved. Gorrostieta Salazar was buried alongside her husband José Sánchez Chávez in a tomb at a local cemetery in Tiquicheo, her hometown.

Passenger (Powderfinger song)

"Passenger" is a song from Powderfinger's third studio album Internationalist. It was released as a single on 9 August 1999, and reached \#30 on the Australian music chart. The single was nominated for Single of the year in 2000 at the Australian ARIA Music Awards. "Passenger" was also featured as the opening song performed by Powderfinger while supporting Crowded House's Farewell to the World charity concert in November 1996. ## Single release and history The single for "Passenger" included five companion tracks, including two live tracks. These were "Passenger" and "Pick You Up", both performed on 11 October 1998 at Sydney Opera House. A version of "These Days" was also included, and this was the first time the song was released. "Passenger" was released on 9 August 1999 in Australia, and was one of two Powderfinger songs that were actively being played on commercial radio at the time; the other being "These Days", which also appeared on the soundtrack for Two Hands. At the time, Powderfinger were performing in clubs and universities around Australia on their P2K tour, and the release of the single resulted in a large boost in ticket sales. ## Song structure In "Passenger", a recurring theme in Bernard Fanning’s song writing emerged; "a fascination with the banality of routine". Esky Magazine’s Kelsy Munro cited the lines "So many places you’d prefer to be / Than framed by a picket fence and salary" as an example of this, as well as examples from future songs "These Days" and "My Kind of Scene". When asked about this, Fanning offered no direct explanation, saying it wasn’t a conscious theme, but did suggest that it could be a "part guilt-complex" because of his relatively care-free lifestyle. In "Passenger", the key signature is D major, however the verses begin with the G chord, while the choruses and outro are in the D major's relative minor key, B minor. The song is a completely straight rock feel in the time signature of 4/4. "Passenger" featured Victorian trio Tiddas for the first time, providing backing vocals. Tiddas also accompanied Powderfinger live, although some of the elements of "Passenger", such as the brass sections, were replicated using a keyboard. Powderfinger's Drummer Jon Coghill described some elements of "Passenger", including the horn section, as being based on the work of Elvis Presley, and his big band. Coghill said "We tried to do it like Elvis would, in a big band arrangement. There are backing vocals, horns and a la la sound." ## Music video Powderfinger enlisted Brisbane-based production company Fifty Fifty Films to direct and produce the music video for "Passenger". This was the group's first experience with Fifty Fifty, and its success encouraged the group to direct future videos. The video for "Passenger" begins with the band members packing themselves and their musical instruments into suitcases. They are transported to an airport while the song's first verse is played. During the first chorus, the cases are loaded onto a baggage carousel with a bomb, whilst security personnel are distracted. The suitcases and bomb are then loaded onto an aeroplane. During the second verse, the bomb explodes, and the suitcases containing the band members fall out of it and are swallowed by an unnamed creature resembling a whale. They are later ejected from the blowhole of the creature into zero-gravity, when the second chorus commences. At the end of the chorus, the suitcases re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere. The video ends with the suitcases floating in the ocean. Carmine Pascuzzi, in an article about the band’s P2K tour, wrote that "Passenger" was "...accompanied by an excellent video". ## Response Powderfinger’s bass guitarist, John Collins, jokingly noted in an interview with Rod Yates of Massive Magazines that "the guitars are out of tune at the start of Passenger", whilst guitarist Darren Middleton explained that "there are not regrets with any of that sort of stuff, it’s part of who we are and what we’ve done", in reference to the out of tune guitars. Upon its release, "Passenger" was hailed as one of the songs on Internationalist to come close to "the big FM radio hits of Double Allergic", according to lead singer Bernard Fanning. Not that it mattered to him - he still believed Internationalist was a better record, but was probably not as "likable" as its predecessor. Juice'''s Simon Wooldridge agreed with Fanning, stating that "Passenger" "demonstrated their flair for the big hook was no longer being suppressed". On 2 August 2007, Australian television station Max published the Top 500 90s Songs, placing "Passenger" as the only Powderfinger song in the top 100, at \#48, just ahead of Fatboy Slim's "Praise You". ## Charts ## Awards As the final single from Internationalist, "Passenger" received nominations and awards from various institutions Australia-wide. Most notably, it was nominated three times by the Australian Recording Industry Association in 2000 for the ARIA Music Awards for Best Cover Art, Single of the Year and earned Powderfinger the nomination for Best Group, though won none of these awards. The song was also nominated and did win the award for Song of the Year from the Australasian Performing Right Association for their annual APRA Awards. The song also achieved the 100th position on the 1999 Triple J Hottest 100. ## Track listing All tracks written and performed by Powderfinger''. 1. "Passenger" – 4:09 2. "These Days" – 4:59 3. "Passenger (Live)" – 4:41 4. "Pick You Up (Live)" – 4:47 5. "Maxwell's Great Mistake" – 2:58 6. "That Ol' Track" – 3:47

Ernie Cooksey

British footballer (1980–2008)

Ernest George Cooksey (11 June 1980 – 3 July 2008) was an English footballer, who was a utility player. He started as a trainee with Colchester United, before joining non-League clubs Heybridge Swifts, Bishop's Stortford, Chesham United and Bromley. In 2002, he joined Southern Football League Premier Division side Crawley Town before turning professional with Football League side Oldham Athletic in 2003. He then moved to Rochdale in 2004 and Boston United in 2007, totalling 140 appearances in the Football League over a four-year period. He dropped down back into non-League football, joining Conference National club Grays Athletic, making 19 league appearances. Cooksey had a form of skin cancer removed from his back in 2006, but was diagnosed with a recurrence of a malignant melanoma in February 2008. He died in the early hours of 3 July 2008, aged 28. ## Football career ### Early career Cooksey had started his career as a trainee with Colchester United, prior to moving on to a number of non-League clubs. His first move was to Heybridge Swifts before joining Bishop's Stortford in 1998. He then moved on to Chesham United in 2000, leaving in 2002 to have a brief spell at Bromley. He joined Southern Football League Premier Division club, Crawley Town in July 2002, ready for the 2002–03 season. Cooksey made his debut for Crawley on 26 August, against Welling United coming on as a substitute, after he returned from coaching schoolchildren in Las Vegas for six months. He made 34 appearances, scoring once during his spell with Crawley, helping them to finish seventh in the Southern Football League Premier Division. ### Turning professional Cooksey joined Oldham Athletic on trial in July 2003. In August, at the age of 23, he stepped up three leagues into professional football permanently when Iain Dowie signed him on for financially troubled Oldham, who were in the Second Division. Bob Dowie, who was Cooksey's former manager at Chesham United, recommended the player to his brother, Iain. He followed in the footsteps of Fitz Hall and Wayne Andrews who also joined the club from Chesham as recommendations from Bob Dowie. Cooksey scored twice in Oldham's 3–0 home victory over Carlisle United in their FA Cup first round match on 8 November 2003. When the new season, 2003–04, started Cooksey was unable to make his debut due to suspension. He made 37 Second Division appearances for Oldham in the 2003–04 season, scoring four goals. Cooksey started the 2004–05 season with Oldham Athletic, playing one match, away against Luton Town on 7 August. He was released by Oldham on 15 September, after he was left out of manager Brian Talbot's plans. He dropped down into the Third Division, newly renamed as League Two, and signed for Rochdale a day later on 16 September, despite discussing terms with Carlisle United. He made his debut, away against Mansfield Town in the 1–0 away defeat on 18 September. During his first season with Rochdale, Cooksey received six yellow cards and two red cards on the field. However, his first red card of the season against Notts County was later overturned and downgraded to a yellow after a successful appeal to the FA. At the start of the 2006–07 season, he signed a 12-month extension to his contract. He spent more than two years with Rochdale, before joining Boston United in the January transfer window of 2007. Boston United were reduced to just 12 professionals on their books in the closing stages of the 2006–07 season, as the club could not afford to pay players wages. Cooksey had not been paid since February, and was spending £30 a day in fuel travelling from his Manchester home. He spent six months at Boston United and played 16 League Two games, but was unable to prevent them from being relegated from the Football League on the final day of the season. ### Return to non-League Following his release from Boston United, Cooksey stated that he'd like to reunite with former Boston manager Steve Evans, who was now manager of Cooksey's previous club, Crawley Town. He had an unsuccessful trial at Barnet, before joining Conference National side Grays Athletic in July 2007. He made his debut in Grays' first game of the season away to Torquay United in the 0–0 draw, on 12 August. Cooksey was sent off in Grays' 1–0 home defeat on 8 September, for a mistimed tackle on Michael Brough, as his trailing leg caught the opposition player. His last ever game was for Grays Athletic at home in a Conference National match against Exeter City on 16 February 2008. Cooksey played the full 90 minutes in the 2–0 defeat. During the 2007–08 season, he made 19 appearances in the Conference for Grays. ## Playing style Cooksey was a utility player, due to his versatility on the left flank and in the centre of midfield as a box-to-box midfielder. He was predominately a midfielder, throughout his career playing in the centre or on the left wing. During his spell with Grays Athletic, he was used as a defender, playing as a left full-back. ## Personal life and illness Before joining Oldham Athletic in August 2003, Cooksey worked as a builder fitting false ceilings, leaving the better-paid job to fulfil a lifelong ambition to become a professional footballer. In early 2008, he was diagnosed with malignant melanoma, a severe form of skin cancer. He had fought the disease before, when he had a form of skin cancer removed from his back in 2006. Cooksey suspected his cancer originated from a six-month spell coaching schoolchildren in the searing heat of Las Vegas in the United States. In April 2008, Grays Athletic staged a benefit match for Cooksey. The match consisted of former professional players, as well as current professionals such as Leroy Lita, Nicky Shorey, Aaron McLean, Ray Parlour, Justin Edinburgh, Iain Dowie, Bob Dowie, Clive Allen, Scott Fitzgerald and Paul Merson. He returned to his former club Oldham Athletic in May 2008, where another benefit match was staged for his appeal at Boundary Park, attended by 1,500 fans to see such former players as John Barnes, Luther Blissett and Chris Waddle as well as television actors from Coronation Street. Cooksey was born in Bishop's Stortford. He died in the early hours of 3 July 2008, at the age of 28, five weeks before partner Louise Newlove was due to give birth to their first child. Newlove gave birth to their daughter, Isabella-Georgia Cooksey, on 27 July 2008. ## Tributes Before the League Cup match between Oldham Athletic and Rochdale on 12 August 2008, both sets of players and management emerged from the tunnel wearing special Ernie Cooksey T-shirts bearing the number 4, the shirt number he wore at both clubs. The T-shirts bore both clubs' crests on the front along with the slogan "ERNIE COOKSEY – A TRUE GENT", and the reverse read "4 ERNIE". A bucket collection also took place with all the proceeds going to a fund set up in Cooksey's name. Additionally, his family, including partner Louise, were present at the game. Oldham Athletic fans had a St George's Cross flag made in his honour, which was due to be displayed at Oldham's matches, as well as being taken abroad for England international fixtures. The tribute flag was stolen in February 2009, when Spanish hooligans attacked English fans in Seville before an international friendly on 20 February, stealing England flags from fans as trophies. The flag was replaced after a number of donations helped to cover the costs.

Inner core super-rotation

Concept in geodynamics

Inner core super-rotation is the eastward rotation of the inner core of Earth relative to its mantle, for a net rotation rate that is usually faster than Earth as a whole. A 1995 model of Earth's dynamo predicted super-rotations of up to 3 degrees per year; the following year, this prediction was supported by observed discrepancies in the time that p-waves take to travel through the inner and outer core. Seismic observations have made use of a direction dependence (anisotropy) of the speed of seismic waves in the inner core, as well as spatial variations in the speed. Other estimates come from free oscillations of Earth. The results are inconsistent and the existence of a super-rotation is still controversial, but it is probably less than 0.1 degrees per year. When geodynamo models take into account gravitational coupling between the inner core and mantle, it lowers the predicted super-rotation to as little as 1 degree per million years. For the inner core to rotate despite gravitational coupling, it must be able to change shape, which places constraints on its viscosity. A 2023 study reported that the spin of the Earth's inner core has stopped spinning faster than the planet's surface around 2009 and likely is now rotating slower than it. ## Background At the center of Earth is the core, a ball with a mean radius of 3480 kilometres that is composed mostly of iron. The outer core is liquid while the inner core, with a radius of 1220 km, is solid. Because the outer core has a low viscosity, it could be rotating at a different rate from the mantle and crust. This possibility was first proposed in 1975 to explain a phenomenon of Earth's magnetic field called westward drift: some parts of the field rotate about 0.2 degrees per year westward relative to Earth's surface. In 1981, David Gubbins of Leeds University predicted that a differential rotation of the inner and outer core could generate a large toroidal magnetic field near the shared boundary, accelerating the inner core to the rate of westward drift. This would be in opposition to the Earth's rotation, which is eastwards, so the overall rotation would be slower. In 1995, Gary Glatzmeier at Los Alamos and Paul Roberts at UCLA published the first "self-consistent" three-dimensional model of the dynamo in the core. The model predicted that the inner core rotates 3 degrees per year faster than the mantle, a phenomenon that became known as super-rotation. 1996, Xiaodong Song and Paul G. Richards, scientists at the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, presented seismic evidence for a super-rotation of 0.4 to 1.8 degrees per year, while another study estimated the super-rotation to be 3 degrees per year. ## Seismic observations The main observational constraints on inner core rotation come from seismology. When an earthquake occurs, two kinds of seismic wave travel down through the Earth: those with ground motion in the direction the wave propagates (p-waves) and those with transverse motion (s-waves). S-waves do not travel through the outer core because they involve shear stress, a type of deformation that cannot occur in a liquid. In seismic notation, a p-wave is represented by the letter P when traveling through the crust and mantle and by the letter K when traveling through the outer core. A wave that travels through the mantle, core and mantle again before reaching the surface is represented by PKP. For geometric reasons, two branches of PKP are distinguished: PKP(AB) through the upper part of the outer core, and PKP(BC) through the lower part. A wave passing through the inner core is referred to as PKP(DF). (Alternate names for these phases are PKP1, PKP2 and PKIKP.) Seismic waves can travel multiple paths from an earthquake to a given sensor. PKP(BC) and PKP(DF) waves have similar paths in the mantle, so any difference in the overall travel time is mainly due to the difference in wave speeds between the outer and inner core. Song and Richards looked at how this difference changed over time. Waves traveling from south to north (emitted by earthquakes in the South Sandwich Islands and received at Fairbanks, Alaska) had a differential that changed by 0.4 seconds between 1967 and 1995. By contrast, waves traveling near the equatorial plane (e.g., between Tonga and Germany) showed no change. One of the criticisms of the early estimates of super-rotation was that uncertainties about the hypocenters of the earthquakes, particularly those in the earlier records, caused errors in the measurement of travel times. This error can be reduced by using data for doublet earthquakes. These are earthquakes that have very similar waveforms, indicating that the earthquakes were very close to each other (within about a kilometer). Using doublet data from the South Sandwich Islands, a study in 2015 arrived at a new estimate of 0.41° per year. Seismic observations – in particular "temporal changes between repeated seismic waves that should traverse the same path through the inner core" – were used to reveal a core rotation slow-down around 2009. This is not thought to have major effects and one cycle of the oscillation in rotation is thought to be about seven decades, coinciding with several other geophysical periodicities, "especially the length of day and magnetic field". ### Inner core anisotropy Song and Richards explained their observations in terms of the prevailing model of inner core anisotropy at the time. Waves were observed to travel faster between north and south than along the equatorial plane. A model for the inner core with uniform anisotropy had a direction of fastest travel tilted at an angle 10° from the spin axis of the Earth. Since then, the model for the anisotropy has become more complex. The top 100 kilometers are isotropic. Below that, there is stronger anisotropy in a "western" hemisphere (roughly centered on the Americas) than in an "eastern" hemisphere (the other half of the globe), and the anisotropy may increase with depth. There may also be a different orientation of anisotropy in an "innermost inner core" (IMIC) with a radius of about 550 kilometers. A group at the University of Cambridge used travel time differentials to estimate the longitudes of the hemisphere boundaries with depth up to 90 kilometers below the inner core boundary. Combining this information with an estimate for the rate of growth for the inner core, they obtained a rate of 0.1–1° per million years. Estimates of the rotation rate based on travel time differentials have been inconsistent. Those based on the Sandwich Island earthquakes have the fastest rates, although they also have a weaker signal, with PKP(DF) barely emerging above the noise. Estimates based on other paths have been lower or even in the opposite direction. By one analysis, the rotation rate is constrained to be less than 0.1° per year. ### Heterogeneity A study in 1997 revisited the Sandwich Islands data and came to a different conclusion about the origin of changes in travel times, attributing them to local heterogeneities in wave speeds. The new estimate for super-rotation was reduced to 0.2–0.3° per year. Inner core rotation has also been estimated using PKiKP waves, which scatter off the surface of the inner core, rather than PKP(DF) waves. Estimates using this method have ranged from 0.05 to 0.15° per year. ### Normal modes Another way of constraining the inner core rotation is using normal modes (standing waves in Earth), giving a global picture. Heterogeneities in the core split the modes, and changes in the "splitting functions" over time can be used to estimate the rotation rate. However, their accuracy is limited by the shortage of seismic stations in the 1970s and 1980s, and the inferred rotation can be positive or negative depending on the mode. Overall, normal modes are unable to distinguish the rotation rate from zero. ## Theory In the 1995 model of Glatzmeier and Roberts, the inner core is rotated by a mechanism similar to an induction motor. A thermal wind in the outer core gives rise to a circulation pattern with flow from east to west near the inner core boundary. Magnetic fields passing through the inner and outer cores provide a magnetic torque, while viscous torque on the boundary keeps the inner core and the fluid near it rotating at the same rate on average. The 1995 model did not include the effect of gravitational coupling between density variations in the mantle and topography on the inner core boundary. A 1996 study predicted that it would force the inner core and mantle to rotate at the same rate, but a 1997 paper showed that relative rotation could occur if the inner core was able to change its shape. This would require the viscosity to be less than 1.5 x 10²⁰ pascal-seconds (Pa·s). It also predicted that, if the viscosity were too low (less than 3 x 10¹⁶ Pa·s), the inner core would not be able to maintain its seismic anisotropy. However, the source of the anisotropy is still not well understood. A model of the viscosity of the inner core based on Earth's nutations constrains the viscosity to 2–7 × 10¹⁴ Pa·s. Geodynamo models that take into account gravitational locking and changes in the length of day predict a super-rotation rate of only 1° per million years. Some of the inconsistencies between measurements of the rotation may be accommodated if the rotation rate oscillates. ## See also - Inverse problem

Cyclone Fakir

Tropical Cyclone in 2018

Tropical Cyclone Fakir was a short-lived yet damaging tropical cyclone that affected Réunion and Mauritius in late April 2018. The eighth tropical system and seventh named storm of the 2017–18 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season, Fakir originated from an area of disturbed weather that developed north-northeast of Madagascar on 20 April 2018. The system concentrated into a tropical depression by 23 April, and was given the name Fakir later that day. It rapidly intensified while moving quickly south-southeastwards despite the presence of hostile wind shear, and reached its peak intensity early on 24 April, hours before passing just east of Réunion. Fakir succumbed to the wind shear shortly after and weakened as quickly as it had strengthened, becoming a post-tropical cyclone on 25 April. The remnant system decelerated and turned east-northeast while continuing to weaken, and dissipated the next day. Fakir was the fifth and last in a series of cyclones to affect Réunion in the first half of 2018, after cyclones Ava, Berguitta, Dumazile, and Eliakim. Strong, gusty winds and floods and landslides resulting from heavy rains occurred across Réunion from 25 to 26 April, causing severe damage to agriculture and infrastructure. Schools and businesses were shut ahead of the adverse weather, and flights were delayed at the island's airports. Power lines were blown down or damaged by fallen trees in many areas, resulting in widespread power outages. Water supplies were also disrupted in some areas. Floods and mudslides affected buildings and public facilities all over Réunion, bringing about significant property damage and racking up large repair costs. A mudslide killed two people in L'Étang-Salé. Agriculture was heavily affected, with crops ruined by heavy rains and mudslides and livestock drowned by floodwaters. Total damage in Réunion exceeded €15 million (US\$17.7 million). Immediately after the storm, disaster declarations were issued in 15 municipalities and cleanup operations commenced. In the following months, aid was distributed to farmers to help them recoup losses and restart their farms. However, the prices of fruits and vegetables remained elevated up to half a year after Fakir. In nearby Mauritius, cyclone warnings were issued and schools were closed on 24 April. However, impacts were much less severe than in Réunion, being limited to fallen trees, flooded roadways, and mild crop damage. ## Meteorological history On 20 April, Météo-France La Réunion (MFR) began to monitor an area of disturbed weather, characterized by a large clockwise surface circulation, to the north-northeast of Madagascar. Tropical cyclogenesis was not initially anticipated by the MFR, owing to modest easterly wind shear and the absence of significant low-level convergence, as well as an expected increase in northerly wind shear. The system deepened slightly on 22 April, and the MFR noted it had become a tropical disturbance at 06:00 UTC. It organized more quickly later that day, with thunderstorms developing near the system's center and forming a spiral rainband. This led the MFR to classify the system as a tropical depression at 00:00 UTC on 23 April. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) simultaneously assessed the system as a tropical storm. At the time, the system was moving quickly south-southeast, steered by a ridge to its east and an upper-level trough to its west. Rapid development continued through 23 April as an eye feature became visible on microwave satellite imagery, and the system was christened Moderate Tropical Storm Fakir at 11:00 UTC by Météo Madagascar; post-analysis by the MFR revealed that the cyclone had already reached this strength by 06:00 UTC. Fakir continued to intensify over the next few hours and developed a central dense overcast, aided by significant upper-level divergence over its southern half. Despite increasing northwesterly wind shear from the aforementioned upper-level trough, the storm's rapid south-southeastward motion temporarily offset the hostile effects of the shear, allowing it to strengthen more than expected. The system became a severe tropical storm at 18:00 UTC on 23 April and peaked as a mature tropical cyclone at 00:00 UTC on 24 April, possessing 10-minute sustained winds of 130 km/h (80 mph), gusts to 185 km/h (115 mph), and a minimum central pressure of 975 hPa (28.79 inHg), as assessed by the MFR. Meanwhile, the JTWC estimated 1-minute sustained winds of 140 km/h (85 mph). Wind shear began to take its toll on the cyclone shortly after, with the eye feature becoming less apparent on satellite imagery. Fakir passed just 20 km (12 mi) off the eastern coast of Réunion at 05:00 UTC, where a weather station reported a minimum pressure of 981 hPa (28.97 inHg). The cyclone weakened back to a severe tropical storm by 12:00 UTC, and further degraded to a moderate tropical storm six hours later as its center of circulation became exposed to the northwest of its remaining thunderstorm activity. These thunderstorms soon dissipated too as dry air associated with the upper-level trough to the west was driven into the circulation by the strong wind shear, while sea surface temperatures decreased along the cyclone's path. As such, the MFR and JTWC declared Fakir post-tropical at 00:00 UTC on 25 April. The remnants slowed down and turned east-northeastwards on 25 and 26 April under the influence of a low-level ridge while continuing to spin down, eventually dissipating entirely just after 18:00 UTC on 26 April. Tropical cyclones passing close to Réunion in 2018, including Ava, Berguitta, Dumazile, and Fakir, caused a large reduction in the amount of mid- to upper-level clouds over the island. A combination of the Madden–Julian oscillation and tropical cyclones Dumazile, Eliakim, and Fakir resulted in a westward flow of moisture, causing severe rainfall over Kenya during March and April 2018. ## Preparations and impact ### Réunion Fakir brought wind and rain to the island of Réunion, causing flooding and mudslides which impacted travel. High waves up to 8 m (26 ft) high affected the northern and eastern coasts of Réunion. A 12-hour rainfall total of 415 mm (16.3 in) was recorded at Hauts de Sainte Rose. Rainfall across the island averaged 200–300 mm (7.9–11.8 in) for that period. Sustained winds of 100 km/h (62 mph) and gusts up to 176 km/h (109 mph) occurred in Gros Piton Sainte-Rose. Flights to and from Johannesburg, Mauritius, and Rodrigues were either delayed or canceled due to inclement weather conditions. A tree was felled by the storm, blocking a street in Floréal. Around 280 homes lost power in Flacq, Trianon, and Henrietta after tree limbs damaged power lines. Metal sheeting damaged a high-voltage electrical line near Quatre-Bornes, leaving many customers without electricity. Electrical wires were downed in Bois-des-Amourettes, and power poles were felled in St-Pierre, Bois des Amourettes, Mahébourg, and Belle-Mare. Blackouts occurred in multiple towns. Winds downed a streetlight in Rose-Hill and a power pole in Agrément, St-Pierre. Signs for businesses in Sorèze, Plaine-Magnien, Bagatelle, and Curepipe were damaged by winds. A football field and several residences were inundated by floodwaters in Rivière-du-Rempart. During the storm, the Special Mobile Force worked to clear a road in Pointe-aux-Sables. Twelve waste and recycling centers were closed, and the Kar'Ouest transportation system was disrupted due to severe weather. The latter reopened on 24 April. A married couple was killed on the southern side of the island, near Étang-Salé, after a mudslide buried their house. At least 114,000 residences lost power during the storm, however, all but 19,000 were restored by 25 April. Houses were flooded in Saint-Louis. Numerous schools sustained wind and flood damage. Officials estimated at least €7 million (US\$8.26 million) in damage occurred to agriculture and that €4.5 million (US\$5.3 million) would be needed to repair roadways. The road to Cilaos and the RN 5 highway were closed due to damage. The RN 5 highway was partially reopened during 25–26 April. Business activity was disrupted in Cilaos, causing losses to entrepreneurs. Dozens of homes were flooded in Saint-André and roadways turned into gullies. Mudslides damaged the Joseph-Bedier College in Saint-André, necessitating at least €2.5 million (US\$3 million) in repairs. The playground was entirely flooded, and at least 40 classrooms were damaged by water, mud, and debris; at least 6 rooms were ruined. Staff worked to clean 36 of the classrooms. In that town, one farm lost two melon greenhouses worth €30,000 (US\$35,300) collectively, and 3,000 square metres (32,000 sq ft) of chilli fields were destroyed. Power and water supplies were cut to many homes in Saint-André. Although electricity had been restored in high voltage lines, a borehole was still offline, leaving at least half the homes in the area without water. Pipelines were damaged in Bras Citronnier. A fence was blown down by strong winds and lights were damaged at the Libra soccer field. A swimming pool filled up with mud and a gymnasium was inundated by water, with the latter resulting in damage to gym equipment. At one property, a home's wall and a retaining wall were destroyed, and a septic tank was lifted away by floodwaters. At another house, a generator was washed away and a steel gate was damaged. Floodwaters also washed a car into a ravine. In Sainte-Rose, a farmer who produced 80,000 bananas per week suffered large losses. Another farmer lost 150 metric tons (170 short tons) of tomato plants. Banana and palm kernel crops were also crippled at the latter farm. Schools were closed on 26 April in the Saint-Pierre Municipality as a result of damage. In Sainte-Suzanne, dormitories and classrooms at the Hippolyte Foucque college experienced flood damage, resulting in classes being canceled on 25 April. Houses were surrounded by water, and a stall and parking lot were flooded near the Niagara Waterfall. Floodwaters formed a small island out of sediment and dead plant matter near the waterfall. On the same day, schools and daycares were closed in Saint-Joseph, St. Benedict, Port, St. Andrew, St. Paul, and Sainte-Suzanne. Extracurricular activities were also canceled in multiple cities. In St. Paul, schools and nurseries sustained damage, roadways were blocked, and access to water was cut. The storm deroofed multiple residences and garages and downed electrical cables in St-Philippe. The Anse des Cascades was closed to tourists after dozens of trees were felled. At least 40 canoes and small craft were either damaged or destroyed in Sainte-Rose during the storm. One person had to be rescued after he fell into the water. Two of the vessels were unusable and another eleven required replacement engines or other repairs. Damage sustained by those thirteen ships was estimated to be €140,000 (US\$165,000). The roofs and plexiglass of agricultural buildings were blown away by strong winds in Grand-Ilet. Twenty farms suffered damage during the storm, including one that lost at least 1,500 chickens. Locker rooms at a football field sustained damage, and the Bois-de-Pommes school was inundated by floodwaters. The church of Salazie village was further damaged. A potato field in the Plaine des Cafres region was destroyed by heavy rainfall. Sugar cane production across the island was significantly decreased by the storm. Total damage across the island exceeded €15 million (US\$17.7 million). ### Mauritius A Class II cyclone warning was issued for the island of Mauritius at 10 p.m. local time on 23 April, while Fakir was 510 km (320 mi) to the northwest. Schools, universities, and preschools were closed on 24 April. Fakir passed 130 km (81 mi) west-southwest of Le Morne Brabant at about 10 a.m. on 24 April, representing its closest approach to the island. Gusty winds and moderate rain were recorded on Mauritius. The highest gust in relation to Fakir was 112 km/h (70 mph) at Beaux-Songes, and a peak 24-hour rainfall total of 105 mm (4.1 in) was recorded at Riche-en-Eau. The cyclone warning was lifted on the afternoon of 24 April as Fakir raced off to the south. Damage on the island was limited to fallen trees and street flooding in the southern and western regions. About 280 households lost electricity as power lines were damaged by fallen trees. Firefighters and members of the Special Mobile Force were deployed 32 times to help clear roads and conduct rescues. Damage to crops caused by the rains resulted in an increase in the prices of vegetables by 20 percent in the week following Fakir. ## Aftermath At least 360 firefighters conducted at least 253 operations on 24 April, including 5 rescues. Around triple the amount of plant waste was collected during a one-month period after the storm. At least 559 cases for emergency aid had been approved, totaling €226,930 (US\$267,131). At least four months following Fakir, most of the fishermen in Sainte-Rose were unable to return to sea due to a lack of funds to repair their damaged vessels. After Fakir, MP David Lorion requested that the Réunion Prefecture Government and the Minister of the Overseas establish a disaster relief fund to repair damage sustained from tropical cyclones throughout the 2017–18 season. Similarly, the mayor of Sainte-Suzanne requested an emergency meeting be called for the Association of Mayors of Reunion Island to find solutions for problems caused by the numerous tropical cyclones during the year. A disaster declaration was issued for 15 municipalities as a result of agricultural losses during Fakir, including Les Avirons, Bras-Panon, L'Entre-Deux, L'Étang-Salé, Petite-Île, Saint André, Saint-Benoît, Saint-Joseph, Saint-Leu, Saint-Louis, Saint-Pierre, Saint Philippe, Sainte-Marie, Sainte-Rose, and Sainte-Suzanne. Many farms were destroyed, with some requiring up to a year for repairs. Crop shortages occurred following the storm, with some farms struggling to recover. Work began to cleanup the Anse des Cascades in July. Over 2 hectares (4.9 acres), including at least 100 trees, had to be pruned. Power lines and trees covered the access road to the tourist attraction. No repair work had commenced a month post-storm. Damage in the area was estimated at €160,000 (US\$188,300), with €70,000 (US\$82,400) occurring at the tourist attraction. A large, 15 metric tons (17 short tons) banyan was 75 percent straightened months after Fakir. After five successive cyclones affected the island, the Communist Party of Réunion held meetings to discuss reforming construction standards and reassess areas under risk. The Réunion Departmental Council voted to disperse €2.3 million (US\$2.7 million) in aid to farmers in May 2018. In August, the Tampon city council distributed 160 metric tons (180 short tons) of fertilizer to 155 farmers to aid in recovery efforts. The banks of the Saint Jean river in Sainte-Suzanne and Saint-André were damaged during the storm. Work took place in February 2019 to repair the shore in Saint-André, however, no repair work occurred for the shoreline in Sainte-Suzanne. Residents sought legal action, expressing concern that the work impeded their properties because it caused a deviation in the river that directed it towards their homes. A small protest broke out in Pamplemousses, Mauritius, over alleged failure by the authorities to hand out allowances to disaster victims. At least €6.1 million (US\$7.2 million) in funds were provided to add a drainage network to the Chemin Stéphane highway in March 2019, following the flooding caused by cyclones Berguitta and Fakir. Multiple crops were severely damaged during the storm, such as bananas, potatoes, and vegetables. A combination of disease and the damage caused by Fakir resulted in a 70-percent cut to banana production. Bananas cost an average of €1 (US\$1.2) more per 1 kg (2.2 lb) for at least six months after the storm. Prices in some areas were double or triple the normal rate. The FDSEA organization in Saint-André offered €25 (US\$29) in aid per 1 m² (11 sq ft) of land for farmers who suffered losses after Fakir. The prefecture promised at least €2,000 (US\$2,400) per 1 hectare (2.5 acres) in relief funds for farmers affected by tropical cyclones during the 2017–18 season. The city of Saint-Leu set up a service to provide aid to uninsured people in June 2018. The service provided compensation for 30 percent of the losses experienced. ## See also - Weather of 2017 and 2018 - Tropical cyclones in 2017 and 2018 - Tropical cyclones in the Mascarene Islands

Down a Dark Hall

Book by Lois Duncan

Down a Dark Hall is a 1974 young adult gothic novel by Lois Duncan. The book follows Kit Gordy, who is sent to a boarding school where only four students are admitted including herself. The students suddenly develop new talents, with Kit waking up one night playing a musical piece she has never heard. After they are told that they have been channeling the spirits of talented historical figures, Kit tries to escape the school before the bond between the spirits and the students becomes permanent. Duncan began working on the novel based on the suggestion of an editor who had never seen a gothic novel written for young adults. One version of the novel that she submitted to the publisher was returned to her for revision because all the victims in the story were female whereas all the spirits they were channeling were male. The publisher was worried that feminists would not like this idea, so after Duncan made one of the spirits a woman the book was accepted for publication. A revised edition of the novel was released in 2011 with updates to modernize the novel. Critical reception to the book was mostly positive, with staff at the University of Iowa adding the novel to their Books for Young Adults list. A film adaptation of the book starring AnnaSophia Robb and Uma Thurman was released in 2018. ## Plot Kit Gordy is forced to go to a boarding school in Upstate New York named the Blackwood School for Girls. She arrives at her home for the school year with her new stepfather and her mother, who are ready to go on their honeymoon. Madame Duret is in charge of the school, having previously run schools in France and England before moving to the United States to open Blackwood. The girls at the school begin to discover new talents, which manifest most prominently as they sleep. Lynda, who exhibited no artistic ability before attending the school, begins to paint landscapes on a professional level, signing them "T.C." Ruth finds herself able to practice high-level math and science. Sandy, Kit's closest friend at Blackwood, writes sonnets she says were dictated to her by a woman named Ellis. One night, Kit wakes up at the school's piano playing a piece she has never heard as Jules, Madame Duret's son and Blackwood's music teacher, records her. Kit demands to know what is happening at the school and why the students suddenly possess these new skills. A conference with all the students and teachers is quickly arranged so that Kit and the other students can hear the answers to these questions. Madame Duret explains that she is using the girls to channel the spirits of talented individuals from the past so that they can carry out the work they could not finish before their death. She confirms Ruth's suspicion that Emily Brontë under her pen name Ellis Bell has been contacting Sandy. Kit also realizes that Lynda must be channeling Thomas Cole, whose painting she saw in Madame Duret's office. Several days later, the girls discover that many of their letters to their friends and family have been withheld from them. Kit and Sandy also determine that if they do not leave Blackwood before Christmas vacation, the psychic bonds will become permanent and they will never be free from the harassment of the dead. In an effort to escape the school, Kit slips a letter to Blackwood's former cook and tells her to get it to Tracy Rosenblum, Kit's best friend. The lights go out during a thunderstorm one night, so Kit sneaks off to Madame Duret's office to call for help. However, the phone line is dead and Jules quickly finds her in the office after Madame Duret sends him out to search for her. Kit convinces him to access Madam Duret's files so they can see what happened to her previous students. Jules looks through the files and discovers that out of the twenty girls at her previous schools, four died and the rest were sent to mental institutions. He finally agrees to help the girls escape. Jules and Kit confront Madame Duret with their findings as Sandy and Ruth look on. Sandy and Ruth throw work they completed into the lit fireplace, angering the spirits and causing the fire to quickly spread across the house. Once they make it safely outside, they realize that they left Lynda in her bedroom. Kit goes back to save her, while Ruth and Sandy throw rocks at her window to get Lynda's attention. Kit convinces Lynda to jump to safety from outside her locked door, but soon realizes that she is trapped in the burning house. An apparition of Kit's father, who died in a car accident when she was little, leads her out of the house. Tracy's family is waiting outside to take her home, having received a phone call from the ex chef that she was being held against her will. ## Background and publication history Down a Dark Hall was originally published on September 26, 1974 by Little, Brown and Company in hardcover. Duncan began writing the book after an editor, who had never seen a gothic novel aimed at young adults, suggested she try coming up with one. Down a Dark Hall is the only gothic novel that Duncan ever wrote. A challenge that she had while writing the book was creating new descriptions for Blackwood's upstairs hallway each time Kit used it to walk to and from her room. She dealt with this problem by describing Kit's journey across the hall at various times in the day. Duncan modeled Kit after her daughter Kerry. One version of the novel she submitted to the publisher was returned to her for revision because all of the victims in the story were female while all the spirits the students were channeling were male. The publisher was concerned that feminists would have a problem with this idea, so Duncan changed the spirit of the dead poet from Alan Seeger to Emily Brontë, after which the book was accepted for publication. For a scene in the novel which discussed how Madame Duret aged a painting, Duncan consulted her artist friend Betty Sabo, who explained how the process works and reviewed her manuscript to make sure she described it correctly. Down a Dark Hall is dedicated to Betty Sabo and her husband Dan Sabo. On April 19, 2011, a revised version of the novel was released with changes to modernize the content. Down a Dark Hall, along with Stranger with My Face and Summer of Fear, was the second group of 10 novels by Duncan to be updated. Duncan introduced cell phones in the revised edition, which presented a challenge because it meant that characters could just call for help. To explain away the cell phone, Duncan writes in the story that the school had no cell phone service. Duncan also changed the last name of Kit's mother and stepfather from Rheardon to Rolland because she felt that she had overused the surname Rheardon while updating some of her young adult novels. An audiobook version of the novel was released by Listening Library in 1985, and another, narrated by Emma Galvin, was released by Hachette Audio in 2011. A reviewer from AudioFile liked Galvin's narration, stating that she "eerily portrays the sinister school, staff, and faculty, as well as the terror of the students as events become more and more mysterious." ## Major themes Cosette Kies states in Presenting Lois Duncan that Down a Dark Hall is about loss of personal identity and possession. Deborah Wilson Overstreet, writing in The ALAN Review, says that the book explores the importance of taking responsibility for one's own self. In the novel, Kit demonstrates responsibility by actively being involved in her escape from Blackwood and helping the other students escape. ## Reception Staff at the University of Iowa included the book in their 1975 Books for Young Adults list, which represents the popular reading choices of the junior and senior high school students they surveyed in Iowa. Gloria Levitas from The New York Times thought that Duncan's "off hand treatment" towards Kit's romantic feelings let her focus on the character's intelligence and rationality. She felt that the "result is highly original; a gothic novel that is more a commentary on the dangers of education than on the perils of unrequited love." A reviewer from Kirkus Reviews stated that Duncan is able to portray frightening ghosts in the story without focusing too much on their distinguishing features. In a review of the 2011 revised edition, Tor.com's Mari Ness thought that updating the novel to the 21st century created problems with the book. She felt that it did not make sense that a school that states it provides advanced science lessons has no Internet access and said Kit's mother could have researched the school and its teachers online before sending her daughter there. ## Film adaptation Stephenie Meyer optioned Down a Dark Hall for film in April 2012. Principal photography began in October 2016 in Barcelona and ended in December 2016. Filming took place over four weeks in Barcelona and two weeks in the Canary Islands. It was released on August 17, 2018 with a limited release in theaters and a digital release through video-on-demand. The film grossed \$2.71 million during its theatrical run. The film was directed by Rodrigo Cortés and the screenplay was written by Chris Sparling and Michael Goldbach. It stars AnnaSophia Robb as Kit Gordy and Uma Thurman as Madame Duret. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50% based on 26 reviews, with the site's critics consensus reading: "Down a Dark Hall is more stylish than scary, although its foreboding atmosphere may raise a few goosebumps among younger viewers."

HMS Hope (1910)

Destroyer of the Royal Navy

HMS Hope was the first warship constructed by Swan Hunter and one of 20 Acorn class (later H-class) destroyers built for the Royal Navy that served in the First World War. The Acorn class were smaller than the preceding Beagle class but oil-fired and better armed. Launched in 1910, Hope served with the Second Destroyer Flotilla of the Grand Fleet as an escort based at Devonport for most of the war, protecting ships like , until being transferred to Malta to serve with the Fifth Destroyer Flotilla as part of the Mediterranean Fleet in 1917. Hope collided with and sank the destroyer HMS Arno in 1918. After the Armistice, the destroyer continued to serve in Malta under being sold in 1920. ## Design and description After the coal-burning Beagle class, the Acorn-class destroyer saw a return to oil-firing. Pioneered by the Tribal class of 1905 and HMS Swift of 1907, using oil enabled a more efficient design, leading to a smaller vessel which also had increased deck space available for weaponry. Unlike previous designs, where the individual yards had been given discretion within the parameters set by the Admiralty, the Acorn class were a set, with the machinery the only major variation between the different ships. This enabled costs to be reduced. The class was later renamed H class. Hope was 240-foot (73 m) long between perpendiculars and 246 ft (75 m) overall, with a beam of 25 ft 5 in (7.7 m) and a deep draught of 8 ft 6 in (2.6 m). Displacement was 745 long tons (834 short tons; 757 tonnes) normal and 855 long tons (869 t) full load. Power was provided by Parsons steam turbines, fed by four Yarrow boilers constructed by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company. Parsons supplied a complex of seven turbines, a high-pressure and two low pressure for high speed, two turbines for cruising and two for running astern, driving three shafts. The high-pressure turbine drove the centre shaft, the remainder being distributed to the wing-shafts. Three funnels were fitted, the foremost tall and thin, the central short and thick and the aft narrow. The engines were rated at 13,500 shaft horsepower (10,100 kW) and design speed was 27 knots (50 km/h; 31 mph). On trial, Hope achieved 27.1 knots (50.2 km/h; 31.2 mph), a speed exceeded by the rest of the class. The vessel carried 170 long tons (170 t) of fuel oil which gave a range was 1,540 nautical miles (2,850 km; 1,770 mi) at a cruising speed of 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph). The more efficient use of deck space enabled a larger armament to be mounted. A single BL 4 in (102 mm) Mk VIII gun was carried on the forecastle and another aft. Two single QF 12-pounder (3 in (76 mm)) guns were mounted between the first two funnels. Two rotating 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes were mounted aft of the funnels, with two reloads carried, and a searchlight fitted between the tubes. The destroyer was later modified to carry a single Vickers QF 3-pounder (47 mm (2 in)) anti-aircraft gun and depth charges for anti-submarine warfare. The ship's complement was 72 officers and ratings. ## Construction and career The 20 destroyers of the Acorn class were ordered by the Admiralty under the 1909–1910 Naval Programme. The only one of the class sourced from Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson, Hope was laid down at the company's Wallsend shipyard on 5 December 1909, launched on 6 September 1910, and commissioned at Portsmouth on 4 March 1911. The ship was the first warship built at the yard and the most recent in a line of seventeen ships in Royal Navy service to bear the name. Hope joined the Second Destroyer Flotilla. On 22 March 1913, Hope was being fuelled at Cromarty when a fire occurred, injuring five men, of which four were seriously injured. In August 1914, the Flotilla became part of the Grand Fleet and the destroyers were deployed to Devonport to undertake escort duties. On 30 July 1915, Hope escorted the liner transporting troops to the Mediterranean, and SS Commodore which undertook the journey between Liverpool and Dublin every night. On 5 March 1916, the vessel rescued the crew of the merchant ship SS Rothesay. On 3 December 1916, the vessel returned from Dover to Devonport after a short detachment there. On 23 January 1917, the destroyer rescued the crew of the Dutch merchant ship SS Salland, sunk twenty minutes prior by the German submarine SM U-53. Later that year, Hope was transferred to the Fifth Destroyer Flotilla as part of the Mediterranean Fleet under the protected cruiser HMS Blenheim. On 20 January 1918, the destroyer was attached to the Aegean Squadron, based at Malta. While serving in the eastern Mediterranean, Hope collided with the destroyer HMS Arno on 23 March, sinking the smaller vessel. After the Armistice, the Royal Navy returned to a peacetime level of strength and both the number of ships and the amount of staff needed to be reduced to save money. Hope continued to serve in the Mediterranean Fleet but was paid off in 1919. The vessel was sold for breaking up at Malta in February 1920. ## Pennant numbers

When the Bough Breaks (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

"When the Bough Breaks" is the seventeenth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation. The episode first aired in broadcast syndication on February 15, 1988. It is the first episode written for the series by Hannah Louise Shearer and the only episode of the series with Kim Manners as director. Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D. In the episode, the residents of a not-so-mythical planet kidnap children from the Enterprise to re-populate their dying world. While Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) attempts to negotiate for their release, Wesley Crusher (Wil Wheaton) organizes a passive resistance among the children. The episode features Jerry Hardin in his first Star Trek role (later as Samuel Clemens in Time's Arrow), and Brenda Strong. Mackenzie Westmore, the daughter of make-up supervisor Michael Westmore, along with Jeremy and Amy Wheaton, the younger brother and sister of Wil Wheaton, appear as uncredited children (with character names of Rose, Mason, and Tara, respectively, as listed in the script). 10.2 million viewers watched the episode, which was higher than the number of viewers watching the following episode. "When the Bough Breaks" received a mixed reception from critics who praised the performances of Stewart and Wheaton, but criticized the lack of subtlety in its environmental message. ## Plot The Enterprise enters the Epsilon Mynos system, searching for the legendary world of Aldea. The planet de-cloaks, and reveals itself to the ship. The Aldeans beam down Commander William Riker (Jonathan Frakes), Counselor Deanna Troi (Marina Sirtis), and Chief Medical Officer Beverly Crusher (Gates McFadden) to the planet. The Aldeans explain that they have been unable to bear children for many years and revealed themselves to the Enterprise in hopes they could trade their advanced technology for some of the Enterprise's children so that they can re-populate their world. Riker refuses and the crew is returned to the Enterprise. Simultaneously, seven children, including young Wesley Crusher (Wil Wheaton), are taken down to the planet protected by a planetary energy shield that the crew of the Enterprise are unable to penetrate. While the Aldean elders attempt to integrate the children into their society, Wesley is shown the "Custodian", an ancient computer system that the Aldeans rely on but do not understand. As Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) attempts to negotiate with the Aldeans, they briefly allow Dr. Crusher to reunite with her son on the planet. Wesley hints about the Custodian to her, while she secretly passes him a tricorder to scan the Aldeans. After Picard fails to get the Aldeans to agree to the children's return, they fire an energy weapon that sends the Enterprise three days away from Aldea at maximum warp. The Aldeans warn that they can send the Enterprise an impossibly far distance if they refuse to cooperate. During the return trip, Dr. Crusher reviews the scanner results and finds the Aldeans are suffering from radiation poisoning, which has harmed their reproductive capabilities but can be reversed if the source is discovered. On arrival back at the planet, Picard orders the crew to try to find a way through the planet's shield while he restarts negotiations. Wesley, aware the Enterprise is in orbit, arranges for the children to passively resist. When the Aldeans request Picard's help to resolve the issue with the children, the crew finds a way to beam through the shield, allowing Commander Riker and Lt. Commander Data (Brent Spiner) to sneak onto the planet. Data manages to disable the Custodian, disrupting the Aldean's transporter and planetary shield. Dr. Crusher explains to the Aldeans that their shield has weakened the ozone layer of their planet, exposing the inhabitants to ultraviolet radiation that has left them unable to bear children. The radiation would likely have the same effects on the children from the Enterprise. Without the planetary shield, the ozone layer will naturally return, allowing the Aldeans to reproduce again. The Aldeans accept the error of their ways and return the children to the Enterprise. Starfleet offers to help to correct their ancient systems and recognize that they will have to forgo their invisibility to continue their society. ## Production Writer Hannah Louise Shearer pitched the episode to associate producer D. C. Fontana, highlighting the families living on board the Enterprise. While the pilot episode "Encounter at Farpoint" first mentioned the children on the ship, "When the Bough Breaks" was the first time they had been used as a plot element. Shearer also discussed a story idea with series creator Gene Roddenberry about "a society that had lost its humanity in favor of technology". Originally, there was a subplot involving the separation of the saucer section with the saucer taken hostage. Shearer described Wheaton's performance in the episode as "just wonderful". "When the Bough Breaks" was the first of five episodes credited to Shearer; she later described it as her favourite episode. It was the only episode of the series directed by Kim Manners. Manners later produced the television series The X-Files and Supernatural. Visual effects supervisor Robert Legato created a two-foot (0.61 m) model of the Aldean computer. It was cheaper to build a model of the computer for around US\$3,000 than to create a series of matte paintings. Ron Jones took a simple approach to the score, using a lilting theme with a piano or flute instead of singing. The theme is representative of the Enterprise's children and first appeared in the opening cue, "Escape From Calculus". The technology of Aldea is embodied by electronic music across several pieces, including "Scanning for Children" and "Power Source". Legato also constructed a model of the Aldean power source. Legato's visual effects for this episode were showcased in the Reading Rainbow episode "The Bionic Bunny Show". Among the guest stars in "When the Bough Breaks" were Jerry Hardin who later appeared again in The Next Generation as Mark Twain in the two-part episode "Time's Arrow", and appeared in The X-Files as Deep Throat. Brenda Strong went on to appear as Mary Alice Young in 179 episodes of Desperate Housewives, and was nominated for two Emmy Awards. Several uncredited children appeared, including Mackenzie Westmore, the daughter of make-up supervisor Michael Westmore and the younger siblings of Wil Wheaton, Jeremy and Amy. ## Reception The episode first aired on February 15, 1988. It received Nielsen ratings of 10.2 million on the first broadcast, a ratings decrease following "Too Short a Season", which received ratings of 10.9 the previous week. The episode received higher ratings than the following episode, "Home Soil" the week after, which gained ratings of 9 million. Several reviewers re-watched the episode after the end of the series. Keith DeCandido of Tor.com said it was "A mostly harmless episode that lifts quite a bit from The Cliché Handbook". He thought the performances were fairly solid and that the overall message about the ozone layer was "unsubtle but not too sledgehammery". DeCandido praised Patrick Stewart's performance of Captain Picard, noting that his "anger and outrage and justified self-righteousness at the kidnapping of children modulates nicely into diplomacy when negotiating with the Aldeans and amusingly into total discomfort when he has to actually deal directly with the children". He gave the episode a score of six out of ten. James Hunt, writing for Den of Geek, said that it was "a decent enough story, but not in a way that makes you want to watch it". He also felt that it was "a complete throwaway episode and contains almost nothing unique to the franchise". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club said that he was scared by the way he liked the episode despite it focusing on Wesley. He noticed the similarity between the "legendary" planets of Aldea in the episode and Magrathea in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, a reference Handlen considered possibly deliberate. He thought that the child-heavy episode wasn't "as bad as it could've been", and gave the episode a "B" grade. Michelle Erica Green in her review for TrekNation, described "When the Bough Breaks" as "tedious, plodding and didactic" with a "preposterous" ending. She thought that the plot element of ozone damage was not optimal and that the quality of the episode was typical of the first season. ## Home media release "When the Bough Breaks" was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on August 26, 1992. The episode was released in March 2002 on the Star Trek: The Next Generation season one DVD box set. It was included as part of the season one Blu-ray set on July 24, 2012.

The Terrorists of Iraq

2014 book by Malcolm Nance

The Terrorists of Iraq: Inside the Strategy and Tactics of the Iraq Insurgency 2003–2014 is a nonfiction book about the Iraqi insurgency, written by U.S. Navy retired cryptology analyst Malcolm Nance. It was published by CRC Press in 2014. The book discusses the terrorist evolution of the Iraqi insurgency which led to the formation of Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS). Nance cites the 2003 Iraq war by the Bush Administration for causing regional instability. He criticizes Coalition Provisional Authority leader Paul Bremer. The book emphasizes lessons the U.S. neglected to learn from the Vietnam War, the Iraqi revolt against the British, and the South Lebanon conflict. Nance writes in favor of the Iran nuclear deal framework by the Obama Administration, saying it is in the interests of all parties involved. A review of the book in the journal Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression recommended the work, writing The Terrorists of Iraq, "offers enormous precious experience and empirical data which make it attractive to policy-makers". The Times of Israel published a book review which was praiseworthy of the author's expertise, writing, "For those that want to truly understand the Iraq conflict and its surrounding issues, Nance is eminently qualified and this book is uniquely superb." Christopher Hitchens wrote for Vanity Fair, "The Terrorists of Iraq, is a highly potent analysis...of the jihadist threat". Ben Rothke placed the book among "The Best Information Security Books of 2015", in a post for The Security Reading Room. Spencer Ackerman said Nance's books The Terrorists of Iraq and Defeating ISIS reflected the caliber of his expertise in the subject matter. ## Background Malcolm Nance is a retired U.S. Navy Senior Chief Petty Officer in naval cryptology. He garnered expertise within the fields of intelligence and counterterrorism. He served in the U.S. Navy for 20 years, from 1981 to 2001. Nance was an interpreter for Russian, and began working in the intelligence field through research into the history of the Soviet Union and its spying agency the KGB. He devoted years of research to analyzing Middle East terrorism and sovereign nations with ties to Russia. He graduated from New York's Excelsior College with a degree in Arabic. Nance took part in combat operations which occurred after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, was involved with the 1986 United States bombing of Libya, served on the USS Wainwright during Operation Praying Mantis and participated in the sinking of Iranian missile boat Joshan, served on the USS Tripoli during the Gulf War, and assisted during a Banja Luka, Bosnia air strike. After retiring from military service, Nance founded a consulting company based in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. where he provided advising services to United States Special Operations Command. During the September 11 attacks, Nance personally witnessed American Airlines Flight 77 crash into The Pentagon and he assisted in rescue operations at the impact site. He created a training center called the Advanced Terrorism, Abduction and Hostage Survival School. Nance manages a think tank analyzing counterterrorism called "Terror Asymmetrics Project on Strategy, Tactics and Radical Ideologies", consisting of Central Intelligence Agency and military intelligence officers with direct prior field experience. Nance is a member of the board of directors for the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C. Nance's books on counter-terrorism include: An End to al-Qaeda, Terrorist Recognition Handbook, The Plot to Hack America, Defeating ISIS, and Hacking ISIS. ## Summary The Terrorists of Iraq traces terrorist roots of the insurgency within Iraq which yielded the development of the later terrorist group known as Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS). Although the book was written before the New York Times 2014 front page story detailing the actual existence of WMD in Iraq, Nance faults the decision to begin the 2003 Iraq war by the Bush Administration as the impetus for subsequent chaos within the region. He notes the Iraq war was supported by a false premise, and asserts that subsequent chaos in the country was exacerbated by mismanagement from individuals including Paul Bremer, provisional leader of the country while the war was still ongoing. Nance asserts that the United States did not adequately learn from the past mistakes of the Vietnam War and the 1920 uprising by the people of Iraq against the United Kingdom forces. He notes these events could have imparted valuable pointers to the Bush Administration such as the notion that terrorism tactics used by insurgency operations including guerrilla warfare were difficult to defeat effectively, even in the face of overwhelming U.S. military forces. Nance recounts lessons learned from the Lebanon war with Israel in 1992, particularly how the subsequent occupation of Lebanon by Israel could have provided the U.S. with significant ways to improve their strategy in the Iraqi invasion in 2003. Nance compares the two occupation force strategies, and argues each left their occupiers with many deaths and few tangible results. The book discusses the Obama Administration Iranian nuclear development limitations agreement. Nance argues that it is a promising endeavor and in the best interests of Iran, as it opens the door for them to acquire the Western products they desire. Nance analyzes the diplomatic and military strategies available to the U.S. to deal with the Iran nuclear situation. He warns that war with Iran in order to potentially limit their nuclear capabilities would lead to financial ruin in America, retaliatory strikes against Israel, increased oil prices, conflict by Iran with the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and closure of shipping lanes for oil. Nance acknowledges Iran's significant contributions to terrorism around the world, but argues that a peaceful resolution to the nuclear issue is a worthwhile endeavor. ## Release and reception The book was published in 2014 by CRC Press, in a revised edition in hardcover format. CRC Press published an e-book edition the same year. The book was published in 2007 by BookSurge Publishing in a paperback format under the slightly revised title, The Terrorists of Iraq: Inside the Strategy and Tactics of the Iraq Insurgency. CRC Press released another edition in print and e-book format in 2015. Another print edition was published in 2015 by Taylor & Francis. The book was required reading by Tufts University in a 2015 college-level course, "Iraq: A State in Flux". Christopher Hitchens wrote in an article for Vanity Fair, "The Terrorists of Iraq, is a highly potent analysis both of the jihadist threat in Mesopotamia and of the ways in which we have made its life easier." The Guardian national security reporter Spencer Ackerman said, "If you've read books like The Terrorists of Iraq and Defeating ISIS, you know Malcolm's expertise." ShadowProof journalist Matt Duss called The Terrorists of Iraq, "a detailed description of the various factions and movements ... fighting U.S. forces in Iraq." A review of the book in the academic journal Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression by Chi Zang, recommended the work as a resource for those researching the subject matter including individuals drafting legislation to address the issues involved and academics. The review in Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression concluded, "This book is easy to read, vivid, and offers enormous precious experience and empirical data which make it attractive to policy-makers, scholars, and students." The Times of Israel published a book review of The Terrorists of Iraq, by contributor Ben Rothke. Rothke wrote that The Terrorists of Iraq, "provides a deep understanding of the subject." The reviewer highly recommended the book, and wrote highly of the author's expertise in the subject matter, "For those that want to truly understand the Iraq conflict and its surrounding issues, Nance is eminently qualified and this book is uniquely superb." Rothke concluded, "There is no better book than The Terrorists of Iraq: Inside the Strategy and Tactics of the Iraq Insurgency 2003–2014 on the subject." Rothke placed the book among "The Best Information Security Books of 2015", in a post for The Security Reading Room. Rothke also wrote a favorable review of the book on the site. ## See also - List of books about al-Qaeda - Iraq War - Islam and violence - Islamic extremism - Islamic fundamentalism - Islamic terrorism - Muslim attitudes toward terrorism

Columbia Station (Washington)

Railway station in Wenatchee, United States

Columbia Station, also known as Wenatchee station, is an intermodal train and bus station in Wenatchee, Washington, United States. It is a stop on Amtrak's Empire Builder train and is the main hub for Link Transit, the local bus system serving Wenatchee and surrounding areas. The station is also served by intercity buses operated by Grant Transit Authority, Northwestern Trailways, and Travel Washington. The station is located at the site of an earlier depot built by the Great Northern Railway in 1910. Amtrak service to Wenatchee began in 1973 with the short-lived North Coast Hiawatha, which ceased operations in 1979. It was followed by the relocated Empire Builder in October 1981, which stopped at a temporary platform on the site of the demolished depot. Columbia Station was opened for bus services on July 13, 1997, and a new Amtrak platform opened a year later in June 1998 following construction delays. ## Description Columbia Station spans two city blocks in downtown Wenatchee, bound to the west by Wenatchee Avenue and to the north by Kittitas Street. The bus platforms are located on the west half of the complex, consisting of 16 bays arranged around a loop and central island, including an electric bus charger. The three-story station building is located in the northeast corner of the block and includes the Link Transit guest services center, a passenger waiting room, offices, public restrooms, and a cafe. A set of separate bus bays are located on Columbia Street and are used by intercity buses. The 400-foot-long (120 m) train platform is located across Columbia Street from the rest of the complex, adjacent to a park and ride lot with 67 stalls. Link Transit owns the building, bus bays, and parking lot, while BNSF Railway owns the train platform and other facilities. The Apple Capital Recreation Loop Trail runs a block to the east of the train platform on the banks of the Columbia River. The station has several pieces of public artwork designed by local residents and schoolchildren in 1997. The building lobby has a large panoramic mural by Jan Cook Mack that depicts the Wenatchee Valley from Burch Mountain. The wall of the outer bus platform has 276 ceramic tiles painted by elementary school students from eight school districts within the Link Transit service area. The shelters above the bus bays have eight stainless steel funnels sculpted by Terry Valdez that use ethnic imagery and symbolism to represent the Wenatchee Valley. The station also has a 9-foot (2.7 m), four-sided street clock that is located at the corner of Kittitas Street and Wenatchee Avenue. ## History ### Great Northern depot The modern settlement of Wenatchee began in 1890 with real estate developers planning a town along the proposed route of the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway, which was never completed. The Great Northern Railway arrived in the area on October 17, 1892, and completed its railroad over Stevens Pass to Seattle the following year. The town's Great Northern depot was originally located at Columbia Street and First Street, near the center of the original plat, but was deemed too small to handle both passenger and freight uses. The railroad announced plans in May 1906 to build a new depot to the south at Kittitas Street exclusively for passenger services. In April 1909, Great Northern filed plans to build a \$50,000 depot at Columbia Street and Orondo Avenue, located between Kittitas and First streets, with additional tracks in a city-owned alley. The plan was opposed by property owners on Orondo Avenue who would be removed to make way for the depot and new tracks. Great Northern announced the following month that they would use the Kittitas Street site for the depot, for which the Wenatchee city council granted a franchise. Construction of the new depot began in June with excavation for a basement heating plant, and moved to above-ground construction by August. A section of track was raised two feet (0.61 m) by Great Northern to bring trains to platform level for the new depot, which would use granite and brick masonry. The new depot was substantially completed in October 1909, along with an underpass for Kittitas Street, a new roundhouse, and freight facilities at the old depot. The Great Northern depot cost \$100,000 to construct and was opened on February 11, 1910, on the same day as Wenatchee's new commercial club and high school. All three dedications were attended by officials from the city, Great Northern, as well as Governor Marion E. Hay. The station building measured 156 feet (48 m) long and 33 feet (10 m) wide with a 500-foot (150 m) covered platform. The interior had two waiting rooms with oak furniture, electric lighting, and a dining area. ### Amtrak and Link Transit Amtrak took over passenger rail operations from Burlington Northern (which Great Northern was merged into) on May 1, 1971. The Empire Builder was moved to the former Northern Pacific Railway route between Seattle and Spokane via Stampede Pass, leaving Wenatchee without passenger rail service. On June 13, 1973, Amtrak restored passenger rail service to Wenatchee by moving the tri-weekly North Coast Hiawatha to the Stevens Pass route. During the 1974 World's Fair, hosted in Spokane, Amtrak ran a daytime train along the North Coast Hiawatha route that stopped in Wenatchee and Ephrata. The North Coast Hiawatha was discontinued by Amtrak in October 1979 as part of national cuts to low-performing corridors, blamed in part by poor scheduling and reliability issues. The Great Northern depot was demolished by Burlington Northern in August 1981, citing the costs of maintaining the historic building. Amtrak restored rail service to Wenatchee a second time on October 25, 1981, by rerouting the Empire Builder over Stevens Pass and installed a plastic shelter at Kittitas Street to serve as a temporary station. The city government began lobbying Amtrak and Burlington Northern for the construction of a permanent passenger rail station adjacent to the Wenatchee Convention Center on First Street. The newly-created Link Transit began planning of a downtown intermodal transit center in 1992 with a federal grant, favoring the convention center site and the adjacent Casscadian Building. The plan for an intermodal transit center received support from Amtrak, Burlington Northern, private bus operators, and local businesses owners as a replacement for the existing Amtrak facility and temporary downtown transfer center for Link Transit. Link Transit proposed a \$10.2 million facility for buses and trains that would also include a pedestrian bridge from the convention center to Wenatchee Riverfront Park and a small park and ride lot. The use of the Casscadian Building on Mission Street for the transit center came into question in April 1994 after a state historic preservationist determined that the building was eligible to be listed as a historic landmark, as it was a surviving example of early parking garage design. After outcry over the project's budget and a plan to condemn an adjacent parking lot, Link Transit began considering a new site for the facility that would be eligible for state and federal funding. Burlington Northern offered the city government an annual lease of \$1 for the site of the old depot at Kittitas Street if it were to be used for a transit center. Link Transit adopted the Kittitas Street site as the preferred location of its Wenatchee transit center, along with a block to the west that would be largely demolished. Several options for the Kittitas Street site were considered by Link Transit, including a separate waiting area for Amtrak passengers and the orientation of the bus bays. The project was approved by Link Transit in September 1995, with a cost of \$8.2 million that would be partially covered by a federal grant. By the following year, Link Transit had acquired the property needed for the transit center for \$1.5 million, including an existing three-story building that would be renovated for use by passengers, and named the project "Columbia Station". Link Transit and Wenatchee broke ground on the new Columbia Station on August 23, 1996, after the Franklin House was demolished. Construction costs for the project were lower than expected, allowing for Link Transit to re-add several decorative features that had been deferred in the planning process, including the street clock. Columbia Station was dedicated and opened to service on July 13, 1997, with 500 people in attendance and speeches from local officials. Northwestern Trailways was the first intercity operator to use the facility, having moved from their old depot at First Street and Chelan Street. The rebuilding of the Amtrak platform was scheduled to be completed in tandem with the bus station, but was delayed while waiting for finalization of the lease agreement with BNSF Railway. Construction began in October 1997 on the new platform, three waiting shelters, and a parking lot. The new platform was dedicated on June 26, 1998, shortly after it was opened for use by passengers. Columbia Station underwent a minor renovation in 2018 that added a new comfort station for drivers and remodeled Link Transit's administrative offices on the third floor. ## Services Columbia Station is the main hub for Link Transit, a regional bus system that serves Wenatchee and other communities in Chelan and Douglas counties. The transit system operates intercity routes and local service from the station, including frequent shuttles that use electric buses and seasonal winter service to Mission Ridge Ski Area. Columbia Station is also served by two daily Amtrak trains on the Empire Builder, a transcontinental route connecting to Seattle, Spokane, and Chicago. The next stops on the Empire Builder are Icicle Station in Leavenworth to the west and Ephrata station to the east. In addition to Link Transit, the station is also served by several intercity bus routes from other operators that use the lower bus bays on Columbia Street or other parts of the facility. The Travel Washington Apple Line provides daily service from Wenatchee to Omak and Ellensburg. The Grant Transit Authority runs buses on weekdays from Wenatchee to Quincy, Ephrata station, and Moses Lake. Private coach operator Northwestern Trailways has an office at the station and runs daily buses from Wenatchee to Omak, Ellensburg, Everett, Seattle, Tacoma, and Spokane. The Wenatchee Valley Shuttle provides service to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport from the park and ride lot at Columbia Station's train platform.

Ravenholm

Fictional ghost town in Half-Life 2

Ravenholm is a fictional ghost town in the first-person shooter game Half-Life 2, developed by Valve Corporation and released in 2004. It serves as the primary setting for the game's sixth chapter, "We Don't Go to Ravenholm", which follows the game's protagonist Gordon Freeman as he journeys through the area as part of an escape from Black Mesa East after it is attacked by Combine forces in order to reach a nearby Resistance outpost. A mining town in Eastern Europe destroyed by a Combine bombardment using headcrabs that turned its residents into hostile zombies, its sole survivor, Father Grigori, offers his assistance to Freeman throughout the level, culminating in a last stand at the town's cemetery. The level received critical praise due to its level design and unexpected usage of horror aspects involving the headcrabs and zombies, with some critics calling it one of the most well-designed levels in a Valve game or one of the best first-person shooter levels ever made. Due to its popularity, Valve initially contracted Junction Point Studios to make a prequel featuring the town, a project that later became a spin-off game developed by Arkane Studios that further followed the story of Grigori and his fight against the Combine. However, both projects were ultimately cancelled partway through development. ## Level content Before the player, who controls protagonist Gordon Freeman, enters the level itself, companion Alyx Vance states that "we don't go [to Ravenholm] anymore", foreshadowing its overrun nature. The player visits Ravenholm when Black Mesa East, a Resistance base, is attacked by Combine forces shortly after the player obtains a gravity gun and uses it to play catch with Alyx's pet robot Dog. Dog opens a door to a tunnel leading to Ravenholm, allowing the player access to the town's outskirts and beginning the game's sixth chapter, titled "We Don't Go to Ravenholm". When the player first enters Ravenholm, which is revealed to be a ghost town, the soundtrack shifts to a traditional horror score, and they see a pair of decapitated legs hanging from a tree before discovering the town is infested with headcrabs and zombies. The sudden shift in the game's tone forces the player to raise their guard as the level "is easily the most dangerous part of Half-Life 2 that players will experience up until that point". New enemies are introduced in the level, which include poisonous and fast headcrabs and their respective zombie counterparts. Poisonous headcrabs will temporarily drain the player's health to one point if they score a hit while fast headcrabs are quicker than their conventional counterparts. Fast zombies are quicker than regular zombies and can climb drainage pipes, while poisonous zombies are slow but have large amounts of health and carry around poisonous headcrabs on their back that they can throw at the player. After traversing the town, which is littered with traps designed to kill zombies, the player meets the town's lone inhabitant, Father Grigori, who built the traps as part of his efforts to remove the zombie presence from Ravenholm. The player follows him through to the town's warehouse district, where they encounter fast zombies for the first time; Grigori gives the player a shotgun to aid them in fighting the zombies. Proceeding to the town centre, the player encounters poison zombies before heading out of town through a cemetery. There, they come face-to-face with Grigori, who helps the player enter a nearby crypt, holding off incoming zombies in a last stand. The player continues on through a series of mines, escaping via a railway network to reach Shorepoint, a wrecking yard held by the Resistance. ## Plot Prior to the Combine invasion, Ravenholm was a small mining town somewhere in Eastern Europe. Following the invasion, the town served as an outpost for the Resistance, which resisted the Combine occupation. The Combine eventually attacked the town by bombarding it with artillery shells containing headcrabs, alien parasites which attack organisms and turn them into zombies. Ravenholm's entire population was zombified, which led the Resistance to completely abandon any presence they maintained in the town. ## Development The level was initially called "Traptown" or "phystown" in the game's files during an early E3 demo of Half-Life 2, referencing the numerous booby traps scattered through it. Datamined information by fans showed that an early build featured Combine forces in the level in addition to headcrabs and zombies, and the "mining town" aspect of Ravenholm was much more prominent, including allowing the player to control a large excavator. The original version of Ravenholm may have also been set chronologically before the player arrived at Black Mesa East and acquired the gravity gun. The weapon ultimately ended up defining the level, encouraging the player to kill zombies using saw blades and other tools as an alternative to using the player's weapons. Players who possessed shared knowledge of zombie-based fiction such as The Zombie Survival Guide could also instinctively guess that the objects able to be picked up by the gravity gun could be used in an offensive manner. Level designer Dario Casali stated that Ravenholm was conceived as a "sanctuary gone bad", where the player went expecting help from potential allies, but realized they had all turned into enemies. Casali further stated that the town was designed to both appear isolated to the point where it could have believably escaped Combine notice for a time while simultaneously match the game's other levels, describing this as a challenge. The level's designers initially created the traps in Ravenholm using "simple geometric shapes", before turning to concept artists to transform the ideas into more detailed and realistic concepts. It is generally believed by fans and critics that Ravenholm was partially inspired by a level of the 1998 video game Thief: The Dark Project known as the “Sealed Section", as Marc Laidlaw, who wrote the plot of Half-Life 2, was personally a fan of the game. In the level, the player traverses through a quarter of a large city which has become infested by the undead, which stands in contrast to the technologically advanced neighbourhoods surrounding it. However, unlike the Thief level, the player has not yet encountered overt horror tropes in Half-Life 2 prior to arriving at Ravenholm. ### Cancelled projects Between 2005 and 2007, a Half-Life prequel was in development by Junction Point Studios, with a team led by Warren Spector. The game's plot was intended to explain the backstory behind both Ravenholm and Grigori, showing how it was attacked by the Combine and Grigori's actions prior to the player meeting him in Half-Life 2. It would have included a "magnet gun" which could attract metal objects from remote locations using metallic ball-shaped projectiles. In mid-2007, the project was cancelled and the studio went on to develop platform video game Epic Mickey instead, releasing it in 2010. The concept was later given to Arkane Studios, who changed it into a spin-off Half-Life game titled Ravenholm set entirely in the town, but was cancelled by Valve after "9 or 10" levels had already been completed. Intended as a linear game, it would feature Adrian Shepard, the protagonist of Half-Life: Opposing Force, as he made his way through the town with the help of Grigori. Grigori, who was revealed to have survived his last stand in Half-Life 2, would have gradually mutated into an inhuman being as the result of a serum created from headcrab blood that he believed would protect him from harm. The game would also have introduced several new weapons, such as a nail gun, which could power up doors by acting as an electrical conductor, a plasma weapon and a weaponized leaf blower that could be used to double jump. Laidlaw stated that reasons behind the cancellation included the fact that headcrabs and zombies "were pretty much played out at the time", and that the fact that it had to take place chronologically prior to Half-Life 2: Episode Two was too creatively constraining. Footage of the project was shown in a 2020 documentary by media company Noclip titled The Untold History of Arkane. ## Reception The level's originality caused it to stand out to critics. GamesRadar+ journalist Alex Avard praised Ravenholm as a example of a horror sequence in a non-horror game, describing it as "harrowing" and a "blood-soaked frightfest". Fellow GamesRadar+ journalist Ashley Reed praised the game's inclusion of "Zombie Chopper", an achievement which forced the player to beat the entire level employing only the gravity gun, arguing that not using weapons forced her to think creatively about how to proceed through the level, turning to items such as saw blades as improvised weaponry and employing strategies such as fleeing the zombies before they could notice her presence. The level was also praised for its effective use of horror elements. Den of Geek journalist Matthew Byrd described Ravenholm as "the perfect horror level", stating that it both served as a send up of horror tropes and effectively utilized them to scare the player. Suggesting that it "just happened to be the perfect idea released at the perfect time", Byrd further stated that some elements of the level "certainly don't feel quite as groundbreaking" 15 years later as they did upon the game's release. PC Gamer journalist Andy Kelly included the game on the list of his best first-person shooter levels ever, calling it "a tense, terrifying gauntlet" and "probably the best level Valve has ever designed". Screen Rant journalist Padraig Cotter argued that the level was "arguably the game's most famous" and had a "perfect balance" of horror and action. Describing the town's atmosphere as "oppressive", he noted that the level's incidental details, such as bodies and gore, told a "powerful story", saying that it was "hard not to feel sorry" for the unwillingly transformed zombies. Polygon writer Jenna Stoeber called Ravenholm an example of Valve's best level design techniques, praising its strong core narrative idea and the fact that the player comes across the level in medias res. USgamer journalist Jeremy Parish stated that Ravenholm "makes great use of audio cues to build tension", noting how the player can hear poison headcrabs before they see them. ## See also - Half-Life 2: Lost Coast

SM U-5 (Austria-Hungary)

Austro-Hungarian lead boat of U-5 class

SM U-5 or U-V was the lead boat of the U-5 class of submarines or U-boats built for and operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy (German: Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine, K.u.K. Kriegsmarine) before and during the First World War. The submarine was built as part of a plan to evaluate foreign submarine designs, and was the first of three boats of the class built by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume after a design by Irishman John Philip Holland. U-5 was laid down in April 1907 and launched in February 1909. The double-hulled submarine was just over 105 feet (32 m) long and displaced between 240 and 273 metric tons (265 and 301 short tons), depending on whether surfaced or submerged. U-5's design had inadequate ventilation and exhaust from her twin gasoline engines often intoxicated the crew. The boat was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy in April 1910, and served as a training boat—sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month—through the beginning of the First World War in 1914. The submarine scored most of her wartime successes during the first year of the war while under the command of Georg Ritter von Trapp. The French armoured cruiser Léon Gambetta, sunk in April 1915, was the largest ship sunk by U-5. The sinking of Italian troop transport ship SS Principe Umberto in June 1916 with the loss of 1,926 men, was the worst naval disaster of World War I in terms of human lives lost. In May 1917, U-5 hit a mine and sank with the loss of six men. She was raised, rebuilt, and recommissioned, but sank no more ships. At the end of the war, U-5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation, and scrapped in 1920. In all, U-5 sank three ships totaling 7,929 gross register tons (GRT) and 12,641 tons. ## Design and construction U-5 was built as part of a plan by the Austro-Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake, Germaniawerft, and John Philip Holland. The Austro-Hungarian Navy authorized the construction of U-5 (and sister ship, U-6) in 1906 by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume. The boat was designed by American John Philip Holland and licensed by Holland and his company, Electric Boat. U-5 was laid down on 9 April 1907 in the United States, partially assembled, and shipped to Whitehead's for final assembly, a process which, author Edwin Sieche notes, "caused a lot of trouble". She was launched at Fiume on 10 February 1909 by Agathe Whitehead, and towed to Pola on 17 August. U-5's design featured a single-hull with a teardrop-shaped body that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines. She was 105 feet 4 inches (32.11 m) long by 13 feet 9 inches (4.19 m) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 10 inches (3.91 m). She displaced 240 metric tons (260 short tons) surfaced, and 273 metric tons (301 short tons) submerged. Her two 45-centimeter (17.7 in) bow torpedo tubes featured unique, cloverleaf-shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis, and the boat was designed to carry up to four torpedoes. For surface running, U-5 was outfitted with 2 gasoline engines, but suffered from inadequate ventilation, which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew; her underwater propulsion was by two electric motors. The U-5 was christened by Agathe Whitehead on 10 February 1909. ## Service career U-5 was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy on 1 April 1910, with Linienschiffsleutnant Urban Passerar in command. Over the next three years she served primarily as a training boat, making as many as ten training cruises per month. On 1 May 1911, she hosted a delegation of Peruvian Navy officers that inspected her. In June 1912, she towed a balloon as part of efforts to assess the underwater visibility of hull paint schemes. At the outbreak of World War I, U-5 was one of only four fully operational U-boats in the Austro-Hungarian Navy fleet. She was initially stationed at the submarine base on Brioni, but was moved to Cattaro by late 1914. U-5 made an unsuccessful attack on a French battleship squadron off Punta Stilo on 3 November. In December, the ship's armament was augmented by a 3.7 cm/23 (1.5 in) quick-firing (QF) deck gun, and had her first radio receiver installed. In April 1915, Georg Ritter von Trapp assumed command of U-5, and the following month, led the boat in sinking the French armored cruiser Léon Gambetta off Santa Maria di Leuca. On the night of 26 April, Léon Gambetta was patrolling the Straits of Otranto at a leisurely 6.5 knots (12.0 km/h) without the benefit of a destroyer screen. U-5 launched two torpedoes at the French cruiser, hitting with both. The ship was rocked by the explosions of the two torpedoes and went down in ten minutes, taking down with her the entire complement of officers, including Rear Admiral Victor Baptistin Sénès. Of the French ship's complement, 648 were killed in the attack; there were 137 survivors. Léon Gambetta was the largest ship of any kind sunk by U-5. In June, U-5 helped search for the lost Austro-Hungarian seaplane L 41, and in July, received an upgrade of her deck gun to a 4.7 cm (1.9 in) QF gun. In early August, U-5 was sent out from Lissa when the Austro-Hungarian Navy received word from a reconnaissance aircraft that an Italian submarine had been sighted at Pelagosa. On the morning of 5 August, the Italian submarine Nereide was on the surface, moored under a cliff in the island's harbor. When U-5 surfaced just offshore, Nereide's commanding officer, Capitano di Corvetta Carlo del Greco, cast off the lines and maneuvered to get a shot at von Trapp's boat. Nereide launched a single torpedo at U-5 that missed, after which del Greco ordered his boat submerged. U-5 lined up a shot and launched a single torpedo at the slowly submerging target, striking her, and sending her to the bottom with all hands. The Italian captain received the Medaglia d'Oro al Valore Militare for his actions. At the end of August, U-5 captured the 1,034 GRT Greek steamer Cefalonia as a prize off Durazzo. In late November, Friedrich Schlosser succeeded von Trapp as U-5's commanding officer. Schlosser and U-5 made an unsuccessful attack on an Italian Indomito-class destroyer on 7 June 1916, but the boat managed to torpedo the Italian armed merchant cruiser Principe Umberto off Cape Linguetta on the next day. According to a contemporary account, Principe Umberto and two other ships were transporting troops and materiel under escort of two destroyers. After the torpedo hit, Principe Umberto went down quickly with the loss 1,750 men. Principe Umberto was the last ship hit by U-5. On 16 May 1917, U-5 was conducting a training cruise in the Fasana Channel near Pula when her stern struck a mine. The boat sank at a depth of 36 meters (118 ft) with a loss of 6 of the 19 men on board. From 20 to 24 May the submarine was raised, and through November underwent a refit. During this reconditioning, a new conning tower was added and the deck gun was upgraded again, this time to a 7.5 cm/30 (3.0 in) gun. Upon completion, U-5 was recommissioned, but had no more war successes. In her career, U-5 sank a total of three ships totaling 7,929 GRT and 12,641 tons. After the war's end, U-5 was transferred to Venice where she was inspected by British military commissions. U-5 was later ceded to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 and was scrapped. ## Summary of raiding history ## Gallery ### Victims gallery

Windows 1.0x

First major release of Microsoft Windows

Windows 1.0 is the first major release of Microsoft Windows, a family of graphical operating systems for personal computers developed by Microsoft. It was first released to manufacturing in the United States on November 20, 1985, while the European version was released as Windows 1.02 in May 1986. Its development began after the Microsoft co-founder and spearhead of Windows 1.0, Bill Gates, saw a demonstration of a similar software suite, Visi On, at COMDEX in 1982. The operating environment was showcased to the public in November 1983, although it ended up being released two years later. Windows 1.0 runs on MS-DOS, as a 16-bit shell program known as MS-DOS Executive, and it provides an environment which can run graphical programs designed for Windows, as well as existing MS-DOS software. It introduced multitasking and the use of the mouse, and various built-in programs such as Calculator, Paint, and Notepad. The operating environment does not allow its windows to overlap, and instead, the windows are tiled. Windows 1.0 also contains four releases, which contain minor updates to the system. The system received lukewarm reviews; critics raised concerns about not fulfilling expectations, its compatibility with very little software, and its performance issues, while it has also received positive responses to Microsoft's early presentations and support from a number of hardware- and software-makers. Its last release was 1.04, and it was succeeded by Windows 2.0, which was released in December 1987. Microsoft ended its support for Windows 1.0 on December 31, 2001, making it the longest-supported out of all versions of Windows. ## Development history Microsoft showed its desire to develop a graphical user interface (GUI) as early as 1981. The development of Windows began after Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft and the lead developer of Windows, saw a demonstration at COMDEX 1982 of VisiCorp's Visi On, a GUI software suite for IBM PC compatible computers. A year later, Microsoft learned that Apple's own GUI software—also bit-mapped, and based in part on research from Xerox PARC—was much more advanced; Microsoft decided they needed to differentiate their own offering. In August 1983, Gates recruited Scott A. McGregor, one of the key developers behind PARC's original windowing system, to be the developer team lead for Windows 1.0. Microsoft first demonstrated a window manager to the press in September 1983. The demonstration featured a user interface similar to Multiplan and other contemporary Microsoft applications with a command bar in the bottom of the screen. It also showed multiple application windows in both overlapping and tiled arrangements. This user interface concept was soon reworked to only support tiled windows and to change the Multiplan-like command bar into a menu bar under each window's title bar. The redesigned environment ultimately had its public debut at Fall COMDEX 1983 in November 1983. Initially requiring 192 KB of RAM and two floppy disk drives, Microsoft described the software as a device driver for MS-DOS 2.0. By supporting cooperative multitasking in tiled windows when using well-behaved applications that only used DOS system calls and permitting non-well-behaved applications to run in a full screen, Windows differed from both Visi On and Apple Computer's Lisa by immediately offering many applications. Unlike Visi On, Windows developers did not need to use Unix to develop IBM PC applications; Microsoft planned to encourage other companies, including competitors, to develop programs for Windows by not requiring a Microsoft user interface in their applications. Manufacturers of MS-DOS computers such as Compaq, Zenith, and DEC promised to provide support, as did software companies such as Ashton-Tate and Lotus. After previewing Windows, BYTE magazine stated in December 1983 that it "seems to offer remarkable openness, reconfigurability, and transportability as well as modest hardware requirements and pricing ... Barring a surprise product introduction from another company, Microsoft Windows will be the first large-scale test of the desktop metaphor in the hands of its intended users." From early in Windows's history, Gates viewed it as Microsoft's future. He told InfoWorld magazine in April 1984 that "our strategies and energies as a company are totally committed to Windows, in the same way that we're committed to operating-system kernels like MS-DOS and Xenix. We're also saying that only applications that take advantage of Windows will be competitive in the long run." IBM was notably absent from Microsoft's announcement, and the corporation rejected Windows in favor of creating its own product called TopView. By late 1984, the press reported a "War of the Windows" between Windows, IBM's TopView, and Digital Research's Graphics Environment Manager (GEM). Steve Ballmer replaced McGregor after he left the team in January 1985. Microsoft had promised in November 1983 to ship Windows by April 1984, although, due to various design modifications, its release date was delayed. During its development and before its windowing system was developed, it was briefly referred to by the codename "Interface Manager". De-emphasizing multitasking, the company stated that Windows' purpose, unlike that of TopView, was to "turn the computer into a graphics-rich environment" while using less memory. After Microsoft persuaded IBM that the latter needed a GUI, the two companies announced in April 1987 the introduction of OS/2 and its graphical OS/2 Presentation Manager, which were supposed to ultimately replace both MS-DOS and Windows. ### Release versions The first retail release, Windows 1.01, was released on November 20, 1985, to the United States, at the cost of \$99. The following release, 1.02, was published in May 1986 mainly for the European market, and it had also introduced non-English versions of Windows 1.0. Windows version 1.03, released in August 1986, included enhancements that made it consistent with the international release like drivers for non-U.S. keyboards and additional screen and printer drivers, and superseded both version 1.01 in the US and version 1.02 in Europe. Windows version 1.04, released in April 1987, added support for the new IBM PS/2 computers, although no support for PS/2 mice or new VGA graphics modes was provided. However, on May 27, 1987, an OEM version was released by IBM, which added VGA support, PS/2 mouse support, MCGA support, and support for the 8514/A display driver. IBM released this version on three 3.5-inch 720k floppies and offered it as part of their "Personal Publishing System" and "Collegiate Kit" bundles. Microsoft ended its support for Windows 1.0 on December 31, 2001, making it the longest-supported one out of all versions of Windows. ## Features Windows 1.0 was built on the MS-DOS kernel, while it runs as a 16-bit shell program known as the MS-DOS Executive, and it offers limited multitasking of existing MS-DOS programs and concentrates on creating an interaction paradigm (cf. message loop), an execution model and a stable API for native programs for the future. The operating environment supports the use of a mouse, which allows users to perform click-and-drag operations. Contrary to modern Windows operating systems, the mouse button had to be kept pressed to display the selected menu. Opening .exe files in the MS-DOS Executive would open an application window. Windows 1.0 also includes programs such as the Calculator, Paint (then known as Paintbrush), Notepad, Write, Terminal, and Clock. Paint only supports monochrome graphics. The operating environment also has the Cardfile manager, a Clipboard, and a Print Spooler program. Initially, Puzzle and Chess were supposed to appear as playable video games, although Microsoft scrapped the idea; instead, it introduced Reversi as a commercially published video game. It was included in Windows 1.0 as a built-in application, and it relies on mouse control. The operating environment also introduced the Control Panel, which was used to configure the features of Windows 1.0. The operating environment does not allow overlapping windows, and instead, the windows are tiled. When a program gets minimized, its icon would appear on a horizontal line at the bottom of the screen, which resembles the modern-day Windows taskbar. It also consists of three dynamic-link libraries, which are located as files in the system under the names KERNEL.EXE, USER.EXE, and GDI.EXE. The Windows 1.0 SDK contains debugging versions of these files, which can be used to replace the corresponding files on the setup disks. The setup program combines multiple system files into one, so that Windows boots faster. Using the debugging KERNEL.EXE provided by the Windows 1.0 SDK one can create a "slow boot" version of Windows, where the files are separate. Windows 1.0 includes a kernel, which performs functions such as task handling, memory management, and input and output of files, while the two other dynamic-link libraries are the user interface and Graphics Device Interface. The operating environment could also move the program code and data segments in memory, to allow programs to share code and data that are located in dynamic-link libraries. Windows 1.0 implemented the use of code segment swapping. Version 1.02 introduced drivers for European keyboards, as well as screen and print drivers. The last Windows 1.0 release, 1.04, introduced support for IBM PS/2 computers. Due to Microsoft's extensive support for backward compatibility, it is not only possible to execute Windows 1.0 binary programs on current versions of Windows to a large extent but also to recompile their source code into an equally functional "modern" application with just limited modifications. In March 2022, it was discovered that the operating environment also includes an easter egg that lists the developers who worked on the operating environment along with a message that says "Congrats!". ## System requirements The official system requirements for Windows 1.0 include the following. Besides the minimum system requirements, Microsoft has also published a note in which it recommended additional memory when using multiple applications or DOS 3.3. ## Reception Windows 1.0 was released to lukewarm and mixed reviews. Critics considered the platform to have future potential but felt that Windows 1.0 had not fulfilled expectations and that it could not compete with Apple's GUI operating system. It was also criticized for its slowness and compatibility with very little software. Reviews criticized its demanding system requirements, especially noting the poor performance experienced when running multiple applications at once, and that Windows encouraged the use of a mouse for navigation, a relatively new concept at the time. The New York Times compared the performance of Windows on a system with 512 KB of RAM to "pouring molasses in the Arctic" and that its design was inflexible for keyboard users due to its dependency on a mouse-oriented interface. In conclusion, the Times felt that the poor performance, lack of dedicated software, uncertain compatibility with DOS programs, and the lack of tutorials for new users made DOS-based software such as Borland Sidekick (which could provide a similar assortment of accessories and multitasking functionality) more desirable for most PC users. According to the Computerworld magazine, Windows 1.0 received 500,000 sales from its release in 1985 up to April 1987. In retrospect, Windows 1.0 was regarded as a flop by contemporary technology publications, who, however, still acknowledged its overall importance to the history of the Windows line. Nathaniel Borenstein (who went on to develop the MIME standards) and his IT team at Carnegie Mellon University were also critical of Windows when it was first presented to them by a group of Microsoft representatives. Underestimating the future impact of the platform, he believed that in comparison to an in-house window manager, "these guys came in with this pathetic and naïve system. We just knew they were never going to accomplish anything." The Verge considered the poor reception towards the release of Windows 8 in 2012 as a parallel to Microsoft's struggles with early versions of Windows. In a similar fashion to Windows 1.0 running atop MS-DOS as a layer, Windows 8 offered a new type of interface and software geared towards an emerging form of human interface device on PCs, in this case, a touchscreen, running atop the legacy Windows shell used by previous versions. A mock version of Windows 1.0 was created by Microsoft as an app for Windows 10 as part of a tie-in with the Netflix show, Stranger Things, aligned with the release of the show's third season, which takes place during 1985. ## See also - Microsoft Windows - OS/2 - System 1 - IBM TopView

Herbert Loper

United States Army general

Major General Herbert Bernard Loper (22 October 1896 – 25 August 1989) was a United States Army officer who helped plan the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign and the Okinawa campaign during World War II. He was chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project from 1952 to 1953, and Chairman of the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission from 1954 to 1961. A graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point, he was commissioned in the US Army Corps of Engineers in 1919. He graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas in 1940, and became Assistant Chief, and later Chief, of the Intelligence Division at the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington, DC. In May 1942, he negotiated the Loper-Hotine Agreement, under which responsibility for military mapping and survey of the globe was divided between the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1944, he was appointed Chief Engineer of US Army Forces, Pacific Ocean Areas. In this role he was involved with the planning of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign and the Okinawa campaign. After the fighting ended, he participated in the Occupation of Japan. Loper returned to the United States to become Chief of the Joint Photo and Survey Section of the Joint Chiefs of Staff's Joint Intelligence Group in 1948. The next year he was appointed as an Army member of the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. He wrote a report which became known as the Loper Memorandum, which was influential in the decision to develop thermonuclear weapons. He was Deputy Commander of Joint Task Force 3, which was responsible for the conduct the Operation Greenhouse nuclear tests in the Pacific. In 1951 became Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, but was forced to retire after he suffered a heart attack in 1953. He subsequently served as Chairman of the Military Liaison Committee from 2 August 1954 to 14 July 1961. ## Early life Herbert Bernard Loper was born in Norcatur, Kansas on 22 October 1896, the son of Gilford (Gilbert) Lafayette Loper and Hulda Belle Scott. He graduated from Washburn College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1916. Loper was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point from Nebraska and entered on 14 June 1917. However, due to World War I, the course was truncated and his class was graduated early on 1 November 1918. He was ranked sixth in the class, two places behind Alfred Gruenther, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant. After the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in November 1918, it was decided to have the 1918 class complete their studies. Loper therefore remained at West Point as a student officer until 11 June 1919, when he again graduated, and was assigned to the US Army Corps of Engineers, as was normal for highly placed graduates. At this time, officers who had not served overseas were sent to Europe to tour the battlefields, and Loper visited battlefields in France, Belgium and Italy, as well as the Army of Occupation in Germany. ## Between the wars Loper returned to the United States in September and was initially posted to Camp A.A. Humphreys, Virginia. He was promoted to first lieutenant on 16 October 1919. In October, he was sent to 8th Engineers at Fort Bliss, Texas. He was stationed at Camp Travis, Texas until June 1920, when he commenced studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, from which he graduated in August 1921, with a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering. Loper then became Military Assistant to the District Engineer at Jacksonville, Florida. He reverted to the rank of second lieutenant on 15 December 1922, a common enough occurrence in the wake of the demobilization after World War I, but was again promoted to the rank of first lieutenant on 22 April 1923. He married Eleanor Cameron Opie in 1922. In October 1923, Loper was posted to the 11th Engineers in the Panama Canal Zone. He returned to the United States in December 1926 and was with the Engineer Reproduction Plant at the Army War College until 31 August 1929. He then went back to Camp A. A. Humphreys, first as a student, and then, 1 September 1930, as an instructor. In December 1933, he became Assistant to the District Engineer at Omaha, Nebraska, where he was promoted to captain on 25 May 1935. In February 1938, he was posted to the 6th Engineers at Fort Lawton, Washington. ## World War II Loper attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas from August 1939 to February 1940. On graduation, he was posted to the 7th Engineer Battalion at Fort McClellan, Alabama. He was Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3, and then Assistant Chief of Staff, G-4, of the 5th Infantry Division. In June 1940, he became Assistant Chief of the Intelligence Division at the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington, DC, and then chief. Here, he was promoted to major on 1 July 1940, lieutenant colonel on 18 September 1941, and colonel on 8 June 1942. In May 1942, he negotiated the Loper-Hotine Agreement, under which responsibility for military mapping and survey of the globe was divided between the United States and the United Kingdom. The agreement also specified technical features such as grids, scales and formats, so Allied servicemen everywhere would have common maps. For his services in this post, he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal on 28 May 1944. On 28 May 1944, Loper was appointed Chief Engineer of US Army Forces, Pacific Ocean Areas (USAFPOA), on the specific request of the commander of USAFPOA, Lieutenant General Robert C. Richardson, Jr. Loper immediately became involved in planning for the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. He discovered that the US Navy and Marine Corps did not have adequate map making units, so the task had to be undertaken by the Army. The 64th Topographic Battalion was assigned to the task of mapping the Caroline Islands and Palau. However, until B-29 photographic aircraft could be based in the Mariana Islands, much of the aerial survey had to be carried out by aircraft carrier-based naval aircraft. Later Loper, who was promoted to brigadier general on 11 November 1944, was involved in gathering engineer intelligence for the Battle of Iwo Jima, the Okinawa campaign, and Operation Olympic. When USAFPOA was merged with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur's Southwest Pacific Area in 1945, Loper became Chief of Engineer Intelligence under Major General Hugh J. Casey. After the fighting ended, Loper became Deputy Engineer of United States Far East Command during the Occupation of Japan. For his services in the Pacific, he was awarded the Legion of Merit on 22 September 1945. He was awarded a second Legion of Merit for his services during the Occupation of Japan on 11 September 1948. ## Cold War Loper returned to the United States in October 1948, to become Chief of the Joint Photo and Survey Section of the Joint Chiefs of Staff's Joint Intelligence Group. On 1 November 1949, he was appointed as an Army member of the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). Following the revelation of the espionage activities of Klaus Fuchs in 1950, Loper and the Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project, Major General Kenneth D. Nichols, were asked to write a report on the impact of Klaus' activities. Their pessimistic report pessimistically concluded that Soviet Union's nuclear stockpile and production capacity could well be "equal or actually superior to our own, both as to yields and numbers." They added that the Soviets might develop, or had already developed, thermonuclear weapon. The Loper Memorandum, as it became known, was influential in persuading the Joint Chiefs, the Secretary of Defense, and ultimately the President to authorize a crash program to develop thermonuclear weapons. In 1951, Loper was Deputy Commander of Joint Task Force 3, which was responsible for the conduct the Operation Greenhouse nuclear tests in the Pacific. In 1951, he succeeded Nichols as Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project. Nichols considered that Loper was "a very capable engineer, easygoing but firm, and well liked by his associates." However, his term in the post was cut short in 1953 when he suffered a heart attack, and he was ultimately forced to retire from the Army in 1955. However, he served as Chairman of the Military Liaison Committee from 2 August 1954 to 14 July 1961. He was also a consultant to the AEC and the Secretary of Defense. ## Later life In the early 1960s, Loper worked for Washington Associates, a Washington, DC, consulting firm. He had lived in Bozman, Maryland, for 28 years. His wife died in 1979, and he entered a nursing home in Palm Bay, Florida September 1988, and died there of cardiac arrest on 25 August 1989. He was survived by his two sons, Herbert Bernard Loper II and Thomas C. Loper, a retired Army colonel. ## Decorations - Legion of Merit for services a Chief, Military Intelligence Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers. - Distinguished Service Medal for services as Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas - Legion of Merit (Oak Leaf Cluster) for services as Chief, Engineer Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers, General Headquarters, United States Armed Forces, Pacific. - Honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire for service as Chief, Military Intelligence Division, Office of the Chief of Engineers. - Campaign Star: Western Pacific Campaign - Campaign Star: Southern Philippine Campaign

Impact World Championship

Professional wrestling championship

The Impact World Championship is a professional wrestling world championship created and promoted by Impact Wrestling. It is the promotion's principal championship. Like most professional wrestling championships, the title is won via the result of a predetermined match. The current champion is Alex Shelley, who is in his first reign. Before the championship was created, the promotion, then known as Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), controlled the NWA World Heavyweight Championship via an agreement with the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA). In 2007, the agreement between TNA and the NWA ended, leading to the creation of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship. The championship was unveiled on May 14, 2007, at the taping of TNA's primary television program, Impact!, which aired on May 17, 2007. The inaugural champion was Kurt Angle, who also holds the record for the most reigns at six. When TNA changed its name and became Impact Wrestling in March 2017, the title was renamed soon after to reflect the change. After Impact Wrestling rebranded to GFW later that year, the title was unified with the original GFW Global Championship at Slammiversary XV and became the Unified GFW World Heavyweight Championship. Following Destination X, the title took the GFW Global Championship name and kept the former TNA lineage. On October 23, 2017, the GFW name was dropped, and the company name was reverted to Impact Wrestling when the company severed ties with Jeff Jarrett, and he took the GFW name with him. However, Impact Wrestling kept the Global Championship name for their championship and the title was then called the Impact Global Championship. On the February 1, 2018, episode of Impact!, the title became known as the Impact World Championship. On June 4, 2018, the title was unified with the Impact Grand Championship and on March 13, 2021, it was unified with the TNA World Heavyweight Championship, which was briefly sanctioned in 2021 as a separate title from the Impact World Championship. ## History Impact Wrestling was formed as NWA: Total Nonstop Action in May 2002. Later that same year, TNA was granted control over the NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships by the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) governing body; subsequently becoming an official NWA territory as NWA-TNA. On June 19, 2002, NWA-TNA held its first show; a weekly pay-per-view event. The main event of the telecast was a twenty-man Gauntlet for the Gold match in which 20 men sought to throw each other over the top rope and down to the floor in order to eliminate others, until there were two men left who wrestle a standard singles match to become the first ever TNA-era NWA World Heavyweight Champion. Ken Shamrock defeated Malice to win the vacant championship with Ricky Steamboat as the special guest referee at the event. ### Creation The NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships were contested for in TNA until the morning of May 13, 2007. On that day, NWA's Executive Director Robert Trobich announced that the NWA were ending their five-year agreement with TNA, which had allowed them full control over both titles. Trobich went on to state that effective that morning, then-NWA World Heavyweight Champion Christian Cage and then-NWA World Tag Team Champions Team 3D were stripped of their respective championships. The alleged motivation behind these actions was because Cage refused to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against wrestlers from NWA territories. That same day, TNA were scheduled to produce their Sacrifice event, in which both Cage and Team 3D were to defend their respective championships. On the card, Cage was scheduled to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle and Sting in a match involving three competitors, also known as a three-way match. That night, the onscreen graphic used to refer to the champions and their respective championships credited both Cage and Team 3D as still being NWA champions. Angle defeated Cage and Sting to win the World Heavyweight Championship. TNA held a set of tapings for the next two episodes of Impact! on May 14, with the episodes set to air on tape delay on May 17 and May 24. At the first taping, Angle came to the ring with the new TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt and announced that he was the "new TNA World Heavyweight Champion". TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced when Angle made his way to the ring that Management Director Jim Cornette, TNA's on-screen authority figure at the time, "made the decision that due to TNA's growing worldwide exposure, the company needed to have its own TNA title belts"; thereby not acknowledging the NWA ending their agreement with TNA and giving a storyline explanation as to why the championship was created. Later on during the broadcast, Cornette stripped Angle of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship due to a controversial finish to the match at Sacrifice. Cornette then announced the championship would be contested for at TNA's Slammiversary on June 17, 2007, in a King of the Mountain match—a match which involves five participants racing to gain a pinfall or submission to become eligible to hang a championship belt to win. On May 15, 2007, Jeremy Borash unveiled the TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt on that day's edition of TNA's online video podcast TNA Today. The five participants for the King of the Mountain match were determined in a series of standard wrestling matches that took place on Impact! leading up to the event, with Angle defeating Rhino in the first bout to gain entry on the May 17 episode of Impact!. On the May 24 episode of Impact!, Samoa Joe defeated Sting to become the second participant. The third qualification match was held on the May 31 episode of Impact! between A.J. Styles and Tomko, which Styles won. The next bout pitted Chris Harris against James Storm on the June 7 episode Impact!, which ended in a double disqualification, therefore neither man advanced to the King of the Mountain match. The final qualification match was won by Christian Cage over Abyss on the June 14 episode of Impact!. Angle ended up winning the King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary over Joe, Cage, Styles and Harris, who was a mystery participant chosen by Cornette, to become the "undisputed TNA World Heavyweight Champion". ### Re-branding In early 2017 After TNA rebranded as Impact Wrestling, the name of its flagship show, the TNA World Heavyweight Championship changed its name to the Impact Wrestling World Heavyweight Championship to reflect the name changes of the company. At Slammiversary XV, GFW Global Champion Alberto El Patron defeated Impact Wrestling World Heavyweight Champion Bobby Lashley to unify the titles, with the GFW Global Championship being dropped and the Impact World Heavyweight Championship changing its name to the Unified GFW World Championship as Impact Wrestling began rebranding once again as GFW. In September 2017, GFW reverted their branding to Impact Wrestling, the championship then became known as the Impact Global Championship. Since the February 1, 2018 episode of Impact!, the title has been known as the Impact World Championship. On June 4, 2018, the title was unified with the Impact Grand Championship, with the latter title being officially retired. At Rebellion, Moose appeared with the old TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt (its 3rd design from 2011 to 2017, later modified with a white strap) and declared himself the new TNA World Heavyweight Champion after defeating Hernandez and Michael Elgin in a triple threat match, which was originally to be for the Impact World Championship but reigning champion Tessa Blanchard missed the tapings due to the COVID-19 pandemic. While the title was not recognized as an official championship by Impact, Moose had several title defenses. On the February 23, 2021, episode of Impact!, Executive Vice President Scott D’Amore announced that Moose's self-proclaimed championship was officially sanctioned. At Sacrifice, Impact World Champion Rich Swann defeated Moose to unify the championships. The TNA title was deactivated, and the Impact World Championship was briefly referred to as the Impact Unified World Championship. ## Championship Tournaments ### TNA World Heavyweight Championship Tournament (2010) On the August 19, 2010, edition of TNA Impact!, the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated, after champion Rob Van Dam suffered a storyline injury. The title was put up in a tournament featuring the top eight ranked wrestlers in the TNA Championship Committee rankings. The finals of the tournament would take place at Bound for Glory on October 10. - Angle and Hardy wrestled another draw on the September 16 edition of Impact!, which led to Eric Bischoff making the final match at Bound for Glory a three–way. ### TNA World Heavyweight Championship Tournament (2013) On October 29, 2013, TNA President Dixie Carter vacated the TNA World Heavyweight Championship after the previous champion A.J. Styles left the company with the championship title. On the October 31 edition of Impact Wrestling, Carter announced an eight-man tournament to determine a new TNA World Heavyweight Champion, that would begin on November 7. Seven of the eight men were former TNA World Heavyweight Champions including Jeff Hardy, Chris Sabin, Bobby Roode, James Storm, Kurt Angle, Austin Aries, and Samoa Joe. The eighth would be determined later in the night in a gauntlet match, which was eventually won by Magnus last eliminating Kazarian and Sting. Also, later that night, Carter announced the "Wheel of Dixie" in which she would spin a wheel full of different stipulation that the competitors would compete in. The stipulations on the "Wheel of Dixie" were a Falls Count Anywhere match, a Bull Rope match, a Submission match, a Ladder match, a Full Metal Mayhem match, a Coalminer's Glove match, a Tables match, a Dixieland match, a Tuxedo match, and Last Man Standing match. The Storm/Roode match was originally a Bull Rope match but Storm asked Carter to change it to a Florida Death match, which was not on the "Wheel of Dixie", which Carter agreed to. Also, the winner for the vacated would be decided at TNA Final Resolution of 2013. ## Championship belt design To date, the championship has had five belt designs, with the original title belt (which was unveiled in May 2007) having on its center plate an imprint of an eagle with its wings extended. The word "World" was placed above the eagle's head on a ribbon. The ribbon was wrapped around the bird's wings and body. Five stars were engraved on the ribbon when it passed over each of the bird's wings and the word "Champion" as it passed over the bird's talons. The words "Heavyweight Wrestling" were printed across the bird's chest. At the top of the center plate there was TNA logo. Four smaller side plates had an imprint of a globe centered with TNA's logo at the top and bottom of each. At each end of the title belt there was a small plate that covered the championship belt snaps with TNA's logo engraved on each. At the November 8, 2010 tapings of the November 11 episode of Impact!, TNA introduced a new design for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt, which the champion Jeff Hardy dubbed the "Immortal Championship", as part of the Immortal storyline. The new design consisted of a purple strap with a silver center plate depicting a masked head (designed to resemble Hardy's face with face paint), the TNA logo on the forehead and blue lines along the mask. There were four irregular dodecagonal side plates on the title belt, shaped like stars with rounded edges on two of the sides of these plates. The Immortal title belt was replaced by the third design of the championship belt at the March 14, 2011 tapings of the March 17 episode of Impact!, introduced by the reigning champion at the time, Sting. The design featured seven gold plates over a black leather strap. The center plate had faux diamonds aligned along its multiple rounded edges, similar to that of the Big Gold Belt. Over the center plate was a large TNA Wrestling logo and below it the words "Heavyweight Champion" engraved in silver. On each side of the center plate was a group of three smaller plates, one with a TNA logo engraved while the other two featured separate corresponding halves of a globe, on either side of the TNA logo side plate. This belt—modified with a white strap—returned in April 2020 after Moose declared himself as "TNA World Heavyweight Champion" following defeating several past TNA wrestlers, and with then-reigning Impact World Champion Tessa Blanchard being absent due to COVID-19 pandemic travel restrictions. Moose's title would remain unrecognized until February 2021, when it became officially sanctioned and recognized by Impact executive vice president Scott D'Amore. Following Slammiversary XV, both the TNA and original GFW Global Championship belts were used in tandem to represent the unification of both titles. At Destination X 2017, the GFW Global Championship belt, with an updated color scheme and Impact logos on the side plates, became the sole belt used. Following the departure of Jeff Jarrett from the promotion, the company reverted to the Impact Wrestling name and the title belt was updated with an Impact name plate to reflect the change. A new title design was announced and introduced at Impact Wrestling's Redemption on April 22, 2018. The gold center plate has the Impact logo with "World Champion" inscribed below the logo. An owl sits above the Impact logo, representing Impact's parent company Anthem Sports & Entertainment. On each side of the center plate is a group of four smaller gold plates, with the inner side plates featuring separate corresponding halves of a globe with "World" inscribed above the globes and "Champion" inscribed below them and the outer side plates featuring the Impact logo but without the owl design. Blue shading had filled the Impact logo, the owl design, and the globes and logos on the side plates, but in 2020, the belt was modified with red shading replacing the previous blue to reflect the new color of the Impact Wrestling logo introduced following the move to AXS TV. At Sacrifice on March 13, 2021, Impact World Champion Rich Swann defeated TNA World Heavyweight Champion Moose to unify the two championships. Following this, the 2020 red shaded Impact belt and the white strapped TNA belt were used jointly to represent the unified world championship; the unified title was briefly referred to as the Impact Unified World Championship before reverting to being called the Impact World Championship, though still represented by both belts (with the white strap TNA belt being swapped out for the original black strap version shortly thereafter). In August 2021, after Christian Cage won the title, the TNA belt was retired once again. ## Reigns Overall, there have been 58 reigns shared among 34 wrestlers. The inaugural champion was Kurt Angle, who won the championship by defeating Christian Cage and Sting in a three-way match on May 13, 2007, at TNA's Sacrifice event. Angle also holds the record for the most reigns, at six. Josh Alexander's first reign is the shortest at three minutes while his second reign is the longest at 335 days. Tessa Blanchard is the only woman to ever win the world title. The title has been vacated seven different times. Alex Shelley is the current champion in his first reign. He defeated Steve Maclin on June 9, 2023, at Against All Odds in Columbus, Ohio to win the title. ## See also - List of NWA World Heavyweight Champions

Abu Ali Iyad

Palestinian military commander

Walid Ahmad Nimr (Arabic: وليد أحمد نمر; 1934 – July 23, 1971), better known by his nom de guerre Abu Ali Iyad (Arabic: أبو علي إياد), was a senior Palestinian field commander based in Syria and Jordan during the 1960s and early 1970s. After a career of teaching in the West Bank, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Algeria, Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the paramilitary group, Fatah, by Khalil al-Wazir in 1964 after graduating from an Algerian military training course. A year later, he became one of Fatah's first leaders in Syria along with al-Wazir and Yasser Arafat. During his time there, Abu Ali Iyad gained a position on the group's top political body, supervised its main guerrilla training camp in Daraa and set up a military intelligence headquarters. As a Fatah field commander, he fought Israeli forces at the Battle of Karameh, gaining a reputation as an unyielding commander. Abu Ali Iyad was also a leading organizer and participant in guerrilla raids against Israeli localities. He was one of the last Palestinian commanders to fight the Jordanian Army in the aftermath of the Black September conflict. He was killed in the countryside around Ajlun and Jerash by Jordanian forces in July 1971. His partisans claimed that he was executed, and as retaliation, they assassinated Jordanian prime minister Wasfi al-Tal four months after Abu Ali Iyad's death. ## Early life Abu Ali Iyad was born in Qalqilya in the present-day West Bank in 1934 when Palestine was under the British Mandate. He was educated there, graduating from high school in 1953 and taught at schools in the city and nearby Azzun. A year later, he moved to Baquba, Iraq where he enrolled in a teacher training program. He left Iraq the same year, moving to Saudi Arabia to teach there afterward. In 1962, he had a job as a teacher in Algeria. However, he soon sought and received training by the Algerian Army, graduating from its training course in the summer of 1964. ## Fatah command While in Algeria, Abu Ali Iyad was recruited into the Palestinian nationalist paramilitary organization Fatah by the leader of its armed wing Khalil al-Wazir. He adopted his nom de guerre after joining. Fatah at the time was divided politically with the more non-violent leadership based in Kuwait and those supporting attacks against Israel based in Syria. Abu Ali Iyad, along with al-Wazir, Yasser Arafat, and three others in the Syrian camp, formed the organization's "emergency" field command in Damascus in 1965. A year later al-Wazir, Arafat, and much of the Fatah military leadership were arrested by Syrian authorities loyal to Hafez al-Assad (who was Defense Minister at the time) as suspects in the murder of a pro-Assad paramilitary leader, Yusef Urabi. As a result, Abu Ali Iyad, al-Wazir's wife Intissar al-Wazir and fellow Fatah commander Ahmad Attrush were put in charge of Fatah's leadership in Syria. They formed a secret committee whose purpose was maintaining the military operations of Fatah's armed wing, al-Assifa, against Israel, launching attacks from Lebanon and Jordan and thus co-opting al-Assad's efforts to circumvent their activity. Abu Ali Iyad himself was arrested later by the Syrian authorities. He was released along with Arafat and two other Fatah leaders in August. Abu Ali Iyad then met al-Assad in person to sign an agreement on the terms of Fatah's presence and activities in Syria. Following the release of the rest of Fatah's leadership, the Central Committee of Fatah—the organization's highest decision-making body, was reformed. Two of Arafat's rivals lost their positions in the new central committee and were replaced by his allies, Abu Ali Iyad and Salah Khalaf, tilting the balance of power within Fatah towards Syria instead of Kuwait. Abu Ali Iyad's position gave him responsibility for al-Assifa's operations against Israel from Syria and Lebanon. By the end of the year, he had personally led raids against a number of villages in northeastern Israel, including Kfar Giladi, Manara, Margaliot, and Beit Yosef. In the latter village, his unit was responsible for wounding two civilians and destroying three houses by explosives. Also after his release, in 1966, Abu Ali Iyad became the chief military instructor of a training camp for Fatah recruits in the city of Hama in central Syria. He modeled it based on the Algerian training camp he graduated from. Most of his pupils were university students who would soon form Fatah's new guerrilla force. Abu Ali Iyad's course was the only one of its kind run by Fatah itself (often commanders would train in Algeria) and it provided the bulk of commanders for the group's guerrilla units for the next decade. These mostly young recruits became known as "Tiger Cubs." Among their ranks, Abu Ali Iyad gained a reputation for enforcing strict discipline. According to British Middle East expert, Patrick Seale, he also had a "fierce appearance" that left his soldiers in "awe"; after a malfunction while he was experimenting with explosives, he lost an eye and damaged one of his legs. In 1968, Abu Ali Iyad set up a Fatah headquarters for military intelligence in Dera'a, southern Syria. Its principal task was to penetrate the Jordanian Army and security agencies. ### Commander in Jordan He moved to Jordan in 1968 where he trained Fatah forces in Ajlun. Palestinian fedayeen activity persisted following the collective Arab defeat in the 1967 Six-Day War and Israel sought to end guerrilla attacks on its territory by launching an offensive against the Palestinian Liberation Organization's (PLO) bases in Jordan. A major confrontation ensued between the Israeli Army and Fatah which came to be known as the Battle of Karameh. Abu Ali Iyad was a senior commander during the battle, gaining prominence and respect among the Palestinians for his performance as an unyielding military officer. Although Fatah took heavy losses, Israel eventually withdrew after the Jordanian Army entered the fray on Fatah's side. He continued to organize raids against Israeli army camps and towns in Israel and the West Bank while he was based in Jordan. Relations between the PLO and King Hussein of Jordan began to deteriorate after Karameh, climaxing in September 1970 when armed conflict ensued between Palestinian and Jordanian forces. Prior to Jordanian military action, Abu Ali Iyad lobbied his colleagues in Fatah, who supported the forced ousting of the king, to withdraw from Amman and return to the countryside closer to the border with Israel. Palestinian factions did not heed his calls and their military bases in Amman were shelled by Jordanian forces. On September 17, an emergency meeting of PLO factions was held with the majority of those attending favoring confrontation with King Hussein's troops. Supporting al-Wazir, who was one of the few delegates to have reservations, Abu Ali Iyad argued against confrontation and warned that expectations of Syrian intervention on the side of the Palestinians was improbable. The Jordanians succeeded in defeating PLO forces in Amman and about 2,000 Palestinian guerrillas under al-Wazir's leadership evacuated the city northward to Ajlun. Abu Ali Iyad was part of the field command there along with al-Wazir. They headed a force of roughly 2,500 guerrillas in the hilly terrain around Ajlun and Jerash. Their position was vulnerable due to the ineffectiveness of Palestinian guerrilla warfare against Jordanian armor in open areas versus urban warfare in the cities and Palestinian refugee camps. Most of the PLO leadership, including Arafat and al-Wazir, and hundreds of guerrillas escaped Jordan in April 1971 following pressure from Arab states, confiscation of weapons by the Jordanian Army and the closing of PLO offices in Amman. Abu Ali Iyad refused to do so, however, and he and his Tiger Cubs stayed put in their Ajlun base where they continued to fight the Jordanian Army. On July 12, King Hussein ordered the evacuation of all guerrilla forces from the strategic mountain in the center of their stronghold in Ajlun. Hussein personally offered to allow Abu Ali Iyad to depart unharmed if he abandoned his fighters. He refused and Hussein ordered his troops to track down and kill him within the framework of routing out remaining PLO forces in northern Jordan. A Jordanian infantry division and armored brigade backed by 10,000 Bedouin foot soldiers immediately launched an offensive afterward. By July 16, Palestinian positions had been secured by the Jordanian Army. During the Jordanian offensive, 200-250 guerrillas had been killed and 70-100 of Abu Ali's troops fled, crossing the Jordan River to the Israeli-occupied West Bank. ## Death and aftermath In early July, prior to the offensive, Abu Ali sent letters to Fatah leaders chastising them for surrendering to King Hussein's forces, stating in defiance "We will die on our feet rather than kneel." On July 23, he was reported killed by the Jordanian Army. According to Yezid Sayigh who documented the history of Palestinian guerrilla warfare, Abu Ali was "executed" during mop-up operations by the Jordanian Army sometime on July 17–18. Jordanian Bedouin troops tied his corpse to a tank and dragged it through several northern villages that had large Palestinian populations. The PLO claimed he was captured and tortured to death by Jordanian forces prior. Another version of events by Abu Ali's partisans was that the Jordanian prime minister at the time, Wasfi al-Tal, was personally responsible for his torture. His partisans sought vengeance for his killing and a splinter group developed within Fatah consisting of men from the Tiger Cubs and other Fatah dissidents. It came to be known as the Black September Organization (BSO) and Abu Ali's men provided its initial membership. On November 28, one of his former Tiger Cubs, Munshir al-Khalifa, assassinated al-Tal in Cairo. According to Seale, this was the first attack carried out by the BSO. Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish dedicated the poem "Returning to Jaffa" to Abu Ali Iyad.

Kirby's Dream Land

1992 video game

Kirby's Dream Land, known in Japan as is a 1992 platform video game developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy. It is the first game in the Kirby series and marks the debut of Kirby. It introduced many conventions that would appear in later games in the series. The game follows Kirby as he goes through five levels to retrieve the Sparkling Stars and food of Dream Land from King Dedede. Kirby's Dream Land was designed by Masahiro Sakurai in his debut game, who intended it to be a simple game that could be easy to pick up and play by those unfamiliar with action games. For more advanced players, he offered additional optional challenges such as an unlockable hard mode and the ability to edit Kirby's maximum HP and starting number of lives. Kirby's Dream Land was re-released on the Nintendo 3DS via the Virtual Console in 2011 and is also one of the games included in the compilation game Kirby's Dream Collection for the Wii, released to celebrate the series' 20th anniversary. The game was included as part of the Nintendo Switch Online service in February 2023. ## Gameplay Kirby's Dream Land is a side-scrolling action-platformer. Like many other platformers of the 8-bit and 16-bit era of video games, levels are played on a two-dimensional plane in which the protagonist, Kirby, can move left or right as well as jump. Kirby's main method of attack is to inhale enemies and objects into his mouth, after which the player can choose to swallow or spit them out as a star-shaped projectile attack. In addition to running and jumping, Kirby can fly by inflating himself with a mouthful of air and flapping his arms. Flying can be done indefinitely; however, while flying, Kirby's only method of attack is to release the air puff held in his mouth which cancels his flight. The game consists of a total of five levels. Levels are made up of a series of large "rooms" connected by doors that lead Kirby to different areas, rather than the single continuous corridors typical of platformers at the time. Some of these doors lead to hidden areas or alternate pathways through the level. The doors act as checkpoints returning the player to the beginning of a "room" should they die rather than starting the level over. The goal of the game is to clear the level by defeating the boss at the end. If Kirby touches an harmful enemy or obstacle, he loses one or more of his health points, depending on the enemy or obstacle he touched. The player starts with a number of lives, which are lost if Kirby loses all of his health or falls into a bottomless pit. Kirby can recover lost health by eating food, found across the stage. The player will receive a Game Over upon losing all of their lives, although they can continue from the beginning of the current stage by selecting "Continue". Unlike the copy abilities of later games, Kirby's Dream Land has more traditional power-ups that offer Kirby temporary abilities when he picks them up, although they are not a big part of gameplay. These often appear in the form of food, such as Spicy Curry that gives Kirby fire breath or a Mint Leaf (Sweet Potato in the Japanese version) that lets Kirby fire air puffs rapidly without losing flight. At the end of each level is a boss Kirby must fight to obtain one of the Sparkling Stars. Most bosses are fought by sucking up small objects or projectiles created by the boss' attacks and spitting them back at the boss. The third boss, Kaboola, is fought using an unlimited version of the Mint Leaf item, incorporating shoot 'em up elements. The last level before the final boss consists of a boss rush, where Kirby must fight all of the game's bosses again going through a short area based on that boss's home level. There are also many mini-bosses during the levels. Like many 1980s-era platformers, the player can accumulate points by defeating enemies and collecting items, with an extra life granted when the player has enough points. However, because Kirby's Dream Land lacks a save function, scores are not recorded. Also, there are no save files, so the player has to start over again when the Game Boy is turned off, if the player chooses to return to the title screen after a game over, or if the player resets the game. Once the game has been completed, a code is offered to play an optional extra game, in which the difficulty is significantly increased. Completing the extra game offered a second code that lets the player adjust lives and vitality settings to play an easier or even harder game, and listen to music and sound effects freely. ## Plot Kirby's Dream Land is set in the fictional country of Dream Land, which is located on a tiny star-shaped planet far, far away from Earth, named "Planet Popstar" in later games. The Dream Landers are a very peaceful and carefree people that use their magical Sparkling Stars to play and work among the heavens. One night, under the cover of darkness, the gluttonous King Dedede and his minions swoop down from his castle on Mt. Dedede and steal all the food in Dream Land, as well as the Sparkling Stars, which the King distributes among his minions. Without the Sparkling Stars, the Dream Landers can no longer harvest food, and begin to go hungry. As the residents are discussing what to do, a spry little boy named Kirby flies in on the spring breeze, and volunteers to defeat King Dedede and retrieve the food and Stars. Upon successfully doing so, he uses the magic of the Sparkling Stars to transform into a hot air balloon and return the King's stolen food back to the people of Dream Land. ## Development Kirby's Dream Land was developed by Masahiro Sakurai of HAL Laboratory. Much of the programming was done on a Twin Famicom, a Nintendo-licensed console produced by Sharp Corporation that combined a Famicom and a Famicom Disk System in one unit. As the Twin Famicom did not have keyboard support, a trackball was used in tandem with an on-screen keyboard to input values; Sakurai described the process, which he assumed was "the way [game programming] was done" at the time, as similar to "using a lunchbox to make lunch." Kirby initially was a dummy character that the developers used until they could define a more sophisticated image. However the designers grew to like Kirby so much that they decided to keep him instead of using a more advanced character. At the time he was to be named Popopo (ポポポ), and the game was named Popopo of the Spring Breeze (はるかぜポポポ, Harukaze Popopo). The title was later changed to Twinkle Popo (ティンクル・ポポ, Tinkuru Popo), which was still being used late enough in development that box art and advertising material was produced with this name. Originally, HAL Laboratory was to publish the game independently, but due to the low number of advance orders, the release was delayed, and HAL asked Nintendo to publish the game. Under Nintendo's supervision, the game received an extensive marketing campaign, and its title was changed. In order to give the character more international appeal, the developers decided to change Popopo's name, so they polled Nintendo of America for suggestions, and eventually chose Kirby. The final Japanese title of the game was Hoshi no Kirby, or Kirby of the Stars, which became the name of the greater franchise. During the development of what was referred to as Twinkle Popo, there was some initial confusion over the color scheme of Popopo/Kirby. Sakurai had always intended him to be pink, and the concept art reflects this, but Kirby was not pink in the game itself, as the Game Boy system had a monochrome display. Other members of the development team were unaware of Kirby's coloration; in particular, Shigeru Miyamoto initially thought that he was yellow. Although pink is still Kirby's main color, later games have used a yellow Kirby to represent the second player in multiplayer. When Kirby of the Stars was released in Japan, it featured a pink Kirby on its box art. However, Nintendo of America designed the North American box art and advertisements with a white Kirby based on the game's grey-scale visuals. The music was composed by Jun Ishikawa. He has been a regular composer in the Kirby series, composing for several subsequent titles. ## Reception ### Contemporary In Japan, Hoshi no Kirby topped the Famitsu sales charts from May 1992 to June 1992. In the United States, Kirby's Dream Land topped Babbage's Game Boy sales chart in October 1992. The game sold more than 1 million units worldwide by March 1993. By May 28, 1994, Kirby's Dream Land had sold 1.3 million copies. By 1997, 4.6 million units had been sold. As of 2010, it has sold in excess of 5 million copies worldwide; Gamasutra cited its new style of gameplay for its success. At the time, it was HAL Laboratory's most successful game. Gamasutra's Osamu Inoue attributed the game's success to Satoru Iwata, formerly an employee of HAL Laboratory, who Inoue comments has a "simple-minded passion for creating games". Kirby's Dream Land has received a generally positive reception. Upon release, Nintendo Power editors George and Bob shared generally positive opinions of the game; George stated that it is a really fun game, owing its quality to its excellent play control and well thought out concept, while Bob stated that it is deceptively simple looking, when it in fact features a decent challenge for more experienced gamers. ### Retrospective Retrospectively, it holds an aggregate score of 62% on GameRankings with nine reviews, making it the 17th best Game Boy game. Game Informer's Ben Reeves called it the 14th best Game Boy game and felt that it was a relaxing game. Author Wendy Despain used Kirby's Dream Land's plot as an example of how early platform games' plots progressed, which she collectively described as "the main character needing to reach a villain to put right a wrong." Humongous Life's Jonathan Wahlgren called it a strong game, but felt it to be "too elementary". GamesRadar's Brett Elston did an article on its music, specifically giving praise to the final boss music, stating that it is the "only song in the original Kirby that had a sense of challenge or conflict instead of skipping through a field of floating cakes." Nadia Oxford of 1UP.com praised it for its unique platforming mechanics, describing it as the start of a "gluttonous legend". Allgame's Joshua Crystal called it a "great game for beginner players and ones that enjoy a fun, but short, experience." In an article detailing various Kirby series video games, IGN stated that it was a decent platformer, but basic compared to later games. IGN'''s Lucas M. Thomas and Craig Harris included Kirby's Dream Land in their wishlist for a hypothetical "Virtual Console" for the Nintendo 3DS, commenting that its inclusion would be based on nostalgia rather than it feeling "new and sensational". They also added that original characters like Kirby were the stars of the Game Boy rather than established characters such as Link, Mario, Samus Aran, and Pit. They would again praise Kirby's Dream Land for being an original game in their "History of the Game Boy" article, adding that while "attitude" was common in new platforming mascots, Kirby was cheery and adorable, while the game featured "breezy, casual gameplay and lighthearted atmosphere". GameSpy's Gerald Villoria, Brian Altano, and Ryan Scott called it "basic" compared to later games in the series, adding that it lacked a sense of danger because Kirby could fly. GamesRadar listed Kirby's Dream Land and its sequel as two of the games they want in the 3DS Virtual Console. ## Sequels Kirby's Dream Land has spawned numerous of sequels across several video game consoles. The first direct sequel, Kirby's Adventure, released on the Nintendo Entertainment System, introduced the ability to steal powers from enemies, an ability which would become a staple of the series following it. The series has featured several spin-offs, in differing genres including a racing game Kirby Air Ride, pinball game Kirby's Pinball Land, and an action-golf hybrid game Kirby's Dream Course. Kirby's Dream Land would receive a Game Boy sequel in 1995, Kirby's Dream Land 2, which incorporated the copy mechanic from Kirby's Adventure. The Super NES game Kirby Super Star contains a shortened remake of Kirby's Dream Land, "Spring Breeze". It features Kirby's copy ability from later games and the ability to summon helpers for co-op, but is missing the Castle Lololo stage and Kaboola boss fight, Lololo and Lalala becoming the boss for Float Island instead. Kirby Super Star Ultra expanded upon this with "Revenge of The King", a harder version of "Spring Breeze" that takes heavy inspiration from Kirby's Dream Land's extra mode and features longer levels more in line with the original game. Although Castle Lololo is still absent, Kaboola's boss fight returns in a reimagined form. Kirby and King Dedede appear as playable characters in the fighting game series Super Smash Bros. Both characters have alternate costumes that give them a monochrome appearance reminiscent of the Game Boy's graphics. The "Green Greens" stage, first appearing in Super Smash Bros. Melee, is based on this game's first level. The "Dream Land GB" stage, introduced in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, transitions between multiple locations from Kirby's Dream Land'' as displayed through a monochromatic Game Boy screen.

First American International Road Race

Stock car race in New York in 1908

The First American International Road Race, informally known as the Briarcliff Trophy Race, was a stock car race in Westchester County, New York, in April 1908. The race was sponsored by and centered around the village of Briarcliff Manor. The race was the first automobile race in Westchester and the first international stock car race in the United States. The race began and ended in Briarcliff, spanning from 4:45 a.m. to 12:20 p.m. on April 24, 1908. The winner, Lewis Strang in an Isotta Fraschini, covered the 259 miles (417 km) in five hours and fourteen minutes. More than 300,000 people watched the race throughout Westchester County, and the village had more than 100,000 visitors that day. ## Background The race chairman was Robert Lee Morrell; he headed a committee of four men: S. R. Stevens, Alfred Reeves, E. T. Birdsall, and C. R. Mabley. One thousand soldiers from the state's 12th and 20th regiments of the National Guard were deployed at important points along the course for crowd control, along with hundreds of policemen. Marshals were hired to wave red flags to drivers for safety on blind turns and yellow flags to caution drivers to reduce their speed on dangerous turns. The New York Times and local newspapers created publicity for the event. The Lozier Company set up a wireless telegraph system in Briarcliff, allowing the Times to give accounts of the race to Times Square audiences within minutes. ## Course The course spanned over much of Westchester County, from Briarcliff Manor north to Millwood, Kitchawan, and Pines Bridge, before going south to Mount Kisco, Wampus Lake, Armonk, Kenisco, and Valhalla, and then roughly north again to Eastview, Hawthorne, and then back to Briarcliff Manor. The 32.4-mile (52.1 km) circuit was to be completed eight times, a total of 259.2 miles (417.1 km). Original plans scheduled that ten laps of the course be completed, for a total of 324 miles (521 km). The route had sharp turns, narrow stretches, hills, and other hazards. The area around the Kensico Reservoir had numerous sharp S curves, while an eight-mile stretch from Pines Bridge to Mount Kisco had weak wooden fences serving as the only barrier between the road and the Croton Reservoir. Reporting before the race indicated that the stretch between Valhalla and Eastview was the worst due to muddy and rutted roadbeds, steep inclines, and a narrow winding road. Based on the perilous conditions, rated as the toughest on which a road race had ever been held, the drivers speculated that 40 mph (64 km/h) could be a high average speed, but 45 mph (72 km/h) could be the winning speed. The drivers speculated that six cars might finish the entire circuit, with the other vehicles breaking down or succumbing to accidents. Various grandstands with good views were placed along the route, though viewers also chose to watch at more dangerous points, including S- and L-shaped curves near Valhalla, anticipated as the most dangerous place. The stretch from Eastview to Kitchawan was considered the best for speeding, estimated that cars could reach 70 mph (110 km/h) at parts of the stretch. Six ambulance stations were also set up, in Armonk, Valhalla, Eastview, Hawthorne, Millwood, and Mount Kisco. ## Entrants The race had 22 entrants with vehicles from five countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, and the United States. 19 of the cars had four speeds, while the Isottas had three speeds. All were four-cylinder stock cars. The Loziers and Renaults were shaft driven, while the other cars were chain driven. All 22 entrants were men. Joan Cuneo, the most prominent female racing driver of the time as stated in MetroSports Magazine, visited the course, wanted to participate, and submitted the \$1,000 entry fee. The race's committee questioned whether a woman could control an automobile during a race, and denied her entry. The entrants were: ## Timeline of the race A technical committee reviewed the cars before the race, requiring them to be regular production models available to the public, and that the company has already built at least ten cars of that type. The drivers were allowed to practice on the course several weeks before the race. Local municipalities suspended their speed limits during early morning hours to allow the racers the ability to practice. Minor accidents occurred in these practice runs, including one on April 21. Arthur Campbell's vision was obscured by a dust cloud, leading him to strike the railing of a bridge. The car went into a stream and Campbell catapulted out of the car into some rocks, knocking teeth loose and breaking his jaw. Ralph DePalma, his riding mechanic, landed underneath the car and had to be pulled out. DePalma took Campbell's place in the competition, and the car was taken to a garage for repairs, though it is not clear if it was repaired sufficiently for the race. ### Day of the race The race had significant publicity in The New York Times, along with front-page coverage in city newspapers across the U.S. The strong press coverage led to expectations of thousands of attendees. On the day of the race, tourists from New England cities arrived in cars and by train. The New York Central Railroad added special trains leaving from Grand Central Terminal to the Valhalla and Mount Kisco stations near the course, from 1:15 a.m. and every 15 minutes afterward. The trains left on time, though inexplicably, many took about three hours to reach parts of the course, instead of the usual hour. This led to chaotic crowds arriving late by a grandstand, and 200 marshalls pushed back the crowd to clear the roadway. Overall more than 300,000 people watched the race throughout Westchester County, and Briarcliff Manor had more than 100,000 visitors that day. The Briarcliff Lodge was filed with activity, and charged \$10 for a cot or bunk in a shared room. Farmers built seating and charged for its use during the event. Booths were set up along the course, selling tires to racers and tourists, while advertisements for items including motor oil, cars, and cigarettes were placed on trees and telephone poles in the area. The race was set to start at 4:45 a.m. The pole position, Paul Sartori, first pulled away from the starting line at 5:08 a.m. The race was finished by 12:20 p.m.; five cars had completed the eight laps, and the judges decided to end the race there, having determined nothing more could be gained in continuing it. Cedrino achieved the fastest two rounds in the race: 37 minutes and 16 seconds in his seventh lap and 36 minutes and 48 seconds in his eighth. ## Winner and trophy The prize, the Briarcliff Trophy valued at over \$10,000 (\$ in ), was donated and presented by Briarcliff Manor founder Walter W. Law. The winner, Lewis Strang, practiced for five weeks in a six-cylinder Ford owned by John H. Tyson. The Isotta he used in the competition (also owned by Tyson) was only driven over the course twice before the race, and was otherwise locked and guarded in the owner's garage. In the race, Strang took the lead on the first lap and never let go, thus winning the race and trophy. He had consistently made four of his laps in just over 38 minutes. John Tyson claimed to have spent \$25,000 to win the trophy but gave Strang credit for the triumph. Strang received \$1,000, along with a \$5,000 bonus from Tyson. His mechanic received \$500 along with a bonus. ## Aftermath and impact The race helped prove claims of its committee that it was the best possible test for cars to be driven on American roads, leading to discussions worldwide for months after the race. Emmanuel Cedrino, initially seen as a likely winner of the competition, died a month after the Briarcliff race in a racing accident at the Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore. On November 12, 1934, the Automobile Racing Club of America held another road race in Briarcliff Manor. It was the first amateur race in the United States, hosted by the wealthy Collier family of nearby Pocantico Hills. Brothers Sam, Miles, and Barron Jr. had begun hosting informal races in the area in the early 1930s, and formed the racing club in 1933. The 1934 race was won by Langdon Quimby, driving a Willys 77, in a time of two hours and seven minutes on the 100-mile (160 km) course. The race was held again on June 23, 1935; Quimby won again, four minutes faster than the previous year. In 1938, exactly 30 years after his accident, Ralph DePalma returned to the route. He met with the doctor who had treated him and they revisited the scene of the accident, an event that unexpectedly started his racing career. By this time, DePalma was internationally known for racing, having won 2,257 races, 98 percent of those he entered. In 1977, during Briarcliff Manor's 75th anniversary, 15 old racing cars participated in a motorcade around the 1934 race's route. In 2008, the village commemorated the first race's centennial in a parade featuring about 60 antique cars. ## See also - History of Briarcliff Manor

Guitar Solos

Guitar Solos is the debut solo album of English guitarist, composer, and improviser Fred Frith. It was recorded while Frith was still a member of the English experimental rock group Henry Cow and was released in the United Kingdom on LP record by Caroline Records in October 1974. The album comprises eight tracks of unaccompanied and improvised music played on prepared guitars by Frith without any overdubbing. Guitar Solos was voted one of the best albums of 1974 by NME critics. AllMusic called it a landmark album because of its innovative and experimental approach to guitar playing. It also attracted the attention of Brian Eno, resulting in Frith playing guitar on two of Eno's albums, and spawned two follow-up albums, Guitar Solos 2 (1976) and Guitar Solos 3 (1979). Guitar Solos was remastered and released on CD on Frith's own record label, Fred Records, in 2002. ## Background Fred Frith was a classically-trained violinist who turned to playing blues guitar while still at school. In 1967 he went to Cambridge University where he and fellow student, Tim Hodgkinson formed Henry Cow. While at University, Frith read John Cage's Silence: Lectures and Writings, which changed his attitude to music completely. He realised that "sound, in and of itself, can be as important as ... melody and harmony and rhythm." This changed his approach to the guitar, "just to see what I could get out of it", and initiated a long period of experimentation that continued throughout Frith's musical career. While the music of Henry Cow was highly orchestrated and structured, Frith also began to experiment with unstructured music, using prepared instruments and chance composition. In June 1974, after the release of Henry Cow's second album Unrest, Virgin Records (Henry Cow's record label) commissioned a solo record from Frith. They were impressed with his musical ability and gave him free rein to record whatever he wanted. Frith accepted Virgin's challenge, realising that he had "an interesting opportunity to see if I could actually redefine what the instrument was." He decided that the album would consist of a number of "minimally planned improvisation[s]", "a set of études". Frith spent four days in July 1974 recording at the Kaleidophon Studios in London, and in October that year, Virgin released the album as Guitar Solos on their budget label, Caroline Records. Frith believes that Virgin wanted to transform him into a guitar hero. "[They] were trying to turn me into a star, which is what record companies try to do." But rather than produce a "guitar hero record", what Frith made "was almost the antithesis" of what Virgin were expecting. American music academic Benjamin Piekut noted the similarity between Guitar Solos and Derek Bailey's 1971 album, Solo Guitar, but added that while Frith knew Bailey at the time, he had not heard Bailey's solo album. ## Recording Frith recorded the album at David Vorhaus's Kaleidophon Studios in London on 11–13 and 15 July 1974, where he played a modified 1936 Gibson K-11. He added an extra pickup over the strings at the nut, enabling him to amplify sound from both sides of the fretted note. He then split the fretboard in two with a capo, effectively giving him two guitars, each amplified separately that he could play independently with each hand. To split the sounds further he attached alligator clips at various positions on the strings. The net result was a guitar with multiple sound sources that could be channelled to a mixer and distributed across the stereo soundscape. The album was recorded in four days without any overdubbing. All the pieces were improvised, some completely, some to a roughly preconceived idea, and sound as they were played, except for "No Birds", which was recorded in two parts, and "Not Forgotten", from which two notes were removed. The only sounds not produced 'naturally' by guitar are those of a fuzzbox used on "Out of Their Heads (On Locoweed)", "Heat c/w Moment" and "No Birds", an echo delay used on "No Birds", and ambient noise from Frith's breath and feet on "Heat c/w Moment". On the longest track on the album, "No Birds", Frith played on two prepared guitars simultaneously, creating the timbre and range of an orchestra. He laid the two guitars flat on a table, neck to neck with the bodies of the guitars at opposite ends and the necks parallel to each other. He tuned the strings on both guitars to one note, and because they were stereo guitars with nut pickups, he had six separate sound sources coming from each guitar. Using volume pedals on some of the sound sources, he filtered sounds in and out of the mix without doing anything on the guitars. Frith took the title of "No Birds" from the last line of a poem, "One Nest Rolls After Another" by Captain Beefheart that was printed on the back of the LP sleeve of his 1971 album, Mirror Man. Frith also used the phrase "No Birds" in the Frith/Cutler song, "Beautiful as the Moon – Terrible as an Army with Banners", which was released on Henry Cow's 1975 album, In Praise of Learning. ## Reception and influence Guitar Solos was voted one of the best albums of 1974 by New Musical Express critics. In a review in NME in November 1974, Charles Shaar Murray described it as "a totally revolutionary album" and "an undeniable landmark in the history of rock guitar". Sean Westergaard of AllMusic called Guitar Solos a landmark album because of its innovative and experimental approach to guitar playing. He said it seldom sounds like traditional guitar music, "but the pieces have a logic (and beauty, in some cases) all their own." Westergaard described the work as "challenging, avant-garde music, but [not] unapproachable." In the January 1983 edition of DownBeat magazine, Bill Milkowski wrote that on Guitar Solos "Frith unveiled a haunting collection of improvised music on prepared guitar which must have stunned listeners of the day. Even today [1983] that album stands up as uniquely innovative and undeniably daring." Piekut described Guitar Solos as "extraordinary not only for the astonishing precision and originally of Frith's technique, but for his détournement of an instrument whose entire history had been governed by a simple rule: you pluck it and it goes twang." Nicole V. Gagné wrote in her 1990 book, Sonic Transports: New Frontiers in Our Music that the music on Guitar Solos is an "unprecedented ... lexicon of revolutionary sounds" which "leaves you wondering what guitar-playing is."^{[italics in the source]} She said Frith displays his "astounding technique" of abruptly switching "timbres, multiple rhythmic lines, subtle nuances in volume [and] harmonic densities" within a single piece of music. Gagné commented on some of the tracks: > In "Glass c/w Steel", Frith meticulously fades up, one after the other, four strands of sound, and overlays them into an eerie haze, out of which bounds a rubbery, animal-like line. As this critter bounces and jabbers, the backdrop continues to shift, eventually swelling into loud silvery bells, and then taking a protesting descent back into silence. In "Ghosts", distorted chords expand and collapse with sudden changes of volume. Those ectoplasmic sounds, in a modified form, flit about "Out of Their Heads (On Locoweed)", a track which reworks the formula of "Glass c/w Steel". Gagné remarked that "the album's biggest surprise" is when it was recorded. She stated that it "is still light years beyond most musicians" and listeners could find themselves "falling out of love with guitarists who haven't grasped the implications of Frith's approach." Guitar Solos attracted the attention of Brian Eno who was "excited by the timbral possibilities that [Frith had] been discovering." Eno asked Frith to record with him, and this resulted in Frith playing guitar on two of Eno's albums, Before and After Science (1977) and Music for Films (1978). The table-top guitar setup Frith used on Guitar Solos became a standard for many of his subsequent live performances, including those recorded on his 1982 live double album Live in Japan. He later extended his technique to include "found objects", which he used on his guitars to extract new sounds. The success of Guitar Solos spawned two follow-up albums, Guitar Solos 2 (1976) and Guitar Solos 3 (1979), which featured Frith and other improvising guitarists, including Derek Bailey and Hans Reichel. Frith coordinated and produced these albums, and employed many of the same "unorthodox techniques" he had used on Guitar Solos. When a remastered edition of the original Guitar Solos was released 28 years later on Frith's own Fred Records label, it attracted further praise from critics. Westergaard wrote that "Guitar Solos''' lasting legacy is that it radically redefined the way some people think about the guitar." ## CD re-issues In 1991 RecRec Music (Switzerland) and East Side Digital Records (United States) re-issued Guitar Solos on CD comprising all the tracks from the original Guitar Solos LP, plus the Fred Frith tracks from the follow-up albums, Guitar Solos 2 and Guitar Solos 3, along with five previously unreleased tracks by Frith. In 2002 Fred Records issued a remastered version of the original Guitar Solos LP with no extra tracks. ## Track listing ### Original 1974 release ### 1991 CD re-issue bonus tracks ### Track notes - Tracks 9–10 were recorded on Tom Newman's barge (Argonaut Studio) in January 1976, and were originally released on the second album in the series, Guitar Solos 2 (1976). - Tracks 11–13 were recorded at Briollay, France, in October 1978, and were originally released on the third album in the series, Guitar Solos 3'' (1979). - Tracks 14–18 were recorded at Noise, New York City, in September 1988, and were previously unreleased. ## Personnel - Fred Frith – prepared guitars ### Production - David Vorhaus – recording engineer - Ray Smith – album sleeve photography and design ## See also - Fred Frith's equipment

York Castle

Grade I listed monument in York, England

York Castle is a fortified complex in the city of York, England. It consists of a sequence of castles, prisons, law courts and other buildings, which were built over the last nine centuries on the south side of the River Foss. The now ruined keep of the medieval Norman castle is commonly referred to as Clifford's Tower. Built originally on the orders of William I to dominate the former Viking city of Jórvík, the castle suffered a tumultuous early history before developing into a major fortification with extensive water defences. After a major explosion in 1684 rendered the remaining military defences uninhabitable, York Castle continued to be used as a gaol and prison until 1929. The first motte and bailey castle on the site was built in 1068 following the Norman conquest of York. After the destruction of the castle by rebels and a Viking army in 1069, York Castle was rebuilt and reinforced with extensive water defences, including a moat and an artificial lake. York Castle formed an important royal fortification in the north of England. In 1190, 150 local Jews were killed in a pogrom in the timber castle keep; most of them died by suicide in order not to fall into the hands of the mob. Henry III rebuilt the castle in stone in the middle of the 13th century, creating a keep with a unique quatrefoil design, supported by an outer bailey wall and a substantial gatehouse. During the Scottish wars between 1298 and 1338, York Castle was frequently used as the centre of royal administration across England, as well as an important military base of operations. York Castle fell into disrepair by the 15th and 16th centuries, becoming used increasingly as a gaol for both local felons and political prisoners. By the time of Elizabeth I the castle was estimated to have lost all of its military value but was maintained as a centre of royal authority in York. The outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 saw York Castle being repaired and refortified, playing a part in the Royalist defence of York in 1644 against Parliamentary forces. York Castle continued to be garrisoned until 1684, when an explosion destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower. The castle bailey was redeveloped in a neoclassical style in the 18th century as a centre for county administration in Yorkshire, and was used as a gaol and debtors' prison. Prison reform in the 19th century led to the creation of a new prison built in a Tudor Gothic style on the castle site in 1825; used first as a county and then as a military prison, this facility was demolished in 1935. By the 20th century the ruin of Clifford's Tower had become a well-known tourist destination and national monument; today the site is owned by English Heritage and open to the public. The other remaining buildings serve as the York Castle Museum and the Crown Court. ## History ### 11th century York was a Viking capital in the 10th century, and continued as an important northern city in the 11th century. In 1068, on William the Conqueror's first northern expedition after the Norman Conquest, he built a number of castles across the north-east of England, including one at York. This first castle at York was a basic wooden motte and bailey castle built between the rivers Ouse and Foss on the site of the present-day York Castle. It was built in haste; contemporary accounts imply it was constructed in only eight days, although this assertion has been challenged. The motte was originally around 200 ft (61 m) wide at the base. As it was built in an urban environment, hundreds of houses had to be destroyed to make way for the development. William Malet, the sheriff of Yorkshire, was placed in charge of the castle and successfully defended it against an immediate uprising by the local population. In response to the worsening security situation, William conducted his second northern campaign in 1069. He built another castle in York, on what is now Baile Hill on the west bank of the Ouse opposite the first castle, in an effort to improve his control over the city. This second castle was also a motte and bailey design, with the Baile Hill motte probably reached by a horizontal bridge and steps cut up the side of the motte. Later that year, a Danish Viking fleet sailed up to York along the Humber and the Ouse, and attacked both castles with the assistance of Cospatrick of Northumbria and a number of local rebels. The Normans, attempting to drive the rebels back, set fire to some of the city's houses. The fire grew out of control and also set fire to York Minster and, some argue, the castles as well. The castles were captured and partially dismantled, and Malet was taken hostage by the Danes. William conducted a widespread sequence of punitive operations across the north of England in the aftermath of the attacks in 1069 and 1070. This "Harrying of the North" restored sufficient order to allow the rebuilding of the two castles, again in wood. The bailey at York Castle was enlarged slightly in the process; buildings believed to have been inside the bailey at this time include "halls, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges [and] workshops". By the time the Domesday Book was written in 1086, York Castle was also surrounded by a water-filled moat and a large artificial lake called the King's Pool, fed from the river Foss by a dam built for the purpose. More property, including two watermills, had to be destroyed to make way for the water defences. Over time the Baile Hill site was abandoned in favour of the first castle site, leaving only the motte, which still exists. ### 12th century Henry II visited York Castle four times during his reign. The royal chambers at the time were inside the keep for safety, and Henry paid £15 for repairs to the keep. During his 1175 visit, Henry used the castle as the base for receiving the homage of William the Lion of Scotland. Castle mills were built close by to support the garrison, and the military order of the Knights Templar was granted ownership of the mills in the mid-12th century. The mills proved to be vulnerable to the flooding of the two rivers and had to be repeatedly repaired. #### Massacre of Jews In 1190, York Castle was the location of one of the worst pogroms in England during the medieval period. The Normans had introduced the first Jewish communities into England, where some occupied a special economic role as moneylenders, an essential but otherwise banned activity. English Jews were subject to considerable religious prejudice and primarily worked from towns and cities in which there was a local royal castle that could provide them with protection in the event of attacks from the majority Christian population. Royal protection was usually granted as the Norman and Angevin kings had determined that Jewish property and debts owed to Jews ultimately belonged to the crown, reverting to the king on a Jew's death. Richard I was crowned king in 1189 and announced his intention to join the Crusades; this inflamed anti-Jewish sentiment. Rumours began to spread that the king had ordered that the English Jews be attacked. In York, tensions broke out into violence the following year. Richard de Malbis, who owed money to the powerful Jewish merchant Aaron of Lincoln, exploited an accidental house fire to incite a local mob to attack the home and family of a recently deceased Jewish employee of Aaron in York. Josce of York, the leader of the Jewish community, led the local Jewish families into the royal castle, where they took refuge in the wooden keep. The mob surrounded the castle, and when the constable left the castle to discuss the situation, the Jews, fearing the entry of the mob or being handed over to the sheriff, refused to allow him back in. The constable appealed to the sheriff, who called out his own men and laid siege to the keep. The siege continued until 16 March when the Jews' position became untenable. Their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtob, proposed an act of collective suicide to avoid being killed by the mob, and the castle was set on fire to prevent their bodies being mutilated after their deaths. Several Jews perished in the flames but the majority took their own lives rather than give themselves up to the mob. However, a handful of Jews did surrender, promising to convert to Christianity, but they were killed by the angry crowd. Around 150 Jews died in total in the massacre. The keep was rebuilt, again in wood, on the motte, which was raised in height by 13 ft (4.0 m) at a cost of £207. ### 13th and 14th centuries King John used York Castle extensively during his reign, using the keep as his personal quarters for his own security. The castle was kept in good repair during that time. During this period, the first records of the use of the castle as a gaol appeared, with references to prisoners taken during John's Irish campaigns being held at York Castle. By the 13th century there was a well-established system of castle-guards in place, under which various lands around York were granted in return for the provision of knights and crossbowmen to assist in protecting the castle. Henry III also made extensive use of the castle, but during his visit at Christmas 1228 a gale destroyed the wooden keep on the motte. The keep was apparently not repaired, and a building for the king's use was built in the bailey instead. In 1244, when the Scots threatened to invade England, King Henry III visited the castle and ordered it to be rebuilt in white limestone, at a cost of about £2,600. The work was carried out between 1245 and 1270, and included the construction of a towered curtain wall, a gatehouse of considerable size with two large towers, two smaller gatehouses, a small watergate, a small gateway into the city, a chapel, and a new stone keep, first known as the King's, later Clifford's, Tower. Clifford's Tower is of an unusual design. The two-storey tower has a quatrefoil plan with four circular lobes. Each lobe measures 22 ft (6.7 m) across, with walls 9 ft 6 in (2.90 m) thick; at its widest, the tower is 79 ft (24 m) across. A square gatehouse, 21 ft (6.4 m) wide, protected the entrance on the south side between two of the lobes. There are defensive turrets between the other lobes. Large corbels and a central pier supported the huge weight of stone and the first floor. Loopholes of a design unique to York Castle provided firing points. A chapel was built over the entrance, measuring 15 by 14 ft (4.6 by 4.3 m) doubling as a portcullis chamber as at Harlech and Chepstow Castles. The tower is believed to be an experiment in improving flanking fire by making more ground visible from the summit of the keep. Although unique in England, the design of the tower closely resembles that at Étampes in France, and may have influenced the design of the future keep of Pontefract Castle. Henry employed master mason Henry de Rayns and chief carpenter Simon of Northampton for the project, and the cost of the tower accounted for the majority of the overall expenditure on the castle during this period of work. The new castle needed constant investment to maintain its quality as a military fortification. Winter floods in 1315–16 damaged the soil at the base of the motte, requiring immediate repairs. Around 1358–60, the heavy stone keep again suffered from subsidence and the south-eastern lobe cracked from top to bottom. Royal officials recommended that the keep be completely rebuilt, but, instead, the lobe was repaired at a cost of £200. Edward I gave wide-reaching powers to the sheriff of Yorkshire for enforcing law and order in the city of York, and the sheriffs established their headquarters in Clifford's Tower. During the wars against the Scots under both Edward and his son, York Castle also formed the centre of royal administration in England for almost half the years between 1298 and 1338. Many Westminster institutions followed the king north to York, basing themselves in the castle compound. The existing castle buildings were insufficient to house all the administrative institutions; a temporary building inside the castle was built for the Court of Common Pleas at the beginning of the period, and rebuilt on a larger scale during 1319–20. The Exchequer took over Clifford's Tower. Other buildings around the city had to be commandeered to absorb the overflow from the castle itself. As a result of the extended use of the castle for these purposes, the law courts at York Castle began to compete with those in London, a pattern that lasted into the 1360s. The castle eventually acquired its own mint in 1344, when Edward III decided to create a permanent mint in York Castle to produce gold and silver coins to serve the needs of the north of England. European coiners were brought to York to establish the facility. Henry III extended the castle's role as a gaol for holding a wide range of prisoners. The sheriff was responsible for the gaol at this time, and his deputy usually took the role of a full-time gaoler. Up to three hundred and ten prisoners were held in the castle at any one time. The conditions in which prisoners were held were "appalling", and led to the widespread loss of life amongst detainees. Prison escapes were relatively common, and many of them, such as the break-out by 28 prisoners in 1298, were successful. When the Military Order of the Knights Templar was dissolved in England in 1307, York Castle was used to hold many of the arrested knights. The castle mills, as former Templar property, returned to royal control at the same time. Edward II also used the castle as a gaol in his campaign against his rebellious barons in 1322, and after the Battle of Boroughbridge many of the defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle. By the end of the 14th century, the castle bailey was primarily occupied by the local county administration. It was used extensively as a gaol, with prisoners being kept in the various towers around the bailey. The old castle-guard system for securing the castle had changed into a system whereby the crown used rents from local royal lands to hire local guards for the castle. Increasingly, royalty preferred to stay at the Franciscan friary, between the castle and King's Staith on the Ouse, while their staff resided at St Mary's Abbey and St Andrew's Priory in the Fishergate area. ### 15th and 16th centuries In the 15th century, York Castle, along with Nottingham Castle, was considered a key security asset in the north of England, but investment even in these castles diminished. Repairs to York Castle grew infrequent from 1400 onwards, and it fell into increasing disrepair. Richard III recognised the issue and in 1483 had some of the most decrepit structures removed, but he died at the Battle of Bosworth before replacement work could commence. By the reign of Henry VIII, the antiquary John Leland reported that the castle was in considerable disrepair; nonetheless the water defences remained intact, unlike those of many other castles of the period. As a result of the deterioration, Henry had to be advised that the king's councillors no longer had any official residence in which to stay and work when they were in York. The castle mint was shut down after the death of Edward VI in 1553, and the castle mills were given to a local charitable hospital in 1464. The hospital was then closed during the Reformation, and the mills passed into private ownership once again. The castle continued to be used as a gaol, increasingly for local felons, and a location for political executions. By the 16th century it had become traditional to execute traitors by hanging them from the top of Clifford's Tower, rather than killing them at Micklegate Bar, the usual previous location for capital punishment in York. In 1536, for example, the political leader Robert Aske was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII, following the failure of Aske's Pilgrimage of Grace protest against the Dissolution of the Monasteries. For most of the period the sheriffs of Yorkshire remained in control of the castle, although there were some notable exceptions such as the appointment of the royal favourite Sir Robert Ryther by Edward IV in 1478. At the end of the 16th century, however, the Clifford family (Earls of Cumberland), became the hereditary constables of the castle, and Clifford's Tower took its name from the family at around this time. The deterioration of the castle continued into the reign of Elizabeth I, who was advised that it no longer had any military utility. Robert Redhead, the tower keeper, became infamous at the time for taking parts of the castle to pieces and selling off the stonework for his own profit. Despite numerous attempts by local city and crown officials to halt this, Redhead continued to cause considerable damage before being forced to stop. Proposals were made to pull down Clifford's Tower altogether in 1596, but were turned down because of the strength of local feeling. ### 17th century Maintaining the castle was becoming increasingly expensive, and in 1614 King James sold the lease on Clifford's Tower and the surrounding land to John Babington and Edmund Duffield, a pair of property speculators. In turn, Babington and Duffield sold Clifford's Tower to a York merchant family. In 1642, however, the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of the Royalists and Parliament. Forces loyal to Charles I, under the command of Henry Clifford, garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643. York effectively became the "northern capital" for the Royalist cause. Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support cannon, placing his arms alongside those of the king above the entrance. Clifford's Tower's gatehouse was substantially remodelled, losing its original medieval appearance. Baile Hill, on the other side of the river, became a gun emplacement. The castle mint was reopened to supply the king's forces with coins. The war turned against the Royalist factions, and on 23 April 1644 Parliamentary forces commenced the siege of York. A Scottish army under Alexander Leslie came from the south, while a Parliamentary force under Ferdinando Fairfax came from the east. Six weeks later, Edward Montagu brought a third contingent to York, bringing the number of forces besieging the city to over 30,000 men. William Cavendish commanded the city during the siege, while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed the governor of the castle. Despite bombardment, attempts to undermine the walls and attacks on the gates, the city held out through May and June. Prince Rupert, sent to relieve York, approached with reinforcements, and through clever manoeuvring was able to force the besiegers to withdraw, lifting the siege on 1 July. The next day, Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor, six miles west of York, making the surrender of York and the castle inevitable. On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces, who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours. Parliament then appointed Thomas Dickenson, the local mayor, as the governor of Clifford's Tower. Control of the castle rested with the post of mayor until the Restoration. Efforts were made to separate the structures of Clifford's Tower, which Parliament used as a garrison, from the buildings of the bailey, which continued to be used as a prison. Oliver Cromwell visited Clifford's Tower in 1650, and received a salute from the guns stationed on top of it. The cost of the garrison was levied on the city of York. After the Restoration of Charles II, the pre-war owners of the property laid claim to Clifford's Tower, eventually being granted ownership. A garrison continued to be stationed there, however, which prevented the owners from actually occupying or using the property. Repairs were made to the tower, and it became a magazine for storing gunpowder and shot. Attempts were made to restore the condition of the moat, which had become badly silted. Some political prisoners continued to be held at the castle during the Restoration period, including George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends. The county facilities in the bailey were expanded during these years, with improvements to the Grand Jury House and the Common Hall, but by the 1680s the role of the military garrison at York Castle was being called into question. Sir Christopher Musgrave produced a report for the Crown in 1682; he argued that it would cost at least £30,000 to turn the castle into a modern fortification, producing a proposal for the six bastions that such a star fort would require. This work was never carried out. Meanwhile, the garrison and the castle had become extremely unpopular with the people of York, who disliked both the cost and the imposition of external authority. On St George's Day in 1684 at around 10 pm, an explosion in the magazine destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower entirely. The official explanation was that the celebratory salute from the guns on the roof had set fire to parts of the woodwork, which later ignited the magazine. Most historians, however, believe the explosion was not accidental. At the time, it was common in the city to toast the potential demolition of the "Minced Pie", as the castle was known to locals; suspiciously, some members of the garrison had moved their personal belongings to safety just before the explosion, and no-one from the garrison was injured by the event. The heat of the fire turned the limestone of the tower to its current, slightly pink, colour. The now-ruined tower was returned fully to private ownership, eventually forming part of the lands of the neighbouring house and gardens belonging to Samuel Waud. ### 18th century `By 1701, the conditions of the county gaol had become scandalous and the decision was taken to redevelop the area occupied by the old bailey. A local tax helped to fund the development, and the king agreed for the ruins of St Mary's Abbey to be cannibalised for building stone. Three new buildings were erected to the south of Clifford's Tower. A new county gaol, built between 1701 and 1705 by William Wakefield, was placed on the south side, closely resembling the fashionable work of John Vanbrugh. The local architect John Carr then built the Assize Courts on the site of the old Jury House between 1773 and 1777 on the west side, and oversaw the replacement of the Sessions House and Common Hall by the Female Prison between 1780 and 1783 on the east side. The Female Prison and county gaol were later combined to become the Debtors' Prison. Both of Carr's buildings were designed in a distinctive neoclassical style; the Assize Court building was particularly praised at the time as being "a superb building of the Ionic order". The castle courtyard was grassed over to form a circle in 1777 and became known as the "Eye of the Ridings" because it was used for the election of members of parliament for York.` Visits by the prison reformer John Howard as part of the research for his book The State of the Prisons found these prisons flawed, but in relatively good condition compared to others at the time. The Debtors' Prison as a whole was an "honour to the county" of York, with "airy and healthy" rooms, but the felons' wing of the prison attracted some criticism. The felons' wing was "too small" and had "no water" for the inmates; felons were forced to sleep on piles of straw on the floor. Indeed, conditions were so bad in the felons' wing that nine prisoners suffocated in one night during 1739. Just outside the main walls, the castle mills had become increasingly ineffective from the 16th century onwards because of a reduction in the flow of the rivers driving the water-wheels. As a result, in 1778 they were rebuilt with a new steam engine to drive the machinery; this steam engine caused considerable discomfort to the prisoners affected by the smoke and noise. ### 19th century Criticism of the castle prison increased at the end of the 18th century. The facilities were felt to be inadequate and the crowds of spectators who gathered outside the prison to see inmates being taken into York for execution unseemly. Attempts were made to improve the way executions were carried out from 1803 onwards: the former castle courtyard, the Eye of the Ridings, was used for this purpose instead, although crowds still gathered outside the bailey to watch the slow deaths of the prisoners. By 1813 the execution process had been sped up by the introduction of the "short drop" method of hanging, allowing the unusually rapid execution of fourteen Luddite agitators at the castle in 1814. Overcrowding in the jail was now also a problem, with up to 114 prisoners being held at any one time; occasionally, around forty prisoners awaiting trial had to be kept in the jail yard for lack of space elsewhere. Other radicals imprisoned there included Joshua Hobson and Alice Mann in 1836. The suitability of the prison was finally brought to a head at the 1821 assizes in York, when an official complaint was made and an investigation begun. The decision was taken to purchase Clifford's Tower and the Waud house, with the aim of demolishing them both to make room for a new, more modern prison. Sydney Smith, the famous wit, writer and vicar of Foston-le-Clay, successfully led a campaign to save Clifford's Tower, emphasising the historic importance of the location for the surrounding city. An alternative proposal, put forward by architect Robert Wallace, would have seen the conversion of Clifford's Tower back into a habitable building to form the hub of a radial prison design, but this was turned down. In 1825, Clifford's Tower and the Waud house were purchased by the county of Yorkshire at the cost of £8,800 () The new prison buildings, designed by architects P. F. Robinson and G. T. Andrews, were constructed in a Tudor Gothic style, including a gatehouse 35 ft (11 m) high and a radial prison block, protected by a long, high stone wall. The prison, considered to be the strongest such building in England, was built entirely of stone to be both secure and fireproof. Dark grey gritstone was used in the construction to produce a forbidding appearance, although the prison itself was considered healthy and well ventilated. Clifford's Tower played no part in the formal design of the prison, although the talus, or sloping edge of the motte, was cut away and replaced by a retaining wall to allow more space for the new prison building. The backyard of the Female Prison, concealed from public view by the new wall, was used for hangings from 1868 onwards. The Prison Act, 1877, reformed the English prison system, and York Castle gaol was passed into the control of central government the following year. It was used as the county prison until 1900, when the remaining prisoners were transferred to Wakefield Prison, and from then onwards the facility was used as a military prison instead. By the early 19th century, dredging and other improvements to the river Foss had made it possible to import flour into York by river, reducing the economic significance of the castle mills. In 1856, the castle mills were finally demolished as part of a further sequence of improvements to this part of the river. The King's Pool that formed part of the castle's water defences was drained. With the construction of several new bridges near the castle, the site became "surrounded by roads instead of moats". Some major trials took place at the Assizes (now Crown Court) building of York Castle in the 19th century, including that of Mary Fitzpatrick who was accused of murder. ### 20th century In 1890 the Prison Commissioners agreed to declare Clifford's Tower a national monument and to conserve it as a historic location. In 1902 Clifford's Tower was given to the York Corporation, together with a grant of £3,000 () arranged by Lord Wenlock for conservation and repairs. The removal of the talus and the damage to the castle stonework in the 16th century had put excessive pressure on the supporting motte, causing a recurrence of the 14th-century subsidence. Sir Basil Mott, a leading Victorian engineer, installed concrete underpinnings to stabilise the structure beneath the gatehouse. By the early 20th century, Clifford's Tower was regularly open to visitors, and in 1915 it was passed to the Office of Works as a national monument. ## Today York Prison finally closed in 1929, and the Tudor Gothic Victorian prison buildings were demolished in 1935. The Assize Courts building now houses the York Crown Court, while the former Debtors' Prison and Female Prison, together with a modern entrance area, are now the Castle Museum. The circular grassed area between these buildings that was once known as the "Eye of the Ridings" is now known as Castle Green, or the "Eye of York". Clifford's Tower is the most prominent surviving part of the original medieval fortification, although the stone steps up the side of the motte are modern. Fragments of the bailey wall, parts of the south gatehouse and one of the corner towers also survive. The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled monument. The site, managed by English Heritage, is open to the public. Until the 1970s, the pogrom of 1190 was often underplayed by official histories of the castle; early official guides to the castle made no reference to it. In 1978, however, the first memorial tablet to the victims was laid at the base of Clifford's Tower, and in 1990 the 800th anniversary of the killings was commemorated at the tower. Recently, commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it. Citizens, visitors, academics, environmentalists, local businesspeople and Jewish groups have opposed the development with some success, winning a lengthy and bitter public inquiry in 2003. In March 2022 an English Heritage conservation project, including work on the limestone fabric of the tower and care of the chapel roof, was completed. New internal access stairways of gluelam timber leading to a new roof deck allow visitors a close view of some original features of the building and less-crowded viewpoints over the city.

Slow Life

Slow Life is an EP by the Welsh alternative rock band Super Furry Animals, released in 2004. The EP was made available as a free download and also saw a limited CD release, bundled with remix album Phantom Phorce. Lead track "Slow Life" appeared on the 2003 album Phantom Power and was originally composed as a purely electronic song by keyboardist Cian Ciaran several years earlier. The band were keen to finish the track and Ciaran encouraged them to jam over his original version—this jam was then edited and made into the finished song. The track "Motherfokker" is a collaboration between the Super Furry Animals and rap group Goldie Lookin Chain. The EP received mixed reviews although "Slow Life" itself was singled out for praise by many critics. A music video was made to accompany the track directed by Dylan Jones and Paps O'Maoileoain. The Super Furries appeared in the 2004 film 9 Songs playing "Slow Life" live during a scene in which one of the characters attends a gig by the band at the Brixton Academy. ## Recording and themes "Slow Life" was written in two stages. According to bassist Guto Pryce the "electronic part" was composed by keyboard player Cian Ciaran "quite a few years" before its eventual release. The band had tried to fit this early, purely electronic, version on previous albums but had "never got 'round to it". By the time the group came to record Phantom Power they were anxious to release the song, however Ciaran was reluctant to leave it in its original form and encouraged the rest of the band to jam over his original track. According to singer Gruff Rhys the instrumentation was recorded "pretty much live" after which lyrics were written and the band's 10-minute jam session was "chopped ... up and made into a composed song" with the electronic section intact. Strings were later added by Sean O'Hagan. Rhys has stated that renting their own studio in Cardiff has given the band the ability to work on tracks such as "Slow Life" over a period of years—the group visit the studio almost every day and play: "the best parts on any of our records, I think, come out of a couple of us being in our little room in Cardiff at three in the morning, just wigging out and being ecstatic in the music." According to guitarist Huw Bunford the track had the working title "Miami Vice" as it featured a drum roll similar to one used in the theme tune to the 80's television show of the same name. The band decided not to keep this name as they were keen to avoid links with a particular place—Bunford gave the example of the song's use on a travel documentary about Miami as something the group did not want to see. Some promotional copies of Phantom Power featured "Slow Life" as the first track although it eventually appeared as the last track on the officially released version of the album. Gruff Rhys has stated that the song had to go at either the beginning or the end of the record as it is the "most sonically impressive" track on the album. Rhys has described his lyrics as "regurgitating what we hear on the news, recycled, vomiting them all back". The Guardian has interpreted the song as a "cutting critique of middle-east colonialism". The track "Motherfokker" is a collaboration between the Super Furry Animals and Welsh rappers Goldie Lookin Chain with chorus vocals provided by Cian Ciaran. The two toured together in 2004 and Gruff Rhys has praised the group, stating that "their range of references are insane. They're extremely bright. They're crazy." Rhys has explained that the song is about "an incredibly large aircraft from outer space. [Goldie Lookin Chain] are the aliens and it's about the people of Earth coming together as one". The two groups have performed the track together several times at Super Furry Animals' concerts including the 2004 Reading Festival and a date at the Brixton Academy on 22 September 2005. ## Release and reception The E.P. was released as a free download from the Placid Casual website on 12 April 2004. Along with the three tracks that make up the E.P. the promotional music video for "Slow Life" was also available to download in QuickTime and Windows Media Video formats. Limited quantities of the E.P. were also issued on CD, bundled with initial copies of remix album Phantom Phorce on its release on 19 April 2004. The CD version was housed in a floppy disk style picture sleeve. Critical reaction was generally mixed with Cokemachineglow calling the EP "forgettable", stating that, while "Slow Life" "slides perfectly off Phantom Power", the other two tracks are weak: "Motherfokker" is a vulgar "Pez candy up the nose" with "shoddy guest rapping" from Goldie Lookin Chain and "Lost Control" is barely more than a remix of Phantom Power track "Out of Control". PopMatters also dismissed "Motherfokker" and "Lost Control" as inessential b-sides and, during their review of 2007's Hey Venus!, the NME suggested that "Motherfokker" is "best-suppressed". "Slow Life" itself received generally positive reviews; Pitchfork Media called it a "stunning closer" to Phantom Power, while PopMatters described the song as "the kind of schizophrenic fun we've come to expect from the band but ... less showy and eager to please, as they control themselves enough to make the jarring, contradicting styles much easier to digest". Stylus Magazine stated that the "great" track "achieves symbiosis between techno and guitar-pop better than anything else they've done before". The BBC agreed calling "Slow Life" the band's "most successful mindrattling techno attempt so far". The song was placed at number 46 in the 2003 Festive Fifty on John Peel's BBC Radio 1 show. ## Use of "Slow Life" in 9 Songs "Slow Life" is central to the 2004 Michael Winterbottom film 9 Songs, being one of the nine songs mentioned in the title. The movie charts the relationship of main characters Matt and Lisa from their initial meeting to the pair splitting up. Footage of the two attending a series of nine concerts at Brixton Academy, where they initially meet, is interspersed with scenes of the actors performing unsimulated sex. Matt and Lisa are already growing apart when Matt attends a Super Furry Animals concert at the Academy alone. Giving Lisa's ticket away as she "didn't want to go" the character comments: "5000 people in a room and you can still feel alone". The scene appears roughly forty minutes into the film and shows the band performing "Slow Life" live in its entirety as Matt looks on. ## Music video A promotional music video was made to accompany "Slow Life" directed by Dylan Jones and Paps O'Maoileoain. The video features psychedelic, fluorescent images of the band's faces in close up as they play and sing along with the track. Strobing and fractal images appear at several points throughout the video. As with the other tracks taken from Phantom Power, "Golden Retriever" and "Hello Sunshine", the video for "Slow Life" does not appear on the Phantom Power DVD release but is included on the DVD version of greatest hits album Songbook: The Singles, Vol. 1. ## Track listing All songs by Super Furry Animals unless otherwise stated. 1. "Slow Life" – 6:59 2. "Motherfokker" (Super Furry Animals/Goldie Lookin Chain) – 5:42 3. "Lost Control" – 4:41 ## Credits - Gruff Rhys – vocals - Huw Bunford – guitar, backing vocals - Guto Pryce – bass guitar - Cian Ciaran – keyboards, backing vocals, chorus vocals on "Motherfokker" - Dafydd Ieuan – drums, backing vocals - Kris Jenkins – percussion on "Slow Life" - Marcus Holdway – cello on "Slow Life" - Sally Herbert – violin on "Slow Life" - Brian G. Wright – violin on "Slow Life" - Gill Morley – violin on "Slow Life" - Ellen Blair – violin on "Slow Life" - Pete Fowler – Kaoss flanges on "Slow Life" - Neil McFarland – Kaoss flanges on "Slow Life" - 2Hats – rap on "Motherfokker" - Maggot – rap on "Motherfokker" - Billy Webb – rap on "Motherfokker" - Eggsy – rap on "Motherfokker" - Mystikal – rap on "Motherfokker" - Mike Balls – rap on "Motherfokker" - Adam Hussain – rap on "Motherfokker" - Dwain Xain Zedong – rap on "Motherfokker"

The Call of the Simpsons

"The Call of the Simpsons" is the seventh episode of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 18, 1990. It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer. Albert Brooks made his first of ten guest appearances on The Simpsons franchise in this episode as the voice of Cowboy Bob. In this episode, Homer purchases an RV and the Simpsons vacation in the wilderness. After the RV accidentally plummets from a cliff, the Simpsons find themselves stranded in a forest. While Bart and Homer try hiking back to civilization, Homer gets covered in mud and is mistaken for Bigfoot by a naturalist. News of the Bigfoot encounter spreads quickly and soon hunters converge to capture Homer. Meanwhile, Maggie is separated from her family and cared for by bears. ## Plot Jealous of Ned Flanders' new motor home, Homer visits Bob's RV Round-up to buy one. Because of his poor credit rating, he only qualifies for a smaller, dilapidated RV, which he is conned into purchasing. Homer takes his family on an excursion, driving on remote back roads. After Homer ignores Marge's suggestion to drive back to the main road, the Simpsons find themselves teetering over a precipice. They escape the RV before it plummets over the cliff and explodes, leaving them stranded in the wilderness with no food or supplies. After Homer builds a crude lean-to shelter, he and Bart leave to find help, unaware Maggie is tagging along. Marge and Lisa stay behind and build a fire and sturdier shelter despite knowing nothing about camping. Separated from Homer and Bart, Maggie is adopted by a family of bears. Homer and Bart lose their clothes after plunging over a waterfall and falling into a raging river. They hide their exposed bodies with leaves and mud. After a frigid night's sleep, Homer tries to steal honey from a beehive. When the bees attack him, he evades them by jumping into a mud pit. Homer is mistaken for Bigfoot after a nature photographer takes a picture of him covered in mud. Soon the forest is inundated with Bigfoot enthusiasts after a tabloid offers a \$5000 reward for capturing the creature alive. After Marge and Lisa are rescued by park rangers, Marge tells the media the monster in question is her husband, leading to tabloid headlines such as "I married Bigfoot". Cold, hungry, and exhausted, Homer and Bart stumble upon the bears' cave and retrieve Maggie. Homer is captured and taken to a lab for testing. He returns home after scientists agree that he is "either a below-average human being or a brilliant beast". While watching news coverage of his ordeal, Homer worries his co-workers will mock him until Marge consoles him by calling him "my brilliant beast." ## Production The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer. A plot twist that involved Homer being carried away to an eagle nest and being raised as a baby eagle was suggested for this episode by executive producer James L. Brooks, but they ended up going with Maggie being raised by bears instead. The sequence with Marge and Lisa by the bonfire was originally longer and included a conversation between the two about boys, but it was cut from the episode. In the original script, Homer and Bart were not talking in the scene where they concealed their private parts with mud and moss, but Sam Simon thought it would be "too funny to leave as a stage direction" and they added dialogue to the scene. Albert Brooks guest starred in the episode as the voice of Cowboy Bob. He was not sure whether he wanted to be identified with a cartoon show or not at the time, like many of the other early guest stars on The Simpsons, and was therefore credited as A. Brooks in the ending credits. The episode was a satire of the Bigfoot specials that had aired on Fox at the time it was written. A lot of resources were spent on the backgrounds, trying to make them look realistic with many observational details such as trees, rocks, fences and the way the cars were positioned. Burger King figurines were made out of the camping designs of the Simpsons family in this episode. ## Reception In its original American broadcast on February 18, 1990, "The Call of the Simpsons" finished third that day, with a Nielsen rating of 14.6 and a 22 percent audience share. The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award in 1990 in the category "Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special". IGN named Albert Brooks' guest performance in this episode, along with his four other appearances on The Simpsons, the best guest appearance in the show's history. "The Call of the Simpsons" received mixed reviews from critics. Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, both criticized and praised the episode saying: "This episode is a bit less than the sum of its parts. The early stuff at the RV Round-Up is much better than the main camping story, although there's some nice Marge-Lisa bonding, and who could resist Maggie and the bears?" In a DVD review of the first season, David B. Grelck rated the episode a 1+1⁄2 (of 5), adding "the surrealism of Homer as bigfoot is a major misstep. This type of gag would be very different today, if done at all." Jon Bonné at MSNBC called the episode "a perfect example of the first season's bizarre and fruitful balance between edgy humor and softly-drawn neuroses" and said "it was this combination that made Groening's shorts for the Ullman show so compelling, and ultimately what made it possible for The Simpsons to break the molds of network television". Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that "while [the episode] doesn't offer the continuous highs of the best Simpsons, it's a generally solid show" and added that "the episode uses a wackier tone than usual for this era, but it works, and the program is consistently fun". ## Cultural references The song that is playing in the background as the Simpson family is traveling into the woods is "The Happy Wanderer" ("Der fröhliche Wanderer" in the original German).

Delaware Route 4

Highway in Delaware

Delaware Route 4 (DE 4) is a state highway in New Castle County, Delaware. The route runs from DE 279 and DE 896 in Newark east to DE 48 in downtown Wilmington. The route passes through suburban areas in northern New Castle County between Newark and Wilmington, intersecting DE 72 in the eastern part of Newark, DE 273 in Ogletown, DE 58 in Christiana, DE 7 in Stanton, DE 141 in Newport, DE 62 and DE 100 between Newport and Wilmington, and Interstate 95 (I-95)/U.S. Route 202 (US 202) in Wilmington. DE 4 is a four-lane road for much of its length. What is now DE 4 was originally a county road that was paved in the 1930s. DE 4 was designated in the 1960s to run from the Maryland border along Chestnut Hill Road near Newark east to DE 48 in Wilmington. Between 1971 and 1981, the route extended northeast past DE 48 along Washington Street and Washington Street Extension to US 13 Business (US 13 Bus.) in Bellefonte. In the 1980s, the western terminus of DE 4 was realigned from Chestnut Hill Road to the newly-built Christiana Parkway, terminating at DE 2 (now DE 279) and DE 896. ## Route description DE 4 begins at an intersection with Elkton Road in the city of Newark, which heads southwest as DE 279 and northeast as DE 896. From here the route heads southeast concurrent with DE 896 on the three-lane undivided Christiana Parkway, carrying two eastbound lanes and one westbound lane. The road runs through wooded areas and passes over the Christina River before it comes to a bridge over Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line. The roadway curves east and widens into a four-lane divided highway as it passes to the south of the University of Delaware's Science, Technology, and Advanced Research campus. At the intersection with South College Avenue, DE 896 splits to the south. A park and ride lot is located at the southeast corner of this intersection. DE 4 continues east near Delaware Stadium and the Bob Carpenter Center on the University of Delaware campus to the north, intersecting Chestnut Hill Road. At this point the road becomes Chestnut Hill Road and runs between farmland to the north and residential neighborhoods to the south as it comes to a grade crossing of Norfolk Southern's Delmarva Secondary railroad line. The road heads into commercial areas and intersects DE 72, with a park and ride lot situated southeast of the intersection. Past this intersection, DE 4 leaves Newark and continues east along Chestnut Hill Road. The road heads into suburban Brookside, running through residential neighborhoods with some businesses and curving to the northeast. The route continues to the community of Ogletown and passes to the southeast of the Delaware School for the Deaf before it has an intersection with Salem Church Road and an interchange with DE 273. At this point, the name changes to Ogletown Stanton Road. Following this, the road heads into Christiana and passes to the north of Christiana Hospital. Beyond the hospital, DE 4 comes to an intersection with the western terminus of DE 58 and Delaware Park Boulevard, the latter of which is an access road to Delaware Park – which consists of a Thoroughbred horse racetrack, casino, and golf course – and the Churchmans Crossing station on SEPTA's Wilmington/Newark Line that runs along the Northeast Corridor. The route continues through commercial areas with some woods and curves east to reach an intersection with DE 7. At this point, DE 4 turns north for a concurrency with DE 7 on the six-lane divided Stanton Christiana Road, running through wooded areas with nearby development, including the Hale-Byrnes House, and passing over Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line and the White Clay Creek and Mill Creek near their confluence. The road passes to the east of Delaware Park, with access provided by Delaware Park Boulevard, and curves northeast into Stanton. At this point, the two routes head into a commercial area and split into the one-way pair of Mitch Road eastbound and Main Street westbound. DE 7 splits from DE 4 by heading northwest on Limestone Road. DE 4 continues east along the one-way pair past homes and businesses with two lanes in each direction, crossing Red Clay Creek. The directions of the route rejoin and the route becomes four-lane divided West Newport Pike, heading through suburban areas and crossing Hershey Run before running through the community of Silview. DE 4 enters the town of Newport and splits into the one-way pair of West Market Street eastbound and West Justis Street westbound. The route has an interchange with the DE 141 freeway and the one-way pair becomes East Market Street eastbound and East Justis Street westbound. The two directions of DE 4 rejoin and the route continues northeast as four-lane undivided East Newport Pike. The road leaves Newport and heads between suburban neighborhoods to the northwest and Banning Park to the southeast. The route intersects DE 62 and becomes Maryland Avenue, passing a mix of homes and businesses. The road comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 100, which is routed on the one-way pair of Race Street northbound and South Dupont Road southbound. Past this, the route heads across Little Mill Creek and passes north of a park and ride lot before crossing CSX's Market Street Industrial Track railroad line at-grade. DE 4 continues into the city of Wilmington and runs past rowhouses and businesses. The route passes under I-95/US 202 and comes to a ramp from northbound I-95/US 202. Past this, DE 4 enters downtown Wilmington and splits into the one-way pair of Maryland Avenue eastbound and South Monroe Street westbound before ending at DE 48, which is routed on the one-way pair of Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard eastbound and West Second Street westbound. The section of DE 4 between Harmony Road near Christiana and Jackson Street in Wilmington is part of the Washington–Rochambeau Revolutionary Route, a National Historic Trail. DE 4 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 53,651 vehicles at the east end of the DE 7 concurrency to a low of 12,723 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 48. The entire length of DE 4 is part of the National Highway System. ## History What would become DE 4 east of Christiana was part of a King's Highway constructed in the 17th century connecting Philadelphia to points south. This stretch of road was maintained in the early 19th century by the Wilmington and Christiana Turnpike, a turnpike chartered in 1815. By 1920, what would become DE 4 existed as a county road. The road from Stanton to Wilmington was paved four years later and the portion west of Stanton was paved by 1936. In 1936, work was underway to improve the road between Stanton and Newport by widening and resurfacing it, with completion a year later. In 1957, Maryland Avenue between Silview and Boxwood Road was widened to four lanes and the one-way pair along Market Street and Justis Street in Newport was established. The present DE 4 designation first appeared in 1967, at which point it ran from the Maryland border near Newark east to DE 48 in Wilmington, following Chestnut Hill Road from the state line before picking up its current alignment southeast of Newark. By 1971, the route was extended northeast to US 13 Bus. in Bellefonte, forming a brief concurrency with DE 48 before continuing along Washington Street and Washington Street Extension. The eastern terminus of DE 4 was truncated back to DE 48 by 1981, with DE 3 being realigned to the easternmost part of Washington Street Extension three years later. The portion of DE 4 concurrent with DE 7 was widened into a divided highway in 1985, with the road shifted west to a new alignment passing over the Amtrak tracks and the White Clay Creek. The Christiana Parkway around the southern edge of Newark was completed in September 1983 and DE 4 was realigned to use the Christiana Parkway by 1987, ending at DE 2 (Elkton Road) in the southwestern part of Newark. DE 896 was rerouted to use the Christiana Parkway the following year with DE 2 following by 1990. In 1997, an interchange was constructed with DE 273 in Ogletown as part of a realignment of DE 273 in the area that eliminated a short concurrency with DE 4. The concurrent DE 2 designation was removed from the Christiana Parkway in 2013 as part of simplifying the route numbers in Newark. ## Major intersections ## See also

Prehistoric Orkney

Overview of the prehistoric period on the Orkney Islands, Scotland

Prehistoric Orkney refers only to the prehistory of the Orkney archipelago of Scotland that begins with human occupation. (The islands’ history before human occupation is part of the geology of Scotland.) Although some records referring to Orkney survive that were written during the Roman invasions of Scotland, “prehistory” in northern Scotland is defined as lasting until the start of Scotland's Early Historic Period (around AD 600). There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney, especially from the Neolithic period. Four of these remains today constitute a World Heritage Site. There are diverse reasons for the abundance of the archaeological record. The sandstone bedrock provides easily workable stone materials and the wind-blown sands have helped preserve several sites. The relative lack of industrialisation and the low incidence of ploughing have also helped to preserve these ancient monuments. In addition, local tradition hints at both fear and veneration of these ancient structures (perhaps inherited from the Norse period of occupation), and these attitudes may have helped prevent human interference with their structural integrity. Prehistory is conventionally divided into a number of shorter periods, but differentiating these various eras of human history is a complex task – their boundaries are uncertain, and the changes between them are gradual. A number of the sites span long periods of time, and, in particular, the distinctions between the Neolithic and the later periods are not clear cut. However, in general, the Paleolithic lasted until the retreat of the ice, the Mesolithic until the adoption of farming and the Neolithic until metalworking commenced The Neolithic period's extraordinary wealth of structures is not matched by the remains from earlier periods, in which the evidence of human occupation is sparse or non-existent - nor is it matched by remains from the later Bronze Age, which provides a relative dearth of evidence. However, the subsequent Iron Age supported a return to monumental building projects, especially brochs. Formal excavations were first recorded in the late 18th century. Over time, investigators’ understanding of the structures they uncovered progressed — from little more than folklore in the beginning, to modern archaeological science today. The sites discussed in this article are found on the Orkney Mainland unless otherwise stated. ## Paleolithic To date, no traces have been found in Scotland of either a Neanderthal or a homo sapiens presence during the Pleistocene interglacials. The first indications of human presence date from a period after the ice retreated in the 11th millennium BC and the current Flandrian interglacial began. (Since that time, the landscape of Orkney has been altered by both human and natural forces.) Back then, sea levels were lower than they are today because of the large volume of ice that remained. As a result, what is today the island of Great Britain was attached to Continental Europe. It is therefore possible that the Orkney islands were also attached to the mainland. Much of the North Sea basin was dry land until after 4000 BC, which would have made travel to northern Scotland relatively easy for early human settlers. The subsequent rise in sea levels coupled with the isostatic rise of land makes estimating post-glacial coastlines a complex task. ## Mesolithic The very limited archaeological record of this period provides scant evidence of Mesolithic life - in Orkney in particular and in Scotland north of Inverness in general. "Lithic scatter" sites at Seatter, South Ettit, Wideford Hill, Valdigar and Loch of Stenness have produced small polished stone tools and chippings. A charred hazelnut shell, recovered during the excavations at Longhowe in Tankerness in 2007, has been dated to 6820-6660 BC. However, there is no evidence to suggest whether or not these sites were in year-round occupation and no Mesolithic burial sites have been uncovered anywhere in Scotland to date. A recently excavated site on Stronsay has produced a thousand pieces of flint and what may be evidence of a temporary camp. With a tentative dating of 7000 BC or older it may prove to be the oldest settlement site found so far on Orkney. About 6000 BC the Storegga Slides off the coast of Norway created a tsunami that reached 25 metres (82 ft) above normal high tides in places. Evidence of widespread coastal inundations from a wave 8 metres (26 ft) high has been found as far south as Fife and the impact on shore-dwelling mesolithic societies in Orkney would have been considerable. ## Neolithic The assemblage of monumental Neolithic structures in Orkney is without parallel in the United Kingdom, and the Orkney Mainland provides an entire landscape of features from this period. During this time, complex new societies came to the fore that were a radical departure from the earlier hunter-gatherers and which were capable of creating substantial structures. The Neolithic in Scotland lasted from approximately 4000 to 2200 BC and Orkney as a whole has nearly 3,000 identified Neolithic sites all told. British archaeologists have often interpreted this era as having two distinct phases; the Earlier Neolithic dominated by regional styles of pottery and architecture followed by a relatively abrupt change into the Later Neolithic characterised by new traditions found throughout the British Isles that incorporate structures on a grander scale. In the Orcadian context, there are definite developments during the Neolithic, but the changes are gradual and tend to build on earlier ideas rather than appearing to form two distinct periods. The great Orcadian Neolithic monuments were constructed almost a millennium before the sarsen stones of Stonehenge were erected. At one time it was believed that this flowering of culture was essentially peripheral and that its origins were to be found to the south on mainland Great Britain. However, recently discovered evidence shows that Orkney was the starting place for much of the megalithic culture, including styles of architecture and pottery, that developed much later in the southern British Isles. ### Early dwellings and chambered cairns Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe. Situated on the island of Papa Westray (which may have been combined with nearby Westray in the early Neolithic), the farmstead consists of two adjacent rounded rectangular thick-walled buildings with low doorways linked by a passageway. This structure was inhabited for 900 years from 3700 BC but was evidently built on the site of an even older settlement. Unstan ware pottery pieces were found on the site, which was only discovered in the 1920s when this part of the coastline was exposed by gales and tides. The Barnhouse Settlement is a cluster of at least fifteen buildings, including one that may have been used for communal gatherings, occupied between 3200 and 2950 BC. The design of the houses, which were built above ground level, includes a central hearth, recessed box beds and stone dressers. There is a network of stone drains leading to a common ditch. Pottery of the grooved ware type, flints and stone tools have been found, as well as three flakes of pitchstone thought to have come from the Isle of Arran. Skara Brae consists of ten clustered houses and is northern Europe's most complete Neolithic village. Occupied between 3100–2500 BC the houses are similar to those at Barnhouse, but they are linked by common passages and were built into a large midden containing ash, bones, shells, stone and organic waste. Only the roofs, which were probably supported by timber or whalebone, would have been visible from the outside. In each case the stone dressers were erected so that they dominated the view on entering the house through the low doors and there are elaborate carvings of unknown meaning on some of the stones in the houses and passages. A variety of bone beads, pins and pendants and four carved stone balls were also discovered at the site, which was only revealed after a storm in the winter of 1850 ripped away the grass from a covering sand dune. The existing ruins mostly belong to a secondary phase of building with the foundations of the first phase largely hidden from view. There are two main types of chambered cairn on these islands: the Orkney/Cromarty type with a burial chamber approached through a low passage and usually divided into "stalls" by upright stone slabs, and the Maeshowe type (see below), which is a later development with a cruciform layout and an elongated passage. The island of Rousay has a substantial number of prehistoric sites (see also below), including fifteen of such tombs, resulting it becoming known as the "Egypt of the north". Midhowe Chambered Cairn on the western shore of the island is the finest example. The exterior walls of this large stone burial mound survive to well over head-height and the constituent stones are arranged in a herring bone pattern. The original interior chambers were simple in style and dived into two or three stalls, but were later enlarged to include twelve separate compartments set along a 23 metres (75 ft) passageway. There are other substantial tombs at Blackhammer, Taversoe Tuick, and Yarso. Enlargement and elaboration of burial cairns as the Neolithic progressed is a theme found throughout Scotland, and the move from simple and private tombs to larger structures, some with entrances apparently designed for public gatherings may also be linked to the emergence of landscape-scale ceremonial complexes. Other chambered tombs of significance include those at Unstan and Bookan on the Mainland and Holm of Papa Westray. Links of Noltland, a site on the north coast of the island of Westray has been excavated since the 1980s. In 2009 a lozenge-shaped figurine was discovered, which may have been carved 2500-3000 BC and is believed to be the earliest representation of a human face ever found in Scotland. The face has two dots for eyes, heavy brows and an oblong nose and a pattern of hatches on the body could represent clothing. Archaeologist Richard Strachan described it as a find of "astonishing rarity". ### The Heart of Neolithic Orkney Skara Brae, Maeshowe, the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness together form the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site in the western part of the Orkney Mainland and which was inscribed in 1999. This small area has provided a rich archaeological heritage in a location that is relatively remote from both the main centres of population in Scotland and from more densely populated parts of Europe. However, it would be a mistake to imagine that because Orkney is so placed today that this was always so. There is a substantial amount of evidence that suggests that a variety of the smaller islands in the British Isles developed an advanced society in the Neolithic that took several centuries longer to develop on the mainland of Great Britain. It is also clear that whilst the flow of ideas and technologies in Britain has often been from the south to the north, that at this time, it is evident that Orkney played a significant role in the development of British Neolithic culture. There is also the possibility that tribal differences were part of the Neolithic cultural landscape. Unstan Ware pottery is associated with small settlements like Knap of Howar, and stalled tombs such as Midhowe. Grooved Ware pottery on the other hand tends to be associated with larger 'village' settlements like Skara Brae and Barnhouse, and with Maes Howe style tombs. #### Maeshowe Dating from about 3000 BC, Maeshowe is a large chambered cairn and passage grave. "Howe" as an element in a name, from the Old Norse word haugr meaning mound or barrow, is common throughout Orkney. The grass mound hides a complex of passages and chambers built of carefully crafted slabs of sandstone that in scale and accomplishment has few equals in prehistoric Europe. It is aligned so that the rear wall of its central chamber, a rough cube of 4.5 cubic metres (5.9 cu yd) is illuminated on the winter solstice. It gives its name to the Maeshowe type of chambered cairns, (see above) that include other significant sites such as Cuween Hill, Quanterness and Wideford Hill, and at Quoyness on Sanday. After it fell into disuse during the Bronze Age, Maeshowe was re-opened and used centuries later by Vikings from about the 9th to the 12th centuries AD. The Norsemen left a series of runic inscriptions on the stone walls of the chamber, some of which were left by a group of crusaders in the winter of 1153–54. Over thirty individual inscriptions remain, one of the largest such collections in Europe. #### Ring of Brodgar The Ring of Brodgar is a henge and stone circle 104 metres (341 ft) in diameter, originally made of 60 stones (of which only 27 remain standing) set within a circular ditch up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) deep and 10 metres (33 ft) wide. Some of the remaining stones are 4.5 metres (15 ft) high and it has been estimated that the ditch alone took 80,000 man-hours to construct. The ring stands on a small isthmus between the Lochs of Stenness and Harray and it is generally thought to have been erected between 2500 BC and 2000 BC. #### Ness of Brodgar Excavations by Orkney College at the nearby Ness of Brodgar site between the Ring and the Stones of Stenness revealed several buildings, both ritual and domestic and the works suggest there were likely to be more in the vicinity. One structure appears to be 20 metres (66 ft) long by 11 metres (36 ft) wide. Pottery, bones, stone tools and polished stone mace heads were discovered. Perhaps the most important find was the remains of a large stone wall which may have been 100 metres (330 ft) long and 4 metres (13 ft) or more wide. It appears to traverse the entire peninsula the site is on and may have been a symbolic barrier between the ritual landscape of the Ring and the mundane world around it. In 2010 a rock coloured red, orange and yellow was unearthed. Although containers of pigments have been found previously at sites such as Skara Brae, this was the first discovery in Britain, and possibly in Northern Europe, of evidence that Neolithic peoples used paint to decorate their buildings. It is thought that the primitive paint could have been made from iron ore, mixed with animal fat, milk or eggs. Only a week later a stone with a zigzag chevron pattern painted with a red pigment was discovered nearby. More recent excavations have revealed a large temple complex on the site without parallel in western Europe, with more than a dozen large temples that were linked to outhouses and kitchens by carefully constructed stone pavements. The site is now considered to be of such significance that Nick Card, director of excavations, was prompted to say in 2012: "We need to turn the map of Britain upside down when we consider the Neolithic and shrug off our south-centric attitudes...London may be the cultural hub of Britain today, but 5,000 years ago, Orkney was the centre for innovation for the British isles. Ideas spread from this place. The first grooved pottery, which is so distinctive of the era, was made here, for example, and the first henges – stone rings with ditches round them – were erected on Orkney. Then the ideas spread to the rest of the Neolithic Britain. This was the font for new thinking at the time." In 2020, researchers found evidence of 5,000-year-old fabric by examining markings on pottery from Ness of Brodgar in Orkney. However, Neolithic woven textile was first discovered in Scotland at Flint Howe, near Stranraer, in 1966. #### Stones of Stenness The Stones of Stenness are five remaining megaliths of a henge, the largest of which is 6 metres (20 ft) high. The site is thought to date from 3100 BC, one of the earliest dates for a henge anywhere in Britain. The Stones are part of a landscape that evidently had considerable ritual significance for the "Grooved ware people". The Ring of Brodgar lies about 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) to the north-west, and Maeshowe is a similar distance to the east. Barnhouse is only 150 metres (490 ft) to the north. The existing megaliths were originally part of an elliptical shaped stone circle of 12 stones, about 32 metres (105 ft) in diameter surrounded by a ditch that was 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide and 7 metres (23 ft) deep and with a single entrance causeway on the north side that faces towards the Barnhouse Settlement. The Watch Stone stands outside the circle to the north-west and is 5.6 metres (18 ft) high. Other smaller stones include a square stone like a huge hearth setting in the centre of the circle and this along with the bones of cattle, sheep, wolves and dogs found in the ditch suggest ritual sacrifice and feasting. Even in the 18th century the site was still associated with traditions and rituals, by then relating to Norse gods. The "Odin Stone" was pierced with a circular hole, and was used by local couples for plighting engagements by holding hands through the gap. In the early 19th century a local landowner and recent immigrant to Orkney decided to remove the Stones on the grounds that local people were trespassing and disturbing his land in using the stones. He started in December 1814 by smashing the Odin Stone. This caused outrage and he was stopped after destroying one other stone and toppling another. The toppled stone was re-erected in 1906 along with some inaccurate reconstruction inside the circle. ### Other Late Neolithic sites The Isbister Chambered Cairn, popularly known as the "Tomb of the Eagles" is located on the cliffs of South Ronaldsay. This chambered tomb was in use for 800 years or more from 3150 BC, and has five separate stalls and three side-chambers. 16,000 human bones were found during the excavations, as well as 725 bird bones, predominantly white-tailed sea eagle and over 25 kilograms (55 lb) of pottery shards. The Dwarfie Stane tomb on the island of Hoy is made from a single huge block of red sandstone with a hollowed-out central chamber. This style is quite unlike any other Neolithic Orkney site and probably dates from about 2500 BC. It was the first Orcadian ancient monument to be described in writing, appearing in the 16th century Descriptio Insularum Orchadiarum by Joannem Ben who provided the explanation for its existence as having been built and used by giants. In September 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of two polished stone balls in a 5500 years-old Neolithic burial tomb in Orkney in Sanday. According to Dr Hugo Anderson, second object was as the “size of a cricket ball, perfectly spherical and beautifully finished". ## Bronze Age The Bronze Age in Scotland lasted from approximately 2200 BC to 800 BC and northern Scotland has produced a relative dearth of remains from this period in comparison to the Neolithic and later Iron Age. This may in part be due to deteriorating weather conditions in the second millennium BC. In Orkney, fewer large stone structures were built during this period, burials were now being made in small cists well away from the great megalithic sites and a new Beaker culture began to dominate. Nonetheless, the great ceremonial circles continued in use as bronze metalworking was slowly introduced to Scotland from Europe over a lengthy period. There is agreement amongst historians that from about 1000 BC it is legitimate to talk of a Celtic culture in Scotland, although the nature of the Orcadian Celtic civilisation and their relationships to their neighbours remains largely unknown. In addition to various Mainland sites such as Knowes of Trotty, Kirbuster Hill and the impressive Plumcake Mound near the Ring of Brodgar there are various Bronze Age structures on other islands such as Tofts Ness on Sanday, Warness on Eday, the remains of two houses on Holm of Faray, and a burnt mound and farmstead on Auskerry. ## Iron Age ### Early Iron Age The Iron Age provides numerous substantial building remains. In the 1970s excavations at Quanterness, near the site of the Neolithic chambered tomb, revealed an Atlantic roundhouse. This was built about 700 BC using stone stripped from the older building that had fallen into disuse some two millennia previously. Numerous similar finds have been made at for example, Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray. These are also many impressive broch sites. These are substantial stone towers that developed out of the roundhouse tradition in north and west Scotland, whose dry-stone walls may have reached 13 metres (43 ft) in height. Although Orkney has no broch towers where the surviving walls are more than a few metres high, several important sites have been excavated which have numerous associated buildings forming a "broch village". Midhowe Broch lies close to the chambered cairn of the same name on Rousay. There appear to have been at least two separate periods of occupation and at some point buttresses were added to the exterior of the wall, suggesting the structure was in need of support. It is one of 11 broch sites on either side of the Eynhallow Sound. Burroughston Broch on the island of Shapinsay was built in the second half of the first millennium BC and excavated in the mid 19th century. Its earth cladding is intact, allowing visitors to peer down into the broch from above. The walls are up to 4 metres (13 ft) thick in places and there is a complete chamber off the entrance passage. The remains of stone furniture are evident in the interior. Mine Howe, located near Tankerness in the parish of St Andrews, is a prehistoric subterranean man-made chamber dug 7 metres (23 ft) deep inside a large mound. Its purpose is not obvious. The walls are lined with stones fitted to form an arch over the cavity and steep steps lead to a rock floor. The entrance is at the top of the small hill and there is a surrounding ditch and evidence of sophisticated metal working around the site. The Rennibister Earth House is a souterrain consisting of an oval chamber with a corbelled roof supported by pillars. Although these structures are usually associated with the storage of food this site is reminiscent of the Neolithic chambered tombs and excavations revealed 18 human skeletons. Wheelhouses are stone buildings from the later Iron Age whose characteristic features include an outer wall within which a circle of stone piers (bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel) form the basis for lintel arches supporting corbelled roofing with a hearth at the hub. Eight presumed sites have been identified in Orkney although the style is different from those of Shetland and the Western Isles. The Orkney sites are four on Sanday, one on Calf of Eday, one at Hillock of Burroughston on Shapinsay and two on the Mainland at Burrian Broch and Broch of Gurness. ### The influence of Rome For a brief period Orkney emerged from prehistory and into protohistory. The Greek explorer Pytheas visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC and may have circumnavigated the mainland. In his On the Ocean he refers to the most northerly point as Orcas, conceivably a reference to Orkney. Remarkably, the earliest written record of a formal connection between Rome and Scotland is the attendance of the "King of Orkney" who was one of eleven British kings who submitted to the Emperor Claudius at Colchester in AD 43 following the invasion of southern Britain three months earlier. The long distances and short period of time involved strongly suggest a prior connection between Rome and Orkney, although no evidence of this has been found and the contrast with later Caledonian resistance to Rome is striking. Pomponius Mela, the Roman geographer, recorded in his De Chorographia, written c. 43 AD, that there were thirty Orkney islands. There is certainly evidence of an Orcadian connection with Rome prior to AD 60 from pottery found at the Broch of Gurness and 1st and 2nd century Roman coins have been found at Lingro broch. The Roman presence in Scotland was however little more than a series of relatively brief interludes of partial military occupation. As Roman influence waned in Scotland from 211 onwards, Orkney faded from history again and the Celtic Iron Age way of life continued, largely unchanged. ### Pictish rule In the centuries following Rome's excursions into Scottish territory Orkney was, at least for a time, part of the Pictish kingdom. Very little is known about the Pictish Orcadians, the main archaeological relics being symbol stones. One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay; it shows 3 warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols. This small tidal island has a long history of settlement that continued into the Norse period. Adomnan, the biographer of St Columba, states that there were Orcadians at the court of the Pictish High King, Bridei, in AD 565. These Orcadians were described as "hostages" which could imply difficult relations between Orkney and the king, although they may have simply been guests at the court. A Pictish cemetery was found in the grounds of Skaill House (adjacent to Skara Brae) in 1996. Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century. The Buckquoy spindle-whorl found at a Pictish site on Birsay is an Ogham–inscribed artefact whose interpretation has caused controversy although it is now generally considered to be of both Irish and Christian origin. Evidence associated with the St Boniface Church on Papa Westray suggests this island had been the seat of the Christian bishopric of Orkney in Pictish times. The 8th century was also the time the Viking invasions of the Scottish seaboard commenced and with them came the arrival of a new culture and language for the Orkney islands. The Norse era has provided a variety of written records, the substantial Orkneyinga Saga amongst them and at this point the archipelago fully emerges into the historic era. ## Archaeological history Formal excavations are first recorded at Earl's Knoll on Papa Stronsay in the Statistical Account of Scotland in 1795. As with the Dwarfie Stane, the mound was assumed to be a giant's grave at the time. Following soon after this, work on the "Picts-house" (i.e. chambered tomb) at Quanterness commenced, but little else of note was achieved until the mid 19th century. F. W. L. Thomas, whose day job was as a captain in the Royal Navy, published The Celtic Antiquities of Orkney in 1852, which listed various sites and aimed to interest "antiquarians" in the subject. His hopes were met and about a dozen chambered tombs were worked on between 1849 and 1867 by James Farrer, R.J. Hebden and George Petrie. However, other than work at Unstan near Stromness there was then a lull for about six decades. Then, from the late 1920s, work recommenced with the assistance of the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland and the Ministry of Works. The most eminent archaeologist to work here at this time was Vere Gordon Childe. He was involved in excavations at Skara Brae and Rinyo, but it was only when a shard of pottery was discovered at the latter site that it became understood that these settlements dated to the Neolithic rather than the Iron Age. A further 18 tombs were excavated before 1950, including five on Eday and one on the Calf of Eday and by the 1960s the outlines of a modern understanding of Orcadian prehistory had emerged. The advent of radiocarbon dating enabled even more detailed dates to be established and refuted earlier theories that the chambered tombs of Orkney had developed from similar structures found in the Eastern Mediterranean, such as those built by the Minoans, when it became clear that the former pre-dated the latter by a considerable margin. ## Neolithic Timeline ## See also Other prehistoric sites in Orkney - Mor Stein, a standing stone on the island of Shapinsay. - Castle Bloody, a souterrain on Shapinsay Structures - Broch - Atlantic roundhouse - Wheelhouse - Pictish symbol stones Prehistoric Scotland - Timeline of prehistoric Scotland - Prehistoric Scotland - Oldest buildings in Scotland - World Heritage Sites in Scotland - Jarlshof, Shetland - Callanish Stones, Lewis - Kilmartin Glen, mainland Scotland Prehistoric British Isles - Prehistoric Britain - Stonehenge, England - Newgrange, Ireland Prehistoric Europe - Carnac Stones, Brittany - Nuraghe, Sardinian Bronze Age towers International - List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country

Hayes Theater

Broadway theater in Manhattan, New York

The Hayes Theater (formerly the Little Theatre, New York Times Hall, Winthrop Ames Theatre, and Helen Hayes Theatre) is a Broadway theater at 240 West 44th Street in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Named for actress Helen Hayes, the venue is operated by Second Stage Theater. It is the smallest Broadway theater, with 597 seats across two levels. The theater was constructed in 1912 for impresario Winthrop Ames and designed by Ingalls & Hoffman in a neo-Georgian style. The original single-level, 299-seat configuration was modified in 1920, when Herbert J. Krapp added a balcony to expand the Little Theatre. The theater has served as a legitimate playhouse, a conference hall, and a broadcasting studio throughout its history. The facade and parts of the theater's interior are New York City landmarks. The facade is made largely of red brick. The main entrance is through an arch on the eastern portion of the ground-floor; the rest of the ground floor is taken up by emergency exits, shielded by marquee. The main entrance connects to a box-office lobby, as well as a foyer with a vaulted ceiling and staircases. The auditorium is decorated with ornamental plasterwork, with Adam-style design elements; it has a sloped orchestra level, one balcony level, and a flat ceiling. There are other spaces throughout the theater, including lounges. Ames had intended for the Little Theatre to host new plays, but its unprofitability led him to expand the theater within a decade of its opening. Ames leased the theater to Oliver Morosco in 1919 and to John Golden in 1922. The New York Times bought the theater in 1931 with plans to raze it, but the Little continued hosting plays until 1941, when it was converted into a conference hall. The theater became an ABC broadcasting studio in 1951. The Little again hosted Broadway productions from 1963 to 1965, when it became a Westinghouse studio, taping shows such as the Merv Griffin Show. The Little again hosted Broadway productions starting in 1977, and it was then sold to Martin Markinson and Donald Tick, who renamed the theater for Helen Hayes in 1983. Second Stage bought the theater in 2015 and reopened it in 2018, shortening the name to the Hayes Theater. ## Site The Hayes Theater is at 240 West 44th Street, on the south sidewalk between Eighth Avenue and Seventh Avenue, near Times Square in the Theater District of Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The land lot is nearly rectangular, with an indentation on the western end. The lot covers 7,225 square feet (671.2 m²), with a frontage of 75 feet (23 m) on 44th Street and a depth of 100.42 feet (31 m). The Hayes Theater shares the city block with St. James Theatre to the west, Sardi's restaurant and 1501 Broadway to the east, and 255 West 43rd Street and 229 West 43rd Street to the south. Across 44th Street are the Row NYC Hotel to the northwest, the Majestic and Broadhurst theaters to the north, and the Shubert Theatre and One Astor Plaza to the northeast. Other nearby structures include the John Golden, Bernard B. Jacobs, Gerald Schoenfeld, and Booth theaters to the north, as well as the former Hotel Carter, American Airlines Theatre, and Lyric Theatre to the south. Prior to the theater's development, the site was part of the Astor family estate and contained several brownstone townhouses. ## Design The Hayes Theater was designed by Ingalls & Hoffman for impresario Winthrop Ames using elements of the neo-Federal, colonial, and Georgian Revival styles. It was originally constructed in 1912 as the Little Theatre. In its original configuration, the Little's auditorium had just one level of seating. The layout was meant to give theater patrons the feeling that they were Ames's "guests for the nonce, in an old colonial house behind a garden wall, left behind in the march of progress, the front untouched and the interior remodeled by an amateur of the stage". The current two-level layout was completed in 1920 and designed by Herbert J. Krapp, who went on to become a prolific Broadway theater architect. The Hayes is operated by Second Stage Theater, a nonprofit theater company, as of 2018. ### Facade The facade consists of red brick with Flemish bond, as well as limestone trim. It is asymmetrically arranged, with the theater's main entrance to the far east (left) side of the ground floor. A stone water table runs along the bottom of the ground-floor facade. The rest of the facade was designed with sash windows containing white frames. The entrance doorway is a brick arch, which contains impost blocks on either side, as well as a console-shaped keystone at the top. Within this arch are a set of wooden double doors, which are flanked by Ionic-style columns and by sidelights containing lozenge and oval patterns. The brick arch is flanked on either side by paired columns with Corinthian-style capitals. There are electronic signs between each column pair; these rest on pedestals and are topped by urns and volutes. A band course runs above the arch, behind the paired columns. Above this is a stone plaque with inscribed letters reading "The Little Theatre MCMXII", as well as a pair of dancing figures in low relief. The paired columns support a stone architrave above the doors. To the west (right) of the entrance are four double doors, which provide an emergency exit from the lobby. This section of the facade formerly contained three narrow windows. A double door, designed to resemble a stable door, was originally placed between two of these windows. Carriage lamps were also mounted on the facade to give the impression that the theater was formerly a residence. Above the ground floor, the theater building has a setback, which was formerly decorated with potted plants. The second and third stories each contain six sash windows flanked by shutters. The second-story window panes are arranged in an eight-over-twelve format; above them are splayed stone lintels, containing keystones with bead motifs and brackets. There are curved metal balconies in front of the four westernmost windows, while the two easternmost windows share a terrace over the main entrance. The third-story window panes are arranged in an eight-over-eight format with paneled keystones. A cornice with modillions runs above the third story. A balustrade formerly ran above the cornice but has since been removed. ### Interior #### Lobbies The main entrance leads to a box office, as well as a lobby with two sections. The box office was originally paneled in ivory-colored wood. A passage to the stage is through a door to the west of the box office. The lobby, to the west (right) of the box office, is designed with reliefs in the Adam style. The main section of the lobby is a rectangular foyer, accessed through a doorway on the box office's right wall. To the north of the foyer is a secondary area, one step below the foyer, which leads to the four emergency-exit doors on 44th Street. The western end of the lobby foyer contains an archway to the basement; this was originally a wall with a fireplace. The foyer's north wall contains Ionic-style columns, behind which is the emergency-exit area. The south wall contains doors to the auditorium, as well as Ionic-style pilasters that are directly across from the north-wall columns. There are staircases on the western and eastern ends of the foyer's north wall, which lead up to the balcony; the eastern staircase has a metal railing with lyres. An architrave, with a frieze depicting urns and lyres, runs along the top of the foyer walls. The foyer contains a barrel-vaulted ceiling above the architrave, with a chandelier suspended from an Adam-style medallion. The emergency-exit area's ceiling contains Adam-style panels, and the architrave panels above the exit doors are also designed in the Adam style. #### Auditorium The Hayes Theater is the smallest Broadway venue, with 597 seats. The auditorium has an orchestra level, one balcony, and a stage behind the proscenium arch. The space is designed with plaster decorations in relief. Originally, the Little Theatre had only 299 seats on a single level, the orchestra. In the original configuration, there were only 15 rows of seats. One of the front seats was designed specifically to accommodate businessman J. P. Morgan. The rear of the auditorium did initially have a balcony-level terrace, but it was only 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 m) wide and had no seats. The rear or southern end of the orchestra contains two paneled-wood doors from the foyer. The orchestra level is raked, sloping down toward the stage, similar to in the original layout of the theater. The side walls of the auditorium were originally covered in wooden panels, but these were replaced with plasterwork panels when Krapp renovated the theater. The front sections of the side walls are angled toward the proscenium, with emergency-exit doors at orchestra level. As of 2018, the side walls contain a pixelated blue mural that resembles the walls' former tapestries. The rear of the balcony contains a promenade, accessed on either end by the stairways in the foyer. Near the front of the balcony level, both of the side walls contain two arched openings with pilasters on either side, as well as fan-shaped lunettes above. One of these is an emergency exit, while the other is a window opening; these windows allowed Ames to observe the auditorium from his office. The side walls have lighting sconces as well. The underside of the balcony is made of plaster paneling. The front railing of the balcony has Adam-style plasterwork paneling with pilasters, urns, and molded bands, with light boxes mounted in front. The railing curves onto the side walls, giving the impression of box seats. At the front of the auditorium is the proscenium, which contains a flat-arched opening flanked by angled bands. Behind the proscenium, there was originally a revolving stage, as well as three sets of curtains. A cornice runs above the proscenium and the side and rear walls, with rosettes, swags, and cartouches. The ceiling is flat but is decorated in ornate plasterwork, dating to Ingalls and Hoffman's design. The entire ceiling is surrounded by a band of rosette, swag, and urn motifs. The center of the ceiling contains a molded oval panel; the perimeter of the oval contains reliefs of cherubs and female figures, connected by swags. The corners of the oval contain triangular panels; those in the rear depict female figures with mirrors, while those in the front depict Roman masks. There are fan-shaped medallions inside the oval, from which hang chandeliers. #### Other interior spaces On the west wall of the foyer, the door to the left of the fireplace led to a ladies' room. It was painted like the box office and had a large mirror, dressing table, chaise longue, and mahogany side chairs with armure coverings in a rose color. To the right, stairs descended to a tea room that was similar in design to a residential living room. The tea room had old-English oak furnishings, white-paneled walls, blue-green curtains, and a gray carpet. The tea room was used not only to serve drinks during intermission but also as a cloak room. There were coat racks that could be pushed behind a Spanish-leather screen during performances. Also in the basement was a men's smoking room with oak wainscoting, yellowish-brown walls with benches, a cream-colored ceiling, and a red tile floor. The second and third floors were equipped with offices. These included Winthrop Ames's offices, which were directly above the auditorium. Backstage, elevators and stairs led from the stage to the dressing rooms. There was also a green room from which the dressing rooms were accessed. Though green rooms were falling out of favor by the time the Little Theatre was constructed, one was included on Ames's insistence. The room was decorated with green walls, a long seat, and mirrors. ## History Times Square became the epicenter for large-scale theater productions between 1900 and the Great Depression. Manhattan's theater district had begun to shift from Union Square and Madison Square during the first decade of the 20th century. From 1901 to 1920, forty-three theaters were built around Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, including the Little Theatre. Winthrop Ames, a member of a wealthy publishing family, did not enter the theatrical industry until 1905, when he was 34 years old. After being involved in the development of two large venues, Boston's Castle Square Theatre and New York City's New Theatre, Ames decided to focus on erecting smaller venues during the Little Theatre Movement. The New Theatre had failed quickly, as Ames's New Theatre Company only occupied the theater from 1909 to 1911. Ames saw the New as too large and too far away from Times Square. ### Initial Broadway run #### Development and early years In September 1911, Ames announced his intention to build a 300-seat playhouse around Times Square. Two months later, Ingalls and Hoffman filed plans with the New York City Department of Buildings for the Little Theatre, a 299-seat theater at 238–244 West 44th Street, to cost \$100,000. The 299-seat capacity exempted Ames from New York City Fire Department regulations, wherein theaters with at least 300 seats required emergency-exit alleys on either side. Ames also formed a corporation to operate the theater. The corporation issued stock, with Ames being the sole stockholder. Ames released further details about the theater in December 1911. The Little was to be a single-level auditorium without balconies or boxes, and it was to host "plays of wide appeal" and "novelties". Ames wanted the theater to host "the clever, the unusual drama that has a chance of becoming a library classic". Some critics said the site was too far from Times Square, but Ames countered that the Belasco Theatre, one block east, was the same distance from Times Square. Another criticism was that Ames's theater was elitist because all seats had equally good views of the stage, with one ticket price for all seats. Construction progressed quickly, with over 150 workers being employed at one point. The Little opened on March 12, 1912, with John Galsworthy's play The Pigeon. This was followed by a special matinee with Charles Rann Kennedy's The Terrible Meek and Ma Tcheu-Yuen's The Flower of the Palace of Han. The Little's productions of the 1912–1913 season included a revival of The Affairs of Anatol, as well as the original productions Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Rutherford and Son. Ames financed several of the initial shows at the theater, including Prunella and The Philanderer in 1913. The following year, the theater hosted A Pair of Silk Stockings, which was the Little's first major hit with 223 performances. In addition, in 1914, Ames started hiring musicians to play "new, original, unpublished American music" during intermission. At the end of that year, Ames's physician ordered him to take a twelve-month hiatus from theatrical productions. The Little Theater hosted no productions during the 1915–1916 theatrical season, as Ames did not return to producing until August 1916. #### Expansion and Morosco/Golden operation By early 1915, the small capacity of the Little had restricted Ames's ability to profit from the venue, even though Ames charged a relatively affordable \$2.50 per seat (). That March, The New York Times reported that Ames was planning to increase the capacity to 1,000 seats by adding a balcony, enlarging the auditorium, and replacing the stage. Two months later, Ames leased the dwelling at 244 West 44th Street for the possible enlargement of the theater. The New-York Tribune lamented that the city would "lose its gem among playhouses" with the planned enlargement. A Billboard magazine article that July indicated that the theater would receive a 200-seat balcony, increasing the capacity only to 500 seats. Ames hired Herbert J. Krapp in 1917 to remodel the theater with a balcony. Krapp kept the box office, the lobby, and the auditorium ceiling in their original condition. He removed the wainscoting and wall coverings, since these did not conform to New York City building regulations for larger venues, and added Adam-style decorations in their place. A disagreement with the New York City Department of Buildings delayed the renovation by three years. In 1918, Rachel Crothers's play A Little Journey opened at the Little, running for 252 performances. The plans for the theater's renovation were approved in June 1919, and Ames leased the theater to Oliver Morosco the same month. The same year, Morosco presented Please Get Married, featuring Ernest Truex and Edith Taliaferro. When the theater's expansion was completed in early 1920, Morosco hosted two "experimental dramas": Rachel Barton Butler's Mama's Affair and Eugene O'Neill's Beyond the Horizon. John Golden's production of Frank Craven's The First Year, starring Craven and Roberta Arnold, opened at the Little in October 1920; that play ran for nearly two years. In August 1922, Golden acquired Morosco's stake in the lease, partnering with L. Lawrence Weber and F. Ray Comstock. By that year, Ames had incurred a net deficit of \$504,372 from the theater's operation, and the corporation operating the theater was dissolved. Craven's Spite Corner opened in September 1922 and stayed at the Little for three months. Two plays by Guy Bolton were staged at the Little in 1923: Polly Preferred with Genevieve Tobin and Chicken Feed with Roberta Arnold. The latter was transferred to another theater when Golden sought to transfer the revue Little Jessie James to the Little. The comedy Pigs opened at the Little in September 1924 and ran for 347 performances. This was followed in 1926 by two shows with over a hundred performances: Marc Connelly's The Wisdom Tooth and Gladys Buchanan Unger's Two Girls Wanted. Another hit was a transfer of the Grand Street Follies in 1927. Additionally, Rachel Crothers's Let Us Be Gay opened in 1929 with Francine Larrimore and Warren William, running for 353 performances. #### Late 1920s and 1930s Ames announced his retirement from producing in October 1929, but he said he would continue to control the Little Theatre, with Golden, Weber, and Comstock operating the venue. Two months later, the Little Theatre was leased to Chauncey W. Keim of the Harkem Holding Corporation for ten years. Harkem gave up its lease in June 1930, citing an unprofitable season. Later that year, the Little hosted Mr. Samuel with Edward G. Robinson, which was Ames's last show at the theater. This was followed in 1931 by Elmer Rice's The Left Bank. Vincent Astor sold the theater to the New York Times Company that November. According to the Times, the theater would "protect the light and air" of the Times annex at 229 West 43rd Street, as well as provide an additional exit from the annex. Variety magazine reported that the theater would be demolished to make way for the annex exit. Due to Depression-era budget cuts, the Times decided to keep the theater operating for at least a year. Ames's lease on the Little expired in May 1932. The New York Times Company leased the theater to Little Theatre Operating Company for one year starting in September 1932. The new operator planned to host "contemporary light comedies". During this period, the Little hosted many relatively short-lived productions, including "a spate of plays with 'Honeymoon' in their titles". The theater passed to the Frankwyn Corporation, operated by Arch Selwyn and H. B. Franklin. In December 1934, Allen Robbins and Jacob Weiser assumed operation of the theater. The next February, the theater was leased to CBS as a broadcast studio. At the time, producer Brock Pemberton had offices on the upper stories; he was allowed to stay. CBS reduced the capacity to 475 seats and occupied the theater for a year and a half. The network, seeking a larger accommodation, ultimately leased the Manhattan (now Ed Sullivan) Theater in August 1936, vacating the Little Theatre by the end of the next month. The playwright Anne Nichols leased the theater for legitimate productions in September 1936. Nichols moved her play Pre-Honeymoon there, and the venue became Anne Nichols' Little Theatre. During 1936 and 1937, the theater hosted productions such as Promise with Cedric Hardwicke, Sun Kissed with Jean Adair and Charles Coburn, and Abie's Irish Rose. The Little Theatre's original name was restored when Cornelia Otis Skinner's solo show Edna His Wife opened in December 1937. By March 1939, the Times was again contemplating destroying the Little Theatre. The theatrical firm of Bonfils and Somnes were leasing the theater at the time. The Shubert family (which operated several nearby theaters) and the operators of the neighboring Astor Hotel objected that the proposed demolition would lower their property values. The Times relented that July, delaying the proposed demolition by offering three-year leases in the theater building. In 1940, the Little hosted the revue Reunion in New York, featuring the American Viennese Group. ### Intermittent theatrical use #### 1940s and 1950s The theater became a conference center named the New York Times Hall in December 1941. The first event at the conference hall was a speech by mayor Fiorello La Guardia about air-raid preparations at schools. Under the Times's ownership, the theater sometimes hosted concerts and discussions. The events included "victory garden lectures", a book conference for children, an instrumental concert, and recitals from figures such as basso Emanuel List and dancer Lotte Goslar. The hall's steep rake was removed, and the pipes throughout the theater building were replaced. In August 1944, the New York Times Company filed plans for a 11-story building on the site of the Little Theatre, but these plans were not executed. The American Broadcasting Company (ABC) leased the theater as a television studio by July 1951. ABC renovated the theater for The Frances Langford/Don Ameche Show, a variety show featuring Frances Langford and Don Ameche. The stage apron was extended into the orchestra, and lighting, control rooms, and camera arrangements were modified. The Little Theatre was also used for ABC radio broadcasts. In 1953, executives of the Ern Westmore Show arranged to broadcast from the Little for six and a half years. Dick Clark's The Dick Clark Show started broadcasting from the Little Theatre in February 1958, remaining there through September 1960. During this time, ABC also broadcast the daytime show Who Do You Trust? with Johnny Carson from the theater. #### 1960s and 1970s In June 1962, Roger Euster purchased the Little Theatre through his company Little Theatre Inc., beating out several other bidders. The acquisition cost \$850,000, part of which the company financed through a stock offering of \$294,000. Euster planned to host daily "marathon presentations", with various legitimate plays, impersonations, children's shows, and classic shows running for 17 hours a day. The first new legitimate show at the theater was Tambourines of Glory, a Black revue that opened in November 1963 and closed after a week. Euster opened a bar in the Little's basement and offered free alcoholic beverages to patrons, but the New York City license commissioner quickly halted the practice because the theater had no liquor license. At the end of the year, the Paul Taylor Dance Company performed at the Little. Subsequently, in early 1964, the Habima Theatre of Israel performed three shows at the Little: The Dybbuk, Children of the Shadows, and Each Had Six Wings. Euster and Leonard Tow sold the theater in June 1964 to Leonard B. Moore and Richard S. Smith. The theater was renamed the Winthrop Ames Theatre that September, when Frank D. Gilroy's play The Subject Was Roses transferred there. According to one media source, Moore "did not want the theater to suffer under the handicap of being called Little any longer". The Subject Was Roses relocated in March 1965, and the theater's name reverted to the Little. Westinghouse Broadcasting paid the producers of The Subject Was Roses to relocate, as it was seeking to lease the theater as a broadcast studio. At first, Westinghouse taped the syndicated Merv Griffin Show at the Little. By 1969, Merv Griffin moved to another network and the theater was being used for taping The David Frost Show. The 1969–70 season of the game show Beat the Clock, hosted by Jack Narz, was also taped there. A show by psychologist Joyce Brothers was also hosted at the Little Theatre. Amid a general decline in the Times Square neighborhood, the Little Theatre became vacant by mid-1972. The venue stood vacant for six months in 1973, reopening in September as a venue for gay pornographic films. Moore, who claimed he did not know that his tenants were pornographic film exhibitors, quickly halted the film screenings after other theatrical owners protested. In May 1974, Westinghouse Broadcasting acquired the Little Theatre from Moore's company, after Moore defaulted on a mortgage that had been placed on the theater building. ### Broadway revival #### 1974 to 1989 The Little Theatre returned to legitimate productions a second time in 1974, when Ray Aranha's My Sister, My Sister opened there. Because of the Little's small size, the Actors' Equity Association gave the theater a special designation, which exempted the theater from some of Actors' Equity's strict rules regarding profits. This was followed in 1975 by the short-lived musical Man on the Moon and the play Lamppost Reunion, as well as in 1976 by a six-month run of The Runner Stumbles. The next hit at the theater was Albert Innaurato's play Gemini, which transferred from off Broadway in 1977 and ran for 1,819 performances over the next four years. Westinghouse subsequently sold the theater, but sources dissent on when the sale occurred. According to Ken Bloom and The New York Times, Martin Markinson and Donald Tick bought the theater from Westinghouse in 1979 for \$800,000. However, media sources from March 1980 said that the theater had been sold to Ashton Springer for \$800,000. Springer's group, known as the Little Theater Group, planned to spend \$400,000 to renovate the theater. The firm Adcadesign subsequently renovated the theater in 1981. In the early 1980s, the Little saw three short runs: Ned and Jack in 1981, as well as The Curse of an Aching Heart and Solomon's Child in 1982. The theater's next hit came in June 1982 when Harvey Fierstein's play Torch Song Trilogy opened; it ran for three years. The Little Theatre was renamed in July 1983 for actress Helen Hayes, who was then 82 years old. Hayes had outlived her previous namesake theater on 46th Street, which had been demolished to make way for the New York Marriott Marquis hotel. Ed Koch, then the mayor of New York City, said that Hayes wanted her name on "a small theater" when asked whether she wanted the hotel's new 1,500-seat theater (later the Marquis Theatre) renamed in her honor. After Torch Song Trilogy ended, the Hayes hosted the musical The News, which flopped after four performances in 1985. The next year, the Hayes staged the comedy Corpse!, the mime show Mummenschanz: "The New Show", and the revue Oh, Coward!. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) started to consider protecting the Hayes as a landmark in 1982, with discussions continuing over the next several years. The LPC designated the Hayes's facade and part of the interior as landmarks on November 17, 1987. That month, the owners announced that they would auction off the theater at a starting price of \$5 million. The New York City Board of Estimate ratified the landmark designations in March 1988. The theater was auctioned the same month; both Jujamcyn Theaters and the Nederlander Organization attended the auction, but there were no bidders. Late in the decade, the Hayes hosted Larry Shue's The Nerd in 1987 and the two-act musical Romance/Romance in 1988. This was followed in 1989 by Mandy Patinkin's Dress Casual and Artist Descending a Staircase. #### 1990 to 2007 Premiering at the Helen Hayes Theatre in 1990 were a short run of Estelle Parsons's solo show Miss Margarida's Way, as well as a year-long run of the off-Broadway hit Prelude to a Kiss. The Hayes was remodeled in 1992, and the musical revue The High Rollers Social and Pleasure Club and the musical 3 From Brooklyn were staged the same year. Lynn Redgrave performed her solo show Shakespeare For My Father in 1993, followed the next year by Joan Rivers in Sally Marr...and Her Escorts and a stunt show by The Flying Karamazov Brothers. Rob Becker's monologue Defending the Caveman opened at the Hayes in 1995 and ran for nearly two years. This was followed in 1997 by Alfred Uhry's play The Last Night of Ballyhoo, which had 577 performances before closing. The Hayes's productions at the end of the 1990s included Getting and Spending in 1998, as well as Band in Berlin, Night Must Fall, and Epic Proportions in 1999. The revue Dirty Blonde opened in 2000 and was a hit. This was followed by Hershey Felder's solo musical tribute George Gershwin Alone and the musical By Jeeves in 2001, as well as the black comedy The Smell of the Kill in 2002. Frank Gorshin performed solo in Say Goodnight Gracie for 364 performances starting in 2002. William Gibson's play Golda's Balcony opened the next year, featuring Tovah Feldshuh, and ran for 493 performances. During 2005, Jackie Mason hosted his comedy Freshly Squeezed at the Hayes, and the Latino comedy revue Latinologues was also presented. The theater's productions in 2006 included Bridge and Tunnel, Kiki & Herb: Alive on Broadway, and Jay Johnson: The Two and Only. The musical Xanadu premiered at the Hayes in 2007 and ran there for 512 performances. While Tick died the same year, his family still co-owned the theater with Markinson. ### Second Stage #### Sale and continuing productions In July 2008, Markinson and the Tick family indicated their intention to sell the Hayes to Second Stage Theater, which planned to take over the theater in 2010. Second Stage was raising \$35 million for both the acquisition and a renovation. In the meantime, Slava's Snowshow had a limited run at the Hayes during the 2008–2009 winter season. The 39 Steps moved to the Hayes in 2009 and ran for a year before relocating off-Broadway. In 2010, Second Stage launched a \$45 million capital campaign, with commitments for half that amount, and the theater company was planning to sell the theater's naming rights for \$15 million. Pfeiffer Partners had completed plans for a renovation of the theater's interior. The same year, the Hayes staged the play Next Fall, as well as Colin Quinn's one-man show Long Story Short, the latter of which was recorded at the theater as an HBO special. The popular rock musical Rock of Ages transferred to the Hayes in 2011, running there for nearly four years. Rock of Ages achieved the box office record for the Helen Hayes Theatre, grossing \$744,667 over nine performances for the week ending December 30, 2012. After Second Stage finally raised enough money to buy the theater, Tick's family and Markinson requested that the sale be delayed until Rock of Ages closed. In February 2015, Second Stage sued the Hayes's owners for allegedly reneging on the 2008 sale agreement. Second Stage alleged that Tick's family and Markinson were trying to invalidate the sale by rushing the closing process. While the sale was supposed to have been finalized on February 17, Second Stage did not have enough money at that time to cover the \$25 million purchase price. By then, the costs of acquiring and renovating the theater had increased to \$58 million from \$35 million. In response, Markinson said he would sell the theater at the agreed price of \$24.7 million if Second Stage could get the money. The dispute was resolved in April 2015, when the sale of the Hayes to Second Stage was finalized. With the sale, Second Stage became one of four nonprofit theater companies to own and operate Broadway theaters. Before a planned renovation, the Hayes hosted short runs of the off-Broadway hit Dames at Sea in 2015 and then The Humans in 2016. #### Renovation and reopening The Humans relocated to another theater in July 2016 to make way for Second Stage's renovation. Second Stage ultimately spent \$64 million, including \$28 million for the actual purchase, \$22 million for renovation, and \$14 million for programming. Jordan Roth of Jujamcyn Theaters, which operated the neighboring St. James Theatre, approached Second Stage about the possibility of simultaneously renovating both theaters. Second Stage sold the alley between the theaters to Jujamcyn, which helped Second Stage fund the cost of renovating the Hayes. The Rockwell Group was hired as the architect. The project added an elevator, restrooms, and mechanical systems. In addition, the dressing rooms were relocated from the basement to the third floor. Second Stage planned to host works by living American playwrights, particularly from female and minority writers, at the Hayes Theater. This was a contrast to other Broadway theaters, which often hosted revivals by dead playwrights as well as foreign works. Second Stage's first production at the Hayes was Kenneth Lonergan's Lobby Hero, which opened in March 2018. This was followed the same year by Young Jean Lee's Straight White Men and a revival of Torch Song Trilogy. Subsequently, in 2019, the Hayes hosted Heidi Schreck's What the Constitution Means to Me and Tracy Letts's Linda Vista. After Linda Vista, the Hayes was to present two plays in early 2020: Bess Wohl's Grand Horizons and a revival of Richard Greenberg's 2002 play Take Me Out. Grand Horizons was staged from January to March 2020. All Broadway theaters were shut down on March 12, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and previews of Take Me Out were delayed. The Hayes reopened on November 3, 2021, with previews of Clyde's by Lynn Nottage. Take Me Out opened in April 2022, two years after it was first supposed to premiere. This was followed by Matthew Spangler's play The Kite Runner in July 2022 and Stephen Adly Guirgis's play Between Riverside and Crazy in December 2022. Larissa FastHorse's The Thanksgiving Play opened at the Hayes in April 2023 for a two-month run, followed by Sandy Rustin's The Cottage in July 2023. ## Notable productions Productions are listed by the year of their first performance. ### Little Theatre - 1912: The Affairs of Anatol - 1912: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs - 1912: Rutherford and Son - 1913: The Philanderer - 1914: The Truth - 1918: A Little Journey - 1919: Please Get Married - 1920: Mama's Affair - 1920: Beyond the Horizon - 1920: He and She - 1920: A Midsummer Night's Dream - 1920: The First Year - 1924: Little Jessie James - 1925: The School For Scandal - 1926: Two Girls Wanted - 1928: Gods of the Lightning - 1929: Let Us Be Gay - 1930: London Calling - 1931: Mrs Moonlight - 1933: One Sunday Afternoon - 1934: The Lady from the Sea - 1937: Abie's Irish Rose - 1941: Twelfth Night - 1964: The Dybbuk - 1964: The Subject Was Roses - 1975: Man On The Moon - 1976: The Runner Stumbles - 1977: A Party with Betty Comden & Adolph Green - 1977: Gemini - 1982: Torch Song Trilogy ### Helen Hayes Theatre (1983–2017) - 1985: The News - 1986: Mummenschanz: "The New Show" - 1986: Oh, Coward! - 1987: The Nerd - 1988: Romance/Romance - 1989: Mandy Patinkin in Concert: "Dress Casual" - 1989: Artist Descending a Staircase - 1990: Miss Margarida's Way - 1990: Prelude to a Kiss - 1993: Shakespeare For My Father - 1994: The Flying Karamazov Brothers "Do The Impossible" - 1995: Defending the Caveman - 1997: The Last Night of Ballyhoo - 1999: Night Must Fall - 1999: Epic Proportions - 2000: Dirty Blonde - 2001: George Gershwin Alone - 2001: By Jeeves - 2002: The Smell of the Kill - 2002: Say Goodnight, Gracie - 2003: Golda's Balcony - 2005: Jackie Mason: Freshly Squeezed - 2005: Latinologues - 2006: Bridge and Tunnel - 2006: Kiki & Herb: Alive on Broadway - 2006: Jay Johnson: The Two and Only - 2007: Xanadu - 2008: Slava's Snowshow - 2009: The 39 Steps - 2010: Next Fall - 2010: Long Story Short - 2011: Rock of Ages - 2015: Dames at Sea - 2016: The Humans ### Hayes Theater (Second Stage) - 2018: Lobby Hero - 2018: Straight White Men - 2018: Torch Song - 2019: What the Constitution Means to Me - 2019: Linda Vista - 2020: Grand Horizons - 2021: Clyde's - 2022: Take Me Out - 2022: Kite Runner - 2022: Between Riverside and Crazy - 2023: The Thanksgiving Play - 2023: The Cottage ## See also - List of Broadway theaters - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets

Puella Magi Madoka Magica

Japanese anime television series

Puella Magi Madoka Magica (Japanese: 魔法少女まどか☆マギカ, Hepburn: Mahō Shōjo Madoka Magika), also known simply as Madoka Magica, is a Japanese anime television series created by Magica Quartet; and animated by Shaft. The story follows a group of middle school girls, led by protagonist Madoka Kaname, who make supernatural contracts to become magical girls. In battling surreal enemies known as "witches", they learn of the anguish and peril associated with their new roles. The first ten episodes of the series aired on TBS and MBS between January and March 2011, while the final two episodes were delayed until April of the same year due to the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. A manga adaptation of the anime and various spin-off manga have been published by Houbunsha and licensed in North America by Yen Press. A novelization by Nitroplus was released in August 2011, and a dedicated magazine, Manga Time Kirara Magica, was launched by Houbunsha in June 2012. A video game for the PlayStation Portable was released in March 2012 and another for PlayStation Vita was released in December 2013. A smartphone game, Magia Record, launched in August 2017, and a three-season anime adaptation produced by Shaft aired from January 2020 to April 2022. An anime film series, beginning with two films recapping the television series, was released in October 2012. A third film featuring an original story, Rebellion, was released in October 2013. A sequel to Rebellion, titled Walpurgisnacht: Rising, is in production. Puella Magi Madoka Magica has received widespread critical acclaim, with praise for its complex narrative, visuals, themes, and soundtrack as well as its unconventional approach to the magical girl subgenre. It became a commercial success; each Blu-ray Disc volume sold more than 50,000 copies in Japan. The series garnered a variety of awards, such as the Television Award at the 16th Animation Kobe Award, as well as 12 Newtype Anime Awards and the Grand Prize for the Animation Division at the 15th Japan Media Arts Festival in 2011. ## Plot In the fictional city of Mitakihara, Japan, a middle school student named Madoka Kaname and her best friend, Sayaka Miki, encounter a small, cat-like creature named Kyubey. It offers a contract in which a girl may have any wish granted in exchange for obtaining magical powers and being tasked with fighting witches. Meanwhile, a transfer student and mysterious magical girl named Homura Akemi try to stop Madoka from making the contract with Kyubey. Madoka and Sayaka then meet Mami Tomoe, an upperclassman at the same school who is also a magical girl. Noticing their indecisiveness on whether to become a magical girl, Mami offers to take Madoka and Sayaka along on her witch hunts so they may learn of the responsibilities of being a magical girl. However, after witnessing Mami's death at the hands of a witch, Madoka realizes the life of a magical girl is filled with suffering and pain. This is further enforced by the appearance of Kyoko Sakura, a veteran magical girl whose wish unintentionally caused the death of her family. Madoka also discovers magical girls give up their souls to form Soul Gems, the source of their magic, and that when Soul Gems become too tainted with despair, magical girls are converted into witches. Sayaka decides to become a magical girl after learning that doing so would allow her to heal a young musician whom she admires. However, her classmate Hitomi Shizuki confesses her love to him first, causing Sayaka to become disillusioned and fall into an inescapable despair that turns her into a witch. Kyubey reveals to Madoka that he is of an alien race that has been harvesting the emotions of magical girls for centuries to use as energy to counteract the spread of entropy, and thus stave off the heat death of the universe. Madoka also learns that Homura is a magical girl from a different timeline who has repeated the same month countless times to try to save Madoka from a grisly fate. Madoka and Kyoko attempt to reverse Sayaka's transformation, but the plan fails and Kyoko is forced to sacrifice herself to allow Madoka to escape, leaving Homura as the only remaining magical girl. Following this, an extremely powerful witch known as Walpurgisnacht approaches the city. Homura attempts to stop it but is defeated. She begins to lose hope and is on the verge of becoming a witch when Madoka arrives. With the past month's events in mind, Madoka decides to become a magical girl and makes a wish to stop the creation of all witches in the past, present, and future. The paradoxical nature of her wish causes her to transcend into a psychopomp form, called the ultimate magical girl and establishes a new "Law of Cycles" in which magical girls are purified and disappear into a higher plane instead of becoming witches. A new reality is formed in which Homura is the only one who remembers Madoka. Homura vows to continue fighting in honor of Madoka and the world she cherished. ## Production ### Development While collaborating on Hidamari Sketch and Bakemonogatari, Akiyuki Shinbo told Aniplex producer Atsuhiro Iwakami he wanted to create a new magical girl series, beginning the development of Puella Magi Madoka Magica. During the early planning stage, Iwakami decided not to adapt an existing work to give Shinbo more freedom in his direction style. Another goal of the project was to develop an anime that would appeal to a wider audience than the usual demographic for media within the magical girl subgenre. Iwakami and Shinbo intended their series to be accessible to "the general anime fan". Shinbo then asked Gen Urobuchi to work on the project as a scriptwriter and Ume Aoki as original character designer. Takahiro Kishida was engaged to adapt Aoki's character designs for the television series. In his role as producer, Iwakami took a mostly hands-off approach. Because Puella Magi Madoka Magica is an original series rather than an adaptation of an existing work, his main goal was "coming up with a high-quality piece of entertainment". After helping to recruit the staff, he allowed them freedom to develop the content of the story, providing minimal guidance. After viewing the character designs that Aoki created, he was sure he could trust the creative talent of the team. In an interview with Anime News Network after the series finished airing in Japan, Iwakami said, "I don't matter much; it's up to those talents to do their work. If something comes to a stand-still I might intervene, but they did an excellent job and I was very happy seeing the results in episode one." ### Writing During the pre-writing planning phase, Iwakami asked Urobuchi to make the storyline "heavy". Shinbo specified it should contain copious amounts of blood and violence, elements that were unusual in the magical girl genre. Iwakami also asked for many of the magical girl characters to be killed throughout the series. Urobuchi said he had no trouble with these requirements, referencing his past reputation as a writer of very dark and somber stories, the extent of which Shinbo had not known. One objective was for the script to contrast starkly with the way the anime was to be marketed. Shinbo planned to advertise the series innocently and purely that would deliberately conceal its dark undertones. For example, the title logo was rendered using rounded fonts that would appear harmless to audiences. Urobuchi further misled fans by using his Twitter account to persuade them the plot of the series was innocuous. The true nature of the series was disguised because Shinbo wanted its dark themes to be a complete surprise to the viewers. Iwakami later defended the mature themes in the Puella Magi Madoka Magica, stating, "the story of Madoka is serious but it's not entirely inappropriate for children. For example, there's nothing sexually explicit in it. There's some death, but it's not gratuitous; it can be explained within the context of the story." Shinbo granted Urobuchi a large amount of autonomy in writing the series and determining the path of the story. In describing his interactions with Iwakami and Shinbo while working on the series, Urobuchi commented that "neither one is the type to show their hand, they would always wait for me to make the next move". To create a successful deconstruction of the magical girl genre, Urobuchi studied aspects of traditional magical girl media that were "troubling or overlooked". He also stated the plot development was heavily influenced by the character drawings by Aoki, and credited horror fiction author Stephen King and Shinbo's previous projects such as Hidamari Sketch and Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha as inspirations for the series. Urobuchi attributed his experience working on projects with screenwriters Ichiro Itano and Yōsuke Kuroda as a major influence in his writing for Puella Magi Madoka Magica, and has referred to both of them as his mentors. To set the initial pacing of the series, Urobuchi used a technique he credited to Kuroda. The first episode would throw the viewer into a specific part of the story with unknown context. The second episode would define the rules governing the story's setting. The third episode would divulge the revelation in the plot to hook the viewer. The twist in the third episode was determined during the project proposal stage and involves the death of Mami, the main character. This decision was controversial; Urobuchi said production staff continually approached him and asked him to reconsider because of their fondness for the character. He refused and the plot remained unchanged during production. Urobuchi realized this progression could be very hard for viewers to accept and might hurt the overall series' success with some audiences; he said, "I always thought this is an age where entertainment basically is about soothing and healing, like adopting a style where unchanging day-to-day life is to continue forever". In an interview with Ultra Jump Egg, Urobuchi gave insight into his writing philosophy, stating that he believed the overarching plot of a story was more important than its characters. He said he would first determine the actions and the ultimate fate of a character before even assigning it a name, and contrasted this with other writing methods that first focused on developing the characters and then creating a storyline for them to follow. He again defended his decision to have Mami die, saying this could have the effect of making the character more memorable, saying, "I think there are quite many characters who became immortal exactly because they died, like Caesar Zeppeli in JoJo's Bizarre Adventure or Raoh in Fist of the North Star. Precisely because of the way they died, they were able to live forever." ### Character design Urobuchi stated that Sayaka was his favorite character overall and said her plotline was the most enjoyable to write. Shinbo believed that Sayaka's grim fate by the end of the series was a slightly unfair destiny, and asked Urobuchi if it was possible to change the plot so Sayaka could be spared. Urobuchi declined, saying her death was integral to the overarching story. Shinbo then asked if she could be brought back to life, saying he had become very attached to the character. Urobuchi again refused, saying this would be impossible because of the already-established rules governing the story. Shinbo acquiesced to this, but said he believed there may have been too large a burden placed on the characters who were young, middle-school girls. The alien character Kyubey was also envisioned and designed by Urobuchi. Iwakami stated that as one of the primary antagonists in the series, "the mash-up of cuteness and darkness is the central theme to Madoka, and Kyubey is an epitome of that theme". A central goal in Urobuchi's writing was to highlight the moral and ethical dissonance between Kyubey and the young middle school girls, which was done through actions such as Kyubey eating its own corpse to recycle energy. He compared the character to monsters in the works of horror fiction author H. P. Lovecraft, commenting of Kyubey: "he isn't evil, it is his lack of feelings that make him scary". Urobuchi also remarked upon the moral ambiguity the series displays in an interview with Asahi Shimbun, stating "Al-Qaeda brought down the Twin Towers due to their self-righteousness. Justice for some people is an evil for others. Good intentions, kindness, and hope will not necessarily make people happy." Due to unforeseen scheduling problems at Shaft, production of the series was postponed for three years following the completion of its writing. Once the issues were resolved, production began without further complications. The animation studio led the conception and design of the witches, and created each one's individual backstory. Urobuchi had originally envisioned the witches to be similar to conventional monsters such as Godzilla, but upon seeing the surreal concept art for one of the main witches, Walpurgisnacht, he said; "How can Homura possibly fight against something like this?" Designers from Shaft added quotations from the German folklorist Faust to the series. Throughout production, the animation production team Gekidan Inu Curry had freedom to insert new details and to modify existing ones from the original script; for example, during a scene in the final episode in which the team added black wings to Homura—something that was not included in Urobuchi's writing. Urobuchi praised this aspect of the production, commenting, "additions by the animation production team added more mystery and depth to [the] characters, and without them, it would have been very difficult to write any further stories in the world of the series". ### Music Iwakami and Shinbo recruited Yuki Kajiura to compose the soundtrack for the series after Urobuchi recommended her. Shinbo had previously worked with Kajiura on Le Portrait de Petit Cossette; Urobuchi told of the inspirational effect the music from that series had on him while writing parts of the script. Urobuchi said he had long been a fan of Kajiura's anime soundtracks and praised her work ethic, saying she would always familiarize herself with the story's plotline while composing for it. Japanese pop music duo ClariS was also commissioned to perform the series' opening theme "Connect" (コネクト, Konekuto). Iwakami involved himself in the song's development to ensure it would fit with the series, marking one of the few times he intervened in an aspect of the production. Both "Connect" and the ending theme "Magia" by Kalafina were revealed in a television commercial several weeks before the series' premiere in Japan. ## Broadcast and distribution On January 7, 2011, Puella Magi Madoka Magica debuted on Mainichi Broadcasting System (MBS), Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS), and Chubu-Nippon Broadcasting (CBC) in Japan. The first ten episodes aired weekly without interruption and were made available for streaming on Nico Nico Douga and BIGLOBE's Anime One service. That March, the planned broadcasts of the last two episodes were halted because of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami; TBS also canceled its scheduled airing of the 10th episode so it could provide more news coverage of the natural disaster. Urobuchi apologized to viewers for the delays; he also said the postponements could be viewed in a positive light because they alleviated some production pressures on animation studio Shaft because of the tight broadcast schedule. Citing particularly challenging drawings for episodes 11 and 12, Urobuchi and Iwakami planned to have Shaft continue to improve the episodes up until their rescheduled broadcasts. According to Urobuchi if episode 11 had been aired in its current state as scheduled, the result would likely have been disappointing. On March 23, 2011, the broadcast for the rest of the series was indefinitely delayed but the production team reported that they were continuing to work on the episodes and announced their intention to finish airing the series by April.[^1] On April 10, 2011, the official website for Puella Magi Madoka Magica announced that broadcasts would resume on April 21. Episodes 11 and 12 aired back-to-back on MBS while TBS and CBC ran episode 10 together with episodes 11 and 12. Iwakami later commented on this unique production experience in an interview with Anime News Network. He said Shaft was always pressed for time during the production process and only just completed each episode before its air time. After the earthquake and tsunami, he stated that many of the company's staff were upset by the incident and were unable to work effectively on episodes 11 and 12. He said, however, "a week went by, and two weeks went by, and the staff started saying that they couldn't stay in shock forever, that they had to keep on going, and then production continued". The series was released on six Blu-ray Disc (BD) and DVD volumes between April 27 and September 21, 2011, having been delayed by the earthquake from the original release date of March 30, 2011. Drama CDs were included with the first, third, and fifth BD/DVD volumes. The sixth and final volume released on September 21, 2011, contains a director's edit of episode 12. The series began streaming on Crunchyroll on February 15, 2012, as well as on Hulu and Crackle. Aniplex of America released the series in North America, including an English dub, in three BD and DVD volumes released between February 14 and June 12, 2012. Aniplex also released limited editions containing the original soundtrack CDs and special items. Manga Entertainment licensed the series in the United Kingdom and released it on October 29, 2012 on BD and DVD in a complete collection. Madman Entertainment licensed the series in Australia, where it was broadcast on the children's channel ABC Me on June 29, 2013, following an early preview on January 6. The dubbed series began streaming on Viz Media's streaming service Neon Alley in late 2013. In Italy, the series was broadcast on Rai 4 on February 5 until April 22, 2012. On September 1, 2018, a television anime series based on the smartphone game Magia Record was announced. It was originally scheduled to begin airing in 2019, but it was delayed to a January 2020 premiere. It began airing on January 4, 2020. ## Related media ### Films In November 2011, it was announced in the December issue of Kadokawa Shoten's Newtype magazine that Shaft was developing a three-part theatrical film project. The first two films, titled Beginnings (始まりの物語, Hajimari no Monogatari) and Eternal (永遠の物語, Eien no Monogatari), are compilations of the anime television series featuring re-recorded voices and some new animation. The first film, which covers the first eight episodes of the television series, was released in theaters on October 6, 2012, while the second film, which covers the last four episodes, was released on October 13, 2012. The first two films were screened in selected locations in the United States and seven other countries between October 2012 and February 2013; they were also screened at Anime Festival Asia between November 10 and 11, 2012, in Singapore. The two films were released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD on July 30, 2013, in standard and collector's edition sets and is being made available for import by Aniplex of America. The third film, titled Rebellion (叛逆の物語, Hangyaku no Monogatari), features a new story written by Urobuchi and acts as a sequel to the television series. It was released to Japanese theaters on October 26, 2013. The film received a North American imported release on December 3, 2013. The first and second films were re-released with an English dub on July 15, 2014. A short concept film for a new story, described as a "movie-based image board", was debuted at Shaft's anniversary exhibition Madogatari on November 27, 2015. Shaft representative director and president Mitsutoshi Kubota later confirmed in an interview in Newtype that the concept film will launch a new Puella Magi Madoka Magica project. At a 10th anniversary event held on April 25, 2021, a sequel movie to Rebellion was announced, titled Walpurgisnacht: Rising (ワルプルギスの廻天, Warupurugisu no Kaiten). ### Print media Houbunsha has published several manga series based on Puella Magi Madoka Magica. A direct adaptation of the anime series was illustrated by Hanokage and published in three four-chapter tankōbon volumes that were released between February 12 and May 30, 2011. The manga has been licensed in North America by Yen Press. A side story manga titled Puella Magi Kazumi Magica: The Innocent Malice (魔法少女かずみ☆マギカ〜The innocent malice〜, Mahō Shōjo Kazumi Magika: The Innocent Malice), which was written by Masaki Hiramatsu and illustrated by Takashi Tensugi, was serialized in Manga Time Kirara Forward between March 2011 and January 2013. A third manga titled Puella Magi Oriko Magica (魔法少女おりこ☆マギカ, Mahō Shōjo Oriko Magika), which was written by Kuroe Mura, was released in two tankōbon volumes on May 12, 2011, and June 12, 2011. Both Kazumi Magica and Oriko Magica have been licensed by Yen Press in North America. The first volume of Kazumi Magica was released in May 2013. Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Wraith Arc (魔法少女まどか☆マギカ[魔獣編]), which was written and illustrated by Hanokage, began serialization in the 20th issue of Manga Time Kirara Magica released on June 10, 2015. The plot describes the events that happened between Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Eternal and Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion. Yen Press will publish it in English. The first volume of an official anthology comic featuring illustrations by guest artists was released on September 12, 2011. A dedicated monthly magazine published by Houbunsha and titled Manga Time Kirara Magica (まんがタイムきらら☆マギカ, Manga Taimu Kirara Magika) was launched on June 8, 2012; it features various manga stories, including spin-off stories of Oriko Magica. A film comic adaptation of the series titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Film Memories went on sale on May 26, 2012. Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Different Story, another manga by Hanokage, was published in three tankōbon volumes between October 12 and November 12, 2012, and was licensed by Yen Press in 2014. The first volume of Puella Magi Suzune Magica (魔法少女すずね☆マギカ), which was written and illustrated by Gan, was released on November 12, 2013, before being serialized in Manga Time Kirara Magica on November 22, 2013. Puella Magi Homura Tamura (魔法少女ほむら☆たむら), which was written and illustrated by Afro, is serialized in Manga Time Kirara Magica; its first volume was released in October 2013 and was licensed by Yen Press. Puella Magi Homura's Revenge! (魔法少女まどか☆マギカ ほむらリベンジ!), written by Kawazukuu and illustrated by Masugitsune, was serialized in Manga Time Kirara Magica and released two volumes in December 2013; Yen Press licensed the manga. Hajime Ninomae wrote a novel adaptation of the series that was illustrated by Yūpon and published by Nitroplus on August 14, 2011. Pre-release copies were available at Comiket 80 on August 12, 2011. A book titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Beginning Story, which is based on Gen Urobuchi's original draft treatment for the anime, was released in November 2011. ### Video games A video game based on the series titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica Portable (魔法少女まどか☆マギカ ポータブル, Mahō Shōjo Madoka Magika Pōtaburu) and designed for the PlayStation Portable was released by Namco Bandai Games on March 15, 2012. The game allows players to take many routes and change the ending of the story. Urobuchi returned as the writer and Shaft animated the title, while Yusuke Tomizawa and Yoshinao Doi produced it. The game was released in two editions; a standard box including a bonus DVD, and a limited edition box containing a Madoka Figma, a bonus Blu-ray Disc, a Kyubey pouch, a 'HomuHomu' handkerchief and a special clear card. An action game for the PlayStation Vita titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Battle Pentagram (魔法少女まどかマギカThe Battle Pentagram) was developed by Artdink and published by Namco Bandai Games, and was released in Japan on December 19, 2013. The game features an original story that was created with guidance from Urobuchi in which all five magical girls team up to defeat a powerful witch called Walpurgis Night. Upon release, a limited edition version that included codes for additional in-game costumes and merchandise such as a CD copy of the game's soundtrack and an art book, was also on sale. A free smartphone application called Mami's Heart Pounding Tiro Finale (マミのドキドキティロフィナーレ, Mami no Doki Doki Tiro Fināre) was released on October 14, 2011. A third-person shooter (TPS) titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica TPS featuring Homura Akemi was released for Android devices in December 2011. A second TPS title featuring Mami was released in August 2012 and a third featuring Sayaka and Kyoko was released on October 16, 2012. A puzzle game for iOS devices titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica Puzzle of Memories was released on March 29, 2013. Costumes from Puella Magi Madoka Magica, alongside content based on other anime and games, are available in Japan as downloadable content (DLC) for the PSP game Gods Eater Burst. Costumes and accessories are also available as DLC for Tales of Xillia 2, and were available for Phantasy Star Online 2 in October 2013. Another collaboration with the mobile game Phantom of the Kill took place for an event that ran from August 8, 2015 to September 21, 2015. During that campaign, players had a chance of obtaining playable Madoka characters through in-game lotteries. Puella Magi Madoka Magica-themed missions, weapons and items were also available at that time. A pachinko game titled Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica was released in 2013, and a second pachinko game titled Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica 2 was released in 2016. Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica 2 features the song "Naturally" by Aoi Yūki and Eri Kitamura. Also in 2016, the smartphone game Girl Friend Beta announced a collaboration with Puella Magi Madoka Magica in which players got a Madoka card as a log-in bonus. A smartphone game called Magia Record: Puella Magi Madoka Magica Side Story, was released in Japan on August 22, 2017. The game features a new protagonist named Iroha Tamaki, who arrives in Kamihama City to search for her missing sister. The game features the theme song "Kakawari" (かかわり, "Connection") by TrySail. An anime adaptation of the game premiered on January 4, 2020. ## Reception ### Critical reception Puella Magi Madoka Magica has received widespread critical acclaim. Masaki Tsuji lauded the series' world-building and narrative as well as the character development, and called the series groundbreaking. Masaki went on to say that Madoka Magica has reached a "level of perfection", and noted that the series is worthy of people's admiration. UK Anime Network'''s Andy Hanley rated the anime 10 out of 10 and lauded it for its deeply emotional content, and described it as immersive and filled with grandiose visuals along with an evocative soundtrack. He recommended watching it several times to fully comprehend the complex and multi-layered plot. Hanley called it the greatest television anime series of the 21st century thus far. Scott Green of Ain't It Cool News called the series "hugely admirable"; he praised the animation team's attention to detail, stating that the series "would not work nearly as well if the characters in general and as magical girls specifically weren't presented so spectacularly winningly by the production". Green also said he would highly recommend Puella Magi Madoka Magica to anyone with an interest in anime. Michael Pementel of Bloody Disgusting called Madoka Magica a "fascinating work", and lauded its dark atmosphere and horror elements. Pementel highly praised the show's aesthetics and wrote that the "pacing in revealing twists" is one of the "show's most exceptional qualities" and also commended the characters tragic arc—particularly Sayaka and Homura. He further praised the series for offering "unique, grim twist that not only seeps the show in despair, but subverts the subgenre", concluding that Madoka Magica "stands as one of the best works of anime horror, presenting characters that must strive to find hope through profound darkness." THEM Anime Reviews reviewer Tim Jones called it "beautiful, well-written, and surprisingly dark", and gave it four out of five stars. Jones also commended the unique animation and design of the backdrops shown during witch fights, which he described as "surreal, beautiful, [and] trippy". In his review of the three blu-ray volumes of the anime series, Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network characterized the story as very emotionally dark and one of the most ambitious and beautiful anime series in recent memory. He awarded each of the volumes ratings of A or A+ overall, and stated "Time will tell us whether or not this show will be remembered as fondly as it is regarded by the fan community now, but it feels like a masterpiece, something to be appreciated again and again. It is a must-see for anyone remotely interested in what anime can accomplish as an art form". Awarding the series five stars out of five, Common Sense Media wrote that the "animation style is full of fluid motion and attention to detail that makes it a uniquely pleasurable experience to watch" and "the main characters [are] well developed and its hard not to get attached to them as the story progresses". Reviewers highly praised the series' darker approach to the popular magical girl subgenre in Japanese anime and manga. In its review of the series, the staff at Japanator said this trope "added a level of depth and complexity to the genre that we haven't ever seen, and I don't think we will see again ... [a]dding on that dressing gave the show a more perverse and cruel feeling to it, making it all the more compelling to watch". Liz Ohanesian of LA Weekly attributed the series' popularity with older, male audiences—an otherwise unusual demographic to the genre—to the genre deconstruction of Puella Magi Madoka Magica. She also commented on the series' cultural impact, writing that in Japan and the US there has been incredible fan interest for the series. She credited the all-star crew including writer Urobuchi, director Shinbo, and the Shaft animation studio as "hitmakers" and described the anime as "a series designed for acclaim". TechnologyTells Jenni Lada wrote that the show's external appearance belied its true "darker and more twisted" essence. She recommended viewers watch at least three episodes to discover the series' true nature. According to Sara Cleto and Erin Bah, the subversion of the magical girl genre "draw[s] attention to the question of narrative power"—particularly in the use of alternative timelines—as the characters fight for their survival. Production I.G's Katsuyuki Motohiro watched Puella Magi Madoka Magica after hearing opinions that it exceeded Neon Genesis Evangelion. Upon viewing the series, he was "amazed that there was a person who could write such a work" and began analyzing Urobuchi's other works; he was motivated to ask Urobuchi to write the crime thriller Psycho-Pass. In issue 103 of Neo, journalist Matt Kamen wrote, "With its daring approach to a dated genre, Puella Magi Madoka Magica essentially does for magical girls what Neon Genesis Evangelion did for giant robots". Writing for Kotaku, critic Richard Eisenbeis hailed the series as "one of the best anime" and wrote, "It deconstructs the magical girl genre and builds an emotional narrative filled with memorable characters". Joshua Greenberg of The Daily Bruin described it as "a creepy, deconstructionist take on the [magical girl] genre." ### Sales The first Blu-ray volume of the series sold 53,000 copies in its first week, 22,000 of which were sold on its first day, breaking the record held by the sixth BD volume of Bakemonogatari. The second volume sold 54,000 copies, breaking the first volume's record. Each subsequent volume sold over 50,000 copies in their first week. As of October 2012, the total sales of BD and DVDs of the series recorded 600,000 copies, which was unusual for a late-night program at that time. This was despite controversy over the pricing of the volumes, which some considered to be unfairly high. The staff at Japanator stated they could not recommend the volume to their readers due to the prohibitive cost. Bertschy concurred, writing that the "limited episode count and high price of entry make the show inaccessible to an audience unwilling to shell out". The 2017 compilation album Puella Magi Madoka Magica Ultimate Best ranked at No. 4 on Oricon's weekly albums chart, having sold over 13,500 copies. By the end of 2017, Ultimate Best was the 29th best-selling anime CD album of the year. Japanese newspaper Nihon Keizai Shimbun reported that Puella Magi Madoka Magica had grossed over (\$400 million) from the sales of related goods within two years of its release. A live broadcast of the entire series was streamed on Nico Nico Douga on June 18, 2011, garnering around a million viewers, surpassing the previous streaming audience record of 570,000 held by Lucky Star. According to Google Zeitgeist, Madoka Magica was the most-searched and fastest-rising search query in the anime category of 2011. ### Accolades Puella Magi Madoka Magica won the Television Award at the 16th Animation Kobe Awards; as well as 12 Newtype Anime Awards; and the Grand Prize for animation in the 15th Japan Media Arts Festival awards, making it the first and only original anime television ever to win this award with the jury describing the series in their justification as "an outstanding animation with an ingenious magical scenario" and commended the "ambitious" show for "skillfully setting critical traps that shook the very foundations of the genre". It was nominated for the 32nd Nihon SF Taisho Award; and won the 2011 Bronze Prize for Kyubey's catchphrase. It also won three 11th Tokyo Anime Awards in the Television Category, Best Director and Best Screenplay; and the Selection Committee Special Prize award at the 2012 Licensing of the Year awards. Madoka Magica was awarded a 43rd Seiun Award for "Best Media" at the 2012 Japan Science Fiction Convention; and was also awarded a Sisterhood Prize for the 11th Sense of Gender Awards. In 2015, the show was awarded the inaugural 1st Sugoi Japan Award Grand Prix; Japan's nationwide vote for manga, anime, and novels considered as cultural assets that have the potential to be beloved all over the world, among all of the works published since 2005. In 2017, Madoka Magica was selected as the best anime of 2011 by the Tokyo Anime Award Festival. Multiple media publications have hailed Puella Magi Madoka Magica as one of the best anime series of the 2010s, that includes Polygon; Thrillist; Looper; IGN; Crunchyroll; and Anime UK News. The Brazilian website Legiao Dos Herois listed the series as one of "10 most successful anime" of 2010s. #### Awards and nominations ### Legacy The radio station Tokyo FM reported that Puella Magi Madoka Magica has developed into a social phenomenon in Japan. Toussaint Egan of Paste magazine stated that the series was "widely celebrated by fans and critics alike" upon its release and that the show is "a postmodern reconfiguration of genre tropes rife with plot twists and existential malaise on a cosmic horror level". The Spanish film director Carlos Vermut has cited Madoka Magica as a large influence on his 2014 film Magical Girl. The series was referenced in the HBO series Euphoria. Anime director Hiroyuki Imaishi said that darker-toned series like Madoka Magica are an "industry trend". The series also inspired a Nigerian magical girl franchise, Adorned by Chi''. [^1]:

Westinghouse Air Brake Company General Office Building

The Westinghouse Air Brake Company General Office Building (known locally as The Castle or Library Hall) in Wilmerding, Pennsylvania is a building from 1890. It was listed on the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation in 1975, National Register of Historic Places in 1987. Originally built as an office building for the Westinghouse Air Brake Company, it housed the George Westinghouse Museum from 2006 to 2016. In 2016 it was sold to the Priory Hospitality Group with the intention of being developed into a boutique hotel. However, the 2020 global pandemic affected those plans and it was announced in November 2021 that the building will be used for an art academy and to house classrooms for the Westighouse ArtsAcademy, a nearby high school. ## Construction Constructed by architect Frederick J. Osterling, the building has a four-sided clock tower, which was operated by a system of chains and pulleys. Additional designs and remodeling were done by Janssen & Cocken in 1927, which added the "Executive Wing", containing executive offices as well as conference and dining rooms. The architectural style is a mix of Renaissance Revival and Romanesque. It was destroyed by a fire on 8 April 1896; the foundation, being made of brick, stone, and cement survived, however, and the structure was rebuilt upon the same foundation. It was during this reconstruction that the clock tower was added. At the time, the entire first floor was designed for employees' use, with accommodations such as a library, fully equipped gymnasium, restaurant, swimming pool, and bowling alleys. This brought the total area inside the building to 55,000 square feet (5,100 m²). The building also housed a boiler house and light station, that supplied both steam and power to the plant, as well as various businesses in the community, such as the Wilmerding YMCA. ## Business history This building contained the offices of the Westinghouse Air Brake Company for well over a century. The company was originally established by George Westinghouse in 1869. Westinghouse had developed many companies during this time of industrial growth at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Air Brake plant, that made for improved performance and increased speed on the nations railways, was moved to its new location in Wilmerding, Pennsylvania in 1889. Wilmerding is a small town about 14 miles (23 km) outside of Pittsburgh which, at the time, was only inhabited by about 5,000 people. Socialism was strong in Wilmerding and it was a peaceful non-violent farming borough. It was thought to be “The Ideal Town” for the company because of its location right along the Pennsylvania Railroad and its mainly blue collar inhabitants. The Air Brake Company employed 3,000 citizens from the surrounding Pittsburgh area, but its work force was composed almost entirely of individuals from Wilmerding. The office buildings were used until the building was vacated in 1985. It was then donated to the American Production and Inventory Control Society. The Westinghouse Air Brake Company merged with MotivePower in 1999 to form Wabtec (). Wabtec still provides employment for more than 1,000 residents of the borough. ## Effect on the community When the Westinghouse Plant was also moved to Wilmerding, housing for the employees became hard to come by. In response to this, the Westinghouse Air Brake Home Building Company was formed in 1919 with \$1,000,000 USD as startup capital. The 400 houses and large amounts of vacant land that were previously owned by the Westinghouse Air Brake Company were transferred to the new company. The new homes were specifically built with different variations to avoid the lack of variety commonly seen in industrial housing at the time. The Westinghouse Air Brake Home Building Company was so successful that within ten years, there were no vacant lots left on the southern side of Turtle Creek. The extensive town-building, employment, and prosperity that George Westinghouse brought to Wilmerding is still celebrated today in the community, with a festival called "George Westinghouse Days", which takes place in early June each year. ## Inside The Castle The building used to house The George Westinghouse Museum, a model train display, and a Depression glass room. In 2007, the artifacts that were in the Castle museum went to join the Heinz History Center. Since 2007, the Westinghouse Castle has gathered a collection of Westinghouse products and are now on display in their Westinghouse Museum room. The Westinghouse Castle was owned and operated from 2006 to 2016 by a non-profit organization, Wilmerding Renewed. Wilmerding Renewed rented out the property and provided tours of the building, but were not able to generate enough revenue to offset the high operating and maintenance costs. In June 2016, the property was purchased by John Graf and the Priory Hospitality Group for \$100,000 for development into a boutique hotel. The property again changed hands in September 2021 when it was purchased by Westinghouse Castle LP for \$86,000.

United Nations Secretariat Building

Skyscraper in Manhattan, New York

The United Nations Secretariat Building is a skyscraper at the headquarters of the United Nations in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It contains the offices of the United Nations Secretariat, the executive organ of the United Nations (UN). The building, designed in the International Style, is 505 ft (154 m) tall with 39 above-ground stories. It was designed by a group of architects led by Wallace Harrison. Although the building is located within the United States, the site is under UN jurisdiction, so the building is exempt from some local regulations. The Secretariat Building is designed as a rectangular slab measuring 72 by 287 ft (22 by 87 m); it is oriented from north to south and is connected with other UN headquarters buildings. The wider western and eastern elevations of the facade are glass curtain walls, while the narrower northern and southern elevations are made of marble. The Secretariat Building has 889,000 sq ft (82,600 m²) of space. There are press offices, staff rooms, and other functions on the lower stories. The Secretariat offices are placed on the upper stories, which were originally arranged in a modular layout. The building also features various pieces of artwork. The building's style has inspired the construction of other glass curtain wall buildings in Manhattan. The design process for the United Nations headquarters formally began in February 1947, and a groundbreaking ceremony for the Secretariat Building occurred on September 14, 1948. Staff started moving into the building on August 21, 1950, and it was completed in June 1951. Within a decade, the Secretariat Building was overcrowded, prompting the UN to build additional office space nearby. The building started to deteriorate in the 1980s due to a lack of funding, worsened by the fact that it did not meet modern New York City building codes. UN officials considered renovating the building by the late 1990s, but the project was deferred for several years. The Secretariat Building was renovated starting in 2010 and reopened in phases from July to December 2012. ## Site The Secretariat Building is part of the headquarters of the United Nations in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. It occupies a land lot bounded by First Avenue to the west, 42nd Street to the south, the East River to the east, and 48th Street to the north. Although it is physically within the United States, the underlying land is under the jurisdiction of the United Nations (UN). The site is technically extraterritorial through a treaty agreement with the US government, though it is not a territory governed by the UN. Most local, state, and federal laws still apply within the UN headquarters. Due to the site's extraterritorial status, the headquarters buildings are not New York City designated landmarks, since such a designation falls under the purview of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. The Secretariat Building is directly connected to the Conference Building (housing the Security Council) at its northeast and the Dag Hammarskjöld Library to the south. It is indirectly connected to the United Nations General Assembly Building to the north, via the Conference Building. West of the Secretariat Building is a circular pool with a decorative fountain in its center, as well as a sculpture executed in 1964 by British artist Barbara Hepworth in memory of Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. The Japanese Peace Bell is just north of the building, and a grove of sycamore trees is planted next to the Secretariat Building. On the western part of the site, along First Avenue, are the flags of the UN, its member states, and its observer states. Outside of the UN headquarters, Robert Moses Playground is directly to the south, and Tudor City and the Ford Foundation Center for Social Justice are to the west. In addition, the Millennium Hilton New York One UN Plaza hotel (within One and Two United Nations Plaza) is to the northwest. The building is physically isolated from other nearby structures, with the nearest New York City Subway station being several blocks away. Because of this, the Secretariat Building appears as a freestanding tower. Historically, the site was part of a cove called Turtle Bay. The cove, located between what is now 45th and 48th Streets, was fed by a stream that ran from the present-day intersection of Second Avenue and 48th Street. A creek from the southern end of modern-day Central Park also drained into Turtle Bay. The first settlement on the site was a tobacco farm built in 1639. The site was developed with residences in the 19th century. Slaughterhouses operated on the eastern side of First Avenue for over a hundred years until the construction of the United Nations headquarters. The UN purchased the site in 1946 under the sole condition that it could never slaughter cattle on the land. ## Architecture The Secretariat Building was designed in the International Style by a team of ten architects working under planning director Wallace K. Harrison. The Board of Design comprised N. D. Bassov of the Soviet Union; Gaston Brunfaut of Belgium; Ernest Cormier of Canada; Le Corbusier of France; Liang Seu-cheng of China; Sven Markelius of Sweden; Oscar Niemeyer of Brazil; Howard Robertson of the United Kingdom; G. A. Soilleux of Australia; and Julio Vilamajó of Uruguay. Abel Sorenson was the interior designer. In addition, David Fine of United States Steel oversaw the construction of the Secretariat Building. The building houses the administrative functions of the UN, including day-to-day duties such as finance and translation. It contains three basement levels and 39 above-ground stories. When the building was completed, it was cited as measuring 544 ft (166 m) tall, although Emporis and The Skyscraper Center both cite the height as 505 ft (154 m). ### Form and facade The building is designed as a rectangular slab measuring 72 by 287 ft (22 by 87 m), with the longer axis oriented north–south. The Secretariat's architects wanted to design the massing as a slab without any setbacks. This contrasted with older buildings, such as those at the Rockefeller Center complex, which featured setbacks corresponding to the tops of their elevator banks. The cornerstone of the UN headquarters was dedicated at the Secretariat Building in 1949. The cornerstone is a block of New Hampshire granite, weighing 3.75 short tons (3.35 long tons; 3.40 t) and measuring 4 by 3 by 3 ft (1.22 by 0.91 by 0.91 m). The name of the United Nations is inscribed in English, Spanish, French, Russian, and Chinese, which at the time were the five official languages of the United Nations. The cornerstone was initially intended to be relocated to the General Assembly Building when that building was completed. UN officials ultimately decided to permanently affix the stone to a high pedestal next to the Secretariat Building. #### Curtain walls The wider western and eastern elevations of the facade consist of glass curtain walls set within a metal grid. The Secretariat Building was the first skyscraper in New York City to use a glass curtain wall. The western and eastern elevations contain 5,400 windows in total. A total of 300,000 sq ft (28,000 m²) of glass was used, a greater proportion than any other structure in the world at the time. The original curtain wall was a single layer of blue-green glass that absorbed heat. The reflective glass was chosen mainly as a means to reduce heat on the western elevation, which absorbed most of the sunlight during a typical workday. The eastern elevation was clad in the same material for aesthetic reasons. The modern facade, installed in 2010, is made of low emissivity glass that resembles the original facade. The modern curtain wall consists of two layers of glass panes, which are more resistant to shattering in case of a bombing. When the building was completed, the curtain walls were cantilevered 2 ft 9 in (0.84 m) from the superstructure and were attached to the concrete floor slabs. Each of the original windows were aluminum sash windows, separated by aluminum mullions that projected slightly from the facade. The sash windows were compatible with conventional window cleaning equipment. The modern curtain walls are hung from the superstructure via outrigger plates, and there are projecting aluminum mullions similar to those on the original sash windows. The western and eastern elevations are each divided vertically into ten bays, each measuring 28 ft (8.5 m) wide. Within each bay are seven panels, each measuring 4 ft (1.2 m) wide and 12 ft (3.7 m) tall. Three of the old curtain-wall panels are preserved in the Museum of Modern Art. Spandrel panels separate the windows on different stories. The inner faces of the spandrels are painted black, insulating the building while also giving the impression of depth. The curtain walls initially had weep holes, which were intended to prevent the windows from cracking. Most of the weep holes were plugged in 1952 and 1953 because the building's shape and its susceptibility to high winds frequently caused rainwater to leak into the building. Floors 6, 16, 28, and 39 house mechanical equipment and thus contain pipe galleries rather than glass panels. The facades of these mechanical stories consist of latticed panels, except on floor 39, where there is a mechanical penthouse behind an open-air grille. The architect Henry Stern Churchill wrote that the mechanical penthouse was "a very simple shape and could very well have been left visible". #### Marble slabs The narrower northern and southern elevations are made of masonry clad with Vermont marble. These elevations rise as unbroken slabs and do not contain any openings. The building's steel superstructure, including steel bracing, was concealed within these marble slabs. According to Harrison, the marble walls not only allowed the Secretariat Building to be seen as a monument, but also reduced competition between staff members who wanted corner offices. ### Structural features The foundation includes concrete piers that extend down to the underlying bedrock. Steel pilings are used at points where the bedrock is more than 20 ft (6.1 m) deep. The piles are installed in sets of 5 to 20 and range from 50 to 90 ft (15 to 27 m) deep. Each set of pilings is covered by a concrete cap. The building's structural loads are carried by an internal superstructure that includes about 13,000 short tons (12,000 long tons; 12,000 t) of steel. The columns of the superstructure are arranged in a 10×3 grid. The ten north–south bays are all 28 ft (8.5 m) wide, but the three west–east bays are all of different widths. The westernmost bay is 20 ft 8 in (6.30 m) wide; the central bay is 18 ft 2 in (5.54 m) wide; and the easternmost bay is 27 by 8 ft (8.2 by 2.4 m) wide. The narrow central bay was used as an elevator core. The floors are generally made of mesh and reinforced concrete, which is covered by either terrazzo, cement, asphalt-tile, or carpeting. Electrical and air ducts are placed underneath each floor slab. The interior partition walls are made of rough masonry, marble, plaster, glass, aluminum, or pointed steel. ### Interior The Secretariat Building was constructed with 889,000 sq ft (82,600 m²) of space and, at the time of its completion, could accommodate 4,000 workers. Floors 6, 16, and 28 are used as mechanical floors, and floor 39 serves as a mechanical penthouse, accessible only by stairs. In addition, the United Nations headquarters had a pneumatic mail system, with tubes connecting to a central collection point in the Secretariat Building. Objects could be transported between floors via a conveyor belt system that traveled at 100 ft/min (30 m/min). There was also a dumbwaiter that stopped at every floor except for the lobby and the mechanical stories. The pneumatic mail system only served two stories, while the conveyor belt and dumbwaiter systems were primarily used by the building's messenger stations, which occupied only eleven stories. The building is decorated with various pieces of art from the United Nations Art Collection. The Secretariat Building was built with 21 high-speed passenger elevators and eight bronze-and-glass escalators. The building has two freight elevators serving all stories and three banks of six passenger elevators. The low-rise, mid-rise, and high-rise banks of elevators respectively serve floors 2–15, 16–27, and 28–39. The elevators were programmed so that, if a person on one of the office floors was waiting for a "down" elevator for more than 60 seconds, they would instead be able to enter the next "up" elevator. The elevators were initially staffed by elevator operators before being converted to manual operation in 1967. #### Lower stories Under the building is a three-story garage for UN employees, with 1,500 parking spaces. The first basement level also houses the UN's post office and a studio for educational films. On the second basement level are lockers for maintenance workers and a room for printing and collating documents. The third basement level includes a small firehouse for the UN headquarters and a furnace room, as well as a document distribution room in the third basement. The radio department of the United Nations Department of Public Information is headquartered on one of the basement levels. Tunnels from the basements lead south to the library and north to the General Assembly Building. The building's lobby has black-and-white terrazzo floors, as well as columns covered with green Italian marble. Black-and-white terrazzo floors are also present at all entryways, and all corridors in the building near the elevator banks. There are full-height windows within the lobby. Also within the lobby is Peace, a 15 by 12 ft (4.6 by 3.7 m) stained glass window by Marc Chagall, dedicated in memory of Hammarskjöld in 1964. When the building was constructed, the lowest stories were to contain broadcasting studios, press offices, staff rooms, and other functions. Media correspondents for the United Nations occupied floors 2 to 4. There was a meditation space on floor 2 that doubled as a press conference room. In addition, there was a bank branch on floor 4. The fourth and fifth floors were connected by an open stairway. On floor 5 are employee amenities, including a health clinic and a passageway to a staff dining room above the adjacent Conference Building. The dining room was initially supposed to be an open-air terrace facing the East River, but it was partially enclosed due to pollution from a nearby power plant. The dining room frequently hosted parties and receptions for UN staff before being converted into offices in 1981. The modern-day dining room, completed in 1982, is a 750-seat space in the headquarters complex's South Annex. Floor 7 had a large telephone switchboard for the UN's Information Office. The switchboard, installed by the New York Telephone Company, was originally designed to accommodate 3,000 lines, though it could be expanded to as many as 8,000 lines. Floor 17 housed an interpreters' lounge and the UN's art and cartography divisions, while floor 20 had an in-house barber shop. #### Offices The offices were placed on the upper floors. Each office story has a gross floor area of 19,000 sq ft (1,800 m²). There were private offices on the perimeter of each floor. Secretarial offices, support staff, and elevator cores were clustered in the middle of each story. The eastern side of the building was more desirable because it faced the East River, and higher-level diplomats needed large amounts of space for secretaries, filing cabinets, and other functions. As a result, low-level officials worked on the shallower western side of the building, while high-level officials worked on the eastern side. Spaces such as the women's restrooms were originally also placed on the western side, overlooking Midtown Manhattan. High-ranking officials, such as Under-Secretary-Generals, had wood-paneled suites with attached conference rooms. The offices are divided into modules measuring 4 ft (1.2 m) wide, with movable partitions that align with the facade's mullions. The offices initially included French desks as well as aluminum chairs. Some of the original furnishings were restored in 2010, while others were replaced with replicas. The building uses over 10 acres (4.0 ha) of acoustic ceiling tiles. Each ceiling has lighting fixtures spaced at regular intervals, which are outfitted with egg-crate louvers to reduce glare. The ceilings slope up near each window. Each office had a set of Venetian blinds, allowing occupants to adjust natural light levels as necessary; there were 2,200 Venetian blinds in total. The New York Times reported that the building contained 7 mi (11 km) of partitions, 260 mi (420 km) of electrical wiring, 11,000 electrical outlets, and 46 mi (74 km) of pipes. Throughout the late 20th century, the original layout of the offices was changed. The partitions initially reached from the floor to the ceiling, but they were replaced with half-height partitions in 2010, when each story was converted into an open plan. The Secretariat Building's air-conditioning system had 4,000 individual sets of controls. This system not only reduced cooling costs by at least 25 percent, but also allowed delegates and staff to customize the temperatures of their own offices. Offices within 12 ft (3.7 m) of a window are cooled by high-velocity air conditioning units underneath the windows. For offices near the center of the building, cool air is delivered through low-velocity units in the ceilings. The cool air was provided by a pair of centrifugal compressors, which could collectively generate 2,300 tons of air. There are hot-water heating units beneath the windows, within the north and south walls of the building, and underneath the floor slab of the first story; in addition, there are steam heaters in the pipe galleries. The dehumidifiers on each story are supplied by chilled water from the East River at a rate of more than 14,000 U.S. gal (53,000 L) per minute. The use of East River water precluded the need for a dedicated cooling tower, which would have required increasing the building's height and strengthening the superstructure. On floor 38 are offices and an apartment for the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The suite was donated by the Austrian Chamber of Commerce and designed by Gerhard Karplus of New York City and Mr. and Mrs. Karl Mang of Vienna. Prior to a 2000s renovation, it was covered in walnut paneling. The Secretary-General's conference room was decorated with various pieces of furniture designed by Austrian architects and a watercolor painting by Raoul Dufy, while the Secretary-General's office on the East River had a kitchen and more Austrian furniture. In addition, floor 38 had a private switchboard and an office for the President of the United Nations General Assembly; most Secretariat employees were not allowed to visit this story. ## History ### Development Real estate developer William Zeckendorf purchased a site on First Avenue in 1946, intending to create a development called "X City", but he could not secure funding for the development. At the time, the UN was operating out of a temporary headquarters in Lake Success, New York, although it wished to build a permanent headquarters in the US. Several cities competed to host the UN headquarters before New York City was selected. John D. Rockefeller Jr. paid US\$8.5 million for an option on the X City site, and he donated it to the UN in December 1946. The UN accepted this donation, despite the objections of several prominent architects such as Le Corbusier. The UN hired planning director Wallace Harrison, of the firm Harrison & Abramovitz, to lead the headquarters' design. He was assisted by a Board of Design composed of ten architects. #### Planning The design process for the United Nations headquarters formally began in February 1947. Each architect on the Board of Design devised his own plan for the site, and some architects created several schemes. All the plans had to include at least three buildings: one each for the General Assembly, the Secretariat, and conference rooms. The plans had to comply with several "basic principles"; for example, the Secretariat Building was to be a 40-story tower without setbacks. It would be a freestanding tower surrounded by shorter structures, something which may have been influenced by Le Corbusier's ideals. Early designs called for the Secretariat tower to accommodate 2,300 workers; the architects subsequently considered a 5,265-worker capacity before finalizing the capacity at 4,000 workers. The tower was to be placed at the south end of the complex because it was near 42nd Street, a major crosstown street, and because the underlying bedrock was shallowest at this end. By March 1947, the architects had devised preliminary sketches for the headquarters. The same month, the Board of Design published two alternative designs for a five-building complex, anchored by the Secretariat Building to the south and a pair of 35-story buildings to the north. After much discussion, Harrison decided to select a design based on the proposals of two board members, Oscar Niemeyer and Le Corbusier. Even though the design process was a collaborative effort, Le Corbusier took all the credit, saying the buildings were "100% the architecture and urbanism of Le Corbusier". The Board of Design presented their final plans for the United Nations headquarters in May 1947. The plans called for a 45-story Secretariat tower at the south end of the site, a 30-story office building at the north end, and several low-rise structures (including the General Assembly Building) in between. The committee unanimously agreed on this plan. The Secretariat tower was planned to be the first building on the site, and it was initially projected to be finished in late 1948. The project was facing delays by mid-1947, when a slaughterhouse operator on the site requested that it be allowed to stay for several months. The complex was originally planned to cost US\$85 million. Demolition of the site started in July 1947. The same month, UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie and the architects began discussing ways to reduce construction costs by downsizing the headquarters. Lie then submitted a report to the General Assembly in which he recommended reducing the Secretariat tower from 45 to 39 stories. The UN had contemplated installing a swimming pool in the building during the planning process, but the pool was eliminated due to objections from American media organizations. The General Assembly voted to approve the design for the headquarters in November 1947. By the next month, the architects were considering adding granite panels to the western elevation of the facade, since sunlight would enter through that facade during the majority of the workday. #### Construction In April 1948, US President Harry S. Truman requested that the United States Congress approve an interest-free loan of US\$65 million to fund construction. Because Congress did not approve the loan for several months, there was uncertainty over whether the project would proceed. Around that time, the UN had decided to reduce the Secretariat Building to 39 stories. The height reduction, along with other modifications, was expected to save US\$3 million. Congress authorized the loan in August 1948, of which US\$25 million was made available immediately from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. Lie predicted the US\$25 million advance would only be sufficient to pay for the Secretariat Building's construction. To ensure that the project would remain within its US\$65 million budget, Lie delayed the installation of the building's furnishings. thereby saving US\$400,000. The groundbreaking ceremony for the initial buildings occurred on September 14, 1948. Workers removed a bucket of soil to mark the start of work on the Secretariat Building's basement. The next month, Harrison requested that its 58 members and the 48 U.S. states participate in designing the interiors of the building's conference rooms. It was believed that if enough countries designed their own rooms, the UN would be able to reduce its expenditures. Also in October, the American Bridge Company was hired to construct the steel superstructure of the Secretariat Building. Le Corbusier insisted that the facade of the Secretariat Building contain brises soleil, or sun-breakers, even as Harrison argued that the feature would be not only expensive but also difficult to clean during the winter. This prompted the architects to erect a mockup of the planned facade on the roof of the nearby Manhattan Building. By late 1948, the Secretariat Building was scheduled to receive its first tenants in 1950. Fuller Turner Walsh Slattery Inc., a joint venture between the George A. Fuller Company, Turner Construction, the Walsh Construction Company, and the Slattery Contracting Company, was selected in December 1948 to construct the Secretariat Building, as well as the foundations for the remaining buildings. The next month, the UN formally awarded a US\$23.8 million contract for the Secretariat Building's construction to the joint venture. The Secretariat Building was to be completed no later than January 1, 1951, or the joint venture would pay a minimum penalty of US\$2,500 per day to the UN. The joint venture had started constructing the piers under the building by the end of January 1949, and site excavations were completed the next month. In April 1949, workers erected the first steel beam for the Secretariat Building, and the flag of the United Nations was raised above the first beam. The cornerstone of the headquarters was originally supposed to be laid at the Secretariat Building on April 10, 1949. Lie delayed the ceremony after learning that Truman would not present to officiate the cornerstone laying. The cornerstone was held in a storage yard in Maspeth, Queens, in the meantime. The Secretariat Building's steel structure had been completed by October 1949. At a topping out ceremony on October 5, the UN flag was hoisted atop the roof of the newly completed steel frame. The facade was still not completed; the aluminum had only reached the 18th floor and the glass had reached the 9th floor. Six days later, Truman accepted an invitation to the cornerstone-laying ceremony. New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey laid the headquarters' cornerstone on October 24, 1949, the fourth anniversary of the United Nations' founding. Construction workers completed a sample office on the eighth floor in January 1950. By that June, the building was 80 percent completed, and the first occupants were scheduled to move there within two or three months. The southern half of the parking lot, underneath the Secretariat Building, was also finished; the northern half was being completed as part of the General Assembly Building. The building as a whole was not planned to be completed until January 1951. ### Completion and early years #### Opening The first portion of the building to be completed was its parking lot, which opened in July 1950. Staff started moving into the Secretariat on August 21, 1950, with 450 staff members moving into the basement levels and the first 15 stories. Staff members with frequent meetings, such as interpreters, remained at the Lake Success office for the time being. The lobby contained a temporary location for the UN's bookstore, which relocated to the General Assembly Building in 1952 following that structure's completion. At the time, the UN had 57 member states and could accommodate 13 more nations. Initially, the UN did not allow visitors in the Secretariat Building. Shortly after the building opened, it was discovered that smoke from Consolidated Edison's nearby Waterside Generating Station was polluting the air intakes for the building's air conditioning system. The UN ultimately agreed in November 1950 to relocate the Secretariat Building's air intakes. The same month, the UN decided to spend US\$360,000 to furnish three floors of offices for UNICEF and the Technical Assistance Administration. Media correspondents moved into the building in January 1951, and the Secretariat Building was fully occupied by that June. Building officials also announced in early 1951 that they would repair the windows, which were leaking due to poor weather-stripping. Officials had recorded 4,916 instances of leaks before the windows were repaired in mid-1951. During a storm that October, after the windows had been repaired, officials recorded only 16 leaks. The building had 3,000 workers by the end of 1951. A Chicago Daily Tribune reporter said the staff were "neither united nor very peaceful", in part because staff tended to sit with those from their own countries. William R. Frye of The Christian Science Monitor said that the Secretariat Building's vertical office layout had led many staff members to express nostalgia for the old Lake Success offices. The Secretariat Building's cafeteria opened in January 1952, and the fountain outside the building was dedicated in June 1952. The Secretariat Building finally began receiving visitors that year, after the rest of the UN complex opened. By the end of 1952, the complex received about 1,500 visitors per day. Workers cleaned the building for the first time in April 1953, and repairs to the facade were completed by that September. #### UN expansion The UN's membership expanded during the 1950s, prompting officials to expand the building's communications equipment in 1958. The next year, Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld proposed allocating US\$635,000 to install automatic elevators in the Secretariat Building due to increasing labor costs. At that time, the building received about 2,500 to 3,000 tourists a day. By 1962, the Secretariat Building was occupied by 3,000 Secretariat employees (three-quarters of the total staff), as well as other UN organizations. That year, Secretary-General U Thant proposed constructing a two-story annex at a cost of US\$6.3 million, but a UN committee rejected this proposal. A journalists' club in the building was opened the same year. In 1964, a UN panel approved a proposal to replace the elevators and renovate two of the building's unoccupied stories, but it rejected other proposals to expand the headquarters. Two years later, Thant proposed constructing another office building within the UN headquarters. By then, the Secretariat Building was nearing capacity, and some organizations, such as UNICEF, had been forced to relocate. The building's manual elevators were replaced by automatic cabs in 1967. Yet another expansion of the UN headquarters, including a park connected with the Secretariat Building, was proposed in 1968. This led to the construction of One United Nations Plaza, on 44th Street just outside the UN complex, in 1975. The main headquarters was expanded slightly from 1978 to 1981. As part of this project, a new cafeteria was built at the northern end of the headquarters, and the Secretariat Building's cafeteria was converted into additional offices. Another office tower outside the headquarters proper, Two United Nations Plaza, was completed in 1983. By then, the Secretariat had over 6,000 employees, some of whom were forced to work within the United Nations Plaza towers. The new buildings were barely sufficient to accommodate the UN's demand for office space; the organization itself had expanded to 140 members by the 1970s. Furthermore, the Secretariat Building's tenant list had largely remained constant from its opening through the end of the 20th century. As a result, the building housed several departments that had existed since the 1950s but were unrelated to the Secretariat. Newer Secretariat departments occupied space in nearby office buildings rather than in the Secretariat Building. ### Maintenance issues and renovation proposals Due to funding shortfalls in the 1980s, the UN diverted funding from its headquarters' maintenance fund to peacekeeping missions and other activities. The Secretariat Building's heating and cooling costs alone amounted to US\$10 million a year. Because the headquarters was an extraterritorial territory, the Secretariat Building was exempt from various building regulations. Furthermore, the building's machinery created electromagnetic fields, which reportedly made some employees ill. Although the General Assembly had voted to fund the installation of electromagnetic shields in the building in 1990, that money was instead used for roof repairs. By 1998, the building had become technologically dated, and UN officials considered renovating the headquarters. The Secretariat Building did not meet modern New York City building regulations: it lacked a sprinkler system, the space leaked extensively, and there were large amounts of asbestos that needed to be removed. The mechanical systems were so outdated that the UN had to manufacture its own replacement parts, and up to one quarter of the building's heat escaped through leaks in the curtain wall. The building used massive amounts of energy because, at the time of the tower's construction, the UN had not been as concerned about energy conservation. Part of one story had been vacated because of interference from electromagnetic fields. The New York Times wrote that "if the United Nations had to abide by city building regulations [...] it might well be shuttered". At the time, the UN had proposed renovating the building for US\$800 million, as UN officials had concluded that the long-term cost of renovations would be cheaper than doing nothing. The UN commissioned a report from engineering firm Ove Arup & Partners, which published its findings in 2000. The report recommended renovating the UN headquarters over six years and adding ten stories to the Secretariat Building. Several options for renovating the UN headquarters were presented. The most expensive alternative, costing US\$245 million, called for the Secretariat Building to be rebuilt in several phases, requiring the relocation of one-third of the building's staff. Another option would have cost only US\$74 million and would have entailed the construction of several smaller office buildings. The UN could not secure funding for the project at the time. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Secretariat Building's curtain walls were covered with a green coating, which was intended to limit damage in case of a bombing. In 2002, Secretary-General Kofi Annan proposed replacing the Robert Moses Playground with a new tower, relocating the Secretariat's offices there temporarily, and renovating the Secretariat Building itself. The UN selected Fumihiko Maki to design a building on the Moses site, but the New York State Legislature refused to pass legislation in 2005 that would have allowed these plans to proceed. The UN then decided to renovate its existing structures over seven years for US\$1.6 billion. The Secretariat Building would be renovated in four phases, each covering ten stories, and the UN would lease an equivalent amount of office space nearby. Louis Frederick Reuter IV was the original architect for the renovation, but he resigned in 2006 following various disputes between UN and US officials. Michael Adlerstein was hired as the new project architect. Engineering firm Skanska was hired to renovate the Secretariat, Conference, and General Assembly buildings in July 2007. At that point, the cost of the project had risen to US\$1.9 billion. Prior to the start of the renovation, in 2008, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon approved a pilot program to reduce heat emissions by raising temperatures throughout the building. By then, the offices had been rearranged so frequently that the heating and cooling system no longer worked as intended. ### Substantial renovation and reopening The renovation of the United Nations headquarters formally began in 2008. Adlerstein planned to reconstruct the Secretariat Building's offices entirely while preserving the appearance of the exterior and public spaces. All of the building's 5,000 workers had to relocate to nearby office space. Work on the building began in mid-2010. The work involved redesigning the mechanical systems, adding blast protection, and upgrading the building to conform to New York City building codes. In addition, large amounts of asbestos were removed from the structure, and workers installed a fire-alarm and sprinkler system. The curtain wall was also rebuilt in several sections, starting from the lowest levels and working upward. The building was also retrofitted with various green building features as part of the project. The building reopened in phases, with the first workers returning in July 2012. On October 29, 2012, the basement of the UN complex was flooded due to Hurricane Sandy, leading to a three-day closure and the relocation of several offices. By that December, the last workers had moved back into the Secretariat Building. Following the renovation, the Secretariat Building housed all of the Secretariat's divisions. Some of the building's previous occupants, such as the Department of Peace Operations, had relocated to other buildings. In 2019, due to a budget shortfall, the UN curtailed heating and air-conditioning service in the building, and it shut down some of the Secretariat Building's escalators. ## Impact When the Secretariat Building was being constructed in June 1949, Building magazine described the tower as "a vast marble frame for two enormous windows ... a mosaic reflecting the sky from a thousand facets". Newsweek characterized the structure as being "a cross between Hiroshima, an Erector set, and a glazier's dream house". Upon the building's completion in 1951, Office Management and Equipment magazine presented UN officials with a plaque recognizing the building as "office of the year". The Secretariat Building's staff quickly nicknamed it the "Glass House". Following the building's completion, it received a significant amount of architectural commentary, though reviews were mixed. Vogue magazine compared the tower to an "ice-cream sandwich", describing it as being "as much monument as office". Time magazine wrote: "Some architectural critics have called the Secretariat everything from a 'magnified radio console' to 'a sandwich on end'." The architect Henry Stern Churchill wrote of the building: "Visually it completely dominates the group; when one thinks of U.N. one thinks only of the vast green-glass, marble-end slab." Architectural Forum wrote: "Not since Lord Carnarvon discovered King Tut's Tomb in 1922 had a building caused such a stir." The architect Aaron Betsky wrote in 2005: "The Secretariat becomes both an abstraction of the office grids behind it and an abstract painting itself, posed in front of Manhattan as one approaches from the major airports on Long Island." Some critics had negative views of the building. British architect Giles Gilbert Scott described the Secretariat Building as "that soapbox", saying: "I don't know whether that's architecture." Architectural critic Lewis Mumford regarded the building as a "superficial aesthetic triumph and an architectural failure" that was only enlivened during the nighttime when the offices were illuminated. He wrote of the interiors: "So far from the being the model office building it might have been, it really is a very conventional job." Mumford reluctantly acknowledged that the building could be a global symbol, saying that the building represented the fact that "the managerial revolution has taken place and that bureaucracy rules the world". The building's style has inspired the construction of other glass-walled buildings in Manhattan, such as Lever House, the Corning Glass Building, and the Springs Mills Building. The development of Lever House and the glass-walled Seagram Building, in turn, led to development of other glass-walled skyscrapers worldwide. Additionally, One United Nations Plaza was designed to complement the style of the Secretariat Building. The Secretariat Building and its connected structures have been depicted in numerous films such as The Glass Wall (1953) and North by Northwest (1959). The 2005 film The Interpreter was the first filmed inside the headquarters. ## See also - List of tallest buildings in New York City - United Nations in popular culture

O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness

Welsh Christian hymn by William Williams Pantycelyn

"O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness", also titled "O'er Those Gloomy Hills of Darkness", is a Welsh Christian hymn by William Williams Pantycelyn written in 1772. The hymn was written as a missionary hymn; there are conflicting accounts of why the hymn was written. The hymn was later published in 374 hymnals worldwide, though it was censored and altered in the United States by slaveholders for evangelising to slaves. The hymn later fell out of favour with hymn book editors in the 1960s. ## History There are conflicting accounts of why the hymn was written. According to one account, George Bowen was converted to Christianity through hearing a Welsh girl singing hymns. He later went to stay at Llwyn-Gwair Manor at the same time that the Welsh Methodist Association were there. While there, he met Williams and asked him to compose some verse about the Preseli Hills. "O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness" was written as a result of these requests. Though it is possible that this story may be correct as Llwyn-Gwair Manor and Williams' bedroom at the manor did overlook Carn Igli, in the 19th century an alternative story arose. In this version, Williams was travelling to Pontrhydyfen and composing a new missionary hymn as part of a commission from Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. Upon passing the ruins of an old Cistercian abbey and seeing the mountains he would have to cross on a stormy night, the view inspired him to write "O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness" for the Countess. The hymn was first written in Welsh as English was not Williams' first language so it was later translated into English by his son John Williams. This was because Williams did not know enough English to fully express the intent of the original Welsh verses in translation. In 1836, "O'er the Gloomy hills of Darkness" was reviewed in an issue of The Eclectic Review. In a remarkably snide review, the hymn, among many others, is criticised for a lack of grammatical correctness as well as a lack of rhyme in the first verse, " ...inane verbiage preferred by worthy people to the noblest compositions of sanctified genius; and to blot it out from our hymn-books would be a species of sacrilege". This was attributed to Williams' lack of English as a native language gave rise to "a stiffness apparent" in the hymn. The New York Times stated it had gained popularity because of Williams' "ease and sweetness" in his hymn writing. ## Abolitionism The second verse of the hymn begins with the lines "Let the Indian, let the negro, Let the rude barbarian see". Williams included this after hearing stories of promising missionary contact with Cherokee tribes and with slaves in the Province of Georgia. When the hymn became established in the United States, slave owners changed the line referencing "Indian" and "negro" to "Let the dark benighted pagan". The abolitionist Ebenezer Davies claimed “The altered reading, I learned, prevails universally in America, except in the original version used by the Welsh congregations. Slave-holders, and the abettors of that horrid system which makes it a crime to teach a negro to read the Word of God, felt perhaps that they could not devoutly and consistently sing "Let the Indian, let the negro ... see”. With its original words, the hymn was understood to speak to the experience of slavery, even if in an evangelising frame, and Pantycelyn had previously written critically of the transatlantic slave trade. E. Wyn James (2007) notes that the hymn "was sung with gusto, for example, on board the ships which took former slaves from America to the colony of Sierra Leone in the 1790s, as part of the attempt by members of the ‘Clapham Sect’ and others to create a homeland for freed slaves back in Africa". In the 1850s, the Baptist Union of Great Britain dropped the hymn from usage. The reason published in the Baptist Magazine stated "But the verses are too rude and unfinished to be generally accepted in modern day". In later years in the 19th century churches, including the Church of England, started to publish the hymn replacing the second verse with the American slave owner's amended version. In the early 1900s, the second verse would often be omitted altogether from hymnals. ## Hymnals "O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness" first appeared in published hymnals in 1792. Jeffrey Richards states that "William Williams's O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness of 1772 (sung variously to Thomas Clark's Calcutta, by Baptists; to Henry Gauntlett's Triumph, in The Scottish Hymnal; to Edwin Moss's Ulpha, in the 1982 Presbyterian Church Praise) did not make it into Hymns Ancient and Modern, but it was in Bickersteth's Christian Psalmody in 1833 and was still to be found complete in the 1933 Baptist Hymnal ... This very much set the tone for missionary hymns." After being published in 374 hymnals throughout history, in the 1960s the hymn stopped being published in all Christian hymnals. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints retained the hymn in their hymnals from 1927 until dropping it in 1985. This was because its members in modern times felt that the hymn connected Native Americans and black people with barbarians. The hymn's lyrical style set the tone for future missionary hymns. "O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness" inspired the founder of Methodism, Charles Wesley, to write "Sun of Unclouded Righteousness" for missionaries working with "Mahometans". ## Lyrics The lyrics of "O'er the Gloomy Hills of Darkness" as published in Gloria in Excelsis: or hymns of praise to God and the lamb in 1772. > 1\. > > > O'er those gloomy Hills of Darkness > > Look my Soul, be still and gaze, > > All the Promises do travel > > On a glorious Day of Grace, > > Blessed Jubil, & c. > > Let thy glorious Morning dawn. > > 2\. > > > Let the Indian, let the Negro, > > Let the rude Barbarian see > > That divine and glorious Conquest > > Once obtain'd on Calvary; > > Let the Gospel, & c. > > Word resound from Pole to Pole. > > 3\. > > > Kingdoms wide that sit in Darkness, > > Let them have the glorious Light, > > And from Eastern Coast to Western > > May the Morning chase the Night, > > And Redemption, & c. > > Freely purchas'd win the Day. > > 4\. > > > May the glorious Days approaching, > > From eternal Darkness dawn, > > And the everlasting Gospel > > Spread abroad thy holy Name. > > Thousand Years, & c. > > Soon appear, make no Delay. > > 5\. > > > Lord, I long to see that Morning, > > When thy Gospel shall abound, > > And thy Grace get full Possession > > Of the happy promis'd Ground; > > All the Borders, & c. > > Of the great Immanuel's Land. > > 6\. > > > Fly abroad, eternal Gospel, > > Win and conquer, never cease; > > May thy eternal wide Dominions > > Multiply, and still increase; > > May thy Scepter, & c. > > Sway th'enlight'ned World around. > > 7\. > > > O let Moab yield and tremble, > > Let Philistia never boast, > > And let India proud be scatt'red > > With their numerable Host; > > And the Glory, &c. > > Jesus only be to thee.

2004 British Open

The 2004 British Open was the 2004 edition of the British Open snooker tournament, held from 8 to 14 November 2004 at Brighton Centre, Brighton, England. John Higgins won the tournament, defeating Stephen Maguire nine to six in the all-Scottish final to lift his first ranking-event title since the 2001 edition of this event. In the semi-finals, Higgins defeated Shaun Murphy 6–0 and Maguire defeated Ronnie O'Sullivan 6–1. The defending champion Stephen Hendry lost in the quarter-finals. Higgins made the highest tournament with his two breaks of 144. The tournament was the second of eight WPBSA ranking events in the 2004/2005 snooker season, following the Grand Prix in October, which was won by O'Sullivan. It preceded the third ranking event of the season, the UK Championship. ## Tournament summary The 2004 British Open was the second ranking event of the 2004/2005 snooker season, after the Grand Prix in October, which was won by world number one Ronnie O'Sullivan—the 2004 and two-time world champion—who defeated Ian McCulloch 9–5 in the final. It preceded the UK Championship. The defending champion was seven-time world champion Stephen Hendry who defeated O'Sullivan 9–6 in last year's final. Hendry was still angry at his loss at the Grand Prix to McCulloch, explaining, "The way I felt at the Grand Prix was down to the fact that I know what I'm still capable of". The total prize fund was £200,000 and the host broadcaster was Eurosport. O'Sullivan was considered the favourite, with his mentor Ray Reardon saying "Ronnie is in the form of his life and looks very close to being unstoppable at the moment". Although few top players reached the final eight in the Grand Prix, O'Sullivan said he would not be surprised if they performed well in this tournament. ### Qualifying The qualifying rounds were played between players ranked lower than 32 for one of 16 places in the final stage, at Pontin's Snooker Centre, Prestatyn, Wales. The matches were best-of-9 until the semi-finals. Highly regarded 17-year-old Chinese player Ding Junhui, in his professional first season, won his sixth consecutive match when he beat Robin Hull 5–2. The other successful qualifiers included the likes of Shaun Murphy, Mark Selby, Neil Robertson, and Ryan Day. ### Round 1 The 16 first-round matches were between players ranked 17–32 and those who had made it through the qualifying stage. In this round, Ding took 63 minutes to whitewash 5–0 Malta's Tony Drago—who turned professional before Ding was born—outscoring Drago 463–73, for his first appearance in the last 32 of a ranking tournament. European Open winner Stephen Maguire defeated Australian Robertson 5–3, while world number 48 Murphy beat McCulloch 5–2. Michael Holt, in his first season in the top 32, beat Dave Harold 5–2, and Mark King defeated Selby by the same scoreline. Ali Carter whitewashed Belgian's number one Bjorn Haneveer 5–0 in 76 minutes, while Barry Hawkins prevailed 5–4 over Joe Perry, despite the latter making the highest so far with a 133. John Parrott made a century break in his 5–3 victory over Jamie Burnett, while Joe Jogia won four consecutive frames to overcome Joe Swail 5–4. ### Round 2 The winners of round 1 went through to face members of the top 16. Ding continued his run, defeating Jimmy White 5–1 to make the last 16 of a ranking event for the first time. Ding called the win his most satisfying to date and White commended his opponent's performance, saying, "He's dangerous and he's improved a hell of a lot this year". Elsewhere, Maguire whitewashed UK champion Matthew Stevens 5–0, outscoring him 427–68. O'Sullivan extended his unbeaten run to 12 matches when he defeated Parrott 5–2, in a match that lasted two hours and 28 minutes and which featured a lot of tactical, disjointed exchanges. He was not satisfied with his performance, however: "I was awful—if I keep playing like that they'll have to call the nuthouse to come and collect me". 1997 world champion Ken Doherty, who was ranked seventh but had slipped to fifteenth in the provisional rankings, defeated Quinten Hann 5–1, after Hann had smashed the from his shot at 0–4 down, from which he fluked a red and made an 89 break. John Higgins, a three-time champion who first won in 1995, beat Drew Henry 5–1, and said he would withdraw from the tournament if his pregnant wife went into labour. Hendry beat Robert Milkins 5–1, and dismissed suggestions that the loss at the Grand Prix had inspired him to play better at this tournament. Murphy defeated world number four Paul Hunter 5–3 for his second last-16 appearance in a ranking event, and attributed the win to his happiness off the table; Murphy—a Christian since the age of 17—said, "My girlfriend Claire is a wonderful woman. We've become engaged and we're involved with a tremendous church in Rotherham". Two-time world champion and world number two Mark Williams—who became a father in May and had slipped to eighth in the provisional rankings—claimed a 5–1 victory over Jogia in 89 minutes. In a hard-fought contest, Stephen Lee defeated King 5–4. The other winners were Carter, Andy Hicks, Anthony Hamilton, Hawkins, Barry Pinches, Holt, and Stuart Bingham. ### Round 3 In the last 16, O'Sullivan compiled two century breaks to whitewash Lee 5–0 for his 13th consecutive win and his 9th consecutive quarter-final. Regarding comments he made about his retirement after his previous match, O'Sullivan said, "There's no point quoting me because what I say from one day to the next will be different". Maguire made a of 140 in his 5–2 win over Ding, while Hamilton defeated Williams 5–3 for his fourth consecutive win over the world number two. Hendry, whose last tournament victory was this event last year, made four breaks over 60 in his 5–2 win over Carter to set up a match with Higgins, who made the highest break so far with a 141 in his 5–3 win over Pinches. Doherty became the fifth member of the top eight to lose when he was defeated 4–5 by Hicks, while Hawkins defeated Bingham 5–4 and Murphy beat Holt 5–3. ### Quarter-finals In the quarter-finals, O'Sullivan defeated Hicks 5–1 in a match in which Hicks made a few errors. After the match, O'Sullivan attributed his success to his mentor Reardon. Maguire made three consecutive century breaks from 2–0 up to whitewash Hamilton 5–0, setting up a semi-final clash with O'Sullivan. Maguire won the first two frames on the black, the second after trailing 0–74 and requiring two . Maguire said that he played brilliant, like in practice, and Hamilton said his opponent was a "proper talent". Higgins defeated Hendry 5–2 in a low-quality match in which Higgins won the first three frames with a high break of 30. Hendry won the next two with breaks of 66 and 58, but Higgins closed the match with breaks of 85 and 79. Higgins said he was willing to risk a possible fine by attending to his wife if she gave birth. Murphy beat fellow qualifier Hawkins 5–3 to reach his first ranking semi-final, with Higgins as the opponent. ### Semi-finals In the semi-finals, now best-of-11, Higgins took 73 minutes to whitewash Murphy 6–0, scoring breaks of 58, 114, 57, 89, and completing the victory with a total clearance of 144, the highest break so far. The time of 73 minutes was only two minutes slower than the quickest best-of-11 match—the semi-finals of the 1993 International Open between Hendry and Dave Harold—and Higgins outscored Murphy 566–72. In the first three frames, Murphy managed to score a total of 10 points. In the fourth, Murphy broke down on a break of 50 before Higgins fluked a yellow, enabling him to make a 57 break. He then fortuitously snooked Murphy on the pink, which Higgins potted to make it 4–0. An 89 break extended Higgins' lead, before he finished the match with a 144 break. Higgins attributed his performance to a shortening of his cue. In the other semi-final, Maguire ended O'Sullivan's 14-match unbeaten run with a 6–1 victory to earn a place in the final against Higgins. Maguire made century breaks in the first two frames, becoming the first player to make five consecutive century breaks (including the three made in his previous match). Maguire won the third on the pink after O'Sullivan missed the yellow. O'Sullivan won the next with a break of 51, before Maguire made a break of 71 in each of the final two frames. After the match, O'Sullivan—who had won all three previous encounters against Maguire—said, "I've never seen anything like that on a snooker table before ... He's a great player, probably the best in the world at the moment", and even before the match, O'Sullivan had described Maguire as "of the young ones, definitely the best". The defeat meant that Reardon lost the £100 bet he placed at 150–1 that O'Sullivan would win all eight of the season's ranking events. ### Final In the all-Scottish best-of-17 final, Higgins defeated Maguire 9–6 for a record-equalling fourth title. Of the victory, Higgins said it was the most important of his career. He had not won a ranking title since his 2001 victory at this event and had lost his previous six finals. It was his 25th major title and his 16th ranking title, and it earned him £30,000 in prize money. In the afternoon session, Maguire took the first frame, but Higgins won the next three, compiling a 100 break in the third. Breaks of 72, 55, and 76 allowed Maguire to regain the lead, before Higgins took the eighth after Maguire missed a straightforward red to leave it 4–4 at the end of the first session. In the evening session, Higgins took the ninth, before Maguire made two breaks over 50 in the 10th. Higgins then made two consecutive century breaks, including a 144 in the 11th, which equalled his own highest break. He continued his run with a break of 68 in the 13th, before Maguire pulled one back in the next. A 97 break gave Higgins the victory. All tournament, Higgins had been anticipating the birth of his child and on 24 November, Higgins became a father for the second time when his wife gave birth to a son, Oliver, shortly after his loss at the UK Championship. ## Prize fund The breakdown of prize money for this year is shown below: - Winner: £30,000 - Runner-up: £15,000 - Semi-final: £7,500 - Quarter-final: £5,600 - Last 16: £4,000 - Last 32: £2,500 - Last 48: £1,625 - Last 64: £1,100 - Highest break: £2,000 - Maximum break: £20,000 - Total: £200,000 ## Main draw Numbers to the left of the players are the tournament seedings. Players in bold are the match winners. ## Final The bold text denotes winning frame scores and the winning finalist. ## Qualifying Qualifying for the tournament took place between 2 and 4 November 2004 at Pontins in Prestatyn, Wales. Players in bold indicate match winners. ## Century breaks ### Qualifying stage centuries A total of 13 players compiled a total of 14 century breaks during the qualifying stages of the 2004 British Open. - 141 – Tom Ford - 137 – Dave Harold - 125 – Liu Song - 124 – Stefan Mazrocis - 117 – Jamie Burnett - 116 – Craig Butler - 113 – Darren Morgan - 109 – Ryan Day - 108, 102 – Ding Junhui - 108 – Leo Fernandez - 105 – Shokat Ali - 103 – Adrian Gunnell - 101 – Bjorn Haneveer ### Televised stage centuries There were 33 century breaks compiled by 17 different players during the course of the main rounds of the 2004 British Open. - 144, 144, 141, 116, 114, 112, 107, 100 – John Higgins - 140, 134, 113, 104, 101, 100 – Stephen Maguire - 134, 103 – Andy Hicks - 133 – Barry Pinches - 133 – Joe Perry - 129, 115 – Stuart Bingham - 129 – Ken Doherty - 127, 100 – Ronnie O'Sullivan - 121 – Michael Holt - 115 – Shaun Murphy - 104, 103 – Barry Hawkins - 104 – Ian McCulloch - 104 – Ding Junhui - 103 – Mark Williams - 101 – John Parrott - 100 – Neil Robertson - 100 – Stephen Hendry

47th Infantry Regiment (United States)

Infantry regiment of the United States Army

The 47th Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment of the United States Army. Constituted in 1917 at Camp Syracuse, New York, the regiment fought in the Great War, and was later inactivated in 1921. Reactivated in 1940, the regiment fought during World War II in North Africa, Sicily, and Western Europe, then was inactivated in 1946. During the Cold War, the regiment saw multiple activations and inactivations, with service both in the Regular Army and the Army Reserve; it fought in Vietnam. Ultimately it was reactivated as a training regiment, and as of 1999, it has been assigned to Fort Moore and consists of two active battalions. ## History ### The Great War The regiment was formed from a cadre from the 9th Infantry Regiment; the regiment was organized at Camp Syracuse on 1 June 1917, almost two months after the American entry into World War I. Initially assigned to Major General George H. Cameron's 4th Division, it fought in Europe during the Great War; within the division the regiment was part of Brigadier General Benjamin Andrew Poore's 7th Infantry Brigade. By May 1918, the regiment arrived at Brest, France, training until July. In late July, the regiment along with the rest of the 7th Infantry Brigade, was briefly attached to the VII French Army Corps near Bois du Chitelet; it was then sent to bolster the beleaguered 42nd Division at Ourcq. In early August, the regiment fought near Bazoches-sur-Vesles during the Second Battle of the Marne. In September and October 1918, the regiment fought near Cuisy, Septsarges, and Brieulles-sur-Meuse; during this period of time Colonel Troy H. Middleton took command of the regiment, having previously commanded the regiment's 1st Battalion. It ended the war near Fays, Vosges, and served in the Army of Occupation near Koblenz until July 1919. Following the Great War, the army contracted in size; due to this downsizing, the regiment was inactivated in 1921. Although inactivated, the regiment was relieved of its assignment to the 7th Infantry Brigade in 1927, and reassigned to the 13th Infantry Brigade, which was part of the 7th Division. ### World War II In August 1940, the regiment was reassigned away from the 7th Infantry Division and into the 9th Infantry Division, and was then activated at Fort Bragg. Initially, it was commanded by Colonel Alexander Patch; after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Patch was reassigned to the Pacific Theater of Operations. In November 1942, the regiment took part in Operation Blackstone in North Africa, where it fought against Vichy French forces during an amphibious landing; the regiment's Company K were the first American troops to land in French Morocco. At the time of the regiment was commanded by Colonel Edwin Randle. Following its actions during Operation Torch, of which Blackstone was a part, the regiment took part in divisional duties of monitor Spanish Morocco, which lasted into early 1943; during this time, the regiment conducted a foot march of more than 200 miles (320 km) from Safi to Port-Lyautey. Still in North Africa, along with the rest of the 9th Division, the regiment fought in the Battle of El Guettar, which resulted in a significant number of casualties; for actions during the battle, the regiment's commander, received the Distinguished Service Cross (he would later go on to be promoted to be the assistant division commander of the 77th Division). Following El Guettar, the regiment moved north, and fought in the Battle of Sedjenane, and soldiers of the regiment's 2d Battalion, were the first Allied soldiers in Bizerte. After Colonel Patch was promoted and parted ways with the regiment, Colonel George W. Smythe became the regiment's commander. Along with the rest of the 9th Infantry Division, the regiment was sent to Sicily, in 1943; in Sicily the regiment was tangentially involved during the Battle of Troina, which saw the 9th Infantry Division's other infantry regiments in significant combat. Remaining in Sicily after the Axis forces retreated, the regiment received orders to move in November 1943, making its way to England; with the rest of the 9th Infantry Division, the regiment trained until June 1944. The division was garrisoned around Winchester and during this time a number of personnel married local women. While stationed around Alresford, the regiment adopted a dog as a mascot, but it died when struck by a vehicle in May 1944. On 10 June, four days after D-Day, the 9th Infantry Division landed at Utah Beach. Assigned to VII Corps, it was allocated to the liberation of the Cotentin Peninsula and was the division that sealed off the peninsula to prevent additional German reinforcements from breaking through. Medical supplies for the regiment had been lost during its movement from England to Normandy, but were replaced and captured German vehicles were pressed into service by the regiment's medical detachment. By 14 June, the entire regiment had landed, and the following day the 47th began combat operations, fighting alongside regiments of the 82nd Airborne Division, attacking along a path which was near, or included, Orglandes, Hautteville-Bocage, and Ste. Colombe. The regiment reached Saint-Lô-d'Ourville, via Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Saint-Sauveur-de-Pierrepont, and Neuville-en-Beaumont, by 18 June. Relieved by the 357th Infantry Regiment (of the 90th Infantry Division) along the English Channel, facing Jersey, the regiment moved to Saint-Jacques-de-Néhou where it began its push northward to Vasteville, via Bricquebec; on 20 June it began its push towards Cherbourg, but was initially halted near Sideville by stiff German prepared defenses around the outskirts of the port city. On 22 June, the attack on Cherbourg began, with the regiment errantly being attacked by aircraft of the IX Bomber Command, and the 39th Infantry Regiment following behind its advancement; by the 24th the regiment had broken through the enemy defenses, and along with the 39th, where fighting within the suburb of Octeville. The regiment continued to fight in the western portion of Cherbourg, and by the 26th it captured German General Karl-Wilhelm von Schlieben and Admiral Walter Hennecke. The city fell to the Allies by the next day; following the liberation of the port city, along with the 60th Infantry Regiment, the 47th fought the remaining German forces in Cap de la Hague, ultimately capturing over 6,000 Germans by 1 July. By 10 July, the 9th Infantry Division was tasked to join the effort to liberate Saint-Lô; the next day it was attacked by the Panzer Lehr Division. On 11 July, wounded men and medical officers of the regiment's third battalion, were captured by German forces; one of the medical officers would later be killed by friendly fire and buried at Aisne-Marne American Cemetery and Memorial, while the other was liberated at Château-Thierry while taking care of wounded prisoners of war. In early August the regiment, along with the 60th Infantry Regiment, was fighting in the area of Gathemo. The liberation of Château-Thierry occurred on 27 August, while the 9th Infantry Division was following the wake of the movement of the 3d Armored Division. On 14 September, the regiment entered Germany, at or near, Roetgen; it was the first German city to fall to the Allies. The regiment penetrated the Siegfried Line near Schevenhütte on 16 September. This was followed by fighting in the Hürtgen Forest; during the battle the regiment captured Frenzerburg Castle. By 30 September, the regiment had lost 163 officers; one company alone lost 18 officers killed, leading to a loss of experienced leadership over time. During the Battle of the Bulge, the regiment served as a cornerstone of American resistance around Eupen. The regiment had the distinction of another first; on 8 March 1945, soldiers of the regiment became the first infantry troops to cross the Rhine River, doing so at Remagen; for its actions during the crossing of the Rhine, the regiment was awarded a Distinguished Unit Citation. During March the regiment experienced multiple changes in command, at the beginning of the month Colonel Smythe departed the regiment, leaving Lieutenant Colonel Herman A. Schmidt to act as the regiment's commanding officer, only to be succeeded by Colonel Peter O. Ward a week later. By early April, the 9th Infantry Division was assigned to III Corps, and was part of the effort against the Ruhr Pocket; once again the Panzer Lehr Division attacked the 9th Infantry Division. For its actions in repelling the attack the regiment earned another Distinguished Unit Citation. By mid-April 1945, the 9th Infantry Division was reassigned to VII Corps, and fought against remaining German forces in the Harz Mountains; there they encountered concentration camps near Nordhausen. After the Germans surrendered, the regiment conducted occupation duty in Germany, which lasted until late 1946. Part of the Regiment's postwar occupation duty included a stint at the Dachau Concentration Camp. Elements of the 47th were assigned guard and administrative duty from July, 1945. By this time Dachau had been converted to its postwar use as an internment camp that would intern former SS, Nazi functionaries, and officers of the German army. In December 1946, the regiment was deactivated in Germany. ### Cold War In July 1947 the regiment was reactivated at Fort Dix. In 1957, the regiment was reorganized into the Combat Arms Regimental System. In 1957, the regiment's 2d Battalion was relieved from the 9th Infantry Division, returning to assignment with the 4th Infantry Division. Also 1957, the regiment's 3d Battalion was inactivated and relieved from the 9th Infantry Division, and two years later allotted to the United States Army Reserves' 81st Infantry Division. In 1961, the regiment's 2nd Battle Group (the redesignated 2d Battalion) was deployed to Germany. Stationed in Berlin, the regiment remained there for a year; the following year the regiment's 2d Battalion was inactivated at Fort Lewis, and the 3d Battalion was inactivated at Atlanta. In July 1963, the 1st Battalion was reactivated as a part of the 171st Infantry Brigade. In 1966, at Fort Riley, both the 2d and 3d Battalions were reactivated, with the 3d Battalion being reassigned to 9th Infantry Division. #### Vietnam In Vietnam, the regiment fought in the Mekong Delta, where it conducted riverine warfare. Along with other units assigned to the 9th Infantry Division, the regiment was based out of Đồng Tâm Base Camp; however, the regiment's 3d Battalion was based in Kiến Hòa province. In addition to riverine operations, the regiment also conducted air mobile operations. During the conflict three of the regiment's battalions served; the 2d Battalion was deployed from January 1967 until October 1970, the 3d Battalion was deployed from January 1967 until July 1969, and the 4th Battalion was deployed January 1967 until July 1969. For the most part the regiment's battalions were assigned to the 9th Infantry Division's 2d Brigade, except for the 2d Battalion, which was temporarily assigned at various times in 1968 to the division's other two brigades. During its time in Vietnam, the regiment conducted joint operations with the United States Navy, during which its soldiers deployed from, and billeted aboard, naval vessels. In 1966, upon learning of the regiment's upcoming riverine mission, the regiment's leadership worked with the Navy's Amphibious Training School, in Coronado, to gain the skills needed for the expected deployment. In January 1967, the regiment deployed from Fort Riley, by way of San Francisco, disembarking at Vũng Tàu. From mid-February to late-March 1967, the regiment's 3d Battalion conducted combat training, with the USS Whitfield County (LST-1169) and the 9th River Assault Squadron, in the Rung Sat Special Zone. In April and May 1967, the regiment's 4th Battalion conducted operations in the Rung Sat Special Zone. Beginning in April 1967, the regiment's 3d Battalion deployed to the Mekong Delta proper. By May of that same year it began to conduct combat operations near Ap Bac; that same month, the regiment's 4th Battalion completed operations in Rung Sat and began operations in the Mekong Delta. On 19 May 1967, the 2d Brigade's headquarters came under attack on the banks of the Mỹ Tho River, and the regiment's 3d Battalion was heavily engaged in thwarting the attack. In June 1967, the regiment took part in Operation Concordia, with the USS Colleton (APB-36) providing medical support. In early July 1967, operations were conducted in the Gò Công Province; at the end of that month, the regiment moved to Can Guioc. In August, and early September, the regiment operated in the Long An Province, supporting units from the Republic of Vietnam Marine Division. From October 1967 until January 1968, the regiment was involved in Operations Coronado V & IX, which ended when the regiment embarked on the USS Benewah (APB-35). During the Tet Offensive, in early February, the regiment fought heavily in and around Mỹ Tho in Operation Coronado X. From mid-February and into early March, the regiment took part in Operation Coronado XI. Following that operation, the regiment took part in Operation Truong Cong Dinh until April. Several helicopters were lost due to enemy fire, and two artillery barges sunk; the Benewah was struck by enemy fire, and one LCM was sunk. In July, the regiment's 4th Battalion conducted operations with the South Vietnamese Army's 9th Division. In October, two of the regiment's battalions conducted pacification operations in Kiến Hòa province. ### Post-Vietnam and 21st century Following the regiment's deployment to Vietnam, its battalions were progressively inactivated. The 3d Battalion was the first to be inactivated, doing so at Fort Riley in August 1969; this was followed by the 2d Battalion, which was inactivated at Fort Lewis in October 1970, and the 1st Battalion in November 1972. This period of inactivation was short lived, as the 2d Battalion was reactivated at Fort Lewis in November 1972, while the 3d Battalion was reactivated at the same base in March 1973. During the remainder of the 1970s and into the late 1980s, the 2d and 3d Battalions remained with the 9th Infantry Division. although, the regiment was withdrawn from the Combat Arms Regimental System and was reorganized into the United States Army Regimental System. This process continued until August 1988 when the 2d Battalion was inactivated again. In 1991, the 9th Infantry Division was inactivated; due to this the 3d Battalion was assigned to the 199th Infantry Brigade, but was later inactivated in January 1994 at Fort Polk. In April 1996, the regiment was transferred to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command. From the regiment's transfer to Training and Doctrine Command, until February 1999, the regiment was stationed at Fort Leonard Wood; beginning in March 1999 the regiment has been stationed at Fort Benning. As of December 2013, 2d Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment is stationed at Sand Hill; the battalion falls under the 194th Armored Brigade, and Maneuver Center of Excellence. On 8 April 2013, an inactivation ceremony was held for the 3d Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment, resulting in a reduction of 44 soldier and 27 civilian positions. On 4 March 2019, 3d Battalion was re-activated in the 198th Infantry Brigade for infantry one station unit training. ## Regimental lineage The regiment's lineage is as follows: - Constituted 15 May 1917 in the Regular Army as the 47th Infantry - Organized 1 June 1917 at Syracuse, New York - Assigned 19 November 1917 to the 4th Division - Inactivated 22 September 1921 at Camp Lewis, Washington - Relieved 15 August 1927 from assignment to the 4th Division and assigned to the 7th Division - Relieved 1 October 1933 from assignment to the 7th Division - Assigned 1 August 1940 to the 9th Division (later redesignated as the 9th Infantry Division) - Activated 10 August 1940 at Fort Bragg, North Carolina - Inactivated 31 December 1946 in Germany - Activated 15 July 1947 at Fort Dix, New Jersey - Relieved 1 December 1957 from assignment to the 9th Infantry Division and reorganized as a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System - Withdrawn 16 June 1986 from the Combat Arms Regimental System and reorganized under the United States Army Regimental System - Transferred 15 April 1996 to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command ## Honors The regiment's campaign participation credits, and decorations, are as follows: ### Campaign participation credit World War I: Aisne-Marne; St. Mihiel; Meuse-Argonne; Champagne 1918; Lorraine 1918 World War II: Algeria-French Morocco (with arrowhead); Tunisia; Sicily; Normandy; Northern France; Rhineland; Ardennes-Alsace; Central Europe Vietnam: Counteroffensive, Phase II; Counteroffensive, Phase III; Tet Counteroffensive; Counteroffensive, Phase IV; Counteroffensive, Phase V; Counteroffensive, Phase VI; Tet 69/Counteroffensive; Summer-Fall 1969; Winter-Spring 1970; Sanctuary Counteroffensive; Counteroffensive, Phase VII ### Decorations - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Cherbourg - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Hague Peninsula - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Wilhelmshoe, Germany - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Roetgen, Germany - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Nothberg, Germany - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Freuzenbeg Castle - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Remagen, Germany - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Oberkirchen, Germany - Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for Mekong Delta - Valorous Unit Award for Long Binh – Bien Hoa - Valorous Unit Award for Saigon - Valorous Unit Award for Fish Hook - Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for Vietnam 1968 - French Croix de Guerre with Palm, World War II for Cherbourg - Belgian Fourragere 1940 - Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action at the Meuse River - Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in the Ardennes ## See also ### Medal of Honor recipients - Specialist Four Edward A. DeVore Jr. Vietnam War - Private First Class James W. Fous Vietnam War - Specialist Four George C. Lang Vietnam War - Sergeant William Shemin World War I - Private First Class Carl V. Sheridan World War II

Politics in The Simpsons

Political themes in animated sitcom The Simpsons

Politics is a common theme in the animated sitcom The Simpsons, and this phenomenon has had some crossover with real American politics. The local politics of the fictional town Springfield feature prominently in many episodes, and character archetypes represent different political concepts within a community. The show satirizes ideas across the political spectrum, though overall it is described as having left-wing and anti-establishment bias. Politicians have been caricatured in many episodes of The Simpsons, including an episode following President George H. W. Bush in response to his public criticism of the show. References to the show also feature in real-world politics. The Simpsons addresses contemporary issues including substance abuse, the economy, education, environmentalism, gun politics, health politics, LGBT rights, immigration and criminal justice. Episodes of the show have also caused international political dispute for its portrayal of foreign countries. ## Political systems The setting of Springfield has developed as a microcosm of local government that can be used by writers and critics to reflect and comment on real-world political issues. The show features the democratic process in local politics, including elections and town hall meetings. National politics of the United States has also been featured on the show. In the season 3 episode "Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington", Lisa visits Washington, D.C. and witnesses a congressman taking a bribe while expressing sexist beliefs. This episode explores faith in democracy, considering both its weaknesses and how it corrects them. ### Characters The large cast of developed characters makes The Simpsons unique among television shows in its ability to frame complex issues within a community setting. Among the central characters, Lisa Simpson is the most developed politically. She expresses liberal beliefs and support for social justice. Among other things, Lisa is a vocal advocate of environmentalism, vegetarianism, and feminism. Marge Simpson is portrayed as an overworked housewife associated with conservative ideas of nuclear family and the role of women, though she is also recognized as a feminist within the show. Homer briefly holds political office as Springfield Sanitation Commissioner, during which time he is shown to be a dishonest populist politician who makes promises he cannot fulfill. The season 23 episode "Politically Inept, with Homer Simpson" features Homer as a cable news pundit who supports Ted Nugent for president. Recurring characters are also used to serve as archetypes for specific political beliefs or are used to explore certain issues. Mayor Quimby is the most prominent politician character in the show, openly engaging in corruption and promiscuity while shirking leadership. Mr. Burns is portrayed as an evil scheming businessman who serves himself ahead of others. Apu Nahasapeemapetilon is a character from India who is used to give the perspective of an immigrant in the United States. Chief Wiggum, the city's chief of police, is portrayed as incompetent and symbolic of police corruption. Ned Flanders, the Simpsons' next-door neighbor, serves as an example of an Evangelical Christian. The character of Flanders is often used to parody excesses of religion, though his friendly demeanor and piety are portrayed positively. Lionel Hutz is used to portray a shyster attorney. ### Political campaigns Political campaigns and elections are featured in several episodes of The Simpsons. The season 2 episode "Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish" features Mr. Burns running for governor against a popular incumbent with the intention of relaxing safety regulations for his business. The career politician is portrayed as a favorable alternative that cares about the state in comparison to Mr. Burns, who only seeks office for his own benefit. The season 6 episode "Sideshow Bob Roberts" features a mayoral election, pitting incumbent Mayor Quimby against Sideshow Bob, a man who had attempted to kill Bart Simpson. The Simpsons help Quimby in his reelection campaign, but Sideshow Bob is elected. Sideshow Bob uses his political power to make life difficult for the Simpsons, but it is discovered that he won through electoral fraud. The season 9 episode "Trash of the Titans" follows Homer Simpson as he runs for the office of sanitation commissioner, portraying him as an everyman who is unqualified for the role. The season 14 episode "Mr. Spritz Goes to Washington" follows Krusty the Clown as he runs for Congress to fix a local issue through government regulation. In the season 19 episode "E Pluribus Wiggum", Springfield holds the earliest presidential primary, and the town nominates eight-year-old Ralph Wiggum to express their distaste for the ensuing media circus. ## Political stance The Simpsons has been praised for its tendency to satirize ideas across the political spectrum, though the writers have shown support for progressive ideas and some commentators say that the show overall expresses a left-wing bias. It has also been accused of an anti-establishment bias, portraying government and large corporations as evil entities that take advantage of the citizens. In The Simpsons, politicians are often corrupt, Reverend Lovejoy is dismissive to churchgoers, and the local police force is both incompetent and corrupt. Despite this, there have also been occurrences in which career politicians have been portrayed as more competent or reasonable than populist or outsider candidates, such as Homer's opponent when running for sanitation commissioner or Mr. Burns' opponent in a gubernatorial election. Producer Al Jean stated in an interview that "We [the show] are of liberal bent". The show's admitted slant towards liberalism has been joked about in the show, such as in the season 7 episode "The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular", in which a reference is made to "hundreds of radical right-wing messages inserted into every show by creator Matt Groening". ## Real-world politics The Simpsons has alluded to politicians throughout its run, sometimes resulting in media attention. Presidents George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton were both parodied multiple times in the series. The season 8 episode "Treehouse of Horror VII" parodied the 1996 presidential election by presenting both candidates as evil alien imposters, insisting that voters must still choose one of them because of a two-party system. The season 11 episode "Bart to the Future" received attention for mentioning a future Trump presidency 16 years before it occurred. Then-incumbent Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair voiced himself in a cameo appearance in the season 15 episode "The Regina Monologues". United States Secretary of Commerce Robert Reich appeared as himself in the season 33 episode "Poorhouse Rock". New York mayor Bill de Blasio made two appearances as himself on the show. Arnold Schwarzenegger is portrayed as the president in The Simpsons Movie. The show has also been referenced in politics. Senator Ted Cruz incorporated references to the show as part of his political identity despite strong backlash from writers and cast members. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo was the subject of controversy after using an image of Lisa Simpson on Twitter in a way that critics said was contrary to the character's beliefs. Several phrases coined by The Simpsons have played a role in political lexicon. "Saying the quiet part loud" was popularized as a political expression following its use in the season 6 episode "A Star Is Burns". The derogatory term for the French, "cheese eating surrender monkeys", has been adopted by conservative personalities, including Jonah Goldberg in particular. ### George H. W. Bush On January 27, 1992, during his re-election campaign, President George H. W. Bush ignited a feud between the Simpsons and the Bushes by referencing the Simpsons in a speech at the National Religious Broadcaster's convention in Washington: > The next value I speak of must be forever cast in stone. I speak of decency, the moral courage to say what is right and condemn what's wrong, and we need a nation closer to the Waltons than the Simpsons. An America that rejects the incivility, the tide of incivility and the tide of intolerance. The next broadcast of The Simpsons was a rerun of season 3 episode "Stark Raving Dad". In that broadcast, there was hastily included a new opening which was a response to Bush's speech. The scene begins in the Simpsons' living room. Homer, Patty, and Selma sit on the couch. Maggie is in her high chair next to the couch. Bart and Lisa are sprawled on the carpet. They all stare at the TV and watch Bush's speech. When Bush says, "We need a nation a lot more like the Waltons than the Simpsons", Bart replies "Hey, we're just like the Waltons. We're praying for an end to the Depression, too". The producers of the show developed their response further by making the season 7 episode "Two Bad Neighbors", which had Bush move into the same neighborhood as the Simpsons. Josh Weinstein said that the episode is often misunderstood. Many audiences expected a political satire, while the writers made special effort to keep the parody apolitical. Bill Oakley stresses that "it's not a political attack, it's a personal attack!", and instead of criticizing Bush for his policies, the episode instead pokes fun at his "crotchetiness". ## Issues ### Constitutional law The Constitution of the United States is the subject of jokes in The Simpsons. The season 7 episode "The Day the Violence Died" includes a parody of Schoolhouse Rock! explaining Constitutional amendments as well as federal copyright law. The season 8 episode "Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment" parodies the Prohibition era that began with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment. In the season 10 episode "Make Room for Lisa", Homer demonstrates total ignorance of the Bill of Rights, and he loses his Eighth Amendment protections from cruel and unusual punishment after mistakenly wiping the words off of the document. The season 15 episode "Bart-Mangled Banner" features the Simpsons fighting for their First Amendment right to freedom of speech after Bart accidentally moons the flag of the United States. In the season 19 episode "E Pluribus Wiggum", Lisa objects to the presidential nomination of an eight-year-old, but Bart explains that the Constitution no longer applies due to the Patriot Act. #### Gun rights The theme of gun rights was explored in the season 9 episode "The Cartridge Family". Sam Simon had pitched an episode for one of the first seasons which saw Homer getting a gun and nobody wanting him to have it. The episode concluded with Homer foiling a robbery and stating that although guns bring destruction, it worked for him. However, this episode was pitched by Mike Scully for either season 7 or 8, before being used for season 9. This provided the basic outline, and John Swartzwelder wrote the script. A lot of lines in the episode put guns in a positive light, as the staff felt that they could not just make an episode about how bad they were. Several of the staff are "pro gun", although others such as Matt Groening support "gun control". The episode was designed to be unbiased and portray each side of the argument equally. Scully noted that if there is any message in the episode, it is that a man like Homer should not own a gun. The censors were nervous about some of the episode's subject matter, such as Homer pointing the gun in Marge's face, and Bart aiming the gun at Milhouse Van Houten with an apple in his mouth, but ultimately let it go. ### Economy Economics and business feature throughout The Simpsons. Many characters engage in business ventures and get-rich-quick schemes, and many episodes focus on how these ventures are economically unsound. The season 4 episode "Marge vs. the Monorail" follows a conman that convinces the town to invest in his monorail against their own interest. The season 5 episode "\$pringfield (or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)" addressed the legalized gambling debate, showing the casino as a positive investment in the town but also portraying the harms of problem gambling. The season 14 episode "Mr. Spritz Goes to Washington" follows Krusty the Clown as a Congressional candidate running to solve a negative externality caused by business behavior. The season 19 episode "Husbands and Knives" addresses monopoly and competition when Comic Book Guy abuses his store's lack of competition until a new store is opened to compete. Several episodes address labor issues at Homer's workplace. In the season 4 episode "Last Exit to Springfield", the employees strike for their dental plan. In the season 17 episode "Kiss Kiss, Bang Bangalore", Mr. Burns relocates the business to India, but he finds the move too expensive after Homer teaches the workers to be lazy. In the season 21 episode "Once Upon a Time in Springfield", Mr. Burns is forced to reinstate the provision of donuts for his employees to retain them. Taxation features in some episodes. The season 9 episode "The Trouble with Trillions" focuses on taxation and the Internal Revenue Service. In this episode, Homer cheats on his taxes and mistakenly brings an audit upon himself, but he cooperates with the IRS by helping them reclaim money owed by his boss. The two then go to Cuba, where they conclude that the American tax system is better than the alternative. The season 7 episode "Much Apu About Nothing" features a new tax to pay for a bear patrol, but Mayor Quimby blames the tax on illegal immigrants to direct pressure away from himself. ### Education The Simpsons addresses issues in public schools through its two main school-age characters, Bart and Lisa Simpson, as they attend Springfield Elementary School. Bart is a troublemaker that continually defaces school property, while Lisa is an ideal student that is unsatisfied with her schooling. Teachers in the show are portrayed as incompetent and deeply flawed; they lack faith in the students' capacity and are accordingly uninterested in supporting them. Other students in the school play the roles of simple archetypes, such as Nelson Muntz as the bully, Ralph Wiggum as the dumb student, and Martin Prince as the teacher's pet. The town of Springfield is portrayed as anti-intellectual, and the school is given little support from the community. The school is often a setting for themes of authority and rebellion, with Principal Skinner attempting to keep order in the school amidst Bart's misbehavior. Standardized testing is another common subject of satire in the show. The show also considers many other types of schooling, including preschool, military school, prep school, Catholic school, homeschool, and student-centered gifted school. The show portrays and satirizes many aspects of school life. The season 2 episode "Lisa's Substitute" features a positive portrayal of a teacher when a substitute teacher inspires Lisa and serves as a positive role model in contrast with Homer. The season 3 episode "Separate Vocations" follows Lisa's declining school performance after a career aptitude test suggests she become a homemaker. She steals the teacher's editions of the school textbooks to prove that the teachers are not capable of teaching without them. The season 6 episode "The PTA Disbands" follows a teacher's strike, presenting the situation as harmful to students when the school is forced to hire unqualified substitutes. The season 17 episode "Girls Just Want to Have Sums" addresses single-sex education and deficiencies in female education. ### Environmentalism Lisa Simpson is portrayed as an environmental activist. Environmentalism is most prominently addressed in the season 12 episode "Lisa the Tree Hugger", in which she develops a crush on an environmental activist and begins tree sitting. Other episodes centering on her environmentalism include the season 21 episode "The Squirt and the Whale", in which she tends to a beached whale; the season 8 episode "The Old Man and the Lisa", in which she attempts to teach environmentalism to Mr. Burns; and the season 14 episode "'Scuse Me While I Miss the Sky", in which she causes a city-wide power outage to combat light pollution. Her environmentalism is also satirized in one episode in which she and Marge travel to help clean an oil spill in Alaska but flee after discovering that the glamorous jobs are taken by celebrities and finding that the work is unpleasant. The Simpsons Movie focuses specifically on environmentalism, with the plot driven by pollution and the actions of the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Lisa's environmentalism is portrayed in contrast to apathy or hostility from other characters. In 2019, environmentalist Greta Thunberg's speech to the United Nations was compared to the role of Lisa. The Simpsons has won several Environmental Media Awards for its treatment of the topic. When creating the show, Groening chose to make Homer work at a nuclear power plant to provide opportunity for environmental commentary. ### Health The Simpsons has made jokes relating to power held by doctors, including one episode in which Dr. Hibbert expresses support for the pharmaceutical industry while wearing merchandise from several major pharmaceutical companies. In the season 4 episode "Homer's Triple Bypass", Homer attempts to defraud a health insurance provider by giving a false report of his medical history, but he has a heart attack while doing so. In the season 13 episode "Sweets and Sour Marge", Marge applies legal pressure to prevent the sale of sugary food in Springfield, but the ruling proves unpopular and turns Marge's family against her. A 2004 study found that about 40 percent of health-related messages on the show reinforce unhealthy behaviors, including messages relating to poor nutrition, harmful body image, improper medical treatment, and drug use. #### Drugs The Simpsons features characters engaging in non-recommended health behaviors related to drugs, such as smoking cigarettes and excessive alcohol consumption. Beer is common in the show, making up about nine percent of all food or drink shown in the first nine seasons. Excessive alcohol consumption is typically portrayed as a source of comedy on the show, though some episodes portray the negative aspects of alcoholism. Alcohol consumption in the show is associated with Moe's Tavern, a common setting in which several working class male characters develop an identity. The season 8 episode "Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment" addresses prohibition of alcohol. The town demands the change after Bart Simpson partakes in underage drinking, but it is portrayed as a failure that makes alcohol more widely available through the black market. The heaviest drinkers among the characters, Homer Simpson and Barney Gumble, are typically portrayed as worse off due to their excessive alcohol consumption. In the season 4 episode "Mr. Plow", it is suggested that Homer caused significant harm to Barney by introducing him to beer. Homer and Barney seek treatment for their alcoholism in the season 4 episode "Duffless" and the season 11 episode "Days of Wine and D'oh'ses", respectively, in which alcoholism is treated as a serious concern. Homer's treatment begins after he is arrested for a DUI, while Barney's begins after he watches a video of how he behaved while drunk. Cannabis use is portrayed through the stoner character of school bus driver Otto Mann. It was the main focus of the season 13 episode "Weekend at Burnsie's", in which Homer is prescribed medical cannabis. The episode portrays the drug as beneficial to Homer and demonstrates ways in which it improves his life, though he also suffers from short-term memory loss and chooses not to continue use of the drug to set an example for his children. The season 31 episode "Highway to Well" returns to the subject as several characters begin selling legal cannabis. Several episodes concern prescription drugs. The season 16 episode "Midnight Rx" features characters traveling to Winnipeg to smuggle prescription drugs into the United States. Medication of children is the main focus of the season 11 episode "Brother's Little Helper", in which Bart is made to go on a new ADHD medication against his wishes. The drug is portrayed negatively, culminating in Bart stealing a tank as part of a paranoid delusion, though the episode recognized Ritalin as a legitimate alternative. This plot was revisited in the season 30 episode "Crystal Blue-Haired Persuasion" when Bart has to change his medications. ### LGBT issues LGBT themes and issues are explored in several episodes. In an interview, Matt Groening expressed his friendship and support to homosexuals, saying that "gay men are starved for positive portrayals of lasting love". The first appearance of a character implied to be gay was in the season 2 episode "Simpson and Delilah", in which the character Carl (voiced by Harvey Fierstein) kisses Homer. The season 8 episode "Homer's Phobia" was the first episode to entirely revolve around homosexual themes. The episode features the gay character John (voiced by John Waters), who is not immediately identifiable as a gay man and does not conform to the typical gay stereotype. After initially being fond of John, Homer acts strongly against him when he finds out about his sexuality. Homer eventually accepts John for who he is. The episode won a GLAAD Media Award, with GLAAD calling the episode "a shining example of how to bring intelligent, fair and funny representations of our community onto television". Two later episodes that explored LGBT issues were the season 14 episode "Three Gays of the Condo" and the season 16 episode "There's Something About Marrying". The former features Homer's time living with gay roommates, while the latter centered on the right for homosexuals to get married and included Marge's sister Patty coming out as a lesbian. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation described the latter episode as a "ray of light". The character Waylon Smithers was presumed to be gay for much of the show's run and came out in the season 27 episode "The Burns Cage", in which he briefly dates Julio. Smithers is shown to have a passionate and deep love for Mr. Burns; as late as 2007, during the show's 18th season, Matt Groening and executive producer James L. Brooks wrote in an interview that Smithers, being focused on one particular individual, was not homosexual, but "Burns-sexual". Smithers had expressed feelings for Mr. Burns in several episodes prior to his coming out. ### Immigration The season 7 episode "Much Apu About Nothing" follows the immigration debate as Mayor Quimby blames higher taxes on illegal immigrants, and the city undergoes a period of xenophobia targeting foreign residents. It demonstrates how the rhetoric and possible deportation affects Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, a character revealed in this episode to be in the United States on an expired visa. The episode presents the issue with a decidedly pro-immigrant stance. The season 20 episode "Coming to Homerica" revisits the immigration debate, with the plot following the residents of Springfield enlisting in a border patrol group and building a border barrier to deny entry to a Norwegian-American community. ### Justice system The mass appeal of The Simpsons allows it to influence perception of the American legal system by viewers. This may contribute to public misunderstanding and distrust of the legal system, as fictional legal systems are typically portrayed in a way that is inaccurate and disproportionately negative. The show expresses ideas of legal realism, a criticism of the legal system that emphasizes the fallibility of humans. The police department of Springfield is shown to be deeply incompetent and corrupt, with Mayor Quimby at one point handing Chief Wiggum a kickback during a televised press conference. The local news is shown to contribute to criminal issues by feeding mass hysteria. In the season 5 episode "Homer the Vigilante", a citizen's patrol is organized, but it worsens the situation, suggesting that the current police system is superior to the alternative. The show similarly parodies judicial trials and courts. In the season two episode "Bart Gets Hit by a Car", both Mr. Burns and the Simpsons freely make fraudulent claims in court after Burns hits Bart Simpson with his car. In the season 5 episode "The Boy Who Knew Too Much", Bart is forced to consider the moral dilemma of providing testimony, and the judge decides to illegally reopen the trial. ## Foreign relations Several episodes of The Simpsons have caused international controversy for their portrayal of politics in various countries. The season 6 episode "Bart vs. Australia" caused controversy in 1995, featuring the country as a "backward, boorish, alcohol-obsessed nation with criminal tendencies" and including a reference to the death of Azaria Chamberlain. Creator Matt Groening and voice actress Yeardley Smith both apologized for the tone of the episode. The season 16 episode "Goo Goo Gai Pan" features the Simpsons visiting China. The episode is critical of the Chinese government, and it makes multiple references to the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. These include a reference to Mao Zedong as "a little angel that killed 50 million people", a scene set up to resemble the Tank Man photo, and a plaque stating "Tien An Men Square: On this site, in 1989, nothing happened" in reference to the Chinese government's censorship of the topic. When Disney+ was released in Hong Kong in 2021, the episode was not made available. The season 10 episode "Thirty Minutes over Tokyo" was not aired on the Japanese network Wowow upon its release in 1999. The episode followed the Simpsons visiting Japan and featured a scene in which Homer engaged in a fight with the Emperor. ### Argentina The season 19 episode "E Pluribus Wiggum" caused controversy in Argentina prior to its broadcast there. The controversy is over a comment by Carl Carlson, who says, "I could really go for some kind of military dictator, like Juan Perón. When he 'disappeared' you, you stayed 'disappeared!'". Carl's comment is a reference to the Dirty War, a period of military dictatorship during which as many as 30,000 political dissidents disappeared. The clip was viewed on YouTube over 10,000 times in Argentina, and some politicians in the country called for the episode to be censored or banned. Lorenzo Pepe, former Justicialist Party congressman and president of the Perón Institute, said that "this type of program causes great harm, because the disappearances are still an open wound here". Some reacted negatively to Lenny's response to Carl's comment: "Plus, his wife was Madonna", a reference to the film Evita, where Madonna played Eva Perón. Pepe added that "the part about Madonna—that was too much". Pepe's request for banning the episode was rejected by the Federal Broadcasting Committee of Argentina on freedom of speech grounds. In an unprecedented decision, Fox decided not to air the episode in Latin America; in an e-mail sent later to the media, the network said that this decision was based on "the possibility that the episode would contribute to reopen wounds very painful to Argentina". The Federal Broadcasting Committee made it clear that the episode was not aired in Argentina by Fox's own choice. ### Brazil In 2002, the Rio de Janeiro tourist board found the season 13 episode "Blame It on Lisa" so offensive to many Brazilian people that they threatened to sue the producers. The board's exact words were: "What really hurt was the idea of the monkeys, the image that Rio de Janeiro was a jungle ... It's a completely unreal image of the city". The Brazilian president at that time, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, found it to be "a distorted vision of Brazilian reality". Rio de Janeiro had just spent millions promoting the city internationally. Their reputation was already damaged because of an outbreak of dengue fever a few years earlier. Producer James L. Brooks apologized to "the lovely city of Rio de Janeiro", adding that "if this does not settle the issue, Homer Simpson offers to fight with the Brazilian president on Celebrity Boxing". After the apology, the issue did not go any further. However, it was international news for a while. "Blame It on Lisa" has been a source of academic studies in both the United States and Brazil. Alessandro de Almeida of the Federal University of Uberlândia links the depiction of Brazil in the episode with the "social chaos" of Cardoso's second term as president. In his opinion, "the association of the figure of president Fernando Henrique Cardoso with those of the decaying celebrities of Celebrity Boxing is interesting to think about the political meaning of the episode". At that moment, in which Brazil was facing serious social issues due to the Asian financial crisis, "confidence in the Brazilian federal government was severely shaken and the image of the Brazilian president was undoubtedly in decline". He also argues that the episode's criticism "is not focused only in Brazil", citing that while "in the U.S. Bart used to watch violent cartoons, in Brazil he watches 'educational' programs linked to sexuality". The character's escape from reality, according to him, "demonstrates problems of contemporary societies". He concluded his article by saying that the episode could generate a debate about the Cardoso administration that would benefit the Brazilian society, had it not been banned from broadcast television airing by Rede Globo. ### France "Cheese-eating surrender monkeys", sometimes shortened to "surrender monkeys", is Groundskeeper Willie's insulting phrase referring to the French, which gained notoriety in the United States, particularly in the run-up to the Iraq War. The line was first picked up and used predominantly by Republican politicians and publications. They were led, according to the British national newspaper The Guardian, by Jonah Goldberg, a popular columnist for the U.S. bi-weekly National Review and editor of their website National Review Online. France opposed many U.S. positions and actions, in particular, the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Some argue the phrase's success reflects deep antipathy in the U.S. towards European countries, such as France, that oppose the U.S. in international forums. The New York Post resurrected the phrase "Surrender Monkeys" as the headline for its December 7, 2006, front page, referring to the Iraq Study Group and its recommendation that U.S. combat brigades be withdrawn from Iraq by early 2008.

All's Fair in Oven War

"All's Fair in Oven War" is the second episode of the sixteenth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 14, 2004. In the episode, Marge gets her kitchen remodeled and the dishes she makes inside it get rave reviews. The suggestion of Ned Flanders leads her to enter a cooking contest. However, Marge realizes the competition is harder than it seems. Meanwhile, Bart finds Homer's vintage Playdude magazines and decides to adopt the lifestyle he sees within the articles. Matt Selman wrote the episode, and Mark Kirkland served as director. Thomas Pynchon and James Caan guest starred as themselves. The episode features cultural references to songs such as "Separate Ways", "Boplicity", and "Take Five", as well as references to the film The Godfather and various fictional food mascots. The episode received positive reviews from critics. ## Plot Discovering that the house next to theirs is up for sale, Homer and Marge marvel at its extensive kitchen. Marge asks Homer to hire a contractor to upgrade their kitchen, but Homer decides to save money by doing the job himself. His ineptitude leads Marge to hire a contractor; the upgrade ultimately takes two years and costs the family \$100,000. The first dish that Marge cooks in the completed kitchen earns rave reviews from many Springfieldians, as well as author Thomas Pynchon. While shopping at the Kwik-E-Mart, Marge learns that the Ovenfresh company is sponsoring a baking contest in which the grand prize winner will become Auntie Ovenfresh, the company's spokeswoman. Encouraged by Ned Flanders, she enters her recipe for a dessert styled as hot dogs and is accepted. Angered at the other contestants' mockery and sabotage of her food, Marge secretly taints theirs with Maggie's ear medicine to ruin the taste. Lisa sees Marge cheat and confronts her, but Marge defends herself by saying that the others bullied her into it. Marge reaches the finals, competing against Brandine Spuckler, and considers cheating again. She changes her mind after finding a note from Lisa, admits her wrongdoing, and withdraws from the contest, restoring Lisa's faith in her. Brandine becomes the new Auntie Ovenfresh and leaves her husband Cletus for James Caan. Cletus' friends ambush Caan at a tollbooth and shoot him repeatedly, reminiscent of the death of Sonny Corleone, Caan's character in the film The Godfather. He survives the shooting and angrily says that he will fly instead of drive the next time he needs to travel. Meanwhile, Homer finds his old stash of Playdude magazines while trying to remodel the kitchen, but throws them away after Marge cuts out all the nude pictures. Bart and Milhouse find the magazines in the trash and, after reading them, decide to remodel their treehouse and adopt the lifestyle espoused in the articles. They develop an interest in luxurious living and jazz music and begin speaking in sexual innuendos without understanding their meaning, and the treehouse quickly becomes a popular hangout similar to the Playboy Club. Learning that Bart has read the magazines, Homer has a talk with him about sex. Horrified at what he learns, Bart quickly spreads the word to the other children of Springfield, unsettling them as well and bringing their Playdude fascination to an end. ## Production The episode was written Matt Selman, his eleventh writing credit for The Simpsons. The episode was the first season sixteen episode that Mark Kirkland directed. Reclusive novelist Thomas Pynchon guest stars as himself in the episode, wearing a paper bag over his head. His role is reprised from the season 15 episode "Diatribe of a Mad Housewife". According to executive producer Al Jean, Pynchon helped write the jokes for his appearances. James Caan also guest stars in the episode, first seen in Bart's treehouse. He is then shown dating Brandine Spuckler, and he is later shot by hillbillies at a toll booth. Thomas Pynchon offers insight on Marge’s cooking. Pynchon contributes his own jokes—including a pun he made on his best-known work, The Frying Of Latke 49. Pynchon refused to call Homer a "fat-ass" as he did not want to speak ill of him. In the original version of this episode, after Homer tells Marge that she is the "best chef in the house", Marge grumbles, "Eh, BFD", which stands for "big, fucking deal". On Sunday night FOX repeats, the "F" in "BFD" is muted out. The original line can be heard in syndicated and UK reruns. The syndicated version also credits Russi Taylor, who was not credited in the original version of the episode. The Godfather parody was cut short in the UK version, and several sexual references from Bart's "playdude" plot were removed. The show in the UK is broadcast at six and needed to be appropriate for children. ## Cultural references The episode's title is a play on the saying "All's fair in love and war", a proverb found in John Lyly's 16th-century book Euphues that is commonly used to justify cheating. The episode features three different songs. The song "Separate Ways (Worlds Apart)" by Journey is played in the background during Homer's fantasy of him living next to himself. "Boplicity" by Miles Davis is listened to by Bart and Milhouse, and "Take Five" by The Dave Brubeck Quartet is played in the background at Bart's treehouse. The episode's final scene, showing James Caan being ambushed by hillbillies at a toll booth, is a parody of a scene in the film The Godfather when Sonny Corleone, portrayed by Caan, is shot and killed at a toll booth. Marge suggesting that the pope has been letting things slide lately, is a reference to the sex abuse scandal of the early 2000s. ## Reception In its original American broadcast, "All's Fair in Oven War" garnered roughly 11.64 million viewers. The episode received a 6.4 Nielsen rating. The episode has garnered positive reviews from critics. Eric Messinger of Springfield Weekly gave the episode a positive review. He gave the episode a B−, stating the Marge segment "needed a bit more fine-tuning". However, he praised the Bart segment, stating that it saved the episode, and that Bart not seeing nudity in the Playdude magazines worked well in every joke, and the segment was almost reminiscent to the season three episode "Bart the Murderer". He also praised the James Caan guest appearance, stating it "worked quite well, especially with the Godfather ending pay-off." In 2012, New York magazine named "All Fair's in Oven War" as one of the ten best later Simpsons episodes. Ellwood Hughes of Entertainment Focus considered the episode a highlight of the season. Chris Morgan of Cinema Sentries praised the episode and commented "It is, arguably, the best episode to air after the turn of the millennium, and, in fact, is one of the top episodes of the show, period." A review of the season 16 DVD on alternativeaddiction.com listed it as one of "some incredibly fun episode ideas". On Rolling Stone's top 150 Simpsons episodes they placed "All's Fair in Oven War" at \#89.

Proactiv

American brand of skin-care products

Proactiv is an American brand of skin-care products developed by two American dermatologists, Katie Rodan and Kathy A. Fields, and launched in 1995 by Guthy-Renker, a California-based direct marketing company, that is endorsed by famous celebrities The range includes moisturizers, body washes and treatment products, but the brand is known for its three-step anti-acne kit consisting of a cleanser, toner and lotion. Proactiv+, a reformulation of the three-step kit, was introduced in 2013, and in 2017, ProactivMD launches powered by Adapalene. As a result of its celebrity endorsements and infomercials, Proactiv is one of the most popular skincare brands of all time, according to the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology. Sales amounted to \$800 million a year as of 2010, with a media budget of nearly \$200 million and \$12–15 million for celebrity fees. The product is mostly sold at ULTA Beauty, Target, and online as single-unit items or as part of a continuity program. A month after ordering, customers are sent a three-month supply, which continues until the subscription is cancelled. ## History ### Product development Proactiv was created in the late 1980s by Katie Rodan and Kathy A. Fields, who met while at Stanford University School of Medicine. Proactiv was offered to Neutrogena, which declined it, but its CEO, Allan Kurtzman, suggested selling it via infomercials. Guthy-Renker were already in the infomercial business and agreed to market and distribute it. The first infomercial appeared in October 1995, offering a money-back guarantee and fast delivery, and featuring spokesmodel Judith Light, who suffered from acne problems herself. Rodan and Fields later founded their own skincare brand, Rodan + Fields. ### Guthy-Renker Guthy-Renker LLC is a direct-response marketing company registered in El Segundo, California. Founded in November 1988 by Bill Guthy and Greg Renker, the company is known as "the Rolls-Royce" of the infomercial industry. As of 2012 its portfolio of products was making \$1.8 billion a year. The range includes Victoria Principal's Principal Secret skincare (its earliest skincare brand), Wen Hair Care, Cindy Crawford's Meaningful Beauty skincare, JLO Beauty ### Nestlé In March 2000, Nestlé joined Guthy-Renker as a majority owner of Proactiv. In October 2016, Nestle sold its shares to EQT. ### Alchemee and Taro In 2022, The Proactiv Company makers of the \#1 selling acne regimen, is announcing its rebrand and repositioning under the new name Alchemee. In early 2022, Alchemee announces its acquisition by Taro Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. (NYSE: TARO) ## Products Proactiv is a registered trademark of Alchemee/Taro Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. The brand's primary products are three-step kits comprising a cleanser, toner/treatment and lotion/moisturizer, which sells for \$36 a month in the United States. The Revitalizing Toner contains glycolic acid, Aloe Barbadensis leaf juice, and witch hazel, an astringent. The active ingredient in the cleanser and lotion, outside Europe, is a 2.5% concentration of micro-crystal benzoyl peroxide. Benzoyl peroxide has been used since 1934 to kill Cutibacterium acnes, the bacterium that causes acne. Several over-the-counter acne treatments contain it, including Clean & Clear, Clearasil, Doctor's Dermatologic Formula, Neutrogena Advanced Systems, PanOxyl and Stridex. In 2013, Proactiv+ was introduced, it is a paraben-free three-step kit comprising an exfoliating cleanser (Skin Smoothing Exfoliator), treatment (Pore Targeting Treatment) and hydrating moisturizer (Complexion Perfecting Hydrator). The exfoliator contains 2.5% micro-crystal benzoyl peroxide, the treatment contains 2.5% encapsulated benzoyl peroxide, and a moisturizer with 0.5% salicylic acid. It is more hydrating than the original program and designed for dry-to-sensitive skin types. ## Safety and efficacy Proactiv is aimed at customers with mild to moderate acne. According to a 2011 review, there have been few studies examining its efficacy. A 2007 study saw inflammatory lesions reduced by 39% in subjects using a combination of butenafine and benzoyl peroxide, compared with 34% in those using Proactiv containing only benzoyl peroxide. A physician suggested in Salon that its three-step system might make it easier for teenagers to comply, but that the key to its success lay with its celebrity endorsements. In 2011, Consumer Reports compared Proactiv (2.5% benzoyl peroxide) with two less expensive products, AcneFree (2.5% benzoyl peroxide) and OXY Maximum (10% benzoyl peroxide). At the time a two-month supply of Proactiv cost around \$40 in the US, AcneFree \$20 and OXY Maximum \$5. Eighty-three subjects, aged 14 to 40, used one of the products twice a day for eight weeks. The magazine reported that, no matter which product was used, after two weeks around 75% of subjects saw a 35% reduction in blemishes on average. After eight weeks, around 50–66% saw a 40% reduction on average. Benzoyl peroxide can have a drying effect on the skin, can cause erythema (redness) and fine scaling, though these effects are usually mild, and can increase sensitivity to sunlight. One in 500 may experience allergic contact dermatitis. It is categorized as a pregnancy category C agent, "suggesting that its use in pregnancy may not be prudent," according to a literature review in the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology. If benzoyl peroxide comes into contact with clothing it is likely to bleach it. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) warned in 2014 that over-the-counter acne products containing benzoyl peroxide and/or salicylic acid, including Proactiv, can cause severe irritation, as well as rare but life-threatening allergic reactions. Consumers were advised to stop using the products if they experience hives or itching, and to seek emergency medical attention if they feel faint, or experience throat tightness, breathing problems, or swelling of the eyes, face, lips or tongue. The FDA noted that it remains unclear whether the reactions are caused by the active ingredients, inactive ingredients or a combination. ## Sales and marketing ### Sales Proactiv is marketed and distributed by Guthy-Renker, and is responsible for about half the company's revenue. Sales of Proactiv amounted to \$800 million as of 2010. 70% of sales were in the United States as of 2007. The product is available in some stores, including Boots in the UK, and in kiosks and vending machines (known as ZoomShops) in malls and airports through a partnership between American Kiosk Management and Guthy-Renker . But the product is mostly sold online or through a toll-free number directly by Guthy-Renker; 60% of Proactiv orders were placed online as of 2010. In 2016, Proactive began selling their products at Ulta Beauty. ### Continuity program Alchemee sells Proactiv as part of a continuity program, also known as a negative-option offer, whereby customers are sent repeat orders of the program until they cancel their subscription. When purchasing directly from the company, customers automatically become members of a Proactiv club. A month after ordering, and every three months thereafter, they are sent a three-month supply costing \$34.95 (in the US as of 2022). They are billed monthly until they cancel the subscription. The approach is based on the customer lifetime value model. ### Commercials and advertising At the time Guthy-Renker owned Proactiv, they had a media budget of \$200 million for the brand, much of it spent on air-time, and was spending another \$12–15 million a year on celebrity endorsements. Justin Bieber for example, was paid \$3 million over two years. Its infomercials have featured celebrities who have themselves suffered from acne problems; the list includes Jennifer Love Hewitt, Kelly Clarkson, P. Diddy, Avril Lavigne, Lindsay Lohan, Alyssa Milano, Katy Perry, Jessica Simpson, Britney Spears, Kendall Jenner and Vanessa Williams. According to the New York Times, until 2010 Proactiv infomercials were "fast-talking" and "hard-selling"; an announcer repeatedly advised viewers to "call now," and offered faster shipping if the order was placed within three minutes. As infomercials became less popular, Proactiv sales stalled. Since 2010 Guthy-Renker has tried to move the brand into the mainstream cosmetics market, focusing on quality rather than price. It began advertising on network television during shows like American Idol, and in Elle, InStyle and People magazines. In 2012, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) in the UK banned some of Proactiv's advertising as misleading. A viewer complained that the celebrities were likely to have used the US version of Proactiv, which differs from the UK version. According to the ASA, the celebrities had signed statements saying they had used the UK version for a few weeks one to three years earlier, but the advertisements gave the appearance that they had continued to benefit from it, so the viewer's complaint was upheld.

Clannad (video game)

2004 Japanese visual novel

Clannad is a Japanese visual novel developed by Key and released on April 28, 2004, for Windows. While both of Key's first two previous works, Kanon and Air, had been released first as adult games and then censored for the younger market, Clannad was specifically made for all ages. It was later ported to the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch consoles. An English version for Windows was released on Steam by Sekai Project in 2015. The story follows the life of Tomoya Okazaki, from adolescence to adulthood. As an average high school student, he meets many people in his last year at school, including five girls whose individual problems he helps resolve, and his life is further detailed after graduating from high school. The gameplay of Clannad follows a plot that branches into different scenarios based on various courses of interaction by the player character. The game was ranked as the best-selling PC game sold in Japan for the time of its release, and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards. Key went on to produce an adult spin-off titled Tomoyo After: It's a Wonderful Life in November 2005, which expanded on the scenario of Tomoyo Sakagami, one of the five heroines from Clannad. Clannad has made several transitions to other media. There have been four manga adaptations published by ASCII Media Works, Flex Comix, Fujimi Shobo and Jive. Comic anthologies, light novels and art books have also been published, as have audio dramas and several albums of music. An animated film adaptation by Toei Animation was released in September 2007, followed by two anime television series including two original video animation (OVA) episodes by Kyoto Animation produced between 2007 and 2009. Both anime series and their accompanying OVAs are licensed by Sentai Filmworks and were released in North America in 2009. The animated adaptations have received high sales figures in Japan as well as critical acclaim abroad. ## Gameplay Clannad is a drama and romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki. Much of its gameplay is spent on reading the story's narrative and dialogue. Clannad follows a branching plot line with multiple endings; depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game, the plot will progress in a specific direction. There are six main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience, five which are initially available. Throughout gameplay, the player is given multiple options to choose from, and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made. To view all plot lines in their entirety, the player must replay the game multiple times and make different choices to change the plot progression. When first playing the game, the scenarios for all five heroines and additional smaller scenarios are available in what is called the School Life story arc. When the player completes a character's scenario, he or she receives an orb of light. When eight of these lights are obtained, the game's second story arc, called After Story, is made available. One of the lights disappears during School Life, but reappears in After Story. To view the true ending of Clannad, all 13 lights must be obtained. Originally, the lights were meant to be items that players could use in the game, but since this increased the game's complexity, and detracted from the storyline, the function of the lights was simplified and made less intrusive. ## Story ### Setting and themes The first half of the story takes place primarily at Hikarizaka Private High School, a fictional school located in Japan. Outside of the school, frequented locations include the bakery run by Nagisa's parents, and the dormitory where Youhei Sunohara lives. Throughout the story, glimpses into an Illusionary World are shown. This world is devoid of all life except for a young girl, though she later makes a body out of junk pieces through which the player can interact with her. The remaining half of the story takes place in the same city, after the conclusion of the first half. While the town's name was never directly mentioned, one can infer that the town's name is Hikarizaka based on the many companies and establishments that share this name. There are recurring themes that appear throughout the story. The main theme is the value of having a family, as the title of the series implies because the main scenario writer Jun Maeda mistakenly thought the name of the Irish band Clannad meant "clan" or "family" in Irish, which is just "clann". Of the six main characters, Tomoya, Nagisa, and Kotomi have no siblings, though their parents are major factors in their stories. Nagisa's story was written to incorporate what Maeda described as a "perfect family" with a focus on mental consciousness. In Nagisa's story, there is a recurring appearance of "The Big Dango Family" (だんご大家族, Dango Daikazoku) (a fictional group mascot for children) that Nagisa is fond of. Tomoya's and Nagisa's characters were written in a style to exemplify a "growth to adulthood" by the end of the story. Fuko's and Kyou's stories have their sisters playing an integral part, and Tomoyo's story is influenced by her entire family. A minor motif of Irish words continues with the opening theme of the game, "Mag Mell", which means roughly "plain of joy" and is connected with Irish mythology. The arrange album, a short music CD that contained remixed versions of songs in the game, that was bundled with the original game release was titled Mabinogi, which was a collection of prose stories from medieval Welsh manuscripts. ### Main characters The player assumes the role of Tomoya Okazaki, the protagonist of Clannad. Tomoya has been labeled a delinquent; at the beginning of the story, he even expresses hatred toward the city he has lived in all his life where Clannad is set. He is very straightforward in his comments to others and will not hesitate to speak his mind, even if he comes off as rude during such times. Despite this, Tomoya is loyal to his friends, and has been known to dedicate himself for those around him in need of help or support. He generally has a selfless personality and does not ask much from others in return for what he does for them. Tomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa, the main heroine of Clannad, at the onset of the story. Nagisa is a shy, lonely girl who has an illness which causes her to rely on those around her for support. Bullied by her schoolmates, she lacks the courage to make new friends. She has developed the strange habit of muttering the names of favorite foods that she plans to eat as a way to motivate herself, such as anpan. Kyou Fujibayashi, another of Clannad's heroines, is an aggressive girl well known as a good cook among her friends and family. When angered, she does not hesitate to throw a dictionary at people that she often carries around for such purposes. Despite this attitude, she also has a more subdued side, especially towards her younger fraternal twin sister Ryou Fujibayashi. Tomoya meets a genius girl named Kotomi Ichinose, one day in the school library. She is ranked in the top 10 throughout the whole country in standardized exam results of every subject—she always goes to library to read extra materials, especially books in foreign languages. Kotomi is a tacit girl with poor social skills and it is quite difficult to communicate with her; Kotomi can even completely ignore someone when reading, even if they make loud disturbances around her. Clannad's fourth heroine is a second-year student named Tomoyo Sakagami who transfers into Tomoya's school. Tomoyo is known to be a strong fighter, preferring to use kicking over punching, and is athletic. Although Tomoya is older than her, Tomoyo does not show him respect as a senior student. Tomoyo appears in Key's fifth game, Tomoyo After: It's a Wonderful Life, as the main heroine. The last heroine in Clannad is a first-year student named Fuko Ibuki who is hyperactive and childish, before she met Tomoya, was generally seen alone by herself making wood carvings of starfish with a small knife to give to others as presents. Fuko is extremely enthralled by starfish, or things that are star-shaped, and will often go into short euphoric bouts where her awareness of her surroundings is completely overtaken. ### Plot Clannad's story revolves around Tomoya Okazaki, a third year high school student who dislikes his life. Tomoya's mother (Atsuko) died when Tomoya was young, leaving his father (Naoyuki) to raise him. After the accident, Tomoya's father turned to alcohol and gambling, and had frequent fights with his son. One day, Naoyuki, while arguing with his son, slammed Tomoya against the window, dislocating Tomoya's shoulder. This injury prevents Tomoya from playing on the basketball team, and causes him to distance himself from others. Ever since then, his father has treated Tomoya nicely, but distantly, as if Tomoya and he were strangers rather than a family. This hurts Tomoya more than his previous relationship with his father, and the awkwardness of returning home leads Tomoya to constantly stay out all night. Thus his delinquent life begins. Tomoya's good friend Youhei Sunohara, who was thrown out of the soccer club over a dispute with his seniors, is also a delinquent and often hangs out in his dorm room with Tomoya doing nothing much. The story opens on Monday April 14, 2003 at the beginning of the school year, when Tomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa, a strange girl who is one year older than he is but is repeating her last year in high school due to being sick much of the previous year. Her goal is to join the drama club which she was unable to do due to her sickness, but they find that the drama club was disbanded after the few remaining members graduated. Since Tomoya has a lot of time to kill, he helps Nagisa in reforming the drama club. During this period, Tomoya meets and hangs out with several other girls whom he gets to know well and help with their individual problems. #### After Story In the second part of the story, which starts immediately after the end of the first part but extends into the next seven years, Tomoya and Nagisa start living together, and eventually get married. Tomoya has to endure several hardships that the family has been suffering from, especially Nagisa's illness. Just after Nagisa gives birth to their daughter Ushio, she dies, which causes Tomoya to become severely depressed. He is barely able to function, let alone look after an infant. As a result, Nagisa's parents, Akio and Sanae, take care of their granddaughter. Five years later, Tomoya meets with Shino Okazaki, his paternal grandmother. Shino tells Tomoya of his father's traumatic past, which is eerily similar to Tomoya's current situation. Afterwards, Tomoya resolves to raise Ushio and acknowledges Naoyuki as his father. Shortly after Tomoya overcomes his depression, Ushio is stricken with the same disease that Nagisa had. Tomoya, Sanae and Akio struggle to save her—Tomoya even quits his job—but all of their efforts turn out to be in vain. In the coming winter, wanting to do anything for his daughter, Tomoya takes her on a trip, but she dies shortly after. Tomoya's psychology is developed in his dreams of a bleak world, called the Illusionary World (幻想世界, Gensō Sekai), where small orbs of light float around. In the first few dreams, he sees a world devoid of all life, except for one girl. Each time he dreams, he finds out more about the world. Tomoya discovers that the girl has a special ability to fuse junk together to create new things, which she uses to create a body for him. Over time, Tomoya comes to the conclusion that only the two of them are "alive". To pass time, Tomoya and the girl try to build another doll with more junk they find, but as it has no soul, it fails to come to life. Remembering the distant world where he came from, Tomoya convinces the girl to build a ship so that the two can escape the approaching winter and continue to live a happy life. Eventually, winter sets in, and the girl becomes cold to the point where she cannot move any more. The girl tells Tomoya that he has another chance to go back and make things right. To do so, he must collect certain "lights" (symbols of happiness) similar to those floating around in the Illusionary World. If all the "lights" are collected throughout both story parts, a chance to save Nagisa from dying will become available, as well as the true ending, where she survives and lives with Tomoya and Ushio. ## Development The executive producer for Clannad was Takahiro Baba from Visual Arts, the publishing company which controls Key. Jun Maeda, who was one of three main scenario writers with Kai, and Yūichi Suzumoto, led the planning for Clannad and wrote the majority of the scenarios. Scenario assistance was provided by Tōya Okano. Itaru Hinoue headed the art direction, and also worked on the character design. Miracle Mikipon, Mochisuke, Na-Ga, and Shinory supplemented the computer graphics. Torino provided the background art. The game's music was composed by Maeda, Shinji Orito, and Magome Togoshi. For Key's second visual novel Air, Maeda admitted he felt he was able to write what he wanted to for the game's scenario, but he later discovered that Air was difficult for players to receive and experience. Due to this, Maeda felt that for Key's next work Clannad, he had a sense of duty to make the game easier to receive for as many users as possible. In any case, he wanted to make it an entertaining game, and started planning on Clannad almost immediately after Air's completion. From the start of Clannad's planning, Maeda did not want to write a story like in Air, but instead wanted to focus on writing a deep connection between the 'people and the town', and 'humanity'. Maeda noted that he exceeded his writing ability when writing most of the scenarios in Clannad, and equates Clannad's writing process as a "wall that I will never be able to get over again." While at the beginning Maeda felt he was prepared, the entire game's story started to increase to a level Maeda never predicted, and Suzumoto noted that it approximately doubled in size from the original projected length. Suzumoto attributed the increase due to the lengthening structure of the game's base scenario which caused the 'branch' scenarios to increase as well. There were more concerns about Clannad being similar to Air. When Nagisa's scenario was being written, there were some disputes concerning the length of her scenario, and thus putting too much focus on the main heroine. Some were concerned that having a single prominent character with a unique storyline would be too much like how Air was structured with the overall focus on Misuzu Kamio. Takahiro Baba, the company president of VisualArt's, is even noted as suggesting to minimize the differences between the other characters' scenarios, but this was ultimately ignored since Maeda thought the game's evaluation by players would not decrease on account of the scenarios being vastly different, and thought the result was a good one. Maeda was concerned that the After Story arc, mainly a continuation of Nagisa's scenario, would eclipse the entire game's scenario, much like what happened with Air according to Maeda. In order to prevent the same thing happening in Clannad, Maeda focused on making the first half of the story, the School Life arc, just as enjoyable by making it long and heart-breaking. Clannad is Key's second longest work, as reported by Yūto Tonokawa where he stated that Clannad is about 4,000 words fewer than Key's 2008 game Little Busters! Ecstasy. ### Release history Key announced in 2001 a release date of 2002 for Clannad and, after several postponements, Clannad was released on April 28, 2004, as a limited edition version, playable on a Windows PC as a DVD. The limited edition came bundled with the remix album Mabinogi remixing background music tracks featured in the visual novel. The regular edition was released on August 6, 2004; While Clannad originally had no voice acting, Key released a version for Windows titled Clannad Full Voice on February 29, 2008, with full voice acting (except for Tomoya). Clannad Full Voice contained one new CG, and had updated support for Windows Vista PCs. Clannad Full Voice was re-released by Key under the name Clannad on July 31, 2009, in a box set containing five other Key visual novels called Key 10th Memorial Box. An updated version compatible for Windows 7 PCs titled Clannad Memorial Edition was released on May 28, 2010. Clannad was released for Windows on Steam by Sekai Project in English on November 23, 2015. In November 2014, Sekai Project used the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to raise funds to produce the English translation of Clannad. After less than 24 hours, the project reached its goal of US\$140,000. When the Kickstarter campaign reached its US\$320,000 stretch goal, Sekai Project announced that they would also be translating and releasing the Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de side stories for Windows. Overall, the Kickstarter campaign raised US\$541,161, exceeding all of its stretch goals. Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released on Steam on June 2, 2016, titled Clannad Side Stories. The first consumer console port of the game was released for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) on February 23, 2006, by Interchannel. The PS2 version was re-released as a "Best" version on July 30, 2009. The PS2 version was bundled in a "Key 3-Part Work Premium Box" package together with the PS2 versions of Kanon and Air released on July 30, 2009. An Xbox 360 version was released on August 28, 2008, also by Prototype. A PlayStation 3 (PS3) version was released by Prototype on April 21, 2011. A downloadable version of the PS3 release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on February 14, 2013. A version produced by NTT DoCoMo playable on FOMA mobile phones was released by Prototype through VisualArt's Motto on November 26, 2007. Prototype later released a version playable on SoftBank 3G phones on January 16, 2008. A version playable on Android devices was released on September 18, 2012. A PlayStation Portable (PSP) version of the game was released in Japan on May 29, 2008, by Prototype, which included the additions from the Windows full voice version. The limited edition release of the PSP and Xbox 360 versions came bundled with a "digest" edition of the drama CD series released by Prototype containing five separate stories each; the CD bundled with the PSP release is different from the CD bundled with the Xbox 360 version. Prototype also released a port of the game for the PlayStation Vita on August 14, 2014, to mark the 10-year anniversary of the game. Prototype released a PlayStation 4 port on June 14, 2018, with text support for both Japanese and English. Prototype released a Nintendo Switch port on July 4, 2019, again with text support for both Japanese and English, and a digital release of the game became available on the Nintendo eShop on the same day. A physical release of the Switch port will receive a limited physical release in a regular and collector's edition via Limited Run Games for a six-week preorder period from April 14 to May 29, 2020. ## Adaptations Clannad (2007–2008) Clannad After Story (2008–2009) </th> </tr> ### Books and publications A magazine-sized 39-page book called pre-Clannad was published by SoftBank Creative on April 15, 2004. The book contained images from the visual novel, and short explanations of the characters, along with production sketches and concept drawings. A 160-page visual fan book was published by Enterbrain on October 12, 2004, which contained detailed story explanations, computer graphics, sheet music for the opening and ending themes, and interviews from the creators. Near the end of the book contains original illustrations of Clannad characters from various artists, three additional chapters of the Official Another Story, and production sketches. A set of 14 illustrated short stories which added to Clannad's story were serialized between the September 2004 and October 2005 issues of ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine. Titled Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de (Official Another Story Clannad 光見守る坂道で, Official Another Story Clannad: On the Hillside Path that Light Watches Over), there were 13 regular chapters and one extra bonus chapter. The installments were written by Key's scenario staff and each story was accompanied by illustrations by Japanese artist GotoP. Two more stories were included when they were collected into a 103-page bound volume released on November 25, 2005. Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was later re-released via SoftBank 3G and FOMA mobile phones produced by Prototype through VisualArt's Motto starting in January 2008. One chapter was released weekly with the SoftBank 3G releases three weeks behind the version for FOMA phones. The collection was released as downloadable content via Xbox Live for the Xbox 360 version of Clannad released on August 28, 2008. Prototype again re-released the short story collection, this time on the PSP in two volumes, each containing eight chapters and including the original art by GotoP. The first volume was released on June 3, 2010, and the second followed on July 15, 2010; the re-release is described by the developers as a "visual sound novel". Prototype released the short story collection as downloadable content on July 6, 2011, for the PS3 version of Clannad. Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de was released in two volumes on Android devices: the first volume on November 30, 2011, and volume two on April 11, 2012. Prototype ported it to the Nintendo Switch on May 20, 2021, with text support for both Japanese and English. Two Clannad anthology character novels were written by several authors and published by Jive in September and December 2004. The first volume of a short story anthology compilation series written by Hiro Akizuki and Mutsuki Misaki titled Clannad. (くらなど。) was released in November 2008 published by Harvest; the third volume was released in October 2009. Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled Clannad SSS were published by Harvest between June and August 2009. Harvest published a novel titled Clannad Mystery File in August 2010 and another novel titled Clannad: Magic Hour in December 2010. ### Manga The first manga illustrated by Juri Misaki titled Clannad Official Comic was serialized in Jive's manga magazine Comic Rush between the May 2005 and April 2009 issues. Jive published eight tankōbon volumes between November 7, 2005, and March 7, 2009. The second manga, titled Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de and illustrated by Rino Fujii, was serialized between June 21, 2007, and August 21, 2008, in Flex Comix's Comi Digi + magazine, and contained 11 chapters. The story for the second manga was adapted from the Clannad short story collection of the same name. The first volume for Official Another Story Clannad was released by Broccoli on February 21, 2008, in a limited and regular edition, each with their own cover. The limited edition comes bundled with a small black notebook with the school emblem of Tomoya's school on the cover. In order to commemorate the sale, an autograph session with the manga's illustrator signing copies was held on March 2, 2008, at Gamers in Nagoya, Japan. The second and final volume, again in limited and regular editions, was released on December 20, 2008. A third Clannad manga illustrated by Shaa began serialization in the August 2007 issue of ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine, published on June 30, 2007. The manga ended serialization in Dengeki G's Magazine in the July 2009 issue, and was serialized in Dengeki G's Festival! Comic between October 26, 2009, and April 28, 2014. ASCII Media Works published five volumes for Shaa's Clannad manga under their Dengeki Comics imprint between February 27, 2008, and July 26, 2014. A fourth manga, titled Clannad: Tomoyo Dearest and illustrated by Yukiko Sumiyoshi, was serialized between February 20 and August 20, 2008, in Fujimi Shobo's Dragon Age Pure magazine. The story centers on Tomoyo's arc from the Clannad visual novel. A single volume for Clannad: Tomoyo Dearest was released on October 9, 2008. There have also been four sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists. The first volume of the earliest anthology series, released by Ohzora under the title Clannad, was released in June 2004 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint. Volumes for this series continued to be released until April 2005 with the fifth volume. The second anthology was released in a single volume by Jive on January 25, 2005, titled Clannad Comic Anthology: Another Symphony. The third anthology series was released in two volumes by Ichijinsha on June 25, 2004, and July 24, 2004, under their DNA Media Comics; a third special volume was released much later on December 25, 2007. The first volume of the last anthology series, a collection of four-panel comic strips released by Enterbrain under the title Magi-Cu 4-koma Clannad, was released on February 25, 2008, under their MC Comics imprint; the tenth volume in the series was released on August 26, 2009. Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume. ### Drama CDs There are two separate sets of drama CDs based on the Clannad series. The first set, produced by Frontier Works, contains five CDs each focusing on a different heroine in Clannad's story ranging from Nagisa, to Kotomi, Fuko, Kyou, and Tomoyo. The first volume was released in Japan on April 25, 2007, as a limited edition with an extra track added. The second through fifth volumes followed in one month increments between May 25, 2007, and August 24, 2007. The second set, produced by Prototype, contains four CDs; the first was released on July 25, 2007. Volumes two through four were released in one month intervals after that, with the last being released on October 24, 2007. Each CD is based on the stories from the Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de collection. The artist GotoP, who provided the illustrations for the short stories, also illustrates the drama CD covers. The drama CDs, with text and visuals, are available as downloadable content via Xbox Live and the PlayStation Store when playing the Xbox 360 and PS3 versions of Clannad, respectively. ### Film Toei Animation (the same team who worked on the original Kanon anime and Air film) announced at the Tokyo Anime Fair on March 23, 2006, that an animated film would be produced. The Clannad film was released on September 15, 2007, directed by the same director of the Air film, Osamu Dezaki, and the screenplay was written by Makoto Nakamura. The film is a reinterpretation of the Clannad storyline which centers on the story arc of the female lead Nagisa Furukawa. The film was released on DVD in three editions: the Collector's Edition, the Special Edition, and the Regular Edition on March 7, 2008. Sentai Filmworks released an English-subbed and dubbed version of the film in March 2011. ### Anime series On March 15, 2007, the Japanese television station BS-i announced a Clannad anime series via a short 30-second teaser trailer that was featured at the end of the final episode of the second Kanon anime series. Clannad is produced by Kyoto Animation, directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, and written by Fumihiko Shimo, who also worked on other adaptations of Key's visual novels Air and Kanon. The anime aired between October 4, 2007, and March 27, 2008, containing 23 aired episodes out of a planned 24; the broadcast time was first announced on August 11, 2007, at the TBS festival Anime Festa, which is also when the first episode was showcased. The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations released between December 19, 2007, and July 16, 2008, by Pony Canyon, with each compilation containing three episodes. Of the 24 episodes, 23 were aired on television with the first 22 being regular episodes, followed by an additional extra episode. The last episode was released as an original video animation (OVA) on the eighth DVD on July 16, 2008, and is set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Tomoyo are dating, which is based on Tomoyo's scenario in the game. The OVA episode was previewed on May 31, 2008, for an audience of four-hundred people picked via a mail-in postcard campaign. A Blu-ray Disc (BD) box set of Clannad was released on April 30, 2010. After the ending of the 23rd episode of the first Clannad anime series, a 15-second teaser trailer aired promoting a second season titled Clannad After Story. The anime is again animated by Kyoto Animation, and animates the After Story arc from the visual novel, which is a continuation of Nagisa's story, into 24 episodes. The same staff and cast from the first anime were used and the series broadcast in Japan between October 3, 2008, and March 26, 2009. Of the 24 episodes, 22 are regular episodes, the 23rd is an extra episode, and the last episode is a summary episode showcasing highlights from the series. The episodes were released on eight DVD compilation volumes between December 3, 2008, and July 1, 2009. The eighth DVD volume came with an additional OVA episode set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Kyou are dating. The OVA episode was previewed on May 24, 2009, to a limited number of people. A BD box set of Clannad After Story was released on April 20, 2011, in Japan with English subtitles. In 2008, Section23 Films through Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad anime series, and ADV Films localized and distributed the television series and the OVA starting with the first half season box set consisting of 12 episodes with English subtitles, Japanese audio, and no English language track, which was released on March 3, 2009. The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released on May 5, 2009. Sentai Filmworks licensed the Clannad After Story anime series; Section23 Films localized and distributed both the television series and OVA starting with the first half season box set with English subtitles released on October 20, 2009. The second half box set was released on December 8, 2009. Sentai Filmworks re-released Clannad in a complete collection set on June 15, 2010, which featured an English dub, produced at Seraphim Digital. The English dub premiered on March 25, 2010, on the Anime Network. Sentai Filmworks re-released Clannad After Story with an English dub on April 19, 2011, and re-released Clannad on BD in November 2011. In the UK and Ireland, Clannad was released on DVD on August 5, 2013, and Clannad After Story was released on September 9, 2013, by Manga Entertainment. Funimation released Clannad and Clannad After Story on Blu-ray in the UK and Ireland on April 26, 2021. The opening theme for the first season is Mag Mell' (cuckool mix 2007)" by Eufonius, a remix of the song Mag Mell' (cockool mix)", featured on the third disc of the game's original soundtrack, which is itself a remix of the game's opening theme "Mag Mell" (メグメル, Megu Meru). The first season's ending theme is "Dango Daikazoku" (だんご大家族, The Big Dango Family) by Chata. It carries the same tune as "Chiisana Tenohira" (小さなてのひら, Small Palms), the ending theme from the After Story arc of the game. The second season's opening theme is "Toki o Kizamu Uta" (時を刻む唄, A Song to Pass the Time) which uses the same tune as the background music track "Onaji Takami e" (同じ高みへ, To the Same Heights) from the game's soundtrack. The ending theme is "Torch", and both the opening and ending themes are sung by Lia. The rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from several albums released for the Clannad visual novel including the Clannad Original Soundtrack, Mabinogi, -Memento-, Sorarado, and Sorarado Append. The cover art for Sorarado Append is also visible as the last shot in the ending video animation of the first season. ### Internet radio shows An Internet radio show to promote the Clannad anime series called Nagisa to Sanae no Omae ni Rainbow (渚と早苗のおまえにレインボー) was broadcast between October 5, 2007, and October 3, 2008, containing 52 episodes. The show, produced by Onsen and Animate TV, was hosted by Mai Nakahara, who played Nagisa Furukawa in the anime, and Kikuko Inoue, who played Sanae Furukawa, and was streamed online every Friday. Several voice actors from the anime adaptation appeared on the show as guests who included Ryō Hirohashi (as Kyou), Atsuko Enomoto (as Yukine), Akemi Kanda (as Ryou), Yuichi Nakamura (as Tomoya), and Daisuke Sakaguchi (as Youhei). A two-disc CD compilation containing the show's first 13 broadcasts was produced on June 18, 2008. The second two-disc CD compilation containing the 14th through 26th broadcasts was released on October 15, 2008, and a third CD volume followed on November 19, 2008. A fourth and final volume was released on February 18, 2009, containing the rest of the broadcasts. A second Internet radio show to promote the Clannad After Story anime series called Nagisa to Sanae to Akio no Omae ni Hyper Rainbow (渚と早苗と秋生のおまえにハイパーレインボー) was broadcast between October 10, 2008, and April 10, 2009, containing 26 episodes. The show was also produced by Onsen and Animate TV, and was streamed online every Friday. The show had three hosts including the previous two plus Ryōtarō Okiayu who plays Akio Furukawa in the anime series. Two two-disc CD compilations were released containing the second radio shows broadcasts, the first released on February 18, 2009, followed by the second on May 29, 2009. ## Music The Clannad visual novel has four pieces of theme music: one opening theme, two ending themes, and an insert song. The opening theme is "Mag Mell" (メグメル, Megu Meru) by Eufonius. The two ending themes are "-Kage Futatsu-" (-影二つ-, -Two Shadows-) and "Chiisana Tenohira" (小さなてのひら, Small Palms) sung by Riya of Eufonius; the latter is used as the ending theme in the After Story arc. The insert song "Ana" is sung by Lia. Six of the characters have background music leitmotifs—the five heroines, and Yukine Miyazawa. Nagisa's theme is the self-titled "Nagisa" (渚); Kyou's theme is "Sore wa Kaze no Yōni" (それは風のように, That's Like the Wind); Kotomi's theme is "Étude Pour les Petites Supercordes"; Tomoyo's theme is "Kanojo no Honki" (彼女の本気, Her Determination); Fuko's theme is "Hurry, Starfish" (は〜りぃすたーふぃしゅ, Ha\~rī Sutāfisshu); lastly, Yukine's theme is "Shiryōshitsu no Ochakai" (資料室のお茶会, Tea Party in the Reference Room). An image song album titled Sorarado was released in December 2003 featuring songs sung by Riya. A remix album, Mabinogi, came bundled with the original release of Clannad in April 2004. The game's original soundtrack was released in August 2004 containing three discs containing 56 tracks. A follow-up to Sorarado was released in December 2004 called Sorarado Append; the songs were again sung by Riya. A remix album titled -Memento- was also released in December 2004 and contained two discs. A piano arrangement album was released in December 2005 called Piano no Mori, which contained five tracks from Clannad and five from Tomoyo After: It's a Wonderful Life. Each of the albums released for the visual novel version were released on Key's record label Key Sounds Label. A maxi single by Eufonius was released in July 2007 for the Clannad film called "Mag Mell (frequency⇒e Ver.)". The single contained a remix version of the game's opening theme, and instrumental track of that remix, and an original track. An image album titled Yakusoku was released in August 2007 featuring a song sung by Lia, an instrumental version of that song, and two background music tracks used in the film. The film's original soundtrack was released in November 2007. The albums released for the film were produced by Frontier Works. A single was released in October 2007 for the first anime series called "Mag Mell / Dango Daikazoku" which contained the anime's opening and ending themes in original, short, and instrumental versions plus a remix version of "Shōjo no Gensō" (少女の幻想, The Girl's Fantasy), a track featured in Sorarado sung by Riya. A single for the second season anime series was released in November 2008 called "Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch", and contains the anime's opening and ending themes sung by Lia. A remix album containing piano arrangement versions of the second anime series' opening and ending themes was released in December 2008 called "Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch" Piano Arrange Disc. The anime series' two singles and one album are released on Key Sounds Label. ## Reception ### Visual novel Across the national ranking of bishōjo games in amount sold in Japan, the Clannad limited edition Windows release premiered at number one twice since its release, and the third ranking brought the Windows release down to 46 out of 50. The first two weeks of June 2004 held the final ranking for the original release at 40 out of 50. The Clannad regular edition Windows release premiered at number 26 in the rankings. The next two rankings for the regular edition were at 37 and 41. According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website, the original Windows version of Clannad sold 100,560 copies in 2004. Clannad Full Voice ranked twice in terms of highest selling PC games nationally in Japan, achieving sales rankings of 7 and 20 in February and March 2008, respectively. For the week of April 18, 2011, the PlayStation 3 port of Clannad sold 7,466 units. The console versions of Clannad had sold over 113,000 copies by April 18, 2011, and 122,393 copies as of 2019. The two-volume PSP editions of Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de sold 28,984 copies by the end of 2010. The English release of the Windows version debuted on the Steam charts at number three, above Call of Duty: Black Ops III and Grand Theft Auto V, and just below Fallout 4 and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine, poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released. Out of 249 titles, Clannad ranked first at 114 votes; in comparison, the second place title, Fate/stay night, got 78 votes. The PlayStation 2 release in 2006 was reviewed by the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu, which gave it an overall score of 26/40 (out of the four individual review scores of 7, 7, 6, and 6). In 2008, Clannad was voted No. 2 in the Dengeki poll of the most emotional games of all time. In 2011, Clannad was voted No. 4 in Famitsu's poll of the most tear-inducing games of all time. In 2014, Sony Computer Entertainment conducted a poll with over 10,000 Japanese fans, where Clannad was voted No. 18 on the "Most Moving Games Over Books and Movies" list. Multiplayer.it^[it] reviewed the Windows version and scored it 9.2 out of 10. They referred to it as "one of the best visual novels ever made", praising the "rich" dialogues and storytelling, "deep" branching narrative, and "lifelike" characterization, referring to the cast as some of the best "characters ever seen" in "the world of video games." RPGFan gave it an overall score of 83%, including 88% for story, 86% gameplay, 74% control, 72% graphics, and 82% sound. The review praised the large number of dialogue choices which "lets you feel involved in how the tale plays out", "many genuinely funny moments," and "emotionally touching" stories, particularly the After Story arc where Clannad "truly excels" with "heart-wrenching" and "emotionally-charged" storytelling, but criticized it for not having enough visuals and for having some "less interesting" side-story paths in the School Life arc which require completion to unlock the After Story arc. ### Anime The two anime series and film DVDs have shown consistent high sales figures. The first anime limited edition DVD ranked third for the week of December 19 and December 25, 2007. The second through fifth limited edition DVDs all ranked first during their first week of sales, while the sixth limited edition DVD volume was ranked fourth for the week of May 21 and May 27, 2008. The seventh and eighth limited edition DVD volumes both ranked first during their first week of sales. The third limited edition DVD ranked sixth for the most anime DVDs sold between December 2007 and November 2008. A Blu-ray Disc box set of Clannad ranked third for the week of April 26 and May 2, 2010, and ranked again at 13 the following week. The special edition film DVD first ranked at number three during its first week of sales, and dropped down to number 10 the following week. The first limited edition DVD for Clannad After Story ranked second during its first week of sales selling 17,521 units. The second through fourth limited edition DVDs for Clannad After Story ranked first during their first week of sales each selling over 16,000 units each. The fifth through seventh limited edition DVDs for Clannad After Story ranked first during their first week of sales selling over 14,000 units each. The eighth limited edition DVD for Clannad After Story ranked second during its first week of sales selling over 19,800 units. The sixth limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of May 11 and May 17, 2009, at number three for anime DVDs. The seventh limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of June 8 and June 14, 2009, at number six for anime DVDs. The eighth limited edition DVD volume ranked again the week of July 6 and July 12, 2009, at number five for anime DVDs. For the anime television adaptation, the first season of Clannad received reviews ranging from positive to mixed, while the second season Clannad After Story received wide critical acclaim. The THEM Anime Reviews website gave the entire series a score of 4 out of 5 stars, with reviewer Tim Jones describing the first season as "the most fleshed-out and real Key animated adaption to date," and reviewer Stig Høgset stating that the second season After Story "will play up the tragedies and the drama considerably, quite possibly tearing out your heart in the process. This is where time truly starts to fly by, lending the show some real weight in the emotional departments." Theron Martin of Anime News Network gave the first season a 'B+' rating, criticizing its extensive use of moe elements, but considered it appealing entertainment for a "fan base who revels in this kind of thing." His review for the second season After Story was much more positive, giving it an 'A−' rating. He praised the second half of the season as "the best-written quarter of Clannad," stating that it "effectively builds up and delivers its emotional appeal, reinforces the series' central theme (i.e. the importance of family), and peaks visually," and concluding that "only the most cynical of souls will avoid shedding at least a few tears at certain points." On the DVD Talk website, the reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. gave Clannad After Story a "Highly Recommended" rating, stating that "the range of emotions Clannad takes you through is quite daunting. It's charming, cute, hilarious, mysterious, and tragic all at the same time. Few shows are as memorable, and few are this good for this long." He concludes that the storytelling is "heartfelt" and "memorable in so many ways," and that "few shows rise to the levels this one does." ### Legacy Gamania Entertainment hosted a collaboration event with Clannad and their two massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) Hiten Online and Holy Beast Online. Between March 26 and June 26, 2008, the two games offered costumes characters could wear which looked like the winter school uniforms from Clannad, along with offering Kyou's pet boar Botan for players to adopt. Players of either game who had a character over level 20 could enter a lottery where 500 people were chosen to win Clannad-related goods which included virtual and real-world items such as file folders, "netcash" cards, sports towels, tapestries, and various items used during gameplay. ASCII Media Works and Vridge produced the PlayStation 2 visual novel Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu: Cosplay Hajimemashita (乃木坂春香の秘密 こすぷれ、はじめました♥, lit. Haruka Nogizaka's Secret: Cosplaying Has Begun) based on the light novel series Nogizaka Haruka no Himitsu. Released in September 2008, the game features the series' characters cosplaying in various costumes either depicting characters from five popular light novel series published by ASCII Media Works, or three Clannad heroines. Haruka Nogizaka can cosplay as Kotomi Ichinose, Mika Nogizaka can cosplay as Nagisa Furukawa (albeit with long hair), and Shiina Amamiya can cosplay as Tomoyo Sakagami. The player can also view exclusive CGs in the game if one of the girls is taken out to various places while cosplaying as one of the aforementioned five light novel series characters, or as the Clannad heroines. For example, if Mika is cosplaying as Nagisa, a CG of her eating dango can become viewable. When cosplaying as one of these tie-in characters, the voice of the girl cosplaying changes to the voice actress of the character they are cosplaying; for example, if Shiina cosplays as Tomoyo, she is voiced by Tomoyo's voice actress Houko Kuwashima. A 3D virtual world called Ai Sp@ce was developed by the video game developer Headlock where users can interact with bishōjo game heroines from Clannad, Shuffle!, and Da Capo II. Released in October 2008, the world recreates each game franchise on its own virtual island which are linked with a central Akihabara Island where users can interact, bridging the gap between the separate franchises. Users are able to create a customizable avatar to represent themselves in the game, along with choosing one game heroine to live with, which is referred to as a character doll, or chara-doll for short. The user and chara-doll reside together on one of the three in-game "islands" depending on which franchise the heroine is from, which includes a house with furniture and clothes that can be purchased. The chara-dolls can also be customizable in that they can develop a unique personality for each user. Characters from Clannad also appear in the Key crossover series Kaginado'', which premiered in 2021.

Tennessee

U.S. state

Tennessee (/ˌtɛnɪˈsiː/ TEN-ih-SEE, locally /ˈtɛnɪsi/ TEN-iss-ee), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked state in the Southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th-largest by area and the 15th-most populous of the 50 states. It is bordered by Kentucky to the north, Virginia to the northeast, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, Arkansas to the southwest, and Missouri to the northwest. Tennessee is geographically, culturally, and legally divided into three Grand Divisions of East, Middle, and West Tennessee. Nashville is the state's capital and largest city, and anchors its largest metropolitan area. Other major cities include Memphis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Clarksville. Tennessee's population as of the 2020 United States census is approximately 6.9 million. Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachian Mountains. Its name derives from "Tanasi", a Cherokee town in the eastern part of the state that existed before the first European American settlement. Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, and later the Southwest Territory, before its admission to the Union as the 16th state on June 1, 1796. It earned the nickname "The Volunteer State" early in its history due to a strong tradition of military service. A slave state until the American Civil War, Tennessee was politically divided, with its western and middle parts supporting the Confederacy and the eastern region harboring pro-Union sentiment. As a result, Tennessee was the last state to secede and the first readmitted to the Union after the war. During the 20th century, Tennessee transitioned from a predominantly agrarian society to a more diversified economy. This was aided in part by massive federal investment in the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and the city of Oak Ridge, which was established during World War II to house the Manhattan Project's uranium enrichment facilities for the construction of the world's first atomic bombs. After the war, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory became a key center of scientific research. In 2016, the element tennessine was named for the state, largely in recognition of the roles played by Oak Ridge, Vanderbilt University, and the University of Tennessee in its discovery. Tennessee has also played a major role in the development of many forms of popular music, including country, blues, rock and roll, soul, and gospel. Tennessee has diverse terrain and landforms, and from east to west, contains a mix of cultural features characteristic of Appalachia, the Upland South, and the Deep South. The Blue Ridge Mountains along the eastern border reach some of the highest elevations in eastern North America, and the Cumberland Plateau contains many scenic valleys and waterfalls. The central part of the state is marked by cavernous bedrock and irregular rolling hills, and level, fertile plains define West Tennessee. The state is twice bisected by the Tennessee River, and the Mississippi River forms its western border. Its economy is dominated by the health care, music, finance, automotive, chemical, electronics, and tourism sectors, and cattle, soybeans, corn, poultry, and cotton are its primary agricultural products. The Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the nation's most visited national park, is in eastern Tennessee. ## Etymology Tennessee derives its name most directly from the Cherokee town of Tanasi (or "Tanase", in syllabary: ᏔᎾᏏ) in present-day Monroe County, Tennessee, on the Tanasi River, now known as the Little Tennessee River. This town appeared on British maps as early as 1725. In 1567, Spanish explorer Captain Juan Pardo and his party encountered a Native American village named "Tanasqui" in the area while traveling inland from modern-day South Carolina; however, it is unknown if this was the same settlement as Tanasi. Recent research suggests that the Cherokees adapted the name from the Yuchi word Tana-tsee-dgee, meaning "brother-waters-place" or "where-the-waters-meet". The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to Governor James Glen of South Carolina, who used this spelling in his official correspondence during the 1750s. In 1788, North Carolina created "Tennessee County", and in 1796, a constitutional convention, organizing the new state out of the Southwest Territory, adopted "Tennessee" as the state's name. ## History ### Pre-European era The first inhabitants of Tennessee were Paleo-Indians who arrived about 12,000 years ago at the end of the Last Glacial Period. Archaeological excavations indicate that the lower Tennessee Valley was heavily populated by Ice Age hunter-gatherers, and Middle Tennessee is believed to have been rich with game animals such as mastodons. The names of the cultural groups who inhabited the area before European contact are unknown, but archaeologists have named several distinct cultural phases, including the Archaic (8000–1000 BC), Woodland (1000 BC–1000 AD), and Mississippian (1000–1600 AD) periods. The Archaic peoples first domesticated dogs, and plants such as squash, corn, gourds, and sunflowers were first grown in Tennessee during the Woodland period. Later generations of Woodland peoples constructed the first mounds. Rapid civilizational development occurred during the Mississippian period, when Indigenous peoples developed organized chiefdoms and constructed numerous ceremonial structures throughout the state. Spanish conquistadors who explored the region in the 16th century encountered some of the Mississippian peoples, including the Muscogee Creek, Yuchi, and Shawnee. By the early 18th century, most Natives in Tennessee had disappeared, most likely wiped out by diseases introduced by the Spaniards. The Cherokee began migrating into what is now eastern Tennessee from what is now Virginia in the latter 17th century, possibly to escape expanding European settlement and diseases in the north. They forced the Creek, Yuchi, and Shawnee out of the state in the early 18th century. The Chickasaw remained confined to West Tennessee, and the middle part of the state contained few Native Americans, although both the Cherokee and the Shawnee claimed the region as their hunting ground. Cherokee peoples in Tennessee were known by European settlers as the Overhill Cherokee because they lived west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Overhill settlements grew along the rivers in East Tennessee in the early 18th century. ### Exploration and colonization The first recorded European expeditions into what is now Tennessee were led by Spanish explorers Hernando de Soto in 1540–1541, Tristan de Luna in 1559, and Juan Pardo in 1566–1567. In 1673, English fur trader Abraham Wood sent an expedition from the Colony of Virginia into Overhill Cherokee territory in modern-day northeastern Tennessee. That same year, a French expedition led by missionary Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi River and became the first Europeans to map the Mississippi Valley. In 1682, an expedition led by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle constructed Fort Prudhomme on the Chickasaw Bluffs in West Tennessee. By the late 17th century, French traders began to explore the Cumberland River valley, and in 1714, under Charles Charleville's command, established French Lick, a fur trading settlement at the present location of Nashville near the Cumberland River. In 1739, the French constructed Fort Assumption under Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville on the Mississippi River at the present location of Memphis, which they used as a base against the Chickasaw during the 1739 Campaign of the Chickasaw Wars. In the 1750s and 1760s, longhunters from Virginia explored much of East and Middle Tennessee. Settlers from the Colony of South Carolina built Fort Loudoun on the Little Tennessee River in 1756, the first British settlement in what is now Tennessee and the westernmost British outpost to that date. Hostilities erupted between the British and the Cherokees into an armed conflict, and a siege of the fort ended with its surrender in 1760. After the French and Indian War, Britain issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which forbade settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains in an effort to mitigate conflicts with the Natives. But migration across the mountains continued, and the first permanent European settlers began arriving in northeastern Tennessee in the late 1760s. Most of them were English, but nearly 20% were Scotch-Irish. They formed the Watauga Association in 1772, a semi-autonomous representative government, and three years later reorganized themselves into the Washington District to support the cause of the American Revolutionary War. The next year, after an unsuccessful petition to Virginia, North Carolina agreed to annex the Washington District to provide protection from Native American attacks. In 1775, Richard Henderson negotiated a series of treaties with the Cherokee to sell the lands of the Watauga settlements at Sycamore Shoals on the banks of the Watauga River. An agreement to sell land for the Transylvania Colony, which included the territory in Tennessee north of the Cumberland River, was also signed. Later that year, Daniel Boone, under Henderson's employment, blazed a trail from Fort Chiswell in Virginia through the Cumberland Gap, which became part of the Wilderness Road, a major thoroughfare into Tennessee and Kentucky. The Chickamauga, a Cherokee faction loyal to the British led by Dragging Canoe, opposed the settling of the Washington District and Transylvania Colony, and in 1776 attacked Fort Watauga at Sycamore Shoals. The warnings of Dragging Canoe's cousin Nancy Ward spared many settlers' lives from the initial attacks. In 1779, James Robertson and John Donelson led two groups of settlers from the Washington District to the French Lick. These settlers constructed Fort Nashborough, which they named for Francis Nash, a brigadier general of the Continental Army. The next year, the settlers signed the Cumberland Compact, which established a representative government for the colony called the Cumberland Association. This settlement later grew into the city of Nashville. That same year John Sevier led a group of Overmountain Men from Fort Watauga to the Battle of Kings Mountain in South Carolina, where they defeated the British. Three counties of the Washington District broke off from North Carolina in 1784 and formed the State of Franklin. Efforts to obtain admission to the Union failed, and the counties, now numbering eight, rejoined North Carolina by 1788. North Carolina ceded the area to the federal government in 1790, after which it was organized into the Southwest Territory on May 26 of that year. The act allowed the territory to petition for statehood once the population reached 60,000. Administration of the territory was divided between the Washington District and the Mero District, the latter of which consisted of the Cumberland Association and was named for Spanish territorial governor Esteban Rodríguez Miró. President George Washington appointed William Blount as territorial governor. The Southwest Territory recorded a population of 35,691 in the first United States census that year, including 3,417 slaves. ### Statehood and antebellum era As support for statehood grew among the settlers, Governor Blount called for elections, which were held in December 1793. The 13-member territorial House of Representatives first convened in Knoxville on February 24, 1794, to select ten members for the legislature's upper house, the council. The full legislature convened on August 25, 1794. In June 1795, the legislature conducted a census of the territory, which recorded a population of 77,263, including 10,613 slaves, and a poll that showed 6,504 in favor of statehood and 2,562 opposed. Elections for a constitutional convention were held in December 1795, and the delegates convened in Knoxville on January 17, 1796, to begin drafting a state constitution. During this convention, the name Tennessee was chosen for the new state. The constitution was completed on February 6, which authorized elections for the state's new legislature, the Tennessee General Assembly. The legislature convened on March 28, 1796, and the next day, John Sevier was announced as the state's first governor. Tennessee was admitted to the Union on June 1, 1796, as the 16th state and the first created from federal territory. Tennessee reportedly earned the nickname "The Volunteer State" during the War of 1812, when 3,500 Tennesseans answered a recruitment call by the General Assembly for the war effort. These soldiers, under Andrew Jackson's command, played a major role in the American victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, the last major battle of the war. Several Tennesseans took part in the Texas Revolution of 1835–36, including Governor Sam Houston and Congressman and frontiersman Davy Crockett, who was killed at the Battle of the Alamo. The state's nickname was solidified during the Mexican–American War when President James K. Polk of Tennessee issued a call for 2,800 soldiers from the state, and more than 30,000 volunteered. Between the 1790s and 1820s, additional land cessions were negotiated with the Cherokee, who had established a national government modeled on the U.S. Constitution. In 1818, Jackson and Kentucky governor Isaac Shelby reached an agreement with the Chickasaw to sell the land between the Mississippi and Tennessee Rivers to the United States, which included all of West Tennessee and became known as the "Jackson Purchase". The Cherokee moved their capital from Georgia to the Red Clay Council Grounds in southeastern Tennessee in 1832, due to new laws forcing them from their previous capital at New Echota. In 1838 and 1839, U.S. troops forcibly removed thousands of Cherokees and their black slaves from their homes in southeastern Tennessee and forced them to march to Indian Territory in modern-day Oklahoma. This event is known as the Trail of Tears, and an estimated 4,000 died along the way. As settlers pushed west of the Cumberland Plateau, a slavery-based agrarian economy took hold in these regions. Cotton planters used extensive slave labor on large plantation complexes in West Tennessee's fertile and flat terrain after the Jackson Purchase. Cotton also took hold in the Nashville Basin during this time. Entrepreneurs such as Montgomery Bell used slaves in the production of iron in the Western Highland Rim, and slaves also cultivated such crops as tobacco and corn throughout the Highland Rim. East Tennessee's geography did not allow for large plantations as in the middle and western parts of the state, and as a result, slavery became increasingly rare in the region. A strong abolition movement developed in East Tennessee, beginning as early as 1797, and in 1819, Elihu Embree of Jonesborough began publishing the Manumission Intelligencier (later The Emancipator), the nation's first exclusively anti-slavery newspaper. ### Civil War At the onset of the American Civil War, most Middle and West Tennesseans favored efforts to preserve their slavery-based economies, but many Middle Tennesseans were initially skeptical of secession. In East Tennessee, most people favored remaining in the Union. In 1860, slaves composed about 25% of Tennessee's population, the lowest share among the states that joined the Confederacy. Tennessee provided more Union troops than any other Confederate state, and the second-highest number of Confederate troops, behind Virginia. Due to its central location, Tennessee was a crucial state during the war and saw more military engagements than any state except Virginia. After Abraham Lincoln was elected president in 1860, secessionists in the state government led by Governor Isham Harris sought voter approval to sever ties with the United States, which was rejected in a referendum by a 54–46% margin in February 1861. After the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in April and Lincoln's call for troops in response, the legislature ratified an agreement to enter a military league with the Confederacy on May 7, 1861. On June 8, with Middle Tennesseans having significantly changed their position, voters approved a second referendum on secession by a 69–31% margin, becoming the last state to secede. In response, East Tennessee Unionists organized a convention in Knoxville with the goal of splitting the region to form a new state loyal to the Union. In the fall of 1861, Unionist guerrillas in East Tennessee burned bridges and attacked Confederate sympathizers, leading the Confederacy to invoke martial law in parts of the region. In March 1862, Lincoln appointed native Tennessean and War Democrat Andrew Johnson as military governor of the state. General Ulysses S. Grant and the U.S. Navy captured the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers in February 1862 at the battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. Grant then proceeded south to Pittsburg Landing and held off a Confederate counterattack at Shiloh in April in what was at the time the bloodiest battle of the war. Memphis fell to the Union in June after a naval battle on the Mississippi River. Union strength in Middle Tennessee was tested in a series of Confederate offensives beginning in the summer of 1862, which culminated in General William Rosecrans's Army of the Cumberland routing General Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee at Stones River, another one of the war's costliest engagements. The next summer, Rosecrans's Tullahoma campaign forced Bragg's remaining troops in Middle Tennessee to retreat to Chattanooga with little fighting. During the Chattanooga campaign, Confederates attempted to besiege the Army of the Cumberland into surrendering, but reinforcements from the Army of the Tennessee under the command of Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, and Joseph Hooker arrived. The Confederates were driven from the city at the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge in November 1863. Despite Unionist sentiment in East Tennessee, Confederates held the area for most of the war. A few days after the fall of Chattanooga, Confederates led by James Longstreet unsuccessfully campaigned to take control of Knoxville by attacking Union General Ambrose Burnside's Fort Sanders. The capture of Chattanooga allowed Sherman to launch the Atlanta campaign from the city in May 1864. The last major battles in the state came when Army of Tennessee regiments under John Bell Hood invaded Middle Tennessee in the fall of 1864 in an effort to draw Sherman back. They were checked by John Schofield at Franklin in November and completely dispersed by George Thomas at Nashville in December. On April 27, 1865, the worst maritime disaster in American history occurred when the Sultana steamboat, which was transporting freed Union prisoners, exploded in the Mississippi River north of Memphis, killing 1,168 people. When the Emancipation Proclamation was announced, Tennessee was largely held by Union forces and thus not among the states enumerated, so it freed no slaves there. Andrew Johnson declared all slaves in Tennessee free on October 24, 1864. On February 22, 1865, the legislature approved an amendment to the state constitution prohibiting slavery, which was approved by voters the following month, making Tennessee the only Southern state to abolish slavery. Tennessee ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, which outlawed slavery in every state, on April 7, 1865, and the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to former slaves, on July 18, 1866. Johnson became vice president when Lincoln was reelected, and president after Lincoln's assassination in May 1865. On July 24, 1866, Tennessee became the first Confederate state to have its elected members readmitted to Congress. ### Reconstruction and late 19th century The years after the Civil War were characterized by tension and unrest between blacks and former Confederates, the worst of which occurred in Memphis in 1866. Because Tennessee had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment before its readmission to the Union, it was the only former secessionist state that did not have a military governor during Reconstruction. The Radical Republicans seized control of the state government toward the end of the war, and appointed William G. "Parson" Brownlow governor. Under Brownlow's administration from 1865 to 1869, the legislature allowed African American men to vote, disenfranchised former Confederates, and took action against the Ku Klux Klan, which was founded in December 1865 in Pulaski as a vigilante group to advance former Confederates' interests. In 1870, Southern Democrats regained control of the state legislature, and over the next two decades, passed Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation. A number of epidemics swept through Tennessee in the years after the Civil War, including cholera in 1873, which devastated the Nashville area, and yellow fever in 1878, which killed more than one-tenth of Memphis's residents. Reformers worked to modernize Tennessee into a "New South" economy during this time. With the help of Northern investors, Chattanooga became one of the first industrialized cities in the South. Memphis became known as the "Cotton Capital of the World" during the late 19th century, and Nashville, Knoxville, and several smaller cities saw modest industrialization. Northerners also began exploiting the coalfields and mineral resources in the Appalachian Mountains. To pay off debts and alleviate overcrowded prisons, the state turned to convict leasing, providing prisoners to mining companies as strikebreakers, which was protested by miners forced to compete with the system. An armed uprising in the Cumberland Mountains known as the Coal Creek War in 1891 and 1892 resulted in the state ending convict leasing. Despite New South promoters' efforts, agriculture continued to dominate Tennessee's economy. The majority of freed slaves were forced into sharecropping during the latter 19th century, and many others worked as agricultural wage laborers. In 1897, Tennessee celebrated its statehood centennial one year late with the Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition in Nashville. A full-scale replica of the Parthenon in Athens was designed by architect William Crawford Smith and constructed for the celebration, owing to the city's reputation as the "Athens of the South". ### Earlier 20th century Due to increasing racial segregation and poor standards of living, many black Tennesseans fled to industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest as part of the first wave of the Great Migration between 1915 and 1930. Many residents of rural parts of Tennessee relocated to larger cities during this time for more lucrative employment opportunities. As part of the Temperance movement, Tennessee became the first state in the nation to effectively ban the sale, transportation, and production of alcohol in a series of laws passed between 1907 and 1917. During Prohibition, illicit production of moonshine became extremely common in East Tennessee, particularly in the mountains, and continued for many decades afterward. Sgt. Alvin C. York of Fentress County became one of the most famous and honored American soldiers of World War I. He received the Congressional Medal of Honor for single-handedly capturing an entire German machine gun regiment during the Meuse–Argonne offensive. On July 9, 1918, Tennessee suffered the worst rail accident in U.S. history when two passenger trains collided head on in Nashville, killing 101 and injuring 171. On August 18, 1920, Tennessee became the 36th and final state necessary to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave women the right to vote. In 1925, John T. Scopes, a high school teacher in Dayton, was tried and convicted for teaching evolution in violation of the state's recently passed Butler Act. Scopes was prosecuted by former Secretary of State and presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan and defended by attorney Clarence Darrow. The case was intentionally publicized, and highlighted the creationism-evolution controversy among religious groups. In 1926, Congress authorized the establishment of a national park in the Great Smoky Mountains, which was officially established in 1934 and dedicated in 1940. When the Great Depression struck in 1929, much of Tennessee was severely impoverished even by national standards. As part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was created in 1933 to provide electricity, jobs, flood control, improved waterway navigation, agricultural development, and economic modernization to the Tennessee River Valley. The TVA built several hydroelectric dams in the state in the 1930s and 1940s, which inundated communities and thousands of farmland acreage, and forcibly displaced families via eminent domain. The agency quickly grew into the country's largest electric utility and initiated a period of dramatic economic growth and transformation that brought many new industries and employment opportunities to the state. During World War II, East Tennessee was chosen for the production of weapons-grade fissile enriched uranium as part of the Manhattan Project, a research and development undertaking led by the U.S. to produce the world's first atomic bombs. The planned community of Oak Ridge was built to provide accommodations for the facilities and workers; the site was chosen due to the abundance of TVA electric power, its low population density, and its inland geography and topography, which allowed for the natural separation of the facilities and a low vulnerability to attack. The Clinton Engineer Works was established as the production arm of the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge, which enriched uranium at three major facilities for use in atomic bombs. The first of the bombs was detonated in Los Alamos, New Mexico, in a test code-named Trinity, and the second, nicknamed "Little Boy", was dropped on Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. After the war, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory became an institution for scientific and technological research. ### Mid-20th century to present After the U.S. Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, Oak Ridge High School in 1955 became the first school in Tennessee to be integrated. The next year, nearby Clinton High School was integrated, and Tennessee National Guard troops were sent in after pro-segregationists threatened violence. Between February and May 1960, a series of sit-ins at segregated lunch counters in Nashville organized by the Nashville Student Movement resulted in the desegregation of facilities in the city. On April 4, 1968, James Earl Ray assassinated civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis. King had traveled there to support striking African American sanitation workers. The 1962 U.S. Supreme Court case Baker v. Carr arose out of a challenge to the longstanding rural bias of apportionment of seats in the Tennessee legislature and established the principle of "one man, one vote". The construction of Interstate 40 through Memphis became a national talking point on the issue of eminent domain and grassroots lobbying when the Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) attempted to construct the highway through the city's Overton Park. A local activist group spent many years contesting the project, and in 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court sided with the group and established the framework for judicial review of government agencies in the landmark case of Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe. TVA's construction of the Tellico Dam in Loudon County became the subject of national controversy in the 1970s when the endangered snail darter fish was reported to be affected by the project. After lawsuits by environmental groups, the debate was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court case Tennessee Valley Authority v. Hill in 1978, leading to amendments of the Endangered Species Act. The 1982 World's Fair was held in Knoxville. Also known as the Knoxville International Energy Exposition, the fair's theme was "Energy Turns the World". The exposition was one of the most successful, and the most recent world's fair to be held in the U.S. In 1986, Tennessee held a yearlong celebration of the state's heritage and culture called "Homecoming '86". Tennessee celebrated its bicentennial in 1996 with a yearlong celebration called "Tennessee 200". A new state park that traces the state's history, Bicentennial Mall, was opened at the foot of Capitol Hill in Nashville. The same year, the whitewater slalom events at the Atlanta Summer Olympic Games were held on the Ocoee River in Polk County. In 2002, Tennessee amended its constitution to establish a lottery. In 2006, the state constitution was amended to outlaw same-sex marriage. This amendment was invalidated by the 2015 U.S. Supreme Court case Obergefell v. Hodges. On December 23, 2008, the largest industrial waste spill in United States history occurred at TVA's Kingston Fossil Plant when more than 1.1 billion gallons of coal ash slurry was accidentally released into the Emory and Clinch Rivers. The cleanup cost more than \$1 billion and lasted until 2015. ## Geography Tennessee is in the Southeastern United States. Culturally, most of the state is considered part of the Upland South, and the eastern third is part of Appalachia. Tennessee covers roughly 42,143 square miles (109,150 km²), of which 926 square miles (2,400 km²), or 2.2%, is water. It is the 16th smallest state in land area. The state is about 440 miles (710 km) long from east to west and 112 miles (180 km) wide from north to south. Tennessee is geographically, culturally, economically, and legally divided into three Grand Divisions: East Tennessee, Middle Tennessee, and West Tennessee. It borders eight other states: Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi on the south, and Arkansas and Missouri on the west. It is tied with Missouri as the state bordering the most other states. Tennessee is trisected by the Tennessee River, and its geographical center is in Murfreesboro. Nearly three–fourths of the state is in the Central Time Zone, with most of East Tennessee on Eastern Time. The Tennessee River forms most of the division between Middle and West Tennessee. Tennessee's eastern boundary roughly follows the highest crests of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and the Mississippi River forms its western boundary. Due to flooding of the Mississippi that has changed its path, the state's western boundary deviates from the river in some places. The northern border was originally defined as 36°30′ north latitude and the Royal Colonial Boundary of 1665, but due to faulty surveys, begins north of this line in the east, and to the west, gradually veers north before shifting south onto the actual 36°30′ parallel at the Tennessee River in West Tennessee. Uncertainties in the latter 19th century over the location of the state's border with Virginia culminated in the U.S. Supreme Court settling the matter in 1893, which resulted in the division of Bristol between the two states. An 1818 survey erroneously placed Tennessee's southern border 1 mile (1.6 km) south of the 35th parallel; Georgia legislators continue to dispute this placement, as it prevents Georgia from accessing the Tennessee River. Marked by a diversity of landforms and topographies, Tennessee features six principal physiographic provinces, from east to west, which are part of three larger regions: the Blue Ridge Mountains, Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and Cumberland Plateau, part of the Appalachian Mountains; the Highland Rim and Nashville Basin, part of the Interior Low Plateaus of the Interior Plains; and the East Gulf Coastal Plain, part of the Atlantic Plains. Other regions include the southern tip of the Cumberland Mountains, the Western Tennessee Valley, and the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. The state's highest point, which is also the third-highest peak in eastern North America, is Clingmans Dome, at 6,643 feet (2,025 m) above sea level. Its lowest point, 178 feet (54 m), is on the Mississippi River at the Mississippi state line in Memphis. Tennessee has the most caves in the United States, with more than 10,000 documented. Geological formations in Tennessee largely correspond with the state's topographic features, and, in general, decrease in age from east to west. The state's oldest rocks are igneous strata more than 1 billion years old found in the Blue Ridge Mountains, and the youngest deposits in Tennessee are sands and silts in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain and river valleys that drain into the Mississippi River. Tennessee is considered seismically active and contains two major seismic zones, although destructive earthquakes rarely occur there. The Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone spans the entirety of East Tennessee from northwestern Alabama to southwestern Virginia, and is considered one of the most active zones in the Southeastern United States, frequently producing low-magnitude earthquakes. The New Madrid Seismic Zone in the northwestern part of the state produced a series of devastating earthquakes between December 1811 and February 1812 that formed Reelfoot Lake near Tiptonville. ### Topography The southwestern Blue Ridge Mountains lie within Tennessee's eastern edge, and are divided into several subranges, namely the Great Smoky Mountains, Bald Mountains, Unicoi Mountains, Unaka Mountains, and Iron Mountains. These mountains, which average 5,000 feet (1,500 m) above sea level in Tennessee, contain some of the highest elevations in eastern North America. The state's border with North Carolina roughly follows the highest peaks of this range, including Clingmans Dome. Most of the Blue Ridge area is protected by the Cherokee National Forest, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and several federal wilderness areas and state parks. The Appalachian Trail roughly follows the North Carolina state line before shifting westward into Tennessee. Stretching west from the Blue Ridge Mountains for about 55 miles (89 km) are the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, also known as the Tennessee Valley or Great Valley of East Tennessee. This area consists of linear parallel ridges separated by valleys that trend northeast to southwest, the general direction of the entire Appalachian range. Most of these ridges are low, but some of the higher ones are commonly called mountains. Numerous tributaries join to form the Tennessee River in the Ridge and Valley region. The Cumberland Plateau rises to the west of the Tennessee Valley, with an average elevation of 2,000 feet (610 m). This landform is part of the larger Appalachian Plateau and consists mostly of flat-topped tablelands. The plateau's eastern edge is relatively distinct, but the western escarpment is irregular, containing several long, crooked stream valleys separated by rocky cliffs with numerous waterfalls. The Cumberland Mountains, with peaks above 3,500 feet (1,100 m), comprise the northeastern part of the Appalachian Plateau in Tennessee, and the southeastern part of the Cumberland Plateau is divided by the Sequatchie Valley. The Cumberland Trail traverses the eastern escarpment of the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountains. West of the Cumberland Plateau is the Highland Rim, an elevated plain that surrounds the Nashville Basin, a geological dome. Both of these physiographic provinces are part of the Interior Low Plateaus of the larger Interior Plains. The Highland Rim is Tennessee's largest geographic region, and is often split into eastern and western halves. The Eastern Highland Rim is characterized by relatively level plains dotted by rolling hills, and the Western Highland Rim and western Nashville Basin are covered with uneven rounded knobs with steep ravines separated by meandering streams. The Nashville Basin has rich, fertile farmland, and porous limestone bedrock very close to the surface underlies both the Nashville Basin and Eastern Highland Rim. This results in karst that forms numerous caves, sinkholes, depressions, and underground streams. West of the Highland Rim is the Western Tennessee Valley, which consists of about 10 miles (16 km) in width of hilly land along the banks of the Tennessee River. West of this is the Gulf Coastal Plain, a broad feature that begins at the Gulf of Mexico and extends northward into southern Illinois. The plain begins in the east with low rolling hills and wide stream valleys, known as the West Tennessee Highlands, and gradually levels out to the west. It ends at steep loess bluffs overlooking the Mississippi embayment, the westernmost physiographic division of Tennessee, which is part of the larger Mississippi Alluvial Plain. This flat 10 to 14 miles (16 to 23 km) wide strip is commonly known as the Mississippi Bottoms, and contains lowlands, floodplains, and swamps. ### Hydrology Tennessee is drained by three major rivers, the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Mississippi. The Tennessee River begins at the juncture of the Holston and French Broad rivers in Knoxville, flows southwest to Chattanooga, and exits into Alabama before reemerging in the western part of the state and flowing north into Kentucky. Its major tributaries include the Clinch, Little Tennessee, Hiwassee, Sequatchie, Elk, Beech, Buffalo, Duck, and Big Sandy rivers. The Cumberland River flows through the north-central part of the state, emerging in the northeastern Highland Rim, passing through Nashville, turning northwest to Clarksville, and entering Kentucky east of the Tennessee River. Its principal branches in Tennessee are the Obey, Caney Fork, Stones, Harpeth, and Red rivers. The Mississippi River drains nearly all of West Tennessee. Its tributaries are the Obion, Forked Deer, Hatchie, Loosahatchie, and Wolf rivers. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers operate many hydroelectric dams on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers and their tributaries, which form large reservoirs throughout the state. About half the state's land area is in the Tennessee Valley drainage basin of the Tennessee River. The Cumberland River basin covers the northern half of Middle Tennessee and a small portion of East Tennessee. A small part of north-central Tennessee is in the Green River watershed. All three of these basins are tributaries of the Ohio River watershed. Most of West Tennessee is in the Lower Mississippi River watershed. The entirety of the state is in the Mississippi River watershed, except for a small sliver near the southeastern corner traversed by the Conasauga River, which is part of the Mobile Bay watershed. ### Ecology Tennessee is within a temperate deciduous forest biome commonly known as the Eastern Deciduous Forest. It has eight ecoregions: the Blue Ridge, Ridge and Valley, Central Appalachian, Southwestern Appalachian, Interior Low Plateaus, Southeastern Plains, Mississippi Valley Loess Plains, and Mississippi Alluvial Plain regions. Tennessee is the most biodiverse inland state, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is the most biodiverse national park, and the Duck River is the most biologically diverse waterway in North America. The Nashville Basin is renowned for its diversity of flora and fauna. Tennessee is home to 340 species of birds, 325 freshwater fish species, 89 mammals, 77 amphibians, and 61 reptiles. Forests cover about 52% of Tennessee's land area, with oak–hickory the dominant type. Appalachian oak–pine and cove hardwood forests are found in the Blue Ridge Mountains and Cumberland Plateau, and bottomland hardwood forests are common throughout the Gulf Coastal Plain. Pine forests are also found throughout the state. The Southern Appalachian spruce–fir forest in the highest elevations of the Blue Ridge Mountains is considered the second-most endangered ecosystem in the country. Some of the last remaining large American chestnut trees grow in the Nashville Basin and are being used to help breed blight-resistant trees. Middle Tennessee is home to many unusual and rare ecosystems known as cedar glades, which occur in areas with shallow limestone bedrock that is largely barren of overlying soil and contain many endemic plant species. Common mammals found throughout Tennessee include white-tailed deer, red and gray foxes, coyotes, raccoons, opossums, wild turkeys, rabbits, and squirrels. Black bears are found in the Blue Ridge Mountains and on the Cumberland Plateau. Tennessee has the third-highest number of amphibian species, with the Great Smoky Mountains home to the most salamander species in the world. The state ranks second in the nation for the diversity of its freshwater fish species. ### Climate Most of Tennessee has a humid subtropical climate, with the exception of some of the higher elevations in the Appalachians, which are classified as a cooler mountain temperate or humid continental climate. The Gulf of Mexico is the dominant factor in Tennessee's climate, with winds from the south responsible for most of the state's annual precipitation. Generally, the state has hot summers and mild to cool winters with generous precipitation throughout the year. The highest average monthly precipitation usually occurs between December and April. The driest months, on average, are August to October. The state receives an average of 50 inches (130 cm) of precipitation annually. Snowfall ranges from 5 inches (13 cm) in West Tennessee to over 80 inches (200 cm) in East Tennessee's highest mountains. Summers are generally hot and humid, with most of the state averaging a high of around 90 °F (32 °C). Winters tend to be mild to cool, decreasing in temperature at higher elevations. For areas outside the highest mountains, the average overnight lows are generally near freezing. The highest recorded temperature was 113 °F (45 °C) at Perryville on August 9, 1930, while the lowest recorded temperature was −32 °F (−36 °C) at Mountain City on December 30, 1917. While Tennessee is far enough from the coast to avoid any direct impact from a hurricane, its location makes it susceptible to the remnants of tropical cyclones, which weaken over land and can cause significant rainfall. The state annually averages about 50 days of thunderstorms, which can be severe with large hail and damaging winds. Tornadoes are possible throughout the state, with West and Middle Tennessee the most vulnerable. The state averages 15 tornadoes annually. They can be severe, and the state leads the nation in the percentage of total tornadoes that have fatalities. Winter storms such as in 1993 and 2021 occur occasionally, and ice storms are fairly common. Fog is a persistent problem in some areas, especially in East Tennessee. ## Cities, towns, and counties Tennessee is divided into 95 counties, each of which has a county seat. The state has 340 municipalities in total. The Office of Management and Budget designates ten metropolitan areas in Tennessee, four of which extend into neighboring states. Nashville is Tennessee's capital and largest city, with nearly 700,000 residents. Its 13-county metropolitan area has been the state's largest since the early 1990s and is one of the nation's fastest-growing metropolitan areas, with about 2 million residents. Memphis, with more than 630,000 inhabitants, was the state's largest city until 2016, when Nashville surpassed it. It is in Shelby County, Tennessee's largest county in both population and land area. Knoxville, with about 190,000 inhabitants, and Chattanooga, with about 180,000 residents, are the third- and fourth-largest cities, respectively. Clarksville is a significant population center, with about 170,000 residents. Murfreesboro is the sixth-largest city and Nashville's largest suburb, with more than 150,000 residents. In addition to the major cities, the Tri-Cities of Kingsport, Bristol, and Johnson City are considered the sixth major population center. ## Demographics The 2020 United States census reported Tennessee's population at 6,910,840, an increase of 564,735, or 8.90%, since the 2010 census. Between 2010 and 2019, the state received a natural increase of 143,253 (744,274 births minus 601,021 deaths), and an increase from net migration of 338,428 people into the state. Immigration from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 79,086, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 259,342. Tennessee's center of population is in Murfreesboro in Rutherford County. According to the 2010 census, 6.4% of Tennessee's population were under age 5, 23.6% were under 18, and 13.4% were 65 or older. In recent years, Tennessee has been a top source of domestic migration, receiving an influx of people relocating from places such as California, the Northeast, and the Midwest due to the low cost of living and booming employment opportunities. In 2019, about 5.5% of Tennessee's population was foreign-born. Of the foreign-born population, approximately 42.7% were naturalized citizens and 57.3% non-citizens. The foreign-born population consisted of approximately 49.9% from Latin America, 27.1% from Asia, 11.9% from Europe, 7.7% from Africa, 2.7% from Northern America, and 0.6% from Oceania. In 2018, The top countries of origin for Tennessee's immigrants were Mexico, India, Honduras, China and Egypt. With the exception of a slump in the 1980s, Tennessee has been one of the fastest-growing states in the nation since 1970, benefiting from the larger Sun Belt phenomenon. The state has been a top destination for people relocating from Northeastern and Midwestern states. This time period has seen the birth of new economic sectors in the state and has positioned the Nashville and Clarksville metropolitan areas as two of the fastest-growing regions in the country. According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 10,567 homeless people in Tennessee. ### Ethnicity In 2020, 6.9% of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race), up from 4.6% in 2010. Between 2000 and 2010, Tennessee's Hispanic population grew by 134.2%, the third-highest rate of any state. In 2020, Non-Hispanic or Latino Whites were 70.9% of the population, compared to 57.7% of the population nationwide. In 2010, the five most common self-reported ethnic groups in the state were American (26.5%), English (8.2%), Irish (6.6%), German (5.5%), and Scotch-Irish (2.7%). Most Tennesseans who self-identify as having American ancestry are of English and Scotch-Irish ancestry. An estimated 21–24% of Tennesseans are of predominantly English ancestry. ### Religion Since colonization, Tennessee has always been predominantly Christian. About 81% of the population identifies as Christian, with Protestants making up 73% of the population. Of the Protestants in the state, Evangelical Protestants compose 52% of the population, Mainline Protestants 13%, and Historically Black Protestants 8%. Roman Catholics make up 6%, Mormons 1%, and Orthodox Christians less than 1%. The largest denominations by number of adherents are the Southern Baptist Convention, the United Methodist Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Churches of Christ. Muslims and Jews each make up about 1% of the population, and adherents of other religions make up about 3% of the population. About 14% of Tennesseans are non-religious, with 11% identifying as "Nothing in particular", 3% as agnostics, and 1% as atheists. Tennessee is included in most definitions of the Bible Belt, and is ranked as one of the nation's most religious states. Several Protestant denominations have their headquarters in Tennessee, including the Southern Baptist Convention and National Baptist Convention (in Nashville); the Church of God in Christ and the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (in Memphis); and the Church of God and the Church of God of Prophecy (in Cleveland); and the National Association of Free Will Baptists (in Antioch). Nashville has publishing houses of several denominations. ## Economy As of 2021, Tennessee had a gross state product of \$418.3 billion. In 2020, the state's per capita personal income was \$30,869. The median household income was \$54,833. About 13.6% percent of the population was below the poverty line. In 2019, the state reported a total employment of 2,724,545 and a total number of 139,760 employer establishments. Tennessee is a right-to-work state, like most of its Southern neighbors. Unionization has historically been low and continues to decline, as in most of the U.S. ### Taxation Tennessee has a reputation as a low-tax state and is usually ranked as one of the five states with the lowest tax burden on residents. Despite being low-tax, it is ranked third among U.S. states for fiscal health. It is one of nine states that do not have a general income tax; the sales tax is the primary means of funding the government. The Hall income tax was imposed on most dividends and interest at a rate of 6% but was completely phased out by 2021. The first \$1,250 of individual income and \$2,500 of joint income was exempt from this tax. Property taxes are the primary source of revenue for local governments. The state's sales and use tax rate for most items is 7%, the second-highest in the nation, along with Mississippi, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Indiana. Food is taxed at 4%, but candy, dietary supplements, and prepared foods are taxed at 7%. Local sales taxes are collected in most jurisdictions at rates varying from 1.5% to 2.75%, bringing the total sales tax between 8.5% and 9.75%. The average combined rate is about 9.5%, the nation's highest average sales tax. Intangible property tax is assessed on the shares of stockholders of any loan, investment, insurance, or for-profit cemetery companies. The assessment ratio is 40% of the value times the jurisdiction's tax rate. Since 2016, Tennessee has had no inheritance tax. ### Agriculture Tennessee has the eighth-most farms in the nation, which cover more than 40% of its land area and have an average size of about 155 acres (0.63 km²). Cash receipts for crops and livestock have an estimated annual value of \$3.5 billion, and the agriculture sector has an estimated annual impact of \$81 billion on the state's economy. Beef cattle is the state's largest agricultural commodity, followed by broilers and poultry. Tennessee ranks 12th in the nation for the number of cattle, with more than half of its farmland dedicated to cattle grazing. Soybeans and corn are the state's first and second-most common crops, respectively, and are most heavily grown in West and Middle Tennessee, especially the northwestern corner of the state. Tennessee ranks seventh in the nation in cotton production, most of which is grown in the fertile soils of central West Tennessee. The state ranks fourth nationwide in the production of tobacco, which is predominantly grown in the Ridge-and-Valley region of East Tennessee. Tennessee farmers are also known worldwide for their cultivation of tomatoes and horticultural plants. Other important cash crops in the state include hay, wheat, eggs, and snap beans. The Nashville Basin is a top equestrian region, due to soils that produce grass favored by horses. The Tennessee Walking Horse, first bred in the region in the late 18th century, is one of the world's most recognized horse breeds. Tennessee also ranks second nationwide for mule breeding and the production of goat meat. The state's timber industry is largely concentrated on the Cumberland Plateau and ranks as one of the top producers of hardwood nationwide. ### Industry Until World War II, Tennessee, like most Southern states, remained predominantly agrarian. Chattanooga became one of the first industrial cities in the south in the decades after the Civil War, when many factories, including iron foundries, steel mills, and textile mills were constructed there. But most of Tennessee's industrial growth began with the federal investments in the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and the Manhattan Project in the 1930s and 1940s. The state's industrial and manufacturing sector continued to expand in the succeeding decades, and Tennessee is now home to more than 2,400 advanced manufacturing establishments, which produce a total of more than \$29 billion worth of goods annually. The automotive industry is Tennessee's largest manufacturing sector and one of the nation's largest. Nissan's assembly plant in Smyrna is the largest automotive assembly plant in North America. Two other automakers have assembly plants in Tennessee: General Motors in Spring Hill and Volkswagen in Chattanooga. Ford is constructing an assembly plant in Stanton that is expected to be operational in 2025. In addition, the state contains more than 900 automotive suppliers. Nissan and Mitsubishi Motors have their North American corporate headquarters in Franklin. The state is also one of the top producers of food and drink products, its second-largest manufacturing sector. A number of well-known brands originated in Tennessee, and even more are produced there. Tennessee also ranks as one of the largest producers of chemicals. Chemical products manufactured in Tennessee include industrial chemicals, paints, pharmaceuticals, plastic resins, and soaps and hygiene products. Additional important products manufactured in Tennessee include fabricated metal products, electrical equipment, consumer electronics and electrical appliances, and nonelectrical machinery. ### Business Tennessee's commercial sector is dominated by a wide variety of companies, but its largest service industries include health care, transportation, music and entertainment, banking, and finance. Large corporations with headquarters in Tennessee include FedEx, AutoZone, International Paper, and First Horizon Corporation, all based in Memphis; Pilot Corporation and Regal Entertainment Group in Knoxville; Hospital Corporation of America based in Nashville; Unum in Chattanooga; Acadia Senior Living and Community Health Systems in Franklin; Dollar General in Goodlettsville, and LifePoint Health, Tractor Supply Company, and Delek US in Brentwood. Since the 1990s, the geographical area between Oak Ridge and Knoxville has been known as the Tennessee Technology Corridor, with more than 500 high-tech firms in the region. The research and development industry in Tennessee is also one of the largest employment sectors, mainly due to the prominence of Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) and the Y-12 National Security Complex in the city of Oak Ridge. ORNL conducts scientific research in materials science, nuclear physics, energy, high-performance computing, systems biology, and national security, and is the largest national laboratory in the Department of Energy (DOE) system by size. The technology sector is also a rapidly growing industry in Middle Tennessee, particularly in the Nashville metropolitan area. ### Energy and mineral production Tennessee's electric utilities are regulated monopolies, as in many other states. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) owns over 90% of the state's generating capacity. Nuclear power is Tennessee's largest source of electricity generation, producing about 43.4% of its power in 2021. The same year, 22.4% of the power was produced from coal, 17.8% from natural gas, 15.8% from hydroelectricity, and 1.3% from other renewables. About 59.7% of the electricity generated in Tennessee produces no greenhouse gas emissions. Tennessee is home to the first nuclear power reactor in the U.S. to begin operation in the 21st century, which is at the Watts Bar Nuclear Plant in Rhea County. Tennessee was also an early leader in hydroelectric power, and today is the third-largest hydroelectric power-producing state east of the Rocky Mountains. Tennessee is a net consumer of electricity, receiving power from other TVA facilities in neighboring states. Tennessee has very little petroleum and natural gas reserves, but is home to one oil refinery, in Memphis. Bituminous coal is mined in small quantities in the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountains. There are sizable reserves of lignite coal in West Tennessee that remain untapped. Coal production in Tennessee peaked in 1972, and today less than 0.1% of coal in the U.S. comes from Tennessee. Tennessee is the nation's leading producer of ball clay. Other major mineral products produced in Tennessee include sand, gravel, crushed stone, Portland cement, marble, sandstone, common clay, lime, and zinc. The Copper Basin, in Tennessee's southeastern corner in Polk County, was one of the nation's most productive copper mining districts between the 1840s and 1980s, and supplied about 90% of the copper the Confederacy used during the Civil War. Mining activities in the basin resulted in a major environmental disaster, which left the surrounding landscape barren for more than a century. Iron ore was another major mineral mined in Tennessee until the early 20th century. Tennessee was also a top producer of phosphate until the early 1990s. ### Tourism Tennessee is the 11th-most visited state in the nation, receiving a record of 126 million tourists in 2019. Its top tourist attraction is the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the most visited national park in the U.S., with more than 14 million visitors annually. The park anchors a large tourism industry based primarily in nearby Gatlinburg and Pigeon Forge, which includes Dollywood, the most visited ticketed attraction in Tennessee. Attractions related to Tennessee's musical heritage are spread throughout the state. Other top attractions include the Tennessee State Museum and Parthenon in Nashville; the National Civil Rights Museum and Graceland in Memphis; Lookout Mountain, the Chattanooga Choo-Choo Hotel, Ruby Falls, and the Tennessee Aquarium in Chattanooga; the American Museum of Science and Energy in Oak Ridge, the Bristol Motor Speedway, Jack Daniel's Distillery in Lynchburg, and the Hiwassee and Ocoee rivers in Polk County. The National Park Service preserves four Civil War battlefields in Tennessee: Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, Stones River National Battlefield, Shiloh National Military Park, and Fort Donelson National Battlefield. The NPS also operates Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area, Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail, Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, Andrew Johnson National Historic Site, and the Manhattan Project National Historical Park. Tennessee is home to eight National Scenic Byways, including the Natchez Trace Parkway, the East Tennessee Crossing Byway, the Great River Road, the Norris Freeway, Cumberland National Scenic Byway, Sequatchie Valley Scenic Byway, The Trace, and the Cherohala Skyway. Tennessee maintains 56 state parks, covering 132,000 acres (530 km²). Many reservoirs created by TVA dams have also generated water-based tourist attractions. ## Culture A culturally diverse state, Tennessee blends Appalachian and Southern flavors, which originate from its English, Scotch-Irish, and African roots, and has evolved as it has grown. Its Grand Divisions also manifest into distinct cultural regions, with East Tennessee commonly associated with Southern Appalachia, and Middle and West Tennessee commonly associated with Upland Southern culture. Parts of West Tennessee, especially Memphis, are sometimes considered part of the Deep South. The Tennessee State Museum in Nashville chronicles the state's history and culture. Tennessee is perhaps best known culturally for its musical heritage and contributions to the development of many forms of popular music. Notable authors with ties to Tennessee include Cormac McCarthy, Peter Taylor, James Agee, Francis Hodgson Burnett, Thomas S. Stribling, Ida B. Wells, Nikki Giovanni, Shelby Foote, Ann Patchett, Ishmael Reed, and Randall Jarrell. The state's well-known contributions to Southern cuisine include Memphis-style barbecue, Nashville hot chicken, and Tennessee whiskey. ### Music Tennessee has played a critical role in the development of many forms of American popular music, including blues, country, rock and roll, rockabilly, soul, bluegrass, Contemporary Christian, and gospel. Many consider Memphis's Beale Street the epicenter of the blues, with musicians such as W. C. Handy performing in its clubs as early as 1909. Memphis was historically home to Sun Records, where musicians such as Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Roy Orbison, and Charlie Rich began their recording careers, and where rock and roll took shape in the 1950s. Stax Records in Memphis became one of the most important labels for soul artists in the late 1950s and 1960s, and a subgenre known as Memphis soul emerged. The 1927 Victor recording sessions in Bristol generally mark the beginning of the country music genre and the rise of the Grand Ole Opry in the 1930s helped make Nashville the center of the country music recording industry. Nashville became known as "Music City", and the Grand Ole Opry remains the nation's longest-running radio show. Many museums and historic sites recognize Tennessee's role in nurturing various forms of popular music, including Sun Studio, Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum, Stax Museum of American Soul Music, and Blues Hall of Fame in Memphis, the Ryman Auditorium, Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum, National Museum of African American Music, and Music Row in Nashville, the International Rock-A-Billy Museum in Jackson, the Mountain Music Museum in Kingsport, and the Birthplace of Country Music Museum in Bristol. The Rockabilly Hall of Fame, an online site recognizing the development of rockabilly, is also based in Nashville. Several annual music festivals take place throughout the state, the largest of which are the Beale Street Music Festival in Memphis, the CMA Music Festival in Nashville, Bonnaroo in Manchester, and Riverbend in Chattanooga. ## Education Education in Tennessee is administered by the Tennessee Department of Education. The state Board of Education has 11 members: one from each Congressional district, a student member, and the executive director of the Tennessee Higher Education Commission (THEC), who serves as ex-officio nonvoting member. Public primary and secondary education systems are operated by county, city, or special school districts to provide education at the local level, and operate under the direction of the Tennessee Department of Education. The state also has many private schools. The state enrolls approximately 1 million K–12 students in 137 districts. In 2021, the four-year high school graduation rate was 88.7%, a decrease of 1.2% from the previous year. According to the most recent data, Tennessee spends \$9,544 per student, the 8th lowest in the nation. ### Colleges and universities Public higher education is overseen by the Tennessee Higher Education Commission (THEC), which provides guidance to the state's two public university systems. The University of Tennessee system operates four primary campuses in Knoxville, Chattanooga, Martin, and Pulaski; a Health Sciences Center in Memphis; and an aerospace research facility in Tullahoma. The Tennessee Board of Regents (TBR), also known as The College System of Tennessee, operates 13 community colleges and 27 campuses of the Tennessee Colleges of Applied Technology (TCAT). Until 2017, the TBR also operated six public universities in the state; it now only gives them administrative support. In 2014, the Tennessee General Assembly created the Tennessee Promise, which allows in-state high school graduates to enroll in two-year post-secondary education programs such as associate degrees and certificates at community colleges and trade schools in Tennessee tuition-free, funded by the state lottery, if they meet certain requirements. The Tennessee Promise was created as part of then-governor Bill Haslam's "Drive to 55" program, which set a goal of increasing the number of college-educated residents to at least 55% of the state's population. The program has also received national attention, with multiple states having since created similar programs modeled on the Tennessee Promise. Tennessee has 107 private institutions. Vanderbilt University in Nashville is consistently ranked as one of the nation's leading research institutions. Nashville is often called the "Athens of the South" due to its many colleges and universities. Tennessee is also home to six historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs). ## Media Tennessee is home to more than 120 newspapers. The most-circulated paid newspapers in the state include The Tennessean in Nashville, The Commercial Appeal in Memphis, the Knoxville News Sentinel, the Chattanooga Times Free Press, and The Leaf-Chronicle in Clarksville, The Jackson Sun, and The Daily News Journal in Murfreesboro. All of these except the Times Free Press are owned by Gannett. Six television media markets—Nashville, Memphis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Tri-Cities, and Jackson—are based in Tennessee. The Nashville market is the third-largest in the Upland South and the ninth-largest in the southeastern United States, according to Nielsen Media Research. Small sections of the Huntsville, Alabama and Paducah, Kentucky-Cape Girardeau, Missouri-Harrisburg, Illinois markets also extend into the state. Tennessee has 43 full-power and 41 low-power television stations and more than 450 Federal Communications Commission (FCC)-licensed radio stations. The Grand Ole Opry, based in Nashville, is the longest-running radio show in the country, having broadcast continuously since 1925. ## Transportation The Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) is the primary agency that is tasked with regulating and maintaining Tennessee's transportation infrastructure. Tennessee is currently one of five states with no transportation-related debts. ### Roads Tennessee has 96,167 miles (154,766 km) of roads, of which 14,109 miles (22,706 km) are maintained by the state. Of the state's highways, 1,233 miles (1,984 km) are part of the Interstate Highway System. Tennessee has no tolled roads or bridges but has the sixth-highest mileage of high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, which are utilized on freeways in the congestion-prone Nashville and Memphis metropolitan areas. Interstate 40 (I-40) is the longest Interstate Highway in Tennessee, traversing the state for 455 miles (732 km). Known as "Tennessee's Main Street", I-40 serves the major cities of Memphis, Nashville, and Knoxville, and throughout its entire length in Tennessee, one can observe the diversity of the state's geography and landforms. I-40's branch interstates include I-240 in Memphis; I-440 in Nashville; I-840 around Nashville; I-140 from Knoxville to Maryville; and I-640 in Knoxville. In a north–south orientation, from west to east, are interstates 55, which serves Memphis; 65, which passes through Nashville; 75, which serves Chattanooga and Knoxville; and 81, which begins east of Knoxville, and serves Bristol to the northeast. I-24 is an east–west interstate that enters the state in Clarksville, passes through Nashville, and terminates in Chattanooga. I-26, although technically an east–west interstate, begins in Kingsport and runs southwardly through Johnson City before exiting into North Carolina. I-155 is a branch route of I-55 that serves the northwestern part of the state. I-275 is a short spur route in Knoxville. I-269 runs from Millington to Collierville, serving as an outer bypass of Memphis. ### Airports Major airports in Tennessee include Nashville International Airport (BNA), Memphis International Airport (MEM), McGhee Tyson Airport (TYS) outside of Knoxville, Chattanooga Metropolitan Airport (CHA), Tri-Cities Regional Airport (TRI) in Blountville, and McKellar-Sipes Regional Airport (MKL) in Jackson. Because Memphis International Airport is the hub of FedEx Corporation, it is the world's busiest cargo airport. The state also has 74 general aviation airports and 148 heliports. ### Railroads For passenger rail service, Memphis and Newbern are served by the Amtrak City of New Orleans line on its run between Chicago and New Orleans. Nashville is served by the Music City Star commuter rail service. Tennessee currently has 2,604 miles (4,191 km) of freight trackage in operation, most of which are owned by CSX Transportation. Norfolk Southern Railway also operates lines in East and southwestern Tennessee. BNSF operates a major intermodal facility in Memphis. ### Waterways Tennessee has a total of 976 miles (1,571 km) of navigable waterways, the 11th highest in the nation. These include the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers. Five inland ports are located in the state, including the Port of Memphis, which is the fifth-largest in the United States and the second largest on the Mississippi River. ## Law and government The Constitution of Tennessee was adopted in 1870. The state had two previous constitutions. The first was adopted in 1796, the year Tennessee was admitted to the union, and the second in 1834. Since 1826, Nashville has been the capital of Tennessee. The capital was previously in three other cities. Knoxville was the capital from statehood in 1796 until 1812, except for September 21, 1807, when the legislature met in Kingston for a day. The capital was relocated to Nashville in 1812, where it remained until it was relocated back to Knoxville in 1817. The next year, the capital was moved to Murfreesboro, where it remained until 1826. Nashville was officially named Tennessee's permanent capital in 1843. ### Executive and legislative branches Like the federal government, Tennessee's government has three branches. The executive branch is led by the governor, who holds office for a four-year term and may serve a maximum of two consecutive terms. The governor is the only official elected statewide. The current governor is Bill Lee, a Republican. The governor is supported by 22 cabinet-level departments, most headed by a commissioner the governor appoints. The executive branch also includes several agencies, boards, and commissions, some of which are under the auspices of one of the cabinet-level departments. The bicameral legislative branch, the Tennessee General Assembly, consists of the 33-member Senate and the 99-member House of Representatives. Senators serve four-year terms and House members serve two-year terms. Each chamber chooses a Speaker, who is elected by a joint session of the legislature. The Speaker of the Senate also serves as the lieutenant governor, a practice found only in one other state, and the House Speaker is third in line for the governorship. The legislature can override a veto by a simple majority, and the state has no "pocket veto". The legislature convenes at noon on the second Tuesday in January and meets for a total of 90 days over two sessions, usually adjourning in late April or early May. Special sessions may be called by the governor or by two-thirds of the members of both chambers. ### Judicial system Tennessee's highest court is the state Supreme Court. It has a chief justice and four associate justices. No more than two justices can be from the same Grand Division. The Supreme Court of Tennessee appoints the state's Attorney General, a practice only found in Tennessee. Both the Court of Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals have 12 judges, who are evenly from each Grand Division. Under the Tennessee Plan, the governor appoints justices on all three courts to eight-year terms; they must be retained by the voters during the first general election after appointment and at the end of their term. Tennessee is divided into 31 judicial districts, each with a circuit and chancery court, and a district attorney and judges elected to eight-year terms. Separate criminal courts serve 13 of the 31 judicial districts; circuit courts handle criminal cases in the remaining districts. Local courts include general sessions, juvenile and domestic, and municipal courts. Tennessee maintains four dedicated law enforcement agencies: the Tennessee Highway Patrol (THP), the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA), the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation (TBI), and the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC). The Highway Patrol is the primary entity that enforces highway safety regulations and general non-wildlife state laws. It is under the jurisdiction of the Department of Safety. The TWRA is an independent agency tasked with enforcing all wildlife, boating, and fishery regulations outside of state parks. TDEC enforces state environmental laws and regulations. The TBI is the primary state-level criminal investigative department. State park rangers are responsible for all activities and law enforcement inside the Tennessee State Parks system. Capital punishment is legal in Tennessee and has existed at various times since statehood. Lethal injection is the primary means of execution, but electrocution is also allowed. ### Local Tennessee is divided into 95 counties, with 92 county governments that use a county commission legislative body and a separately elected county executive. The governments of Davidson (Nashville), Moore (Lynchburg), and Trousdale (Hartsville) are consolidated with their county seats. Each county elects a sheriff, property assessor, trustee, register of deeds, and county clerk. Tennessee has more than 340 municipalities. Most cities and towns use the weak mayor-council (mayor-aldermen), strong-mayor council, city commission, or council–manager forms of government. Local law enforcement is divided between county sheriff's offices and municipal police departments. In every county except Davidson, the sheriff is the chief law enforcement officer. ### Federal Tennessee sends nine representatives to the United States House of Representatives. The current delegation consists of eight Republicans and one Democrat. Its U.S. senators are Marsha Blackburn and Bill Hagerty, both Republicans. Tennessee is under the jurisdiction of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals, which has jurisdiction over three district courts in the state: the Eastern, Middle, and Western districts. ### Tribal The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians is Tennessee's only federally recognized Native American tribe. It owns 79 acres (32 ha) in Henning, which the tribe placed into federal trust in 2012. This is governed directly by the tribe. ## Politics Tennessee's politics are currently dominated by the Republican Party. Republicans currently hold both of the state's U.S. Senate seats, 8 out of 9 Congressional seats, 75 out of 99 state House seats, and 27 out of 33 state Senate seats. Democratic strength is largely concentrated in Nashville, Memphis, and parts of Knoxville, Chattanooga, and Clarksville. Several suburban areas of Nashville and Memphis also contain significant Democratic minorities. Tennessee is one of thirteen states which holds its presidential primaries on Super Tuesday. Tennessee does not require voters to declare a party affiliation when registering. The state is one of eight states which require voters to present a form of photo identification. Between the end of the Civil War and the mid-20th century, Tennessee was part of the Democratic Solid South, but had the largest Republican minority of any former Confederate state. During this time, East Tennessee was heavily Republican and the western two-thirds mostly voted Democratic, with the latter dominating the state. This division was related to the state's pattern of Unionist and Confederate loyalism during the Civil War. Tennessee's 1st and 2nd congressional districts, based in the Tri-Cities and Knoxville, respectively, are among the few historically Republican districts in the South. The first has been in Republican hands continuously since 1881, and Republicans or their antecedents have held it for all but four years since 1859. The second has been held continuously by Republicans or their antecedents since 1855. During Reconstruction, freedmen and former free blacks were granted the right to vote; most joined the Republican Party. Numerous African Americans were elected to local offices, and some to state office. Following Reconstruction, Tennessee continued to have competitive party politics, but in the 1880s, the White-dominated state government passed Jim Crow laws, one of which imposed a poll tax requirement for voter registration. These served to disenfranchise most African Americans, and their power in state and local politics was markedly reduced. After the disenfranchisement of blacks, the Republican Party became a primarily white sectional party supported mostly in East Tennessee. In the early 1900s, the state legislature approved legislation allowing cities to adopt a commission form of government based on at-large voting as a means to limit African American political participation. Not until after passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were African Americans able to regain their full voting rights. Between the end of Reconstruction and the mid-20th century, Tennessee voted consistently Democratic in Presidential elections, except in two nationwide Republican landslides in the 1920s. Tennesseans narrowly supported Warren G. Harding over Ohio Governor James Cox in 1920, and more decisively voted for Herbert Hoover over New York Governor Al Smith in 1928. During the first half of the 20th century, state politics were dominated by the Democratic Crump machine in Memphis. For most of the second half of the 20th century, Tennessee was a swing state in presidential elections. During this time, Democratic presidential nominees from Southern states, including Lyndon B. Johnson, Jimmy Carter, and Bill Clinton, tended to fare better in Tennessee than their Northern counterparts, especially among split-ticket voters outside the metropolitan areas. In the 1950s, Tennessee twice voted for Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, former Allied Commander of the Armed Forces during World War II. Howard Baker, first elected in 1966, became the first Republican U.S. Senator from Tennessee since Reconstruction. The Republican Southern strategy did not have as much of an effect in Tennessee as in most Southern states, but the elections of Winfield Dunn as governor and Bill Brock to the U.S. Senate in 1970 further helped make the GOP competitive among Whites in statewide elections. In the 2000 presidential election, Vice President Al Gore, who had previously served as a Democratic U.S. Senator from Tennessee, failed to carry his home state, an unusual occurrence but indicative of strengthening Republican support. Beginning in the early 21st century, Tennessee transitioned into a solid Republican state, primarily due to rural white voters who have rejected the increasing liberalism of the Democratic Party. In 2004, Republican President George W. Bush increased his margin of victory in the state from a 4% to a 14% margin in 2000. In 2007, Ron Ramsey became the first Republican Speaker of the State Senate since Reconstruction, and the following year the Republicans gained control of both houses of the state legislature for the first time since Reconstruction. Voters, however, continued to elect moderate Republicans, such as centrists Bill Haslam and Lamar Alexander, until the late 2010s with the rise of Trumpism in the GOP at a nationwide scale. Since 2016, Tennessee has been the most populous state to vote Republican by more than 60% in presidential elections, and in 2020 voted Republican by the largest margin of any state in terms of number of votes. ## Sports Tennessee is home to four major professional sports franchises: the Tennessee Titans have played in the National Football League (NFL) since 1997, the Nashville Predators have played in the National Hockey League (NHL) since 1998, the Memphis Grizzlies have played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) since 2001, and Nashville SC has played in Major League Soccer (MLS) since 2020. The state is also home to eight minor league teams. Four of these are Minor League Baseball clubs. The Nashville Sounds, which began play in 1978, and Memphis Redbirds, which began in 1998, each compete in the International League at the Triple-A level, the highest before Major League Baseball. The Tennessee Smokies, which have played continuously since 1972, and Chattanooga Lookouts, which have played continuously since 1976, are members of the Double-A classification Southern League. Tennessee has three minor league soccer teams. Memphis 901 FC has played in the second-tier USL Championship since 2019. Chattanooga Red Wolves SC has been a member of the third-tier USL League One since 2019. Founded in 2009, Chattanooga FC began playing in the third-tier National Independent Soccer Association in 2020. The state has one minor league ice hockey team: the Knoxville Ice Bears, which began play in 2002 and are members of the Southern Professional Hockey League. The state is home to 12 NCAA Division I programs. Four of these participate in the top level of college football, the Football Bowl Subdivision. In Knoxville, the Tennessee Volunteers college teams play in the Southeastern Conference (SEC) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). In Nashville, the Vanderbilt Commodores are also members of the SEC. The Memphis Tigers are members of the American Athletic Conference, and Murfreesboro's Middle Tennessee Blue Raiders play in Conference USA. Nashville is also home to the Belmont Bruins, members of the Ohio Valley Conference (OVC) but moving to the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) in July 2022; Tennessee State Tigers, OVC members with no plans to change conferences; and the Lipscomb Bisons, members of the ASUN Conference. Tennessee State plays football in Division I's second level, the Football Championship Subdivision, while Belmont and Lipscomb do not have football teams. Through the 2021–22 school year, the OVC also includes the Austin Peay Governors from Clarksville, the UT Martin Skyhawks from Martin, and the Tennessee Tech Golden Eagles from Cookeville. UT Martin and Tennessee Tech will remain in the OVC, while Peay will move to the ASUN. The Chattanooga Mocs and Johnson City's East Tennessee State Buccaneers are full members, including football, of the Southern Conference. Tennessee is also home to the Bristol Motor Speedway, which features NASCAR Cup Series racing two weekends a year, routinely selling out more than 160,000 seats on each date. The Nashville Superspeedway in Lebanon, which previously held Nationwide and IndyCar races until it was shut down in 2011, reopened to host the NASCAR Cup Series in 2021. Tennessee's only graded stakes horserace, the Iroquois Steeplechase, is held in Nashville each May. The WGC Invitational is a PGA Tour golf tournament that has been held in Memphis since 1958. ## See also - Outline of Tennessee – organized list of topics about Tennessee - Index of Tennessee-related articles - List of people from Tennessee - USS Tennessee, 6 ships

Anti-Princess Series and Anti-Hero Series

Biography series by Nadia Fink

The Anti-Princess Series (Spanish: Colección antiprincesas) and Anti-Hero Series (Spanish: Colección antihéroes) are Argentine children's biography picture books written by Nadia Fink and illustrated by Pitu Saá. First published in 2015, the series cover the lives of South and Central American artists and leaders like Frida Kahlo, Violeta Parra, and Julio Cortázar. Fink sought to create works for children that addressed and subverted gender stereotypes, in opposition to narratives presented in traditional fairytales. The works are published in Spanish by Chirimbote, an independent publisher founded by Fink, Saá, and Martín Azcurra. Books in the series have received positive reception for their depictions of their historical subjects, their artwork, and their efforts to weaken established gender roles. Some volumes have been translated into other languages, including Portuguese and English, and Fink and Saá have developed a third companion series, the League of Anti-Princesses (Spanish: Liga de antiprincesas), which features historical figures using time travel to help one another. As of 2022, 13 Anti-Princess, six Anti-Hero, and four League books had been released. ## Format and content Works in the series are children's picture book biographies of South and Central American artists and leaders. The series specifically seek to recount stories of figures who changed aspects of society but not through force or domination. Books in the series tend to run about 26 pages in length and provide "hyperlink-style" definitions (a feature devised by book designer Martín Azcurra) of challenging terms from the text such as "dictatorship", "surrealism", "tyranny", and "revolution". Each work concludes with a brief collection of activities and games encouraging readers to respond to and create art inspired by the book's subject. An anthropomorphized animal or item from the life of the central figure of each work accompanies them and asks questions to tie different elements of the biographies together. Visually, the books combine illustrations by Pitu Saá with reproductions of photographs and, when applicable, visual works of art by the books' subjects. Not all visual artworks are direct reproductions; some are recreated by Saá in a style congruent with that of his other illustrations in the books. Several crossover works have been published; the League of Anti-Princesses follows characters from previous Anti-Princess books using a time travel potion to explore history together. ## Writing Nadia Fink was compelled to begin writing the Anti-Princess Series to counter what she perceived as the unfair representation of women in works for children. Fink described visiting newsstands and seeing alternative literature for teenagers and adults, but little geared at children. Following a period of research, Fink began writing the first two volumes, that concerned Frida Kahlo and Violeta Parra, respectively. Fink's interest was specifically in figures who "dared to break with the molds of their own social context". She desired to create works in direct opposition to Disney Princesses and Barbie dolls, popular characters which young girls commonly aspire to. To Fink, traditional princess narratives "convey that stillness preserves you from difficult situations", so she sought to craft works which subverted the damsel-in-distress narrative and privileged the works of the subjects featured over their romantic lives. The books respond to common tropes in princess stories/fairytales; for instance, the Violeta Parra edition explains that when Parra lacked the fashionable clothes required to perform, no fairy godmother appeared to come to her aid, and instead, her mother sewed her a skirt from a curtain. Fink described a desire not to "underestimate children" with the series. While the works intentionally mention certain mature elements of their subjects' lives (such as that Kahlo had relationships with men and women besides her husband or that Parra's first husband abandoned her when she would not acquiesce to his desire that she become a housewife), they do not mention other notable elements of their subjects' lives, such as Parra's suicide. Fink sought to cover the lives of those she included in the series in a way that reflected the difficulties they faced during their lifetimes. However, upon the publication of the first book in the series in 2015, she deemed the lives of certain figures she was considering for the collection, such as poets Alejandra Pizarnik and Alfonsina Storni, to be "too tragic" for their own books. (She later released a volume about Storni nonetheless.) The Anti-Hero Series, which Fink clarified is not about antiheroes but instead "anti-superheroes", began with a book about Argentine novelist Julio Cortázar. When asked why she chose not to opt for an Anti-Prince series for concordance with the Anti-Princess Series, Fink stated that she felt that princes did not occupy children's imagination like princesses, whereas "superheroes are places where the masculine stereotype can develop, the one with the strength, the superpower, which is mocked and ignored until everyone discovers that he is a genius who can save the world. These men, anti-heroes, have superpowers, but in Cortazar's case it is the superpower of the word put into play". Rosangela Fernandes Eleutério, a researcher in Brazil, said that the Anti-Hero Series covering men who were sensitive and sweet served to productively undermine traditional stereotypes of masculine emotionlessness. ## Publication The series is published in Spanish by independent Buenos Aires-based children's publisher Chirimbote, which was founded by Fink, Saá, and Azcurra. Early works in the series were published in collaboration with Sudestada, a magazine for which Fink wrote, although by mid-2016, Chirimbote had become the sole publisher. The first book, Frida Kahlo for Girls and Boys (Spanish: Frida Kahlo para chicas y chicos), was released in Argentina in June 2015. The books are suggested for children aged six to 12. By 2017, the series began receiving Portuguese translations and distribution in Brazil by publisher Sur and English translations by Barbara Megen Alvarado and Jesús Alvarado with publication by Books del Sur in the United States. Chirimbote has also released Spanish-language audiobooks of some of the titles, narrated by Mora Seoane. ## Reception The Anti-Princess and Anti-Hero Series have received praise for their depictions of their historical subjects, their efforts to weaken established gender roles, and their illustrations. Researchers Juliana Petermann and Desireè Ribas Fumagalli wrote favorably of the series' choice to subvert traditional fairytale structure by featuring real historical figures, especially those "who could have led a princess life" but opted not to. In another article, researchers María Morales and Giulietta Piantoni praised Fink's handling of her subjects' flaws and wrote that portraying them as real people made them relatable to readers. Their otherwise positive review said that the books choosing to overlook some negative elements of their subjects' lives (like suicide) while showing others was antithetical to the collections' goal of treating their young readers as mature and capable of handling difficult topics. A School Library Journal review described Saá's artwork as featuring "vibrant, bold colors outlined in black" which was "often graphic novel-like" and which "enhances the view of the subjects as strong heroines." Eleutério wrote that Saá's illustrations were captivating and found the works over "playful, easy to read", and delightful to both children and adults. ## Works All works are written by Nadia Fink and illustrated by Pitu Saá and originally published in Spanish.

Tik Tok (song)

2009 single by Kesha

"Tik Tok" (stylized as "TiK ToK" and pronounced as "tick tock") is the debut single by American singer Kesha, who co-wrote the song with its producers Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco. It was released on August 7, 2009, as the lead single from her debut studio album, Animal (2010). The opening line of the song came from an experience where Kesha woke up surrounded by beautiful women, to which she imagined P. Diddy being in a similar scenario. The experience prompted the writing of the song which she later brought to her producer, Dr. Luke, who was then contacted by P. Diddy in hopes of a collaboration; he came to the studio the same day and recorded his lines, and the song was completed. The official remix features American rapper Pitbull. According to Kesha, the song's lyrics are representative of her and based on her life. In the lyrics, which have a carefree message, the narrator talks about not letting anything bring them down. "Tik Tok" is an electropop and dance-pop song incorporating Auto-Tune and a minimalist bitpop beat interspersed with handclaps and synthesizers. The verses use a rap/sing vocal style while the chorus is sung. Some critics complimented the production as catchy, but others took issue with it as generic and disposable compared to the mainstream pop-music scene. In the United States, "Tik Tok" spent nine weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified eightfold platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Topping the charts in many other countries including Australia—where it was certified ninefold platinum, Canada, France, Germany, Norway, and Switzerland, it was the best-selling single worldwide in 2010, selling 12.8 million copies. As of 2019, the song has sold over 18 million digital copies worldwide. "Tik Tok" was listed 61st on the all-time Billboard Hot 100 chart published in 2018. ## Background and development In 2005, Dr. Luke had just finished producing tracks for Kelly Clarkson's album Breakaway (2004) and was looking to expand further on his writing and producing credits. Luke solicited around to different people in the music business asking for demos from unknown artists. Two of the demos he received were from Katy Perry and Kesha. He was particularly taken with Kesha's demos which consisted of a self-penned country ballad and trip-hop track. The latter of the demos caught Luke off guard when she ran out of lyrics and started to rap, "I'm a white girl/From the 'Ville/Nashville, bitch. Uhh. Uhhhhh." The improvisation made her stand out from other artists that Luke had listened to, which he recalled: "That's when I was like, 'OK, I like this girl's personality. When you're listening to 100 CDs, that kind of bravado and chutzpah stand out." Following this, at the age of eighteen, Kesha signed to Luke's label, Kemosabe Records, and his publishing company, Prescription Songs. After being signed to Luke's label she also signed to David Sonenberg's DAS management company. While at the label she worked with record producer Greg Wells, which she attributes to developing her sound on her first record, Animal (2010). Although she was signed to Luke and his label, Kesha never took priority as he was busy with other projects at the time. It was not until 2008 when Luke was working with Flo Rida on "Right Round" that he pulled Kesha in to contribute, giving her the female hook. Within a few months, the song became a worldwide hit. The event lead to different labels sparking interest in signing her, including RCA Records, to which she eventually signed. ## Writing and recording "Tik Tok" was written by Kesha, alongside Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco and was co-produced by Luke and Blanco. Kesha said the inspiration behind the song came from coming home half-drunk and stumbling after a night out of partying. She would then write down a few words to a song, and then the following morning she would wake up with the story waiting to be told. The opening line came from an experience where she woke up surrounded by "beautiful women", leading to her imagining P. Diddy being in a similar scenario. She then proceeded to bring the song to her producer Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco and the song was written. Four hours later, Diddy called Luke and said that they should do a song together. Diddy came to the studio later that day to contribute his lines and the collaboration was completed. Engineering of the song was done by Emily Wright and Sam Holland at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California. While Kesha was in the studio with Dr. Luke and Blanco, she took three takes to get the song correct as she jokingly "white-girl rapped" over the beat. At one point in the song's production, she had wanted to re-write the verses of the song because she did not think that they were "funny or clever", feeling that they "kind of sucked." She elaborated, "I thought it was just another song, I thought it was just like all the other ones I'd written. I didn't even know if it was very good. I wanted to rewrite the verses, I didn't think it was funny or clever. I thought it kind of sucked. But everyone else liked it." Kesha ultimately did not end up rewriting any of the song's lyrics. She further described the theme of the song in an interview, emphasizing that it embodied her own lifestyle, > We're [Kesha and her friends] all young and broke and it doesn't matter. We can find clothes on the side of the street and go out and look fantastic, and kill it. If we don't have a car that doesn't stop us, because we'll take the bus. If we can't afford drinks, we'll bring a bottle in our purse. It's just about not letting anything bring you down. ## Composition "Tik Tok" is an upbeat dance-pop and electropop song that incorporates the sound of '80s video game noises in its production, to earn a bitpop beat. Kesha uses a spoken word rap style in the verses while the chorus is sung. Throughout the song Kesha's vocals are heavily enhanced by Auto-Tune. The song also features two lines by P. Diddy ("Hey, what up girl?", which is said after he is mentioned in the lyrics, and "Let's go!") Lyrically, the song speaks about "excess pleasures, from drinking ("Ain't got a care in the world but I got plenty of beer") to men ("We kick 'em to the curb unless they look like Mick Jagger")." According to Kesha the lyrics are representative of herself, stating, "It's about my life. It's 100 percent me." Kesha uses a rap vocal delivery which was influenced by the Beastie Boys. She claims that the track's creation would not have happened if it was not for their influence on her music. While the song was being crafted she took a different vocal approach to the song than in her earlier records, explaining, "I've done the country, done the pop-rock, done the super-hard electro, ... I was like, whatever, throw some rap in there, why not?" The song is in common time with a moderate beat rate of 120 beats per minute. The song is set in the key of D minor. It has the sequence of B–C–Dm as its chord progression and Kesha's vocals span from D₃ to D₅, similar to that of "California Gurls" by Katy Perry. Musically, the song has been compared to Lady Gaga's debut single, "Just Dance", for their similar composition and lyrical context and to Fergie for their similar rap style. ## Release and promotion In July 2009, the song was offered as a free download on Kesha's Myspace page for over a month before its official sale release. The song was later released to iTunes on August 7, 2009 and on August 25, 2009 in the United States. Barry Weiss of RCA/Jive Label Group relied on a similar marketing scheme to that of Britney Spears' in 1999 when choosing to give the song away for free. The song's marketing relied heavily on radio once she had achieved a strong online interest, but its radio release was delayed until October in order to capitalize on social media interest in her. The song quickly topped iTunes charts after. The song appeared in the film Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules. It was also featured in the notorious "couch gag" for the television show The Simpsons.To promote the single, Kesha made several television appearances and performances across the world. The first televised performance of the song was on a part of MTV Push, a program broadcast on MTV Networks worldwide, where she performed the song alongside her other tracks "Blah Blah Blah" and "Dinosaur". She performed the song alongside "Blah Blah Blah", "Take It Off", "Your Love Is My Drug" and "Dirty Picture" in a set for BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend. On May 29, 2010, Kesha performed "Tik Tok" alongside "Your Love Is My Drug" at the MTV Video Music Awards Japan. Kesha has also made appearances on It's On with Alexa Chung, The Wendy Williams Show, Lopez Tonight, Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien and The Ellen DeGeneres Show to perform the song. This song was also performed on Saturday Night Live on April 17, 2010. On August 13, 2010, Kesha performed "Tik Tok" on Today. On November 7, 2010, Kesha performed the song at the MTV Europe Music Awards. Throughout the performance, she was seen wearing a leotard with day-glow makeup. The performance featured a backing consisting of flashing lights and background dancers. The song's bridge was changed during the performance and featured a more "amping house music vibe". ## Critical reception Kelsey Paine of Billboard called the song "a love letter to DJs everywhere, with hand claps that build to a crescendo of pure, infectious dance-pop." Paine, referring to her appearance on "Right Round", wrote that she "offers her own fun and frivolous ode to a wild night out" as she sings about drinking and men. The review was concluded with the consensus the Kesha's debut "reveals a knack for getting the party started." Jim Farber of the New York Daily News called the song "a vintage lick of dance candy too tooth-rottingly sweet to resist" that featured a "stabbing synthesizer hook". Fraser McAlpine of the BBC, giving the single four out of a possible five stars, called it a "dirty little ditty" that had "'hit' written all over it". McAlpine noted its similarities to Lady Gaga's "Just Dance" for their partying subject matter, but concedes that "she does make it sound kinda fun though." Billy Johnson Jr. of Yahoo! compared "Tik Tok" to the 1980s L'Trimm hit "Cars That Go Boom" and notes that Kesha has "take[n] on L'Trimm's vocal styling for her own hit." Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars, he spoke of the song giving Kesha a "hussy image" but described the lyrics in a positive manner. Levine said the use of auto-tune was "fun" and described Dr. Luke's backing track as "bouncy" and "bubblegummy". The review highlighted the song's chorus with Levine calling it "stonking great" and "completely trashy in the best possible way." David Jeffries of Allmusic called the track "fun", listing it as one of the album's best tracks. David Renshaw of Drowned in Sound felt that the song was effective in what it was trying to do, writing: "Trashy and rambunctious, it’s a brash summer anthem about getting drunk and partying hard. World rocking it might not be, but as a piece of disposable pop it captures a moment and boasts a huge hook which, really, is all you need to rule the radio, TV and ringtone airwaves." Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly listed the song as the recommended download off of Animal, writing that "her Valley Girl sneer with electro-glam arrangements that make brushing one's teeth 'with a bottle of Jack' sound like an awesome way to kill the morning-after blues." Jonah Weiner of Slate Magazine gave the song a negative review saying that "the song sets up ship on the fault line between charmingly daft and deeply irritating." He then compared the song to work by other artists, stating that "the rapped verses are sub-Fergie-grade, proudly stuffed with groaners and to-hell-with-the-expiration-date slang." Weiner echoed the sentiment that the plotline seemed like "a sequel" to "Just Dance", summing it up as "girl wakes up drunk, stays drunk, finds a dance floor and (spoiler alert) gets even drunker." Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described the song as "a zippy and salacious celebration of late nights and mornings-after." He noted that "some have compared Kesha, unfavorably, to Uffie, who is signed to the influential French electronic music label Ed Banger and whose sass-rap predated Kesha’s by a couple of years." However, he thought that "if anyone should feel fleeced by 'Tik Tok', though, it’s Lady Gaga, who probably hears significant chunks of her hit 'Just Dance' in its melody and subject matter." ## Chart performance In the United States, "Tik Tok" debuted at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending October 24, 2009. It was the first Hot 100 number one of the 2010s decade and stayed at the top for nine consecutive weeks. On the ending December 31, 2009, "Tik Tok" broke the record for the highest U.S. single-week sales, selling 610,000 digital downloads. The record was surpassed by Taylor Swift's "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" (2012) when it sold 623,000 digital copies in its debut week. On the week ending February 6, 2010, "Tik Tok" topped Pop Songs with 11,224 spins on airplay, breaking the record by Lady Gaga's "Bad Romance" for the most single-week plays on pop radio. On Billboard's year-end charts of 2010, it topped the Hot 100 and placed at number seven on Radio Songs and number eight on Digital Songs. "Tik Tok" was certified eight times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for eight million units based on sales and streaming, and by March 2016, had sold 6.8 million downloads. The single also peaked atop the Canadian Hot 100 and was certified seven times platinum by Music Canada. "Tik Tok" peaked atop the singles charts of European and Oceanic countries including Australia, France, Germany, New Zealand Norway, and Switzerland. It was certified nine times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association and double platinum by Recorded Music NZ. In the United Kingdom, "Tik Tok" peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart and by 2012, ranked at number 100 on the Official Charts Company's list of the 150 best-selling singles of the 21st century. In South Korea, "Tik Tok" was the best-selling digital single by a foreign artist of 2010, selling 1.4 million downloads. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, the single sold 12.8 million digital copies worldwide in 2010, making it the best-selling single of the year. As of August 2019, it had sold over 18 million copies worldwide. ## Music video The music video for "Tik Tok" was directed by Syndrome. It was shot in Kesha's old neighborhood and the car featured in the video belongs to her. Kesha explained the experience saying, "the video I'm excited about because I actually got to shoot it in my old neighborhood and the guy driving my gold car is a friend of mine". The video's party scene was shot in her friend's house, which they refer to as the "drunk tank". The singer said "the last party scene is in this house called the drunk tank, which is one of my friend's houses that we all go party at. So I like it cause its super-honest and genuine." The video begins with Kesha waking in a bathtub in a home as she stumbles out and begins to look for a toothbrush in the restroom. She makes her way down a staircase looking at the pictures lining the wall. Kesha makes her way to the kitchen and walks in on a family who are having breakfast, startling them. She shrugs and then leaves the home as the family gets up and follows her. When she arrives at the sidewalk, she picks up a gold bicycle lying against a fallen fence and rides off. Kesha meets a group of children and trades the bicycle for their boombox. The video cuts to another scene where she rejects a guy and is picked up by a man portrayed by Simon Rex who drives her in a gold 1978 Trans Am. They are pulled over by the police, who handcuff Kesha. The scene then pans to her singing while standing in the T-top as she dangles the handcuffs hanging from her left arm. The next scene shows Kesha in an empty room filled with glitter. She then attends a party with Rex for the final scene. The video comes to an end with Kesha lying in a different bathtub from the one she woke up in, while Spanish voices in Mexican accents are heard in a market-like way, implying she ended up crossing the border. The official music video has received over 550 million views on YouTube as of February 2021. ## Cover versions and parodies The second-most-viewed YouTube video of the year 2010, behind only "The Bed Intruder Song", was a parody of "Tik Tok" posted by The Key of Awesome. "Weird Al" Yankovic included the chorus in his polka medley "Polka Face" from his 2011 album Alpocalypse. The song was also parodied by British comedy group The Midnight Beast. The parody discusses youthful subjects such as attempting to view the nude bodies of women and dodging parents' anger. Released to iTunes on January 15, 2010, the parody peaked at number four on the Australian Singles Chart, and at thirty-nine on the Irish Singles Chart. Comedian Julie Brown parodied the song with the single "Another Drunk Chick" on her album Smell the Glamour (2011). Jarett Wiselman of The New York Post stated it was "one of the year's best comedy albums." Avril Lavigne performed an acoustic version of the song in her setlist for BBC's Radio 1. Another parody came about when Israel Defense Forces soldiers created IDF Tik Tok in 2010, a viral dance video that opens with six infantry soldiers on patrol in Hebron, walking cautiously down a deserted street, armed and wearing full combat gear, when "Tik Tok" begins to play, and the soldiers break into choreographed dance moves. "Tik Tok" was used in the opening sequence for The Simpsons episode "To Surveil with Love", in which the entire cast lip-synced to the song. The cast of FOX musical series Glee performed this song on the episode "Blame It on the Alcohol", with Heather Morris' character, Brittany Pierce, taking the lead. The episode revolved around teen drinking and its dangers. The members of Glee Club are asked to perform at the school's alcohol awareness assembly, in which "Tik Tok" is one of the songs performed. Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club wrote that the song's inclusion in the episode was superfluous, stating that it was just an excuse to get a Kesha song on Glee. VanDerWerff however, wrote that she "REALLY liked Heather Morris'" rendition of the song. Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly praised Brittany's choreography and overall performance in "Tik Tok", writing, "The huge star of this number was clearly Brittany, who more and more every week proves that she needs to be moved to the forefront of this show's big performances and storylines." Gonzalez gave the cover version of "Tik Tok" a B, calling it "pure, fun entertainment up until we got to the part straight out of the mind of Gordie LaChance." Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone gave the cover version of "Tik Tok" a mostly positive review, writing, "Love Brittany as we do, we wish Rachel or Mercedes stepped up to the mic. The performance is less risqué than their Pep Rally "Push It" but winds up causing more controversy when Brittany pukes on Rachel and Santana also vomits up grey slush. It's a fitting end to the song, and the episode." During the fifth season of the Masked Singer, Caitlyn Jenner sang the song disguised as “The Phoenix”. Jenner's rendition went viral and Kesha eventually reacted to it on the coincidentally similarly named app TikTok. ## Accolades ## Track listing - US single 1. "Tik Tok" – 3:20 - Germany/UK single 1. "Tik Tok" – 3:20 2. "Tik Tok" (Tom Neville's Crunk & Med Mix) – 6:53 - UK EP 1. "Tik Tok" – 3:20 2. "Tik Tok" (Fred Falke Club Remix) – 6:42 3. "Tik Tok" (Chuck Buckett's Verucca Salt Remix Remix) – 4:55 4. "Tik Tok" (Tom Neville's Crunk & Med Mix) – 6:53 5. "Tik Tok" (Untold Remix) – 5:01 ## Credits and personnel Recording - Recorded at Conway Recording Studios, Los Angeles, California Personnel - Background vocals – Kesha, P. Diddy - Lead vocals – Kesha - Songwriting – Kesha Sebert, Lukasz Gottwald, Benjamin Levin - Production – Lukasz Gottwald, Benjamin Levin - Instruments and programming – Lukasz Gottwald, Benjamin Levin - Recording – Lukasz Gottwald, Benjamin Levin - Audio engineering – Emily Wright, Sam Holland - Vocal editing – Emily Wright Credits adapted from the liner notes of Animal, Dynamite Cop Music/Where Da Kasz at BMI. ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Monthly charts ### Year-end charts ### Decade-end charts ### All-time charts ## Certifications and sales ! scope="row" \| South Korea (Gaon) \| \|\| 2,512,000 \|- ## Release history

Waldorf Astoria New York

Hotel in Manhattan, New York

The Waldorf Astoria New York is a luxury hotel and condominium residence in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. The structure, at 301 Park Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets, is a 47-story 625 ft (191 m) Art Deco landmark designed by architects Schultze and Weaver, which was completed in 1931. The building was the world's tallest hotel until 1963 when it was surpassed by Moscow's Hotel Ukraina. An icon of glamour and luxury, the Waldorf Astoria is one of the world's most prestigious and best-known hotels. Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts was a division of Hilton Hotels, and a portfolio of high-end properties around the world operates under the name, including in New York City. Both the exterior and the interior of the Waldorf Astoria are designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission as official landmarks. The original Waldorf-Astoria was built in two stages along Fifth Avenue and opened in 1893; it was demolished in 1929 to make way for the construction of the Empire State Building. Conrad Hilton acquired management rights to the hotel on October 12, 1949, and the Hilton Hotels Corporation finally bought the hotel outright in 1972. It underwent a \$150 million renovation (\$ in dollars ) by Lee Jablin in the 1980s and early 1990s. The Anbang Insurance Group of China purchased the Waldorf Astoria New York for US\$1.95 billion in 2014, making it the most expensive hotel ever sold. The Waldorf Astoria closed in 2017 for renovations; the upper stories were converted into 375 condominiums, while the lowest 18 floors will retain 375 hotel rooms. Dajia Insurance Group took over the Waldorf Astoria when Anbang went bankrupt in 2020, and, after several delays, the hotel is not expected to reopen until 2025 at the earliest. In 2009, the Waldorf Astoria and Towers had 1,416 rooms; the main hotel had 1,235 single and double rooms and 208 mini-suites, while the Waldorf Towers on the 28th to 42nd floors had 181 rooms, of which 115 were suites with one to four bedrooms. The most expensive room, the Presidential Suite, was designed with Georgian-style furniture to emulate that of the White House. The hotel has three main restaurants: Peacock Alley, The Bull & Bear Steak House, and La Chine—a new Chinese restaurant that replaced Oscar's Brasserie in late 2015. Sir Harry's Bar, also located in the hotel, is named after British explorer Sir Harry Johnston. The Waldorf Astoria has been known for its lavish dinner parties and galas, often at the center of political and business conferences and fundraising schemes involving the rich and famous. After World War II, it played a significant role in world politics and the Cold War, culminating in the controversial World Peace Conference of March 1949. The Presidential Suite was the residence of Herbert Hoover from his retirement for over 30 years, and Frank Sinatra kept a suite at the Waldorf from 1979 until 1988. Some of the luxury suites were named after celebrities who lived or stayed in them, including Cole Porter, the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Douglas MacArthur, and Winston Churchill. ## Name The name of the hotel is ultimately derived from the town of Walldorf, which lies in the north of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, south of Mannheim and Heidelberg. The name of the town, in turn, is derived from the German words Wald, meaning "forest", and Dorf, meaning "village". Walldorf is the ancestral home of the Astor family, the prominent German-American family that built the hotel. The hotel was originally known as the Waldorf-Astoria with a single hyphen, as recalled by a popular expression and song, "Meet Me at the Hyphen". The sign was changed to a double hyphen, looking similar to an equals sign, by Conrad Hilton when he purchased the hotel in 1949. The double hyphen visually represents "Peacock Alley", the hallway between the two hotels that once stood where the Empire State building now stands today. The use of the double hyphen was discontinued by its parent company Hilton in 2009, shortly after the introduction of the Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts chain. ## History ### Original buildings The original hotel started as two hotels on Fifth Avenue built by feuding relatives. The first hotel, the 13-story, 450-room Waldorf Hotel, designed by Henry Janeway Hardenbergh in the German Renaissance style, was opened on March 13, 1893, at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 33rd Street, on the site where millionaire developer William Waldorf Astor had his mansion. The original hotel stood 225 feet (69 m) high, with a frontage of about 100 feet (30 m) on Fifth Avenue, with an area of 69,475 square feet (6,454.4 m²). The original hotel was described as having a "lofty stone and brick exterior", which was "animated by an effusion of balconies, alcoves, arcades, and loggias beneath a tile roof bedecked with gables and turrets". William Astor, motivated in part by a dispute with his aunt Caroline Webster Schermerhorn Astor, had built the Waldorf Hotel next door to her house, on the site of his father's mansion, hiring George Boldt as its first managers. At first, the Waldorf appeared destined for failure. It was "Astor's Folly", with the general perception of the palatial hotel being that it had no place in New York City. Wealthy New Yorkers were angry because they viewed the construction of the hotel as the ruination of a good neighborhood. Business travelers found it too expensive and too far uptown for their needs. However, the hotel became a major success, earning \$4.5 million in its first year, exorbitant for that period. William Astor's construction of a hotel next to his aunt's house worsened his feud with her, but with Boldt's assistance, Waldorf's cousin, John Jacob Astor IV, persuaded his mother to move uptown. On November 1, 1897, John Jacob Astor IV opened the 17-story Astoria Hotel on an adjacent site, and leased it to Boldt. The hotels were initially built as two separate structures, but Boldt planned the Astoria so it could be connected to the Waldorf by an alley, Peacock Alley, named for the parade of well-dressed, well-to-do people who strutted between the two fashionable buildings. The hotel subsequently became known as the "Waldorf-Astoria", the largest hotel in the world at the time. With a telephone in every room and first-class room service, the hotel was designed specifically to cater to the needs of the socially prominent "wealthy upper crust" of New York and distinguished foreign visitors to the city. The hotel became, according to author Sean Dennis Cashman, "a successful symbol of the opulence and achievement of the Astor family". It was the first hotel to offer complete electricity and private bathrooms. Founding proprietor Boldt, whose motto was "the guest is always right", became wealthy and prominent internationally, if not so much a popular celebrity as his famous employee, Oscar Tschirky, known as "Oscar of the Waldorf", maître d'hôtel from the hotel's inauguration in 1893 until his retirement in 1943. Tschirsky gained renown among the general public as an artist who "composed sonatas in soups, symphonies in salads, minuets in sauces, lyrics in entrees"; he had an excellent memory and an encyclopedic memory of the culinary preferences of many of the guests, which further added to his popularity. The Waldorf gained significant renown internationally for its fundraising dinners and balls, regularly attracting notables of the day such as Andrew Carnegie, who became a fixture. Banquets were often held in the ballroom for esteemed figures and international royalty. The Waldorf Astoria was influential in advancing the status of women, who could be admitted as single guests. One article in 1899 claimed that at any one time, the hotel had \$7 million worth of valuables locked in the safe, testament to the wealth of its guests. Upon his death in 1919, William Waldorf Astor's half-share of the Waldorf Astoria and the Astor Hotel were reported to have been worth £10 million. On the evening of November 15, 1926, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) broadcast its inaugural program from the grand ballroom of the old Waldorf-Astoria. The hotel faced stiff competition from the early 20th century, with a range of new hotels springing up in New York City such as the Hotel Astor (1904), St. Regis (1904), the Knickerbocker (1906), and the Savoy-Plaza Hotel (1927). By the 1920s, the hotel was becoming dated, and the elegant social life of New York had moved much farther north than 34th Street. The Astor family finally sold the hotel to the developers of the Empire State Building and closed the hotel on May 3, 1929. It was demolished soon after. ### Development of new location The idea of a new Waldorf-Astoria hotel was based on the concept that a large, opulent hotel should be available in New York for distinguished visitors. Financial backing was not difficult to get in the summer of 1929, as times were prosperous; the stock market had not yet crashed nor had the Depression arrived. However, before ground was broken for the new building, some of the investors became dubious about whether this was the right time to be investing in a luxury hotel. The land for the new hotel was formerly owned by the New York Central Railroad, which had operated a power plant for Grand Central Terminal on the site. New York Central had promised \$10 million toward the building of the new Waldorf-Astoria. The railroad and all the other investors decided to honor their commitments and take their chances with the uncertain financial climate. The Hotel Waldorf-Astoria Corporation obtained a 26-year lease from New York Central in October 1929 and placed a \$11 million first mortgage on the site. The first steel column in the new hotel was installed on March 24, 1930, and stonework installation began on June 3. The hotel's construction required massive amounts of materials, including 10,000 metal door frames, 11 million bricks, 2.695 million square feet (250,400 m²) of gypsum and terracotta partition blocks, and 1.2 million square feet (110,000 m²) of concrete floors. The new Waldorf Astoria had gold-plated doorknobs on eight stories, and its guestrooms, totaling 20.487 million cubic feet (580,100 m³), made the hotel the most spacious in New York City. and 27,100 short tons (24,200 long tons; 24,600 t) of steel (more than was used in the Woolworth Building). The hotel's steel frame topped out, 625 feet (191 m) above street level, on October 22, 1930. The last stone on the Waldorf Astoria's facade was installed at a ceremony on February 4, 1931. The new building opened on Park Avenue, between 49th and 50th streets, on October 1, 1931, following a soft opening the previous day. It was the tallest and largest hotel in the world at the time, covering the entire block. The slender central tower became known as the Waldorf Towers, with its own private entrance on 50th Street, and consisted of 100 suites, about one-third of which were leased as private residences. NBC received the exclusive right to broadcast events and music from the hotel and to book live entertainment there. President Herbert Hoover said on the radio, broadcast from the White House: "The opening of the new Waldorf Astoria is an event in the advancement of hotels, even in New York City. It carries great tradition in national hospitality...marks the measure of nation's growth in power, in comfort and in artistry...an exhibition of courage and confidence to the whole nation". About 2,000 people were in the ballroom listening to this speech, but by the end of the business day, the 2,200-room hotel had only 500 occupants. The hotel contained several innovations for its time. For example, the Waldorf Astoria contained phones that rang automatically, a first for its time; teletype devices; a telephone extension in each of the 1,550 two-bedroom suites; and a telephone switchboard that served 2,535 extensions. There were radios in all 2,000 guestrooms and in 15 public rooms, connected by 190 miles (310 km) of wire; 140 suites on the upper stories had provision for privately owned receivers. Soon after the hotel opened, hotelier Conrad Hilton, almost bankrupt at the time, reportedly cut out a photograph of the hotel from a magazine and wrote across it, "The Greatest of Them All". Nonetheless, the Waldorf-Astoria did not begin operating at a profit until 1939. Lucius Boomer continued to manage the hotel in the 1930s and 1940s, a commanding figure to whom Tony Rey referred as "the greatest hotelman of his era". Boomer was elected chairman of the board of the Waldorf-Astoria Corporation on February 20, 1945, a position he held until his death in July 1947. ### Early years and international politics Like the original hotel, from its inception, the Waldorf Astoria gained worldwide renown for its glamorous dinner parties and galas, often at the center of political and business conferences and fundraising schemes. Author Ward Morehouse III has referred to the Waldorf Astoria as "comparable to great national institutions" and a "living symbol deep within our collective consciousness". It had the "greatest banquet department in the world" at the time according to restaurateur Tom Margittai, with the center of activity being the Grand Ballroom. On August 3, 1932, some 200 people representing the "cream of New York's literary world" attended the Waldorf Astoria to honor Pearl S. Buck, the author of The Good Earth, which was the best-selling novel in the United States in 1931 and 1932. One dinner alone, a relatively "small dinner" attended by some 50 people in June 1946, raised over \$250,000. During the 1930s and 1940s the hotel's guests were also entertained at the elegant "Starlight Roof" nightclub by the Waldorf-Astoria Orchestra and such noted musicians as: Xavier Cugat, Eddie Duchin, Lester Lanin and Glenn Miller. The hotel played a considerable role in the emerging Cold War and international relations during the postwar years, staging numerous events and conferences. On March 15, 1946, Winston Churchill attended a welcoming dinner at the hotel given by Governor Thomas E. Dewey, and from November 4 to December 12, 1946, the Big Four Conference was held in Jørgine Boomer's apartment on the 37th floor of the Towers. On November 24, 1947, 48 prominent figures of the Hollywood film industry met at the Waldorf Astoria and discussed what would become the Waldorf Statement, banning people with Communist beliefs or tendencies from the Hollywood film industry. On June 21, 1948, a press conference at the hotel introduced the LP record. From March 27 to 29, 1949, the Cultural and Scientific Conference for World Peace, also known as the Waldorf World Peace Conference, was held at the hotel to discuss the emerging Cold War and the growing divide between the US and the Soviet Union. The event was organized by the struggling American Communist Party and was attended by the likes of Soviet Foreign Minister Andrey Vyshinsky, composer and pianist Dmitri Shostakovich, and writer Alexsander Fadeyev; it was picketed by anti-Stalinists running under the banner of America for Intellectual Freedom, and prominent individuals such as Irving Howe, Dwight Macdonald, Mary McCarthy, Robert Lowell, and Norman Mailer. In 1954, Israeli statesman and archaeologist Yigael Yadin met secretly with the Syriac Orthodox Archbishop Mar Samuel in the basement of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel to negotiate the purchase of four Dead Sea Scrolls for Israel; Yadin paid \$250,000 for all four scrolls. Hilton acquired management rights to the hotel on October 12, 1949. Restaurateur George Lang began working at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in 1955, and on December 13, 1955, he helped organize the American Theatre Wing's First Night Ball to celebrate Helen Hayes's 50th year in show business. He did much to organize dinners at the Waldorf to assist Hungarian issues and relief. On one occasion, an event was attended by Edward G. Robinson and pianist Doklady and some \$60,000 were raised. #### April in Paris Ball The April in Paris Ball was an annual gala event whose mission was to improve Franco-American relations, to share cultures, and to help assist the US and French charities, aside from commemorating the 2000th anniversary of the founding of Paris. It was established by Claude Philippe, the hotel banquet manager, in 1952. While the hotel's management handled invitations and publicity, other details were coordinated by socialites. Elsa Maxwell was given the primary responsibility in organizing it. It was initially held annually in April, but according to Ann Vaccaro, former executive director of the ball, it was changed to October . After being changed to October, it often marked the start of the US fall social season. It was staged in the Grand Ballroom at the Waldorf for eight years, until 1960. The ball was designed to cater to "very, very high-class people" according to Vaccaro. Raffle tickets cost US\$100 per person and offered opulent prizes such as a US\$5000 bracelet and other jewels, expensive furs, perfumes, and even cars. The Paris Ball became a notable event in the annual calendar during the 1950s, with one early show featuring a "three-hour spectacular of five tableaux, directed by Stuart Chaney", [depicting] a 12th-century scene of troubadours at the court of Eleanor of Aquitane, Henry VIII's meeting at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, Louis XIV at Versailles, and a fashion show of 40 creations by Dior, Fath, Balmain, Desses, and Givenchy". The 1957 event was attended by some 1300 guests, including the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, Senator John F. Kennedy, his wife, Jackie, and Marilyn Monroe, who donated \$130,000 to charities. The following year, the ballroom was decorated with 30 feet (9.1 m) high chestnut trees, earning US\$170,000 for charities. The final ball to be hosted in the hotel was held on April 10, 1959, with the main theme being the Parisian circus of the 18th century. ### Late 20th century Time celebrated its 40th anniversary at the hotel on May 6, 1963, at an event attended by some 1,500 celebrities. When Pope Paul VI made the first papal visit to the United States in 1965, he met with U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson at the Waldorf Astoria. In 1968, British rock band The Who checked into the hotel and were reportedly banned from the hotel for life; however, they were allowed to visit the hotel in 1990, when they performed at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Induction. In 1972, the Hilton Hotels Corporation bought the hotel outright from New York Central's successor, Penn Central. In the 1970s, the Waldorf Astoria continued to play an important role in international politics, particularly between the US and the Middle East. In November 1974, the hotel was placed on high alert when a "20-car motorcade, with eight shotgun-toting police marksmen aboard in bullet-proof vests" brought Palestinian Fatah party leader Farouk Kaddoumi to the Waldorf from John F. Kennedy International Airport. The following month, President Ford met with Nelson Rockefeller after he was voted Vice President, and a 90-minute press conference was held in a suite in the hotel. In November 1975, the US government insisted that PLO leader Yasser Arafat stay at the Waldorf during his visit to America, against the wishes of the hotel staff; security was stepped up severely. On August 12, 1981, IBM unveiled its Personal Computer in a press conference at the Waldorf Astoria. The NBA held its first-ever draft lottery between non-playoff teams at the Starlight Room for the 1985 NBA draft. Lee Jablin, of Harman Jablin Architects, fully renovated and upgraded the property during the mid-1980s through the mid-1990s in a \$150 million renovation. The main lobby was renovated in 1986 as part of the project, and the hotel was also downsized from 1,800 to 1,700 rooms. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) designated the Waldorf Astoria's exterior as a New York City landmark in January 1993, which prevented Hilton from demolishing or altering the hotel's facade without the LPC's permission. At the time, Hilton did not have any plans to alter the hotel's facade. ### 21st century On May 27, 2001, the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church of America had a grand banquet at the hotel to celebrate the 1700th anniversary of Armenia's conversion to Christianity, with Ambassador Edward Djerejian as guest speaker. On May 7, 2004, a press conference was held by MGM, discussing Steve Martin's The Pink Panther of the Pink Panther series. The 5th Annual DGA Honors Gala was held at the Waldorf on September 29. In 2006, Hilton launched Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts, a brand named for the hotel. Branches of the Waldorf Astoria were launched in Arizona, California, Florida, Hawaii, and Louisiana in the United States, and abroad in France, Israel, Italy, and Saudi Arabia. In 2006, Hilton was reported to be considering opening a new Waldorf Astoria hotel on the Las Vegas Strip. In 2008, the Waldorf Astoria opened the Guerlain and Spa Chakra, Inc. spa at the hotel, as part of the Waldorf Astoria Collection. The Waldorf Astoria New York is a member of Historic Hotels of America, the official program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation. "The Towers of the Waldorf Astoria" continued to operate as a boutique "hotel within a hotel". #### Anbang conversion In October 2014, Chinese company Anbang Insurance Group bought Waldorf Astoria New York from Hilton for US\$1.95 billion, making it the most expensive hotel ever sold at the time. A Chinese restaurant, La Chine, opened at the Waldorf Astoria late the following year. On July 1, 2016, Anbang announced plans to refurbish the hotel and turn some rooms into condominiums, The Towers of the Waldorf Astoria. Under the plan, some of the hotel's rooms would be turned into apartments, while the remaining guestrooms would be operated by Hilton. The final event in the Grand Ballroom, on February 28, 2017, was a charity gala celebrating NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital with Stevie Wonder playing. As part of the refurbishment process, the hotel closed on March 1, 2017. The hotel's restaurants, including Peacock Alley, The Bull and Bear Steak House, and La Chine, were all closed; they were planned to reopen when the renovation was completed. A week after the hotel closed, on March 7, 2017, the LPC voted unanimously to list the interiors of many of the hotel's public spaces as New York City landmarks, protecting them from major alterations. Louis Deniot redesigned the apartments and amenity areas, while Pierre-Yves Rochon refurbished the hotel rooms. The hotel rooms were planned to be on the lowest 18 floors. In November 2019, it was announced that the 375 condos in the Waldorf-Astoria would go on sale early the next year, while the 375 remaining hotel rooms would not reopen until 2021. Following Anbang's bankruptcy in 2020, Dajia Insurance Group Co. took over Anbang's American assets, including the Waldorf Astoria. Sales of the Waldorf-Astoria's 375 condos began that March. By late 2020, the hotel was set to open at the end of 2022; however, as of March 2021, the hotel was expected to open in early 2023. The renovation of the Waldorf Astoria stalled in mid-2022 as the project exceeded its \$2 billion budget. According to the Wall Street Journal, this had pushed the renovation back to at least 2024. In March 2023, news media reported that the building would not reopen until 2025 at the earliest. ## Architecture The hotel was designed by architects Schultze and Weaver and constructed at 301 Park Avenue, between 49th and 50th Streets, several blocks north of Grand Central Terminal. The hotel occupies an entire city block, measuring 405 feet (123 m) wide between Park Avenue to the west and Lexington Avenue to the east, and 200 feet (61 m) deep between 49th Street to the south and 50th Street to the north. The hotel was developed atop the existing railroad tracks leading to the station as part of the Terminal City complex, using the air rights above the tracks. Travel America stated: "To linger in the sumptuous salons of the Waldorf-Astoria is to step back in time. Your trip down memory lane is a flashback to the glamor days of the 1930s when this Art Deco masterpiece was the tallest hotel in the world and the epicenter of elite society. A legendary limestone landmark occupying a whole block of prime real estate in midtown Manhattan, it's still a prestigious address that embodies luxury and power in the richest city on earth." ### Form and facade The 47-story, 625 ft (191 m) hotel, was the tallest and largest hotel in the world for several years after its completion. The structure uses 1,585 cubic feet (44.9 m³) of black marble imported from Belgium, 600 cubic feet (17 m³) of Brech Montalto and 260 cubic feet (7.4 m³) of Alps Green from Italy, and some 300 antique mantels. In addition, 200 railroad cars brought some 800,000 cubic feet (23,000 m³) of limestone for the building's facing, 27,100 tons of steel for the skeleton superstructure, and 2.595 million square feet (241,100 m²) of terra cotta and gypsum block. The hotel is accessed by six bronze-and-nickel doorways, three each on Park and Lexington Avenues, all measuring 13 feet (4.0 m) wide and 31 feet (9.4 m) high. The massing of the hotel rises from a pair of 20-story-high slabs at the base, which run parallel to Park and Lexington Avenues. The slabs contain setbacks at the 18th story on their western elevation and at the 13th and 16th stories on the eastern elevation. The slab on Park Avenue contained a retractable metal and glass roof above the 18th and 19th stories, above the Starlight Roof nightclub. The slabs are covered with gray limestone and lack colorful ornamentation. The facade of the lower stories is divided vertically into numerous bays, which contain recessed windows and spandrel panels. There are three patterns of spandrels on the western and eastern elevations of the facade, facing Park and Lexington Avenues respectively. Gilded letters with the hotel's name are placed above the entrances on either avenue. On Park Avenue, the letters are flanked by representations of maidens. Above the 20th story, the hotel rises as a single slab to the 42nd story. This slab is oriented parallel to the side streets and is also faced in gray limestone. The 42-story slab is topped by a pair of towers. The tops of the towers contain bronze-and-glass lanterns measuring 15 feet (4.6 m) high and 15 feet wide. The upper stories of the towers are faced in brick, which was intentionally designed to match the stonework on the lower stories. The use of brick led many to believe that the builders ran out of money. The Waldorf Astoria's facade has undergone few changes over the years, except for the installation of openings for air conditioners; replacement of aluminum windows; and modifications to storefronts, marquees, and entrances at ground level. ### Interior `Frommer's has cited the hotel as an "icon of luxury", and highlights the "wide stately corridors, the vintage Deco door fixtures, the white-gloved bellmen, the luxe shopping arcade", the "stunning round mosaic under an immense crystal chandelier", and the "free-standing Waldorf clock, covered with bronze relief figures" in the main lobby. The first, third, fourth, and 18th floors were dedicated entirely to public rooms and spaces. Many of the public areas used indirect lighting, with lightbulbs concealed in objects such as lamps and vases, "so as to create a restful atmosphere". Tours are conducted of the hotel for guests.` #### Ground level The hotel is accessed by two foyers at ground level: one on Park Avenue to the west and one on Lexington Avenue to the east. Three vestibules at the middle of the Park Avenue elevation contain metal-and-glass doors that lead to the foyer there. The center vestibule is composed of a limestone frame, which projects slightly inward and contains two revolving doors. The vestibules on either side contain doors that swing outward, as well as ornate nickel-bronze metalwork. There are nickel-bronze grilles between each of the vestibule, as well as large windows on the west wall, illuminating the space. These large windows are divided by wide mullions with bas-reliefs, and they also have pierced metal screens. Stairs on the east wall lead up to the Park Avenue lobby. The Lexington Avenue foyer is at the center of the Lexington Avenue elevation and also contains nickel-bronze decorations. The east wall has three vestibules with metal-and-glass doors leading to the street. The center vestibule is a revolving door within a curved frame, while the other vestibules have doors that swing outward. Above the vestibules are grilles, wood paneling, and beveled mirrors. The west wall contains escalators to the north and a stairway to the south, which ascend to the lobby floor, as well as a hallway leading to additional spaces at ground level. A private driveway, measuring 90 feet (27 m) wide and 200 feet (61 m) long, was built from 49th to 50th Street. Similar to the old Waldorf-Astoria's 34th Street carriageway, this allowed private vehicles and taxis to drop off and pick up guests without blocking traffic. The driveway led to a parking lot with 300 spaces. #### Lobby floor Unlike in other American hotels, the lobby floor of the Waldorf Astoria is raised one story above ground level, which both created the impression of grandeur and allowed storefronts to be placed at ground level. Many rooms contained murals from both 18th-century and contemporary artists. For example, the men's cafe contained a map of the New York metropolitan area with notable golf courses; another dining room had canvases painted by Josep Maria Sert, gold walls, and a silver ceiling. ##### Park Avenue lobby and colonnade On the west side of the lobby floor is the Park Avenue lobby, also called the main foyer; it is accessed from the Park Avenue foyer and is illuminated by that foyer's windows. The LPC describes the space as being in the Pompeian style. The Park Avenue lobby is surrounded by raised terraces on the north and south walls, the Park Avenue foyer to the west, and the colonnade to the east. The north terrace connects with the Empire Room, while the south terrace connects with the Vanderbilt Room; both terraces have an alcove to the west and a stair to the east. The Park Avenue lobby contains classical-style square columns, as well as pastoral murals by Louis Rigal. The center of the Park Avenue lobby has a stepped ceiling, the terraces and Park Avenue foyer have painted panels on their ceilings, and the terraces' alcoves have metallic-trim ceilings. The Park Avenue Colonnade connects the Park Avenue lobby to the west and the West Lounge to the east. The space is divided into three aisles by two colonnades of square columns. The mosaic floor contains rosette motifs surrounded by a travertine frame. Each wall is made of painted plaster with limestone pilasters, wainscoting, and white-metal doors. The men's room and cloakroom are on the north wall, while the ladies' room and shoe-shine room are on the south wall; a set of metal-and-glass doors originally led to the West Lounge. The center aisle has a coved ceiling with indirect lighting and metal finishes, while the north and south aisles have paneled ceilings similar to those above the Park Avenue lobby's terraces. The west lounge, originally the Peacock Alley, runs in a north–south direction, connecting the Park Avenue lobby and colonnade to the west and the west elevator bank to the east. It contains wooden paneled walls and red-marble pilasters with silver Ionic capitals. The northern portion of the west lounge has been converted into a restaurant area. This space contains the Peacock Alley restaurant, which includes the main restaurant, a bar and lounge, and three private dining salons. The southern portion remains intact and contains a set of decorative metal gates that formerly led to a beauty salon. The west elevator lobby consists of a bank of six elevators with stainless steel doors that contain bas-reliefs of women. The elevator lobby also has a carpet, wooden paneling around the elevator doors, and a stepped ceiling with crystal chandelier. The elevators are furnished with paneled pollard oak and Carpathian elm. ##### Main lobby The main lobby, at the center of the lobby floor, measures 82 by 62 feet (25 by 19 m) across and 22 feet (6.7 m) high. The lobby has four wood-paneled walls, all of which originally contained archways, but the archways on the north and south walls have been infilled. There are also square columns made of black marble, which support a plaster ceiling. The tops of the walls contain a bas-relief frieze, installed in a 1980s renovation. The lobby is furnished with polished nickel-bronze cornices and Rockwood stone. In the main lobby is a chandelier measuring 10 feet (3.0 m) by 10 feet (3.0 m). Initially, the north wall of the lobby had a porter and cigar store; the east wall had a transportation desk; and the south wall had a cashier's desk and front-office desk. Special desks in the lobby are provided for transportation and theatre, where exclusive tickets to many of the city's prominent theaters can be purchased. The grand clock, a 4000-lb bronze, was built by the Goldsmith's Company of London originally for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago and was purchased by the Waldorf owners. Its base is octagonal, with eight commemorative plaques of presidents George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, Andrew Jackson, Benjamin Harrison, and Grover Cleveland, and Queen Victoria and Benjamin Franklin. A shield once belonging to the Waldorf was moved to the Alexis restaurant on W. Franklin Street in 1984. The main lobby is surrounded on all four sides by a system of secondary corridors. The eastern corridor allowed direct access from Lexington Avenue to the various rooms on the third and fourth stories. The architects used different colors of marbles for the lobby-floor lounges to distinguish them from each other. The west lounge has French walnut burl panels separated by red French marble; the former north lounge had yellow Siena marble; the south lounge has white gray Breche Montalto marble; and the east arcade has serpentine cladding. ##### East arcade and stair hall East of the main lobby is the main lobby hall, which leads to the hotel's east arcade and eastern elevator bank. The room includes wall panels made of burled wood, as well as bronze vitrines. The east arcade runs in a north–south direction, connecting the main lobby hall to the west and a stair hall to the east. Its design is similar to that of the west lounge. The east arcade has elevators with nickel-bronze doors that contain bas-reliefs of floral patterns and figures. The east arcade also contains Japanese-ash wall paneling; green-marble pilasters with Corinthian capitals; and metal-and-glass doors. The northern end of the east arcade has been divided into another room, while the southern end leads to a staircase that connects with the 49th Street Ballroom. The arcade also contains display cases and stores, although it originally functioned as a lounge. The stair hall consists of a pair of staircases leading from the first to the third floor, allowing guests to access the ballroom directly from Lexington Avenue. The staircases contain balustrades with frozen-fountain motifs and brass handrails, as well as marble statues. The plaster walls are painted to resemble travertine and contain grilles and mirrored panels, while the ceilings have stepped surfaces and crystal chandeliers. ##### Other spaces The lobby floor contains the room registration and cashier desks, the Empire Room and Hilton Room, the private Marco Polo Club, the Wedding Salon, Kenneth's Salon, the Peacock Alley lounge and restaurant, and Sir Harry's Bar. From 1992 to 2013, Kenneth, sometimes called the world's first celebrity hairdresser, famed for creating Jacqueline Kennedy's bouffant in 1961, moved his hairdressing and beauty salon to the Waldorf after a 1990 fire destroyed his shop on 19 East 54th Street. Several boutiques surround the lobby, which contains Cole Porter's Steinway & Sons floral print-decorated grand piano on the Cocktail Terrace, which the hotel had once given him as a gift. Porter was a resident at the hotel for 30 years and composed many of his songs here. The Empire Room is where many of the musical and dance performances were put on, from Count Basie, to Victor Borge, Gordon MacRae, Liza Minnelli, George M. Cohan, and Lena Horne, the first black performer at the hotel. #### Third and fourth floors The third floor contains the grand ballroom, the ballroom foyer, entrance hall, the Basildon Room, the Jade Room, and the Astor Gallery. The eastern part of the third floor contains the Jade Room to the north and the Astor Gallery to the south, separated by a foyer. The stair hall from the first floor connects the Jade Room–Astor Gallery foyer to the east with the ballroom's entrance hall to the west. The ballroom's entrance hall extends north to the Basildon Room and connects with the ballroom's foyer to the southwest. West of the ballroom foyer is the ballroom itself, at the center of the third floor's south side. ##### Grand ballroom The grand ballroom, measuring 120 by 135 feet (37 by 41 m), measures 44 feet (13 m) high. The space could fit up to 4,000 people. Although the ballroom has had several decorative schemes over the years, since 1983 it has been painted in a champagne-colored palette with silver and gold accents. The center of the ballroom has no columns and is spanned by a 312-short-ton (279-long-ton; 283 t) girder, which supports the upper stories. The ballroom has a stage at its northern end, which could accommodate a full orchestra. The rest of the room is surrounded by two balconies, which are supported by full-height piers and contain indirect lighting fixtures. The balconies on the fourth floor project from the piers, while those on the fifth floor are designed as cantilevered boxes. The ballroom has a coved ceiling that steps up toward the center; it originally had indirect lighting panels, but a crystal chandelier and cove lighting have also been installed. The grand ballroom is surrounded by a set of galleries, which connect the main floor to the balconies. The galleries contain carpets on the floors, grilles on the walls, and metal staircases. The ballroom was originally served by 27 elevators which connected to the main entrances, a set of private entrances on 49th and 50th Streets, and the guestrooms. Numerous organizations hold their annual dinners in the grand ballroom of the Waldorf, including St. John's University President's Dinner and the Alfred E. Smith Memorial Foundation Dinner. The NASCAR Sprint Cup end-of-season awards banquet was held at the Waldorf-Astoria every year between 1981 and 2008;, mainly in the Grand Ballroom. Every October, the Paris Ball was held in the Grand Ballroom, before moving to the Americana (now the Sheraton Times Square). Bob Hope was a regular performer at the Ballroom, as was Guy Lombardo, who used to broadcast live on the radio there from the "Starlight Roof". Maurice Chevalier performed at the ballroom in 1965 in his last appearance. Louis Armstrong performed at the Waldorf for two weeks in March 1971 in his last performance. Since 1986, most Rock & Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremonies have been held in the Grand Ballroom. ##### Other spaces The ballroom foyer, east of the ballroom, measures 87 by 40 feet (27 by 12 m) wide. There is an aisle to the east, separating the foyer from the ballroom entrance hall. The southern end of the aisle contains a staircase leading to a mezzanine and the fourth-floor balcony; the mezzanine and stairway have metal railings. The walls contain metal grilles, and the north and south walls also have marble piers. The north, west, and east walls have transoms with mirrors, while the south wall has marble paneling and mirrored doors. The ceilings are made of plaster, with crystal chandeliers hanging from a dome with plaster peacocks. The ballroom's entrance hall, also known as the Silver Gallery, bears a resemblance to the original hotel's Peacock Alley, but is shorter and wider. It measures almost 200 feet (61 m) long and connects the ballroom's foyer to the west with the stairways from Lexington Avenue to the east. This room has a vaulted ceiling with crystal chandeliers suspended from it. The walls and doors have mirrored panels, and the space also has grilles, molded frames, and murals. The elevator doors are made of nickel-bronze and depict two women, one each with a lute and a harp. This room also has allegorical murals painted by Edward Emerson Simmons. The murals, surrounded by wood frames, were taken from the original hotel's Astor Gallery and depict twelve female figures. The Basildon Room, measuring 48 by 37 feet (15 by 11 m), is at the north end of the ballroom's entrance hall. The space includes oil paintings and a fireplace mantel salvaged from Basildon Park, a 17th-century English manor designed by John Carr. The oil paintings, designed by Angelica Kauffmann, depict scenes from the poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. The mantel and walls are decorated in the neoclassical style; the room also originally contained a wooden floor and mirrored transoms and doors. The Jade Room, occupying the northeast corner of the third story, measures 78 by 48 feet (24 by 15 m), with marble pilasters and columns dividing the space into aisles. The center of the Jade Room originally had a maple dance floor, while the eastern aisle overlooks Lexington Avenue. The Jade Room contains bas-reliefs on the walls, themed to dance and rhythm; decorations along the edges of the ceiling; and a pair of suspended chandeliers. In addition, there are closets at the corners of each aisle, as well as mirrors on the north and south walls. The small eastern foyer, connecting the Jade Room with the Astor Gallery, contains grilles on the walls and ceilings, as well as doorways leading west to the stair hall. The Astor Gallery, at the third story's southeast corner, also measures 78 by 48 feet and is divided into three aisles, like the Jade Room. Most of the decorative features are similar to those in the Jade Room, but the south wall of the Astor Gallery also contains a fireplace. Additionally, the Jade Room had green pilasters and gold window drapes, while the Astor Gallery had silver-gray pilasters and rose drapes. On the fourth story were various ballrooms that accommodated between 160 and 2,100 guests. The fourth floor has the banquet and sales offices, and most of the suites were named after guests including Barron, Vanderbilt, Windsor, Conrad, Vertès, Louis XVI, and Cole Porter. The fourth floor was where the notorious Sunday-night card games were played. Before its 2021 renovation, the hotel had a model of one of the living rooms of apartment 31A, then the suite of former U.S. President Herbert Hoover. A living room from the suite is also recreated as a display at the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum in West Branch, Iowa. #### Rooms and suites Originally the hotel had 2,253 guestrooms, including 500 deluxe rooms and 300 parlors; the rooms above the 28th story were largely intended for long-term residents. The Waldorf Astoria and Towers had a total of 1,413 hotel rooms as of 2014. In 2009, when it had 1,416 rooms, the main hotel had 1,235 single and double rooms and 208 minisuites, 17 of which were classified as "Astoria Level", which are upgraded rooms with deluxe amenities and complimentary access to the Astoria Lounge. The Waldorf Towers, from the 28th floor up to the 42nd, had 181 rooms, of which 115 were suites, with one to four bedrooms. As of the late 1990s, the hotel had a housekeeping staff of nearly 400, with 150 day maids and 24 night maids. ##### Lower-story guestrooms The hotel's guestrooms were originally decorated in 18th-century American, English, and French styles. Frommer's likened the décor of the rooms to those of an English country house, and describe the corridors as being wide and plush-carpeted, which "seem to go on forever". The rooms retain the original Art Deco motifs, although each room is decorated differently. The guestrooms were classified as Deluxe, Superior, and Luxury, with a marble bath or shower and amenities designed by Salvatore Ferragamo. The suites featured king or double beds and start in size at 450 square feet (42 m²). The smallest are the one-bedroom suites, which range from 450 to 600 square feet (42 to 56 m²). The Signature Suites have a separate living room and one or two bedrooms, which range from 750 to 900 square feet (70 to 84 m²). ##### Upper-story suites and condominiums The Tower suites were divided into standard ones; The Towers Luxury Series, which have their own sitting room; the Towers Penthouse Series; the Towers Presidential-Style Suites; and finally the most expensive Presidential Suite on the 35th floor. The Penthouse Series contained three suites, The Penthouse, The Cole Porter Suite, and The Royal Suite, named after the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. They started at 1,800 square feet (170 m²) in size, with two or more bedrooms, and had a kitchen and a dining room which could accommodate 8–12 guests. The Towers Presidential-Style Suites were divided into the MacArthur Suite and the Churchill Suite, and had their own grand entry foyer. Like the Penthouse Series, they had their own kitchen and dining room. The 2,250 square feet (209 m²) Presidential Suite was designed with Georgian-style furniture to emulate that of the White House. It had three large bedrooms and three bathrooms, and boasted numerous treasures, including the desk of General MacArthur and rocking chair of John F. Kennedy. As of 2020, the condominiums on the upper stories range from studio apartments to penthouse apartments. Although the upper stories largely have 28 condos on each floor, the 40th through 42nd stories contain a total of two penthouses. The penthouses, within the copper pinnacles, are duplex apartments covering 6,500 square feet (600 m²) and have private elevators. Excluding the penthouses, the minimum asking prices for the condos ranged from \$2.6 million for a one-bedroom unit to \$18.5 million for a four-bedroom, 3,000-square-foot (280 m²) unit. #### Other facilities The 18th floor had a 260-foot-wide (79 m) roof garden and outdoor terrace, as well as a foyer, checking room, coatroom, and kitchens. The terrace contained multicolored glass mosaics inlaid in cement. A 2,500 square feet (230 m²) fitness center is on the 5th floor. The \$21.5 million Waldorf Astoria Guerlain Spa was inaugurated on September 1, 2008, on the 19th floor. It features 16 treatment rooms and two relaxation lounges. The hotel has its own Business Center, a 1,150 square feet (107 m²) digital facility, where guests can access the Internet and photocopy. In 2004, the hotel launched a line of products in keeping with its Art Deco design. The top five stories were devoted to mechanical equipment. When the Waldorf Astoria opened, it had 31 elevators. The lower stories were served by nine elevators, while the Waldorf Towers were served by four elevators traveling at 700 feet per minute (210 m/min). There were also three elevators connecting the ground, ballroom, and banquet-room levels, each capable of carrying 6,000 pounds (2,700 kg), and an elevator on 50th Street connecting to the ballroom and exhibition levels, capable of carrying 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). The hotel has its own railway platform, Track 61, that was part of the New York Central Railroad (later Metro-North Railroad), and was connected to the Grand Central Terminal complex. Intended for guests with private railcars, the platform was used by such figures as Franklin D. Roosevelt, James Farley, Adlai Stevenson, and Douglas MacArthur, and it has also hosted exhibits and fashion shows. An elevator measuring 18 by 6 feet (5.5 by 1.8 m), large enough for Franklin D. Roosevelt's automobile, provides access to the platform. There is a pedestrian entrance from 50th Street, just to the left of the Waldorf Towers entrance, but it is rarely open to the public. ## Restaurants and cuisine The Waldorf Astoria was the first hotel to offer room service and was the first major hotel in the world to hire women as chefs, beginning in 1931. An extensive menu is available for guests, with special menus for children and for dieters. The executive chef of the Waldorf for many years was John Doherty, following the Austrian Arno Schmidt who held the position for ten years from 1969 to 1979. Restaurateur George Lang was awarded the Hotelman of the Year Award in 1975. As of the early 1990s, the hotel served over three million dishes a year and got through 27,000 pounds of lobster, 100 pounds of beluga caviar, 380,000 pints of strawberries annually. The hotel has gained significant renown for its lavish feasts. During one grand feast for Francis Cardinal Spellman, over 200 VIP guests, according to Arno Schmidt, devoured some 3,600 pounds of fillet, 600 pounds of fresh halibut, 1,500 pounds of potatoes, and 260 pounds of petit fours, eaten on gold china plates. One 1973 feast by the Explorer's Club devoured hippo meat, a 4-foot (1.2 m) alligator, a baby shark, an amberjack tuna, a boa, wild boar hams, 480 pieces of breaded-fried cod tongues and cheeks, antelope steaks, two boxes of Chinese rabbit, and 20 pounds of rattlesnake. The hotel has three main restaurants, Peacock Alley, The Bull and Bear Steak House, and Oscar's Brasserie, as well as a secondary restaurant, the Japanese Inagiku. At its peak in the late 1940s, the hotel once had nine restaurants. Peacock Alley, in the west lounge, is known primarily for its fish and seafood dishes. Sunday Brunch is particularly popular with locals and features over 180 gourmet dishes divided into 12 themed displays, with cuisine ranging from lobster and oysters to Belgian waffles, Eggs Benedict, and omelettes to hollandaise sauces. The Bull and Bear Steak House is furnished in richly polished mahogany in the English Regency style, and has a "den-like" atmosphere, and is reportedly the only restaurant on the East Coast which serves 28 days prime grade USDA Certified Angus Beef. It has won awards from the National Restaurant Association and Holiday magazine. Between 2007 and 2010, the restaurant was the filming location for Fox Business Happy Hour, presented live between 5 and 6 pm. The Bull and Bear Bar is based on the original Waldorf Astoria Bar, which was a favorite haunt of many of the financial elite of the city from the hotel's inception in 1893, and adventurers such as Diamond Jim Brady, Buffalo Bill Cody and Bat Masterson. Behind the bar are bronze statues of a bull and a bear, which represent the successful men of Wall Street. The Inagiku, meaning the "rice chrysanthemum", serves contemporary Japanese cuisine. The restaurant opens for lunch on weekdays and cocktails and dinner in the evenings. Designed by Henry Look of San Francisco, the restaurant has four "distinctly different" rooms, including one which represents an old Japanese farmhouse, and the Kinagu Room, resembling a Japanese temple. Guests have the option to reserve private orthodox tatami rooms. Oscar's Brasserie, overlooking Lexington Avenue in what was once a Savarin restaurant, is designed by Adam Tihany. The restaurant takes its name from Oscar Tschirky (Oscar of the Waldorf) and serves traditional American cuisine, with many dishes based upon his cookbook which have gained world renown, including the Waldorf salad, Eggs Benedict, Thousand Island dressing, and Veal Oscar. The Waldorf salad—a salad made with apples, walnuts, celery, grapes, and mayonnaise or a mayonnaise-based dressing—was first created in 1896 at the Waldorf by Oscar. The original recipe did not contain nuts, but they had been added by the time the recipe appeared in The Rector Cook Book in 1928. Tschirky was also noted for his "Oscar's Sauce", which became so popular that it was sold at the hotel. Another of the hotel's specialties was red velvet cake, which became one of its most popular desserts. Sir Harry's Bar is one of the principal bars of the hotel, situated just off the main lobby. It is named after British Sir Harry Johnston (1858–1927). In the 1970s the bar was renovated in a "plush African safari" design to honor Johnston, a notable explorer of Africa, with "zebra-striped wall coverings and carpeting, with bent-cane furnishings". It has since been redecorated back to a more conservative design, with walnut paneling and leather banquettes, and featured a 23 feet (7.0 m) by 8 feet (2.4 m) ebony bar as of the early 1990s. Frank Sinatra frequented Sir Harry's Bar for many years. In 1991, while drinking at Sir Harry's with Jilly Rizzo and Steve Lawrence, he was approached by a fan asking for an autograph. Sinatra responded, "Don't you see I'm on my own time here? You asshole. What's wrong with you?" The fan said something which angered Sinatra, who lunged at the fan, and Sinatra had to be restrained. ### Cocktail books Albert Stevens Crockett, the hotel's veteran publicist and historian, wrote his first cocktail book "Old Waldorf Bar Days" in 1931 during Prohibition and the construction of the current hotel on Park Avenue. It was a homage to the original hotel and its famous bar and clientele. The book contains Crockett's takes on the original hand-written leather-bound book of recipes that was given to him at the time of the closure by bartender Joseph Taylor. This edition was never reprinted. In 1934, Crockett wrote a second book, "The Old Waldorf Astoria Bar Book", in response to the repeal of the Volstead Act and the end of the Prohibition era. He edited out most of the text from the first book. Drawing from his experiences as a travel writer, Crockett added nearly 150 more recipes, the bulk of which can be found in the "Cuban Concoctions" and "Jamaican Jollifers" chapters. These books became reference books on the subject of pre-Prohibition cocktails and their culture. In 2016, the long-time hotel bar manager of Peacock Alley and La Chine, Frank Caiafa, added a completely new edition to the canon. Caiafa's "The Waldorf Astoria Bar Book" includes all of the recipes in Crockett's books; many of the hotel's most important recipes created since 1935; and his own creations. In 2017, it was nominated for a James Beard Foundation Award for Best Beverage Book. Other notable books with connections to the hotel include "Drinks" (1914) by Jacques Straub, a wine steward and a friend of Oscar Tschirky who had written about the first hotel's notable recipes. Tschirky himself compiled a list of 100 recipes for his own book "100 Famous Cocktails" (1934), a selection of favorites from Crockett's books. Finally, hotel publicist Ted Saucier wrote "Bottoms Up" in 1951, consisting of a compendium of popular, national recipes of the day. ## Notable residents and guests ### Leaders and businesspeople On the 100th anniversary of the original hotel in 1993, one publication wrote: "It isn't the biggest hotel in New York, nor the most expensive. But when it comes to prestige, the Waldorf-Astoria has no peer. When presidents come to New York, they stay at the Waldorf-Astoria. Kings and queens make it their home away from home, as have people as diverse as Cary Grant, the Dalai Lama and Chris Evert. Some of them liked the hotel so well, they made their home there." Over the years many royals from around the world stayed at the Waldorf Astoria including Shahanshah of Iran and Empress Farah, King Frederick IX and Queen Ingrid of Denmark, Princess Astrid of Norway, Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Martha of Norway, King Baudouin I of Belgium and Queen Fabiola, Prince Albert and Princess Paola of Belgium, King Hussein I of Jordan, Prince Rainier III and Princess Grace of Monaco, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands, King Michael of Romania, Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the Commonwealth realms, Mohammed Zahir Shah and Homaira Shah of Afghanistan, King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit of Thailand, and Crown Prince Akihito and Princess Michiko of Japan, The great-great-grandson of King Joseph Bonaparte and many others. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip stayed at the hotel during their first visit to America on October 21, 1957, and a banquet was held for them in the Grand Ballroom. In the Bicentennial year in 1976, most of the heads of state from around the world and all of the Kings and Queens of Europe were invited to the hotel, and it also served the presidential candidates in the run up to the elections of that year. In modern times, the clientele of the Waldorf is more typically wealthy politicians and businessmen than playboys and royalty. An entire floor was often rented out to wealthy Saudi Arabians with their own staff. Wealthy Japanese businessmen during their stay would sometimes remove the furniture and replace it with their own floor mats. Demands by people of prominence could often be exorbitant or bizarre. Fidel Castro once walked into the hotel with a flock of live chickens, insisting that they be killed and freshly cooked on the premises to his satisfaction, only to be turned away. While serving as Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger ordered all of the antiques to be removed from one suite and replaced with 36 desks for his staff. An unnamed First Lady once demanded that all of the bulbs in her suite be changed to 100-watt ones and kept on all day and night to simulate daylight. She further insisted that there be an abundance of chewing gum available. Postmaster General James Farley occupied two adjoining suites in the current Waldorf Astoria during his tenure as the chairman of the board of Coca-Cola's International division from 1940 until his death in 1976, arguably one of the landmark's longest housed tenants. The Presidential Suite at the hotel come from when, during the 1950s and early 1960s, former U.S. president Herbert Hoover and retired U.S. General Douglas MacArthur lived in suites on different floors of the hotel. Hoover lived at the Waldorf Astoria for over 30 years from after the end of his presidency until he died in 1964. Former President Dwight D. Eisenhower lived there between 1967 and his death in 1969. MacArthur's widow, Jean MacArthur, lived there from 1952 until her death in 2000. A plaque affixed to the wall on the 50th Street side commemorates this. John F. Kennedy was fond of the Waldorf Astoria and had a number of private meetings at the hotel, including one with Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. Since Hoover, every President of the United States has either stayed over or lived in the Waldorf Astoria, although Jimmy Carter claimed to have never stayed overnight at the hotel. Nancy Reagan was reputedly not fond of the Presidential Suite. The official residence of the United States' Permanent Representative to the United Nations, an unnamed 42nd-floor apartment, was located in the Waldorf Towers for many years. In 2015, the US Department of State announced that it was moving its headquarters during meetings of the UN General Assembly to The New York Palace Hotel. Carlos P. Romulo, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Philippines and member of the UN had suite 3600, below Hoover's, for some 45 years from 1935 onwards. Former Philippine First Lady Imelda Marcos also spent much time and money at the hotel. Another connection with the Philippines is that many meetings were held here between President Manuel L. Quezon and high ranking American politicians and senators. Through the meetings, Quezon encouraged investment into the country and convinced General MacArthur to accompany him back to the Philippines as his military adviser. Nicaraguan president Anastasio Somoza Debayle and his wife Hope Portocarrero had a penthouse suite at the Waldorf Towers, where Somoza received political leaders. ### Celebrities The hotel has had many well-knowns under its roof throughout its history, including Charlie Chaplin, Ava Gardner, Liv Ullmann, Edward G. Robinson, Gregory Peck, Ray Bolger, John Wayne, Tony Bennett, Jack Benny, Katharine Hepburn, Spencer Tracy, Muhammad Ali, Vince Lombardi, Judy Garland, Sonny Werblin, Greer Garson, Harold Lloyd, Liberace, Burt Reynolds, Robert Montgomery, Cesar Romero, and many others. Due to the number of high-profile guests staying at the hotel at any one time, author Ward Morehouse III has referred to the Towers as a "kind of vertical Beverly Hills. On any one given night you might find Dinah Shore, Gregory Peck, Frank Sinatra [or] Zsa Zsa Gabor staying there". Gabor married Conrad Hilton in 1941. During the 1930s, gangster Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel owned an apartment at the Waldorf. Frank Costello was said to have got his haircut and nails done in the Barber's Shop at the Waldorf. Around the time of World War I, inventor Nikola Tesla lived in the earlier Waldorf-Astoria. In 1955, Marilyn Monroe and her husband Arthur Miller stayed at the hotel for several months. Due to costs of trying to finance her production company "Marilyn Monroe Productions", only being paid \$1,500 a week for her role in The Seven Year Itch and being suspended from 20th Century Fox for walking out on Fox after creative differences, living at the hotel became too costly, and Monroe had to move into a different hotel in New York City. Around the same time that Monroe lived in the hotel, Cole Porter and his wife Linda Lee Thomas had an apartment in the Waldorf Towers, where Thomas died in 1954. Porter's 1934 song "You're the Top", contains the lyric, "You're the top, you're a Waldorf salad". The Cole Porter Suite, Suite 33A, was the place where Porter lived and entertained for a period. Frank Sinatra paid nearly \$1 million a year to keep it as his suite at the hotel between 1979 and 1988, which he called home when out of Los Angeles. Sinatra took over part of the hotel during the filming of The First Deadly Sin in 1980. Grace Kelly and Rainier III were regular guests at the hotel. At one time Kelly was reputed to be in love with the hotel banquet manager of the Waldorf, Claudius Charles Philippe. Elizabeth Taylor frequented the hotel, and would often attend galas at the hotel to talk about her various causes. Her visits were excitedly awaited by the hotel staff, who would prepare long in advance. Taylor was honored at the 1983 Friars Club dinner at the hotel. Brooke Shields has stated that her very first encounter with the paparazzi was in the Grand Ballroom of the Waldorf at the age of 12, stating that she "stood like a statue wondering why they were all hired to photograph me", and that she "debuted at the Waldorf". During her childhood in the 1980s and 1990s, Paris Hilton lived with her family in the hotel. One of the most prestigious debutante balls in the world is the invitation-only International Debutante Ball held biennially in the Grand Ballroom at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, where girls from prominent world families are presented to high society. Since 1954 the musical entertainment at the ball has traditionally been provided by the musicians of the Lester Lanin Orchestra. ## In popular culture The Waldorf Astoria has been a filming location for numerous films and TV series. Ginger Rogers headlined an all star ensemble cast in the 1945 film Week-End at the Waldorf, set at the hotel and filmed partially on location there. Other films shot at the hotel include The Out-of-Towners (1970), Broadway Danny Rose (1984), Coming to America (1988), Scent of a Woman (1992), The Cowboy Way (1994), Random Hearts (1999), Analyze This (1999), For Love of the Game (1999), Serendipity (2001), The Royal Tenenbaums (2001), Maid in Manhattan (2002), Two Weeks Notice (2002), Catch Me If You Can (2002), End of the Century (2005), Mr. and Mrs. Smith (2005), The Pink Panther (2006), and The Hoax (2006). Television series that have filmed at the Waldorf include Law and Order, Rescue Me, Sex and the City, The Sopranos and Will and Grace. Several biographies have been written about the Waldorf, including Edward Hungerford's Story of the Waldorf (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1925) and Horace Sutton's Confessions of a Grand Hotel: The Waldorf-Astoria (New York: Henry Holt, 1953). Langston Hughes wrote a poem entitled "Advertisement for the Waldorf-Astoria", criticizing the hotel and inviting the jobless and homeless to take over the space of the hotel. Wallace Stevens wrote a poem entitled "Arrival at the Waldorf", in which he contrasts the wild country of the jungles of Guatemala to being "back at the Waldorf". In Meg Cabot's novel Jinx, the Chapman School Spring Formal takes place in the Waldorf-Astoria. It is at this point that Tory (the main antagonist) reveals Jean's first attempt at a love spell, which catalyzed the novel's events. Waldorf of the Muppets series was named after the hotel. In the episode starring Dizzy Gillespie his heckling partner Statler (named after Statler Hilton, also in Manhattan) couldn't make it due to illness so Waldorf's wife Astoria came with him. Ayn Rand biographer Anne Heller wrote that the Waldorf Astoria inspired the "Wayne-Falkland Hotel" in Rand's novel Atlas Shrugged. ## See also - List of hotels in New York City - List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets - List of tallest buildings in New York City - The Waldorf-Astoria Orchestra - List of residences of presidents of the United States

If We Are the Body

"If We Are the Body" is the debut single by Christian rock band Casting Crowns. Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman, it was released as the lead single from the band's 2003 self-titled debut album through Beach Street Records on July 26, 2003. The song, originally written by Hall as a "teaching tool" for his youth group, is a CCM and acoustic rock song. It incorporates the violin, mandolin, and accordion in its arrangement and questions why the Christian church does not minister impartially. "If We Are the Body" received positive reviews from music critics, who praised its lyrics and arrangement, and it was nominated for the awards for Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 35th GMA Dove Awards. The song spent three weeks at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC and Christian CHR charts and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts. ## Background and recording According to lead singer Mark Hall, "If We Are the Body" was originally written for use as a "teaching tool" in his youth group. Hall, a youth pastor, said that "[the youth group had] forgotten what the body of Christ looked like" and commented that "The world is well aware of what the church is against, but they aren’t always aware of what it’s for. Everybody in the body of Christ is given gifts to minister with; and when Christians aren’t using these gifts, the body suffers". Hall's inspiration for writing the song came from the second chapter of the book of James, where the writer "admonishes" readers to "steer clear of giving preferential treatment to any one particular group over another, such as favoring the rich over the poor". "If We Are the Body" was produced by Mark A. Miller and Steven Curtis Chapman. It was recorded at Zoo Studio in Franklin, Tennessee by Sam Hewitt and mixed by Steve Bishir at Oxford Sound. Additional recording was conducted by Matt Goldman at Glow In The Dark Studio in Decatur, Georgia. ## Composition "If We Are the Body" is a song with a length of three minutes and 58 seconds. It is set in common time in the key of F minor and has a tempo of 126 beats per minute. Mark Hall's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of C♯₃ to the high note of F♯₄. A CCM song, it has an acoustic rock sound and incorporates the violin, mandolin, and accordion in its arrangement. Featuring "energetic instrumental spurts and tight melodies", the song "admonishes the church for giving preferential treatment to any one particular group over another" and questions why the church does not minister impartially. The song's chorus, which references the Christian concept of the body of Christ, asks "If we are the body, why aren't his arms reaching?/Why aren't his hands healing?/Why aren't his words teaching?/And if we are the body, why aren't his feet going?/Why is his love not showing them there is a way?" "If We Are the Body" challenges the church to welcome outsiders and to "get more visibly involved in changing this world". ## Critical reception and accolades "If We Are the Body" received positive reviews from music critics. Kim Jones of About.com noted it as a "highlight" from Casting Crowns. Andy Argyrakis of CCM Magazine said that the song "commands attention" of lead singer Mark Hall. Belinda S. Ayers of Christian Broadcasting Network described it as "powerful" and "catchy". Steve Best of Cross Rhythms felt it was an example of Casting Crowns being "more... than rock bluster". Russ Breimeier of The Fish felt "If We Are the Body" evokes "Michael Card and Keith Green" in its lyrical message. At the 35th GMA Dove Awards, "If We Are the Body" was nominated for the awards for Song of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year. ## Chart performance "If We Are the Body" was released to Christian AC and Christian CHR radio on July 26, 2003 as the lead single from Casting Crowns' eponymous debut album. It debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for the chart week of August 23, 2003 and dropped off the chart the following week. The song re-entered at number 37 for the chart week of September 6, 2003, In its seventh chart week, "If We Are the Body" advanced to number 24 and in its 10th chart week, it advanced to number seven. In its 12th chart week, "If We Are the Body" reached its peak position of number three on the Hot Christian Songs chart. It also peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and spent three weeks atop both the Radio & Records Christian AC and Christian CHR charts. ## Live performances Casting Crowns has performed "If We Are the Body" live in concert. At a concert on April 1, 2005 at Giant Center in Hershey, Pennsylvania, the band opened up their set list with the song. At a concert on November 12, 2005 at the Stabler Arena in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, they performed it as the third song on their set list. They performed the song at a concert held on March 22, 2008 at Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena in Jacksonville, Florida. Casting Crowns performed "If We Are the Body" as the second song on their set list at their February 4, 2010 concert at Sprint Center in Kansas City, Missouri. The band performed it at their February 16, 2012 concert at Van Andel Arena in Grand Rapids, Michigan. ## Personnel Credits taken from Allmusic. Casting Crowns - Mark Hall – vocals - Megan Garrett – keyboards, acoustic piano - Hector Cervantes – guitars - Juan DeVevo – guitars - Melodee DeVevo – violin - Chris Huffman – bass - Andy Williams – drums Additional musicians - Chris Mosher – keyboards, programming - Rob Graves – guitars Production and Technical - Steven Curtis Chapman – producer - Mark A. Miller – producer - Terry Hemmings – executive producer - Sam Hewitt – recording - Steve Bishir – mixing - Matt Goldman – additional recording ## Charts ## Certifications ## Release and radio history

Brush with Greatness

"Brush with Greatness" is the eighteenth episode of the second season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox Network in the United States on April 11, 1991. In the episode, Marge enrolls in an art class after Lisa encourages her to revive her former interest in painting. When she wins first prize in a local art competition for a portrait of Homer on the couch in his underwear, Mr. Burns commissions her to paint his portrait. In the subplot, Homer is determined to lose weight after getting stuck in a water slide at an amusement park. The episode was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon. Beatles member Ringo Starr guest starred as himself, while Jon Lovitz starred as Marge's art teacher, Professor Lombardo. The episode features cultural references to films such as Rocky and Gone with the Wind. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics, who praised its central focus on Marge, as well as Starr's role. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.0 and was the second highest-rated show on Fox the week it aired. ## Plot The Simpsons go to the Mount Splashmore water park. The park's rescue crew is forced to close the water slide ride after Homer is stuck inside. The crew remove the blocked section of pipe using a large crane, with Homer still stuck inside. That night, the news media poke fun at Homer's massive size during their coverage of his mishap at the water park. After having found out that he weighs 260 pounds (120 kg), Homer vows he will diet and get more exercise. While Homer is looking for his weights in the attic, Bart stumbles upon several old paintings of the drummer Ringo Starr that Marge had made as a high school student. Marge reveals she was scolded by her art teacher for painting Starr, on whom she had a crush. She sent a painting to Starr for his "honest opinion", but she never got a response back. After Lisa suggests that Marge take a painting class at Springfield Community College, she paints Homer asleep on the couch in his underwear, earning praise from her teacher, Professor Lombardo. The painting wins the college art show, earning Marge fame and newspaper headlines. Mr. Burns asks Marge to paint his portrait for a new wing of the Springfield Art Museum. Marge agrees, although she resists Homer's plea to paint Burns as a beautiful man. While Burns is taking a shower at the Simpsons' house, Marge inadvertently sees him naked. Homer finds he has lost 21 pounds from his exercise regimen and now weighs 239 pounds (108 kg). After Burns disparages Homer's weight and his daughters, Lisa and Maggie, Marge throws Burns out of the house. She is ready to quit until she receives a response from Starr, who, though decades late, praises her portrait of him. Homer encourages Marge to finish the painting. Marge's painting of a naked, frail and weak Burns is unveiled at the opening of the museum wing, much to both Burns and the crowd's shock, causing Smithers to faint. She explains that the portrait shows that behind all of Burns's evil, he is a frail and vulnerable human being who is by extension just as beautiful as any other living creature in the world. With that in mind, the crowd praises Marge's portrait; even an impressed Burns does the same before thanking Marge for a job well done. ## Production Al Jean and Mike Reiss originally pitched the idea of Marge taking an art class and churning out depressing paintings, with the family realizing she was secretly unhappy. James L. Brooks took that pitch and came up with the Burns commission plot as well as the idea she would paint him as frail and naked. The script was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon. Prior to writing the episode, Roberts had been an audio and visual editor on the show. Musician Ringo Starr made a guest appearance in the episode as himself. He was the first Beatle to appear on the show; both George Harrison and Paul McCartney would later guest star in the season five episode "Homer's Barbershop Quartet" and the season seven episode "Lisa the Vegetarian" respectively. When the story of Marge's having a crush on Starr was pitched out, Roberts took the opportunity to write Starr into the script because he had always wanted to meet a Beatle. He then sent the script to Starr, who was then in southern France. Starr agreed to do the guest appearance after reading only two lines, and he told Roberts he would be able to do it when he visited Los Angeles a few weeks later. The staff was thrilled, and they immediately decided to expand his role. When Ringo arrived to record and saw the part was longer, he told the staff, “you’ve written me a bloody novel.” The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said of the guest appearance: "We were so excited that we got Ringo Starr coming in to do the show and we recorded him over at the Complex in West Los Angeles. We were given a list of rules about what we couldn't do to Ringo, such as 'Don't touch him', 'Don't approach him', and 'Don't ask for his autograph'. But of course when he shows up in this big limo, Brian brings out a big poster and asks him to sign it!" Roberts explained that he had not received the memo with the rules so he showed up with a copy of the script cover and asked Starr to sign it. Groening asked Starr if he wanted to be animated the way he was in Yellow Submarine or the way he was in the cartoon series The Beatles. Starr chose Yellow Submarine because he did not like his appearance in the cartoon. In addition to Starr, the episode features a guest appearance by Jon Lovitz as Lombardo and the doughnut delivery man who delivers doughnuts to the nuclear power plant. Lombardo's physical appearance was based on an art teacher Reardon had in art school. ## Cultural references The line for the H₂WHOA! ride reproduces the staircases in the lithograph Ascending and Descending by M. C. Escher. The way Krusty removes the clown make-up from his face resembles the way The Joker removes his make-up in the 1989 film Batman. When Homer announces he is going on a diet, he says: "As God is my witness, I'll always be hungry again!", a reference to the famous line "As God is my witness ... I'll never be hungry again!" from the film Gone with the Wind. Homer exercises in a way similar to how Rocky exercises in the 1976 film Rocky. The music that plays as Homer approaches the scale is the main theme from the film The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. A copy of Andy Warhol's painting Campbell's Soup Cans is visible at the art gallery. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Brush with Greatness" finished thirty-seventh in the ratings for the week of April 8–14, 1991, with a Nielsen rating of 12.0, equivalent to approximately eleven million viewing households. It was the second highest-rated show on Fox that week, following Married... with Children. The episode received positive reviews from television critics. Many lauded the use of Starr; for instance, IGN ranked his performance in the episode, along with Paul McCartney's performance in "Lisa the Vegetarian" and George Harrison's performance in "Homer's Barbershop Quartet", as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons' history. They added that "Although none of these appearances were really large, the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show." Doug Pratt, a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor, wrote that "Brush with Greatness" has a "well thought-out" plot and he enjoyed the use of Starr and Marge's previously undiscovered talents. Paul A. Cantor, author of the book Gilligan Unbound: Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization, said that "once again Brian K. Roberts proves his genius with 'Brush with Greatness' in a superb work where Marge cultivates her wonderful artistic side". DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson wrote: "From the opening at Mt. Splashmore through Homer's diet and the unveiling of Mr. Burns' controversial portrait, the episode packed a lot of great material. It also expanded Marge's character in a pleasing way, as it avoided any semblance of sappiness; we needed a break from sentiment after 'Old Money'. Overall, 'Brush with Greatness' provided a terrific episode." The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote: "A superb episode, with Marge rightfully centre stage. Despite his general unpleasantness, Mr. Burns' gratitude to Marge is both welcome and unexpected. And the dig at Water Parks is spot on." In October 2008, Ringo Starr posted a video on his website in which he said he was too busy to answer fan mail and that all mail sent to him after October 20 would be thrown out. Although Starr did not mention "Brush with Greatness" in the video, several media sources compared his announcement to his portrayal in the episode.

Pennsylvania Route 263

North–south state highway located in southeast Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania Route 263 (PA 263) is a north–south state highway located in southeast Pennsylvania. The southern terminus of the route is at PA 611 in Willow Grove, Montgomery County. The northern terminus is at the Centre Bridge–Stockton Bridge over the Delaware River in Centre Bridge, Bucks County, where the road continues into Stockton, New Jersey, as Bridge Street to an intersection with Route 29. PA 263 follows the routing of Old York Road, a historic road that connected Philadelphia to New York City, and carries the name York Road from the southern terminus to Lahaska and Upper York Road north of there. From Willow Grove to Buckingham, PA 263 runs mostly through suburban areas as a four-lane road, passing through Hatboro, Warminster, and Jamison. The route forms a concurrency with U.S. Route 202 (US 202) in Buckingham and narrows to a two-lane road, splitting with that route in Lahaska. From here, the route continues through rural areas to Centre Bridge. PA 263 follows a part of the alignment of Old York Road, which was laid out in 1711. In 1911, the portion of the current route south of Lahaska became part of Legislative Route 155. When Pennsylvania designated its state highways, PA 263 was assigned to its current alignment between Willow Grove and Centre Bridge in 1928. ## Route description ### Montgomery County PA 263 starts as North York Road at its southern terminus at PA 611 (Easton Road) in the unincorporated community of Willow Grove in Upper Moreland Township, Montgomery County. At the southern terminus, the route is split into a one-way pair, with the route carrying one lane northbound and two lanes southbound. The northbound lanes split north from northbound PA 611 while the southbound lanes head west and meet PA 611 at the Center Avenue intersection. There is no access from southbound PA 611 to PA 263. At the end of the one-way pair, the route becomes a three-lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes and briefly gains a center left-turn lane past the Summit Avenue intersection. PA 263 continues north as a four-lane undivided road, passing through commercial areas with a few homes. The road has a junction with Fitzwatertown Road/Terwood Road before it passes under Norfolk Southern's Morrisville Line and becomes a divided highway called South York Road as it crosses under the Pennsylvania Turnpike (Interstate 276). Upon intersecting Mill Road/Warminster Road, PA 263 becomes undivided again as it heads into more residential surroundings. The route briefly forms the border between the borough of Hatboro to the east and Upper Moreland Township to the west before fully entering Hatboro past the Newington Drive intersection. Here, PA 263 heads north prior to turning northeast and intersecting Horsham Road. At this point, the route crosses the Pennypack Creek and heads into downtown Hatboro as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane. The route turns north at Byberry Road and becomes North York Road at the Moreland Avenue intersection before it comes to a junction with the western terminus of PA 332 (East Montgomery Avenue). After intersecting Summit Avenue, PA 263 leaves the downtown area and continues north, passing residential areas with a few businesses. Further north, the route widens into a four-lane undivided road. ### Bucks County At the intersection with County Line Road, PA 263 briefly becomes a four-lane divided highway and enters Warminster Township in Bucks County as York Road. In Warminster Township, the route turns into a five-lane road with a center left-turn lane and passes several businesses as it comes to the PA 132 (Street Road) junction, where it becomes into a four-lane divided highway that heads to the west of Archbishop Wood Catholic High School. The divided highway section ends at Roberts Road. PA 263 gains a center left-turn lane again as it continues north through more residential areas with a few businesses. Just before Bristol Road, Old York Road splits off from the route to run parallel to the west and PA 263 curves more to the northeast, retaining the name York Road. At the junction with Bristol Road in the community of Hartsville, PA 263 enters Warwick Township and becomes a four-lane undivided highway as it turns north and runs through wooded areas with some homes, briefly becoming a divided highway as it passes over Creek Road and Little Neshaminy Creek on a bridge. The road again turns into a divided highway briefly as it intersects Old York Road. The route passes near residential and commercial development as it regains a center left-turn lane, reaching an intersection with Almshouse Road in the community of Jamison. After Almshouse Road, PA 263 continues north through business areas before heading past residential development, passing to the east of the Middle Bucks Institute of Technology. The route turns back into a divided highway as it crosses over the Neshaminy Creek in the community of Bridge Valley and regains a center left-turn lane as it passes through areas woodland and homes. The road leaves Warwick Township for Buckingham Township at the Sugar Bottom Road intersection. In Buckingham Township, PA 263 becomes a four-lane undivided road and passes a mix of farmland and homes, with a stretch of divided highway around the intersection with Heritage Center Drive, as it comes to the community of Furlong. Here, the road intersects Edison Furlong Road/Forest Grove Road and forms the border between Doylestown Township to the west and Buckingham Township to the east. At the intersection with the eastern terminus of PA 313 (Swamp Road), the route fully enters Buckingham Township again and intersects Furlong Road, turning northeast past a mix of farms and woods with some residences. The road briefly becomes a divided highway as it crosses Watson Creek. Farther to the northeast, the route reaches the community of Buckingham and crosses PA 413 (Durham Road). PA 263 narrows to two lanes past this intersection and comes to a junction with US 202 a short distance later, where it forms a concurrency with US 202. This intersection has no access from northbound PA 263 to southbound US 202; access is provided via PA 413. The two routes run along a two-lane undivided road that heads through fields and woodland with some development, passing through the community of Holicong and crossing Lahaska Creek. Upon reaching the unincorporated village of Lahaska, the two routes split, with PA 263 bearing off to the left and becoming Upper York Road, a two-lane undivided road. The route passes through Peddler's Village before coming to an intersection with Street Road. At Street Road, PA 263 exits Buckingham Township and enters Solebury Township. The road continues north into farm fields and woods with a few homes, curving more to the northeast and coming to a junction with Greenhill Road. At the Aquetong Road intersection, PA 263 turns north and back to the northeast. The route reaches the community of Solebury, where it intersects Sugan Road/Phillips Mill Road. Past this area, the road continues through wooded areas of homes, with the forests becoming denser as the road heads more to the northeast. In the village of Centre Bridge, PA 263 signage ends at PA 32 (River Road). The route officially continues to the Centre Bridge–Stockton Bridge over the Delaware Canal and the Delaware River, at which point it ends at the New Jersey state line. The road continues into the borough of Stockton, New Jersey, as Bridge Street, which heads to an intersection with Route 29 near the southern terminus of County Route 523. ## History What is now PA 263 was originally built as part of the Old York Road, a road established in the 18th century to connect Philadelphia to New York City. The portion of the road encompassing all of PA 263 was planned in 1711 to run from Philadelphia to Centre Bridge. The Old York Road would later exist as a turnpike. In 1911, the part of PA 263 between the southern terminus and Lahaska was designated as part of Legislative Route 155, a route that ran from Willow Grove north to New Hope. In 1928, PA 263 was designated to run from US 611 (now PA 611) in Willow Grove north to the Delaware River in Centre Bridge. The Upper York Road portion of PA 263 was paved by 1940. By 1970, work was underway on widening PA 263 to a four-lane highway between County Line Road and PA 413 in Buckingham. The widening was complete by 1971. As part of this widening, PA 263 was realigned in two places. The route was shifted to a new alignment bypassing the center of Hartsville to the east and heading across Little Neshaminy Creek, with the former alignment now Old York Road, and was shifted west to a new alignment crossing the Neshaminy Creek, bypassing the now-closed Bridge Valley Bridge. In 2006, the section of PA 263 through Hatboro was named the Roy W. Cornell Memorial Highway in honor of Roy Cornell, a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives who had represented Hatboro for 25 years. In 2014, a portion of PA 263 in Warminster Township was dedicated the Officer Bradley M. Fox Memorial Highway after a Plymouth Township police officer originally from Warminster who was killed in the line of duty during 2012. In March 2014, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation began a \$31.6 million improvement project along the section of PA 263 between Bristol Road and Sugar Bottom Road in Warwick Township. The project rebuilt the concrete road and improved several intersections along this stretch, along with rehabilitating bridges and installing new signs, signals, pavement markings, and guardrails. Work on the improvement project was completed in October 2017. ## Major intersections ## See also

Winnie Winkle

American newspaper comic strip

Winnie Winkle is an American comic strip published during a 76-year span (1920–1996). Ten film adaptations were also made. Its premise was conceived by Joseph Medill Patterson, but the stories and artwork were by Martin Branner, who wrote the strip for over 40 years. It was one of the first comic strips about working women. The main character was a young woman who had to support her parents and adopted brother, serving as a reflection of the changing role of women in society. It ran in more than 100 newspapers and translations of the strip's Sunday pages were made available in Europe, focusing on her little brother Perry Winkle and his gang. Due to its originality and longevity, Winnie Winkle became a household name and inspired Roy Lichtenstein. It was reprinted in Dell Comics, and some see it as heralding a more independent role for American women after World War I. ## Publication history The Chicago Tribune Syndicate launched the comic strip on September 20, 1920. By 1939, Winnie Winkle was running in more than 140 newspapers. It was titled Winnie Winkle the Breadwinner until 1943. By 1970, Winnie Winkle still ran in more than 150 newspapers. Winnie Winkle had a topper strip on the Sunday page, originally called Looie Blooie when it debuted on January 11, 1931, and shortened to Looie on May 6, 1934. This was based on Branner's short-lived 1919 daily strip, Looie the Lawyer. As a topper, Looie ran for three decades, until 1962. From 1935 to 1936, there was also a paper-doll panel in the topper with several different titles: Winnie Winkle Fashion Cut-Outs, Winnie Winkle Style Story and Winnie Winkle Fashion Film Cut-Out. Winnie Winkle ended July 28, 1996, after 76 years, one of the longest runs in American comic strip history. Tribune Media Services, the syndicate that distributed the comic strip, "felt that the Winnie Winkle character was not recognized as a contemporary role model for the '90s." At the time, the strip was carried by only a handful of newspapers. ## Characters and story The eponymous character Winnie Winkle was a young, unmarried woman who had to support her parents, making it the second popular comic strip about working women (after Somebody's Stenog, which debuted in 1918). It was a reflection of the new role of women in society, as could also be seen in comics such as Tillie the Toiler from 1921. Writing for the Associated Press in 1993, Hugh A. Mulligan noted, "After women got the vote and joined the work force, family-centered comics were joined by working-girl strips like Winnie Winkle, Tillie the Toiler, Dixie Dugan, Somebody's Stenog and Brenda Starr, which was drawn by a woman, Dale Messick. Almost from the beginning, politics and a social conscience hovered over the drawing board." During its first years, the daily Winnie Winkle evolved from simple gags to more complex humorous situations. A new character was introduced in the form of Perry, a little boy from the backstreets, whom the Winkles adopted in 1922. The focus of the Sunday pages then shifted to the adventures of Perry at home, school and on the streets. Although compelled to wear a duffle coat and fancy clothes, he continued to frequent his old neighborhood. The local gang, the Rinkydinks, in contrast, still wore torn and patchy clothing, and were regarded by Winnie as "loafers." One member of the Rinkydinks was the dunce Denny Dimwit, who popularized the catch phrase "Youse is a good boy, Denny." Other major plot elements were the 1937 marriage of Winnie to engineer Will Wright and the disappearance of Will during World War II, leaving a pregnant Winnie behind. This realistic and unfortunate situation was too risqué for some newspapers: The Baltimore Sun dropped the strip early in 1941 because of the pregnancy of Winnie. The comic strip changed significantly over the years; with Winnie working in the fashion industry after the war, seemingly as a widow until her husband returned after a few decades. She took on various other jobs and endeavors over the years, including a stint in the Peace Corps. ## Artists Branner employed a number of assistants, including Royal King Cole (during the 1930s), Rolf Ahlson, Mike Peppe, and Max Van Bibber (1938–1962). Another assistant was the young French author Robert Velter, who on his return to Europe created the famous series Spirou et Fantasio. From 1941 until 1958, Branner's assistant was John A. Berrill, who later created Gil Thorp. After Branner suffered a stroke in 1962, Van Bibber continued the series until 1980, later followed by students from the Joe Kubert School of Cartoon and Graphic Art and finally by veteran artist Frank Bolle. Bolle (who enlisted Leonard Starr to write the strip in 1985) recalled: I did Winnie Winkle for 20 years, and when they told me, "You have 90 days to wrap it up," because they were discontinuing it, I felt terrible, but after I finished it, I didn't even miss it. I was depressed because I lost a good job, but I just didn't miss it. Maybe it was the routine of it every week I didn't miss, but I have a lot of good memories of doing that strip. ## International spin-offs and translations In 1923, Winnie's adopted younger brother Perry Winkle and his friends the Rinkydinks became the focus of the Sunday pages. In Europe, only the Sunday pages were translated. In The Netherlands and France, local artists made new comics about Perry when the number of weekly pages by Branner was no longer sufficient. - The Dutch translated the strip as Sjors van de Rebellenclub which became very popular in the Netherlands, where it was the predecessor of the long-running series Sjors en Sjimmie by Frans Piët. - In France, it was known as Bicot and published by Hachette in 14 albums between 1926 and 1939. - In Flanders, Belgium the series De Vrolijke Bengels by Willy Vandersteen and De Lustige Kapoentjes by Marc Sleen were directly inspired by this strip. - The Sunday page of Winnie Winkle was the first American comic published in a Yugoslavian daily newspaper, Jutarnji list from Zagreb. It first appeared on August 5, 1923, and lasted until April 1941, the beginning of World War II in that country. Perry, the hero, was renamed "Ivica" (Johnny), and Winnie "Suzana." The Rinkydinks were rechristened "Rantanplanci," allegedly after a group of kids from a contemporary Hollywood film series. The title was Pustolovni Ivica ("Adventurous Johnny"). A single Christmas episode taking place in Zagreb was published, the work of unknown local authors. Three albums collected the stories published in the newspaper. ## Films From 1926 to 1928, ten Winnie Winkle the Breadwinner movies were produced, written by Branner and starring Ethelyn Gibson as Winnie, with Billy West as director. 1. Working Winnie (1926) 2. Happy Days (1926) 3. Winnie's Birthday (1926) 4. Oh! Winnie Behave (1926) 5. Winnie's Vacation (1927) 6. Winnie Wakes Up (1927) 7. Winnie Steps Out (1927) 8. Winnie Be Good (1927) 9. Winning Winnie (1927) 10. Winnie's Winning Ways (1928) ## Awards In 1958, Branner received the National Cartoonists Society's Humor Comic Strip Division Award for Winnie Winkle. ## Archives Syracuse University houses the Martin Branner Cartoons collection of 300 original daily cartoons from Winnie Winkle (1920–1957). There is a complete week from each year represented, with additional random cartoons from each year. (There are no holdings for 1946–47.) The daily cartoons display traces of graphite, blue pencil, Zip-A-Tone, brush, pen and ink on illustration board measuring approximately 7 1⁄4 x 22 1⁄2 inches. The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History has 28 volumes of Branner's proofs for the strip.

R v Thomas

Australian terrorism trial

R v Thomas was an Australian court case decided in the Victorian Court of Appeal on 18 August 2006. It concerned the conviction in February 2006 of Joseph Thomas (nicknamed "Jihad Jack" in the media) on terrorism-related charges, specifically receiving funds from Al Qaeda. The appeal revolved around the admissibility of a confession Thomas made during an interrogation in Pakistan in 2003. The court found that the evidence, which was crucial to Thomas' convictions, was inadmissible because it had not been given voluntarily. The court accordingly quashed his convictions, but after further hearings ordered on 20 December 2006 that he be retried rather than acquitted. ## Background to the case Joseph Thomas is an Australian citizen. On 23 March 2001 he left Australia and travelled by air to Pakistan, crossing into Afghanistan by land. For the next three months, he was alleged to have trained at the Al Farouq training camp near the city of Kandahar, before travelling to Kabul in July 2001. Over the next eighteen months or so, Thomas stayed in various Al Qaeda safe houses, and is alleged to have made contact with several Al Qaeda officials. On 4 January 2003, Thomas was apprehended by Pakistani immigration officials at an airport in the city of Karachi, and taken into custody. Thomas had with him items including an Australian-issue passport, an airline ticket for travel to Indonesia, and about \$3,800 in cash. The passport, issued on 19 May 1993, had been tampered with, for the intention of concealing the details of Thomas' movements after his departure from Australia in 2001. He was blindfolded, and driven to an unknown location, where he was questioned for about two hours by two Pakistani men and two Americans. He was questioned several times over the next few days, before being taken to another location, which Thomas described as "some sort of mansion house", where he was kept in a small cell for the next two weeks and questioned on a number of occasions. Initially he maintained a fabricated story, that he was a student who had been travelling in Pakistan, but he later revealed the truth, that he had been in contact with Al Qaeda in Afghanistan. He said that he was motivated to change his story by several incidents, including one in which one of the Pakistani interrogators pulled on the collar of his hood, so as to strangle him, and incidents in which interrogators said that he would be electrocuted and executed. According to Thomas, he was then told that his cooperation was welcome and that he would be returned home. After the two weeks, Thomas was blindfolded and shackled, and flown to Islamabad, where he remained in custody. There he was visited by an Australian consular representative, who later gave evidence that Thomas did not appear to have been maltreated, or denied food or water. However, the representative did testify that while Thomas was on the phone to his parents in Australia, he told them "I'm not going to Cuba" (referring to the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp), to which a Pakistani official replied, "No, that's not correct." Between 25 January and 29 January, Thomas was interviewed four times by members of the Australian Federal Police (AFP) and by members of the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO), accompanied by Pakistani officials. During one of these interviews, a Pakistani official said to Thomas "we told you that you have to prove it... that you are not a terrorist... you have to prove it that you are an innocent man and why you are sitting here." Thomas was then transferred again, this time to the city of Lahore, where he was kept for another three weeks, and interrogated by Pakistani officials and an American official referred to as "Joe". This man suggested that Thomas return to Afghanistan with a recording device, to obtain information on Al Qaeda figures, a suggestion Thomas rejected because he feared he would be killed. Joe also threatened Thomas that he would be sent to Afghanistan where he would be tortured by having his testicles twisted, and implied that agents would be sent to Australia to rape Thomas' wife. Thomas was then returned to Islamabad. On 8 March, Thomas was interviewed again by two members of the AFP, who had made special arrangements with the Pakistani Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) to have the interview conducted pursuant to Australian law, particularly the requirements of the federal Evidence Act 1995 and Crimes Act 1914, so that admissible evidence could be gathered. ISI allowed the interview, but with a very limited timeframe, and did not allow Thomas to have access to legal advice. During this interview, Thomas made several self-incriminatory statements, which were key to his later convictions and the admissibility of which was the central issue in the appeal. In the statements, Thomas admitted that he had tampered with his passport to conceal the amount of time he had been in Pakistan, and also admitted that the money and airline ticket had been given to him by Tawfiq bin Attash, a high ranking Al Qaeda lieutenant involved with the 1998 United States embassy bombings and the USS Cole bombing. On 10 March, the AFP wrote again to the ISI, reiterating the requirements of the Australian legislation, and saying that "the admissibility of [the record of interview] in Australian Courts has been seriously compromised." On 6 June 2003, Thomas was released from Pakistani custody, at which point he was deported to Australia. He spent nearly a year and a half subsequently living with his family in the Melbourne suburb of Werribee, Victoria, before he was arrested by the AFP on 18 November 2004 and charged with several federal offences, including one count of possessing a false passport (an offence under the Passports Act 1938), and one count of receiving funds from a terrorist organisation and two counts of providing resources to a terrorist organisation (offences under the Criminal Code Act 1995). ### Trial Thomas was tried in the Supreme Court of Victoria. On 26 February, was found guilty of the passport charge and the receiving funds charge (although he was acquitted of the providing funds charges). He was later sentenced on 31 March, to a total of five years' imprisonment with a two-year non-parole period. With respect to the admissibility of the record of the 8 March interview, the trial judge (Justice Cummins) had instructed the jury that: > "Normally, failure to avail an interviewee of [the right to legal access] would be fatal to the admission of a subsequent interview... However, the requirement is not absolute, nor can it be... it is not hollow to say that the suspect had the right to choose whether to proceed without that legal access. He had the right to choose not to answer, and wait for the legal bus which might never arrive, or to answer, in the legitimate aim of ultimate return to Australia. To say such a choice is no choice at all is revisionism." In his assessment, the judge said that the AFP interviewers had conducted the interview "fairly and properly", and had not attempted to use Thomas' lack of legal representation to their favour. The trial judge also concluded that Thomas had been properly informed of his right to silence, and had not been induced by the AFP officers to participate in the interview by offer of repatriation or any other reward. Ultimately he decided that Thomas had participated voluntarily in the interview, and that in the circumstances, Thomas' lack of legal advice should not make the record of the interview inadmissible. ## Arguments Lex Lasry QC, on behalf of Thomas, argued that the trial judge had made several errors of law: 1. the trial judge should have found that the 8 March interview was not voluntary and hence inadmissible, and 2. even if it had been voluntary, the trial judge should have excluded it anyway on grounds of fairness or public policy. Several other matters were also raised, relating to particular parts of the evidence (specifically, relating to the witness testimony of Yahya Goba, one of the Buffalo Six), but these matters had little bearing on the final outcome of the case, and were dealt with only briefly by the court. The central argument raised was that, with regard to all the circumstances, Thomas did not actually have a practical choice whether to speak or not. The other main argument was an alternative argument, that if the court decided that the admissions were in fact voluntary, they should not have been admitted anyway on the basis that to do so would be unfair, because of factors including Thomas' lack of access to legal advice even where he had a right to obtain it, his vulnerability in the circumstances, and "the contamination of the record of interview by the previous joint team interrogations, and their potential or actual use as levers to remind the applicant of his earlier answers." Two other parties sought to be involved in the case as amici curiae, Amnesty International (represented by former Federal Court Justice Ron Merkel), and the Victorian human rights advocacy group the Human Rights Law Resource Centre. However both their applications were rejected, because they could not assist the court in a way in which they could not otherwise be assisted, and their submissions were largely subsumed into submissions made by Lasry in any event. ## Judgment In a unanimous decision, the three judges decided that the appeal should be allowed (more specifically, that leave to appeal should be granted and the appeal heard and allowed instanter – at once), on the basis that the 8 March 2003 interview was not voluntary and so was inadmissible, and by admitting it the trial judge had made an error of law resulting in a miscarriage of justice. ### Voluntariness of the interview The court quoted from a 1948 judgment of future Chief Justice of Australia Owen Dixon, followed unanimously by the High Court of Australia in later decisions, in which he said that: > "At common law a confessional statement made out of court by an accused person may not be admitted in evidence against him upon his trial for the crime to which it relates unless it is shown to have been voluntarily made. This means substantially that it has been made in the exercise of his free choice. If he speaks because he is overborne, his confessional statement cannot be received in evidence and it does not matter by what means he has been overborne. If his statement is the result of duress, intimidation, persistent importunity, or sustained or undue insistence or pressure, it cannot be voluntary. But it is also a definite rule of the common law that a confessional statement cannot be voluntary if it is preceded by an inducement held out by a person in authority and the inducement has not been removed before the statement is made..." The court also noted a recent decision of its own, in which it had emphasised that the principles of evidence strike a balance between the rights of the individual and the rights of the state, and that: > "On the one hand, there is an obvious need to bring to account those who have committed serious offences if the objectives of the criminal justice system are to be achieved and societal values vindicated, but, on the other, it cannot be forgotten that those values incorporate the rights of the individual and, in part define the nature of the relationship between the citizen and the community in which he or she resides." The court considered that Thomas had been regularly informed by all those who had interrogated him that the degree to which he cooperated would determine what happened to him, and that given their position as authority figures, Thomas would have readily perceived that they had the ability to change his situation; indeed, none of the interviewers had done anything to dispel the idea that they would be able to help Thomas. The court also pointed out that even if actions such as showing Thomas photographs of his family and letters from them could not be said to be deliberately improper, as the trial judge seemed to indicate would be necessary to characterise them as inducements, there was no way that they could be interpreted by someone in Thomas' position, other than as indications that if he cooperated he would be reunited with his family. Particularly, after Thomas expressed happiness at seeing the photographs, one of the interviewers took them away, saying "[we] might give you another look at that later", comments which were "calculated, if not intended, to remind the applicant that he was dependent on his captors and interviewers for favours." The court rejected the opinion of the trial judge that Thomas viewed the 8 March interview differently to the other interviews, which were concerned only with intelligence gathering. Rather, they emphasised how similar the interviews all were: "same place, same AFP personnel, same topics." They considered that the inducements offered in the previous interviews, and indeed the threats and intimidation in previous interviews by the American "Joe" and others, all "remained operative, their power undiminished" in 8 March interview. Lastly, the court rejected the argument that the admissions were voluntary because Thomas knew he had a right to silence, because he did not have any practical opportunity to exercise the right. The court concluded that the trial judge had made an error by separating the interview from the circumstances, and that in the circumstances Thomas had no real choice whether to answer questions: "Even the threat 'Confess or be tortured' can be said to involve a choice, and a chance that torture may not be applied. But it could never be regarded as a free choice in the relevant sense." Ultimately, the court found that the admissions were not given voluntarily, and so were not admissible. ### Discretion to exclude evidence Although it was unnecessary to decide the alternative argument, the court addressed it briefly anyway. After considering previous cases on the issue, the court considered whether the Australian investigators acted fairly. They concluded that "only one course [was] properly open to the investigating officials in the light of the position taken by the Pakistani authorities. It was to acknowledge that no formal record of interview could be conducted so long as the applicant was in Pakistan since, as the investigating officials appreciated, any such interview would be unlawful, that is, would be contrary to Australian law." The court also referred to a judgment of Justice McHugh of the High Court, in which he said that although there is some discretion as to whether evidence obtained where an interviewee does not have access to legal advice should be admitted or not, judges are not free to make the decision "by reference to general notions of fairness." The court concluded that the trial judge had erred in not exercising his discretion to bar the evidence from being admitted, although it was not necessary to decide the point. ## Consequences Thomas' original convictions were quashed, however before the final orders were made the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions sought to make a submission as to whether there should be a directed acquittal or whether there should be a retrial. The court heard brief arguments, then set aside the issue for a further hearing, to be held after the parties had made written submissions. The prosecution sought to introduce as evidence statements Thomas made in an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation for the Four Corners television program in February 2006. The parties made submissions, and there was an oral hearing on 1 December 2006. All parties accepted that the relevant test to be applied was the test set out in the High Court case of DPP (Nauru) v Fowler, which sets out two preconditions for a retrial; the first requiring that the admissible evidence presented at trial be "sufficiently cogent" to support a conviction, the second requiring consideration of circumstances that would make it unjust to put the accused through a retrial. However this case had an unusual feature, namely that the evidence that the prosecution would seek to use at a retrial had not been available at the original trial, through no fault of the prosecution, since although the interviews had been taken at that time they had not been published. Ultimately all parties agreed that all evidence, not just evidence submitted in the original trial, should be considered when applying the first part of the Fowler test. The court decided that it would be reasonably possible for a jury to convict Thomas based on the available evidence, so it then considered whether there were factors which would make a retrial unjust. Thomas' lawyer Lex Lasry argued that the delay in Thomas' prosecution (he was not arrested until seventeen months after he returned to Australia) and the extensive media coverage of the case meant it was unlikely Thomas would get a fair trial, and that a retrial would be an undue hardship on Thomas given that he has spent long periods in custody, mostly in solitary confinement, without conviction, which has led to him being diagnosed with depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. The court was of the opinion that a fair trial was not impossible in these circumstances, and although the other factors were considered, the court ultimately decided that the circumstances did not preclude a retrial. As such, the court ordered on 20 December 2006 that Thomas be retried. Thomas was then released on bail, with requirements to report three times a week and not to leave Australia. Thomas and his family were in court to hear the verdict, his mother crying and Thomas looking "more like a startled rabbit [than a terrorist]." In the retrial in 2008 Thomas was found not guilty of the terrorism charges but was found guilty of a passport offence, which carries a maximum penalty of two years' imprisonment. Thomas had already served nine months. Justice Curtain ordered that Thomas be imprisoned for nine months but found he was free to go after taking into account time already served. ### Commentary The decision was praised by civil libertarians. Former President of the Victorial Council of Civil Liberties, Robert Richter QC, said that the decision was important "because the pressure is to say, 'Well, do anything' if the case is said to be a terrorist case. That is unacceptable, the Court of Appeal has said it's unacceptable." University of Melbourne evidence law professor Andrew Palmer said that "I think that it was a little bit naive to think that they could interview somebody and gather admissible evidence... when that person was being held in conditions which were possibly oppressive... I don't really know what they were thinking." The decision has also attracted criticism. Conservative columnist Piers Akerman said that the decision "has handed al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah and all other terrorist organisations a major victory and confirmed the adage the law is an ass." Akerman emphasised that information about Thomas (including the Four Corners interview) was already available in the public domain for the populace to make its own judgment, despite "judicial commands to juries to ignore material [which] may have some minor relevance in their petty fiefdoms." Conservative Melbourne lawyer Peter Faris QC called for an appeal to the High Court or changes to the laws of evidence legislation, saying that "this case is bad law", alternatively suggesting that Thomas be handed over to Pakistan, since he stated that the evidence from the interview would in his opinion be admissible in a Pakistani court. Faris also argued that there was an issue of apparent bias arising with respect to the presiding judge in the appeal, Maxwell P, which could afford grounds for invalidating the appeal. Pakistani law of evidence does not permit a confession made to a police officer to be admitted into evidence. Faris argued that the apparent bias arose because of Maxwell's activities before his appointment to the Supreme Court of Victoria, including his membership of organisations including Amnesty International, his past presidency of Liberty Victoria, his past involvement with human rights law and advocacy against counter-terrorism laws. Faris drew a comparison with the House of Lords case which considered the extradition of Augusto Pinochet, which was overturned on appeal because of Lord Hoffman's failure to disclose his links to Amnesty International. Because of the ongoing proceedings relating to whether Thomas should be acquitted or retried, neither the Government of Australia nor the Opposition commented immediately after the case, although Treasurer Peter Costello later said that anti-terrorism legislation did not need to be strengthened in the wake of the case, and Opposition foreign affairs spokesperson Kevin Rudd said that "What is plain from the events of yesterday is that the Government has bungled – and bungled badly – the prosecution of this case." Gerard Henderson said that the case "highlights an emerging division within democracies" between civil liberties advocates on the one hand and "a democracy defence lobby, which maintains that radical Islamism poses a real and present danger to Western nations" on the other.

Antananarivo

Capital and largest city of Madagascar

Antananarivo (French: Tananarive, ), also known by its colonial shorthand form Tana, is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. The administrative area of the city, known as Antananarivo-Renivohitra ("Antananarivo-Mother Hill" or "Antananarivo-Capital"), is the capital of Analamanga region. The city sits at 1,280 m (4,199 ft) above sea level in the center of the island, the highest national capital by elevation among the island countries. It has been the country's largest population center since at least the 18th century. The presidency, National Assembly, Senate and Supreme Court are located there, as are 21 diplomatic missions and the headquarters of many national and international businesses and NGOs. It has more universities, nightclubs, art venues, and medical services than any city on the island. Several national and local sports teams, including the championship-winning national rugby team, the Makis are based here. Antananarivo was historically the capital of the Merina people, who continue to form the majority of the city's 1,275,207 (2018 Census) inhabitants. The surrounding urban areas have a total metropolitan population approaching three million. All eighteen Malagasy ethnic groups, as well as residents of Chinese, Indian, European and other origins, are represented in the city. It was founded circa 1610, when the Merina King Andrianjaka (1612–1630) expelled the Vazimba inhabitants of the village of Analamanga. Declaring it the site of his capital, Andrianjaka built a rova (fortified royal dwelling) that expanded to become the royal palaces of the Kingdom of Imerina. The city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona (1675–1710), who renamed it Antananarivo ("City of the Thousand") in honor of Andrianjaka's soldiers. The city served as the capital of the Kingdom of Imerina until 1710 when Imerina split into four warring quadrants. Antananarivo became the capital of the southern quadrant until 1794, when King Andrianampoinimerina of Ambohimanga captured the province and restored it as the capital of a united Kingdom of Imerina, also bringing neighboring ethnic groups under Merina control. These conquests continued under his son, Radama I, who eventually controlled over two-thirds of the island, leading him to be considered the King of Madagascar by European diplomats. Antananarivo remained the island's capital after Madagascar was colonized by the French in 1897, and after independence in 1960. The city is now managed by the Commune Urbaine d'Antananarivo (CUA) under the direction of its President of the Special Delegation, Ny Havana Andriamanjato, appointed in March 2014. Limited funds and mismanagement have hampered consecutive CUA efforts to manage overcrowding and traffic, waste management, pollution, security, public water and electricity, and other challenges linked to explosive population growth. Major historic landmarks and attractions in the city include the reconstructed royal palaces and the Andafiavaratra Palace, the tomb of Rainiharo, Tsimbazaza Zoo, Mahamasina Stadium, Lake Anosy, four 19th-century martyr churches, and the Museum of Art and Archaeology. ## Pronunciation and etymology The English pronunciation of Antananarivo is /ˌæntəˌnænəˈriːvoʊ/ or /ˌɑːntəˌnɑːnəˈriːvoʊ/. The Malagasy pronunciation is , and the pronunciation of the old French name Tananarive is /təˌnænəˈriːv/ or /ˌtænənəˈriːv/ in English and in French. Antananarivo was originally the site of a town called Analamanga, meaning "Blue Forest" in the Central Highlands dialect of the Malagasy language. Analamanga was established by a community of Vazimba, the island's first occupants. Merina King Andrianjaka, who migrated to the region from the southeast coast, seized the location as the site of his capital city. According to oral history, he deployed a garrison of 1,000 soldiers to successfully capture and guard the site. The hill and its city retained the name Analamanga until the reign of King Andriamasinavalona, who renamed it Antananarivo ("City of the Thousand") in honor of Andrianjaka's soldiers. ## History ### Kingdom of Imerina Antananarivo was already a major city before the colonial era. After expelling the Vazimba who inhabited the town at the peak of Analamanga hill, Andrianjaka chose the site for his rova (fortified royal compound), which expanded over time to enclose the royal palaces and the tombs of Merina royalty. The city was established in around 1610 or 1625 according to varying accounts. Early Merina kings used fanampoana (statute labor) to construct a massive system of irrigated paddy fields and dikes around the city to provide adequate rice for the growing population. These paddy fields, of which the largest is called the Betsimitatatra, continue to produce rice. Successive Merina sovereigns ruled over the Kingdom of Imerina from Analamanga through King Andriamasinavalona's reign. This sovereign gave the growing city its current name; he established the Andohalo town square outside the town gate, where all successive sovereigns delivered their royal speeches and announcements to the public, and assigned the names of numerous locations within the city based on the names of similar sites in the nearby village of Antananarivokely. Andriamasinavalona designated specific territories for the hova (commoners) and each andriana (noble) subcaste, both within the neighborhoods of Antananarivo and in the countryside surrounding the capital. These territorial divisions were strictly enforced; members of subcastes were required to live within their designated territories and were not authorized to stay for extended periods in the territories reserved for others. Numerous fady (taboos), including injunctions against the construction of wooden houses by non-nobles and the presence of swine within the city limits, were imposed. Upon Andriamasinavalona's death in 1710, Imerina split into four warring quadrants, and Antananarivo was made the capital of the southern district. During the 77-year civil war that followed, the eastern district's capital at Ambohimanga rose in prominence. The last king of Ambohimanga, Andrianampoinimerina, successfully conquered Antananarivo in 1793; he reunited the provinces of Imerina, ending the civil war. He moved the kingdom's political capital back to Antananarivo in 1794, and declared Ambohimanga the kingdom's spiritual capital, a role it still maintains. Andrianampoinimerina created a large marketplace in Analakely, establishing the city's economic center. ### Kingdom of Madagascar By the time Andrianampoinimerina's son Radama I had ascended the throne upon his father's death in 1810, Antananarivo was the largest and most economically important city on the island, with a population of over 80,000 inhabitants. Radama opened the city to the first European settlers, artisan missionaries of the London Missionary Society (LMS) who arrived in 1820 and opened the city's first public schools. James Cameron introduced brickmaking to the island and created Lake Anosy to generate hydraulic power for industrial manufacturing. Radama established a military training ground on a flat plain called Mahamasina at the base of Analamanga near the lake. Radama's subjugation of other Malagasy ethnic groups brought nearly two-thirds of the island under his control. The British diplomats who concluded trade treaties with Radama recognized him as the "ruler of Madagascar", a position he and his successors claimed despite never managing to impose their authority over the larger portion of the island's south. Thereafter, Merina sovereigns declared Antananarivo the capital of the entire island. Radama's successor Ranavalona I invited a shipwrecked craftsman named Jean Laborde to construct the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo, and Manjakamiadana (built 1839–1841), the largest palace at the Rova. Laborde also produced a wide range of industrial products at factories in the highland village Mantasoa and a foundry in the Antananarivo neighborhood of Isoraka. Ranavalona oversaw improvements to the city's infrastructure, including the construction of the city's two largest staircases at Antaninarenina and Ambondrona, which connect la ville moyenne ("the middle town") to the central marketplace at Analakely. In 1867, following a series of fires in the capital, Queen Ranavalona II issued a royal decree that permitted the use of stone and brick construction in buildings other than tombs. LMS missionaries' first brick house was built in 1869; it bore a blend of English, Creole, and Malagasy design and served as a model for a new style of house that rapidly spread throughout the capital and across the highlands. Termed the trano gasy ("Malagasy house"), it is typically a two-story, brick building with four columns on the front that support a wooden veranda. In the latter third of the 19th century, these houses quickly replaced most of the traditional wooden houses of the city's aristocratic class. The growing number of Christians in Imerina prompted the construction of stone churches throughout the highlands, as well as four memorial churches on key sites of martyrdom among early Malagasy Christians under the reign of Ranavalona I. Until the mid-19th century, the city remained largely concentrated around the Rova of Antananarivo on the highest peak, an area today referred to as la haute ville or la haute ("upper town"). As the population grew, the city expanded to the west; by the late 19th century it extended to the northern hilltop neighborhood of Andohalo, an area of low prestige until British missionaries made it their preferred residential district and built one of the city's memorial churches here from 1863 to 1872. From 1864 to 1894, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony governed Madagascar alongside three successive queens, Rasoherina, Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III, effecting policies that further transformed the city. In 1881, he reinstated mandatory universal education first introduced in 1820 under Radama I, requiring the construction of numerous schools and colleges, including teacher training colleges staffed by missionaries and the nation's first pharmacy, medical college, and modern hospital. Rainilaiarivony built the Andafiavaratra Palace in 1873 as his residence and office at a site near the royal palace. ### French Madagascar The French military invaded Antananarivo in September 1894, prompting the queen's surrender after a cannon shell blasted a hole through a building at the Rova, causing major casualties. The damage was never repaired. Andohalo square was remodeled to feature a gazebo, walkways, and planted landscaping. Claiming the island as a colony, the French administration retained Antananarivo as its capital and transcribed its name as Tananarive. They chose Antaninarenina as the site for the French Governor General's Residency; upon independence, it was renamed Ambohitsorohitra Palace and converted into presidential offices. Under the French, tunnels were constructed through two of the city's largest hills, connecting disparate districts and facilitating the town's expansion. Streets were laid with cobblestones and later paved; sewer systems and electricity infrastructure was introduced. Water, previously obtained from springs at the foot of the hill, was brought from the Ikopa River. This period saw a major expansion of la ville moyenne, which spread along the lower hilltops and slopes of the city centered around the French residency. Modern urban planning was applied in la ville basse ("lower town"), which expanded from the base of the city's central hills into the surrounding rice fields. Major boulevards like Avenue de l'Indépendance, planned commercial areas like the arcades lining either side of the avenue, large parks, city squares, and other landmark features were built. A railway system connecting Soarano station at one end of the Avenue de l'Indépendance in Antananarive with Toamasina and Fianarantsoa was established in 1897. Beyond these planned spaces, neighborhoods densely populated by working-class Malagasy expanded without state oversight or control. The city expanded rapidly after World War II; by 1950 its population had grown to 175,000. Roads connecting Antananarivo to surrounding towns were expanded and paved. The first international airport was constructed at Arivonimamo, 45 km (28 mi) outside the city; this was replaced in 1967 with Ivato International Airport approximately 15 km (9 mi) from the city center. The University of Antananarivo was constructed in the Ankatso neighborhood and the Museum of Ethnology and Paleontology was also built. A city plan written in 1956 created suburban zones where large houses and gardens were established for the wealthy. In 1959, severe floods in la ville basse prompted the building of large-scale embankments along the edges of the Betsimitatatra rice fields and the establishment of new ministerial complexes on newly drained land in the Anosy neighborhood. ### Post-independence After independence in 1960, the pace of growth increased further. The city's population reached 1.4 million by the end of the 20th century; in 2013, it was estimated at nearly 2.1 million. Uncontrolled urban sprawl has challenged the city's infrastructure, producing shortages of clean water and electricity, sanitation and public health problems, and heavy traffic congestion. There are more than 5,000 church buildings in the city and its suburbs, including an Anglican and a Roman Catholic cathedral. Antananarivo is the see city of Madagascar's Roman Catholic Archdiocese. The city has repeatedly been the site of large demonstrations and violent political clashes, including the 1972 rotaka that brought down President Philibert Tsiranana and the 2009 Malagasy political crisis, which resulted in Andry Rajoelina replacing Marc Ravalomanana as head of state. The 2022 Antananarivo floods hit the city in January of that year, causing multiple deaths and significant damage to almost 7,000 houses. ## Geography Antananarivo is situated approximately 1,280 m (4,199 ft) above sea level in the Central Highlands region of Madagascar, at 18.55' South and 47.32' East. The city is located centrally along the north–south axis of the country, and east of the center along the east–west axis. It is 160 km (99 mi) from the east coast and 330 km (210 mi) from the west coast. The city occupies a commanding position on the summit and slopes of a long, narrow, rocky ridge extending north and south for about 4 km (2 mi) and rising to about 200 m (660 ft) above the extensive rice fields to the west. The official boundaries of the city of Antananarivo encompass an urban area of approximately 86.4 km² (33.4 sq mi). It was founded 1,480 m (4,860 ft) above sea level at the apex of three hill ranges that converge in a Y form, 200 m (660 ft) above the surrounding Betsimitatatra paddy fields and the grassy plains beyond. The city gradually spread out from this central point to cover the hillsides; by the late 19th century it had expanded to the flat terrain at the base of the hills. These plains are susceptible to flooding during the rainy season; they are drained by the Ikopa River, which skirts the capital to the south and west. The western slopes and plains, being best protected from cyclone winds originating over the Indian Ocean, were settled before those to the east. Greater Antananarivo is a continuous, urbanized area spreading beyond the city's official boundaries for 9 km (5.6 mi) north to south between Ambohimanarina and Ankadimbahoaka, and 6 km (3.7 mi) west to east between the Ikopa River dike and Tsiadana. The population of the greater Antananarivo area was estimated at 3 million people in 2012; it is expected to rise to 6 million by 2030. ### Climate Under the Köppen-Geiger climate classification system, Antananarivo has a subtropical highland climate with dry season defined (Cwb) characterized by mild, dry winters and warm, rainy summers. The city receives nearly all of its average annual rainfall between November and April. Frosts are rare in the city; they are more common at higher elevations. Daily mean temperatures range from 20.8 °C (69.4 °F) in December to 14.3 °C (57.7 °F) in July. ## Cityscape Antananarivo encompasses three ridges that intersect at their highest point. The Manjakamiadana royal palace is located at the summit of these hills and is visible from every part of the city and the surrounding hills. The Manjakamiadina was the largest structure within the rova of Antananarivo; its stone casing is the only remnant of the royal residences to survive a 1995 fire at the site. For 25 years, the roofless shell dominated the skyline; its west wall collapsed in 2004. In 2009, the stone casing had been fully restored and the building was re-roofed. It is illuminated at night. Conservation and reconstruction work at the site is ongoing. The city skyline is a jumble of colorful, historic houses and churches. More recent residential and commercial buildings and family rice fields occupy lower terrain throughout the capital. The Betsimitatatra and other rice fields surround the city. The city's neighborhoods emerge from historic ethnic, religious, and caste divisions. The assignment of certain neighborhoods to particular noble sub-castes under the Kingdom of Imerina established divisions; the highest-ranking nobles were typically assigned to neighborhoods closest to the royal palace and were required to live in higher elevation portions of the city. During and after French colonization, the expansion of the city continued to reflect these divisions. Today, the haute ville is mainly residential and viewed as a prestigious area in which to live; many of the city's wealthiest and most influential Malagasy families live there. The part of la haute closest to the Rova contains much of the city's pre-colonial heritage and is considered it's historic part. It includes the royal palace, Andafiavaratra Palace—the former residence of Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, Andohalo—the principal town square until 1897, a cathedral near Andohalo built to commemorate early Malagasy Christian martyrs, the city's most intact historic entrance gate and the 19th-century houses of Merina nobles. Under the Kingdom of Madagascar, the commoner class (hova) settled at the periphery of the noble districts, gradually spreading along the slopes of the lower hills during the late 19th century. This ville moyenne became increasingly populous under French colonial authority, which targeted them for redesign and development. Today, the neighborhoods in the ville moyenne are densely populated and lively, containing residences, historic sites, and businesses. The neighborhood of Antaninarenina contains the historic Hôtel Colbert, numerous jewelers' shops and other luxury goods stores, and administrative offices. In addition to Antaninarenina, the principal neighborhoods of la ville moyenne are Ankadifotsy on the eastern hills and Ambatonakanga and Isoraka to the west, all of which are largely residential. Isoraka has developed lively nightlife, with houses converted to upscale restaurants and inns. Isoraka also houses the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo (1833–1852), whose sons and later Prime Ministers Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony are buried with him. Bordering these neighborhoods are the commercial areas of Besarety and Andravoahangy. The commercial center of town, Analakely, is located on the valley floor between these two ville moyenne hill ranges. King Andrianampoinimerina established the city's first marketplace on the grounds today occupied by the market's tile-roofed pavilions, constructed in the 1930s. Andrianampoinimerina decreed Friday (Zoma) as market day, when merchants would erect stalls shaded with white parasols, which extended throughout the valley forming what has been called the largest open-air marketplace in the world. The market caused traffic congestion and safety hazards prompting government officials to divide and relocate the Friday merchants to several other districts in 1997. The city's other main commercial and administrative neighborhoods, which spread out from Analakely and extend into the adjacent plain, were established by the French, who drained and filled in the extant rice fields and swampland to create much of the area's design and infrastructure. The Avenue de l'Indépendance runs from the gardens of Ambohijatovo south of the market pavilions, through Analakely to the city's railroad station at Soarano. To the west of Soarano lies the dense commercial district of Tsaralalana; it is the only district to be built on a grid and is the center of the city's South Asian community. Behoririka, to the east of Soarano, is built around a lake of the same name and abuts the sprawling Andravoahangy district at the eastern edge of the city. Antanimena borders Soarano and Behoririka to the north. A tunnel built by the French in the early 20th century cuts through the hillside; it connects Ambohijatovo with Ambanidia and other residential areas in the south of the city. Since pre-colonial times the lower classes, including those descended from the slave class (andevo) and rural migrants, have occupied the flood-prone lower districts bordering the Betsimitatatra rice fields to the west of the city. This area is connected to Analakely by a tunnel constructed by the French in the early 20th century. The tunnel opens toward Lake Anosy and the national Supreme Court buildings and provides access to the residential neighborhood of Mahamasina and its stadium. The bordering neighborhood of Anosy was developed in the 1950s to house most of the national ministries and the Senate. Anosy, the planned residential district of Soixante-Sept Hectares (often abbreviated to "67") and the neighborhood of Isotry are among the city's most densely populated, crime-ridden and impoverished neighborhoods. Approximately 40 percent of inhabitants with electricity in their homes in the ville basse obtain it illegally by splicing into city power lines. In these areas, houses are more vulnerable to fires, flooding, and landslides, which are often triggered by the annual cyclone season. ### Architecture Before the mid-19th century, all houses and marketplaces in Antananarivo, and throughout Madagascar, were constructed of woods, grasses, reeds, and other plant-based materials viewed as appropriate for structures used by the living. Only family tombs were built from stone, an inert material viewed as appropriate to use for the dead. British missionaries introduced brick-making to the island in the 1820s, and French industrialist Jean Laborde used stone and brick to build his factories over the next few decades. It was not until the royal edict on construction materials was lifted in the 1860s that stone was used to encase the royal palace. Many aristocrats, inspired by the royal palace and the two-story, brick houses with wrapped verandas and divided interior spaces built by British missionaries, copied the British model for their own large homes in the haute ville. The model, known as trano gasy ("Malagasy house"), rapidly spread throughout the Central Highlands of Madagascar, where it remains the predominant house construction style. Since 1993, the Commune urbaine d'Antananarivo (CUA) has increasingly sought to protect and restore the city's architectural and cultural heritage. In 2005, CUA authorities partnered with the city planners of the Île-de-France to develop the Plan Vert – Plan Bleu strategy for creating a classification system for Zones de Protection du Patrimoine Architectural, Urbain et Paysager, areas of the city benefiting from legal protection and financial support for their historic and cultural heritage. The plan, which is being implemented by the Institut des Métiers de la Ville, prevents the destruction of historic buildings and other structures, and establishes construction codes that ensure new structures follow historic aesthetics. It also provides for awareness-raising campaigns in favor of historic preservation and undertakes projects to restore dilapidated historic buildings and sites. Under this plan, 19th-century sites, like the Ambatondrafandrana tribunal and the second residence of Rainilaiarivony, have been renovated. ## Demographics Antananarivo has been the largest city on the island since at least the late 18th century when its population was estimated at 15,000. By 1810, the population had grown to 80,000 before declining dramatically between 1829 and 1842 during the reigns of Radama I and especially Ranavalona I. Because of a combination of war, forced labor, disease and harsh measures of justice, the population of Imerina fell from 750,000 to 130,000 during this period. In the final years of the Kingdom of Imerina, the population of Antananarivo had recovered to between 50,000 and 75,000; most of the population were slaves who were largely captured in provincial military campaigns. In 1950, Antananarivo's population was around 175,000. By the late 1990s the population of the metropolitan area had reached 1.4 million, and – while the city itself now has a population of 1,275,207 (at the 2018 Census) – with suburbs lying outside the city limits it had grown to almost 2.3 million in 2018. The metropolitan area is thus home to approaching 10 percent of the island's 25.68 million residents. Rural migration to the capital propels this growth; the city's population exceeds that of the other five provincial capitals combined. As the historic capital of Imerina, Antananarivo is centrally located in the homeland of the Merina people, who comprise about 24 percent of the population and are the largest Malagasy ethnic group. The city's history as the island's major center for politics, culture, and trade has ensured a cosmopolitan mix of ethnic groups from across the island and overseas. Most Antananarivo residents have strong ties to their tanindrazana (ancestral village), where the extended family and typically a family tomb or burial place is located; many older residents leave the city upon retirement to return to their rural area of origin. ### Crime Despite ongoing efforts by the Ministry of Domestic Security, crime has worsened in Antananarivo since 2009. Between 1994 and 1998, the city had an average of eight to twelve police officers for every 10,000 inhabitants; large cities typically have closer to fifteen. Under the mayorship of Marc Ravalomanana (1998–2001), street lights were installed or repaired throughout the city to improve night-time safety. He increased the number of police officers on the streets, leading to a drop in crime. As of 2012, the city lacks a comprehensive strategy for reducing crime. The recent increase in crime and the inadequate response from the CUA has prompted the growth of private security firms in the city. The Antanimora Prison is located in the Antanimora district of the city. The facility has a maximum capacity of 800 inmates and has been reported to be severely overcrowded, at times housing more than 4000 detainees. ## Economy Agriculture is the mainstay of the Malagasy economy. The land is used for the cultivation of rice and other crops, raising of zebu and other livestock, the fabrication of bricks, and other traditional livelihoods. Access to land is guaranteed and protected by law for every resident of the city. The CUA manages requests to lease or purchase land, but demand dramatically outstrips supply, and much of the unallocated land fails to meet the requisite criteria for parceling, such as land where floodwater runoff is diverted. Much of this marginal land has been illegally occupied and developed by land-seeking residents, creating shantytown slums in pockets throughout the lower portions of the city. This uncontrolled development poses sanitation and safety risks to residents in these areas. Industry accounts for around 13 percent of Madagascar's gross domestic product (GDP) and is largely concentrated in Antananarivo. Key industries include soap production, food and tobacco processing, brewing, textiles, and leather manufacturing, employing around 5.5 percent of the workforce. The city's extensive infrastructure and its role as the economic center of the country make it a favorable location for large businesses. Business owners are drivers of growth for the city; in 2010, 60 percent of all new buildings in the country were located in Antananarivo, most of which were built for commercial purposes. Unemployment and poverty are also growing, fueled in part by an inadequately skilled and unprofessional workforce and the lack of a comprehensive national strategy for economic development since 2009. Formal sector job growth has not kept pace with population growth, and many residents earn their livelihood in the informal sector as street vendors and laborers. Under Ravalomanana, construction in the capital increased sharply; twelve new supermarkets were constructed in two years. The residents of urban areas—in particular Antananarivo—have been hardest hit by economic downturns and economic policy shifts. The national economic crisis in the mid-1970s and early 1980s, and the World Bank's imposition of a structural adjustment program lowered living standards for the average resident of the city. The end of state subsidies, rapid inflation, higher taxes, widespread impoverishment, and the decline of the middle class was especially evident in Antananarivo, as was the growing wealth of a tiny political and economic elite in the city. In 2007, two-thirds of Antananarivo residents had access to electricity, while ten percent of households owned a scooter, car or another motor vehicle. Running water was installed in fewer than 25 percent of homes, small restaurants, and businesses in 2007, necessitating the collection of water from household wells or neighborhood pumps and the use of outdoor pit toilets detached from the main building. In 2007, 60 percent of households were using shared public latrines. Most homes use charcoal for daily cooking; stocks of charcoal and rice are kept in the kitchen. The average city household spends just under half of its budget on food. Owing to its increasingly high cost, consumption of meat by city residents has sharply declined since the 1970s; the urban poor eat meat on holidays only once or twice a year. ## Culture In Antananarivo and throughout the highlands, Merina and Betsileo families practice the famadihana, an ancestor reburial ceremony. This ceremony typically occurs five to seven years after the death of a relative and is celebrated by removing the relative's lamba-wrapped remains from the family tomb, rewrapping it with fresh silk shrouds and returning it to the tomb. Relatives, friends, and neighbors are invited to take part in the music, dancing, and feasting that accompanies the event. The famadihana is costly; many families sacrifice higher living standards to set aside money for the ceremony. ### Historic sites and museums The city has numerous monuments, historic buildings, sites of significance, and traditions related to the customs and history of the Central Highlands people. The city skyline is dominated by the Rova of Antananarivo. The nearby Andafiavaratra Palace was the home of 19th-century Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and contains a museum featuring historic artifacts of the Kingdom of Imerina, including items saved from the fire at the Rova. Downhill from the palaces is Andohalo square, where Merina kings and queens delivered speeches to the public. Tsimbazaza Zoo displays many of the island's unique animal species and a complete skeleton of the extinct elephant bird. Other historic buildings include the Ambatondrafandrana tribunal where Ranavalona I dispensed judgment, the second residence of Rainilaiarivony with its indigenous medicinal plant garden, the recently renovated Soarano railroad station, four late 19th-century memorial churches built to commemorate early Malagasy Christian martyrs, the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo, and the early 20th century pavilions of the Analakely market. Open-air markets include Le Pochard and the artisan market at Andravoahangy. The Museum of Art and Archaeology in the Isoraka neighborhood features exhibits on the history and cultures of Madagascar's diverse ethnic groups. The Pirates Museum in Tsaralalàna explains the history of maritime pirates and the story of the pirates in Madagascar and their mysterious Republic of Libertalia. ### Arts The arts scene in Antananarivo is the largest and most vibrant in the country. Madagascar's diverse music is reflected in the many concerts, cabarets, dance clubs, and other musical venues throughout Antananarivo. In the dry season, outdoor concerts are regularly held in venues including the Antsahamanitra amphitheater and Mahamasina Stadium. Concerts and nightclubs are attended mainly by young people of the middle to upper classes who can afford the entrance fees. More affordable are performances of traditional vakindrazana or Malagasy operettas at Isotry Theater and hira gasy at the city's outdoor cheminots theater or Alliance française; these performances are more popular with older and rural audiences than among urban youth. Nightlife is the most animated in the ville moyenne neighborhoods of Antaninarenina, Tsaralalana, Behoririka, Mahamasina, and Andohalo. The Palais des Sports in the Mahamasina neighborhood is the country's only indoor performance space built to international standards. It was built in 1995 by the Government of China; it regularly hosts concerts, dance, and other arts performances, expositions, and novelty events like monster truck rallies. The city lacks a dedicated classical music performance space, and concerts by international artists are infrequent. Performances of classical, jazz, and other foreign musical genres, modern and contemporary dance, theater, and other arts occur at cultural arts centers funded by foreign governments or private entities. Among the best-known of these is the Centre Culturel Albert Camus and Alliance française d'Antananarivo, both funded by the French government. the Cercle Germano-Malgache, a branch of the Goethe-Institut funded by the German government; The American Center is funded by the United States government. Antananarivo has two dedicated cinemas, the Rex and the Ritz, both of which were built in the colonial era. These venues do not show international releases but occasionally screen Malagasy films or are used for private events and religious services. ### Sports Rugby Union is considered the national sport of Madagascar. The national rugby team is nicknamed the Makis after the local word for the indigenous ring-tailed lemur. The team trains and plays domestic matches at Maki Stadium in Antananarivo. Constructed in 2012, the stadium has a capacity of 15,000 and houses a gym and administrative offices for the team. Several soccer teams are based in Antananarivo; AS Adema Analamanga and Ajesaia are associated with the Analamanga region; USCA Foot is associated with the CUA and the AS Saint Michel has been affiliated since 1948 with the historic secondary school of the same name. All four teams train and play local games in Mahamasina Municipal Stadium, the largest sporting venue in the country. The men's basketball teams Challenger and SOE (Équipe du Stade olympique de l'Emyrne) are based in Antananarivo and play in the Palais des Sports at Mahamasina. The sports facilities of the University of Antananarivo were used to host the official 2011 African Basketball Championship. ## Places of worship Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Malagasy Lutheran Church (Lutheran World Federation), Assemblies of God, Association of Bible Baptist Churches in Madagascar (Baptist World Alliance), Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Antananarivo (Catholic Church). There are also Muslim mosques. ## Government Antananarivo is the capital of Madagascar, and the federal governance structures, including the Senate, National Assembly, the Supreme Court, and the presidential office are housed there. The main presidential offices are located 15 km (9.3 mi) south of the city. The city hosts diplomatic missions of 21 countries. The CUA is divided into six numbered arrondissements (administrative sub-districts); it has historically been administered by an elected mayor and associated staff. Since the 2009 political crisis, in which the Mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, unconstitutionally seized power as head of state, the CUA has been administered by a délégation spéciale (special delegation) composed of a president and de facto mayor with the support of two vice presidents, all of whom are appointed by the president. The position of President of the Special Delegation has been held by Ny Hasina Andriamanjato since March 2014. The mayoral administration of the CUA is empowered to govern the city with de jure autonomy; a wide range of mechanisms have been established to facilitate governance, although they are of limited effectiveness. An urban master plan guides major policies for city management but personnel within the mayoral office commonly lack the urban planning and management ability to effectively implement the plan in response to long-term and immediate needs. This challenge is compounded by the high turnover rate of mayors and staff that frequently disrupts initiatives begun by previous CUA administrations. A mayor under former President Didier Ratsiraka created "red zones"; areas where public gathering and protests were prohibited. On 28 June 2001, Ravalomanana abolished these areas, liberalizing freedom of assembly. Antananarivo has suffered from debt and mismanagement. The CUA estimated in 2012 that the cost of running the city to international standards would reach annually, while annual revenues average around \$12 million. In good years, the CUA can reserve \$1–2 million to spend on city improvement projects. By 2008, the city's treasury had accumulated 8.2 billion Malagasy ariary—approximately —in debts under previous mayors. In 2008, water was cut off at public pumps, and there were regular brownouts of city street lights because of 3.3 million ariary of unpaid debts to the Jirama public utility company by the City of Antananarivo. In response, Mayor Rajoelina undertook an audit that identified and sought to address long-standing procedural irregularities and corruption in the city's administration. The CUA continues to be challenged by a shortage of revenues relative to its expenses caused by the high cost of retaining a large number of CUA personnel, weak structures for managing revenues from public rents and inadequate collection of tax revenues from city residents and businesses. ### Twin towns and sister cities Antananarivo has established sister city agreements with four cities. The city was twinned with Yerevan, Armenia in 1981. The city is also twinned with Vorkuta, Russia; Suzhou, China; and Montreal, Quebec, Canada. A sister city relationship between Antananarivo and Nice, France, established in 1962, is not active. In 2019, the Mayor of the Commune Urbaine Antananarivo was inviting the City of Kota Kinabalu in Malaysia to enter into a sister relationship with the City of Antananarivo. ## Education Most of Madagascar's public and private universities are located in Antananarivo. This includes the country's oldest higher education institute, the College of Medicine established under the Merina monarchy and the University of Antananarivo, established under the French colonial administration. The Centre National de Télé-Enseignement de Madagascar (CNETMAD) is located in Antananarivo. The city hosts many private pre-primary, primary and secondary schools and the national network of public schools. The city houses multiple French international schools, including Lycée Français de Tananarive, Lycée La Clairefontaine, Lycée Peter Pan, and École de l'Alliance française d'Antsahabe. It also houses an American school, American School of Antananarivo, and a Russian school, the Russian Embassy School in Antananarivo (Russian: основная общеобразовательная школа при Посольстве России на Мадагаскаре). The nation's most prestigious dance school, K'art Antanimena, is located in Antananarivo. Other major dance schools based in the city include Le Club de Danse de l'Université Catholique de Madagascar, Club de danse Kera arts'space à Antanimena and Le Club Mills. ## Health and sanitation In general, the availability and quality of health care are better in Antananarivo than elsewhere in Madagascar, although it remains inadequate across the country relative to that in more developed countries. One of Madagascar's two medical schools is located in Antananarivo; most medical technicians and specialists are trained there. Neonatal and antenatal care are significantly better in Antananarivo than elsewhere on the island. Despite the presence of facilities and trained personnel, the high cost of health care places it beyond the reach of most residents of Antananarivo. Pharmaceuticals are imported, making them particularly unaffordable; traditional herbal medicines remain popular and are readily available in local markets frequented by most of the population. The large population in Antananarivo and the high density of its residential zones pose challenges to public health, sanitation, and access to clean drinking water. Processing and disposal of industrial and residential waste are inadequate. Wastewater is often discharged directly into the city's waterways. Air pollution from vehicle exhaust, residential coal-burning stoves, and other sources is worsening. While the city has set up clean water pumps, they remain inadequate and are not distributed according to population density, with poor access in the poorest and most populous parts of the city. Antananarivo is one of the two urban areas in Madagascar where bubonic plague is endemic. In 2017, Antananarivo was ranked as the 7th worst city for particulate-matter air pollution in the world. These problems were diminished but not eliminated under the mayoral administration of Marc Ravalomanana, who prioritized sanitation, security, and public administration. He obtained funds from international donors to establish garbage collection and disposal systems, restore dilapidated infrastructures such as roads and marketplaces, and replanted public gardens. To improve sanitation in the city, he constructed public latrines in densely populated and highly frequented areas. ## Transport and communications The majority of the city's residents move about Antananarivo on foot. The CUA sets and enforces rules that govern a system of 2,400 franchised private minibuses running on 82 numbered routes throughout the city. An additional 2,000 minibuses managed by the Ministry of Transportation run along 8 lines into the neighboring suburbs. These interlinked bus systems served around 700,000 passengers each day. These minibuses often fail to meet safety standards or air quality requirements and are typically overcrowded with passengers and their cargo. Police and gendarmes assist in regulating traffic at peak periods in the morning and evening, or around special events and holidays. Private licensed and unlicensed taxis are common; most vehicles are older Renaults or Citroens. Newer vehicles congregate near hotels and other locales frequented by foreigners willing or able to pay higher prices for better services. The city is encircled by a ring road and connected by direct routes nationales (national highways) to Mahajanga, Toliara, Antsirabe, Fianarantsoa and Toamasina. Branches and feeder roads from these major highways connect the city to the national road network. Antananarivo was connected by train to Toamasina to the east and Manakara to the southeast via Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa, but since 2019 passenger trains have not been operated anymore. The city's principal railway station is centrally located at Soarano at one end of the Avenue de l'Indépendance. Ivato International Airport is located approximately 15 kilometres (9 miles) from the center of the city, connecting Antananarivoto to all national airports. Ivato is the hub of the national airline Air Madagascar, and is the only airport on the island hosting long-haul carriers. Direct flights connect Antananarivo to cities in South Africa and Europe. Government television and radio broadcasting centers, and the headquarters of numerous private stations are located in Antananarivo. Eighty percent of households in Antananarivo own a radio; the medium is popular across social classes. Stations like Fenon'ny Merina appeal to Merina listeners of all ages by playing traditional and contemporary music of the highlands region. Youth-oriented stations play a blend of Western artists and Malagasy performers of Western genres, as well as fusion and coastal musical styles. Evangelical broadcasts and daily international and local news are available in Malagasy, French, and English. Forty percent of Antananarivo residents own a television receiver. All major Malagasy newspapers are printed in the city and are widely available. Communications services in Antananarivo are the best in the country. Internet and mobile telephone networks are readily available and affordable, although service disruptions occur periodically. The national postal service is headquartered in Antananarivo, and private international shipping companies like FedEx, DHL Express, and United Parcel Service provide services to the city. ## Notable people - Lucile Allorge (born 1937), botanist

Madoka Kaname

Puella Magi Madoka Magica character

Madoka Kaname (Japanese: 鹿目 まどか, Hepburn: Kaname Madoka) is the title character and one of two main protagonists of the 2011 anime series Puella Magi Madoka Magica, alongside Homura Akemi. Madoka is a kind and gentle 14-year-old girl who initially lives a normal and happy life, but is then faced with the decision of becoming a magical girl. She aspires to become a magical girl after witnessing her senior classmate Mami Tomoe fighting against surreal monsters known as witches in order to protect people. In Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion, where she is the deuterangonist, Madoka appears as a magical girl and fights with her friends against new monsters known as nightmares. She appears in most Puella Magi Madoka Magica related-media, including manga, novels and video games. In developing the character, writer Gen Urobuchi imagined the series' protagonist as being a girl with a "cheerful and idealistic" personality, in contrast to his usual writing style. Madoka was designed by Ume Aoki, who used the character Yuno from her manga Hidamari Sketch as an initial basis. Although her theme color was intended to be white, it was changed to pink. Aoki also noted the difficulty of drawing Madoka due to her double ponytail hair. Madoka Kaname is voiced by Aoi Yūki in Japanese, and Christine Marie Cabanos in English. Madoka has ranked highly in various polls, placing second in the Best Female Category at the 1st Newtype Anime Awards in 2011, as well ranking seventh in a top 10 anime heroines poll conducted by NHK in 2013. Her character has been well received by fans and critics, with reviewers praising her character transformation and resonance with the series' other characters, particularly her relationship with Homura Akemi. ## Creation and development In the initial planning meeting of the Puella Magi Madoka Magica franchise, which began as a 2011 anime television series, writer Gen Urobuchi imagined that the heroine of the series would be a girl with a "cheerful and idealistic" personality. Madoka is an unusual character for Urobuchi's writing style, and fits more closely to character designer Ume Aoki's worldview. In order to incorporate a "foreign character that did not exist inside [himself]," Urobuchi wrote the initial script as if Yuno, the main character of Aoki's manga series Hidamari Sketch, was the protagonist. During this phase, Urobuchi even intended Kana Asumi to take on the voice acting role for Madoka. The personality of Madoka was specifically designed as an "Ume Aoki character", while other characters of the cast, such as Homura Akemi and Sayaka Miki, are more typical for Urobuchi's style. Urobuchi said that at the beginning, there was an idea to write the story as "Homura strives to save Madoka", therefore, he created the characteristics of Madoka and Homura as a contrast to each other. Madoka's birthday, October 3, was chosen as it was the file creation date of the series' initial project proposal. ### Design Madoka was designed by Ume Aoki, who initially used the protagonist of her manga Hidamari Sketch, Yuno, as a prototype to design Madoka; she created Madoka's design after exaggerating part of its image. Although Madoka's theme color was initially intended to be white as suggested by Urobuchi in the series' draft, Aoki forgot this when designing the character, and changed the main color of Madoka to pink. Aoki said that in terms of character design, the difficulty of drawing Madoka was more difficult than that of Sayaka Miki and Kyoko Sakura, particularly because of the double ponytail design of Madoka's hair, stating that once the size and painting of the ponytail are different, "it looks like a completely different role". Another difference with other magical girls is that in the story, when Madoka transforms into her magical girl outfit, is the result of the appearance of the magical girl in her dream. For this reason, the dress design especially added ruffles and several decorative elements. Overall, Aoki incorporated fairy tale elements and designed a very "cute" magical girl costume. However, Aoki also stated that Madoka's dress is not suitable for fighting. After seeing the character design, the president of the series' animation studio SHAFT, Mitsutoshi Kubota, thought that it was a good that the production team to got in touch with a new style, but it also brought challenges to the animation production. Recalling this, Aoki did not expect that her style would be adapted directly, although it could bring the feeling of the character Madoka. In addition, the animation production team also tried to avoid some exaggerated expressions, such as broken clothes, huge sweat beads or emoticons. Her Ultimate Magical girl form, was also designed by Aoki. She designed her costume based on white theme color and cherry blossoms, and designed her hair to be longer and her eyes to change from pink to gold, suggesting Madoka's new form of magical girl. Ultimate Madoka's form has been described as "the ultimate form that has undergone a super evolution by fighting infinite space-time"; according to the Puella Magi Madoka Magica The Beginning Story guidebook, the form was originally called "Hyper Ultimate Madoka" in the series draft, but was later changed to "Ultimate Madoka". ### Voice actresses Madoka is portrayed in Japanese by Aoi Yūki. In an interview with Animate, Yūki reminisced about the series' early production and how she aimed to do her best in playing the role. She also felt from the start that the series would be one that would be enjoyed by many people. In the English dub of Madoka Magica, she is portrayed by Christine Marie Cabanos. During the recording process, Cabanos had trouble not overthinking her role, but she learned to "let go" as the dubbing process continued. ## Appearances ### In Puella Magi Madoka Magica Madoka is a kind and gentle 14-year-old girl who comes from a loving family. A second-year at middle school, her life changes when she encounters the messenger of magic, Kyubey, who offers to transform her into a magical girl. She sees herself as a person without special qualities or talents, and after seeing her schoolmate Mami Tomoe fighting against witches, aspires to become a magical girl like her. Averse to fighting, she hopes that the magical girls will support each other, sometimes even putting her own life at risk to help them, and is distressed by the infighting they often engage in. After witnessing Mami's death, she grows uncertain about becoming a magical girl, growing ever more hesitant as the true cost of the role is revealed to her. Kyubey claims that Madoka has an impossibly large amount of potential for magic, going so far as to claim that she could become the savor of all the magical girls. The reason for this is unclear, since her life so far has been relatively average and free of tragedies. This is later revealed to be due to her accumulated misfortune, which was caused as a result of her classmate Homura Akemi repeatedly resetting time, with Madoka's fate getting worse with each timeline, making her magic power grow exponentially with each reset. In previous timelines, Madoka became a magical girl in a pink dress wielding a rose branch bow and arrow. In the drama CD, "Memories of You", it is revealed that the wish in the first timeline was to save a cat named Amy from death. However, every time, she was either killed or transformed into a witch named Kriemhild Gretchen, the Witch of Salvation, one that became ever more powerful with each time reset, as Madoka's power also increased and if created would, by the end of that same week, consume all life on Earth in order to create a paradise where there is no free will or individuality to cause strife or conflict. In the first timeline, she still possesses a high amount of power, being able to defeat Walpurgisnacht (ワルプルギスの夜, Warupurugisu no Yoru), though dying in the process. Subsequently, by the current timeline, she has the potential to be the most powerful magical girl to date. Towards the end, she learns of this and Homura's efforts to save her. After seeing the suffering of magical girls throughout history, Madoka decides to make her wish: to prevent all magical girls from the past, present, future and all other timelines, from ever becoming witches. The laws of the universe are rewritten such that at the moment that a soul gem becomes black with anguish, Madoka appears and purifies it before the magical girl passes on. As a result of this wish, she becomes an omnipotent being named Ultimate Madoka (アルティメット・まどか, Arutimetto Madoka), that exists for all time, erasing her pre-ascension existence from the world; leaving only Homura – and to some extent her little brother – with the memory of her. Madoka becomes only a concept in the new world, one named the Law of Cycles (円環の理, Enkan no Kotowari). Magical girls absorbed into the Law of Cycles regain knowledge of their lives in previous timelines. At the end of Rebellion, Ultimate Madoka was usurped by Homura and had her human selves split, with her role as a martyr being forced onto the Incubators. Homura places human Madoka in a new universe where she and her friends can live normal lives unaware of their pasts, though Madoka almost regains her memories at the last second and her final conversation with Homura implies that it is only a matter of time before Madoka merges with her self once more and must face her friend in battle. Madoka will return in Puella Magi Madoka Magica The Movie - Walpurgisnacht: Rising. ### Appearances in other media A drama CD written by Gen Urobuchi that explores other aspects of Madoka's life was released along with the anime series' Blu-ray disc. Being the protagonist of the franchise, Madoka has almost appeared in all manga's related to Puella Magi Madoka Magica. She is a supporting character in the manga spin-off Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Different Story, with her role being very much the same as that in the anime series. Madoka also briefly appears in Puella Magi Oriko Magica, in which she gets killed by the main character of the manga Oriko Mikune. Madoka also appears in a spin-off manga Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Homura's Revenge, that takes place in an alternate universe story where Madoka joined Homura in her time traveling, and in another manga, Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Wraith Arc, that takes place between the second film Eternal and the third film Rebellion. Additionally, Madoka appears in a novel adaptation of the original series written by Hajime Ninomae, illustrated by Yūpon and published by Nitroplus, as well as appearing in a manga adaptation of the anime series, written and illustrated by Honakogae, and published by Houbunsha. Madoka is a playable character in most Puella Magi Madoka Magica video games, such as the PlayStation Portable action video game developed by Namco Bandai Games, Puella Magi Madoka Magica Portable (2012), and the PlayStation Vita titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Battle Pentagram (2013). She also appears in several pachinko games related to the series, including Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica (2013), Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica 2 (2016), CR Pachinko Puella Magi Madoka Magica (2017), SLOT Puella Magi Madoka Magica A (2017), and the 2019 Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion. Madoka is also a playable character in numerous games outside the Puella Magi Madoka Magica video games, such as Chain Chronicle, Million Arthur, and the rhythm game Girl Friend Note. Madoka's magical girl costume appears as an alternative for the character Elisa from Tales of Xillia 2, though Madoka herself does not appear. Her costume and weapons also appear in the game Phantasy Star Online 2, as well as the PSP game Gods Eater Burst, being available as downloadable content (DLC). ## Cultural impact ### Popularity In 2011, Madoka took second place in the Best Female Character category at the 1st Newtype Anime Awards. She won the "Queen Award" at the 2012 Nikkan Sports Anime Competition. In 2013, Madoka won the Saimoe Tournament award for being the "most moe" anime character. In an NHK poll conducted in 2013, Madoka placed seventh for top 10 anime heroines. In 2014, Akihabara fans voted Madoka as their favorite pink-haired heroine. In 2016, Madoka was voted as the fifth most popular SHAFT heroine. Japanese Tokyo Broadcasting System Television announcer Misato Ugaki cosplayed as Madoka in 2018. She was voted the most enchanting magical girl character in a 2016 poll by Charapedia. Goo Ranking users voted Madoka as the sixth best anime archer in 2018. In 2020, Madoka was voted the best-magical girl character in a poll by Anime! Anime!, with a 15% of votes. In a 2020 Ani Trending News poll, Madoka was also voted as the second best female anime character of Winter 2011, and the eighth best female character of the year (2011) overall. Aoi Yūki won several awards for her portrayal of the character, that includes the 6th Seiyu Award's Best Actress in leading role in 2012, as well as the Newtype Anime Award for Best Actress, and the Nikkan Sports for MIP Female Voice Actor Award. ### Critical response Madoka's character has been well-received by critics. Rachael Verret of The Mary Sue praised Madoka's character development for changing from a "naive, noncommittal little girl to someone who recognizes the necessity of relying and trusting in herself, turning into a fully actualized woman taking the power back in a hopeless situation," and referred to her transformation as a "pretty jaw-dropping scene". Theorin Martin from Anime News Network listed Madoka making her wish as "Scene of the Year" of 2012, complimenting how her wish "was the culmination of everything that she had learned over the course of the series and everything that she was as a character", calling it "masterstroke". Lynzee Loveridge of the same site listed Madoka third in "biggest crybaby heroes" list, noting how Madoka experiences horrible things throughout the story despite being a normal girl, stating that it makes her "more relatable to the audience". Juliet Kahn of Looper liked how Madoka developed "from a naive young girl into a terrified pawn" and praised the character for realizing her power and for changing the world from despair to a better place, stating that "the momentum this creates is felt on the most visceral level, catapulting the viewer from horror into awe within one episode". THEM Anime Reviews reviewer Jacob Churosh stated that it is easy to view Madoka as a useless character but "there are moments where we see that she is no coward", and "that this kind of desperation is new to her and she knows there is something wrong with her attitude". James Beckett from Anime News Network stated that while Madoka may not be the most important character of the series' first episodes, "her deep and complex emotional resonance with every other character" in the series "made her a vital thread in the fabric of its story". Zac Bertschy from the same site felt that Madoka "does not have that much to do" in first few episodes, and believed that she had played a bigger role in the rest of the story. Furthermore, he praised her "intense" transformation and characterization for the last episodes, stating "it winds up justifying all the self-doubt the Madoka character goes through in the episodes leading up to this and feels like an even bigger take (and gentle commentary on) the entire idea of a “magical girl” and called her the "very concept of hope itself" that was "immensely emotionally satisfying" to watch. Madoka's relationship with Homura has also been met with positive critical response. Jacob Hope Chapman from Anime News Network noted how more powerful became Madoka and Homura's relationship which he also considered one of the film's greatest strengths. Geoff Berkshire from Variety described Madoka and Homura's friendship as "deep" and "loving". David West of Neo said that Urobuchi "takes their friendship and flips it inside-out." West wrote; "Far more complicated than merely turning friends into enemies, Rebellion takes their relationship and stands it in front of a funhouse mirror." Writing for A Cycle, Not a Phase: Love Between Magical Girls Amidst the Trauma of Puella Magi Madoka Magica, Kevin Cooley argues that Homura's powers are not merely a "metaphor for love between magical girls," but "literally are the love between magical girls" and that Madoka's actions create a world "where love between women can prosper free from Kyubey’s policing." Kory Cerjak from The Fandom Post praised the work of Christine Marie Cabanos, Madoka's voice actress, noting that while it felt like "an adult playing a junior high school student" in the series' beginning, by the movies, it had become more appealing and suitable. ### Analysis Japanese critic Kenichi Yamakawa noted the contrasts between Madoka and Homura, stating Madoka represents "people's justice" while Homura represents "human love". Sociologist Shinji Miyadai noted that Madoka is a heroine who moves forward and never looks back. He stated that the story is about Madoka's growth; an average girl that realizes the bonds between those surrounding her and the people supporting her, which eventually made her accept her role and fulfill her duty in saving magical girls from their cruel fate. Additionally, critic Tetsuya Miyazaki believes that Puella Magi Madoka Magica refers to the causal view of Buddhism and adopts the world setting of "hope is born from despair". Miyazaki believes that the theme of the story is about Madoka growing up and saves all magical girls, and referred to her as an ordinary girl that follows the steps of Bodhisattva and Tathagata. Miyazaki further commented on Madoka creating a new world, to which he described as the pure land and said Madoka herself becomes omnipresent in this universe by turning into a person that transcends time and laws. Furthermore, Miyazaki also found Madoka realizing her destiny and making an independent choice in the final episode as magnificent. Critic Ryōta Fujitsu believes that the series should be analyzed from the context of beautiful girl games and sci-fi literature, and described the story as "understanding mother's lifestyle and taking it as a decision in life", and the coming of age story of Madoka. Fujitsu also believes that in episode 11, Madoka's determination to confront her mother until her mother watched Madoka leave was the most exciting part of the plot of the series. According to comments in SPA magazine, the deep friendship and bond of Madoka and Homura caused a miracle to happen, with Madoka developing into a realized person due to learning about Homura's sufferings and the support of her mother Junko. Writing for The Very Soil: An Unauthorized Critical Study of Puella Magi Madoka Magica, Jed A. Blue said that Madoka resembles the Bodhisattva Guanyin, a figure from Buddhist mythology, as Madoka takes the suffering of all magical girls and guides them to her heaven and said that Madoka "becomes a force of nature, an incarnation of hope, dissolving her consciousness, and attaining nirvana". Similarly, Madoka has also been compared to Goethe's character Gretchen from Faust, Blue said: "Madoka's wish to guide magical girls away from being witches parallels Gretchen's wish to guide Faust into Heaven. Madoka also takes on a role as a savior and protector, similar to that taken in Faust by the Marian, divine principle of the Eternal feminine, with which Gretchen is associated". Noelle Ogawa of Crunchyroll called her a "somewhat unconventional main character", and that she "never becomes the superpowered hero that fights monsters and villains. She does not even start out with the desire to change the world, she grows into the role of being the world's savior".

Mohawk Airlines Flight 411

1969 aviation accident

Mohawk Airlines Flight 411, a Fairchild FH-227B twin-engine turboprop, registered N7811M, was a scheduled domestic passenger service operated by Mohawk Airlines, between Albany and Glens Falls, New York. On November 19, 1969, it crashed into Pilot Knob Mountain, killing all 14 passengers and crew on board. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded that the crash was caused by the captain's improper execution of an instrument approach, combined with a severe downdraft at a low altitude, which resulted in the aircraft descending uncontrollably into terrain. ## History of flight On the evening of November 19, 1969, at about 20:03 EST, Mohawk Airlines Flight 411, a twin engine Fairchild FH-227B turboprop, departed from Albany International Airport near Albany, New York. It was operating as a scheduled passenger/cargo flight on an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan to its destination of Warren County Airport in Glens Falls, New York, 37 nautical miles (69 km) northeast, with an estimated flight time of about 15 minutes. At 20:07:32 EST, just 4 minutes after takeoff, Flight 411 was cleared by air traffic control (ATC) for "a VOR approach to runway 19". The aircraft overflew the Glens Falls airport and proceeded northbound, subsequently reversing course. Shortly after course reversal, at about 20:20 EST, the aircraft hit trees on the northwest slope of the Pilot Knob Mountain, then impacted a rock cliff from which it fell 34 feet (10 m) and became lodged between trees and caught fire. Of the 11 passengers and 3 crew on board, there were no survivors. ## Investigation and final report The accident was investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). The Flight Data Recorder was recovered intact from the wreckage, but the Cockpit Voice Recorder had been damaged in the post-crash fire and was unusable. The weather at Glens Falls at the time of the accident was reported as "2,100 (feet) overcast, visibility 7 (miles) in light rain, wind 180 (degrees) at 12 (knots), peak gusts 22 (knots), altimeter 2980, runway 19 in use". The surface temperature was 54 degrees Fahrenheit (12 degrees Celsius). The investigation revealed that ATC cleared the flight to "the VOR approach", without actually specifying which specific VOR approach procedure was to be used, possibly leaving it to the flight crew's discretion. According to the radio communication transcript, the flight crew did not inquire as to which specific approach was in effect. There were two published VOR approaches at the time, one from the north and one from the south. The northern approach, called "VOR/DME 19", was not legally available to the crew under these circumstances, as Mohawk company policy prohibited reliance on DME as a primary navigational instrument. The other VOR approach, called "VOR 1", was the only one legally available to the flight, and would have required descending while approaching the airport from the south during the final approach segment, followed by a "circle to land" maneuver, landing to the south on runway 19. Despite this, possibly due to their concerns with passenger comfort (the VOR 1 approach would have required performing the "circle to land" maneuver at a relatively low altitude over the airport to land on runway 19), or possibly by simply being late to set up for the recommended VOR 1 approach (the flight time was only about 8 minutes from takeoff at Albany to the Glens Falls area, with a significant tailwind component of approximately 50 knots), the crew did not execute the VOR 1 approach. Instead, the crew appeared to select an improvised and unauthorized modified version of the VOR/DME 19 approach, which included flying outbound followed by a course reversal at about 10 nautical miles (20 km) north of the airport, over Lake George. As the crew performed what appeared to be an unpublished and unauthorized procedure turn for course reversal on the VOR/DME 19 approach path, they descended prematurely and hit the side of a mountain. It was subsequently determined that a 60-knot (110 km/h) southerly wind created a downdraft effect which, coupled with the aircraft's low altitude over the terrain, contributed to the crash. In their final report, issued on June 25, 1970, the NTSB determined the following official Probable Cause for the accident: > The captain, while conducting an approach, exceeded his clearance limits and, thereafter, flew the aircraft into a severe "lee of the mountain downdraft" at an altitude insufficient for recovery. No evidence was found to explain why this particular approach was attempted. ## See also - List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft - Mohawk Airlines Flight 405

Laura Bergt

Native American political activist (1940–1984)

Laura Mae Bergt (née Beltz; October 1, 1940 – March 14, 1984) was an Iñupiaq athlete, model, politician, and activist for the Iñupiat and other Indigenous Alaskans. Born in the Northwest Arctic Borough of Alaska to bi-racial parents, she grew up in Nome and Kotzebue before attending high school in Sitka. Involved in the Native Olympic movement, she was both a nine-times winner of the Arctic Circle blanket toss event and served as chair of the World Eskimo Indian Olympics in 1966. She worked as a promoter for the new state of Alaska attending trade shows and making marketing appearances as a spokeswoman and guest on radio and television programs. From the 1960s, she worked in various policy positions at the tribal, local, state, and national level to address issues like disability, education, employment opportunities, housing, and poverty, and promoting the rights of Indigenous people. In 1968, Bergt testified before the United States House of Representatives on the importance of settling Native claims to provide adequate funding for development of programs to address tribal issues and protect Indigenous hunting and fishing rights. Her personal relationship with Vice President Spiro Agnew and her appointment in 1970 to the National Council on Indian Opportunity were pivotal in obtaining passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971. In 1972, she was appointed by President Richard Nixon to serve on a national policy advisory committee of Indigenous leaders, and in 1975 participated on the 15-member National Health Advisory Committee. She also was commissioner of the Indian Arts and Crafts Board from 1976 to 1978 and was a member of President Gerald Ford's United States Bicentennial Council. At the state level, Bergt was instrumental in pressing for the creation of schools to teach children with disabilities and preserve Native Arts. She served on various housing and rural development initiatives and chaired the World Eskimo Indian Olympics Committee in 1966 and 1967. She was elected in 1973 to a term on the Borough Assembly of the Fairbanks City Council. The sophomore-junior girls' dormitory at her alma mater, Mt. Edgecumbe High School, is named in her honor and she was the inaugural recipient of the Frank Whaley Award, which recognizes outstanding service to the Eskimo Olympics. In 2015, she was inducted into the Alaska Women's Hall of Fame. ## Early life and education Laura Mae Beltz, whose Iñupiat name was "Mumiak", was born on October 1, 1940, in Candle, Alaska, to Iñupiat-German parents, Fredrica "Rica" (née Reich) and Bert Beltz. Her maternal grandmother, Mamie was a First Nations Canadian, who married Louis Reich, a German whaler. They operated a trading post in Kotzebue. Her paternal grandmother, Susie was a Native Alaskan, who married a Pennsylvania Dutch miner, John Skyles "Jack" Beltz. Her father was a bush pilot and a brother of Alaska Territorial Senator William Beltz. Beltz grew up in Nome and Kotzebue, where she attended elementary school. She graduated from Mt. Edgecumbe Boarding School in Sitka. ## Career ### Early career, promoting Alaska (1957–1969) After graduation, Beltz worked as a secretary to the Kotzebue station manager of Alaska Airlines, Neil Bergt. He was born in Tacoma, Washington, but raised and schooled in Anchorage before becoming a pilot. The couple married on November 5, 1958, in Kotzebue and had their daughter Debra Lynne in October 1959. They lived briefly in Point Barrow before relocating to Nome. In August 1959, Bergt appeared on the cover of Holiday promoting a featured article in the magazine focusing on the recent Statehood of Alaska. The exposure gave her international recognition and she was invited for several guest appearances on television, including on Lowell Thomas' High Adventure series, The Donald O'Connor Show, and The Ed Sullivan Show. In October 1960, she gave birth to twins, Michael Alan and Karen Gail, in Fairbanks and their youngest son, Bryan was born in 1965. That year, Neil became a partner in Interior Airways, where Bergt worked part time as a stewardess. In 1964, Bergt was elected as the national committeewoman from Alaska for the Young Republicans on which she served until 1966. She also served as an officer on the newly founded Cook Inlet Native Association. She worked as a secretary for the Fairbanks Chamber of Commerce and, in 1967, was appointed by the chamber to serve as the chair of the coordinating committee for the World Eskimo Indian Olympics. Bergt was a competitor in the games, having won the blanket toss nine times by 1969. She was reappointed as chair in 1967 and simultaneously appointed by Governor Walter Hickel to serve on the Native Claims Task Force and the special task force on Indigenous housing issues. In 1967, the family relocated from Fairbanks to Anchorage, when Neil took over the management of the office there for Interior Airways. From 1968, Bergt worked with the tourism board, the Alaska Business Council, and the Alaska Oil and Gas Association, among other organizations, to promote the state, traveling to Costa Mesa, Century City, and Los Angeles, California, for the annual Alaska Travel and Trade Fair. At these events, she made public appearances at civic and fraternal gatherings, broadcast on television and radio, demonstrated Native sporting and skill events, and modeled traditional fashion and arts and crafts. She promoted Alaskan foods and culture, but also talked about issues for Native Alaskans such as the high mortality rates; ecology and environmental protection; housing struggles including the lack of electricity, sanitation, and running water; and limited educational opportunities. In 1969, the Bergts moved back to Fairbanks, when Neil was promoted to president of Interior Airways. Bergt worked as the office manager for the Alaska Federation of Natives and secretary to Emil Notti, president of the federation. She also worked for the Tundra Times and served as a director on the newspaper. In March 1970, she attended Expo '70 in Japan to promote Alaska. ### Native affairs, land claims (1968–1972) In 1968, Bergt served as a member of the State Tourism Advisory Board, was on the Alaska state Committee on Children and Youth, Health, and Welfare (state chapter for the White House Conference on Children and Youth), and was appointed to the Alaska State Housing Authority Board. The board was responsible for managing the joint state-federal program to improve housing in rural villages. The same year, she was part of the first delegation to appear before the United States House's Subcommittee on Indian Affairs regarding settlement between the Indian Claims Commission and Native demands. The claims resulted from disputes over ownership and equitable settlement being paid by the state and federal governments for taking traditional Native land. The settlement was critical, as the Natives were asking for monetary amounts to be used for capital development, the creation of villages of their own, and protection of their hunting and fishing rights on federal lands. Since 1966, Stewart Udall, Secretary of the Interior, had halted any state land patents, impacting oil and gas leases proposed for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System, until Native claims were settled. For the state, this meant a substantial loss of revenues. In her testimony, Bergt stressed that despite government programs, there were inadequate medical facilities and health services, difficulties of communication with remote villages, poor housing and sanitation, and extreme poverty among Indigenous people. She also testified in 1969 before the subcommittee calling for the creation of tribal corporations which would allow Native people to control and manage their own development and resources. Bergt was invited to attend the inauguration of President Richard Nixon, who named her to join the National Council on Indian Opportunity (NCIO) in August 1970 for a two-year term. The NCIO was chaired by Vice President Spiro Agnew, whom she had met in 1968 during his trip campaigning in Alaska. That year, the Mt. Edgecumbe Boarding School named the sophomore-junior girls' dormitory in her honor. On July 8, 1970, Nixon delivered a speech reversing the government policy of tribal termination in favor of allowing their self-determination. Negotiations between the NCIO and the government produced seven bills by October to modify the federal and state roles with regard to Native people. One allowed Native authorities to sue the federal government if their interests in natural resources were damaged or jeopardized by governmental actions. Another permitted federal lending to tribal authorities, while one bill gave tribes the ability to manage federal programs and services, such as health, welfare and education projects for their communities. Two others allowed Indigenous people to transfer their civil service status if they changed from federal to tribal programs and to control livestock which trespassed on their lands. The speech also resulted in planning a conference to discuss the bills by the National Congress of American Indians in March 1971 in Kansas City, Missouri. During the Kansas City conference, Bergt taught Agnew how to Eskimo kiss. The kiss was widely publicized, and Tlingit leader, John Borbridge Jr watching her, said, "each one of those kisses was worth a million acres" for Native Alaskans. Bergt also urged Agnew to meet with Native leaders and the officials of the Interior Department, which was agreed would be held on March 12. Among those present were Agnew; Bergt; Raymond C. Christiansen, an Alaska State Senator; Al Ketzler, chair of the Tanana Chiefs Conference; Don Wright, president of the Alaska Federation of Natives; Fred Bracken, legal counsel for the Department of the Interior; Harrison Loesch, assistant Interior secretary; and Boyd Rasmussen, representing the Bureau of Land Management. From the Native perspective, according to Bergt, the meeting marked a turning-point in negotiations, as thereafter government authorities allowed their counsel to participate in the drafting of bills and gained a clear understanding of their demands for land and compensation. The American Indian Movement, pressure from oil companies, and on-going Native advocacy, resulted in the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971. Bergt used her personal relationship with Agnew to continue pressing for focus on funding for educational training initiatives of Indigenous people during the post-settlement period. ### Later career (1972–1983) After her two-year appointment to the NCIO expired, Nixon asked her to serve on a six-member national committee of Indigenous leaders, which included Frank Belvin (Choctaw) of Muskogee, Oklahoma; Harold Shunck (Yankton-Sioux) of Rapid City, South Dakota; Neal McCaleb (Chickasaw) of Edmond, Oklahoma; John C. Rainer (Taos Pueblo) of Albuquerque, New Mexico; and John Seneca (Seneca) of Washington, D.C. The advisory board was to focus on prioritizing and advising Nixon of the needs of Native Americans. Among Bergt's many local initiatives were advocacy for textile and animal husbandry training, housing proposals, and employment of Native Alaskans on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. She also worked on initiatives to promote care for children with disabilities, including provision of housing and rehabilitation services. In 1972, she began pushing the legislature to fund schools for children with special physical and mental needs, as there were no such facilities in the state. She advocated for establishing three regional schools to provide specialized education for children who had learning disabilities or were blind or deaf. She was called to a hearing on the matter and Governor William Egan appointed her to serve on the Hard-of-Hearing Task Force. He also selected her as a member of the Rural Affairs Commission. In March 1973, Bergt was nominated by Egan to fill the vacated seat of Don Young in the Alaska Senate. Party members refused to endorse her candidacy, rejecting her because the appointment did not follow established protocols of coming from the prospective list supplied by the Fairbanks Republican District Committee. After the initial rejection, Egan resubmitted her name to fill the seat and the Senate rejected the appointment a second time. In May, Egan appointed Bergt to serve on the Reapportionment Board, which had been ordered by the Alaska Supreme Court to establish a permanent redistricting plan in accordance with the state constitution. Bergt was elected to serve in October 1973 on the Fairbanks City Council's Borough Assembly representing the North Star Borough. She did not seek re-election when her three-year term on the Borough Assembly expired.[^1] Bergt was selected in 1973, as part of the Board of Regents for the Institute of American Indian Arts in Santa Fe, New Mexico. In 1974, she began working for the federal Indian Arts and Crafts Board on a study to determine the feasibility of establishing an arts institute for Alaska Natives. Also on the committee were Mary Jane Fate and author Thomas Richards, Jr. They traveled throughout the state to evaluate if cultural preservation should focus on traditional or contemporary arts, possible locations for a facility and student housing options, and whether curricula should include courses on marketing and technological training as well. With the assistance of Howard Rock of the Tundra Times, the committee was able to secure federal funds to establish the Institute of Alaska Native Arts. In 1975, Bergt was appointed by Secretary of Health and Human Services Caspar Weinberger to serve on the 15-member National Health Advisory Committee. That year, she was also named by President Gerald Ford to serve on the United States Bicentennial Council to plan the 1976 celebrations in honor of the 200th anniversary of the American Revolution. She was selected in May 1976, for a two-year term as the commissioner of the Indian Arts and Crafts Board of the Department of the Interior. In December, she was appointed to the executive committee of Organization for the Management of Alaska's Resources. In her later life, Bergt continued to work with the State Tourism Advisory Board, served on the boards of many organizations, and made numerous public appearances. She appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson three times, and on one memorable 1973 episode she presented Carson with an oosik, the reproductive organ of a male walrus, causing stunned silence from Carson and much amusement for the audience. She also took New York Senator James L. Buckley on a whaling expedition to Point Hope and made numerous appearances with activist Mary Jane Fate. The Bergts divorced in 1977, and the following year on September 23, she married a Hawaiian attorney, William Crockett. Their marriage lasted two years and marked a point after which she usually lived in Hawaii during the winter and in Alaska during the summer. ## Death and legacy Laura Bergt Crockett died on March 14, 1984, in Honolulu from kidney failure. Her remains were cremated, and a service was held on March 25 at the Holy Family Cathedral in Anchorage. She is widely remembered for facilitating the discussions which resulted in the drafting and settlement of the Alaskan land claims. Richards wrote in 1973, that the Alaska Federation of Natives and its representatives struggled to gain consideration of their land claims for years. He credited the appointment of Bergt to the National Council on Indian Opportunity as the catalyst for overcoming differences between Native leaders and convincing the Nixon administration to support their claims in 1971. In 1984, she was posthumously bestowed the inaugural Frank Whaley Award of the World Eskimo Indian Olympics, which honors outstanding contributions to the organization. In 2015, she was inducted into the Alaska Women's Hall of Fame in recognition of her contributions to the state. [^1]: [Fairbanks Pioneer 1974](#CITEREFFairbanks_Pioneer1974 "wikilink"), p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFFairbanks_Pioneer1974 (help)

Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday

National holiday in Nazi Germany

Adolf Hitler's 50th birthday was celebrated as a national holiday throughout Nazi Germany on 20 April 1939. Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels made sure the events organised in Berlin were a lavish spectacle focusing on Hitler. The festivities included a military parade with some 40,000 to 50,000 German troops taking part, along with 162 Luftwaffe airplanes flying overhead. The parade was intended in part as a warning to the Western powers of Nazi Germany's military capabilities. The parade lasted for more than four hours, with 20,000 official guests, along with several hundred thousand spectators being present. ## Celebrations On 18 April 1939, the government of Nazi Germany declared that their Führer Adolf Hitler's birthday (20 April) was to be a national holiday. Festivities took place in all municipalities throughout the country as well as in the Free City of Danzig. The British historian Ian Kershaw comments that the events organised in Berlin by the Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels were "an astonishing extravaganza of the Führer cult. The lavish outpourings of adulation and sycophancy surpassed those of any previous Führer Birthdays". Festivities began in the afternoon on the day before his birthday, when Hitler rode in the lead car of a motorcade of fifty white limousines along architect Albert Speer's newly-completed East-West Axis, the central boulevard for planned Welthauptstadt Germania, which was to be the new capital after the victory in World War II. Hitler, anticipating that Speer would give a speech, was amused when he evaded that by briefly announcing that the work should speak for itself. The next event was a torch-lit procession of delegations from all over Germany, which Hitler reviewed from a balcony in the Reich Chancellery. Then, at midnight, Hitler's courtiers congratulated him and presented him with gifts, including "statues, bronze casts, Meissen porcelain, oil-paintings, tapestries, rare coins, antique weapons, and a mass of other presents, many of them kitsch. Hitler admired some, made fun of others, and ignored most". Speer presented Hitler with a scale model of the gigantic triumphal arch planned for the rebuilding of Berlin, and Hitler's pilot, Hans Baur, gave him a model of the "Führer plane", a four-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor that went into service later that year as Hitler's official airplane. ## Military parade A key part of the birthday celebrations was the large demonstration of Nazi Germany's military capabilities. The display was intended in part as a warning to the Western powers. The parade, which lasted for more than four hours, included 12 companies of the Luftwaffe, 12 companies of the army, and 12 companies of the navy and units of the Schutzstaffel (SS). In total, 40,000 to 50,000 German troops took part. 162 warplanes flew over Berlin. The grandstand comprised 20,000 official guests, and the parade was watched by several hundred thousand spectators. Features of the parade were large long-range air-defence artillery guns, emphasis on motorized artillery and development of air-defence units. Joseph Goebbels declared in a broadcast address to the German people: > The Reich stands in the shadow of the German sword. Trade and industry, and cultural and national life flourish under the guarantee of the military forces. The name of Herr Hitler is our political programme. Imagination and realism are harmoniously combined in the Führer. Military leaders throughout the country gave addresses to their troops to celebrate the occasion. Some, such as Major General (later Generalfeldmarschall) Erich von Manstein, were especially effusive in their praise for their supreme commander. Official guests representing 23 countries took part in the celebrations. Papal Nuncio Cesare Orsenigo, Slovak State President Jozef Tiso, the heads of the branches of Nazi Germany's armed forces and mayors of German cities offered birthday congratulations at the chancellery. Hitler and the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, exchanged telegrams that assuring each other that the friendship between Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, both of which were ruled by fascist regimes, could not be disturbed by their enemies. The ambassadors of the United Kingdom, France and the United States were not present at the parade since they had been withdrawn after Germany had occupied Czechoslovakia in 1938. The US was represented at the troop review by the chargé d'affaires, Raymond H. Geist. US President Franklin Roosevelt did not congratulate Hitler on his birthday, in accordance with his practice of not sending birthday greetings to anyone but ruling monarchs. British King George VI dispatched a message of congratulation to Hitler, but the strained relations between the two countries made his advisors consider whether he should ignore the birthday altogether. There was no Polish representation at the parade. ## Commemoration A luxury edition of Hitler's political manifesto and autobiography, Mein Kampf, was published in 1939 in honour of his 50th birthday and was known as the Jubiläumsausgabe ("Anniversary Issue"). It came in both dark blue and sharp red boards with a gold sword on the cover. The German author and photographer Heinrich Hoffmann wrote a book about Hitler's 50th birthday, Ein Volk ehrt seinen Führer ("A Nation Honours its Leader"). The composer Hans Rehberg [de] wrote a hymn for the occasion. A film of the birthday celebration, Hitlers 50. Geburtstag ("Hitler's 50th Birthday"), is regarded as an important example of Nazi propaganda and was subsequently shown to packed audiences at Youth Film Hours, which were held on Sundays. ## Birthday gifts The Free City of Danzig made Hitler an honorary citizen of the city as a birthday gift. Hitler received the citizenship papers from the hands of Albert Forster, the city's Nazi leader. Political and military tension between Germany and Poland was heightened at the time, and Time reported the possibility of Danzig being returned to Germany. Martin Bormann, Hitler's private secretary, had the Eagle's Nest constructed as the Nazi Party's birthday gift. Hitler, however, did not like the location, as he had a fear of heights. Because of his indigestion, Hitler did not drink alcohol and so a Munich brewery created a special batch of low-alcohol beer for his birthday. The brew then became a regular order. ## See also - Holidays in Nazi Germany