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Spella Caffè

Coffee shop in Portland, Oregon, U.S.

Spella Caffè is a coffee shop in Portland, Oregon, United States. Andrea Spella started the business as a cart in 2006, before opening a brick and mortar space in downtown Portland in 2010. The business has garnered a positive reception, and has been cited as an influence for other coffee company founders. ## Description Spella Caffè is a coffee shop in downtown Portland. Willamette Week has described the business as "microroaster-retailer featuring traditional Italian-style espresso". The menu includes various coffee and espresso drinks such as shakeratos, as well as affogato, chais, gelato, and Italian sodas. Food options include baked goods such as biscotti, cookies, and quick breads. ## History Andrea Spella founded Spella Caffè in October 2006, initially operating from a cart and using an Italian Rancilio lever machine. The Oregonians Christina Melander said in 2008: "In less than two years, Andrea Spella's espresso cart Spella Caffe at the corner of Southwest Ninth Avenue and Alder Street has earned a reputation for the smoothest espresso shot in town — hand-pulled to order from his own fresh-roasted beans." Melander noted that the business' espresso-based drinks would become available at Alma Chocolate, a artisan confectionery in east Portland. In 2008, Andrea Spella expressed opposition to City Center Parking's request for carts at the parking lot between Southwest Ninth and 10th avenues and Alder and Washington streets to "limit power use to 20 amps of current to stop the outages". Andrea Spella opened the cafe in downtown Portland in 2010. The business has one of the only hand-pulled lever espresso machines in the Pacific Northwest, as of 2012. A Spella Caffè espresso bar was also available in the Italian food hall and marketplace Cooperativa, prior to its closure in 2022. Shortly after, Spella, Cascadia Coffee Roasters, and Sterling Coffee announced plans to share a 2,750-square-foot (255 m²) production facility in northeast Portland, with the goal of expansion for each. Spella Caffè coffee has been used by local restaurants; a dark roast was used for Raven & Rose's Irish coffee, and Fire on the Mountain's Vanilla Bourbon Coffee Stout was brewed with beans from Spella. Spella Caffè has been cited as an influence for other coffee company founders. ## Reception In 2008, The Oregonian'''s Noelle Crombie called the food cart "an ode to the perfect cup of espresso". Other writers of the newspaper said: > Spella's hand-roasted Brazilian beans are softer and sweeter --more Italian if you will --than what typically flies around town. The result? A thick, rich, roasty espresso with a creamy, bubble-tight cap of crema on top --the kind of mythical sip you stumble upon in Rome. Everything here is worth sampling, from barely sweet mochas with Italian cocoa powder to toothy, real-deal biscotti meant for dunking. The newspaper's food critic Karen Brooks said Stella had Portland's best espresso in 2008. She included the business in a 2009 list of the city's top ten food carts and said Spella had "the best Italian-style espresso and cappuccinos around". David Stabler called the shop "locally acclaimed" in 2010. In 2011, writers for The Oregonian said Andrea Spella "hand-pulls some of the city's best espresso". In the newspaper's 2017 list of downtown Portland's ten best coffee shops, Samatha Bakall described Spella as a "perennially packed, closet-sized Italian cafe tucked into a downtown office building". She recommended it "for a quick espresso (sipped standing, of course) or an early afternoon affogato, where hot espresso is poured over a scoop of gelato", but suggested workers take their drinks out, noting there is "barely enough room to wait". In the book Best Places: Portland (2010), John Gottberg and Elizabeth Lopeman recommended Spella for "flawless, roman-style" drinks and affogato "as a refreshing treat" in the summer. In her Food Lovers' Guide to Portland, Oregon (2014), Laurie Wolf recommended the "dreamy, chocolate-flaked stracciatella gelato in the warmer weather", acknowledging she "would eat it outside in a snowstorm". The Portland Books of Dates (2021) says "splitting a rich affogato in the window of the Italian-style (and adorably minature) Spella Caffè is an experience unlike any other in town". In Willamette Week's 2016 list of five "essential old-school Portland cafes", Jordan Michelman said Spella offers the city's best shakerato and wrote, "Andrea Spella's love letter to the Italian espresso tradition is still as relevant and quality-focused as ever, celebrating 10 years at his postage-stamp-sized cafe... The place is intentionally unbeholden to the whims of fashion, instead aiming for a consistent daily offering". In Food & Wine's 2019 overview of Portland's coffee scene, David Landsel wrote, "Andrea Spella's welcoming little cafe, with its well-trained baristas, holds an outsized spot in the heart of many a downtown worker. This one's for the grownups [...] who, every now and then, require a delicious affogato to make it through their afternoon." Teresa K. Traverse called the shop "charming and cozy" in The Daily Meals 2014 suggestions for "how to spend 12 hours in Portland". Delia Mooney of Tasting Table included Spella in a 2017 list of Alton Brown's favorite coffee shops as part of his Eat Your Science tour. In a 2021 list of 14 "distinctive Portland cafés that roast their own coffee", Eater Portland'' called Spella "a proud homage to Italian coffee making".

Smuggler's Gulch

Canyon located in the U.S. state of California and the Mexican state of Baja California

The Smuggler's Gulch is part of a steep walled canyon about 2 miles (3.2 km) inland of the Pacific Ocean. The canyon crosses the Mexico–United States border, between Tijuana, Baja California, and San Diego, California, and Smuggler's Gulch is the part of the canyon on the US side of the border. It may also be called Cañón del Matadero or Valle Montezuma in Spanish, but these names apply more generally to the whole canyon. Smuggling activities within Smuggler's Gulch have occurred since the 19th century, giving this part of the canyon its name. The gulch is vegetated with coastal sage scrub and is home to threatened and special concern bird species. It has a seasonal stream, and normal flow is diverted for treatment. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, agriculture occurred in the gulch, but was largely abandoned by the late 20th century. In the late 20th century, the gulch was used by illegal immigrants when crossing from Mexico into the United States, being described as a "prime route" during that period. Beginning in the 1980s, sewage flowing through the gulch entered into the Tijuana River, contributing to water contamination; since then mitigation efforts have been undertaken, but are defeated by rainfall. Since 2009, it has been partially filled and traversed by the Mexico–United States barrier. ## Flora and fauna The flora of the gulch consists of coastal sage scrub. In the early 20th century, golden-spined cereus (Bergerocactus emoryi), listed by the California Native Plant Society as a rare plant, existed within the gulch. In 2015, a small number of singlewhorl burrobrush (Ambrosia monogyra), also listed as a rare plant by the California Native Plant Society, were documented near the mouth of the gulch. Near and in the gulch, a few threatened and special concern species have been observed. These include the coastal California gnatcatcher (Polioptila californica californica), Cooper’s Hawk (Accipter cooperii), and the northern harrier (Circus hudsonius). Over 350 avian species have been observed near and within the gulch. ## Geography The gulch is the lower part of a steep walled canyon about 2 miles (3.2 km) inland and east of the Pacific Ocean in San Diego, California, and Tijuana, Baja California. The gulch is about 0.5 miles (0.80 km) wide. It is about 3 miles (4.8 km) west of the San Ysidro Port of Entry; the primary border crossing between San Diego and Tijuana, and the busiest border crossing in the world. In the mid-19th century, Smuggler's Gulch had marshland and ponds of water. A stream which originates from the gulch had drained into the Tijuana River; the watershed of the gulch, a sub-watershed of the larger Tijuana River watershed, is about 6.7 square miles (17 km²) and is mostly in Mexico. The stream only flows seasonally during the winter months. When the base flow is absent, sewage from Mexico would follow the path of the creek were it not diverted for treatment. An alluvial fan has formed at the northern mouth of the gulch due to colluvium deposits. A natural spring had existed within the gulch. In the early 1990s, the stream was funneled into a 20-foot-wide (6.1 m) agricultural channel which flows into the Tijuana River. This channel is connected to the gulch via an earthen channel which ends at Monument Road. ## History Dating back thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, the Kumeyaay lived in the area in and around the gulch. Melijo, a Kumeyaay village, existed north of the gulch. In 1769, Junípero Serra described the village as a "gentile settlement, thickly populated". Some of its inhabitants took part in the 1775 attack on Mission San Diego de Alcalá. Some time after the attack during the 18th Century, the people of the village were displaced. During the Mexican period, the gulch was part of Rancho Melijo. It was owned by Santiago Argüello, who used it to raise cattle and horses. Following the Mexican–American War, monuments were placed along the Mexico–United States border; monument 256 was placed near the gulch. The canyon began to be referred to as Smuggler's Gulch as far back as the 1880s due to smuggling of livestock from Mexico into the United States. Other items smuggled through the gulch were cigars and lace undergarments. In 1889, a schoolhouse was built near the mouth of the gulch and continued to operate until 1941; prior to its closing, it had been the southwest most school in the United States. As of 2015, the former schoolhouse still exists as a private residence and had moved from its original location onto private property. In the early 20th Century, prior to the American entry into World War II, about a dozen families settled within the gulch; they included the Satterlee, Welcome, Smallcomb, Brehlmeier, and Coones families, with most involved in agriculture. After World War II, mining occurred within the gulch. By the 1970s, significant croplands which had existed with the Tijuana River Valley began to be abandoned, with the exception of those near the mouths of the gulch and nearby Goat Canyon.Beginning in the 1970s, contaminated water began to flow through the gulch due to uncontrolled development that occurred as Tijuana began to grow into the gulch south of the border; farming within Smuggler's Gulch began to become unfeasible due to sewage contamination of the farmland. In the 1980s, tens of thousands of people illegally immigrating into the United States passed through the gulch and were subject to rape and robbery by criminals who targeted them; over the next decade, the gulch continued to be a common route for smuggling of illegal immigrants into the United States. National Geographic referred to the gulch as the "prime route" for illegal entry into the United States during the 1990s. At the height of its utilization for illegal entry into the United States, more than 10% of the 1.2 million apprehended illegal aliens were captured within the gulch. Due to the sewage flowing through Smuggler's Gulch, Border Field State Park was quarantined. Beginning in the latter half of the 1980s, work began to collect sewage flows within the gulch but was insufficient to capture all of it, with over 100,000 US gallons (380 kL) continuing into the estuary every day in 1987. In the 1990s, the City of San Diego purchased land at the mouth of the gulch and utilized it as a toxic waste dump, importing contaminated soils from Sorrento Valley. By the mid-1990s, millions of gallons of sewage were flowing through the gulch, leading to additional attempts to mitigate the issue by construction of additional pumps and pipes to the then-newly constructed International Boundary Wastewater Treatment Plant; however, when it rains these pumps are insufficient to collect the polluted waters from Tijuana, which then flow into the Tijuana River and thence into the Pacific Ocean. As a result, the ocean adjacent to Imperial Beach is frequently closed to swimming because of bacterial contamination in the water. ### Barrier construction Construction of a border fence by the United States Border Patrol, made of corrugated landing strips, in the area of Smuggler's Gulch began in 1990, and was completed in 1993; this fence was not opposed by environmentalist, as it reduced trampling of habitat and egg consumption by illegal aliens. In 1996, the United States Congress approved construction of double fencing from the Pacific Ocean to 14 miles (23 km) inland along the Mexico–United States Border. Due to this apprehension of illegal immigrants were significantly reduced, and shifted where illegal entry occurred to places without double fencing, including Smuggler's Gulch. In 2002, a Border Patrol agent died when her vehicle toppled down the gulch's steep slopes; this was one of four deaths that were attributed to narrow switchback roads which existed on the canyon walls. In February 2004, the California Coastal Commission halted construction of the Mexico–United States barrier, asking the United States federal government to make additional environmental concessions in regards to border barrier construction; this action was criticized in The American Spectator. Beginning in 2005, environmental laws were waived, as authorized by the Real ID Act, in order for the Mexico–United States barrier to be built in the gulch and in nearby Goat Canyon. These proposed actions were criticized by various people and organizations, including the Sierra Club. In 2005, 127,000 illegal aliens were apprehended in the area of Smuggler's Gulch, overcoming the existing fencing. In August 2008, barrier construction in the gulch began; work was contracted to Kiewit Corporation. In July 2009, work was completed on the project in the gulch; it cost \$58 million and utilized 72,000 dump truck loads to fill the 230-foot-high (70 m) gulch. The amount of dirt moved was about 2,100,000 cubic feet (59,000 m³); the dirt came from nearby mesas within Border Field State Park. The 3.5-mile-long (5.6 km) road, lighting, and triple barrier, topped the fill within Smuggler's Gulch. The filling of the gulch was one of the most expensive sections of the Mexico–United States barrier. In 2010, irrigation was installed on the fill to encourage growth of vegetation to reduce erosion, which would assist in stabilizing the earthen fill. Beginning in October 2011, native vegetation began to be installed by United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in order to rehabilitate areas affected by the installation of the border barrier across the gulch; this has stabilized the fill, which has seen reduction of height change from 0.5 centimetres (3⁄16 in) per year, to 0.1 centimetres (1⁄32 in) per year, all but eliminating sedimentation. After the barrier was completed in the gulch the area has been described as "nearly impenetrable"; however, even with these alterations to the terrain, it has not stopped all smuggling. As recently as June 2019, a small number of people have continued to evade CBP agents within the gulch. Due to the decrease in people crossing the border in the gulch, sensitive areas in the Tijuana River Estuary are no longer trampled upon. At the base of the filled portion of the gulch, underneath the border barrier, are two 10-by-10-foot (3 m × 3 m) culverts to allow water flow. Following the construction of the border barrier in the gulch, a water channel was created to allow water from the gulch to flow into the Tijuana River; this channel is dredged and excavated yearly to remove trash, debris, and sands, which clog the channel. These items that are removed, originating from Tijuana, are waste from various sources, including hospitals and home construction. A sediment basin was built in the gulch in 2006; when the basins are emptied about 15,000 cubic yards (11,000 m³) of trash and sediment are removed. Removed sediment is deposited in a former quarry located in the Tijuana River Valley. As of October 2015, the gulch south of Monument Road and north of the Mexico–United States barrier is owned by the County of San Diego. The gulch between the Mexico–United States barrier, and the Mexico–United States border, are federal lands.

Sharon Newman

Character from the soap opera The Young and the Restless

Sharon Newman is a fictional character from The Young and the Restless, an American soap opera on the CBS network, currently portrayed by Sharon Case. Created by William J. Bell as a love interest for Nicholas Newman, the character debuted on June 27, 1994. Before Case took over in September 1994, the character was portrayed briefly by Monica Potter and then by Heidi Mark. When first introduced, Sharon was a young girl from the poor side of town; her early storylines included being raped by Matt Clark and the revelation that she had given up a child for adoption. Nick and Sharon married, had a son named Noah, and later won custody of Cassie, the daughter she had as a teenager. Their marriage faced a number of problems, including infidelity on both sides. Following Cassie's death in an automobile accident, Nick cheated on Sharon with Phyllis Summers, resulting in a pregnancy which ended their 11-year marriage. Despite her second marriage to Jack Abbott, Nick and Sharon had an affair and conceived another child: Faith. During the pregnancy, Sharon experienced kleptomania. Faith was kidnapped by Adam Newman, Nick's half-brother, who married Sharon after leading her to believe Faith had died. When Adam's crimes were revealed, Sharon remained in love with him; SoapNet considered the relationship "dark". Since 2009, former showrunner Maria Arena Bell and subsequent head writers that followed have significantly changed the character's direction, receiving negative backlash from critics and audiences. In 2012, Sharon controversially marries her former father-in-law Victor Newman twice, gains control of his company and burns down his ranch — a sequence of events which resulted in her being diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Sharon then altered DNA test results to make Nick believe his daughter Summer was fathered by Jack. Her subsequent storylines have included being reunited with her other daughter (and Cassie's twin) Mariah Copeland; marrying Nick's other half-brother Dylan McAvoy; experiencing a phantom pregnancy after miscarrying their child, which led her to keep a child that wasn't hers for months; and battling breast cancer before marrying Rey Rosales. Sharon has been characterized as "insecure" and "a survivor" by Case, who recognized the character's history of "weird" behavior prior to her bipolar diagnosis. Despite her crimes and faults, Sharon is described as an "ever-suffering heroine" by Canyon News, and has been called soap opera's "hottest mess" by Daytime Confidential. The supercouple pairing of Nick and Sharon attracted a large fan following. Case has become popular with viewers and her performance has received praise from critics (particularly for overcoming heavily panned writing), while also earning her several award nominations, including winning a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 1999. ## Storylines Born on June 20, 1974, Sharon Collins grew up in Madison, Wisconsin. Having been abandoned by her father, she lived with her mother, Doris Collins (Karen Hensel), who was confined to a wheelchair after chasing a rebellious Sharon years earlier. Sharon became pregnant by high-school boyfriend Frank Barritt (Phil Dozois), but gave the child up for adoption. In 1994, 18-year-old Sharon arrives in Genoa City and begins attending a local high school. She meets Nick Newman (son of wealthy tycoon Victor Newman), who is dating Amy Wilson (Julianne Morris). Nick falls in love with Sharon, despite Sharon's ex-boyfriend Matt Clark's (Eddie Cibrian) attempts to win her back. Nick and Sharon briefly separate after Matt exposes Sharon's secret about her motherhood at 16, but they reunite shortly afterwards. An angry Matt later rapes Sharon in his car, traumatizing her. Nick and Sharon become engaged; she tells him about the rape, which leads him to avenge Matt. Matt is shot, and Nick is the chief suspect. He is convicted and acquitted several months later, when Amy confesses to the shooting. After Matt leaves town, Nick and Sharon marry; to hold on to Nick, Sharon stops using birth control and becomes pregnant. Nick complains that he is unready for fatherhood; Sharon nearly has an abortion, but he stops her. In 1997, she gives birth to Noah Newman, who nearly dies after his premature birth. While Noah was critically ill Sharon's best friend Grace Turner (Jennifer Gareis) tracks down the child Sharon gave birth to as a teenager (Cassie) and brings her to Genoa City, believing Cassie would lessen the pain if Noah died. Noah survives, and Grace decides to raise Cassie as her own; however, her plans are foiled when Nick and Sharon win custody. Nick had cheated on Sharon with Grace (which nearly ended his and Sharon's marriage), but the custody battle for Cassie reunited them. In 2001, Matt (Rick Hearst) returns to town after plastic surgery with a false identity, Carter Mills. He rapes Sharon, and his true identity is revealed when he dies after driving off a cliff. Sharon becomes pregnant, with Matt possibly the father of her child. During an argument with Nick Sharon trips and falls, giving birth to a stillborn baby girl. After a paternity test, Nick is revealed to be the baby's father. Sharon finds solace with the Newman ranch's handyman Diego Guittierez (Greg Vaughan), who had been dating Nick's sister Victoria, and her infidelity results in a breakup with Nick. Nick later sees Sharon kissing Victor, which leaves Sharon humiliated and depressed. She leaves town and meets Cameron Kirsten; they begin an affair, and he brutally abuses her. Sharon returns to Genoa after her injuries heal, but is horrified when Cameron comes to town on business with Newman Enterprises. She briefly believes that she killed him, but he is later tracked down and jailed for his crimes. Sharon becomes restless as a housewife, and wants to become a stripper; Nick gives her a job at spokesperson for Jabot Cosmetics to occupy her. In 2005, Cassie dies in a car accident after driving without a license. While Sharon is grieving, Nick cheats on her with Phyllis Summers and Sharon has a one-night stand with Victoria's husband, Brad Carlton. Nick and Sharon divorce, after twelve years of marriage, when Phyllis becomes pregnant with Nick's baby. Sharon dates Phyllis' ex, Jack Abbott, and they eventually marry. Phyllis discovers Sharon's affair with Brad, and blackmails her. During a cliffside photo shoot Phyllis threatens to tell Jack about the affair, triggering a fight. Sharon and her best friend Drucilla Winters (Victoria Rowell) fall from the cliff, and Drucilla dies. Sharon is found apparently dead, but she is revived. Nick is later presumed dead after his plane crashes; he returns with amnesia (thinking he is still married to Sharon), regains his memory and returns to Phyllis. Jack, Phyllis, Nick and Sharon develop a magazine, Restless Style; however, clashes among the four drive Jack and Sharon from the company. In October 2008, Sharon and Nick meet in Paris; they kiss on a bridge, and Phyllis sees them. Sharon divorces Jack because his dishonesty; she and Nick make love at the Abbott cabin. Confused, Sharon spirals out of control; she develops kleptomania and has a brief affair with Jack's brother, Billy (Billy Miller). Sharon becomes pregnant; Nick goes back and forth between her and Phyllis, choosing Phyllis when Sharon lies about Jack being the father of the child. After being arrested for larceny a second time, Sharon checks herself into Fairview sanitarium (a psychiatric hospital) when her kleptomania becomes uncontrollable. She gives birth to a baby girl, Faith, who is stolen by Adam Newman (Nick's brother) and given to Jack's sister Ashley (Eileen Davidson) after he caused her miscarriage and hysterical pregnancy. Believing her baby is dead, Sharon grows close to Adam (who bonds with her out of guilt). Sharon and Adam are married, but when the truth about Faith is revealed the marriage ends. Several months later, Sharon shoots Adam when he tries to visit her at the Abbott cabin (mistaking him for a burglar); he survives. Nick and Sharon briefly reunite, but break up again when she cheats on him with Adam (who follows her to New Orleans). Adam is convicted for the murder of his ex-wife, Skye Newman (Laura Stone). Sharon tries to help him, but is arrested for murder after finding Skye in Hawaii (where Skye fell into a volcano). After escaping and returning (after several months of being thought dead), Sharon is acquitted. She then dedicates herself to Victor, who is in jail protecting Nikki from a murder charge. Victor marries Sharon platonically to protect his assets, although the marriage is annulled two weeks later. Adam is believed to be permanently blind after an attack by Patty Williams, and Sharon helps him recover. They reunite, but more of his past schemes are revealed. After another nervous breakdown and a diagnosis of bipolar disorder (which made her remarry Victor and take over Newman Enterprises), Sharon is re-hired at Newman as vice president for research and development. Adam is shot saving Victor's life; before slipping into a coma he asks Sharon, his closest friend, to run Newman Enterprises. Sharon again becomes CEO of the company, angering the Newman's. She leaves the company upon Victor's return to run the company with Adam. Victor forces Adam, who is engaging in a sexual relationship with Sharon, to stop seeing her. In 2013, it is revealed that the test conducted to determine Summer's paternity was inconclusive, which Nick kept a secret. Sharon, who now wants Nick back, tampers with the test results, allowing everyone to believe Jack is Summer's father. Phyllis hears Sharon confessing to this at Cassie's grave, resulting in an altercation between the two and ending with Phyllis falling down a flight of stairs, and into a coma. Noah discovers that Sharon is off her medication, attributing to her erratic behavior. Sharon realizes that she needs help, and soon begins taking new medication. She is hired by Jabot Cosmetics to mentor younger models. Sharon later undergoes electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) to stop experiencing visions of Cassie; which in reality is a Cassie lookalike named Mariah Copeland (Camryn Grimes) hired by Victor to haunt her. After the ECT, Sharon loses her memories of switching Summer's paternity results and witnessing Phyllis fall. By this point, Nick and Sharon have resumed their romantic relationship. After Victor's gaslighting of Sharon is exposed, Sharon becomes drawn to Mariah; inviting her to live with her family and having Nick hire her for a job at his club. Sharon throws Mariah out after realizing that Mariah has been trying to seduce Nick away from her. Simultaneously, Nick does some investigating and discovers that Mariah is Cassie's twin sister, and Sharon had no knowledge of giving birth to twins. Soon, Nick and Sharon are engaged; but their wedding is interrupted by a now awakened Phyllis (Gina Tognoni), who walks in and collapses. Later, Phyllis makes Sharon remember switching the test, and her engagement to Nick ends. A furious Nick sues Sharon for full custody of Faith and wins. In 2015, Sharon is framed and arrested for the murders of Austin Travers (Matthew Atkinson) and Noah's fiancée Courtney Sloane (Kelli Goss), but acquitted due to lack of evidence. During this period, Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton) becomes her confidant and the two start a romantic relationship. Sharon becomes pregnant with Dylan's child but suffers a miscarriage, and attempts to conceive again rather than tell him. After skipping her medication once again, Sharon returns to Fairview for treatment. There, she is drugged by Dr. Anderson (Elizabeth Bogush) into experiencing a false pregnancy. Dr. Anderson kidnaps what was believed to be Nick's baby with Sage Newman (Kelly Sullivan), Christian, and presents him to Sharon as her own; Sharon names him Sullivan "Sully" McAvoy. After being discharged from Fairview, Sharon and Dylan get married. In 2016, following Dr. Anderson's murder, both Sharon and Sage discover the truth about Sully being Christian. After Sage is killed in a car accident, Sharon continues raising Christian as her own, telling nobody aside from Mariah the truth. Months later, her secret is exposed and Christian is returned to Nick's custody. Soon after, Dylan goes undercover and is forced into the federal witness protection program. In order to conceal this, Sharon agrees to tell everyone Dylan left as a result of her lies about Christian's identity. Sharon resumes ownership of the coffeehouse Crimson Lights, which was left to her by Dylan, and decides to return to university by enrolling at Genoa City University (GCU). With her marriage to Dylan over, she begins dating Scotty Grainger (Daniel Hall), but the relationship ends when he cheats on her with Abby (Melissa Ordway). In 2018, Sharon learns that Christian is actually Adam's son, a fact Chelsea Lawson (Melissa Claire Egan) and Victor had kept hidden. After being assaulted by Chelsea in an attempt to borrow time, Sharon ultimately tells Nick the truth about Christian's paternity. Nick moves back into Sharon's place and they soon get back together. In the midst of this, Sharon witnesses Nikki killing J.T. Hellstrom (Thad Luckinbill) in defense of Victoria, which she agrees to hide from everyone including Nick. Sharon assumes a maternal role in Christian's life, but Victor uses her history of mental illness to win temporary custody of Christian. Nick and Sharon subsequently become engaged again. Nick is briefly under the impression that Sharon ended their engagement, and sleeps with Phyllis. Meanwhile, Sharon graduates with a degree in psychology, and shortly thereafter is hired at the GCPD as a victim's liaison by Rey Rosales (Jordi Vilasuso). On the day of their wedding, Sharon learns about Nick's one night stand with Phyllis and dumps him at the altar. She soon develops feelings for Rey, and confesses the truth about J.T.'s death to him in 2019. Along with Victoria and Nikki, Sharon is arrested and sentenced to prison for covering up J.T.'s murder, but all are acquitted when it emerges that J.T. is alive. Sharon then begins a romance with Rey, though her renewed closeness with Adam causes them to break up. After sleeping with Adam, Sharon reunites with Rey. In 2020, Sharon is diagnosed with breast cancer, and later marries Rey. ## Development ### Casting Sharon Newman was created and introduced by William J. Bell, with the character making her first appearance June 27, 1994. Sharon Case, who plays Sharon to the present day, is the third actress to play the role. Previously, struggling actress Monica Potter originated the role, but was fired. She confessed years later, "I was fired because I was terrible". Heidi Mark then briefly took over the role on July 11, 1994; Potter and Mark together had a three–month stint. Case, who had previously worked on the soap operas General Hospital and As the World Turns, was chosen as Mark's replacement after a casting search. She was selected from a group of six other possible recasts after a screen testing with co-star Joshua Morrow, and began airing on September 7, 1994. Initially, Case believed she would only be playing the role for a maximum of six months. Of her casting, she stated: "Not only is this my third soap, but I'm also the third actress to play the role of Sharon Collins. So, if three times is the charm, this should be it." The actress wanted to "breathe new life" into the role and make it her own. In 2003, Case was off-screen from February 17 to May 1, during contract negotiations. These were resolved that April, when she signed a new contract to remain on the show for another four years, until 2007. Case revealed that while she considered leaving the series, "I would not have been negotiating if I did not want to come back. I've always had a great story to play. I love the way they write Sharon. It was just a matter of hammering out the deal points." ### Characterization Known for her long-term suffering, Sharon is first introduced as a "troubled teen" and "the girl from the wrong side of the tracks". In 1995, Case observed that despite being raped and caring for her disabled mother, Sharon would "not let herself be a victim". Nekeeta Borden of the website Daytime Confidential described the character as being a kindhearted "" during her early years on the show, noting that she wanted to start her own trends rather than follow other members of the Newman family. However, Case compared Sharon to a younger Jill Foster Abbott (Jess Walton), telling Soap Opera Weekly that Jill "was kind of like Sharon. She was nice...no one thought she was a gold digger—at first." According to the actress, Sharon does "weird things" and panics when stressed, and her mistakes "eat away at her". Case recognized that Sharon has "always been kind of off" and "experienced these weird jags", which would eventually be addressed by the character's bipolar disorder diagnosis. Case also described Sharon as being insecure and feeling unworthy of being in a happy relationship, and would later criticize the writers for pairing Sharon with "too many men" because it "waters her down". The character often sees visions of her deceased daughter Cassie (Camryn Grimes), with Case stating that Sharon believes "she is connected to the spiritual world". Having played many facets of Sharon over the years, Case said: "It’s almost like I’ve played 15 different characters in my career when I’ve only played one. There’s never a dull moment", calling the character an "optimist and a survivor". Case has stated that the character's main drive is searching for love, which to Sharon is "her survival". She described Sharon as having "so many different layers to her" and one of the more complex characters on The Young and the Restless. The actress further opined that Sharon was initially a damsel in distress and "wasn't very colorful", which is why the writers chose to have her do "bad things" over the years. Former head writer Charles Pratt, Jr. likened Sharon's story to The Perils of Pauline (1914). ### Relationship with Nicholas Newman Since her debut on the series, Sharon has had an on-again, off-again relationship with her high-school sweetheart, Nicholas "Nick" Newman (Joshua Morrow). As teenagers they dream of eloping, and face their first hurdle when Sharon's ex-boyfriend Matt Clark (Eddie Cibrian) exposes Sharon's teenage motherhood. Nick, who believed Sharon was a virgin, briefly breaks up with her but they reunite. With Matt behind them, they marry in February 1996 and have their first child—Noah (Robert Adamson)—in 1997, the year Sharon is also reunited with her daughter Cassie (Camryn Grimes). Nick and Sharon split up when he is seduced by her best friend Grace Turner (Jennifer Gareis), but are later reunited during a custody battle for Cassie. Of their highly anticipated reunion, head writer Kay Alden noted that after months of "mixed messages", the couple's feelings were definitely clear again. After 14-year-old Cassie is killed in a car accident, Nick becomes distant from Sharon, and cheats on her with Phyllis Summers (Michelle Stafford). The marriage ends when Phyllis becomes pregnant and later gives birth to their daughter, Summer Newman (Hunter King). Case said that Sharon saw Phyllis as a "poison" in their lives, noting: "Sharon is a religious person, and that was the devil’s work." Although Sharon also moved on, marrying Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), Nick and Sharon remain in love. Phyllis grows resentful of Sharon's presence in her marriage, insulting her in an article in her magazine Restless Style. Nick and Sharon eventually reunite in a sexual affair at the Abbott cabin, an event much anticipated by viewers. According to Case, Sharon wanted Nick more than anyone at the time but only if he left Phyllis; Morrow noted that although the reunion was "messy", viewers wanted this for a long time. Another one-night stand with Nick results in Sharon becoming pregnant, and she later gives birth to their daughter, Faith. Nick and Sharon are briefly engaged, but break up again when she sleeps with his brother (and Faith's kidnapper) Adam, and their relationship becomes bitter. Although Case and Morrow believe the couple belong together, they are apart for several years; during which they both believed a reunion wouldn't happen anytime soon. In late 2013, the couple begin to reconnect romantically despite Sharon having secretly switched the paternity test results of Nick's daughter Summer; Case stated in an interview that Sharon is in "constant turmoil" regarding her secret, and Morrow stated that he believed a reunion was a possibility given Nick's vulnerability. Given Sharon's secret, Soaps In Depth wrote that "the supercouple's fans may need a holiday miracle" to keep the couple's relationship from "exploding". ### Cameron Kirsten In February 2003, Case temporarily exited the show as a result of lengthy contract negotiations. Instead of having the character depart permanently (or be killed off), executive producer David Shaughnessy chose to have her leave town after issues with her marriage to Nick. While away, Sharon becomes suicidal; Case explained that Sharon's life had fallen apart and she left town to commit suicide, drinking herself into "a complete stupor". Travelling to Denver, she meets (and has an affair with) businessman Cameron Kirsten (Linden Ashby), who physically abuses her. In April, Case signed a new contract with the show. Executive producer and head writer at the time John F. Smith said that upon Sharon's return to Genoa City, she wants to keep where she was a secret. That December, Sharon is horrified when Cameron arrives in town for apparent business with Newman Enterprises. Smith stated that the story with Cameron and Sharon would be one that "builds quickly into a lot of drama". Explaining their relationship, Ashby revealed that Cameron and Sharon were "kindred spirits" and hooked up, but Cameron becomes abusive, with Ashby calling him "really disturbing". Cameron blackmails Sharon into meeting him at a motel. When she arrives they have a physical altercation in which Sharon throws a bottle at him to keep him from raping her, "killing" him (or so she believes). Australian magazine TV Soap noted that "sweet, demure" Sharon had become a murderer. After driving around with his body in her car trunk for days, she dumps it in an alley. Sharon's former friend, Grace, returns to town; she discovers Cameron alive, and nurses him back to health. Detective Weber (Sherman Augustus) is suspicious of Sharon's involvement in Cameron's disappearance. Sharon begins "hallucinating" with visions of Cameron's "ghost" (which is actually him, alive). Case noted that Sharon was getting into deeper trouble by making mistakes "trying to do the right thing". A scene where Sharon and Nick's mother Nikki (Melody Thomas Scott) were searching the sewers for what they believed was Cameron's dead body became popular with fans of the show. Scott described the sewer shoot as a "horrific day at work" with "20 live f--king rats on the set", while comparing the unlikely duo of Sharon and Nikki to Lucy and Ethel from I Love Lucy. Cameron eventually reveals himself. He had murdered Sharon's ex-boyfriend (and Cassie's biological father) Frank Barritt (Phil Dozois), who was visiting town, and hid the body in Sharon's car trunk. Cameron's crimes are revealed; he is jailed, absolving Sharon of wrongdoing. Although Sharon did not actually murder Cameron, Case praised the storyline and called Sharon a heroine. She explained: "Your romantic lead shouldn't just be a simple romantic lead. Sharon was that for a long time. She was in this love story with Nick and nothing really happened to her. You can only carry that so far." ### Cassie's death In 2005, good-girl Cassie becomes a rebellious teenager; Nick and Sharon have a difficult time dealing with her. Cassie has a crush on bad-boy Daniel Romalotti (Michael Graziadei), who is dating Lily Winters (Christel Khalil). One night, against her parents' wishes she sneaks out to a party. In a ploy to impress a drunken Daniel she attempts to drive him home, despite being underage. The car crashes, leaving them with no memory of the accident. Daniel is thought to have been driving, and is blamed for the accident. Cassie becomes hospitalized and escapes to find Daniel to tell him she was driving, but is soon re-admitted. During the May 24 episode, Cassie dies with Nick and Sharon at her side. Grimes said she did not think Cassie would die, but if it was "meant to happen, it's meant to happen". The actress found filming her last scenes with Case and Morrow "ridiculously hard". Case also found taping the scenes devastating: "It was too real for Joshua and me to even go through it. We did it in one take. The scene is still devastating in my mind and Joshua's. It's almost not watchable. If it comes on, I can't get through it." Daniel is cleared of all charges and Nick and Sharon begin Cassie's Foundation, a movement to prevent teenage drinking and driving. According to Case, when Sharon loses something in her life it "reminds her and reactivates Cassie’s death for her". After Nick cheats on Sharon following Cassie's death, Case said it "makes you so fearful that you are going to be alone for the rest of your life; that no matter what you go out in life to create, it’s going to be ruined anyway". The actress also believed that Sharon lost her identity after Cassie's death. In 2012, during a court battle over Newman Enterprises (the family company), Nick stated that Sharon's mental problems date to Cassie's death. ### Subsequent relationships According to Case, Sharon loses her identity after her divorce from Nick, which leads to her beginning a romance with Phyllis's ex-husband Jack Abbott, played by Peter Bergman. They marry in April 2007, but divorce two years later as a result of Jack's dishonesty which severely weakened the marriage. Case praised the pairing for its accurate representation of a "modern marriage" and noted that Sharon could not deal with Jack's "broken promises again and again". Years before marrying Jack, Sharon had a brief affair with Brad Carlton (Don Diamont). Case believed that the romance could have been further explored. During a blizzard, Brad visits Sharon at the Abbott cabin and declares his love for her, although she rejects him. Moments later, Brad is killed while saving her son, Noah, from drowning in an icy lake; he falls through the ice himself. Case stated that Sharon was guilty over Brad's tragic death. After kidnapping her newborn daughter Faith, Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) bonds with Sharon out of guilt, which results in the two getting married. Despite his actions, Muhney stated that Adam "unequivocally" loves Sharon. After Adam's kidnapping of Faith is revealed, Sharon remains in love with him, angering her family and friends. Case described Sharon's ability to forgive Adam as "a tough pill to swallow", while Jamey Giddens of Daytime Confidential described them as "inappropriate, yet red-hot". After trying to get Adam acquitted for Skye's (his ex-wife's) murder, Sharon is jailed. Case liked "Shadam", noting that the relationship "took us all by surprise...that is what I was referring to with this storyline because of the pace and the vitality that 'Shadam' has." While a fugitive, Adam believes Sharon is dead; however, she sleeps with Sam Gibson (Sean Patrick Flanery). Adam feels betrayed when Sharon returns to Genoa City; he cons her into a jailhouse wedding, and leaves her heartbroken and angry. To spend time with Faith, Nick forces Sharon to get a restraining order against Adam. The night before the order becomes active, Adam and Sharon make love. Jae' Jones of Yahoo! noted that Sharon's actions would always lead her back to Adam. After Adam is attacked (losing his vision), Sharon brings him back to his mother's farm in Kansas and they become engaged. However, she breaks up with Adam again when his additional past crimes come to light. After marrying Chelsea Lawson (Melissa Claire Egan), Adam helps Sharon through an emotional breakdown (which drove her to burn down Victor's home) and covers her tracks so she is not arrested. Sharon and Adam's attraction drove a wedge between him and Chelsea. Luke Kerr of Daytime Confidential considered Chelsea "out of her league" against Sharon. While Case felt that Nick and Sharon's history "held more weight", she said Sharon's relationship with Adam is "just as deep". Unlike Nick's mother Nikki Newman (Melody Thomas Scott), his father Victor Newman (Eric Braeden) adored Sharon and maintained a paternal relationship with her over the years. Case described Victor as being Sharon's hero and a "father figure". However, their dynamic changes in January 2012 when Victor marries Sharon so that she can protect his assets while he is in jail; the non-romantic marriage is annulled days later. Several months later, they become romantically involved. Joshua Morrow told Soaps In Depth that he was puzzled as to why Nick had no "legitimate anger" about the relationship, while Braeden was also unhappy with the storyline, stating: "We all have gone through periods of playing something we didn't really like to play so much, but you do it." Case described the relationship as incestuous: "Sometimes controversial storylines can work because you're bringing attention to a controversial issue that the nation is trying to decide on. But this was not one of those things", calling it "upsetting to the audience". The actress was also unfavorable of Sharon marrying Victor in August 2012, believing the writers could have handled the storyline other ways. The short-lived marriage between Victor and Sharon was considered an "inside joke" for the actors. Reflecting on the storyline, Case admitted: "I didn’t understand how I was going to sell a love story between Sharon and Victor for obvious reasons. What motivated Sharon to fall in love with Victor when she’s in love with Adam and Nick?" ### Imprisonment and escape In January 2011, Sharon is arrested for the murder of Adam's ex-wife, Skye Newman (Laura Stone), and sinks into a state of depression. She had previously traveled to Hawaii to find Skye, who fell into an active volcano. CBS Soaps In Depth reported that a distraught Sharon might commit suicide. After she is sentenced to life in prison Sharon claims she is ill, going to a bathroom where Adam hid a duffel bag for her escape. She overcomes an officer with chloroform, and escapes through a window. Adam has given her a false identification, a passport and cash. She stops at a gas station, where she dyes her hair brunette and changes into a revealing outfit. Case said that although the storyline was fun, she disliked being a brunette. Later, Sharon is carjacked and her possessions stolen; the female carjacker dies after the car crashes. The body is identified as Sharon's, leaving her family and friends believing she died. Case, who wanted to do a Mr. & Mrs. Smith-type storyline, said that she had her chance when Sharon became a fugitive. The actress enjoyed playing the "aggressive" side of Sharon when she attacked the prison guard. After escaping from Genoa City, Sharon then lives under the pseudonym of Sheri Coleman for several months in New Mexico. While there she seduces Sam Gibson (Sean Patrick Flanery), who lets her stay at his farm; she bonds with the barn animals and a young local girl named Piper. Case said that although she hoped the "recklessness" of her character would continue, she found Sharon's storyline with Sam, Piper and the animals "really beautiful". Case hoped the story would take a different route, where she could meet Adam on the run and create a Bonnie and Clyde scenario. Head writer Maria Arena Bell dedicated the 4th of July episode to Sharon, stating that the episode would "shed more light on Sharon and all the factors that caused her to be in this situation, why she's acted the way she has and why she's gone into the pit of [low] self-esteem." Case noted that she wanted to show viewers why Sharon is in the place she's in, as well as examine her life over the years during the episode. Jae' Jones of Yahoo! analyzed the storyline in anticipation of Sharon's homecoming, hoping that Nick, Adam and Noah would not forgive her because of all the "unforgivable things" she has done (especially her devious move of letting them believe she was dead). Jones further said: "Some will say she did what she thought she had to do. Even though it seemed as if it was easy, it's never that easy to walk away from the people you love". In July 2011, Sharon is arrested in New Mexico, and returned to Genoa City to serve her life sentence. Case said that although she was happy to be at the barn because it was "relaxing", she became restless as an actor and was glad her character was returning home. Sharon's actions do have repercussions: Nick is immensely angry with her, and Adam dumps her for sleeping with Sam. In November 2011 (almost a year after the accident at the volcano), evidence of Sharon's innocence surfaces and she is acquitted. ### Mental illness and personality change In 2009, Sharon suffers from kleptomania (an impulse-control disorder), causing her to steal items from people and stores. As a result, she is forced to admit herself into a psychiatric hospital while pregnant. While she believed Sharon's "craziness" made sense, Case also welcomed the challenge in deciding how functional the character appears to viewers, and got into debates with directors. Michael Fairman noted that Sharon is "acting so bizarre". Case attributed Sharon's breakdown to Brad Carlton's death and the failure of her marriage to Jack, explaining that each time Sharon mapped out her life, it is "torn to pieces". Sharon continues to experience recurrent kleptomania in subsequent years. In 2012, after Victor disappears following his wedding to Sharon, she realizes she must be married to Victor for more than eight days to obtain his money. She then burns their prenuptial agreement after Nikki sends her a text from Victor's phone saying he has left her. Sharon decides to run his company (Newman Enterprises) in his absence. Case thought a scene where Sharon crashed a Newman board meeting was fun and different, confessing that she had wanted to play "this version of Sharon for years". As Victor's proxy she became CEO of the company, secretly aided by manipulative businessman Tucker McCall (Stephen Nichols). The stock price for the company drops (with Tucker secretly buying stock), and Sharon is labelled "Newman's Grim Reaper" by the media of Genoa City, leaving Nick and Victoria to regain the company from her clutches. They demonstrate her history of kleptomania to a court judge, forcing her to return to the psychiatric hospital for an evaluation. After passing the evaluation, Sharon returns to her position as CEO. Case called Sharon's return a "fun aspect of the story", but hoped that the writers wouldn't go the typical route whereby Victor would return and "wreak havoc on everyone". Sharon continues behaving out of character; when she discovers that Victor is alive, she tells everyone he died after identifying a burned body which was not his (Case said that Sharon took advantage of the situation). At Victor's funeral Sharon wears white, nearly marrying Tucker afterwards. Victor then returns, expelling Sharon from his family, home and company. Despite her crimes, Sharon avoids prison. Case said she was unconcerned about the storyline because the writers had a plan to explain Sharon's behavior. New head writer Josh Griffith told TV Guide that the character would reach a "total mental breakdown", which would take her to the edge and beyond before being rebuilt. Griffith said the breakdown would help her find salvation, with a "stronger, more together, more evolved Sharon" emerging. Sharon breaks down at the main house of the Newman ranch, burning it down while under the influence of alcohol. Griffith stated that the damage Sharon has done to the Newman family is "physical, professional and emotional". After seeing a doctor, Sharon is diagnosed with bipolar disorder and begins treatment; however, she is alarmed after discovering she must take prescribed medication, possibly for the rest of her life. Case was happy with the outcome of the storyline, as were viewers of the show, with the actress stating: "Playing someone who is bipolar is very exhausting but it worked out perfectly and explained all of Sharon’s past behavior. I applaud Josh for making that decision because I think it makes the most sense considering her history." Case was also pleased that she didn't have to continue justifying Sharon's questionable actions. In mid-2013, the paternity of Summer (now 18 years old) is questioned upon the revelation that Nick declared himself her father despite the initial paternity test being corrupt. Nick did this to fill the void left by Cassie's death. Sharon feels that Summer's birth and the affair between Nick and Phyllis ruined her destiny with him, so she makes the decision to change the results of another test undertaken by Nick; which revealed that he was in fact Summer's father. Following her controversially changing the results, Jack is believed by everyone to be Summer's father. The storyline received negative complaints from fans of the character. Discussing the storyline, Case explained that an unstable Sharon was trying to reverse the damage caused by Nick's affair with Phyllis. Phyllis overhears Sharon confessing to altering the test results; a fight between the two women in a stairwell results in Phyllis falling down the stairs and slipping into a coma. In a February 2014 "super-secret plot twist", it was revealed that Victor had hired a Cassie doppelganger to haunt Sharon, who has been known to see visions of her deceased daughter while she was off her bipolar medication. Camryn Grimes (who is playing Cassie's lookalike Mariah Copeland) stated that Victor and Fake Cassie's "initial plan" was to make Nick believe Sharon was "nuts and seeing ghosts" so that he would not reunite with her. However, "then they find out Sharon has an explosive secret — one Victor can really use", that being the secret of Summer's paternity, which Sharon no longer recalls due to recent ECT treatment having resulted in memory loss. Sharon's mental instability continues to play a role in later storylines, with Case stating that she enjoys the challenging nature of playing Sharon as going "off the rails". ### Baby Sully In 2015, Sharon begins a relationship with Nick's other brother, Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton), and becomes pregnant with his child. Sharon suffers miscarriage but does not tell Dylan, instead checking into Fairview Sanitarium; Case was disappointed when she heard Sharon would be institutionalized again. Case explained that Sharon was "feeling insecure at the time about her [relationship]. She was trying to build her relationship with Dylan and wasn't sure if he really wanted to be with her or if it was just because of the baby." The actress added that Sharon did not want "Dylan to go through what he went through before", having lost children previously. While in Fairview, Sharon encounters psychiatrist Dr. Anderson (Elizabeth Bogush), who in actuality is Sandra Allen, a woman seeking revenge on Nick for a diving accident during their high school years which left her paralyzed. At first, Case was not aware of Anderson's true identity, until she asked Bogush about her character. Sharon, who had been trying to conceive again, is drugged by Anderson into experiencing a phantom pregnancy. Anderson later presents Christian, the kidnapped newborn son of Nick's wife Sage Newman (Kelly Sullivan), to Sharon as her own child. Sharon, who does not remember giving birth, accepts that the baby is hers, and names him Sully. Case noted that "from Sharon's point of view, [Dr. Anderson] pulled off a miracle. And that's why she trusts her so much." After experiencing memories of her stay at Fairview and suspicions about the birth of "Sully", Sharon pieces together the truth about Christian in April 2016. Dylan's aunt Patty Williams (Stacy Haiduk), who had been residing in Fairview at the time, informs Sharon that she never gave birth; Sharon conducts a DNA test which confirms that "Sully" is really Christian. Sage also discovers the truth herself and confronts Sharon, but ends up dying in a car accident. Sharon then decides to continue raising "Sully" as her own, not wanting to destroy her family with Dylan. She has nightmares of Sage and begins seeing her ghost, and briefly decides to stop taking her medication in order to "stay in control". Sharon tells nobody else besides Mariah the truth; Case enjoyed building Sharon and Mariah's relationship in the process of the storyline, observing that "they are each others confidantes". Sharon ultimately confesses the truth about Christian in November 2016. Case noted that the fallout to Sharon's lies are "even bigger than she fears", with Sharon also wanting to protect Mariah who has become "guilty by association". The scandal surrounding Sharon and "Sully" breaks on the television show GC Buzz, with Case stating: "Sharon always knew the truth would come out. She was just trying to adjust her mind and heart to the inevitability, even though she was only making things worse." Despite her crime, Case also described Sharon as a victim, and contended that this was not the worst thing Sharon has done. After losing Christian to Nick, Sharon decides to fight for a place in his life. CBS Soaps In Depth wrote that her frustration over no one willing to understand her "is what finally lights a tiny flame of defiance deep inside Sharon". ## Reception ### Characterization and criticism Despite her crimes and faults, Global TV describes Sharon as a central heroine who has endured many challenges to get to where she is. After a few months in the role, Soap Opera Digest credited Case with making Sharon a popular teen heroine. Nine.com.au wrote that "While Sharon was introduced to Y&R as a love interest for Nick, she has become an iconic character in her own right." She is considered a fan favorite on the soap opera, but also a "love-her-or-hate-her character", and has divided viewer opinions. In an early observation of the character, Kathleen Sloan of the Toronto Star noted that Sharon's "angelic demeanor" could mask a "devil in disguise". Tommy Garrett of Canyon News describes Sharon as an "ever-suffering heroine, who can't find a break in life", stating that she has "faced it all". In 2009, Luke Kerr of Daytime Confidential noted that all of Sharon's love interests—including Jack, Brad and Nicholas—"seem to think" that she is "the perfect woman". Jamey Giddens (also from Daytime Confidential) described her as soap operas' "hottest mess". During Maria Arena Bell's tenure as executive producer and head writer, the character's storyline underwent a change in creative direction, inciting unfavorable reviews. Bell had promised to make the character into a "stronger woman", but Jillian Bowe of Daytime Confidential criticized Bell for not living up to her pledge: "Has transforming Sharon into a promiscuous, recovering kleptomaniac, who never considers what her sexual choices will mean for her children, really made her stronger in [Bell]'s eyes?" She also contended that the beloved character was being "utterly assassinated, via one ill-conceived storyline and/or romance after another". Michael Logan of TV Guide noted that the character turned from heroine to a "psycho slut-nut" when she's "not channeling Joan Crawford in the Pepsi board room." Another writer from Daytime Confidential praised Case for giving "one wonky storyline after another" her best efforts in a character that was "once beloved" but had been "royally assassinated". Despite the negative reception, it was also noted by MSN's Deanna Barnert that viewers were "definitely loving Bitch Sharon" during the storyline where Sharon took control of Newman Enterprises in 2012. Furthermore, a September 2012 scene in which Sharon wore white to her husband Victor's funeral was described by co-star Joshua Morrow as "one of the best and funniest scenes" in the show's history. By the end of 2012, Aaron Hagey-MacKay of Global TV compared the "tortured soul" of Sharon to the character Nicole Walker on Days of Our Lives, writing: "Who had it worse this year, Sharon or Nicole?" Mental health advocate Arthur Gallant of The Huffington Post commended the show's initial portrayal of Sharon's bipolar disorder, writing: "I praise the writers for their diligence in how mental illness has been depicted and feel the show has done their part in helping to eliminate mental health stigma." However, the storyline in which Sharon switched Summer's paternity test was heavily criticized by critics, who felt that the character still had not been repaired. About.com listed the paternity twist as one of the worst storylines of 2013 on the soap opera. Sara Bibel of Xfinity slammed Josh Griffith's writing, stating that he "undid all his great work rehabilitating the character of Sharon" in a "character-destroying" storyline. Soap Opera Digest named the character of Sharon as the "Most Ruined" soap opera character in both 2012 and 2013, while in turn praising the performance of Case. In December 2014, Daytime Confidential described Sharon as one of the most "drastically damaged" characters in the history of the soap opera genre, and wrote, "You name it, one head writer or another has had her do it. Kleptomania. Three baby daddies. Bipolar disorder. It was almost like a reward was passed out in the Y&R writing room anytime anyone came up with something more awful to have Sharon do." Giddens criticized Charles Pratt Jr. in 2015 for enjoying writing Sharon as "crazy", "despite legions of fans demanding the bipolar character be given back her dignity". Writing for TV Insider, Michael Logan said in 2016 that fans of the character were tired of seeing her written as "the liar, the villain, the nutcase, the doormat". In 2022, Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed Sharon 11th on his list of the best 25 characters from The Young and the Restless, commenting that "The Perils of Pauline got nothin' on The Travails of Sharon, a hard-luck heroine whose good fortune seemed to end with the discovery of the right actress to play the part (Sharon Case, on try No. 3). Since then, she's been cheated on, divorced, assaulted, imprisoned, diagnosed as bipolar and taken too deeply into our hearts to ever be removed." ### Romances The relationship between Sharon and Nick relationship is popular with viewers, and they are considered a prominent soap-opera supercouple. The pair are known by the portmanteau "Shick" in social media. Kim Potts of The Huffington Post ranked Nick and Sharon 16th on a list of "Greatest Soap Opera Supercouples". Potts observed that although they have not become "enduring love", a reunion is "always a possibility". Upon their anticipated reunion in February 2009, the show gained an average of 447,000 viewers, boosting it to nearly 5.7 million viewers and a 4.0 household rating. The couple were nominated for "Best Chemistry" at the CBS Fan Awards for 2014. Sharon's romance with Adam has also gained a fan following, and they are known as "Shadam" in social media. The couple are perceived as "showing us the many shades of love. In this case, mostly dark", according to SoapNet. The show gained 115,000 viewers after their reunion in December 2010. In 2012, Sharon's romance with Victor was the source of disapproval from actors, critics and viewers. Of the relationship, journalist Michael Fairman said it "hasn’t worked out or caught fire through the writing, or with the fans watching on-screen!" Several cast members expressed negative opinions about the relationship, and Daytime Confidential placed Sharon and Victor atop its "Worst Soap Opera Couples" list for that year. ### Portrayal Case has received a number of honors for her portrayal of Sharon, including Daytime Emmy Award nominations in 1996 and 1997 for Outstanding Younger Actress. At the Soap Opera Digest Awards in 1998, she won the Hottest Female Star award. In 1999 she won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, her first nomination in that category; she was nominated for the same category in 2000 and 2004. At the 2003 Soap Opera Digest Awards, Case received an Outstanding Supporting Actress nomination. That year, she won an Australian TV Soap Golden Boomerang Award for Younger Female Star. Dan J. Kroll of Soap Central noted that it had "widely been expected" that Morrow and Case would receive nominations for Outstanding Leading Actress and Actor at the 33rd Daytime Emmy Awards, calling these "surprising oversights". Tommy Garrett of Canyon News wrote, "Maria Bell knows that consummate actress Sharon Case plays the consummate heroine Sharon Newman with aplomb." In January 2011, a Daytime Emmy Awards "final push" by Canyon News suggested that Case's performance needed more Emmy attention. Soap Opera Digest praised Phyllis finding the evidence that freed Sharon from prison in 2011, writing: "The twist that Phyl hijacked the glory from both Adam and estranged sister Avery was downright delicious—and made Sharon beholden her worst enemy. The cherry on top? Sharon giving Adam an overdue verbal beatdown. Justice has finally been served." Case's performance in 2012, described as a "whirlwind year", was met with critical acclaim due to writing by Bell (which, in turn, was criticized). On-Air On-Soaps commented, "Surviving probably one of the worst on-screen character assassinations in soap opera history, which virtually left viewers wondering, what the heck are the writers doing to the integrity of Sharon Newman, the once befallen heroine of Genoa City?, Case rebounded by making her performances noteworthy, no matter what the creative teams decided to do to her character." This led Soap Opera Uncensored to name her Entertainer of the Year in January 2013. In December 2015, Soap Opera Digest praised her portrayal of the character's "emotional roller coaster" and remarked, "Sharon Case has a knack for bringing emotional depth and reality to even the most outrageously soapy situations". Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed the casting of Mark as Sharon on his list of the worst soap opera recasts of all time, and said that the soap "finally found a Sharon with staying power" when they cast Case in the role. ## In other media Sharon Newman is featured on the cover of the book You Know Your Life is a Soap Opera If... (2007) by author Gerry Waggett. In November 2014, the character appeared in a comedic skit on the HBO television program Last Week Tonight with John Oliver.

Harald Hardrada

King of Norway from 1046 to 1066

Harald Sigurdsson (Old Norse: Haraldr Sigurðarson; c. 1015 – 25 September 1066), also known as Harald III of Norway and given the epithet Hardrada (harðráði; modern Norwegian: Hardråde, roughly translated as "stern counsel" or "hard ruler") in the sagas, was King of Norway from 1046 to 1066. Additionally, he unsuccessfully claimed both the Danish throne until 1064 and the English throne in 1066. Before becoming king, Harald had spent around fifteen years in exile as a mercenary and military commander in Kievan Rus' and as a chief of the Varangian Guard in the Byzantine Empire. In his chronicle, Adam of Bremen called him the “Thunderbolt of the North”. When he was fifteen years old, in 1030, Harald fought in the Battle of Stiklestad together with his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf). Olaf sought to reclaim the Norwegian throne, which he had lost to the Danish king Cnut the Great two years prior. In the battle, Olaf and Harald were defeated by forces loyal to Cnut, and Harald was forced into exile to Kievan Rus' (the sagas' Garðaríki). He thereafter spent some time in the army of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, eventually obtaining rank as a captain, until he moved on to Constantinople with his companions around 1034. In Constantinople, he soon rose to become the commander of the Byzantine Varangian Guard, and saw action on the Mediterranean Sea, in Asia Minor, Sicily, possibly in the Holy Land, Bulgaria and in Constantinople itself, where he became involved in the imperial dynastic disputes. Harald amassed considerable wealth during his time in the Byzantine Empire, which he shipped to Yaroslav in Kievan Rus' for safekeeping. He finally left the Byzantine Empire in 1042, and arrived back in Kievan Rus' in order to prepare his campaign of reclaiming the Norwegian throne. Possibly to Harald's knowledge, in his absence the Norwegian throne had been restored from the Danes to Olaf's illegitimate son Magnus the Good. In 1046, Harald joined forces with Magnus's rival in Denmark (Magnus had also become king of Denmark), the pretender Sweyn II of Denmark, and started raiding the Danish coast. Magnus, unwilling to fight his uncle, agreed to share the kingship with Harald, since Harald in turn would share his wealth with him. The co-rule ended abruptly the next year as Magnus died, and Harald thus became the sole ruler of Norway. Domestically, Harald crushed all local and regional opposition, and outlined the territorial unification of Norway under a national governance. Harald's reign was probably one of relative peace and stability, and he instituted a viable coin economy and foreign trade. Probably seeking to restore Cnut's "North Sea Empire", Harald also claimed the Danish throne, and spent nearly every year until 1064 raiding the Danish coast and fighting his former ally, Sweyn. Although the campaigns were successful, he was never able to conquer Denmark. Not long after Harald had renounced his claim to Denmark, the former Earl of Northumbria, Tostig Godwinson, brother of the newly chosen (but reigning not for long) English king Harold Godwinson (also known as Harold of Wessex), pledged his allegiance to Harald and invited him to claim the English throne. Harald went along and invaded northern England with 10,000 troops and 300 longships in September 1066, raided the coast and defeated English regional forces of Northumbria and Mercia in the Battle of Fulford near York on 20 September 1066. Although initially successful, Harald was defeated and killed in a surprise attack by Harold Godwinson's forces in the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066, which wiped out almost his entire army. Modern historians have often considered Harald's death, which brought an end to his invasion, as the end of the Viking Age. ## Epithets Harald's most famous epithet is Old Norse harðráði, which has been translated variously as 'hard in counsel', 'tyrannical', 'tyrant', 'hard-ruler', 'ruthless', 'savage in counsel', 'tough', and 'severe'. While Judith Jesch has argued for 'severe' as the best translation, Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes prefer 'resolute'. Harðráði has traditionally been Anglicised as 'Hardrada', though Judith Jesch characterises this form as 'a bastard Anglicisation of the original epithet in an oblique case'. This epithet predominates in the later Icelandic saga-tradition. However, in a number of independent sources associated with the British Isles, mostly earlier than the Icelandic sagas, Harald is given epithets deriving from Old Norse hárfagri (literally 'hair-beautiful'). These sources include: - Manuscript D of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ('Harold Harfagera', under the year 1066) and the related histories by Orderic Vitalis ('Harafagh', re events in 1066), John of Worcester ('Harvagra', s.aa. 1066 and 1098), and William of Malmesbury (Gesta regum Anglorum, 'Harvagre', regarding 1066). - Marianus Scotus of Mainz ('Arbach', d. 1082/1083). - The Life of Gruffydd ap Cynan ('Haralld Harfagyr', later twelfth century). In Icelandic sagas the name Harald Fairhair is more famously associated with an earlier Norwegian king, and twentieth-century historians assumed that the name was attached to Harald Hardrada in error by Insular historians. However, recognising the independence of some of the Insular sources, historians have since favoured the idea that Harald Hardrada was widely known as Harald Fairhair, and indeed now doubt that the earlier Harald Fairhair existed in any form resembling the later saga-accounts. Sverrir Jakobsson has suggested that 'fairhair' 'might be the name by which King Harald wished himself to be known. It must have been his opponents who gave him the epithet "severe" (ON. harðráði), by which he is generally known in thirteenth-century Old Norse kings' sagas'. ## Early life Harald was born in Ringerike, Norway in 1015 (or possibly 1016) to Åsta Gudbrandsdatter and her second husband Sigurd Syr. Sigurd was a petty king of Ringerike, and among the strongest and wealthiest chieftains in the Uplands. Through his mother Åsta, Harald was the youngest of King Olaf II of Norway / Olaf Haraldsson's (later Saint Olaf) three half-brothers. In his youth, Harald displayed traits of a typical rebel with big ambitions, and admired Olaf as his role model. He thus differed from his two older brothers, who were more similar to their father, down-to-earth and mostly concerned with maintaining the farm. The Icelandic sagas, in particular Snorri Sturluson in Heimskringla, claim that Sigurd, like Olaf's father, was a great-grandson of King Harald Fairhair in the male line. Most modern scholars believe that the ancestors attributed to Harald Hardrada's father, along with other parts of the Fairhair genealogy, are inventions reflecting the political and social expectations of the time of the authors (around two centuries after Harald Hardrada's lifetime) rather than historical reality. Harald Hardrada's alleged descent from Harald Fairhair is not mentioned and played no part during Harald Hardrada's own time, which seems odd considering that it would have provided significant legitimacy in connection with his claim to the Norwegian throne. Following a revolt in 1028, Harald's brother Olaf was forced into exile until he returned to Norway in early 1030. On hearing news of Olaf's planned return, Harald gathered 600 men from the Uplands to meet Olaf and his men upon their arrival in the east of Norway. After a friendly welcome, Olaf went on to gather an army and eventually fight in the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030, in which Harald took part on his brother's side. The battle was part of an attempt to restore Olaf to the Norwegian throne, which had been captured by the Danish king Cnut the Great (Canute). The battle resulted in defeat for the brothers at the hands of those Norwegians who were loyal to Cnut, and Olaf was killed while Harald was badly wounded. Harald was nonetheless remarked to have shown considerable military talent during the battle. ## Exile in the East ### To Kievan Rus' After the defeat at the Battle of Stiklestad, Harald managed to escape with the aid of Rögnvald Brusason (later Earl of Orkney) to a remote farm in Eastern Norway. He stayed there for some time to heal his wounds, and thereafter (possibly up to a month later) journeyed north over the mountains to Sweden. A year after the Battle of Stiklestad, Harald arrived in Kievan Rus' (referred to in the sagas as Garðaríki or Svíþjóð hin mikla). He likely spent at least part of his time in the town of Staraya Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg), arriving there in the first half of 1031. Harald and his men were welcomed by Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, whose wife Ingegerd was a distant relative of Harald. Badly in need of military leaders, Yaroslav recognised a military potential in Harald and made him a captain of his forces. Harald's brother Olaf Haraldsson had previously been in exile to Yaroslav following the revolt in 1028, and Morkinskinna says that Yaroslav embraced Harald first and foremost because he was the brother of Olaf. Harald took part in Yaroslav's campaign against the Poles in 1031, and possibly also fought against other 1030s Kievan enemies and rivals such as the Chudes in Estonia, and the Byzantines, as well as the Pechenegs and other steppe nomad people. ### In Byzantine service After a few years in Kievan Rus', Harald and his force of around 500 men moved on south to Constantinople (Miklagard), the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire), probably in 1033 or 1034, where they joined the Varangian Guard. Although the Flateyjarbók maintains that Harald at first sought to keep his royal identity a secret, most sources agree that Harald and his men's reputation was well known in the east at the time. While the Varangian Guard was primarily meant to function as the emperor's bodyguard, Harald was found fighting on "nearly every frontier" of the empire. He first saw action in campaigns against Arab pirates in the Mediterranean Sea, and then in inland towns in Asia Minor / Anatolia that had supported the pirates. By this time, he had, according to Snorri Sturluson (a contemporary Icelandic historian, poet, and politician), become the "leader over all the Varangians". By 1035, the Byzantines had pushed the Arabs out of Asia Minor to the east and southeast, and Harald took part in campaigns that went as far east as the Tigris River and Euphrates River in Mesopotamia, where according to his skald (poet) Þjóðólfr Arnórsson (recounted in the sagas) he participated in the capture of eighty Arab strongholds, a number which historians Sigfus Blöndal and Benedikt Benedikz see no particular reason to question. Although not holding independent command of an army as the sagas imply, it is not unlikely that King Harald and the Varangians at times could have been sent off to capture a castle or town. During the first four years of the reign of Byzantine Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian, Harald probably also fought in campaigns against the Pechenegs. Thereafter, Harald is reported in the sagas to have gone to Jerusalem and fought in battles in the area. Although the sagas place this after his expedition to Sicily, historian Kelly DeVries has questioned that chronology. Whether his trip was of a military or peaceful nature would depend on whether it took place before or after the 1036 peace treaty between Michael IV and the Muslim Fatimid Caliph Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah (in reality the Caliph's mother, originally a Byzantine Christian, since the Caliph was a minor), although it is considered unlikely to have been made before. Modern historians have speculated that Harald may have been in a party sent to escort pilgrims to Jerusalem (possibly including members of the Imperial family) following the peace agreement, as it was also agreed that the Byzantines were allowed to repair the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Furthermore, this may in turn have presented Harald with opportunities to fight against bandits who preyed on Christian pilgrims. In 1038, Harald joined the Byzantines in their expedition to Sicily, in George Maniakes's (the sagas' "Gyrge") attempt to reconquer the island from the Muslim Saracens, who had established the Emirate of Sicily on the island. During the campaign, Harald fought alongside Norman mercenaries such as William Iron Arm. According to Snorri Sturluson, Harald captured four towns on Sicily. In 1041, when the Byzantine expedition to Sicily was over, a Lombard-Norman revolt erupted in southern Italy, and Harald led the Varangian Guard in multiple battles. Harald fought with the Catepan of Italy, Michael Dokeianos with initial success, but the Normans, led by their former ally William Iron Arm, defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Olivento in March, and in the Battle of Montemaggiore in May. After the defeat, Harald and the Varangian Guard were called back to Constantinople, following Maniakes' imprisonment by the emperor and the onset of other more pressing issues. Harald and the Varangians were thereafter sent to fight in the southeastern European frontier in Bulgaria, where they arrived in late 1041. There, he fought in the army of Emperor Michael IV in the Battle of Ostrovo of the 1041 campaign against the Bulgarian uprising led by Peter Delyan, which later gained Harald the nickname the "Bulgar-burner" (Bolgara brennir) by his skald. Harald was not affected by Maniakes' conflict with Emperor Michael IV, and received honours and respect upon his return to Constantinople. In a Greek book written in the 1070s, the Strategikon of Kekaumenos, Araltes (i.e. Harald) is said to have won the favour of the emperor. The book says that the Byzantine emperor first appointed him manglabites (possibly identified with the title protospatharios), a soldier of the imperial guard, after the Sicilian campaign. Following the campaign against the Bulgarians, in which Harald again served with distinction, he received the rank while at Mosynopolis of spatharokandidatos, identified by DeVries as a promotion to the possibly third highest Byzantine rank, but by Mikhail Bibikov as a lesser rank than protospatharios that was ordinarily awarded to foreign allies to the emperor. The Strategikon indicates that the ranks awarded to Harald were rather low, since Harald reportedly was "not angry for just having been appointed to manglabites or spatharokandidatos". According to his skald Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, Harald had participated in eighteen greater battles during his Byzantine service. Harald's favour at the imperial court quickly declined after the death of Michael IV in December 1041, which was followed by conflicts between the new emperor Michael V and the powerful empress Zoe. During the turmoil, Harald was arrested and imprisoned, but the sources disagree on the grounds. The sagas state that Harald was arrested for defrauding the emperor of his treasure, as well as for requesting marriage with an apparently fictional niece or granddaughter of Zoe, called Maria (his suit supposedly being turned down by the empress because she wanted to marry Harald herself). William of Malmesbury states that Harald was arrested for defiling a noble woman, while according to Saxo Grammaticus he was imprisoned for murder. DeVries suggests that the new emperor may have feared Harald because of his loyalty to the previous emperor. The sources also disagree on how Harald got out of prison, but he may have been helped by someone outside to escape in the midst of the revolt that had begun against the new emperor. While some of the Varangians helped guard the emperor, Harald became the leader of the Varangians who supported the revolt. The emperor was in the end dragged out of his sanctuary, blinded and exiled to a monastery, and the sagas claim that it was Harald himself who blinded Michael V (or at least claimed to have done so). ### Back to Kievan Rus' Harald became extremely rich during his time in the east, and secured the wealth collected in Constantinople by shipments to Kievan Rus' for safekeeping (with Yaroslav the Wise acting as safekeeper for his fortune). The sagas note that aside from the significant spoils of battle he had retained, he had participated three times in polutasvarf (loosely translated as "palace-plunder"), a term which implies either the pillaging of the palace exchequer on the death of the emperor, or perhaps the disbursement of funds to the Varangians by the new emperor in order to ensure their loyalty. It is likely that the money Harald made while serving in Constantinople allowed him to fund his claim for the crown of Norway. If he participated in polutasvarf three times, these occasions must have been the deaths of Romanos III, Michael IV, and Michael V, in which Harald would have opportunities, beyond his legitimate revenues, to carry off immense wealth. After Zoe had been restored to the throne in June 1042 together with Constantine IX, Harald requested to be allowed to return to Norway. Although Zoe refused to allow this, Harald managed to escape into the Bosphorus with two ships and some loyal followers. Although the second ship was destroyed by the Byzantine cross-strait iron chains, Harald's ship sailed safely into the Black Sea after successfully manoeuvring over the barrier. Despite this, Kekaumenos lauds the "loyalty and love" Harald had for the empire, which he reportedly maintained even after he returned to Norway and became king. Following his escape from Constantinople, Harald arrived back in Kievan Rus' later in 1042. During his second stay there, he married Elisabeth (referred to in Scandinavian sources as Ellisif), daughter of Yaroslav the Wise and granddaughter of the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung. Shortly after Harald's arrival in Kiev, Yaroslav attacked Constantinople, and it is considered likely that Harald provided him with valuable information about the state of the empire. It is possible that the marriage with Elisiv had been agreed to already during Harald's first time in Rus', or that they at least had been acquainted. During his service in the Byzantine Empire, Harald composed a love poem which included the verse "Yet the goddess in Gardarike / will not accept my gold rings" (whom Snorri Sturluson identifies with Elisiv), although Morkinskinna claims that Harald had to remind Yaroslav of the promised marriage when he returned to Kiev. According to the same source, Harald had spoken with Yaroslav during his first time in Rus', requesting to marry Elisiv, only to be rejected because he was not yet wealthy enough. It is in any case significant that Harald was allowed to marry the daughter of Yaroslav, since his other children were married to figures such as Henry I of France, Andrew I of Hungary and the daughter of Constantine IX. ## King of Norway ### Return to Scandinavia Seeking to regain for himself the kingdom lost by his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson, Harald began his journey westwards in early 1045, departing from Novgorod (Holmgard) to Staraya Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg) where he obtained a ship. His journey went through Lake Ladoga, down the Neva River, and then into the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. He arrived in Sigtuna in Sweden, probably at the end of 1045 or in early 1046. When he arrived in Sweden, according to the skald Tjodolv Arnorsson, his ship was unbalanced by its heavy load of gold. In Harald's absence, the throne of Norway had been restored to Magnus the Good, an illegitimate son of Olaf. Harald may actually have known this, and it could have been the reason why Harald wanted to return to Norway in the first place. Since Cnut the Great's sons had chosen to abandon Norway and instead fight over England, and his sons and successors Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut had died young, Magnus's position as king had been secured. No domestic threats or insurrections are recorded to have occurred during his eleven-year reign. After the death of Harthacnut, which had left the Danish throne vacant, Magnus had in addition been selected to be the king of Denmark, and managed to defeat the Danish royal pretender Sweyn Estridsson. Having heard of Sweyn's defeat by Magnus, Harald met up with his fellow exile in Sweden (who was also his nephew), as well as with the Swedish king Anund Jacob, and the three joined forces against Magnus. Their first military exploit consisted of raiding the Danish coast. The purpose of that was to impress the natives by demonstrating that Magnus offered them no protection, and thus leading them to submit to Harald and Sweyn. Learning about their actions, Magnus knew that their next target would be Norway. Harald may have planned to be taken as king of his father's petty kingdom, and thereafter claim the rest of the country. In any case, the people were unwilling to turn against Magnus, and on hearing news of Harald's schemes, Magnus (abroad at the time) went home to Norway with his entire army. Instead of going to war, Magnus's advisors recommended the young king not fight his uncle, and a compromise was reached in 1046 in which Harald would rule Norway (not Denmark) jointly with Magnus (although Magnus would have precedence). Notably, Harald also had to agree to share half of his wealth with Magnus, who at the time was effectively bankrupt and badly in need of funds. During their short co-rule, Harald and Magnus had separate courts and kept to themselves, and their only recorded meetings nearly ended in physical clashes. In 1047, Magnus and Harald went to Denmark with their leidang forces. Later that year in Jylland, less than a year into their co-rule, Magnus died without an heir. Before his death, he had decided that Sweyn was to inherit Denmark and Harald to inherit Norway. On hearing the news of Magnus's death, Harald quickly gathered the local leaders in Norway and declared himself king of Norway as well as of Denmark. Although Magnus had appointed Sweyn his successor as king of Denmark, Harald immediately announced his plans to gather an army and oust his former ally from the country. In response, the army and the chieftains, headed by Einar Thambarskelfir, opposed any plans of invading Denmark. Although Harald himself objected to bringing the body of Magnus back to Norway, the Norwegian army prepared to transport his body to Nidaros (now Trondheim), where they buried him next to Saint Olaf in late 1047. Einar, an opponent of Harald, claimed that "to follow Magnus dead was better than to follow any other king alive". Under Harald's rule, Norway introduced a royal monopoly on the minting of coins. The coins minted under Harald's rule appear to have been accepted as a commonly used currency (as opposed to continued use of primarily foreign-minted coins). Minting of coins likely provided a substantial part of Harald's annual revenues. Minting of coinage collapsed in Norway in the late 14th century. ### Invasions of Denmark Harald also wanted to re-establish Magnus's rule over Denmark, and in the long term probably sought to restore Cnut the Great's "North Sea Empire" in its entirety. While his first proposal to invade Denmark fell through, the next year Harald embarked on what would turn into constant warfare against Sweyn, from 1048 almost yearly until 1064. Similar to his campaigns (then together with Sweyn) against Magnus's rule in Denmark, most of his campaigns against Sweyn consisted of swift and violent raids on the Danish coasts. In 1048, he plundered Jutland, and in 1049 he pillaged and burned Hedeby, at the time the most important Danish trade center, and one of the best protected and most populous towns in Scandinavia. Hedeby as a civil town never recovered from Harald's destruction, and was left completely desolate when what remained was looted by Slavic tribes in 1066. One of two conventional battles was set to be fought between the two kings later the same year, but, according to Saxo Grammaticus, Sweyn's smaller army was so frightened when approached by the Norwegians that they chose to jump in the water trying to escape; most drowned. Although Harald was victorious in most of the engagements, he was never successful in occupying Denmark. The second, more significant battle, a naval encounter, was the Battle of Niså on 9 August 1062. As Harald had not been able to conquer Denmark despite his raids, he wanted to win a decisive victory over Sweyn. He eventually set out from Norway with a great army and a fleet of around 300 ships. Sweyn had also prepared for the battle, which had been preassigned a time and place. Sweyn did not appear at the agreed time, and Harald thus sent home his non-professional soldiers (bóndaherrin), which had made up half of his forces. When the dismissed ships were out of reach, Sweyn's fleet finally appeared, possibly also with 300 ships. The battle resulted in great bloodshed as Harald defeated the Danes (70 Danish ships were reportedly left "empty"), but many ships and men managed to escape, including Sweyn. During the battle, Harald actively shot with his bow, like most others in the early phase of the battle. Fatigue and the huge cost of the indecisive battles eventually led Harald to seek peace with Sweyn, and in 1064 (or 1065 according to Morkinskinna) the two kings agreed on an unconditional peace agreement. By the agreement, they retained their respective kingdoms with the former boundaries, and there would be no payments of reparations. In the subsequent winter of 1065, Harald travelled through his realm and accused the farmers of withholding taxes from him. In response, he acted with brutality, and had people maimed and killed as a warning to those who disobeyed him. Harald maintained control of his nation through the use of his hird, a private standing army maintained by Norwegian lords. Harald's contribution to the strengthening of Norway's monarchy was the enforcement of a policy that only the king could retain a hird, thus centralising power away from local warlords. ### Domestic opposition According to historian Knut Helle, Harald completed the first phase of what he has termed the "national territorial unification of Norway". Having forced his way to the kingship, Harald would have to convince the aristocracy that he was the right person to rule Norway alone. To establish domestic alliances, he married Tora Torbergsdatter of one of the most powerful Norwegian families. The primary opposition to Harald's rule would be the descendants of Haakon Sigurdsson, from the powerful dynasty of Earls of Lade who had controlled Northern Norway and Trøndelag with much autonomy under the Norwegian king. Haakon had even ruled the whole of Norway (nominally under the Danish king) from 975 until 995, when he was killed during the takeover by Olaf Tryggvasson. Even after Haakon's death, his offspring held a certain degree of sovereignty in the north, and by Harald's early reign the family was headed by Einar Thambarskelfir, who was married to Haakon's daughter. While the family had maintained good relations with Magnus, Harald's absolutism and consolidation of the kingship soon led to conflict with Einar. It was from his power-struggle with the Norwegian aristocracy that Harald got himself the reputation that gave him the nickname "Hardrada", or "the hard ruler". Although the relationship between Harald and Einar was poor from the start, confrontation did not occur before Harald went north to his court in Nidaros. One time in Nidaros, Einar arrived at Harald's court, and in a display of power was accompanied by "eight or nine longships and almost five hundred men", obviously seeking confrontation. Harald was not provoked by the incident. Although the sources differ on the circumstances, the next event nonetheless led to the murder of Einar by Harald's men, which threatened to throw Norway into a state of civil war. Although the remaining descendants of Haakon Sigurdsson considered rebellion against the king, Harald eventually managed to negotiate peace with them, and secured the family's submission for the remainder of his reign. By the death of Einar and his son around 1050, the Earls of Lade had outplayed their role as a base of opposition, and Trøndelag was definitely subordinated to Harald's national kingdom. Before the Battle of Niså, Harald had been joined by Haakon Ivarsson, who distinguished himself in the battle and gained Harald's favour. Harald reportedly even considered giving Haakon the title of Earl, and Haakon was greatly upset when Harald later backed down from his promise. With a strong hold over the Uplands, Haakon was additionally given the earldom of Värmland by the Swedish king Stenkil. In early 1064, Haakon entered the Uplands and collected their taxes, the region thus effectively threatened to renounce their loyalty to Harald in response. The revolt of Haakon and the farmers in the Uplands may have been the main reason why Harald finally had been willing to enter a peace agreement with Sweyn Estridsson. After the agreement, Harald went to Oslo and sent tax collectors to the Uplands, only to find that the farmers would withhold their taxes until Haakon arrived. In response, Harald entered Sweden with an army and quickly defeated Haakon. Still facing opposition from the farmers, Harald embarked on a campaign to crush the areas that had withheld their taxes. Due to the remote location of the region in the interior of the country, the Uplands had never been an integrated part of the Norwegian king's realm. Using harsh measures, Harald burned down farms and small villages, and had people maimed and killed. Starting in Romerike, his campaign continued into Hedmark, Hadeland and Ringerike. Since the regions contained several rich rural communities, Harald strengthened his economic position by confiscating farming estates. By the end of 1065 there was probably peace in Norway, as any opposition had either been killed, chased into exile or silenced. ### Policies Harald's reign was marked by his background as a military commander, as he often solved disputes with a brute force. One of his skalds even boasted about how Harald broke settlements he had made, in his battles in the Mediterranean. While the sagas largely focus on Harald's war with Sweyn and the invasion of England, little is said about his domestic policies. Modern historians have taken this as a sign that, despite his absolutism, his reign was one of peace and progress for Norway. Harald is considered to have instituted good economic policies, as he developed a Norwegian currency and a viable coin economy, which in turn allowed Norway to participate in international trade. He initiated trade with Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire through his connections, as well as with Scotland and Ireland. According to the later sagas, Harald founded Oslo, where he spent much time. Harald also continued to advance Christianity in Norway, and archaeological excavations show that churches were built and improved during his reign. He also imported bishops, priests and monks from abroad, especially from Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire. A slightly different form of Christianity was thus introduced in Norway from the rest of northern Europe, although the East–West Schism had not yet taken place. Since the clergy was not ordained in England or France, it nonetheless caused controversy when Harald was visited by papal legates. The protests by the legates led Harald to throw the Catholic clergy out of his court, and he reportedly stated to the legates that "he did not know of any other archbishop or lord of Norway than the king himself". Norwegian historian Halvdan Koht has remarked that the "words seemed as if spoken by a Byzantine despot". It is possible that Harald maintained contacts with Byzantine emperors after he became king, which could suggest a background for his church policies. ### Northern explorations Once he had returned to Norway, Harald seems to have displayed an interest in exploring his own realm, as for instance the Morkinskinna recounts Harald's trip into the Uplands. Harald is also said to have explored the seas beyond his kingdom, as the contemporary Adam of Bremen reports of such naval expeditions conducted by Harald: > The most enterprising Prince Haraldr of the Norwegians lately attempted this [sea]. Who, having searched thoroughly the length of the northern ocean in ships, finally had before his eyes the dark failing boundaries of the savage world, and, by retracing his steps, with difficulty barely escaped the deep abyss in safety. Kelly DeVries has suggested that Harald "may even have known of and sought out the legendary land called Vinland, which Viking sailors had discovered only a short time before", which Adam mentions earlier in the same passage to have been widely reported in Denmark and Norway. H. H. Lamb has on the other hand proposed that the land he reached may have been either Spitsbergen or Novaya Zemlya. ## Invasion of England ### Background and preparations Accepting he could not conquer Denmark, Harald switched attention to England; his claim was based on a 1038 agreement between Magnus and its previous ruler, Harthacnut, who died childless in 1042. The agreement stated that if either die, the other would inherit his lands; however, it was unlikely Magnus assumed he would gain the English throne without fighting. Harthacnut himself preferred his brother, Edward the Confessor, who became king with the backing of Earl Godwin, father of Harold Godwinson. Plans by Magnus to invade England in 1045 were suspended, while he dealt with an uprising by Sweyn of Denmark. After Magnus died in 1047, Harald took over his claim; however, Edward kept potential enemies happy by hinting they might succeed him; in addition to Harald, these included Sweyn, and William, Duke of Normandy. In 1058, a fleet under Harald's son Magnus supported a large scale Welsh raid into England, although details are limited. This may have shown Harald that he could not simultaneously fight Denmark and England; this became crucial when Edward died in January 1066, and Harold Godwinson was proclaimed king of England. Harold's brother Tostig Godwinson, formerly Earl of Northumbria, now appeared on the scene; hoping to regain his titles and lands, he reportedly approached both William and Sweyn Estridsson for their support. However, since Northern England was the most suitable landing place for a Norwegian invasion, he was more valuable to Harald. Details are limited, but it is suggested Tostig sent a fellow exile, Copsig, to meet with Harald in Norway and agree plans, while he remained in France. If correct, this would also have allowed Tostig to increase both their chances by simultaneously supporting an invasion by William, who also claimed the throne. In March or April 1066, Harald began assembling his fleet at Solund, in the Sognefjord, a process completed by the start of September 1066; it included his flagship, Ormen, or "Serpent". Before leaving Norway, he had Magnus proclaimed king of Norway, and left Tora behind, taking with him Elisiv, his daughters, and Olaf. En route, he stopped at the Norwegian-held islands of Shetland and Orkney, where he collected additional troops, including Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson, the Earls of Orkney. At Dunfermline, he met Tostig's ally, Malcolm III of Scotland, who gave him around 2,000 Scottish soldiers. Although possible he also met Tostig there, most sources suggest they linked up at Tynemouth, on 8 September, Harald bringing around 10–15,000 men, on 240–300 longships. Tostig had only 12 ships, his connections being far more significant. The chronicler, John of Worcester, suggests he left Flanders in May or June, raiding the heartland of Harold's estates in southern England, from the Isle of Wight to Sandwich. Having made it seem an attack from Normandy was imminent, he then sailed north, while his brother and most of his troops remained in the south, waiting for William. ### Early raids, invasion, and Battle of Fulford After embarking from Tynemouth, Harald and Tostig probably landed at the River Tees. They then entered Cleveland, and started plundering the coast. They encountered the first resistance at Scarborough, where Harald's demand for surrender was opposed. In the end, Harald resorted to burning down the town and this action led to other Northumbrian towns surrendering to him. After further raiding, Harald and Tostig sailed up the Humber, disembarking at Riccall on 20 September. News of the early raids had reached the earls Morcar of Northumbria and Edwin of Mercia, and they fought against Harald's invading army three kilometres (2 mi) south of York at the Battle of Fulford, also on 20 September. The battle was a decisive victory for Harald and Tostig, and led York to surrender to their forces on 24 September. This would be the last time a Scandinavian army defeated English forces. The same day as York surrendered to Harald and Tostig, Harold Godwinson arrived with his army in Tadcaster, just eleven kilometres (7 mi) from the anchored Norwegian fleet at Riccall. From there, he probably scouted the Norwegian fleet, preparing a surprise attack. As Harald had left no forces in York, Harold Godwinson marched right through the town to Stamford Bridge. ### Battle of Stamford Bridge Early on 25 September, Harald and Tostig departed their landing place at Riccall with most of their forces, but left a third of their forces behind. They brought only light armour, as they expected to just meet the citizens of York, as they had agreed the day before, at Stamford Bridge to decide on who should manage the town under Harald. Once there Harald saw Godwinson's forces approaching, heavily armed and armoured, and greatly outnumbering Harald's. Although (according to non-saga sources) the English forces were held up at the bridge for some time by a single gigantic Norwegian, allowing Harald and Tostig to regroup into a shield-wall formation, Harald's army was in the end heavily beaten. Harald was struck in the throat by an arrow and killed early in the battle, later termed the Battle of Stamford Bridge, in a state of berserkergang, having worn no body armour and fought aggressively with both hands around his sword. When the battle was almost over, some reserve forces from Riccall led by Eystein Orre finally appeared, but they were exhausted as they had run all the way. Eystein picked up Harald's fallen banner, the "Landwaster" (Landøyðan), and initiated a final counter-attack. Although they for a moment appeared to almost breach the English line, Eystein was suddenly killed, which left the rest of the men to flee from the battlefield. Among those left at Riccall after the battle, who were allowed to return home peacefully by the English forces, was Harald's son Olaf. Although sources state that Harald's remaining army only filled 20–25 ships on the return to Norway, it is likely that this number only accounts for the Norwegian forces. Most of the forces from Scotland and Orkney probably remained at Riccall throughout the battle (the earls Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson are certainly known to have been stationed there the entire time), and has not been counted in the traditional figure. Harold Godwinson's victory was short-lived, as only a few weeks later he was defeated by William the Conqueror and killed at the Battle of Hastings. The fact that Harold had to make a forced march to fight Hardrada at Stamford Bridge and then move at utmost speed south to meet the Norman invasion, all in less than three weeks, is widely seen as a primary factor in William's victory at Hastings. ## Personal life Harald is described by Snorri Sturluson to have been physically "larger than other men and stronger". It is said that he had light hair, a light beard, and a long "upper beard" (moustache), and that one of his eyebrows was somewhat higher situated than the other. He also reportedly had big hands and feet, and could measure five ells in height. It is not known whether Snorri's description of Harald's physical appearance actually represents historical facts. The tall stature of Harald is also substantiated by a story that relates that before the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Harold Godwinson offered Tostig back the earldom of Northumbria, and Harald "six feet of the ground of England, or perhaps more seeing that he is taller than most men" (according to Henry of Huntingdon) or "six feet of English ground, or seven feet as he was taller than other men" (according to Snorri Sturluson). Harald himself composed skaldic poetry. According to Lee M. Hollander, composing poetry was normal for Norwegian kings, but Harald was the only one who "showed a decided talent." According to one poem, Harald had mastered a number of activities that were considered sports in the Viking Age, in addition to poetry, brewing, horse riding, swimming, skiing, shooting, rowing and playing the harp. The sagas state that Harald and his Varangians at least once took a break during the siege of a town to enjoy sports. With regards to religion, Harald had, according to DeVries, a "religious inclination towards Christianity" and was "publicly close to the Christian Church", although he was influenced by the Eastern Christian culture of Kievan Rus' (Garderike) and the Byzantine Empire, having spent most of his life there. He was clearly interested in advancing Christianity in Norway, which can be seen by the continued building and improvement of churches throughout his reign. Despite this, DeVries notes that Harald's "personal morality appears not to have matched the Christian ideal", citing his marriage arrangements. ## Issue Harald married Elisiv of Kiev (c. 1025 – after 1066) around 1044/45, and they had an unknown number, possibly several children. According to Snorri Sturluson, they had two daughters: - Ingegerd (c. 1050 – c. 1120). Married first to the future Olaf I of Denmark, and after his death, to the future Philip of Sweden. - Maria (died 25 September 1066). Promised away for marriage to Eystein Orre (brother of Tora Torbergsdatter), but reportedly died on Orkney the same day that Harald (and Eystein) died at Stamford Bridge. According to the sagas, Harald married Tora Torbergsdatter (c. 1025 – after 1066) around 1048. Some modern historians have disputed this, since Harald in that case would be in a bigamous marriage, as he was still married to Elisiv. It is nonetheless possible that such a marriage could take place in Norway in the 11th century, and although Harald had two wives, only Elisiv is noted to have held the title of Queen. Harald and Tora had at least two children: - Magnus II (c. 1049 – c. 1069). Reigned as king of Norway from 1066 to 1069. - Olaf III (c. 1050 – c. 1093). Reigned as king of Norway from 1067 to 1093. ## Legacy ### Burial A year after his death at Stamford Bridge, Harald's body was moved to Norway and buried at the Mary Church in Nidaros (Trondheim). About a hundred years after his burial, his body was reinterred at the Helgeseter Priory, which was demolished in the 17th century. On 25 September 2006, the 940th anniversary of Harald's death, the newspaper Aftenposten published an article on the poor state of Norway's ancient royal burial sites, including that of Harald, which is reportedly located underneath a road built across the monastery site. In a follow-up article on 26 September, the Municipality of Trondheim revealed they would be examining the possibility of exhuming the king and reinterring him in Nidaros Cathedral, currently the burial place of nine Norwegian kings, among them Magnus the Good and Magnus Haraldsson, Harald's predecessor and successor respectively. A month later it was reported that the proposal to exhume the king had been scrapped. ### Modern memorials Two monuments have been erected in honour of Harald in Oslo, the city which he is traditionally held to have founded. A bronze relief on granite by Lars Utne depicting Harald on horseback was raised on the eponymously named square Harald Hardrådes plass in 1905. In 1950, a large relief by Anne Grimdalen, also of Harald on horseback, was unveiled on the western façade of the Oslo City Hall. ## In popular culture - Harald appears in a number of historical fiction books. In H. P. Lovecraft's novella The Call of Cthulhu, one key character "lay in the Old Town of King Harold Haardrada, which kept alive the name of Oslo during all the centuries that the greater city masqueraded as 'Christiana'." Justin Hill's Viking Fire is the second in his Conquest Trilogy, and tells the life of Harald in his own voice. He serves as the protagonist in two children's books by Henry Treece, The Last of the Vikings/The Last Viking (1964) and Swords from the North/The Northern Brothers (1967). He also appears as the protagonist in the trilogy The Last Viking (1980) by Poul and Karen Anderson, and in Byzantium (1989) by Michael Ennis, which chronicles Harald's career in the Byzantine Empire. - The alternative history book Crusader Gold (2007) by marine archeologist David Gibbins features Harald as a key figure, as it follows him in acquiring the lost Menorah among his treasures during his service in the Byzantine Varangian Guard. Harald also makes an appearance in Meadowland (2005) by Tom Holt. - Harald's unorthodox departure from Constantinople is featured in music by the Finnish folk metal band Turisas in the song "The Great Escape"; in addition, he is followed loosely throughout the story of the albums The Varangian Way (2007) and Stand Up and Fight (2011). - Harald is a playable character in the Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms. - Harald is a playable character as "Harald Hardrada" in the turn-based strategy PC Game Civilization VI. He is a leader of the Norwegian civilization, as well as a secondary leader of England. - Harald is depicted in Netflix drama series Vikings: Valhalla. His role is played by English actor Leo Suter. ## Explanatory footnotes ## General sources

5th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Confederate)

Infantry regiment of the Confederate States Army

The 5th Missouri Infantry Regiment was an infantry regiment that served in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. The regiment entered into service on September 1, 1862, when the elements of two preceding battalions were combined. Many of the men entering the regiment had seen service with the secessionist Missouri State Guard. James McCown was the regiment's first colonel. After playing a minor role at the Battle of Iuka on September 19, the regiment then fought in the Second Battle of Corinth on October 3 and 4th. After being only lightly engaged on the 3rd, the regiment charged the Union lines on the 4th, capturing a fortification known as Battery Powell. However, Union reinforcements counterattacked and drove the regiment from the field. In early 1863, the regiment was transferred to Grand Gulf, Mississippi, where it built fortifications. The unit spent part of April operating in Louisiana, before again crossing the Mississippi River to return to Grand Gulf. On May 1, the regiment fought at the Battle of Port Gibson, where it and the 3rd Missouri Infantry Regiment charged the Union line in an attempt to turn the enemy's exposed flank. However, the two regiments missed hitting the Union line on the flank, and instead hit an area with greater support. After heavy fighting, the two regiments were forced to retreat. On May 16, the regiment joined a large assault in the Battle of Champion Hill. The Confederate charge at Champion Hill captured two important battlefield features, but Union reinforcements and a lack of ammunition forced the men to retreat. After being routed at the Battle of Big Black River Bridge on May 17, the regiment entered the defenses of Vicksburg, Mississippi. During the Siege of Vicksburg the regiment helped repel Union attacks on May 19 and 22nd. On June 25 and July 1st, the regiment opposed Union attempts to break the Confederate lines by detonating black powder beneath the Confederate defensive works. The Confederate garrison of Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, and the men of the 5th Missouri Infantry were paroled. After being exchanged, the 5th Missouri Infantry was combined with the 3rd Missouri Infantry to form the 3rd and 5th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated); the 5th Missouri Infantry ceased to exist as a separate unit. McCown retained command of the new unit after the consolidation. The consolidated regiment fought at the Battle of New Hope Church in May 1864, at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in June, and in the Siege of Atlanta. On October 5, the regiment fought at the Battle of Allatoona before being nearly annihilated at the Battle of Franklin on November 30. In February 1865, the regiment was transferred to Mobile, Alabama, where it surrendered during the Battle of Fort Blakely on April 9, ending the men's combat career. ## Background and formation At the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, the state of Missouri did not secede, even though it was a slave state. However, Governor Claiborne Fox Jackson continued to push for secession and mobilized pro-secession elements of the state militia. The militiamen were encamped outside St. Louis, where a federal arsenal was located. In response, Brigadier General Nathaniel Lyon of the Union Army dispersed the camp in the Camp Jackson affair on May 10. This action was followed by a riot in St. Louis. On May 12, Jackson formed the Missouri State Guard as a pro-secession militia unit and appointed Major General Sterling Price, a veteran of the Mexican-American War, to command the unit. After a June 11th meeting between Price and Lyon indicated that a peaceful resolution to the turmoil was not possible, Lyon forced Jackson out of the state capital of Jefferson City on June 15. After Lyon defeated a Missouri State Guard force at the Battle of Boonville on June 17, Price and Jackson retreated into southwestern Missouri. Price was later reinforced by Confederate States Army troops commanded by Brigadier General Ben McCulloch. On August 10, Lyon attacked the combined Confederate and Missouri State Guard troops. In the ensuing Battle of Wilson's Creek, Lyon was killed and his army defeated. Afterwards, Price began moving northwards. This campaign culminated with the capture of Lexington in September. In October, Union forces began concentrating near where Price was encamped, leading the Missouri State Guard to retreat back to the southwestern portion of the state. In November, Jackson and the pro-secession elements of the state legislature voted to secede, joining the Confederate States of America as a government-in-exile. The anti-secession elements of the state legislature had previously held a vote in July rejecting secession. After Union forces began to threaten Price's position in southwestern Missouri in February 1862, the Missouri State Guard fell back to Arkansas, where it joined forces with Major General Earl Van Dorn. Price himself entered Confederate service, receiving a commission as a major general. In March, Van Dorn was defeated at the Battle of Pea Ridge, giving Union forces control of Missouri. The men of the Missouri State Guard also began transferring to Confederate States Army units. The 5th Missouri Infantry Regiment became part of the Confederate States Army on September 1, 1862. To form the regiment, a portion of Hedgpeth's Missouri Battalion was combined with McCown's Missouri Battalion; a number of the men had formerly been part of the Missouri State Guard. James McCown was the regiment's first Colonel, Robert Bevier was the first lieutenant colonel, and Owen A. Waddell was appointed major. When the muster, which took place at Saltillo, Mississippi, was completed, 618 men were listed on the regiment's rolls. As of the date of organization, the regiment contained ten companies, designated with the letters A–K and I; all were Missouri-raised. ## Service history ### 1862 After organizing, the regiment was designated the 5th Missouri Infantry Regiment despite the 6th Missouri Infantry Regiment having formed first. After joining the First Missouri Brigade, the regiment saw light action at the Battle of Iuka on September 19, 1862, where it suffered five casualties. The regiment was next engaged at the Second Battle of Corinth on October 3 and 4th. At Second Corinth, the regiment was in Colonel Elijah Gates' brigade of Brigadier General Louis Hébert's division of the Confederate Army of West Tennessee. On the first day at Corinth, Gates' brigade entered the action around 4:45 p.m., when it moved to aid Brigadier General Martin E. Green's brigade. However, Green ordered a charge after only one of Gates' regiments, the 2nd Missouri Infantry Regiment, had fully deployed. The Confederate charge broke the Union outer line, but Price decided not to attack the interior Union lines on the night of the 3rd, instead choosing to wait for the next morning. On the morning of the 4th, Gates' brigade was part of a Confederate attack against the Union interior line; the attack was aimed at a fortification known as Battery Powell. Much of the Union infantry broke and routed as the Confederate attack neared the Union position. After reaching Battery Powell, the 5th Missouri Infantry fired a volley into the fortification, which cut down or dispersed the Union artillerymen still defending the position. One Missourian later wrote that the inside of the fortification was "one of the bloodiest places [he] ever saw." The colorbearer of the regiment was mortally wounded while crossing the wall of the works, and McCown was shot in the wrist. Six of the regiment's company commanders had fallen during the attack. Some of the men of the regiment turned captured cannons against the Union army. As a whole, Gates' brigade was able to break a hole in the Union line that was 440 yards (400 m) long. However, the Confederate attack was not supported, and the Union troops were able to regroup. The 5th Missouri Infantry was soon exposed to crossfire. A Union counterattack eventually swept Gates' brigade, including the 5th Missouri Infantry, from the ground they had taken; the regiment suffered 87 casualties over the course of the battle. The regiment then spent the rest of 1862 encamped in northern Mississippi. ### 1863 #### Louisiana expedition and Port Gibson In March 1863, the regiment was transferred to Grand Gulf, Mississippi, where it built fortifications overlooking the Mississippi River. In early April, the regiment was sent across the Mississippi River into Louisiana as part of a scouting force commanded by Colonel Francis M. Cockrell. After arriving in Louisiana, the Missourians encamped near where Negro Bayou and Bayou Vidal connected. Not long after arriving, the task force participated in two small actions near James' Plantation. On April 15, Company F was part of a small force Cockrell led in a surprise attack on a Union outpost at Dunbar's Plantation. While the Confederates captured the supplies at the outpost, the defenders of the outpost, elements of the 49th Indiana Infantry Regiment and the 120th Ohio Infantry Regiment, escaped. On April 17, the Missourians retreated back across the river into Mississippi, as the Union Navy had occupied New Carthage, Louisiana, threatening the security of the Confederate position. After returning to Grand Gulf, the units of the First Missouri Brigade were given new battle flags. The flags bore a Latin cross on a blue background with a red trim. On April 30, elements of the Union Army of the Tennessee commanded by Major General Ulysses S. Grant landed on the Mississippi side of the Mississippi River. Brigadier General John S. Bowen, Confederate commander at Grand Gulf, was tasked with delaying the Union advance at Port Gibson. The Confederate force at Port Gibson consisted of the troops of Green, Brigadier General William E. Baldwin, and Brigadier General Edward D. Tracy. Bowen sent the 3rd, 5th, and 6th Missouri Infantry Regiments, Guibor's Missouri Battery, and a portion of Landis' Missouri Battery to Port Gibson under the command of Cockrell. Green's brigade was forced to retreat in the face of a Union attack, but a secondary line was formed from Baldwin's brigade, part of Cockrell's force, and the rallied survivors of Green's brigade. Meanwhile, the 6th Missouri Infantry was sent to the Confederate right, where Tracy had been killed. The 3rd and 5th Missouri Infantry were kept as reserves for the early portion of the battle. The combined strength of the two regiments was approximately 700 to 800 men. The two Missouri regiments were later sent to attempt to turn the exposed Union right flank. However, heavy trees and underbrush confused the Confederates, and the attack fell on the Union right-center, instead of the flank. The Missourians came into view of the Union position at about 12:30 p.m. After coming under Union artillery fire, the two Confederate regiments attacked the Union line, striking the brigades of Colonel James R. Slack and Brigadier General George F. McGinnis. The 3rd Missouri Infantry fought with McGinnis' brigade, and the 5th took on Slack's. The 5th Missouri Infantry had been aligned perpendicular to Slack's flank, and the regiment's attack broke through the line of two of Slack's regiments. After advancing through the cover of a canebrake, the regiment attacked the 29th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, which had little combat experience. The 29th Wisconsin Infantry suffered heavy casualties, but Union reinforcements arrived, driving the Confederates back into the cover of a ravine. Union troops pressed the Confederate position hard, with the lines sometimes only 10 feet (3.0 m) apart. Some of the men of the 5th Missouri Infantry left the ravine to attempt to outflank the 29th Wisconsin Infantry, which was part of the force attacking the regiment; the attempt was not successful. Eventually, Bowen ordered the 5th and 3rd Missouri Infantry to retreat. Seven men of Company I of the 5th volunteered to provide a rear guard in the ravine by pretending to be a much larger force; this was accomplished by firing rapidly and shouting fake orders. The two regiments were able to escape from the field, and all seven men of the rear guard force escaped safely. After returning to the main Confederate line, the two units also provided a rear guard for the main Confederate force as it slipped off the field. The 5th Missouri Infantry reported 67 casualties at Port Gibson, and the 3rd Missouri Infantry 24, although other estimates place the total loss of the two regiments as upwards of 200. #### Champion Hill On May 7, the regiment was reinforced when 100 exchanged prisoners joined the regiment, creating a second Company H. The First Missouri Brigade was also issued .577 Enfield rifled muskets around the same time. The regiment fought next on May 16 at the Battle of Champion Hill. Early in the battle, Company F was detached from the rest of the 5th Missouri Infantry as part of a battalion of skirmishers drawn from the infantry regiments of the First Missouri Brigade; the battalion was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Finley L. Hubbell of the 3rd Missouri Infantry. By the early afternoon of the 16th, the Confederate left flank at Champion Hill was already collapsing. The First Missouri Brigade was sent by Lieutenant General John C. Pemberton to stabilize the Confederate line. The 5th Missouri Infantry was the first of the brigade's regiment to reach the front, where it formed next to the 56th Georgia Infantry Regiment. The 3rd Missouri Infantry then formed next to the 5th. However, an attack by Slack's Union brigade routed the Georgians and captured Waddell's Alabama Battery. The two Missouri regiments were then exposed to enfilade fire, causing them to retreat slightly. The rest of Cockrell's First Missouri Brigade arrived, and the 3rd and 5th Missouri Infantry moved back to their original positions. After full deployment, the brigade was aligned with the 6th Missouri Infantry and the 2nd Missouri Infantry on the left, the 3rd Missouri Infantry in the center, and the 5th Missouri Infantry and the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated) on the right. Green's brigade formed to the right of Cockrell's brigade, and the two brigades charged, supported by fire from Landis' Battery and Lowe's Missouri Battery. The Confederate charge broke the first Union line, and recaptured a strategic crossroads as well as the cannons of Waddell's Battery. After retaking the crossroads, the Confederates began advancing towards Champion Hill, another prominent battlefield feature. Cockrell's brigade defeated McGinnis' brigade, and Green's swept aside Slack's. Union division commander Brigadier General Alvin P. Hovey ordered artillery batteries to support the Union line, including the 16th Ohio Battery, which inflicted heavy casualties on the Missourians with canister fire. During the attack, the two lines were sometimes as close as 15 yards (14 m) apart. After the attack had begun, newly rallied Confederate units, including the 56th Georgia Infantry and the 57th Georgia Infantry Regiments joined the attack. Union reinforcements arrived in the form of Colonels George B. Boomer's and John B. Sanborn's brigades. The 5th Iowa Infantry Regiment was routed by the Confederates, but the Union reinforcements were enough to slow the momentum of the Confederate attack. Most of the Confederates were halted, although the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) and portions of the 5th continued on in an attack, aiming for the Union supply train. However, the attack was unsuccessful. Another Union brigade, commanded by Colonel Samuel A. Holmes, entered the fighting, and the Confederates were forced to withdraw. The Confederates had also begun to run low on ammunition, as a Confederate officer, likely Major General Carter L. Stevenson, had ordered Cockrell's and Green's supply trains from the field. Fire from Guibor's Battery, Landis' Battery, and Wade's Missouri Battery helped cover the retreat. As Pemberton's Confederate army slipped from the field in retreat, the First Missouri Brigade was used as a rear guard. The 5th Missouri Infantry lost 90 men at Champion Hill. #### Big Black River Bridge and the Siege of Vicksburg On May 17, Cockrell's brigade was part of a force defending the crossing of the Big Black River. It was on the Confederate right, between a body of water named Gin Lake and Brigadier General John C. Vaughn's brigade. The 5th Missouri Infantry was positioned to the right of the 4th Mississippi Infantry Regiment. While the 5th Missouri Infantry repulsed a Union probing attack, a Union charge quickly routed Vaughn's brigade, exposing the flanks of the rest of the Confederate line. The Missourians were unaware that Vaughn's line had broken, and were surprised to receive orders to retreat. After the 4th Mississippi Infantry routed, the 5th Missouri Infantry was in a very exposed position and also routed, with the men racing across the river crossing. After the defeat at Big Black River Bridge, the 5th Missouri Infantry entered the defenses of Vicksburg, Mississippi, where it was part of the Confederate reserve. On May 19, Grant's Union army made a major attack against the Vicksburg defenses. The 5th Missouri Infantry and the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) were sent to support a point known as the Stockade Redan, which was defended by the 36th Mississippi Infantry Regiment. The two Missouri regiments drove back the attacking Union soldiers after an encounter Bevier described as a "sharp conflict" and "dreadful slaughter". After the Union attacks were repulsed, most of Cockrell's brigade returned to reserve duty, although the 5th Missouri Infantry and the 1st and 4th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) remained on the front line. Another Union assault took place on May 22. At the beginning of the charge, the 5th Missouri Infantry was occupying trenches south of the Stockade Redan. A Union artillery barrage damaged the Confederate defenses, sending fragments of the wooden logs used to build the fortifications flying as shrapnel. Union troops attacking the position of the 5th Missouri Infantry suffered heavy casualties, and some, including elements of the 6th and the 8th Missouri Infantry Regiments, became trapped in a ditch in front of the Confederate lines. During the fighting, some of the Missourians used artillery shells as homemade hand grenades. After May 22nd, the 5th Missouri Infantry was regularly split into two groups: one held behind as a reserve, and the other manning the front line. By May 24th, the Union lines had grown so close to the Confederate lines that men of opposite sides could talk to each other. On May 27, the regiment was shifted to another point in the Confederate line, and was again moved on May 28, this time to a reserve position near a munitions storage site. By early June, the Confederate defenders of Vicksburg were running low on percussion caps, hindering their ability to fire at their besiegers. Rations for the Confederate garrison began to run low. On June 25, a tunnel filled with 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg) of black powder was exploded below a point in the Confederate line known as the Third Louisiana Redan. A gap was blown in the Confederate line, and Union infantry, led by the 45th Illinois Infantry Regiment, charged into the gap. The 5th and 6th Missouri Infantry were sent to the aid of the 3rd Louisiana Infantry Regiment, and the line stabilized. Union troops filled the crater created by the explosion. Again, the Confederates used artillery shells as grenades, while Union troops countered with Ketchum grenades. June 26th brought more fighting at the crater site, and more use of artillery shells as hand grenades. By June 27th, the fighting around the crater had ended, although the sector was still considered one of the more dangerous points in the line. The 5th and 6th Missouri Infantry took turns defending the sector, with the 5th Missouri Infantry defending the line between midnight and 6:00 a.m. and between noon and 6:00 p.m. each day. On July 1, another tunnel beneath the Confederate line was detonated. The 1,800 pounds (820 kg) of powder in this mine blew many Missourians into the air, including Cockrell. However, no Union charge followed this explosion. On July 4, the Confederate garrison at Vicksburg surrendered. By this point, only 276 men remained in the regiment. The survivors of the 5th Missouri Infantry were paroled, sent to Demopolis, Alabama, and eventually exchanged. On October 6, the 5th Missouri Infantry was consolidated into four companies, which were later combined with the survivors of the 3rd Missouri Infantry to form the 3rd and 5th Missouri Infantry Regiment (Consolidated). The 5th Missouri Infantry ceased to exist as a separate unit after the consolidation. ## Legacy McCown was appointed colonel of the consolidated regiment, Waddell retained his rank of major, and Bevier was transferred to Richmond, Virginia, to perform recruiting duty. Companies A, C, F, and G of the new regiment contained men from the 5th Missouri Infantry, and Companies B, D, E, and H contained men from the 3rd. On October 16, 1863, the 3rd and 5th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) transferred to Meridian, Mississippi, before moving to Mobile, Alabama, in January 1864. After being stationed at Meridian, Demopolis, and various locations in northern Alabama, the regiment entered Georgia in May. By that point, only 340 men remained in the consolidated regiment. In May, the regiment fought at the Battle of New Hope Church before fighting at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in June. Later, the regiment defended Atlanta, Georgia, during the Siege of Atlanta before abandoning the city in September. The 3rd and 5th Missouri Infantry (Consolidated) lost 123 men during the Atlanta Campaign. On October 5, the regiment was part of a Confederate attack against a Union outpost in the Battle of Allatoona, a fight which cost the regiment 76 casualties. On November 30, the consolidated regiment was nearly annihilated at the Battle of Franklin, losing 113 out of approximately 150 men. In February 1865, the regiment transferred to Mobile, where it surrendered on April 9 during the Battle of Fort Blakely, ending the men's combat experience.

Daire Keogh

Irish historian and third-level educational leader

Daire Kilian Keogh (born July 1964) is an academic historian and third-level educational leader, president of Dublin City University (DCU) since July 2020. Keogh graduated in history, later taking a PhD while working part-time as a school teacher. He was a lecturer at a number of Irish third-level institutions, and then professor at, and later president (2012–2016) of, Ireland's main teacher training college, St Patrick's, Drumcondra. He has written or edited more than a dozen books in the fields of Irish revolutionary and religious history. After St Patrick's merged fully into DCU he was appointed as the university's deputy president, and after a long search process in 2018 and 2019, he was selected to become DCU's fourth president as of July 14, 2020, for a term of 10 years. ## Early life and education Daire (sometimes written Dáire) Keogh was born to Peter and Cora Keogh of Rathfarnham, and has four brothers and a sister. His father owned and ran Peter's Pub between South William Street and St Stephen's Green in central Dublin. He attended Loreto Abbey National School, then Synge Street CBS. He studied history, economics and philosophy at University College Dublin (UCD, within the National University of Ireland), securing a Bachelor of Arts in history. He then studied for the priesthood at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, and while he did not pursue ordination, received a qualification (BPh) there. ## Academic career On his return to Ireland he started work as a teacher at St Mac Dara's Community College in Templeogue and successfully pursued a PhD in history at Trinity College Dublin. He graduated in 1993, with a thesis entitled The Catholic Church and Radicalism in Ireland in the 1790s. He lectured and performed research at a range of Irish third-level institutions, including UCD, Trinity College, one or both of the universities in Maynooth, UCG, St Patrick's College, Drumcondra and the Oscail remote education centre hosted by DCU. He also held a post for a time as adjunct professor at the University of Notre Dame, near South Bend in Indiana, one of the leading Catholic universities in North America Keogh also took a master's degree in Theology at the University of Glasgow. Keogh lectured in Early Modern European and Irish history from at least 2001 in the Department of History within the Faculty of Humanities at St Patrick's College, Drumcondra, previously an autonomous institution but by then a college of DCU. By 2011, he was a Senior Lecturer. He also served as Head of Quality Assurance. He then held a named chair, as Cregan Professor of Modern Irish History. He has also held the post of Fellow at the University Design Institute at Arizona State University. He was President of St Patrick's from 2012 to 2016, overseeing a broadening of its curriculum and the construction of a new library building. He also became a director of the college's fundraising foundation. St Patrick's fully merged into Dublin City University – forming the base for an Institute of Education, also incorporating other colleges, and a partial base for a Faculty of Humanities. This process Keogh led for St Patrick's. He was appointed as Deputy President of DCU, and his responsibilities included the non-academic aspects of student life, such as welfare, sporting and social activities, as well as interaction with DCU's alumni, and the university's strategic planning process. He also played a key role in agreeing the move of the 140,000-volume library of the Jesuit order in Ireland to the branch of DCU's library at the All Hallows campus. Keogh was selected in 2019 for the Staff Leadership Award, presented at the annual dinner of DCU's Leadership Circle of major donors. ### Areas of study Keogh's research and publications work addresses aspects of Irish history including politics, education, religion and gender. Specifically he has specialised in aspects of the history of the Catholic Church in Ireland and revolutionary politics in the 18th century. He has won funding from the State-sponsored Irish Research Council and its predecessor the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences (IRCHSS), on at least two occasions: in 2007 he secured a Senior Research Fellowship for work on the history of the Irish Christian Brothers and from 2008, project grant funding for work to edit and publish the correspondence of Cardinal Paul Cullen, for which he remains, as of 2020, principal investigator. Keogh also chairs the editorial committee of DCU's journal of Irish Studies, Studia Hibernica, which covers the fields of history, folklore, toponymy and the Irish language. ### Voluntary posts He has served as vice-president of a national trade union, the Irish Federation of University Teachers, and was nominated by that body as a member of an EU third-level education quality assurance body, the European Quality Assurance Register (EQAR), and the governing body of Ireland's National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, which oversees the primary school curriculum. Keogh became a member of the Policy and Standards Committee of Quality and Qualifications Ireland, the state body responsible for overseeing the Irish third-level qualifications framework and quality assurance structures, in April 2017, and resigned with effect from July 2020, after his appointment as DCU president. Keogh also chairs the Higher Education and Research Committee of the British Irish Chamber of Commerce, and has written an article in a national newspaper setting out some committee positions and concerns around Brexit. As of 2020 he is, in a private capacity, a member of the governing body of the Edmund Rice Schools Trust, which manages more than 90 Catholic schools, and where he served for some time along with DCU's founding president, Danny O'Hare. He has also been a member of the boards of both national schools in Drumcondra and Rathfarnham and the secondary school Clongowes Wood College. Keogh has also appeared on radio programmes, including speaking about the legacy of Cardinal Cullen on RTÉ Radio 1. He has also spoken on the topic of capturing oral accounts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Keogh has qualified as a Chartered Director at the Institute of Directors. He was a director, from 2013 to 2017, of the think tank, the Centre for Cross-Border Studies, and has been a director of Women for Election which aims to boost the supply and confidence of women electoral candidates, since 2014. ### DCU presidency Keogh was selected in December 2019, after an 18-month international search process, and appointed by the Governing Authority for a term of ten years. ## Publications Keogh has authored or edited, individually or jointly, at least 16 books on aspects of history, and various papers, as well as contributing multiple articles to the Dictionary of Irish Biography. Books: - The United Irishmen: Republicanism, Radicalism and Rebellion (edited by David Dickson, Dáire Keogh and Kevin Whelan. Dublin, 1993: Lilliput Press) - The mighty wave: the 1798 rebellion in Wexford (eds: Dáire Keogh & Nicholas Furlong. Dublin, 1996: Gill and Macmillan) - The Women of 1798 (eds: Furlong, Nicholas and Keogh, Dáire. Dublin, 1998: Four Courts Press) - Rebellion: a television history of 1798 (accompanying an RTE TV series) (Thomas Bartlett, Kevin Dawson, Dáire Keogh, 1998. Dublin, 1998: Gill and Macmillan) - A patriot priest: the life of Father James Coigly, 1761–1798 (edited by Dáire Keogh. Cork, 1998: Cork University Press) - History of the Catholic Diocese of Dublin (eds: James Kelly and Daire Keogh. Dublin, 2000: Four Courts Press) - Acts of Union: the causes, contexts, and consequences of the Act of Union (edited by Dáire Keogh and Kevin Whelan. Dublin, 2001: Four Courts Press) - Christianity in Ireland: revisiting the story (edited by Brendan Bradshaw and Dáire Keogh. Dublin, 2002: Columba Press) - 1798: A Bicentenary Perspective (edited with Thomas Bartlett, David Dickson and Kevin Whelan. Dublin, 2003: Four Courts Press) - The Irish College, Rome and its world (eds: Keogh, Dáire and McDonnell, Albert. Dublin, 2008: Four Courts Press) - Edmund Rice and the first Christian Brothers (Dáire Keogh (announced as the first of a series on the history of the Christian Brothers). Dublin, 2008: Four Courts Press) - Cardinal Paul Cullen and His World (eds: Keogh, Dáire and McDonnell, Albert. Dublin, 2011: Four Courts Press) - Rebellion & revolution in Dublin: voices from a suburb, Rathfarnham, 1913–23 (eds: Hay, Marnie and Keogh, Dáire. Tallaght, Dublin, 2016: South Dublin County Libraries) ) Articles: - Forged in the Fire of Persecution: Edmund Rice (1762–1844) and the Counter-Reformationary Character of the Irish Christian Brothers, "Essays in the History of Irish Education", editor: Brendan Walsh; London, 2016: Palgrave Macmillan (Macmillan Publishers); pp. 83–104. - The Dictionary of Irish Biography articles on Fr Thomas Betagh, Bishop James Caulfield, Fr James Coigly, Friar William Gahan, Bishop Thomas Hussey, Fr John Martin, Christian Brothers founder Edmund Ignatius Rice and Archbishop J.T. Troy. ## Personal life In November 2000 Keogh married Katherine (Katie) Schott, from Indianapolis, Indiana, at the on-campus basilica of the University of Notre Dame. His wife, a graduate of Notre Dame (Lewis Hall, 1998), later a project manager and communications specialist, had moved to Ireland as associate director of the Dublin branch operation of the university in 1998. She also worked for the award-winning Childhood Development Initiative in Tallaght, and both the US Embassy and the American Chamber in Ireland. Mrs Keogh also served as lead for the DCU Alumni Emerging Leaders Programme. The Keoghs have four children. The family lived in the Dublin suburb of Rathfarnham, where they support, and hold officer positions with, the Rathfarnham Concert Band Society. Keogh co-edited a book on Rathfarnham's links with Irish revolutionary activity.

Zygophyseter

Extinct genus of mammals

Zygophyseter varolai is an extinct sperm whale that lived during the Tortonian age of the Late Miocene 11.2 to 7.6 million years ago. It is known from a single specimen from the Pietra Leccese Formation in Italy. It was a member of a stem group of fossil macroraptorial sperm whales (often shortened to "raptorial") also including Brygmophyseter, Acrophyseter, and Livyatan. It probably grew to be around 6.5 to 7 meters (21 to 23 ft) in length and shared some characteristics with other raptorials, such as large teeth with tooth enamel that were functional in both the upper and lower jaws which the modern sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) lacks. It also had a beak, the ability to echolocate prey, and could have probably swum faster than the modern-day sperm whale which can reach 4 kilometers per hour (2.5 mph). These were probably used in the capture of large prey, such as large fish, seals, and whales. In fact, its common name, the killer sperm whale, refers to its feeding habits that would have had a resemblance to the modern-day killer whale (Orcinus orca). ## Discovery The type and only specimen, labelled MAUL 229/1, is of an almost complete skeleton discovered in southern Italy by geologist Angelo Varola in the marine lime mudstone of the Pietra Leccese Formation near the city of Lecce. It was described in 2006 by geologists Giovanni Bianucci and Walter Landini from the University of Pisa. The genus name Zygophyseter comes from the Latin word zygomaticus, which emphasizes the elongation of the zygomatic process of the only known species Z. varolai, and the term physeter refers to the modern-day sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) of the family Physeteridae. The species name honors the discoverer. Zygophyseter is part of a fossil stem group of hyper-predatory macroraptorial sperm whales (often shortened to "raptorial") which also includes Brygmophyseter, Acrophyseter, and Livyatan. This group is characterized by having large, functional teeth on both the upper and lower jaw with an enamel coating; whereas the modern sperm whale lacks enamel, teeth in the upper jaws, and functionality in the teeth for catching prey. Zygophyseter is more closely related to Brygmophyseter and Acrophyseter than to Livyatan, and the enlarged teeth of this group are thought to have evolved either from a common basilosaurid-like ancestor, or independently once or twice within the group. Some fossil remains, mostly teeth, of the genus Scaldicetus were reassigned to these raptorials, including Z. varolai. Scaldicetus is now considered to be a grade taxon with reported specimens probably united only by similar physical characteristics rather than a shared ancestry as a clade. It has been proposed that these raptorials be placed into the extinct, possibly paraphyletic (which would make it invalid) subfamily Hoplocetinae, alongside Scaldicetus, Diaphorocetus, Idiorophus, and Hoplocetus. ## Description ### Skull A characteristic of related raptorials, Zygophyseter had buccal exostoses, bony outgrowths in the alveolar ridge in the mouth, which are thought to have increased their bite force. Like other raptorials, it had large temporal fossae, probably for supporting strong temporal and masseter muscles, the strongest muscles between the skull and the jaw, meaning this adaptation allowed it to shut its jaws harder. The zygomatic bone (cheekbone) projects outward (anteriorly), indicating it had a beak, which featured an abrupt narrowing; this may have allowed it to clamp down on prey more effectively. The head probably took up 21–23% of the total body size, compared to that of the modern sperm whale which takes up around one fourth to one third of the total body size. Like in other sperm whales, the blowhole was slanted towards the left side of the animal, and it may have lacked a right nasal passage. The falciform process on the squamosal bone was large and ventrally facing; as opposed to the ones in the Kogiidae (Kogia and Praekogia) which are either reduced or absent. These may have been reduced in kogiids due to adaptations to deep-sea diving. Like in modern sperm whales, Zygophyseter had a very large basin above the braincase, known as the supracranial basin, which probably housed the spermaceti organ and the melon. These are used in the generation and focusing of sound for biosonar in the modern sperm whale, indicating Zygophyseter had some mechanisms for biosonar; that is to say this animal could have used echolocation. The zygomatic processes of the temporal bone on the cheeks were elongated probably because they supported the spermaceti organ. The skull features a pronounced slope into the supracranial basin. It probably had an echolocation system similar to that of the modern sperm whale, and Zygophyseter may have, in comparison to the echolocative abilities of other modern toothed whales, produced smaller bandwidths and lower center frequencies. This would have made it inept at detecting anything that did not have a diameter of at least 1 meter (3 ft 3 in). ### Teeth Zygophyseter had 28 teeth in the lower jaws and 26 in the upper jaws. The curvature of the teeth increased medially, that is, the teeth in the front of the mouth were straighter than the teeth in the back of the mouth. The back teeth featured more wear than the front teeth. Like Brygmophyseter, it had a relatively small crown, making up only 18% of the tooth. Killer whales (Orcinus orca), in comparison, have crowns that make up 20–25% of the tooth. Other characteristics include the presence of the gumline below the crown-root boundary (meaning that part of the root was exposed), and longitudinal grooves on the root. In the type specimen, the teeth ranged in height from 150 to 250 millimeters (5.9 to 9.8 in) with an average height of 175.6 mm (6.91 in), and ranged in diameter from 47 to 56 mm (1.9 to 2.2 in) with an average of 52.4 mm (2.06 in). Like in other raptorials, and unlike in the modern sperm whale, Zygophyseter had tooth enamel. Like in Acrophyseter, the mandibular foramen takes up about 40% of the lower jawbone. The teeth of the upper jaw form an angle of nearly 120° between the crown and the root, which is possibly a characteristic shared by all raptorials. ### Vertebrae Zygophyseter could reach an estimated length of 6.5 to 7 meters (21 to 23 ft), compared to the 12.5-to-18.5-meter (41 to 61 ft) modern sperm whale. It is thought that this whale had twelve thoracic vertebrae and at least ten lumbar vertebrae. The type specimen had only 8 thoracic vertebrae preserved, and only the atlas of the neck vertebrae. Like in the modern sperm whales, the neck vertebrae were probably not fused. The centrum of the thoracic vertebrae formed a large and almost pear-shaped central canal which transports nutrients to the spinal cord. The width between the transverse processes (the diagonal projections from a vertebral centrum) of the thoracic vertebrae were 235 millimeters (9.3 in); and the neural spine, the part of the spine that projects away from the centrum, is missing in the type specimen, but it was probably short and thin. The lumbar vertebrae were elongated and may have supported large multifidus and longissimus muscles in the back, likely larger than the modern sperm whale, and so it probably swam faster than the modern sperm whale; the modern sperm whale typically travels horizontally at 4 kilometers per hour (2.5 mph), comparable to other large open-ocean animals. The type specimen had eight caudal vertebrae in the tail. The animal probably had 12 ribs. The length of the ribs increased from the first to the fifth, then decreased from the fifth to the twelfth; and the width of the ribs decreased from the first to the twelfth, similar to other cetaceans. ## Paleobiology ### Feeding and bite force Since the teeth of Zygophyseter are large, exhibit wearing not unlike the teeth of modern-day killer whales, and had functionality in both the upper and lower jaws, it was likely a macropredator. The position of the condyloid processes between the jaw and the skull, like in the modern sperm whale, allowed it to open its jaw wider in order to grab large prey. Its apparent similarity to the feeding habits of the killer whale gave it its nickname "killer sperm whale." A 2021 multi-author study led by Emanuele Peri reconstructed the bite force of Zygophyseter using finite element analysis of the skull. The model calculated an anterior bite force (the bite force at the front end of the jaws) of 4,812 newtons (1,082 lbf) and posterior bite force (at the back end of the jaws) of 10,823 newtons (2,433 lbf) from a bite simulated at a 35° jaw gape. This is roughly the same bite force that could be exerted by an adult great white shark that is 5.01–5.36 meters (16.4–17.6 ft) long and is stronger than that in other strong-biting animals like lions, though not as strong as in saltwater crocodiles and Basilosaurus isis. Nevertheless, the posterior bite force of Zygophyseter was strong enough to crush bone. The significant disparity between the anterior and posterior bite forces and the pattern of stress distribution in the finite element analysis model suggests that Zygophyseter employed a "grip-and-shear" feeding strategy, in which the animal would grasp prey with its front teeth and cut them using its back teeth. This strategy is somewhat unique, being absent in modern marine macropredators such as sharks and orcas, which instead use a "grip-and-tear" method that dismembers prey by holding and shaking them, and was only previously present in some basilosaurids. However, it is likely that the feeding strategy evolved independently in Zygophyseter and related macroraptorial sperm whales, as it was absent in more ancestral genera like Eudelphis. Given the similar bite force between Zygophyseter and a fully-grown great white shark, it was hypothesized that the cetacean occupied a similar ecological niche that primarily fed on local large fish such as marlin and wahoos and small to medium-sized marine mammals such as seals, dugongs, and small cetaceans. However, neither stomach contents nor cut marks on the bones of prey species have been discovered, and thus its diet is speculative. ## Paleoecology The Z. varolai specimen from the Pietra Leccese Formation dates back to the Tortonian age of the Late Miocene epoch, around 11.6 to 7.2 million years ago (mya), and most likely inhabited the Paratethys sea. This formation has also unearthed the remains of several other large vertebrate species. Ancient sirenians of the genus Metaxytherium were apparently common throughout the ancient Mediterranean Sea. Many fish remains of teleost fish, rays, and at least twenty species of sharks have been discovered, such as the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and the extinct Otodus megalodon. Three species of turtles have been identified: Trachyaspis lardyi, Procolpochelys melii, which are both ancient marine turtles, and Psephophorus polygonus, an ancient leatherback sea turtle. Aside from Zygophyseter, two other cetacean species have been described from this formation: the oldest-known gray whale Archaeschrichtius ruggieroi, and a species of beaked whale Messapicetus longirostris. ## Taxonomy Phylogenetical analysis shows that Zygophyseter is most closely related to Brygmophyseter. ## See also - Aulophyseter - Orycterocetus

Lavaca Bay

Body of water in Calhoun County, Texas, United States

Lavaca Bay (/ləvˈɑːkə/ ) is a northwestern extension of the Matagorda Bay system found mostly in Calhoun County, Texas, United States. The ports of Port Lavaca and Point Comfort have been established on the bay, and are the main areas of human habitation. Linnville was located on the bay until its abandonment after the Great Raid of 1840, and the major port of Indianola was found near the confluence with the main Matagorda Bay, until the town's final destruction following the massive hurricane of 1886. Smaller communities include Olivia, Alamo Beach and Magnolia Beach. Lavaca Bay is approximately 82 miles (130 km) northeast of Corpus Christi, about 121 miles (190 km) southwest of Houston, and 145 miles (230 km) southeast of San Antonio. In the late 1680s, French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle built a colony dubbed Fort St. Louis in this area. A June 1996 dig at the site that was believed to be the correct location revealed eight French cannon. This led archeologists to excavate the Keeran Ranch site in the area, during 1996–2002; they concluded that the Spanish Presidio La Bahía fort "was built on the La Salle settlement". Some 10 percent of the artifacts recovered are believed to have originated in France. The bay is noted for its superfund site, caused by mercury pollution from the heavy industry in Point Comfort (specifically Alcoa), across the bay from the largest settlement of Port Lavaca. Although fishing has declined in recent years due to fears of contamination, the bay supports a large finfish population, and the efforts of environmental organizations and the federal government have pressured Alcoa to reduce the polluted areas. ## History Lavaca Bay was formed when the sea level rose following the last ice age, flooding the Lavaca River-Garcitas Creek basin. The name comes from the Spanish adaptation of the French vache or cow, given to the area by French explorer René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle for the sightings of Plains Bison, which were once common near the bay and the creeks that feed it. It is believed La Salle established his Fort St. Louis colony near the bay on Garcitas Creek. The first sizable human settlement on the bay shore was at the town of New Port, established in 1831 by Irish merchant John J. Linn as part of De León's colony. The site was later renamed Linnville, and grew to a population of 200 by 1839. It was described as "a place of considerable business" in Sketches of Texas in 1840, and was used extensively during the early years of the Republic of Texas. Future San Antonio Mayor Samuel Maverick owned a warehouse in the town, along with many other prominent Texans. The town was destroyed during the Great Raid of 1840, orchestrated by the Comanche Indians, and was later abandoned. Port Lavaca or Lavaca, developed after the abandonment of Linnville. It grew substantially following the destruction of Indianola, and became a prominent shipping location and national leader in shrimp production. Across the bay and currently connected by Texas State Highway 35, the town of Point Comfort is found. It was incorporated in 1953 at a citywide vote and is known for its large aluminium and petrochemical plants built in the 1960s. The small town of Olivia, which was founded in 1892 as a Swedish Lutheran community, is located on the shores of Keller Bay. The unincorporated towns of Alamo Beach, established around 1900, and Magnolia Beach, founded sometime thereafter, and named for the Magnolia figs produced in the area, are found north of the remains of the ghost town of Indianola. ## Features Lavaca Bay is the largest extension of the Matagorda Bay system and includes its own extensions of Chocolate Bay to the southwest, Cox Bay to the east, and Keller Bay to the southeast. The Lavaca River as well as Garcitas Creek and Venado Creek supply the bay with fresh water from the north. Channels have been dredged to connect the bay to the Intracoastal Waterway, which runs to the south. On average, the bay is about 4 feet (1 m) in depth. Unlike most of the Matagorda Bay system, Lavaca Bay has a mostly muddy bottom with large amounts of oyster reefs and spoils islands formed by the dredging of several canals. The shores are lined with grassy bluffs and a thick cover of trees. The Lavaca River enters near the Port Lavaca Causeway as it traverses Lavaca Bay from Port Lavaca to Point Comfort at the center of the bay, which is also its narrowest width. The river flows 115 miles (190 km) southeast from its source in northeast Gonzales County, draining approximately 2,280 square miles (5,900 km²) into Lavaca Bay. South of the Port Lavaca Causeway in Point Comfort, on the bay's eastern shore, a heavy industrial sector is located, which lines the coast to Cox Bay, which extends to the east. South of Cox Bay is the larger Keller Bay extension, which extends the bay to its easternmost point near Olivia. Below the extension, is a narrow peninsula, bounded by Matagorda Bay to the south, which extends west to the mouth of Lavaca Bay. Across the mouth on the western shore, past the Matagorda Ship Channel, which runs through the middle of the bay to Point Comfort, the town of Magnolia Beach is found. To the northwest is the town of Alamo Beach, located on Gailinipper Point, from which a major oyster reef begins across the bay to Point Comfort. The point is located on the northeastern extreme of a headland that juts to the north, forming Chocolate Bay to the west. Port Lavaca is found north of Chocolate Bay, back at the Port Lavaca Causeway. North of the causeway is a large circular extension, forming the northern boundary of the Lavaca Bay. The northwestern extreme is formed by Garcitas Cove, fed by Garcitas Creek, which flows 48 miles (77 km) from its source in DeWitt County. To the east is Venado Creek, which converges with the bay, northwest of the mouth of the Lavaca River. ## Ecosystem Lavaca Bay hosts a wide range of finfish including Black drum, Flounder, Redfish, Sheepshead and Speckled trout, however it suffers from mercury pollution. An Alcoa plant in Point Comfort dumped an estimated 67 pounds (30 kg) of mercury into the bay per day in the 1960s, affecting 64 square miles (170 km²). A mercury superfund was established at the site, and the processing of oysters and blue crab in certain locations was prohibited. A study revealed that the bay's detritus is more than ten times as contaminated as nearby Keller Bay. The pollution issue is a main concern of citizens of Calhoun County, and has attracted demonstrations against industry in Point Comfort. However, Alcoa has worked with state and federal officials, spending \$110 million to reduce the size of the superfund site, as part of a 2005 settlement. Cooperation aims to create 70 additional acres of salt marsh and 11 acres of oyster reef habitat. Locals have estimated that the only area still affected by contamination is just offshore from the Alcoa plant. Signs warning boaters of the water's toxicity are found at the site. The stigma attached to the bay due to reports of pollution has discouraged fishing, enabling a healthy population to develop. ## Industry Industry is heavy along the bay, with an abundance of natural gas and oil wells at all corners. Natural gas was discovered at the site in 1934, and oil was discovered the next year. Point Comfort is home to several industrial plants along the shore, including Alcoa, Union Carbide, DuPont, and Formosa Plastics Corp. Despite the restrictions on the bay that prevent the production of fish and shellfish along the superfund site, seafood harvesting is a major industry. However, it is not as prominent as it was in the 1920s, when Port Lavaca led the nation in shrimp production, leading to the construction of a quick-freezing plant. Today, shrimping is only allowed south of the Port Lavaca Causeway, due to the north's classification as a nursery location. Shellfish production is allowed in Keller Bay and Lavaca Bay south of Point Comfort, but is restricted along the eastern and northern coast and Chocolate Bay, and is conditionally approved in the remaining locations, including along the shore of Port Lavaca. A small tourism industry also fuels economic growth, spurred by the Port Lavaca State Fishing Pier found alongside the Port Lavaca Causeway. The pier once served as the causeway across the bay but was replaced in the 1960s and converted into a fishing pier of 3,200 feet (980 m), billed as the longest in the world. However this pier is now memorialized by its remains, posts, and small platforms no longer accessible from the shore stand alongside the modern causeway.

3 Times Square

Skyscraper in Manhattan, New York

3 Times Square, also known as the Thomson Reuters Building, is a 30-story skyscraper at Times Square in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Located on Seventh Avenue between 42nd and 43rd Street, the building measures 555 feet (169 m) to its roof and 659 feet (201 m) to its spire. The building was designed by Fox & Fowle and developed by Rudin Management for news-media company Reuters. The site is owned by the New York City Economic Development Corporation, though Rudin and Reuters have a long-term leasehold on the building. Fox & Fowle planned a portion of the facade as a glass curtain wall, though the northeast corner and the south facade are made of masonry. The eastern facade has a curving curtain wall with a wedge atop the southeast corner, as well as a triple-height lobby facing Seventh Avenue. The building contains 855,000 square feet (79,400 m²) of floor space, much of which was originally taken by Reuters. The lowest three stories contain retail space and an entrance to the Times Square subway station. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Park Tower Realty and the Prudential Insurance Company of America had planned to develop a tower for the site as part of a wide-ranging redevelopment of West 42nd Street. After the successful development of the nearby 4 Times Square, Reuters proposed consolidating its headquarters at Times Square in 1997, enlisting Rudin Management as a development partner. Work started in 1998 and the building was completed in 2001, with Reuters occupying the vast majority of the space. The building was jointly owned by Reuters and Rudin for two decades, and a renovation of the interior was announced in 2021. ## Site 3 Times Square is on the western side of Seventh Avenue, between 42nd and 43rd Street, at the southern end of Times Square in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The land lot is "L"-shaped and covers 29,630 sq ft (2,753 m²), with a frontage of 200 ft (61 m) on Seventh Avenue, 131 feet (40 m) on 42nd Street, and 164 feet (50 m) on 43rd Street. 3 Times Square is at the eastern end of a city block that also contains the American Airlines, Lyric, and New Victory theaters. Other nearby buildings include 229 West 43rd Street and 1501 Broadway to the north, 1500 Broadway to the northeast, One Times Square and 4 Times Square to the southeast, the Times Square Tower and 5 Times Square to the south, and the New Amsterdam Theatre to the southwest. An entrance to the New York City Subway's Times Square–42nd Street station, served by the , is within the base of the building on 42nd Street. The subway entrance in the building is on 42nd Street, about 75 feet (23 m) west of its original location at the corner with Seventh Avenue. The entrance consists of a canopy extending above the sidewalk, as well as a staircase down to the station mezzanine. It was originally planned with escalators, but the entrance was downsized during the building's construction. A "Low Headroom" sign had to be placed on the entrance because of its reduced size. 3, 4, and 5 Times Square and the Times Square Tower comprise a grouping of office buildings that were developed at Times Square's southern end in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The surrounding area is part of Manhattan's Theater District and contains many Broadway theaters. The site on the northwest corner of 42nd Street and Seventh Avenue had historically been occupied by the Victoria Theatre, which operated from 1899 to 1915. The former theater then became the Rialto Theatre, which opened in 1916. The Rialto was rebuilt in 1935 and continued to operate until 1998, sharing a building at 1481 Broadway with several storefronts. The theater building, in its final years of operation, had a 500-seat theater and 12,000 square feet (1,100 m²) in retail. ## Architecture 3 Times Square was designed by Fox & Fowle and developed by the Rudin family under Rudin Management. Swanke Hayden Connell Architects designed the interiors. Severud Associates was the structural engineer, while Tishman Construction was the main contractor. Other companies involved with the project included geotechnical consultant Langan Engineering, elevator contractor Otis Worldwide, and mechanical, electrical, and plumbing engineer Jaros, Baum & Bolles. The building serves as the New York City offices of Thomson Reuters. Officially, the New York City Economic Development Corporation owns the structure. 3 Times Square has 30 usable floors above ground. The building measures 555 feet (169 m) to its architectural tip and 659 feet (201 m) to the top of the spire. The main roof is only 486 feet (148 m) high. 3 Times Square has 855 thousand square feet (79,400 m²) of space. The building is part of the 42nd Street Development Project and, thus, could bypass many city zoning rules such as those relating to floor area ratio (FAR). Bruce Fowle of Fox & Fowle estimated that the building had a FAR of 31, while The New York Times stated that the FAR was only 25. ### Form and facade The building's form was intended in part as a homage to the former Rialto Theatre. The Seventh Avenue portion of the facade is a curtain wall with a curve pointing southwest toward the nearby theaters on 42nd Street. The curved wall was intended to represent Reuters's corporate identity. At the top of the facade's southeastern corner is an illuminated blue wedge. Originally, this wedge had the Reuters logo. The wedge's presence allowed views of the nearby 5 Times Square from Times Square itself. The roof of the building had several satellite dishes, representing the building's satellite broadcasts. Fox & Fowle designed a masonry facade on the corner of Seventh Avenue and 43rd Street, as well as along 42nd Street. The architects wanted the masonry facade to relate to surrounding masonry buildings such as 1501 Broadway and the New Victory Theatre. In addition, the masonry facade contrasts with the curtain wall on Seventh Avenue. The corner of Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street has a seven-story cylindrical "rotunda", which was intended to attract pedestrians to the retail base. The rotunda is made of cast stone and architectural terracotta. The main entrance to the building is through the lobby, accessed from the middle of the Seventh Avenue facade. The lobby wall originally contained view of the fourth-floor newsroom. The lobby on Seventh Avenue is being redesigned with a triple-height glass wall as of 2021. The glass wall contains a screen that is intended to refract light from other parts of Times Square. According to William Rudin of Rudin Management, the lobby was redesigned as a "sanctuary from all that's happening outside". The windows allow natural light to illuminate the offices, though it also serves to deflect much of the heat energy. According to Robert Fox of Fox & Fowle, the walls blocked heat so efficiently that, when considering the amount of heat generated by the building's occupants, the building did not need a heating system even during winter. The walls deflect the ultraviolet rays from sunlight. #### Signage William Rudin had initially been opposed to exterior signage on 3 Times Square's facade. He said he changed his mind after seeing that the signage on the Morgan Stanley Building, several blocks north, had increased the value of that building. Furthermore, the New York state government required the building to contain at least 14,000 square feet (1,300 m²) of signage. Ultimately, 3 Times Square was designed with approximately 34,000 square feet (3,200 m²) of signage. There were originally supposed to be numerous news zippers on the facade, like those at One Times Square, but Fox & Fowle ultimately decided to use full-screen displays rather than zippers. The signs were designed by Edwin Schlossberg's firm, though George Stonbely helped make the signs. Advertising agency R/GA designed the programming for the signage. Reuters and subsidiary Instinet were allocated 15,169 square feet (1,409.2 m²) of signage. The Reuters sign, a 14-story-tall display at the corner of Seventh Avenue and 43rd Street, is composed of 14 panels. Near street level is a horizontal "crossbar" with nine screens just above the base. On the corner, above the "crossbar", is a screen measuring 28 by 46 feet (8.5 by 14.0 m); a balcony, originally designed for Instinet's president; and a vertical sign, measuring 13 by 169 feet (4.0 by 51.5 m). The Reuters signage has 5.6 million LEDs and was used to display graphics, financial information, and other data. Rudin rented out another 12,769 square feet (1,186.3 m²) of signage. Some 6,000 square feet (560 m²) was for Prudential Financial, which had funded the project. Prudential's sign is placed at Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street and consists of five types of illumination. It had a logo measuring 40 feet (12 m) high as well as Prudential's name on a banner measuring 120 feet (37 m) wide. An additional sign for Chase Bank, measuring 127 feet (39 m) wide, was installed on the corner "rotunda" in 2004. ### Mechanical features Rudin and Reuters had developed 3 Times Square with green building features in part because it was eligible for a green-building tax credit passed in 2000. 3 Times Square is designed to reduce energy consumption by 30 percent compared to an office building of similar size. The Rudin family initially decided against installing fuel cells or photovoltaic panels in the building, as had been used at Fox & Fowle's previous design for 4 Times Square. The building was designed so it could collect power from fuel cells or PV panels if they were installed in the future. There are five generators on the roof, each capable of 750 kilowatts (1,010 hp), for powering Reuters's offices in case of emergencies. An additional generator powers the building's main mechanical systems during emergencies. The heating plant includes two absorption chillers. The building is cooled by electric- and gas-powered cooling units, which can be activated or deactivated based on electrical rates. The coolers consists of two 650-ton gas chillers and two 1,350-ton electric chillers, as well as water-side economizers. There is also central air-handling equipment on each story. In addition, the office stories' ventilation systems contain filters with a minimum efficiency reporting value of 15, making them among the most efficient filters on the MERV scale. Air filters have been included in the building since its original design. ### Interior Structurally, the underlying rock is capable of supporting 40 short tons per square foot (390 t/m²), which obviated the need for caissons in the foundation. There is about 79,000 square feet (7,300 m²) or 80,000 square feet (7,400 m²) of retail space at the base. The retail space includes a lower concourse level, as well as the first three above-ground stories of the building. Because the retail space in 3 Times Square is smaller than in its predecessor building, the Rudin family decided to market the space toward large tenants. On the 43rd Street side, the Rudin family also acquired a building facing 43rd Street, which had office space and a driveway for the adjacent New Victory Theatre. New loading docks were built with 3 Times Square's construction, one of which was allocated for the New Victory. The lobby has security checkpoints with turnstiles. The office stories each have 28 to 35 thousand square feet (2,600 to 3,300 m²) of space. The floors of 3 Times Square are arranged around a mechanical core with elevators, stairways, and other functions. The elevators contain a destination dispatch system, wherein passengers request their desired floor before entering the cab, and touchless entry points. Generally, each story has a slab-to-slab height of 13.33 feet (4.06 m) as measured between the floor and ceiling. The 2nd and 4th stories are 18 feet (5.5 m) tall; the 3rd, 5th, 6th, and 7th stories are 14 feet (4.3 m); and the 8th and 9th stories are 16 feet (4.9 m). The ceilings contain the HVAC and lighting systems, allowing the office stories to be arranged flexibly. Reuters originally occupied 21 stories and arranged its offices in a modular layout. The eighth story originally contained an Instinet trading floor with 200 workstations across 22,000 square feet (2,000 m²). Two broadcast studios for Reuters were designed for the lower stories. and a newsroom was on the 19th story. Rudin and Reuters also installed high-speed communications wires connecting the building's offices. As part of a 2021 renovation, an amenity space is being designed on the 16th floor, along a setback facing Times Square. The amenity space will have a lounge, cafe, and an event area that could seat 200 or 220 people. A library and a fitness center are also planned for the space. Outdoor spaces are also present at the eighth, 20th, and 22nd stories. ## History ### Planning #### Early plans The Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC), an agency of the New York state government, had proposed redeveloping the area around a portion of West 42nd Street in 1981. Four towers designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee were to be built around 42nd Street's intersections with Broadway and Seventh Avenue, including one at the present-day site of 3 Times Square. The tower on 3 Times Square's site would have been 29 stories tall with 705,000 square feet (65,500 m²). These towers would have been redeveloped by George Klein of Park Tower Realty, though the Prudential Insurance Company of America joined the project in 1986. In 1988, the ESDC convinced Prudential to give up part of the 3 Times Square site to New 42nd Street so the New Victory Theater could have a delivery entrance. Furthermore, as part of the West Midtown special zoning district created in 1982, the New York City government had allowed new buildings in Times Square to be developed with an increased floor area ratio. To ensure the area would not be darkened at nightfall, the city passed zoning regulations that encouraged developers to add large, bright signs on their buildings. The Durst Organization opposed the redevelopment for 15 years, citing concerns over the subsidies that were to be given to the developers, which in turn would decrease the value of the Dursts' buildings. The Dursts' opposition, along with Prudential and Park Tower's inability to secure tenants for the proposed buildings, led government officials to allow Prudential and Park Tower to postpone the project in 1992. By then, Prudential had spent \$300 million on condemning the sites through eminent domain. The partners retained the right to develop the sites in the future, and the ESDC's zoning guidelines remained in effect. In exchange for being permitted to delay construction of the sites until 2002, Prudential and Park Tower were compelled to add stores and install large signage on the existing buildings. The Rialto was thus renovated in 1995 as part of the interim plan for Times Square. Klein ceded decision-making power for the sites to Prudential, which decided to exit the real-estate market altogether, selling off all four sites. Prudential and Klein dissolved their partnership in 1996. The same year, Douglas Durst acquired the site at the northeast corner of Broadway and 42nd Street, and he developed 4 Times Square there. #### Reuters proposal Prudential decided to market the three other sites after the successful development of 4 Times Square. In March 1997, Prudential indicated its intent to sell the sites' development rights or lease the sites to developers. Among the interested developers was Durst, who was negotiating for the northwest corner of 42nd Street and Seventh Avenue. Durst had hired Fox & Fowle, architects of 4 Times Square, to design an office building of up to 800,000 square feet (74,000 m²). He was discussing with news agency Reuters, publisher Ziff Davis, and financial firm Morgan Stanley as possible anchor tenants for a building on that site. Klein started discussing a possible partnership with Durst on the development of the site, but Durst's proposal did not succeed. By August 1997, Reuters had become the primary contender for the site, planning a headquarters there. The company was looking to consolidate over 1,800 workers from 13 locations in New York City. The following month, Reuters enlisted Rudin Management as its development partner. The building was to be 32 stories high and contain 855,000 square feet (79,400 m²). The Rudin family had agreed to lease out some space that Reuters would not occupy. Reuters planned to occupy 506,000 square feet (47,000 m²), while Rudin planned to lease out about 330,000 square feet (31,000 m²) of unused office space and 80,000 square feet (7,400 m²) of retail space. The development would make Reuters one of several large companies to build their U.S. headquarters in Manhattan. After the Rudin family and Reuters signed an agreement in October 1997, they realized the site was too small to accommodate an 855,000-square-foot building under zoning law. Having failed to convince Prudential to transfer development rights from a nearby site, Rudin and Reuters paid New 42nd Street \$2.8 million for an adjacent four-story building on 43rd Street. The Rudin family and Reuters signed a modified agreement in February 1998. The administration of mayor Rudy Giuliani agreed to give Reuters tax exemptions to encourage the development of the \$400 million headquarters. This consisted of a \$12.5 million, 20-year sales tax exemption on materials and equipment, as well as a \$13.5 million exemption, to be granted if Reuters created new jobs during this time. The tax breaks were controversial, with one critic saying that Times Square had become the "corporate welfare capital of the world". As part of 3 Times Square's construction, Rudin Management was compelled to add a new entrance to the Times Square–42nd Street station, with a stairwell at least 12 feet (3.7 m) wide, as well as two escalators. In April 1998, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) allowed the Rudin family to be exempt from adding escalators in exchange for a \$1.3 million payment. In addition, the MTA would pay for a canopy above the entrance for \$250,000. An MTA inspector subsequently alleged that the Rudins should have paid \$4 million to \$5.9 million for not including the escalators. ### Construction By early 1998, demolition of buildings on the site of the Reuters Building was underway. Tishman Construction, the main contractor for the building, subcontracted the substructure work to Urban Foundation. The work consisted of excavating the 32,000-square-foot (3,000 m²) site to a depth of 32 feet (9.8 m). The basements of the old buildings on the site, which extended 10 feet (3.0 m) deep, were removed. The excavation process was complicated by the presence of two nearby historic structures, the subway tunnels, and the three streets bordering the site. While the underlying rock was strong enough that it could bear the weight of the building, Urban Foundation reinforced the foundations of the nearby buildings with concrete. A groundbreaking ceremony for the building occurred on January 11, 1999. 3 Times Square and its three neighboring developments would collectively add almost 4 million square feet (370,000 m²) of office space. All four projects were being marketed with a Times Square address, which until the early 1990s had not been popular in the city's real estate market. At the time, rents for commercial space around Times Square were increasing drastically. Prudential loaned \$270 million to Rudin for the building's construction. By August 1999, the building's steel superstructure was being erected, despite a shortage in skilled ironworkers citywide. Chinese "sidewalk artists" hung their portraits on the plywood construction fence that surrounded the site, prompting the New York City Police Department to clear the artists from the sidewalk every night. The building topped out on December 10, 1999. The next month, the surrounding section of Seventh Avenue was closed temporarily after a debris and a piece of wood fell from the construction site. Reuters ultimately expanded its space to 625,000 square feet (58,100 m²). The vacant office space was taken by Bain & Company, which leased 50,000 square feet (4,600 m²) in February 2000, and the Bank of Montreal (BMO), which leased 102,000 square feet (9,500 m²) that June. After BMO's lease, all of the office space was signed for. About 50,000 square feet of retail space and 15,000 square feet (1,400 m²) of signs remained to be leased. ### Usage #### Reuters offices The Instinet trading floor opened on May 7, 2001, with 700 employees. Reuters opened its 19th-floor newsroom two weeks later on May 22. The Reuters headquarters officially opened on June 4, 2001, with speeches from former U.S. Treasury secretary Lawrence Summers and former UN ambassador Richard Holbrooke. In addition to Instinet's employees, Reuters had 1,100 workers at the building. Despite the September 11 attacks in Lower Manhattan shortly after the building's opening, Chase Bank took some retail space by the end of 2001. After the attacks, Instinet decided to open offices in New Jersey. Though Instinet still occupied 300,000 square feet (28,000 m²) at 3 Times Square, Reuters took some of Instinet's space. Shoe store Skechers had signed for another retail unit by mid-2002, and Europa Cafe also took some retail space. The Prudential sign at Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street started illuminating in December 2002. Not long after the Reuters Building opened, Instinet indicated it would downsize its staff and sublet 100 to 200 thousand square feet (9,300 to 18,600 m²) at the building. Subsequently, six of Instinet's floor were listed for sublease in May 2003. Among the other tenants were pharmaceutical company Eyetech, as well as consulting firm FTI Consulting, the latter of which subleased part of its space to brokerage firm Integro. There was controversy in October 2003 when Reuters refused to air an advertisement by the Methodist Episcopal Church, though Reuters ultimately reversed its policy prohibiting religious advertising. The next year, Chase added a sign around the rotunda at Seventh Avenue and 42nd Street. Reuters announced a partnership with Nasdaq in 2006, in which companies could display advertisements across both 3 Times Square's northeast corner and Nasdaq MarketSite across the street at 4 Times Square. Advertisers could choose between splitting their advertisement across the two buildings, running the same ad across both buildings, or displaying different messages on either building. Following the September 11 attacks, Reuters had placed 13 planters on the sidewalk to protect the building against car bombs. The planters were removed in late 2006 after counterterrorism experts said the planters could turn into projectiles during vehicular attacks. Reuters merged in 2007 with Canadian media company Thomson Corporation to form Thomson Reuters, and some Thomson offices relocated to 3 Times Square. The lower stories' retail space was taken up by an AT&T phone store, as well as temporary pop-up stores in the 2010s. After Bain & Company announced its plans to relocate in late 2013, it subleased the space to BMO. In 2018, Thomson Reuters subleased some of its space to Kind Snacks, a manufacturer of protein bars and health foods. By October 2020, Thomson Reuters was looking to sell its 50 percent stake in the building, which it co-owned with Rudin Management. With Reuters's stake listed at \$800 per square foot (\$8,600/m²), this placed the building's valuation at about \$700 million. #### Renovation and subsequent leases Rudin Management announced in April 2021 that it would be renovating the building for \$25 million. Rudin had hired FXCollaborative (which had been renamed from Fox & Fowle) to redesign the lobby and add a 16th-story amenity area. Rudin also hired Cushman & Wakefield to market the space. The renovation came after BMO and FTI vacated large amounts of space in the building. In January 2022, Touro College and University System leased 243,305 square feet (22,603.8 m²) on the third to ninth floors, allowing the college to consolidate seven of its schools at one location. As part of the lease, a separate entrance would be built at Seventh Avenue and 43rd Street, and staircases, classrooms, laboratories, and meeting areas would be built within the college's space. ## Critical reception When the building plans were announced in 1998, Herbert Muschamp wrote for The New York Times that the design "is decent, well mannered and deferential, and if you were a gentleman, you would tip your hat." Several architectural critics pointed out the use of masonry on some parts of the building and glass elsewhere. William Morgan wrote for Oculus: "...the Reuters building is too fussy, too busy, and laden with too many historical references. But it is also a lot of fun; glitzy is appropriate here." Joseph Giovannini of New York magazine expressed his appreciation for the design, saying that "the Reuters Building does not strive to be a perfect whole" but was instead influenced by its setting. Giovannini likened it to a "fraternal twin" of 4 Times Square, adding that 3 Times Square "fits seamlessly here because Fox & Fowle has opened the normally closed skyscraper form to a part of the city that’s already layered in short and tall, new and old buildings". Karrie Jacobs of New York magazine also likened the building to 4 Times Square. Some critics viewed the mixture of facades as a negative attribute. Paul Goldberger of The New Yorker wrote that the building "sometimes seems like a bunch of unintegrated pieces". Ned Cramer wrote for Architecture magazine in 2000: "What they built is more of an identity crisis—a mish-mash of forms and materials utterly lacking in finesse or wit or higher meaning." Cramer concluded that describing the building as a "skyscraper" would be a "diminishment of its predecessors".

Atmosphere of Venus

Gas layer surrounding Venus

The atmosphere of Venus is primarily of supercritical carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth. The temperature at the surface is 740 K (467 °C, 872 °F), and the pressure is 93 bar (1,350 psi), roughly the pressure found 900 m (3,000 ft) underwater on Earth. The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds of sulfuric acid, making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible. Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging. Aside from carbon dioxide, the other main component is nitrogen. Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts. Aside from the very surface layers, the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation. The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation, in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days, much faster than the planet's sidereal day of 243 days. The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s (≈360 km/h or 220 mph) or more. Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet's rotation, while Earth's fastest winds are only 10% to 20% rotation speed. On the other hand, the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases, with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 2.8 m/s (≈10 km/h or 6.2 mph) on the surface. Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices. Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds. Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere. The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation, but very different in its nature—the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell. Unlike Earth, Venus lacks a magnetic field. Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind. This ionized layer excludes the solar magnetic field, giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment. This is considered Venus's induced magnetosphere. Lighter gases, including water vapour, are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail. It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface. A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases. Despite the harsh conditions on the surface, the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth, making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System, even more so than the surface of Mars. Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth, the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization. ## History Christiaan Huygens was the first to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus. In the Book II of Cosmotheoros, published in 1698, he writes: > I have often wonder’d that when I have viewed Venus at her nearest to the Earth, when she resembled an Half-moon, just beginning to have something like Horns, through a Telescope of 45 or 60 Foot long, she always appeard to me all over equally lucid, that I can’t say I observ’d so much as one spot in her, tho in Jupiter and Mars, which seem much less to us, they are very plainly perceived. For if Venus had any such thing as Sea and Land, the former must necessarily show much more obscure than the other, as anyone may satisfy himself, that from a very high Mountain will [110] but look down upon our Earth. I thought that perhaps the too brisk Light of Venus might be the occasion of this equal appearance; but when I used an Eye-glass that was smok’d for the purpose, it was still the same thing. What then, must Venus have no Sea, or do the Waters there reflect the Light more than ours do, or their Land less? or rather (which is most probable in my opinion) is not all that Light we see reflected from an Atmosphere surrounding Venus, which being thicker and more solid than that in Mars or Jupiter, hinders our seeing any thing of the Globe it self, and is at the same time capable of sending back the Rays that it receives from the Sun? Decisive evidence for the atmosphere of Venus was provided by Mikhail Lomonosov, based on his observation of the transit of Venus in 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg, Russia. ## Structure and composition ### Composition The atmosphere of Venus is composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen, and traces of other gases, most notably sulfur dioxide. The amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere is relatively small compared to the amount of carbon dioxide, but because the atmosphere is so much thicker than that on Earth, its total nitrogen content is roughly four times higher than Earth's, even though on Earth nitrogen makes up about 78% of the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains a range of compounds in small quantities, including some based on hydrogen, such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF). There is carbon monoxide, water vapour and atomic oxygen as well. Hydrogen is in relatively short supply in the Venusian atmosphere. A large amount of the planet's hydrogen is theorised to have been lost to space, with the remainder being mostly bound up in water vapour and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The loss of significant amounts of hydrogen is proven by a very high D–H ratio measured in the Venusian atmosphere. The ratio is about 0.015–0.025, which is 100–150 times higher than the terrestrial value of 1.6×10⁻⁴. According to some measurements, in the upper atmosphere of Venus D/H ratio is 1.5 higher than in the bulk atmosphere. #### Phosphine In 2020, there was considerable discussion regarding whether phosphine (PH₃) might be present in trace amounts Venus' atmosphere. This would be noteworthy as phosphine is a potential biomarker indicating the presence of life. This was prompted by an announcement in September 2020, that this species had been detected in trace amounts. No known abiotic source present on Venus could produce phosphine in the quantities detected. On review, an interpolation error was discovered that resulted in multiple spurious spectroscopic lines, including the spectral feature of phosphine. Re-analysis of data with the fixed algorithm either do not result in the detection of the phosphine or detected it with much lower concentration of 1 ppb. The announcement promoted re-analysis of Pioneer Venus data which found part of chlorine and all of hydrogen sulfide spectral features are instead phosphine-related, meaning lower than thought concentration of chlorine and non-detection of hydrogen sulfide. Another re-analysis of archived infrared spectral measurements by the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility in 2015 did not reveal any phosphine in Venusian atmosphere, placing an upper limit for phosphine concentration at 5 ppb—a quarter of the spectroscopic value reported in September. In 2022, no phosphine detection with upper limit of concentration 0.8 ppb was announced for Venusian altitudes 75–110 km. #### Ammonia The ammonia in the atmosphere of Venus was tentatively detected by two atmospheric probes - Venera 8 and Pioneer Venus Multiprobe, although the detection was rejected that time due to poorly characterized sensors behavior in Venusian environment and ammonia believed to be chemically unstable in the strongly oxidizing atmosphere of Venus. ### Troposphere The atmosphere is divided into a number of sections depending on altitude. The densest part of the atmosphere, the troposphere, begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km. The winds are slow near the surface, but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth-like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m/s (360 km/h). The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is about 92 times that of the Earth, similar to the pressure found 900 m (3,000 ft) below the surface of the ocean. The atmosphere has a mass of 4.8×10²⁰ kg, about 93 times the mass of the Earth's total atmosphere. The density of the air at the surface is 65 kg/m³, which is 6.5% that of liquid water on Earth. The pressure found on Venus's surface is high enough that the carbon dioxide is technically no longer a gas, but a supercritical fluid. This supercritical carbon dioxide forms a kind of sea, with a 6.5% density of water, that covers the entire surface of Venus. This sea of supercritical carbon dioxide transfers heat very efficiently, buffering the temperature changes between night and day (which last 56 terrestrial days). Particularly at possible higher atmospheric pressures in Venus' past might have created an even more fluid-like layer of supercritical carbon dioxide shaping Venus' landscape; altogether, it is unclear how the supercritical environment behaves and is shaped. The large amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere together with water vapour and sulfur dioxide create a strong greenhouse effect, trapping solar energy and raising the surface temperature to around 740 K (467 °C), hotter than any other planet in the Solar System, even that of Mercury despite being located farther out from the Sun and receiving only 25% of the solar energy (per unit area) Mercury does. The average temperature on the surface is above the melting points of lead (600 K, 327 °C), tin (505 K, 232 °C), and zinc (693 K, 420 °C). The thick troposphere also makes the difference in temperature between the day and night side small, even though the slow retrograde rotation of the planet causes a single solar day to last 116.5 Earth days. The surface of Venus spends 58.3 days in darkness before the sun rises again behind the clouds. The troposphere on Venus contains 99% of the atmosphere by mass. 90% of the atmosphere of Venus is within 28 km (17.5 mi) of the surface; by comparison, 90% of the atmosphere of Earth is within 16 km (10 mi) of the surface. At a height of 50 km (31 mi) the atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to that at the surface of Earth. On the night side of Venus clouds can still be found at 80 km (50 mi) above the surface. The altitude of the troposphere most similar to Earth is near the tropopause—the boundary between troposphere and mesosphere. It is located slightly above 50 km. According to measurements by the Magellan and Venus Express probes, the altitude from 52.5 to 54 km has a temperature between 293 K (20 °C) and 310 K (37 °C), and the altitude at 49.5 km above the surface is where the pressure becomes the same as Earth at sea level. As crewed ships sent to Venus would be able to compensate for differences in temperature to a certain extent, anywhere from about 50 to 54 km or so above the surface would be the easiest altitude in which to base an exploration or colony, where the temperature would be in the crucial "liquid water" range of 273 K (0 °C) to 323 K (50 °C) and the air pressure the same as habitable regions of Earth. As CO₂ is heavier than air, the colony's air (nitrogen and oxygen) could keep the structure floating at that altitude like a dirigible. #### Circulation The circulation in Venus's troposphere follows the so-called cyclostrophic flow. Its windspeeds are roughly determined by the balance of the pressure gradient and centrifugal forces in almost purely zonal flow. In contrast, the circulation in the Earth's atmosphere is governed by the geostrophic balance. Venus's windspeeds can be directly measured only in the upper troposphere (tropopause), between 60 and 70 km, altitude, which corresponds to the upper cloud deck. The cloud motion is usually observed in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, where the contrast between clouds is the highest. The linear wind speeds at this level are about 100 ± 10 m/s at lower than 50° latitude. They are retrograde in the sense that they blow in the direction of the retrograde rotation of the planet. The winds quickly decrease towards the higher latitudes, eventually reaching zero at the poles. Such strong cloud-top winds cause a phenomenon known as the super-rotation of the atmosphere. In other words, these high-speed winds circle the whole planet faster than the planet itself rotates. The super-rotation on Venus is differential, which means that the equatorial troposphere super-rotates more slowly than the troposphere at the midlatitudes. The winds also have a strong vertical gradient. They decline deep in the troposphere with the rate of 3 m/s per km. The winds near the surface of Venus are much slower than that on Earth. They actually move at only a few kilometres per hour (generally less than 2 m/s and with an average of 0.3 to 1.0 m/s), but due to the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, this is still enough to transport dust and small stones across the surface, much like a slow-moving current of water. All winds on Venus are ultimately driven by convection. Hot air rises in the equatorial zone, where solar heating is concentrated and flows to the poles. Such an almost-planetwide overturning of the troposphere is called Hadley circulation. However, the meridional air motions are much slower than zonal winds. The poleward limit of the planet-wide Hadley cell on Venus is near ±60° latitudes. Here air starts to descend and returns to the equator below the clouds. This interpretation is supported by the distribution of the carbon monoxide, which is also concentrated in the vicinity of ±60° latitudes. Poleward of the Hadley cell a different pattern of circulation is observed. In the latitude range 60°–70° cold polar collars exist. They are characterized by temperatures about 30–40 K lower than in the upper troposphere at nearby latitudes. The lower temperature is probably caused by the upwelling of the air in them and by the resulting adiabatic cooling. Such an interpretation is supported by the denser and higher clouds in the collars. The clouds lie at 70–72 km altitude in the collars—about 5 km higher than at the poles and low latitudes. A connection may exist between the cold collars and high-speed midlatitude jets in which winds blow as fast as 140 m/s. Such jets are a natural consequence of the Hadley-type circulation and should exist on Venus between 55 and 60° latitude. Odd structures known as polar vortices lie within the cold polar collars. They are giant hurricane-like storms four times larger than their terrestrial analogs. Each vortex has two "eyes"—the centres of rotation, which are connected by distinct S-shaped cloud structures. Such double eyed structures are also called polar dipoles. Vortices rotate with the period of about 3 days in the direction of general super-rotation of the atmosphere. The linear wind speeds are 35–50 m/s near their outer edges and zero at the poles. The temperature at the cloud-tops in each polar vortex is much higher than in the nearby polar collars, reaching 250 K (−23 °C). The conventional interpretation of the polar vortices is that they are anticyclones with downwelling in the centre and upwelling in the cold polar collars. This type of circulation resembles a winter polar anticyclonic vortex on Earth, especially the one found over Antarctica. The observations in the various infrared atmospheric windows indicate that the anticyclonic circulation observed near the poles penetrates as deep as to 50 km altitude, i.e. to the base of the clouds. The polar upper troposphere and mesosphere are extremely dynamic; large bright clouds may appear and disappear over the space of a few hours. One such event was observed by Venus Express between 9 and 13 January 2007, when the south polar region became brighter by 30%. This event was probably caused by an injection of sulfur dioxide into the mesosphere, which then condensed, forming a bright haze. The two eyes in the vortices have yet to be explained. The first vortex on Venus was discovered at the north pole by the Pioneer Venus mission in 1978. A discovery of the second large "double-eyed" vortex at the south pole of Venus was made in the summer of 2006 by Venus Express, which came with no surprise. Images from the Akatsuki orbiter revealed something similar to jet stream winds in the low and middle cloud region, which extends from 45 to 60 km in altitude. The wind speed maximized near the equator. In September 2017, JAXA scientists named this phenomenon "Venusian equatorial jet". ### Upper atmosphere and ionosphere The mesosphere of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height, and the thermosphere begins at approximately 120 km, eventually reaching the upper limit of the atmosphere (exosphere) at about 220 to 350 km. The exosphere begins when the atmosphere becomes so thin that the average number of collisions per air molecule is less than one. The mesosphere of Venus can be divided into two layers: the lower one between 62 and 73 km and the upper one between 73 and 95 km. In the first layer the temperature is nearly constant at 230 K (−43 °C). This layer coincides with the upper cloud deck. In the second layer, the temperature starts to decrease again, reaching about 165 K (−108 °C) at the altitude of 95 km, where mesopause begins. It is the coldest part of the Venusian dayside atmosphere. In the dayside mesopause, which serves as a boundary between the mesosphere and thermosphere and is located between 95 and 120 km, temperature increases to a constant—about 300–400 K (27–127 °C)—value prevalent in the thermosphere. In contrast, the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K (−173 °C). It is even called a cryosphere. The circulation patterns in the upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus are completely different from those in the lower atmosphere. At altitudes 90–150 km the Venusian air moves from the dayside to nightside of the planet, with upwelling over sunlit hemisphere and downwelling over dark hemisphere. The downwelling over the nightside causes adiabatic heating of the air, which forms a warm layer in the nightside mesosphere at the altitudes 90–120 km. The temperature of this layer—230 K (−43 °C)—is far higher than the typical temperature found in the nightside thermosphere—100 K (−173 °C). The air circulated from the dayside also carries oxygen atoms, which after recombination form excited molecules of oxygen in the long-lived singlet state (¹Δ_g), which then relax and emit infrared radiation at the wavelength 1.27 μm. This radiation from the altitude range 90–100 km is often observed from the ground and spacecraft. The nightside upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus is also the source of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium emissions of CO₂ and nitric oxide molecules, which are responsible for the low temperature of the nightside thermosphere. The Venus Express probe has shown through stellar occultation that the atmospheric haze extends much further up on the night side than the day side. On the day side the cloud deck has a thickness of 20 km and extends up to about 65 km, whereas on the night side the cloud deck in the form of a thick haze reaches up to 90 km in altitude—well into mesosphere, continuing even further to 105 km as a more transparent haze. In 2011, the spacecraft discovered that Venus has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 km. Venus has an extended ionosphere located at altitudes 120–300 km. The ionosphere almost coincides with the thermosphere. The high levels of the ionization are maintained only over the dayside of the planet. Over the nightside the concentration of the electrons is almost zero. The ionosphere of Venus consists of three layers: v1 between 120 and 130 km, v2 between 140 and 160 km and v3 between 200 and 250 km. There may be an additional layer near 180 km. The maximum electron volume density (number of electrons in a unit of volume) of 3×10¹¹ m⁻³ is reached in the v2 layer near the subsolar point. The upper boundary of the ionosphere (the ionopause) is located at altitudes 220–375 km and separates the plasma of the planetary origin from that of the induced magnetosphere. The main ionic species in the v1 and v2 layers is O₂⁺ ion, whereas the v3 layer consists of O⁺ ions. The ionospheric plasma is observed to be in motion; solar photoionization on the dayside and ion recombination on the nightside are the processes mainly responsible for accelerating the plasma to the observed velocities. The plasma flow appears to be sufficient to maintain the nightside ionosphere at or near the observed median level of ion densities. ### Induced magnetosphere Venus is known not to have a magnetic field. The reason for its absence is not at all clear, but it may be related to a reduced intensity of convection in the Venusian mantle. Venus only has an induced magnetosphere formed by the Sun's magnetic field carried by the solar wind. This process can be understood as the field lines wrapping around an obstacle—Venus in this case. The induced magnetosphere of Venus has a bow shock, magnetosheath, magnetopause and magnetotail with the current sheet. At the subsolar point the bow shock stands 1900 km (0.3 R_v, where R_v is the radius of Venus) above the surface of Venus. This distance was measured in 2007 near the solar activity minimum. Near the solar activity maximum it can be several times further from the planet. The magnetopause is located at the altitude of 300 km. The upper boundary of the ionosphere (ionopause) is near 250 km. Between the magnetopause and ionopause there exists a magnetic barrier—a local enhancement of the magnetic field, which prevents the solar plasma from penetrating deeper into the Venusian atmosphere, at least near solar activity minimum. The magnetic field in the barrier reaches up to 40 nT. The magnetotail continues up to ten radii from the planet. It is the most active part of the Venusian magnetosphere. There are reconnection events and particle acceleration in the tail. The energies of electrons and ions in the magnetotail are around 100 eV and 1000 eV respectively. Due to the lack of the intrinsic magnetic field on Venus, the solar wind penetrates relatively deep into the planetary exosphere and causes substantial atmosphere loss. The loss happens mainly via the magnetotail. Currently the main ion types being lost are O⁺, H⁺ and He⁺. The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen losses is around 2 (i.e. almost stoichiometric for water) indicating the ongoing loss of water. ## Clouds Venusian clouds are thick and are composed mainly (75–96%) of sulfuric acid droplets. These clouds obscure the surface of Venus from optical imaging, and reflect about 75% of the sunlight that falls on them. The geometric albedo, a common measure of reflectivity, is the highest of any planet in the Solar System. This high reflectivity potentially enables any probe exploring the cloud tops sufficient solar energy such that solar cells can be fitted anywhere on the craft. The density of the clouds is highly variable with the densest layer at about 48.5 km, reaching 0.1 g/m³ similar to the lower range of cumulonimbus storm clouds on Earth. The cloud cover is such that it reflects more than 60% of the solar light Venus receives, leaving the surface with typical light levels of 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds". The equivalent visibility is about three kilometers, but this will likely vary with the wind conditions. Little to no solar energy could conceivably be collected by solar panels on a surface probe. In fact, due to the thick, highly reflective cloud cover, the total solar energy received by the surface of the planet is less than that of the Earth, despite its proximity to the Sun. Sulfuric acid is produced in the upper atmosphere by the Sun's photochemical action on carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and water vapour. Ultraviolet photons of wavelengths less than 169 nm can photodissociate carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and monatomic oxygen. Monatomic oxygen is highly reactive; when it reacts with sulfur dioxide, a trace component of the Venusian atmosphere, the result is sulfur trioxide, which can combine with water vapour, another trace component of Venus's atmosphere, to yield sulfuric acid. CO₂ → CO + O SO₂ + O → SO₃ 2 SO₃ + 4 H₂O → 2 H₂SO₄ · H₂O Surface level humidity is less than 0.1%. Venus's sulfuric acid rain never reaches the ground, but is evaporated by the heat before reaching the surface in a phenomenon known as virga. It is theorized that early volcanic activity released sulfur into the atmosphere and the high temperatures prevented it from being trapped into solid compounds on the surface as it was on the Earth. Besides sulfuric acid, cloud droplets can contain a wide array of sulfate salts, raising pH of droplet to 1.0 in one of scenarios explaining the sulfur dioxide measurements. In 2009, a prominent bright spot in the atmosphere was noted by an amateur astronomer and photographed by Venus Express. Its cause is currently unknown, with surface volcanism advanced as a possible explanation. ### Lightning The clouds of Venus may be capable of producing lightning, but the debate is ongoing, with volcanic lightning and sprites also under discussion. The Soviet Venera 9 and 10 orbiters obtained ambiguous optical and electromagnetic evidence of lightning. There have been attempts to observe lightning from the Venera 11, 12, 13, and 14 landers, however no lightning activity was recorded, but very low frequency (VLF) waves were detected during descent. The European Space Agency's Venus Express in 2007 detected whistler waves which could be attributed to lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to the whistler observations, the lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth and may possibly be similar, but this is incompatible with data from the JAXA Akatsuki spacecraft which indicate a very low flash rate. The Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) was equipped with an electric field detector specifically to detect lightning. There were other missions that were equipped with instruments to search for lightning including the Venera 9 which had the visible spectrometer; Pioneer which had the star sensor; and VEGA which had a photometer. The mechanism generating lightning on Venus, if present, remains unknown. Whilst the sulfuric acid cloud droplets can become charged, the atmosphere may be too electrically conductive for the charge to be sustained, preventing lightning. Lightning could potentially contribute to atmospheric chemistry, through heating which could break apart molecules that contain carbon, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and hydrogen molecules (carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, sulfuric acid, and water), that will recombine to form new molecules ("carbon oxides", "suboxides", "sulfur oxides", "oxygen", "elemental sulfur", "nitrogen oxides", "sulfuric acid clusters", "polysulfur oxides", "carbon soot", etc.). Lightning could contribute to the production of carbon monoxide and oxygen gas by converting sulfur and sulfur dioxide into sulfuric acid, and water and sulfuric dioxide to sulfur to sustain clouds. Regardless of how frequent lightning on Venus is, it is important to study as it can be a potential hazard for spacecraft. Throughout the 1980s, it was thought that the cause of the night-side glow ("ashen light") on Venus was lightning however, there may be the possibility that Venus lightning would be too weak to cause it. ## Possibility of life Due to the harsh conditions on the surface, little of the planet has been explored; in addition to the fact that life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of life on Earth itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as extremophiles exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water, acidophiles thrive at a pH level of 3 or below, polyextremophiles can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth. The surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 °C. However, the lower temperature of the cloud tops means that life could plausibly exist there, the same way that bacteria have been found living and reproducing in clouds on Earth. Any such bacteria living in the cloud tops, however, would have to be hyper-acidophilic, due to the concentrated sulfuric acid environment. Microbes in the thick, cloudy atmosphere could be protected from solar radiation by the sulfur compounds in the air. The Venusian atmosphere has been found to be sufficiently out of equilibrium as to require further investigation. Analysis of data from the Venera, Pioneer, and Magellan missions has found hydrogen sulfide (later disputed) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) together in the upper atmosphere, as well as carbonyl sulfide (OCS). The first two gases react with each other, implying that something must produce them. Carbonyl sulfide is difficult to produce inorganically, but it is present in the Venusian atmosphere. However, the planet's volcanism could explain the presence of carbonyl sulfide. In addition, one of the early Venera probes detected large amounts of toxic chlorine just below the Venusian cloud deck. It has been proposed that microbes at this level could be soaking up ultraviolet light from the Sun as a source of energy, which could be a possible explanation for the "unknown UV absorber" seen as dark patches on UV images of the planet. The existence of this "unknown UV absorber" prompted Carl Sagan to publish an article in 1963 proposing the hypothesis of microorganisms in the upper atmosphere as the agent absorbing the UV light. In 2012, the abundance and vertical distribution of these unknown ultraviolet absorbers in the Venusian atmosphere have been investigated from analysis of Venus Monitoring Camera images, but their composition is still unknown. In 2016, disulfur dioxide was identified as a possible candidate for causing the so far unknown UV absorption of the Venusian atmosphere. The dark patches of "unknown UV absorbers" are prominent enough to influence the weather on Venus. In 2021, it was suggested the color of "unknown UV absorber" match that of "red oil" - a known substance comprising a mixed organic carbon compounds dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid. In September 2020, research studies led by Cardiff University using the James Clerk Maxwell and ALMA radio telescopes noted the detection of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere that was not linked to any known abiotic method of production present, or possible under Venusian conditions. It is extremely hard to make, and the chemistry in the Venusian clouds should destroy the molecules before they could accumulate to the observed amounts. The phosphine was detected at heights of at least 48 km above the surface of Venus, and was detected primarily at mid-latitudes with none detected at the poles of Venus. Scientists note that the detection itself could be further verified beyond the use of multiple telescopes detecting the same signal, as the phosphine fingerprint described in the study could theoretically be a false signal introduced by the telescopes or by data processing. The detection was later suggested to be a false positive or true signal with much over-estimated amplitude, compatible with 1 ppb concentration of phosphine. The re-analysis of ALMA dataset in April 2021 have recovered the 20 ppb phosphine signal, with signal-to-noise ratio of 5.4, and by August 2021 it was confirmed the suspected contamination by sulfur dioxide was contributing only 10% to the tentative signal in phosphine spectral line band. ## Evolution Through studies of the present cloud structure and geology of the surface, combined with the fact that the luminosity of the Sun has increased by 25% since around 3.8 billion years ago, it is thought that the early environment of Venus was more like that of Earth with liquid water on the surface. At some point in the evolution of Venus, a runaway greenhouse effect occurred, leading to the current greenhouse-dominated atmosphere. The timing of this transition away from Earthlike is not known, but is estimated to have occurred around 4 billion years ago. The runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and the rise of the levels of greenhouse gases that followed. Venus's atmosphere has therefore received a great deal of attention from those studying climate change on Earth. There are no geologic forms on the planet to suggest the presence of water over the past billion years. However, there is no reason to suppose that Venus was an exception to the processes that formed Earth and gave it its water during its early history, possibly from the original rocks that formed the planet or later on from comets. The common view among research scientists is that water would have existed for about 600 million years on the surface before evaporating, though some such as David Grinspoon believe that up to 2 billion years could also be plausible. This longer timescale for the persistence of oceans is also supported by General Circulation Model simulations incorporating the thermal effects of clouds on an evolving Venusian hydrosphere. The early Earth during the Hadean eon is believed by most scientists to have had a Venus-like atmosphere, with roughly 100 bar of CO₂ and a surface temperature of 230 °C, and possibly even sulfuric acid clouds, until about 4.0 billion years ago, by which time plate tectonics were in full force and together with the early water oceans, removed the CO₂ and sulfur from the atmosphere. Early Venus would thus most likely have had water oceans like the Earth, but any plate tectonics would have ended when Venus lost its oceans. Its surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old, so it would not be expected to show evidence of plate tectonics. ## Observations and measurement from Earth In 1761, Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov observed an arc of light surrounding the part of Venus off the Sun's disc at the beginning of the egress phase of the transit and concluded that Venus has an atmosphere. In 1940, Rupert Wildt calculated that the amount of CO₂ in the Venusian atmosphere would raise surface temperature above the boiling point for water. This was confirmed when Mariner 2 made radiometer measurements of the temperature in 1962. In 1967, Venera 4 confirmed that the atmosphere consisted primarily of carbon dioxide. The upper atmosphere of Venus can be measured from Earth when the planet crosses the sun in a rare event known as a solar transit. The last solar transit of Venus occurred in 2012. Using quantitative astronomical spectroscopy, scientists were able to analyze sunlight that passed through the planet's atmosphere to reveal chemicals within it. As the technique to analyse light to discover information about a planet's atmosphere only first showed results in 2001, this was the first opportunity to gain conclusive results in this way on the atmosphere of Venus since observation of solar transits began. This solar transit was a rare opportunity considering the lack of information on the atmosphere between 65 and 85 km. The solar transit in 2004 enabled astronomers to gather a large amount of data useful not only in determining the composition of the upper atmosphere of Venus, but also in refining techniques used in searching for extrasolar planets. The atmosphere of mostly CO₂, absorbs near-infrared radiation, making it easy to observe. During the 2004 transit, the absorption in the atmosphere as a function of wavelength revealed the properties of the gases at that altitude. The Doppler shift of the gases also enabled wind patterns to be measured. A solar transit of Venus is an extremely rare event, and the last solar transit of the planet before 2004 was in 1882. The most recent solar transit was in 2012; the next one will not occur until 2117. ## Space missions ### Recent and current spaceprobes The Venus Express spacecraft formerly in orbit around the planet probed deeper into the atmosphere using infrared imaging spectroscopy in the 1–5 μm spectral range. The JAXA probe Akatsuki (Venus Climate Orbiter), launched in May 2010, is studying the planet for a period of two years, including the structure and activity of the atmosphere, but it failed to enter Venus orbit in December 2010. A second attempt to achieve orbit succeeded 7 December 2015. Designed specifically to study the planet's climate, Akatsuki is the first meteorology satellite to orbit Venus (the first for a planet other than Earth). One of its five cameras known as the "IR2" will be able to probe the atmosphere of the planet underneath its thick clouds, in addition to its movement and distribution of trace components. With a highly eccentric orbit (periapsis altitude of 400 km and apoapsis of 310,000 km), it will be able to take close-up photographs of the planet, and should also confirm the presence of both active volcanoes as well as lightning. ### Proposed missions The Venus In-Situ Explorer, proposed by NASA's New Frontiers program is a proposed probe which would aid in understanding the processes on the planet that led to climate change, as well as paving the way towards a later sample return mission. A craft called the Venus Mobile Explorer has been proposed by the Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VEXAG) to study the composition and isotopic measurements of the surface and the atmosphere, for about 90 days. The mission has not been selected for launch. After missions discovered the reality of the harsh nature of the planet's surface, attention shifted towards other targets such as Mars. There have been a number of proposed missions afterward, however, and many of these involve the little-known upper atmosphere. The Soviet Vega program in 1985 dropped two balloons into the atmosphere, but these were battery-powered and lasted for only about two Earth days each before running out of power. Since then, there has been no exploration of the upper atmosphere. In 2002, the NASA contractor Global Aerospace proposed a balloon that would be capable of staying in the upper atmosphere for hundreds of Earth days as opposed to two. A solar flyer has also been proposed by Geoffrey A. Landis in place of a balloon, and the idea has been featured from time to time since the early 2000s. Venus has a high albedo, and reflects most of the sunlight that shines on it making the surface quite dark, the upper atmosphere at 60 km has an upward solar intensity of 90%, meaning that solar panels on both the top and the bottom of a craft could be used with nearly equal efficiency. In addition to this, the slightly lower gravity, high air pressure and slow rotation allowing for perpetual solar power make this part of the planet ideal for exploration. The proposed flyer would operate best at an altitude where sunlight, air pressure, and wind speed would enable it to remain in the air perpetually, with slight dips down to lower altitudes for a few hours at a time before returning to higher altitudes. As sulfuric acid in the clouds at this height is not a threat for a properly shielded craft, this so-called "solar flyer" would be able to measure the area in between 45 km and 60 km indefinitely, for however long it takes for mechanical error or unforeseen problems to cause it to fail. Landis also proposed that rovers similar to Spirit and Opportunity could possibly explore the surface, with the difference being that Venus surface rovers would be "dumb" rovers controlled by radio signals from computers located in the flyer above, only requiring parts such as motors and transistors to withstand the surface conditions, but not weaker parts involved in microelectronics that could not be made resistant to the heat, pressure and acidic conditions. Russian space science plans include the launch of the Venera-D (Venus-D) probe in 2029. The main scientific goals of the Venera-D mission are investigation of the structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere and investigation of the upper atmosphere, ionosphere, electrical activity, magnetosphere, and escape rate. It has been proposed to fly together with Venera-D an inflatable aircraft designed by Northrop Grumman, called Venus Atmospheric Maneuverable Platform (VAMP). The High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC) is a NASA concept for a crewed exploration of Venus. Rather than traditional landings, it would send crews into the upper atmosphere, using dirigibles. Other proposals from the late 2010s include VERITAS, Venus Origins Explorer, VISAGE, and VICI. In June 2018, NASA also awarded a contract to Black Swift Technologies for a concept study of a Venus glider that would exploit wind shear for lift and speed. In June 2021, NASA selected the DAVINCI+ mission to send an atmospheric probe to Venus in the late 2020s. DAVINCI+ will measure the composition of Venus' atmosphere to understand how it formed and evolved, as well as determine whether the planet ever had an ocean. The mission consists of a descent sphere that will plunge through the planet's thick atmosphere, making measurements of noble gases and other elements to understand Venus' climate change. This will be the first U.S.-led mission to Venus' atmosphere since 1978. ## See also - Aerospace architecture

Birthday Cake (song)

2011 song by Rihanna

"Birthday Cake" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna, from her sixth studio album, Talk That Talk (2011). After it leaked onto the Internet, fans expressed interest in the track being included on Talk That Talk, but it was later revealed that the 1:18 (one minute, 18 seconds) length that leaked was in fact the final cut and was not being considered for inclusion on the album. Due to a high level of fan interest, the song was included on the album as an interlude. The full length version, also known as the official remix of the track, featuring Rihanna's ex-boyfriend Chris Brown, premiered online on February 20, 2012, to coincide with Rihanna's 24th birthday. The song peaked in the top thirty on the Billboard Hot 100. The lyrics to "Birthday Cake" express the desire to have spontaneous sex. Music critics were divided on "Birthday Cake", with the majority both praising and criticising the song's sexual lyrical content. Several critics compared the song to the previous track on the album "Cockiness (Love It)", which also consists of sexually explicit lyrics. Upon the release of Talk That Talk, the song debuted on the lower regions of the singles charts in South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. ## Background and development "Birthday Cake" was written by The-Dream, Rihanna, Marcos Palacios, and Earnest Clark, with production helmed by Da Internz and The-Dream. The interlude was recorded in room 1306 of the Radisson Blu Royal Hotel in Copenhagen, Denmark. In an interview for The Boom Box, producer The-Dream answered a question about fans being disappointed that "Birthday Cake" would not be featured on Talk That Talk (2011) after it leaked online before the album's November 2011 release; the producer explained that only an interlude had been produced, and that a full length version of the song would be released at some point during the Talk That Talk era, saying: > I was just talking to Rihanna about that, because she [originally] made [just] an interlude. I was like, 'Your fans are going to be so mad at you.' As soon as I said that, I got back, and I guess she released a piece of it, and they saw how long it is. Man, they tore me up on Twitter! So I hit her on the phone. I was like, 'Yo, your fans, they're going crazy on me right now, like I could make you do something.' So 'Birthday Cake' is on there. It's going to turn into a whole song because the fans are ganging up on me, and I don't want to be murdered by the Rihanna Navy!. ## Composition and lyrics "Birthday Cake" is an R&B interlude which lasts for one minute and 18 seconds, appearing as the sixth track on the album. The instrumentation of "Birthday Cake" consists of a heavy bass, schoolbells, engine sounds, claps, and electro beats. It also samples the song "Dominator" by Human Resource. The track also consists of hoover synths, synth handclaps, an Eastern-inspired tone and chants. In the song, Rihanna adopts a sensual tone in her vocals, as she chants the song's provocative and sexually explicit lyrics. A reviewer for Flavour described the singer's vocal performance in "Birthday Cake" as "sultry". Nathan S. of DJ Booth concurred that Rihanna sounds "sultry" as well as "playful" on the song. The lyrical content of the interlude is spare and largely revolves around Rihanna chanting, "cake cake cake cake cake cake." Aside from the repetitive chant of "cake", the interlude consists of multiple sexual metaphors. The lyric "I know you wanna bite this/ It's so enticing/ Nothing else like this, I'ma make you my bitch/ And it's not even my birthday/ But you wanna put your name on it" is a metaphor referring to a vagina. Rihanna sings about the desire to have spontaneous sex. Rihanna promises her lover that she will make him do whatever she pleases, singing "I'mma make you my bitch." T'Cha Dunlevy of The Montreal Gazette described the lyric as a "promise", with Rihanna intending to act upon her desires. The interlude ends mid-verse and mid-lyric with a fade at 1:18. Katherine St. Asaph of Popdust described the fade as "ungraceful", as well as writing that it makes the track appear as though it is not finished. Upon the fade, Rihanna puts forward the line "Ooh, I wanna fuck you right now." Dunlevy and St. Asaph were critical of the final line, with the former labelling it as "blatant", and the latter noting that "cursing makes everything obvious." ## Critical reception "Birthday Cake" garnered mixed reviews from music critics. Jayson Lipshutz of Billboard praised the interlude, writing "We're all for birthday-themed naughtiness in pop music form, but only 78 seconds of 'Birthday Cake' is just not enough of a celebration!" Lipshutz continued to compare the song's lyrical message to Jeremih's "Birthday Sex". Sam Lansky of MTV Buzzworthy was complimentary of "Birthday Cake", writing, "The only misstep on the album – not because it's not amazing (it is!), but because it's only 78 seconds long. 'Birthday Cake' is more decadent Rihanna filth, this time courtesy of sensual R&B-master The-Dream. Have any Rihanna Navy members made an hour-long mix yet? We need to keep the bump 'n' grind going all night." Pip Ellwood of Entertainment-Focus noted that "Birthday Cake", along with "Cockiness (Love It)", "leave you under no misunderstanding that Rihanna is as sexual as she's ever been throughout her career." Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "Birthday Cake", along with "Cockiness (Love It)", were the most provocative songs on the album, describing them as "I-like-it-rough tracks", but criticized them for being album fillers designed to get the listener out of the bedroom and on to the dance floor. Mike Diver of BBC Music disliked "Birthday Cake" as a "wholly pointless minute-something in the company of star producer The-Dream, wasted on the boring profanities of Birthday Cake." A reviewer for Flavour had a mixed reaction to the lyrical content, writing, "I can't exactly say it is a bad song. In fact, I will probably be singing it over the next few weeks. But at this point its like, 'we get it – you like sex.' Chill out about it and sing about education or something – your younger fans need more SUBSTANCE." [sic] Nathan S. of DJ Booth noted that the song resembles a real life "quickie", continuing to write that the overtly sexual lyrics in the song earned Talk That Talk the Parental Advisory sticker. Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the lyrics on "Birthday Cake" "wouldn't seem out of place on Spinal Tap's 'Smell the Glove'." Roberts continued to note that "Birthday Cake" appeared to be an afterthought, writing, > The hottest lines on the album come nearly as an afterthought on the all-too-brief 'Birthday Cake,' produced by The-Dream. 'I know you wanna bite this/ It's so enticin'/ Nothin' else like this/ I'mma make you my bitch,' she sings. But as if the network censors had let the song run before realizing their mistake, a little over a minute into it the music fades out, just as it's getting dirty, leaving us wondering whether Rihanna really believes what she's selling on "Talk That Talk." ## Chart performance Upon the release of Talk That Talk, "Birthday Cake" debuted on several world charts. The song entered the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 67 on November 26, 2011, with sales of 6,661 digital downloads. In the United Kingdom, "Birthday Cake" debuted at number 172 on December 3, 2011. In the United States, the song charted at number 22 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100. On March 3, 2012, "Birthday Cake" made its first appearance on the US Digital Songs chart at number 62, following the release of the official remix featuring Brown, and has peaked at number 30. Due to strong airplay spins, the interlude of "Birthday Cake" peaked at number 4 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. "Birthday Cake" was certified two-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 2,000,000 units. ## Live performance Rihanna performed the song for the first time on May 5, 2012, on Saturday Night Live, as part of a medley with "Talk That Talk". The performance started with the original interlude version "Birthday Cake" and featured Rihanna in an all black outfit with a giant spiders web as the backdrop behind her. After she performed a short section of the song, it transitioned into "Talk That Talk", where she performed her part of the song in full, without the rap vocal by Jay-Z. The remix of the song was included on her Diamonds World Tour as part of her first act in 2013. She performed it on the Anti World Tour with a different beat in 2016 with included Rihanna rap in the song. ## Track listing - Album version 1. "Birthday Cake" – 1:18 ## Credits and personnel Recording - Recorded at Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, Room 1306, Copenhagen, Denmark. Personnel - Songwriting – Terius Nash, Robyn Fenty, Marcos Palacios, Earnest Clark - Production – Da Internz, The-Dream - Vocal engineering and recording – Kuk Harrell, Marcos Tovar - Assistant vocal recording – Jennifer Rosales - Mixing – Kevin "KD" Davis - Assistant mixing – Calvin Bailiff Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk, Def Jam Recordings, SRP Records. ## Charts ## Certifications ## Remix featuring Chris Brown "Birthday Cake" was remixed with vocals from American recording artist Chris Brown, and is a full length version of the interlude which was originally included on Talk That Talk. It was sent to radio as the fourth US single from the album on March 6, 2012. At first, it was rumored that Christina Aguilera would feature on the remix version after Rihanna posted a message on Twitter saying that she wanted someone "Dirrrty" on the re-recording, a supposed reference to Aguilera's 2002 song "Dirrty". However, the singer later tweeted that she wanted a male vocalist, not a female vocalist, to accompany her on the remix via Twitter with a tweet reading 'No girls allowed on \#CAKE'. It was later revealed that Brown was the featured artist on the full length version. Despite receiving negative attention regarding Rihanna's choice of collaborator from the media and fans alike, the singer defended her decision saying that it is simply music. The remix of "Birthday Cakes lyrics are similar to the interlude, but with new lyrics provided by Brown. The collaboration was met with a mixed response from music critics, many of whom were shocked at the fact that Rihanna and Brown had collaborated on a song together despite their relationship history, but cited the remix as an improvement upon the original interlude. The remix peaked at number 24 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and number two on the R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. American rappers Fabolous, Rick Ross and Busta Rhymes appeared on additional remixes of the song. ### Background Responding to requests from fans, Rihanna posted a message via her official Twitter account, promising that a full version of "Birthday Cake" was coming. Katherine St. Asaph of PopDust criticized the notion, writing "Honestly, at this point Rihanna and Def Jam would be better off just calling 'Birthday Cake' an interlude, not an incomplete version, because otherwise that's saying the album is released but essentially unfinished." Beck Bain of Idolator noted that the release of the full length song is "doubtful", writing "the song is already too dirty in its current minute-and-twenty-second version. But if 'S&M' could be a single, is anything [sic] too risque for the radio these days?" On February 15, 2012, Kosine of Da Internz, who produced the interlude, claimed that the featured collaborator will "shock the world," and that the full length version would premiere between February 16, and February 20, 2012. ### Development On February 16, 2012, it was speculated that former boyfriend Chris Brown was the featured artist on the full length version. Reports surfaced after the pair were photographed leaving Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles at separate times and Brown being invited to Rihanna's birthday party. Rumors were also fueled when Rihanna and Brown spent time together at the 2012 Grammy Awards on February 8, 2012. The reports gained worldwide media controversy, because Brown and Rihanna were involved in a physical altercation on the evening of the 2009 Grammy Awards. The full length version, eventually revealed to feature Brown, was released on Rihanna's birthday, February 20, 2012. In an interview with Billboard, The-Dream stated that he believed Rihanna and Brown's past together should not be judged and that "Birthday Cake" is simply a song, saying, "For me, it's just music - two talented people doing a record together, doing two records together, and that's what it was. It wasn't about an incident that happened. The true thing really is to forgive, and you want to believe in people." "Birthday Cake" impacted US Urban contemporary radio on March 6, 2012, serving as the fourth U.S. single from Talk That Talk. On March 15, 2012, Rihanna explained her collaboration with Brown on "Birthday Cake" and the remix of his song "Turn Up the Music" to Ryan Seacrest during his morning show: "The first song that came about was 'Birthday Cake'. I mean, we ended up recording them at the same time and executing them together. But I reached out to him about doing 'Birthday Cake' because that’s the only person that, really, it made sense to do the record. Just as a musician, despite everything else, that was going to be the person. You know I thought about rappers, and I've done that so many times, and the hottest R&B artist out right now is Chris Brown. So I wanted him on the track, and then in turn he was like, 'Why don't you do the remix to my track?' and it was a trade-off. We did two records. One for my fans, one for his fans, and that way our fans can come together. There shouldn’t be a divide. You know? It's music, and it's innocent." In March 2012, American rapper Fabolous released his own verse to the "Birthday Cake" remix. The following month, another version featuring Fabolous premiered online. ### Composition Brown's verse begins with the lyric "Girl, I wanna fuck you right now," which is the antithesis of how Rihanna concludes the original interlude, singing "Ooh, I wanna fuck you right now." Brown's verse continues with "Been a long time I've been missing your body/ Turn the lights down/ When I go down it's a private party." Brown delivers his vocals in an aggressive and manipulative manner as he sings "Give it to her in the worst way, can't wait to blow her candles out." At the end of the song, Rihanna performs new lyrics which were not included on the original 1 minute and 18 second interlude; "Remember how you did it/ If you still wanna kiss it/ Then come and get it." According to Ben Rayner of the Toronto Sun, the instrumentation of "Birthday Cake" consists of "snaky, slurpy, bass-droppin' beats." The song's lyrics revolve around sadomasochistic sexuality and dominance over men, and consists mainly of oral sex metaphors, including the lyric "Doggy want the kitty." ### Critical reception Beth Hardie for the Daily Mirror wrote that the remix came as a shock, because of how Brown "beat her virtually senseless in a car three years ago just before the Grammys", and noted that Rihanna would face harsh criticism from journalists and fans alike for not setting a good example to younger girls. Hardie continued to state that although the collaboration came as a surprise, "We have to admit, it's a pretty amazing stroke of genius in terms of publicity and messing with people’s minds." Regarding the collaboration on the remix Jo Usmar from Daily Mirror compared the collaboration to the physical altercation between Rihanna and Brown at the 2009 Grammy Awards, writing "In case you've been living in a cave for the last two years this is extraordinarily controversial as Brown was convicted of assaulting Rihanna in 2009 and there was a restraining order issued against him." Ben Rayner for the Toronto Sun was critical of the remix and the original interlude, writing that "What was empty, unfinished titillation before, then, has become empty, overstated, boardroom-written pseudo-pornography for the pop charts." Jon Caramanica for The New York Times commented that the remix of "Birthday Cake", as well as the original, was "very much so" a good song. However, Caramanica was critical of the collaboration itself, due to Rihanna and Brown's history, writing "You want to forget? Fine. But don't forgive." Caramanica continued to explain his distaste, writing "It displays an advanced understanding of marketing and an understanding of moral obligations and ethics that's not much more than rudimentary. It is a woman publicly accepting her abuser - nothing more, nothing less." J. Bryan Lowder for The Huffington Post labelled the song as "innuendo-iced" with regard to the song's explicit lyrics. Lowder provided an explanation for what he thought the reason was behind Rihanna asking Brown to collaborate on "Birthday Cake", writing: > Even though we know that collaborations like this are almost always commercial in motivation, we like to imagine that the artist's choice of a creative partner gives us some kind of access to their private, emotional world. Collaboration suggests a personal relationship, and our eavesdropping on that interplay conjures up a feeling of intimacy between audience and artist that is very powerful. We feel like we know what's really going on with Rihanna and Chris Brown because we are virtually present in the studio with them, and here, the thing we're meant to know is that everything's OK now. The problem is, the strategy won't work; because of an infamous leaked photograph, we were also virtually present in the car that night three years ago when Brown beat Rihanna till her face was bruised and bloodied. And that kind of terrifying intimacy is not easily forgotten. ### Live performance Rihanna performed "Birthday Cake" Remix at Radio 1's Hackney Weekend on May 24, 2012, as the fifth song on the set list. She performed the remix in its entirety, and sang Brown's lyrics. The song was later included on her Diamonds World Tour in 2013 during the first act. ### Chart performance The remix version of "Birthday Cake" debuted at number 20 on the US Billboard R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart on chart issue dated March 10, 2012, and received both the Airplay and Greatest Gainer honors. The following week, it ascended to number 17. In its third week on the chart, the song ascended to number seven, and received the Airplay Gainer honor. The song ascended to number four the following week, and was awarded with the Airplay Gainer honor again. It has so far reached a peak of number two. It debuted at number 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the chart issue dated March 10, 2012. In its fourth week on the chart, the song climbed to number 39 and became the fourth top forty single from Talk That Talk. "Birthday Cake (Remix)" has reached a peaked of number 24. The remix of "Birthday Cake" debuted at number 73 on the Radio Songs chart, generating a 372% increase in spins, on the chart issue dated March 10, 2012. It reached a peak of number 16. ### Charts #### Weekly charts #### Year-end charts ### Premiere and radio history

Thiruvarur

Thiruvarur () also spelt as Tiruvarur is a town and municipality in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the administrative headquarters of Thiruvarur district and Thiruvarur taluk. The temple chariot of the Thyagaraja temple, weighing 360 tonnes (790,000 lb) and measuring 96 feet (29 m) tall is the largest temple chariot in India. Thiruvarur is the birthplace of Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri, popularly known as the Trinity of Carnatic music of the 18th century CE. Thiruvarur Thiyagarajaa Swaamy temple is older than Tanjore big temple. Thiruvarur was a part of Thanjavur district until 1991. The Odambokki river passes through the centre of the town. Thiruvarur covers an area of 10.47 km² (4.04 sq mi) and had a population of 58,301 as of 2011. Out of total population of Tiruvarur, 1,403,348 in the district, 257,795 are in urban area and 1,006,482 are in rural area. 65,220 households are in urban, 261,999 are in rural area. It is administered by a first grade municipality. The town is a part of the Cauvery delta region and agriculture is the major occupation. Roadways are the major means of transportation with a total of 94.06 km (58.45 mi) of district roads including three national highways passing through the town. The town was one of the five traditional capitals of the Chola empire, with one of the emperors of the dynasty, Kulothunga Chola I, having it as his capital. The town is believed to be of significant antiquity and has been ruled, at different times, by the Medieval Cholas, Later Cholas, Later Pandyas, Vijayanagar Empire, Thanjavur Nayaks, Marathas and the British. The town is known for the Thyagaraja temple, and the annual Asian biggest chariot festival held in the month of April. ## Etymology The historic name of the town was Aaroor (Arur) and it finds mention in the seventh century saiva canonical work, Tevaram. It was also alled Śrīnagara in Sanskrit. The term Thiru is added to all temple cities that are mostly revered by the verses of Tevaram, which is the case of Arur becoming Thiruvarur. Another name of Thiruvarur is Kamalaalayasetra, meaning the "holy place that is an abode of lotuses"; the town is also referred so due to the presence of the Kamalaalayam tank and the temple deity, Kamalambigai. During the British Raj, the town was termed Tiruvalur, Tiruvaloor, and Thiruvalur. As per the district and municipality websites, the district has the spelling "Tiruvarur", while the town has it as "Thiruvarur". ## History As per folk legend, Thiruvarur is mentioned as the capital town of a legendary Chola king, Manu Needhi Cholan, who killed his own son to provide justice to a cow. Thiruvarur was one of the five traditional capitals of the Chola empire and the history of town revolves around the Thyagarajaswamy temple. Thiruvarur is mentioned in the saiva canonical work, Tevaram by Thirugnana Sambanthar, Tirunavukkarasar and Sundarar, the foremost Saivite saints of seventh–eighth century CE and classified as Padal petra stalam. Tirunavukkarasar mentions several traditions of the temple like Marghazhi Aathirai Vizha, Panguni Uttirai Perunaal and Veedhivitakanin Veedhi Panni. The granite structure of the temple was first constructed by Aditya Chola I (871–907 CE) in the ninth century CE and revamped during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 CE). The temple was upgraded and rebuilt with stone by Rajendra Chola I (1012–44 CE). The temple has inscriptions from both the emperors, later Cholas and Pandyas. The temple is believed to be an inspiration for Rajaraja Chola to build the Brihadeeswarar Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Inscriptions from the temple indicate Thiruvarur as the capital of Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 CE), during which the town emerged a centre of saivism. After the fall of Cholas during the reign of Rajendra Chola III in the 13th century CE, the town was caught under a power struggle between the Pandyas and Hoysalas. The royal patronage continued and the town flourished as a cultural centre during the rule of the Nayaks, Vijayanagar kings and Marathas. During the period of Marathas, the town became a temporary home to the Nataraja of Chidambaram temple. The town was briefly captured by French troops led by Lally (1702–66 CE) in 1759 CE. The Thyagarajar temple was ransacked in a failed attempt to discover hidden treasure. During the attempt, six members of the temple, suspected to be spies of the British, were killed in an encounter. The province and Tanjore were annexed by British after the failed attempt of the French to attack the King of Tanjore. After independence, Thiruvaur continued to be a part of the Thanjavur district and Nagapattinam district until 1991 and 1997 respectively. Thiruvarur was made the headquarters of Tiruvarur district when it was carved out of Nagapattinam district in 1997. In modern days, Thiruvarur regarded as the origin of Carnatic music because of the birth of great three musicians of Carnatic music (Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - The trinity of Carnatic Music). ## Geography Thiruvarur is located at . The town is bounded by Sukumar river in the north, Valaiyar river in the south while the Odambokki river flows through the centre. The town has an average elevation of 3 metres (9.8 ft) from the sea level. The municipality covers an area of 10.47 km² (4.04 sq mi) Thiruvarur is situated at a distance of 300 km from Chennai, 24 km (15 mi) from Nagapattinam, 40 km (25 mi) from Karaikal, 40 km (25 mi) from Mayiladuthurai and 56 km (35 mi) from Thanjavur. The town along with the district receives an annual rainfall of 1,260 millimetres (50 in). The town experiences tropical climate during summer; from March to May. The proximity to sea results in high humidity throughout the year and peaks 70% from August to May. The town has a plain terrain of alluvial soil consisting of sand, silt and clay. Vennar and Vettar, the tributaries of river Cauvery are the major water bodies around the town. Surface water canals contribute 89% to irrigation, while the rest 11% is accounted by dug wells and tube wells. Paddy is the major crop while the others being black gram, green gram, ground nut and gingely. ## Demographics During 1901, the population of the town stood at 15,436. According to 2011 census, Thiruvarur had a population of 58,301 with a sex-ratio of 1,053 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 5,779 were under the age of six, constituting 2,888 males and 2,891 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 32% and .66% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the town was 82.%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The town had a total of 14997 households. There were a total of 18,953 workers, comprising 672 cultivators, 960 main agricultural labourers, 318 in house hold industries, 15,596 other workers, 1,407 marginal workers, 47 marginal cultivators, 261 marginal agricultural labourers, 52 marginal workers in household industries and 1,047 other marginal workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Thiruvarur had 84.38% Hindus, 14.13% Muslims, 1.39% Christians, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.01% Buddhists, 0.02% Jains, 0.05% following other religions and 0.01% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference. The population growth rate was higher during the decade of 1981–90 due to increased provision of social, economic and recreational facilities that caused the rural population to migrate to urban areas. The overall growth rate had declined over the last two decades due to poor returns in agriculture and increased migration of agricultural labourers to other urban centres. The population density of the town is high in the centre and low in the peripheral regions. The town has 55% employed people; 12.7% are involved in primary occupations like agriculture, 2.8% in secondary occupations related to industries and 85% in tertiary occupations such as agricultural trading and tourism. About 33% population of the town is involved in agriculture and most of them are involved in trading activities. As per a survey conducted in 1997 by the Tamil Nadu Urban and Town Planning Department, 30 slums were identified in the town constituting 41% of the total population of the town. ## Economy Thiruvarur lies in the Kaveri River basin and the main occupation of the inhabitants of the town and surrounding regions is agriculture. More than 70% of the workforce is involved in agriculture; 14% being cultivators and rest are agricultural labourers. Paddy is cultivated in three seasons namely Kuruvai (June–August), Samba (August–January) and Thaladi (January–March). The daily wages of the agricultural labourers is more than the rates fixed by the Tamil Nadu government, but due to the decline in number of days of work, the income levels are lower. As of 1998, the male labourers were employed 150 days a year, while the female labourers for 120 days. A government report in 2006 put these numbers at 120 and 100 days respectively. Due to the discontinuity in the working days, the labourers migrate to other states or countries. They also shift to other professions like construction industry in the urban centres and textile industry in the district. There are no industrial estates in the town and the district – as of 2012, a government proposal is formulated to develop one at Vaippur village. Modern agricultural tools like hullers have replaced labourers and reduce the profit margin of small traders and labourers. There are no co-operative societies who acquire the farm products and the District Purchasing Centre, operated by the government of Tamil Nadu is the major procurer. Being an agricultural town, the predominant industries are agriculture based like modern rice milling, palm oil refinery, poultry, live stock and coir based. Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies Corporation operating a modern rice mill and South India Edible Oil involved in refining oil are the large scale industries in the town. There are small service enterprises involved in automobile servicing, hotels, hospitals, boat repairing and nylon fishnet repairing. There is a weekly market at Thanjai Salai and a daily market maintained by the municipality, where vegetables and fish are sold. Nationalized banks such as State Bank of India, Indian Bank, Central Bank of India, Punjab National Bank, Indian Overseas Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank, City Union Bank have their branches in Thiruvarur. Kumbakonam Co-operative Bank, Tiruvarur Co-operative Bank and Primary Agriculture Bank are the cooperative banks that have their branches in the town. All these banks have their Automated teller machines located in various parts of the town. ## Transport Thiruvarur municipality accommodates 94.06 km of roads: 54.9 km of BT roads, 10.91 km of metal roads, 9.48 km of cement roads and 18.75 km of highways. Thiruvarur is connected by three national highways, NH 45A to Viluppuram, NH 67 to Coimbatore. And KSRTC also operating buses from Ernakulam, Cherthala, Changanasserry to Velankanni via Thiruvarur. Thiruvarur having the direct bus services to the following Cities of the State are Chennai, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Kanchipuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore, Chidambaram, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai, Salem, Hosur, Erode, Tiruppur, Kodaikanal, Palani, Dharapuram, Pudukkottai, Sivagangai, Rameshwaram, Ramanathapuram, Theni, Tiruchendur, Puducherry, Karaikal and other local services to Thanjavur, Kumbakonam, Mannargudi, Mayiladuthurai, Sirkazhi, Pattukkottai, Vedaranyam, Ariyalur, Jayankondam etc. Through the state highways SH 23 from Mayiladuthurai to Thiruthuraipoondi, SH 67 from Thanjavur to Kodikkarai, SH 65 from Thiruvarur to Kumbakonam, SH 66 from Kumbakonam to Adiramapattinam, SH 67 from Nagore to Nachiyar Koil, SH 146 from Mannargudi to Sethubavachatram, SH 147 Kumbakonam to Karaikkal, SH 202 Tiruvarur - Mannargudi - Muthupet, SH 151 Kilvelur to Kachanam. The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation operates close to 300 daily services connecting various cities to Thiruvarur. Most of the buses via Thiruvarur are operated by the corporation ply between Tiruchirapalli and Velankanni. The corporation operates a computerised reservation centre in the municipal bus stand of the town. This year our Thiruvarur MLA Poondi kalaivanan was open many new town buses in Thiruvarur Town bus stand, It also operates 40 town buses satisfying the local transport needs of Thiruvarur and the neighbouring villages. The State Express Transport Corporation operates long-distance buses connecting the town to Bangalore, Coimbatore, Chennai, Thiruvananthapuram and Marthandam. Thiruvarur railway junction is a four way junction connecting Thanjavur in the west, Mayiladuthurai in the north, Nagapattinam in the east and Thiruthuraipoondi in the south. Gauge conversion between Mayiladuthurai and Thiruvarur was completed in August 2012 and the inaugural train ran from Bangalore to Nagore via Thiruvarur. There are passenger trains to Tiruchirapalli, Thanjavur, Mayiladuthurai, Karaikal, Mannargudi and Thiruthuraipoondi. Gauge conversion between Thiruvarur and Karaikudi is completed now so daily trains are available to Karaikudi and manamadurai. There is a daily express train to Chennai via Mayiladuthurai and Ernakulam. There are two trains from Mannargudi to Tirupathi and Velankanni to Goa, operated three times a week that pass through Thiruvarur. The nearest airport to Thiruvarur is Tiruchirappalli International Airport, which is located 110 km (68 mi) from the town.The nearest seaport is located at Nagapattinam which is about 27 km (17 mi) from the town. ## Education and utility services As of 2001, Thiruvarur has a lower literacy rate compared to other part of the state. There are three government high schools out of a total of 15 schools in the town. The Central University of Tamil Nadu, established by an act of parliament in 2009, provides collegiate education in the fields of arts and science. There are five other arts and science colleges, one teacher training institute, three polytechnic colleges and two Industrial training institutes (ITI) in the town. Electricity supply to Thiruvarur is regulated and distributed by the Thiruvarur circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). Water supply is provided by the Thiruvarur Municipality from Odambokki river; the distribution through water tanks located at Madapuram, Thendral Nagar, Kidarakondan, Kattapomman street, Mettupalayam, IP Koil street, Maruthapttinam and Weekly Shandy having a total capacity of 4,260 kl (1,130,000 US gal). About 18 t (40,000 lb) of solid waste is collected from the town everyday; 56% domestic wastes and 40% commercial wastes. Thiruvarur municipality is implementing underground drainage and the current sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks and public conveniences. Roadside drains carry untreated sewage out of the town to let out raw into the sea or accumulates in low-lying area. Thiruvarur comes under the Thiruvarur Telecom circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), India's state-owned telecom and internet services provider. Apart from telecom, BSNL also provides broadband internet service. There are three government hospitals in the town; the largest of them is the District Headquarters Government Hospital. There are 11 private hospitals and numerous medical shops catering to the healthcare need of the town. ## Municipal administration and politics Until 1860, Thiruvarur was the headquarters of a taluka of the same name. It was declared a third grade municipality in 1914 during the rule of British. It was promoted to a first grade municipality in 1978. The municipality has 30 wards and there is an elected councilor for each of those wards. The municipality has seven revenue villages: Vilamal, Vijayaruram, Thiruvarur south, Thiruvarur North, Keelakavadhukudi, Ramage, Sundaravilakam and Kidaramkondan. The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: general administration/personnel, engineering, revenue, health, town planning and information technology (IT). All these departments are under the control of a municipal commissioner who is the executive head. The legislative powers are vested in a body of 30 members, one each from the 30 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson assisted by a deputy chairperson. Tiruvarur district was created in January 1997 and Tiruvarur town became the district headquarters. Thiruvarur comes under the Thiruvarur assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years. Till 2006, the constituency was reserved for SC (Scheduled Caste) candidates. From the 1977 elections, the assembly seat was won by DMK for five times during 1977, 1996, 2001, 2006 and 2011 elections and Communist Party of India for four times during 1980, 1984, 1989 and 1991 elections. The former MLA of the constituency is Muthuvel Karunanidhi, ex-chief minister and the leader of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). Thiruvarur is a part of the Nagapattinam (Lok Sabha constituency) – it has the following six assembly constituencies – Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Thiruthuraipoondi, Vedaranyam, Kilvelur (SC) and Nannilam. The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is Dr. K. Gopal from the AIADMK. From 1957, the Nagapattinam parliament seat was held by the Indian National Congress for four times during 1957–1961, 1962–67, 1967–71 and 1991–96. CPI won the seat for 5 times during 1971–77, 1977–80, 1989–91, 1996–98 and 1998 elections. DMK won 4 times during 1980–84, 1999–2004, 2004–09 and 2009-2014 elections. AIADMK won the seat two times during 1984–89 & 2014. Law and order in the town in maintained by the Thiruvarur sub division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent. There are three police stations in the town, one of them being an all-women police station. There are special units like prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police. ## Culture ### The Thyagaraja temple The ancient Thyagaraja Temple at Thiruvarur is dedicated to the Somaskanda aspect of Shiva. Thygaraja is the iconic form of Somaskanda and is believed to have spread widely from the tenth century CE, the period coinciding the reign of Raja Raja Chola. The temple complex spanning over an area of 20 acres (81,000 m²) has shrines dedicated to Vanmikanathar, Thyagaraja, Kamalaamba and numerous other deities. Vanmikinathar is believed to have arisen from an anthill and from the trumpet flower, Bignonia Chelenoides. The Kamalalayam temple tank covers around 33 acres (130,000 m²), making it one of the largest in the country. The temple chariot is the largest of its kind in Tamil Nadu. Thyagaraja is believed to have performed 364 miracles in Thiruvarur similar to the 64 performed at Madurai Meenakshi Temple. Pilgrims take a holy dip in the tank during Hindu auspicious occasions like equinox and eclipse. The temple is also classified as Saptha Vidangam, meaning the seven temples having unique dance moves by Thyagaraja. The Chola inscriptions refer Thyagaraja as Vidhividangar and the name "Thyagaraja" is believed to have emerged during the 15–16th century CE. ### Music, dance and literature Historically Thiruvarur has been a centre of eminent people in religion, arts and science. Sundarar, an eighth-century Saivite saint, mentions "I am the slave of all those born in Thiruvarur" in his works in Tevaram. Two of the 63 nayanmars of Saivite tradition namely, Kalarsinga Nayanar and Tandiyadigal Nayanar were born in Thiruvarur. The Periyapuranam, a 12th-century Saiva canonical by Sekkizhar, dedicates a chapter to those born in Thiruvarur including these two saints. The town was a traditional centre of music and dance – the inscriptions from Rajaraja Chola associates a large body of dancers associated with the temple. Thiruvarur is home to Trinity of Carnatic music namely Thyagaraja (1767–1847 CE), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775–1835 CE) and Shyama Shastri (1762–1827 CE). Muthuswami Dikshitar has sung eulogies of the temple deities of the Thyagarajaswami temple. There was large influx of the acumen of South Indian culture to the town during the 17th century CE due to the political unrest in Thanjavur and increased patronage of the Maratha kings to Thiruvarur, resulting in developments in music and dance. A unique musical instrument called Panchamuga Vadyam with each of its five ends ornamented differently is used in the temple. A type of nadaswaram (pipe instrument) called Barinayanam is also a unique instrument found only in Thiruvarur. ### Chariot festival Kulothunga Chola II (1133–50 CE) enlarged the temple ritual to have fifty six festivals, some of which are followed in modern times. The annual chariot festival of the Thygarajaswamy temple is celebrated during April – May, corresponding to the Tamil month of Chitrai. The chariot is the largest of its kind in Tamil Nadu and also No.1 Place of Biggest Chariot in the World weighing 360 tonne with a height of 96 feet. The chariot comes around the four main streets surrounding the temple during the festival. The event is attended by lakhs of people from all over Tamil Nadu. The chariot festival is followed by the "Theppam", meaning float festival. The Carnatic music festival celebrated every year also garners large audience. The town has 10 parks, with the Somasundaram Park at Panagal Road and Municipal Park at Thendral Nagar being the most prominent of them. ## Notable people - Bakthavathsalam – Mridangam player - K. Balachander – Tamil film maker and director - Muthuswami Dikshitar – Carnatic classical composer and part of trinity - M. Karunanidhi – Five term chief minister of Tamil Nadu - Syama Sastri – Carnatic classical composer and part of trinity - Rajan Somasundaram – Music composer, multi-instrumentalist that created first ever music album on Sangam period poetry - Tyagaraja – Carnatic classical composer and part of trinity

Corsican nuthatch

Species of bird

The Corsican nuthatch (Sitta whiteheadi) is a species of bird in the nuthatch family Sittidae. It is a relatively small nuthatch, measuring about 12 cm (4.7 in) in overall length. The are bluish gray, the grayish white. The male is distinguished from the female by its entirely black . The species is sedentary, territorial and not very shy. It often feeds high in Corsican pines, consuming mainly pine nuts, but also catching some flying insects. The breeding season takes place between April and May; the nest is placed in the trunk of an old pine, and the clutch has five to six eggs. The young fledge 22 to 24 days after hatching. The Corsican nuthatch is found only on the island of Corsica, where it populates the old forests of high altitude laricio pines, descending lower in winter. Its scientific name comes from John Whitehead, the ornithologist who brought the bird to the attention of the scientific community in 1883. The Corsican nuthatch is closely related to the Chinese nuthatch (S. villosa) and the red-breasted nuthatch (S. canadensis). It is threatened by loss of nesting sites and habitat fragmentation, with an estimated population size of about 2,000 individuals, possibly in moderate decline. Due to the small population size and the limited range, the conservation status of the Corsican nuthatch is classed as "vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. ## Taxonomy ### Discovery and studies The Corsican nuthatch was discovered when ornithologist John Whitehead went to observe alpine swift (Tachymarptis melba) on June 13, 1883. Whitehead, who had spent much of the previous years in Corsica, spotted and shot a male Corsican nuthatch. He kept the specimen's skin and did not bother with it until October, when he asked Richard Bowdler Sharpe for help in naming some small birds he had collected; although the bird's head was damaged by the collection method, Sharpe assured him that the species was not yet described. Whitehead thought the bird was extremely localized and did not give the precise locality where he collected the first specimens for fear that the species would be exterminated by additional collections. Whitehead returned to Corsica in May 1884 and found a male, which he recognized by its black . After killing it, he waited to see the accompanying female, killed it as well, and then collected three more specimens from a small flock. In the following days, he observed a pair coming and going with nesting material in a hole six meters above the ground in the trunk of a very old pine. He located other nests, some 30 m (1,200 in) above the ground, and opened two of them, finding 5 eggs in each, which he collected. The Italian ornithologist Enrico Hillyer Giglioli reported in 1890 that he had observed the bird on September 16, 1877, at Ponte Leccia, almost six years before Whitehead, but mistaking it for a Eurasian nuthatch (S. europaea), he did not bother to shoot it. In the spring of 1896, the German naturalist Alexander Koenig visited the forest of Vizzavona and collected with great difficulty five specimens; in the early autumn of 1900, Arnold Duer Sapsworth brought back some skins. For the first, the breeding season had not begun at the time of his visit and for the second, it was over; no additional eggs were therefore brought back during this period. The next collections were made between 1908 and 1909 by the British ornithologist Francis Charles Robert Jourdain, who provided some additional field notes and explained the difficulty of accessing the nests. The first works concerning the biology of the bird were only carried out in the 1960s by the German ornithologist Hans Löhrl, who studied the reproduction, feeding and behavior of the species. In 1976, Claude Chappuis described the voice of the species in an article dedicated to the vocalizations of birds from Corsica and the Balearic Islands. In the 1980s, the Italian ornithologists Pierandrea Brichetti and Carlo Di Capi studied the reproduction of the Corsican nuthatch. Since the 1990s, the species has been studied closely by local groups, and in particular by ornithologists Jean-Claude Thibault, Pascal Villard and Jean-François Seguin. In the summer of 2006, Dutchmen participating in an entomological expedition incidentally observed a pair of nuthatches in the Altai, near the meeting point of China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia, in a pure larch forest (Larix sp.). The male has a black crown, and the female does not, and both have a dark topped by a white supercilium. The closest species geographically that might fit this description is the Chinese nuthatch (S. villosa), which would then be far from its known distribution, and which has more buffy underparts than the observed individuals. This record could be indicative of a much wider distribution of the Chinese species, or the bird could be an as yet undescribed species related to S. whiteheadi and S. villosa. ### Nomenclature The Corsican nuthatch was described by Sharpe in March 1884, based on the first male specimen collected by Whitehead, who was thus given the specific name. Whitehead sent a second male to Sharpe, who presented it in May to the Zoological Society of London. In June, Sharpe completed the description of the species after Whitehead sent him a female. The Corsican nuthatch is sometimes placed in a subgenus, Micrositta, described by the Russian ornithologist Sergei Buturlin in 1916, and has no subspecies. The Corsican nuthatch was subsequently considered a subspecies of the red-breasted nuthatch (S. canadensis) from 1911 until the 1950s. In 1957, American ornithologist Charles Vaurie explained that the morphology did not allow one to be sure that the Corsican nuthatch was a distinct species, and that it was probably better to consider it as belonging to the "canadensis" group, regrouping the species S. canadensis, S. whiteheadi and S. villosa; The German ornithologist Hans Löhrl, after studying the ecology and behavior of the birds of Latin America and Corsica, and through the publication of his field notes between 1960 and 1961, disagreed with Vaurie's position. In 1976, the French ornithologist Jacques Vielliard described the Algerian nuthatch (S. ledanti), just discovered in Algeria by Jean-Paul Ledant. He devoted part of his article on the possible relationships of the different species and their evolutionary history. Vielliard suggests that Vaurie stopped at "a superficial morphological similarity" to bring the Corsican nuthatch closer to the red-breasted nuthatch, and that the Corsican species should rather form with Krüper's nuthatch (S. krueperi) a group known as the "Mesogean nuthatches", "where S. ledanti providentially fits in". ### Molecular phylogeny and evolution In 1998, Eric Pasquet studied the cytochrome b of the mitochondrial DNA of a dozen nuthatch species, including the various species of the Sitta canadensis group, which he defined as comprising six species, which are also those of what is sometimes treated as the subgenus Sitta (Micrositta): canadensis, villosa, yunnanensis, whiteheadi, krueperi and ledanti. Pasquet concludes that the Corsican nuthatch is phylogenetically related to the Chinese nuthatch and the red-breasted nuthatch, these three species forming the sister group of a clade including Krüper's nuthatch and the Algerian nuthatch. The first three species would even be close enough to constitute subspecies, rejecting Vielliard's "mesogean" theory and thus confirming Vaurie's conclusions. For the sake of taxonomic stability, however, all retain their full species status. In 2014, Eric Pasquet and colleagues published a phylogeny based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of 21 nuthatch species and confirmed the relationships of the 1998 study within the "canadensis group", adding the Yunnan nuthatch, which was found to be the most basal of the species. The study findings align with the morphology of the species, the red-breasted nuthatch, Corsican nuthatch and Chinese nuthatch sharing as a derived character the entirely black crown only present in males, a unique trait in the Sittidae and related families. The second clade, which includes Krüper's and Algerian nuthatches, would have a black front crown in males, this sexual dimorphism being absent in young individuals. The phylogeny established, Pasquet concludes that the paleogeographic history of the group would be as follows: the divergence between the two main clades of the "canadensis group" appears more than five million years ago, at the end of the Miocene, when the clade of krueperi and ledanti settles in the Mediterranean basin at the time of the Messinian salinity crisis; the two species constituting it diverge 1.75 million years ago. The other clade split into three with populations leaving Asia from the east, giving rise to the red-breasted nuthatch, and then from the west, about one million years ago, marking the separation between the Corsican and Chinese nuthatches. Current distributions do not necessarily accurately reflect ancestral ones, however, and the Corsican nuthatch may be a paleoendemic that once had a much wider distribution and underwent reductions in pine distribution; "trapped" in Corsica, it would have evolved by vicariance. The simplified cladogram below is based on the phylogenetic analysis of Packert and colleagues (2014): ## Description ### Plumage and measurements The Corsican nuthatch is a small bird, measuring 11–12 cm (4.3–4.7 in) long with a wingspan of 21–22 cm (8.3–8.7 in) and a weight of 11–12.6 grams (0.39–0.44 oz). The folded wing measures 7 cm (2.8 in), the relatively short tail measures 3.5 cm (1.4 in), and the tarsus and beak measure 1.6 cm (0.63 in). The head is small and the is short for a nuthatch. It is thin and blackish gray, black on its tip. The eyes are black, the legs and toes are light brown. The are overall bluish gray, the belly pale grayish buff with the throat whiter. The male has a black crown and forehead, and a black eyestripe, separated from the crown by a broad, sharp white supercilium. In females, the crown and eyebrow line are the same gray as the back. In both sexes, the sides of the head as well as the throat are white; the , overall grayish white, are more or less shaded with buff. The outer rectrices are black with white spots and gray tips. The birds undergo a complete moult every year after the breeding season. Sexual dimorphism appears eleven days after hatching, and fledged young have a plumage close to that of adults. As juveniles, they remain duller, with some brown on the large coverts. ### Vocalizations The contact call is a light, whistling pu, which the bird repeats in series of five to six notes, in pupupupu. When agitated, this nuthatch emits a "rough and stretched, slowly repeated" pchèèhr, as might a common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), or a psch-psch-psch that turns into a chay-chay-chay or sch-wer, sch-wer when more agitated. The song, described as a "clear, sonorous, rapid dididididi [and of] variable rhythm," meanwhile, is reminiscent of the alpine swift; the contact call is a similar trill. It "sings fairly regularly in the spring," but is more discreet during the breeding season. ### Similar species The Corsican nuthatch is the only nuthatch found in Corsica, however, it may be reminiscent of the coal tit (Parus ater), which is common in Corsican forests and has similar markings on its head. The Eurasian nuthatch which inhabits nearby mainland France is larger, has no black on the crown and has yellow (or white for some subspecies) underparts tending to orange around the rump. In the original description, Sharpe likened it morphologically to the Chinese nuthatch, which however has more brightly colored underparts, and to Krüper's nuthatch, which is the same size and has the same color upperparts, but has a reddish-brown area on the underparts that is absent in the Corsican species. The Corsican nuthatch is also similar to the red-breasted nuthatch, which is found only in North America, but has yellowish underparts. Finally, the Corsican species most closely resembles the Algerian nuthatch, from Babor Mountains, which can be distinguished by its paler underparts, whitish sides of the head, and by the male's crown, which has only the black front. ## Distribution and habitat The Corsican nuthatch is the only species of bird endemic to Corsica, and even to metropolitan France. Its range covers the majority of the island, which is very mountainous. This bird is found from the Tartagine-Melaja forest in the north to the Ospedale forest in the south, but it is particularly abundant in the Monte Cinto, Monte Rotondo, Monte Renoso and Monte Incudine massifs. There are also two isolated populations, in Castagniccia in the northeast of the island, and in the Cagna mountain in the south. The Corsican nuthatch favors Corsican pines (Pinus nigra laricio) forests interspersed with clearings; this habitat is fairly dry in the summer (three weeks to two months of drought) and experiences heavy rainfall in the off-season (800–1,800 mm (31–71 in) per year). This nuthatch is sedentary; it generally lives in deep valleys between 1,000 m (39,000 in) and 1,500 m (59,000 in) above sea level between April and October, but can be found from 750–1,800 mm (30–71 in) above sea level, although the more open forests at higher elevations are less suitable. It descends lower in winter, and may then inhabit mixed forests of Corsican and maritime pines (Pinus pinaster) or forests of white fir (Abies alba); however, its stand indices are significantly lower than in pure Corsican pines forests. It avoids hardwood-dominated or mixed woodlands. Old pines provide the nuthatch with abundant food, and the species is absent from sectors where trees are less than 28 cm (11 in) in diameter, and where the Corsican pine is in the minority compared to other species. The places most likely to shelter the Corsican nuthatch have large trees (over 16 m (630 in) high) and large diameter (over 58 cm (23 in)). The preference of the bird for the Corsican pine over the maritime pine could be explained by the toughness of the seeds of the latter. From a historical perspective, Thibault and colleagues explain in 2002 that "the Corsican nuthatch and the Corsican pine, probably present on the island since at least the middle of the Quaternary, had to face the last climatic fluctuations of the Pleistocene, which caused deep modifications in the composition and distribution of the vegetation. It is likely that the nuthatch survived in the Corsican pines throughout this period. ## Behaviour and ecology Like all nuthatches, the Corsican nuthatch can move head down along branches, and is rarely found on the ground. It is a territorial bird and are not shy. It lives in monogamous couples evolving all year long on the same territory of three to ten hectares, the two birds of the couple defending it from intruders, of the same species or of another. The home range, the area where the birds generally live within their territory, varies in size, depending on the season and age of the birds, but especially on the cone production of the pines. ### Food and feeding The Corsican nuthatch consumes mainly pine nuts, but also small flying insects in summer. From March to November, small arthropods (adult insects and their larvae, spiders) represent the main part of its diet; it catches them in flight but more generally in the trees; it makes a quarter of its captures in flight, from a lookout post, and exploits the rest of the time the substrates provided by the trees. In spring and summer, it is more likely to be found in the treetops, foraging high up in the foliage of pine trees, at the end of branches, like a chickadee; in autumn, however, it searches for food along the trunks and on large branches, and may also form mixed feeding flocks with other small passerines outside the breeding season. November marks the beginning of the opening of pine cones, from which the Corsican nuthatch extracts seeds with its fine bill. In years of high production, the nuthatch may find food resources in the cones until March. As nuthatches often do, the Corsican nuthatch hides some seeds under the bark or under lichens or plant debris, and consumes them in the off-season, especially when early spring snows prevent access to pine cones, or when cones remain closed on wet, cold days. This use of hiding places may also partly explain the bird's complete sedentarity. ### Breeding Male Corsican nuthatches begin singing in late December, but the breeding season occurs in April–May. In years of high cone production, breeding occurs early; in years of low production, nuthatches must wait until insects are present in large quantities. The species depends for its nesting on old conifers that are two to three hundred years old with sufficiently soft trunks, dead, worm-eaten or partially struck by lightning. The Corsican nuthatch favors dead trees that still have some branches, which can be used as a singing post, as a stalking post or to monitor the surroundings, but the height of the trunk, the surrounding pine cover or the diameter of the trunk are not decisive. A 2005 study reported that the nests of different pairs were located 284–404 m (932–1,325 ft) apart depending on the year (between 1998 and 2003). Both members of the pair excavate the nest, often reusing cavities excavated by great spotted woodpeckers (Dendrocopos major), but avoiding the high risk of predation from the former nests of these birds. There can be two entrances to the cavity if the trunk is particularly rotten. The entrance is 3–4 m (120–160 in) wide, and the cavity averages 56 mm × 109 mm (2.2 in × 4.3 in) with an average depth of 12 cm (4.7 in). The nest is placed between 2–30 m (79–1,181 in) above the ground. It is made of various plant materials (pine thorns, bark, and shavings) and lined with softer materials such as feathers, moss, horsehair, or lichen. The female lays in late April or early May, four to six (average 5.1) oval white eggs with reddish-brown spots, especially on the broad end, with "a few faint brown or dark gray-purple markings. Whitehead compares the eggs in size to those of the great tit (Parus major); according to Jourdain, who compares 42 eggs (14 collected by Whitehead, the other 28 by himself), they measure on average 17.18 mm × 12.96 mm (0.68 in × 0.51 in). The average weight, calculated for 17 of these eggs, is 82.2 milligrams. Brooding lasts from 14 to 17 days; it is carried out by the female alone, which the male feeds on average 3.2 times per hour. The beak and wing of the chicks grow steadily, while the tarsus stabilizes by the twelfth day; the crown darkens by the eleventh day, and the young are fully plumaged after an average of twenty days. The brood usually has 3 to 6 (average 4.3) fledglings, which leave the nest at 22 to 24 days of age. If the first brood fails or is lost, the pair makes a second brood between May 28 and June 16; one-third of these replacement broods are made in another tree. From one year to the next, nearly half of the pairs change trees to nest in. The young may breed at one year of age. The annual survival rate has been estimated at 61.6% for males (more than three out of five individuals make it through the year); life expectancy is poorly known, but "color marking has shown that a small number of individuals can reach six years of age". ## Threats and Conservation ### Numbers and status An estimate from the 1960s–1980s counted 2,000 to 3,000 pairs, spread over 240 km (150 mi), whereas in the 1950s there were nearly 3,000 pairs over 430 km (270 mi). In 2000, Thibault and colleagues estimated the numbers at 2,075–3,010 pairs. In 2013, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Thibault and colleagues estimate the Corsican nuthatch population at 3,100–4,400 mature individuals, or 4,600–6,600 birds in total. A 2011 estimate of the range put it at 185 km (115 mi). The Corsican nuthatch was considered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as "near threatened" in 1988, and "least concern" in 2004, 2008 and 2009. Since 2010, it has been considered "vulnerable", with Thibault and colleagues estimating a 10% decline over the previous ten years in a 2011 paper. ### Threats The decrease in numbers can be explained by fire and logging: the Corsican pines to which the species is attached regenerate less quickly than they otherwise disappear, and the felling of dead pines poses problems for the nesting of this nuthatch. In addition to destroying the birds' territories, regrowth after the fire has passed results in the replacement of the laricio pine by maritime pine or holm oak (Quercus ilex). A study carried out on the consequences of the fires of the summer of 2000, which affected several large Corsican massifs, concluded that the direct consequences (disappearance of territories) and indirect consequences (difficulties in nesting and feeding in winter) could have affected 4% of the species' population. For the same period in the Restonica gorges, 6 out of 12 territories were lost. The major impacts of the forest fires of August 2003 also led to a decline in the population, which was reduced by 37.5% the following spring. Predators of the Corsican nuthatch include the great spotted woodpecker, which may attack nests and young birds by enlarging the nest cavity to gain access to nuthatch offspring; not all individuals necessarily attack nests, and nuthatches and woodpeckers may even nest in the same tree. The garden dormouse (Eliomys quercinus) is also a potential predator, having been observed sleeping in a nest and suspected of several losses; to a lesser extent, the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) could count the Corsican nuthatch among its prey: nuthatch remains were reported in the diet of one of these birds of prey in 1967, and Löhrl reported in 1988 that the Corsican nuthatches he raised in captivity would hide at the sight of a raptor. The Eurasian jay (Garrulus glandarius) may also be a more or less important predator of fledglings. The study of the habitat structure of the Corsican nuthatch has shown that the fragmentation of its habitat, which leads to a local concentration of populations, could be a new threat. Nuthatches avoid open areas and young plantations that present an increased risk of predation, only crossing them if these areas are sufficiently narrow. A 2011 study attempted to quantify the impact of global warming on the future distribution of Corsican and maritime pines; taking only climate disruption into account, it is likely that by 2100, 98% of the Corsican nuthatch's range will still be likely to support it, and that this distribution will even expand by 10%. The bird's habitat is thus more threatened by the increase in frequency and importance of fires and the increase in human activities than by climate change. ### Protection The Corsican nuthatch is fully protected on French territory by virtue of article 3 of the decree of October 29, 2009, establishing the list of protected birds on the whole territory and the modalities of their protection; it is also listed in Annex I of the European Union Birds Directive and in Annex II of the Berne Convention. It is therefore forbidden to destroy, mutilate, capture or remove it, to intentionally disturb it or naturalize it, as well as to destroy or remove eggs and nests, and to destroy, alter or degrade its environment. Whether alive or dead, it is also prohibited to transport, peddle, use, hold, sell or buy it. It is estimated that 9-11% of the individuals are located in eight of the Special Protection Areas of the Birds Directive. Less than another five percent of the estimated population is found in two managed biological reserves and six integral biological reserves. In addition to fire prevention and control, specific measures are envisaged for the protection of the species, mainly focused on forestry methods and strategies: the first priority is to be given to the structure of the habitat; the second priority is given to the presence of nesting sites. ### In culture The Corsican nuthatch is sometimes referred to as Whitehead's nuthatch, but it has a variety of local names in the Corsican language, such as pichjarina, pichja sorda or furmicula, and capinera, used at least in Corte. The species remains relatively unknown to the public. The regional natural park of Corsica has published a small comic strip on the bird, and the "Corsican ornithological group" (GOC) has chosen the species as its logo, represented in a very refined form. In the forest of Aïtone, near Évisa, the National Forestry Office has created a "nuthatch trail", which is one of the places where the species can be more easily observed.

Noble train of artillery

1775–76 logistical feat during the American Revolutionary War

The noble train of artillery, also known as the Knox Expedition, was an expedition led by Continental Army Colonel Henry Knox to transport heavy weaponry that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga to the Continental Army camps outside Boston during the winter of 1775–76. Knox went to Ticonderoga in November 1775 and moved 60 tons of cannon and other armaments over the course of three winter months by boat, horse, ox-drawn sledges, and manpower along poor-quality roads, across two semi-frozen rivers, and through the forests and swamps of the lightly inhabited Berkshires to the Boston area, covering approximately 300 miles (500 km). Historian Victor Brooks has called Knox's exploit "one of the most stupendous feats of logistics" of the entire American Revolutionary War. The route which he followed is now known as the Henry Knox Trail, and the states of New York and Massachusetts have erected markers along the way. ## Background The American Revolutionary War erupted with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Benedict Arnold was a militia leader from Connecticut who had arrived with his unit in support of the Siege of Boston; he proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety that Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain in the Province of New York be captured from its small British garrison. One reason that he gave to justify the move was the presence of heavy weaponry at Ticonderoga. On May 3, the committee gave Arnold a Massachusetts colonel's commission and authorized the operation. The idea to capture Ticonderoga had also been raised to Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory in Vermont. Allen and Arnold joined forces, and a force of 83 men captured the fort without a fight on May 10. The next day, a detachment captured the nearby Fort Crown Point, again without combat. Arnold began to inventory the two forts for usable military equipment, but he was hampered by a lack of resources and conflict over command of the forts, first with Allen and then with a Connecticut militia company sent to hold the fort in June. He eventually abandoned the idea of transporting the armaments to Boston and resigned his commission. ## Expedition planning In July 1775, George Washington assumed command of the forces outside Boston, and one of the significant problems which he identified in the nascent Continental Army was a lack of heavy weaponry, which made offensive operations virtually impossible. It is not known who proposed the operation to retrieve the Ticonderoga cannons, but historians tend to credit either Henry Knox or Benedict Arnold with giving Washington the idea; regardless, Washington chose Knox for the job. Knox was a 25-year-old bookseller with an interest in military matters who served in the Massachusetts militia, and he had become good friends with Washington on his arrival at Boston. When Washington gave him the assignment, he wrote that "no trouble or expense must be spared to obtain them." On November 16, Washington issued orders to Knox to retrieve the cannons and authorized £1000 for the purpose, and he wrote to General Philip Schuyler asking him to assist Knox in the endeavor. Washington's call for the weapons was echoed by the Second Continental Congress, and they issued Knox a colonel's commission in November—although it did not reach him until he returned from the expedition. Knox departed Washington's camp on November 17 and traveled to New York City for supplies, reaching Ticonderoga on December 5. He shared a cabin with a young British prisoner named John André at Fort George at the southern end of Lake George. André had been taken prisoner during the Siege of Fort St. Jean and was on his way south to a prison camp. The two were of a similar age and temperament, and found much common ground to talk about. The next time they met, however, Knox presided over the court martial which convicted André and sentenced him to death for his role in Benedict Arnold's treason. ## Albany Upon arrival at Ticonderoga, Knox immediately set about identifying the equipment to take and organizing its transport. He selected 59 pieces of equipment, including cannons ranging in size from 4- to 24-pounders, mortars, and howitzers. He estimated the total weight to be transported at 119,000 pounds (about 60 tons or 54 metric tons). The largest pieces were the 24-pounders which were 11 feet (3.4 m) long and estimated to weigh over 5,000 pounds (2,300 kg). The equipment was first carried overland from Ticonderoga to the northern end of Lake George, where most of the train was loaded onto a scow-like ship called a gundalow. On December 6, the gundalow set sail for the southern end of the lake, with Knox sailing ahead in a small boat. Ice was already beginning to cover the lake, but the gundalow reached Sabbath Day Point, after grounding once on a submerged rock. They sailed on again the next day, with Knox going ahead. He reached Fort George in good time, but the gundalow did not appear when expected. A boat went to check on its progress and reported that the gundalow had foundered and sunk not far from Sabbath Day Point. This appeared to be a serious setback at first, but Knox's brother William, captain of the gundalow, reported that she had foundered but her gunwales were above the water line, and that she could be bailed out. This was done, the ship was refloated, and the gundalow arrived at the southern end of the lake two days later. On December 17, 1775, Knox wrote to Washington that he had built "42 exceeding strong sleds, and have provided 80 yoke of oxen to drag them as far as Springfield", and that he hoped "in 16 or 17 days to be able to present your Excellency a noble train of artillery". He then set out for Albany ahead of the train, crossed the frozen Hudson River at Glens Falls, and proceeded on through Saratoga to reach Lansingburg, New York on Christmas Day. Two feet (60 cm) of snow fell that day, slowing his progress, as the snow-covered route needed to be broken open. He finally reached Albany the next day, again slowed by significant snow on the ground. There he met with General Philip Schuyler, and the two of them worked over the next few days to locate and send north equipment and personnel to assist in moving the train south from Lake George. The snowfall was sufficient to enable sleds to move the train overland, but the river ice was still too thin to move it over the Hudson. Knox and his men tried to accelerate the process of thickening the river ice by pouring additional water on top of existing ice. The first of the cannon arrived at Albany by January 4, but some cannons crashed through the ice into the river on the way to Albany, and again on crossing the Hudson heading east toward Massachusetts. In every instance, however, the cannon was recovered. On January 9, the last of cannons had crossed the Hudson, and Knox rode ahead to oversee the next stage of the journey. ## Crossing the Berkshires Details are sketchy concerning the remaining journey, as Knox's journal ends on January 12. He reached the vicinity of Claverack, New York on January 9, 1776, and proceeded through the Berkshires, reaching Blandford, Massachusetts two days later. There the lead crew refused to continue owing to a lack of snow and the upcoming steep descent to the Connecticut River valley, but Knox hired additional oxen and persuaded the crew to go on. As the train moved east, news of it spread and people came out to watch it pass. In Westfield, Massachusetts, Knox loaded one of the big guns with powder and fired it to the applause of the assembled crowd. At Springfield, Knox had to hire new work crews, as his New York-based crews wanted to return home. John Adams reported seeing the artillery train pass through Framingham, Massachusetts on January 25, and Knox arrived in Cambridge two days later and personally reported to Washington that they had arrived. According to Knox's accounting, he spent £521 on an operation that he had hoped would take two weeks but actually took ten weeks. ## Arrival Washington wanted to end the siege, and he formulated a plan to draw at least some of the British out of Boston once the equipment began to arrive, at which point he would launch an attack on the city across the Charles River. He placed cannons from Ticonderoga at Lechmere's Point and Cobble Hill in Cambridge, and on Lamb's Dam in Roxbury. These batteries opened fire on Boston on the night of March 2, 1776, while preparations were made to fortify the Dorchester Heights from which cannons could threaten both the city and the British fleet in the harbor. Continental Army troops occupied this high ground on the night of March 4. British General William Howe first planned to contest this move by assaulting the position, but a snowstorm prevented its execution. After further consideration, he decided instead to withdraw from the city. On March 17, British troops and Loyalist colonists boarded ships and sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia. Henry Knox went on to become the chief artillery officer of the Continental Army, and later served as the first United States Secretary of War. ## Legacy At the time of the exploit's sesquicentennial (150th anniversary), the State of New York and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts both placed historical markers along the route that Knox was believed to have taken. In 1972, some markers were moved in New York after new information surfaced about the train's movements between Albany and the state boundary. Given the lack of documentation for the Massachusetts portion of the journey, most of the markers there were placed along the route that the train was only assumed to have taken, based on what was known about Massachusetts roads of the time. Fort Knox, an Army post in Kentucky famous as the site of the United States Bullion Depository, was named after Henry Knox. ## Types and numbers of cannon Source: - Coehorn (brass) - 57⁄10 in: 2 - 41⁄2 in: 4 - Mortar (brass) - 41⁄2 in: 1 - Mortar (iron) - 61⁄2 in: 1 - 10 in: 1 - 10 1⁄4 in: 1 - 13 in: 3 - Cannon (brass) - 3-pounder: 8 - 6-pounder: 3 - 18-pounder: 1 - 24-pounder: 1 - Cannon (iron) - 6-pounder: 6 - 9-pounder: 4 - 12-pounder: 10 - 18-pounder: 11 - Howitzer (iron) - 8 in: 1 - 81⁄2 in: 1 ## See also - Gundalow - Hannibal's crossing of the Alps ## Explanatory notes ## General references

Bruton Dovecote

Limestone tower in Bruton, Somerset, United Kingdom

The Bruton Dovecote is a limestone tower that was built between the 15th and 17th century in Bruton in the English county of Somerset. The structure was once used as a dovecote, and may have been a watchtower or prospect tower prior to this. It is a Grade II\* listed building and scheduled monument. It has been associated with Bruton Abbey and the Berkley family who owned the estate after the dissolution. It is known that the conversion to house pigeons and doves took place around 1780. It was acquired by the National Trust in 1915 and they have managed the site since then undertaking restoration work. ## History Though the Bruton Dovecote's date of construction is not known precisely, the structure was built some time between the 15th and 17th century. Architectural historian Lydia Greeves suggests that the building was once within the deerpark of Bruton Abbey and was adapted by the monks from a gabled Tudor tower. However, John and Pamela McCann, authors of The Dovecotes of Historical Somerset, claim that the structure was not built until after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 1530s. The authors claim that the Berkley family, who acquired the lands of the Abbey, constructed the building as a prospect tower. Dendrochronological dating commissioned by the National Trust found that timber in the door and window frames came from trees felled between 1554 and 1586. The conversion to be a dovecote took place around 1780. Pigeons and doves were an important food source historically kept for their eggs, flesh, and dung. Although it is now a roofless ruin with some of the windows blocked up, it previously had a chimney and the fireplace can still be seen. The National Trust acquired the freehold from Sir Henry Hugh Arthur Hoare of the Hoare baronets, whose family seat was at Stourhead, in 1915. The tower was subsequently designated as a scheduled monument in 1953 and a listed building (Grade II\*) in 1961. In the 1980s the dovecote was inspected as part of an investigation into an outbreak of psittacosis (also known as parrot disease or parrot fever), a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydophila psittaci, at the adjoining King's School. No cause was found for the infection. In 2010 restoration work was undertaken including repairs to the tops of the walls; these are exposed as the building no longer has a roof. Wall ties were used on the south west corner where the masonry was bulging. In addition, car parking and educational signage was provided. This was partially funded by South Somerset council, Bruton Town Council and the Heritage Lottery Fund to a total of £105,000. ## Location The dovecote stands on Lusty Hill to the south of Bruton overlooking the town. It is approximately 370 metres (1,210 ft) south of the Church of St Mary, and 230 metres (750 ft) south of King's School. It is on the Leland Trail. ## Architecture The square tower was built of local coursed oolitic limestone with Doulting stone dressings. The walls are 2 feet 8 inches (0.81 m) thick at the base, and the tower is 6 square metres (65 sq ft) in plan. The doorway has an ovolo moulded arch which is 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) high. This suggests a construction date in the late 16th or early 17th century. Another entrance was made for cattle to enter at a later date but this has been blocked up. Several of the windows have also been filled with stone. On the north-east face there were two-light chamfered mullioned windows on each floor while on the north-west wall they were one- and two-light windows. It has over 200 pigeon holes, which were installed after the original construction, possibly before 1780. Six tiers of nest boxes remain; however there were previously several more, possibly as many as 850. They are made of regular blocks of tufa each around 8 inches (200 mm) square and 16 inches (410 mm) deep. ## See also - Grade II\* listed buildings in South Somerset - List of scheduled monuments in South Somerset

Black Crater

Shield volcano in central Oregon, United States

Black Crater is a shield volcano in the Western Cascades in Deschutes County, Oregon. Located near McKenzie Pass, the volcano has a broad conical shape with gentle slopes. The volcano likely formed during the Pleistocene and has not been active within the last 50,000 years. Eruptive activity at the volcano produced mafic lava flows made of basaltic andesite and olivine basalt; it also formed a number of cinder cones. A normal fault occurs on the western side of the volcano, trending north–south. The volcano has been eroded by glaciers, which carved a large cirque into the northeastern flank of the mountain, forming its current crater. The area was settled c. 1862, when pioneers moved to the forested region south of Black Crater, near what is now the city of Sisters. The volcano is part of the Three Sisters Wilderness, which offers recreational activities. The Black Crater Trail runs one way for 3.8 miles (6.1 km) from a trailhead on Oregon Route 242, and the southeastern part of the trail can be skied. Some Arctic–alpine plants can be found on the volcano, including mountain hemlock, ponderosa pine, bitterbrush, and Pacific silver fir. ## Geography Black Crater lies in Deschutes County, southeast of Belknap Crater and northwest of Trout Creek Butte. Part of the Western Cascades, it is in the McKenzie Pass region and close to the Willamette National Forest. The Western Cascades consist of highly eroded layers of volcanic rock that drain into streams fed by runoff. These streams supply the Willamette River basin, and during the winter season the flow is increased by rain and melting snow. The volcano has an elevation of 7,257 feet (2,212 m) according to the U.S. National Geodetic Survey, which has a station just below the volcano's summit. The volcano has a broad conical shape with gentle slopes and a diameter of about 1.9 miles (3 km). Its relief is about 1,969 feet (600 m). Glaciers carved a cirque into the northeastern flank of the mountain, which forms its current crater. Glacial erosion has exposed the interior of the volcanic cone, but because of the volcano's relatively lower elevation and longer-lasting eruptive activity, it is less eroded than most other nearby volcanoes. Glaciers likely moved between cinder cones on Black Crater but did not erode them. Black Crater is part of the Three Sisters Wilderness, which covers an area of 281,190 acres (1,137.9 km²) and is therefore the second-largest wilderness area in Oregon. Designated by the United States Congress in 1964, the wilderness area borders the Mount Washington Wilderness to the north and shares its southern edge with the Waldo Lake Wilderness. The area includes 260 miles (420 km) of trails and many forests, lakes, waterfalls, and streams, including the source of Whychus Creek. Black Crater sits at the northern edge of the wilderness, forming part of the Alpine Crest region. This area incorporates the northeastern third of the Three Sisters Wilderness and includes most of its major mountains as well as its most popularly visited glaciers, lakes, and meadows. ## Ecology and environment Annual precipitation in the Oregon Cascades ranges from 11.5 to 13 feet (3.5 to 4.0 m) each year, with persistent but low-intensity rainfall. The wet climate supports rapid regeneration of vegetation, but the soil infiltration capacity is not surpassed even after fires. Black Crater lies at the border of this climate and the one found to the immediate east, where annual precipitation is less than 1.3 feet (0.40 m). Its soil consists of andisols with fine-grained loam and tephra ejected from nearby volcanoes. Some Arctic–alpine plants can be found in the area around Black Crater above the timberline. The north side of Black Crater has thick stands of mountain hemlock, while the eastern side supports ponderosa pine and bitterbrush. On the western side, there is forest with mountain hemlock and Pacific silver fir. On June 20, 2018, a debris flow coursed down the volcano, spurred on by runoff from a storm and secondary to the Milli Fire, which burned 24,000 acres (9,700 ha) of forest land one year prior. The flow started in an area with rilling and erosion near the upper volcano and traveled down the volcano's northwestern slope, crossing Oregon Route 242 at two points. The fire had burned 63% of the debris flow area at moderate or high severity. At its narrowest point, the flow was 16.5 feet (5.0 m), with depths exceeding 5 feet (1.5 m). ## Geology The Cascade Range resulted from the subduction of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate, with the High Cascade subprovince in central Oregon forming about 160 to 190 miles (250 to 300 km) east of the convergent boundary. In the Oregon segment of the Cascade Volcanoes that runs for 210 miles (340 km) south of Mount Hood, there are at least 1,054 Quaternary volcanoes, which form a volcanic belt 16 to 31 miles (25 to 50 km) in width. This volcanic belt extends up to 19 miles (30 km) to the north of the border with California, where Quaternary volcanic activity is interrupted by a 40-mile (64 km) gap up to the Quaternary volcanoes near Mount Shasta. The Quaternary volcanoes within the Oregon Cascades are extremely dense, concentrated within an area of about 3,700 square miles (9,500 km²). Black Crater forms part of a chain of Pleistocene, northward-trending volcanic activity characterized by scoria cones, lava flows, and agglutinates. Some of this eruptive activity covered North Sister. The chain stretches for about 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from Black Crater to North Sister. Black Crater sits above the Oregon High Cascades volcanic plateau. Black Crater is a shield volcano, composed of mafic basaltic andesite and olivine basalt. It is part of a group of mafic shield volcanoes in central Oregon that also includes North Sister, Mount Washington, Broken Top, and Black Butte. Black Crater shows high amplitude positive polarity on magnetic anomaly maps, as do Mount Washington, Three Fingered Jack, and Mount Jefferson, suggesting an age of less than 730,000 years. The volcano was likely formed in the late Pleistocene and has not erupted for about 50,000 years. Near the end of its eruptive activity, the volcano formed cinder cones on its southwestern side and a parasitic lava cone near its western base. Scoria and agglomerate near the summit vent was likely erupted at the same time as these formations and have been intruded by dikes. Later, additional cinder cones formed on the volcano, including one at the southern base known as Millican Crater, which erupted basalt. Millican Crater runs up against Black Crater, with a width of 3,900 feet (1,200 m). It erupted a lava flow with dimensions of 1.2 by 1.9 miles (2 by 3 km), which runs south and east and has been moderately eroded by glaciers. This lava flow is made of scoria and agglutinate. Cinder cones also occur at 250 feet (76 m) and 350 feet (110 m) above the northern and northeastern flanks, respectively; they are well-preserved without current glaciers but show some evidence of weathering. A crater on the northwestern slope is named Latta Crater after John Latta, an early settler in the region. The two Matthieu Lakes (located on the southern side of the volcano near its summit) are named after the French Canadian pioneer François X. Matthieu, another early settler in Oregon. Lava deposits from Black Crater are slightly porphyritic; they consist of sparse plagioclase and clinopyroxene and contain 55 to 57 percent silica. The volcano produced a lava flow that reaches north and northeast of the summit for about 2.5 to 3.1 miles (4 to 5 km). This lava extends from a central volcanic plug made of microdiorite. Due to the erosion, lava has irregular joints. A normal fault occurs on the western side of the volcano, trending north–south. A fault scarp runs along the northern side of the volcano to the south, corresponding to an eruption at the Matthieu Lake fissure that occurred about 15,000 years ago, independent of Black Crater. The eruption was fed by a dike that could have reached the surface by the fault. The Matthieu Lake fissure runs for about 5.3 miles (8.5 km), trending north–east from north of North Sister until Black Crater. Made of basaltic andesite and andesite with silica content ranging from 53.5 to 60%, the fissure sees increasing crystallization of its products moving south with decreasing amounts of crystals and phenocrysts. The fissure consists of cinder cones and agglutinated volcanic vents that erupted cinders, volcanic bombs, and thick lava flows. The fissure has been covered by glaciers. ### Nearby features The promontory Windy Point, which is made up of basaltic andesite lava and cinder, sits at the northwestern base of Black Crater. From there, Mount Washington can be seen, as well as basaltic andesite lava from the Yapoah cinder cone volcano and a lava field produced by Belknap Crater. Belknap also erupted a heavy deposit of ash and scoria that covered the area between Black Crater and Dry Creek to the north. The Sixmile Butte lava field, which formed during the Pleistocene, consists of ten cinder cones between Black Crater and Black Butte. These cones erupted basaltic andesite, which was deposited prior to the glacial advance at Suttle Lake. The field encompasses about 25 square miles (65 km²). Southwest of Black Crater in Lane County, there is a small crater called Harlow Crater, named after M.H. Harlow, former President of the McKenzie toll road. ## Human history Following cattle droving into the McKenzie Pass area in 1859 by missionaries and the discovery of gold in eastern Oregon in the early 1860s, the area south of McKenzie Pass was settled around 1862. The settlers arrived with wagons and more than 60 oxen and 700 cattle.They moved into the forested region south of Black Crater, near what is now the city of Sisters. The group was led by the Scott brothers, who then created the McKenzie Fork Wagon Road Company to build a road over the lava fields in the area, followed by the McKenzie River Wagon Road Company, which was formed to build a road across the Cascade Range in the vicinity of the Three Sisters volcanoes that would cross the Deschutes River. A third construction company proposed the construction of a road north of the Three Sisters that would cross the Deschutes above the mouth of its tributary, Crooked River. ## Recreation The Black Crater Trail runs one-way for 3.8 miles (6.1 km) from a trailhead on Oregon Route 242. It passes through the Three Sisters Wilderness and eventually reaches the summit of Black Crater, where the North Sister and Mount Washington volcanoes can be seen. The trail can be hiked or attempted on horseback, but mountain bikes and motorized vehicles are not permitted. Considered to be of intermediate difficulty for hiking, it takes on average about 4 hours to complete, ranging in elevation from 4,900 to 7,251 feet (1,494 to 2,210 m). The southeastern portion of the trail can be skied. Since 1905, All recreational activity at Black Crater has been overseen by the United States Forest Service. Forest rangers built a fire lookout tower in 1925, but it was out of service by the 1960s.

Ground Combat Vehicle

The Ground Combat Vehicle (GCV) was a program initiated by the United States Army in 2009, with the goal of developing a next-generation armored fighting vehicle. The first variant of the GCV to be developed would be an infantry fighting vehicle to replace the M2 Bradley. The program was intended to provide increased protection and firepower for ground troops, with a focus on improved crew survivability and the ability to operate in a greater range of threat environments. The Army planned on acquiring 1,874 GCV infantry fighting vehicles to replace Bradleys in 16 active and 8 National Guard Heavy Brigade Combat Teams. In 2011, the Army selected BAE Systems and General Dynamics Land Systems to move forward with the GCV program. The program faced significant challenges from the start, including limited funding and concerns about the weight of the vehicle. The GCV was designed to be heavily armored and to transport a fully equipped squad of nine soldiers, something the Bradley could not do. This requirement necessitated adding significant weight to the vehicle, making it less mobile. The Army canceled the GCV program in 2014 due to budget constraints and concerns about the program's cost and complexity. The cancellation of the GCV program marked a setback for the U.S. Army, which had been looking to modernize its armored fighting vehicle fleet for many years. The Department of Defense had canceled the Army's previous combat vehicle program, Future Combat Systems Manned Ground Vehicles in 2009. After the cancelation of the GCV program, the U.S. Army shifted its focus to upgrading its existing fleet of Bradley Fighting Vehicles. Canceling the GCV freed up Army development resources to proceed with the Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV), the service's replacement for the M113 armored personnel carrier family. The Army has embarked on a comprehensive combat vehicle acquisition effort called Next Generation Combat Vehicle, which includes AMPV within its scope. In 2018 the Army established what came to be known as the Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle program, the modern successor to the GCV infantry fighting vehicle effort. ## Development ### Initial program An Army presentation in March 2009 revealed that TARDEC, Army Research Laboratory, and TRADOC-ARCIC had partnered to analyze the survivability of the Army's "Ground Combat Vehicle". Army Chief of Staff Robert Gates announced his intention of halting funding for the XM1206 Infantry Carrier Vehicle of the FCS Manned Ground Vehicles program in April 2009. In late May, Army and Department of Defense representatives outlined plans for the cancellation of Future Combat Systems and the initiation of the Ground Combat Vehicle program in its place. In June 2009, a blue-ribbon panel met in Washington D.C. to determine the requirements for the Ground Combat Vehicle. It was concluded at this meeting that an infantry fighting vehicle was to be the first vehicle variant fielded. Later that month, FCS was formally dissolved and many programs including the Manned Ground Vehicle program were canceled with it. In October and November 2009, more than 100 defense contractors turned up for two U.S. Army-organized industry day events in Michigan to learn about the requirements. Also that month, PEO Integration was established to oversee subsystems of BCT Modernization including the GCV. A review required for continuation was held and passed in February 2010 in Washington. A request for proposals (RFP) was issued in February 2010 to which companies had 60 days to respond, but this was extended an additional 25 days. It was revealed in the RfP that the GCV would be a cost-plus contract. By the 21 May deadline, four proposals were submitted. On 1 July, management of the GCV was transferred from PEO Integration to PEO Ground Combat Systems with Andrew DiMarco as project manager. In May, a "red team" was formed to "shave a little time off" the GCV's seven-year development time. For fiscal year 2011, the U.S. Army wished to spend \$934 million of the \$2.5 billion allocated for BCT Modernization to develop the GCV. Reportedly, \$100 million was removed from the yet to be approved budget but the budget continued to be reported as \$934 million. Up to three competitive contracts were to be awarded by early fall. A prototype development contract decision would have followed by 2013. The Technology Development Phase (or Milestone A) would begin in the fourth quarter of Fiscal Year 2010 with the award of up to three vehicle contracts. This was to be followed by an Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD) phase and Low Rate Initial Production (LRIP) phase before full production could start. Nine vehicles were evaluated in the Analysis of Alternatives (AOA). The four primary vehicles included in the AOA were the M2A3 Bradley II, a modernized Stryker, an M2A3 Bradley variant used in Iraq, and a XM1230 Caiman Plus MRAP. The five secondary vehicles included two unnamed foreign-made platforms, the M1126 Stryker Infantry Fighting Vehicle, the M1A2 SEP TUSK Abrams, and a modernized M1 Abrams. Vehicles included the AOA were determined to be inferior to the planned GCV. In August 2010 the Army retracted its request for proposals after the red team assembled in May recommended that the Army either upgrade the existing ground vehicle fleet or rewrite the requirements. A new RFP was to be issued 60 days later. When Peter Chiarelli was asked if the Army was developing an alternative to the GCV, Chiarelli replied "We're totally committed to GCV." The National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform suggested deferring development of the GCV until after 2015. Projections The Technology Development Phase was to begin with the award of up to three vehicle contracts in late FY2010. The Army planned to spend \$7.6 billion during this phase. The Engineering and Manufacturing Development Phase was to begin with two prototype development contracts awarded in the beginning of FY2013. The first prototypes would be manufactured mid-FY2015. The Low Rate Initial Production Phase was to begin with a low-rate production contract awarded in mid FY2016. Less than two years after the contract award LRIP would begin. After more testing a battalion-sized team would be attained in FY2018 followed by a brigade-sized arsenal in FY2019. The Army would then decide whether to go into full-rate production. The Army planned on procuring 1,450 IFVs at a total program cost of \$40 billion. ### Revised program In September 2010, Alion Science and Technology was awarded a \$23,828,000 contract modification for the development of systems supporting GCV development. This contract was tendered by the U.S. Air Force and \$2.18 million in funds was obligated at the time of the award. An industry day was held in October in Dearborn, Michigan. The Army reduced its requested FY 2011 budget to \$462 million. Advanced Defense Vehicle Systems, General Dynamics Land Systems, and BAE Systems announced their intention of re-competing soon after the cancellation. The revised RfP was issued in November. ADVS announced that it would not submit a proposal due to the program's extended timeline. Up to three cost-plus contracts were to be awarded nine months after the RfP was released. The Army delivered an analysis of alternatives to Congress in April 2011. The notional GCV fared well compared to comparable vehicles including the Stryker and foreign counterparts such as the Israeli Namer and German Puma. An acquisition decision memorandum in August 2011 allowed the program to award technology development contracts. It also initiated two reviews of alternatives including a revised analysis of alternatives and an analysis of non-developmental vehicles. In August, the Army awarded technology development contracts to BAE and GDLS. BAE was awarded \$450 million while GDLS was awarded \$440 million. SAIC protest the award later that month, saying it believed the evaluations process was flawed and the evaluation took factors into consideration that were not stated in the request for proposal. The Army suspended work on the GCV until December, when the Government Accountability Office denied SAIC's protest. Projections The Army requested \$884 million to fund the GCV in FY 2012. The technology development phase was to be a 24 months long, 3 months shorter than the previous plan. The Engineering and Manufacturing Development phase was to be 48 months long. The Army planned on acquiring 1,874 GCVs to replace Bradleys in 16 active and 8 National Guard Heavy Brigade Combat Teams. Milestone A Testing of commercially available combat vehicles began in May 2012 at Fort Bliss and White Sands Missile Range to prepare the Army for Milestone B. The Non-Developmental Vehicle analysis assessed five vehicles, the M2A3 Bradley, Namer, CV-9035, a double v-hulled M1126 Infantry Carrier Vehicle and a turretless Bradley. The tests, completed that month, were carried out to determine what vehicle variants and configurations fulfill the Army's needs. The Army found that although the vehicles assessed met some GCV requirements, no currently fielded vehicle met enough without needing significant redesign. Competitors There were three competing contractors for the Ground Combat Vehicle contract. - BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, QinetiQ North America, Saft Group, and iRobot were working jointly on development - General Dynamics Land Systems led a team that included Lockheed Martin and Raytheon - SAIC led a team that include Boeing, Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall Defence (not awarded EMD contract) Milestone C A Milestone C decision could have been made in 2019. ### Budget concerns and proposed cuts In December 2012, it was reported that the Army may need to cut \$150 million from the GCV program in 2014, with deeper cuts between \$600–700 million between 2014 and 2018. This put the program, one of the Army's highest priorities, at serious risk. With the drawdown of the War in Afghanistan and budgetary concerns, the expensive development of a new combat vehicle was not seen as feasible. BAE Systems and General Dynamics were each awarded engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) phase contracts in August 2011. The EMD phase was to last 48 months for both contractors. Senate appropriators were also concerned that the GCV would compete with the Army's other combat modernization priorities. Though the GCV would make up only 10 percent of the Army combat vehicle fleet, the Army had programmed 80 percent of its combat vehicle modernization budget for the GCV over the next five years. ### Revision The Army revised the GCV acquisition strategy in January 2013 to reduce risk and maintain affordability of the program. The revision extended the technology development phase by six months to give industry more time to refine vehicle designs. Milestone B would occur in 2014, with the selection of a single vendor for the engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) phase of the program. Budgetary pressures caused the Army to reduce the number of vendors to be selected for EMD from two to one. The Army expected this change would save the DoD \$2.5 billion. ### CBO report In April 2013, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) issued a report on the progress of the GCV program. The report questioned the program, estimated to cost \$28 billion from 2014 to 2030, with the possibility of alternate vehicle options. While none met overall Army goals desired in the GCV, they offered advantages in being less costly and delayed. Planned GCV prototypes were heavy, weighing up to 84 tons, to be better protected and seat a nine-man squad. Officials said that a vehicle of that size would not be well suited to operations faced in Iraq or Afghanistan. Alternate vehicles would be cheaper and more maneuverable in urban settings. The CBO report analyzed four alternative options: - Purchase the Namer APC – Seats 9 soldiers with combat survival rates expected slightly higher than the GCV, and costs \$9 billion less. The Namer has less ability to destroy other enemy vehicles and is less mobile. Production would be conducted in part domestically, but fielding would require collaboration with foreign companies and governments. - Upgrade the Bradley IFV – An upgraded Bradley would be more lethal than the GCV against enemy forces and would probably survive combat at about the same rates as would the GCV, saving \$19.8 billion. Upgrading the Bradley would make it "significantly more capable" than the GCV. The Bradley still only carries a 7-man squad and has less mobility. - Purchase the Puma – More lethal than the GCV, combat survival and protection at better rates, and just as mobile. Purchasing the Puma would save \$14.8 billion and was considered the most capable of the vehicles. Puma IFVs only carry six infantrymen, which would require five vehicles to replace every four Bradleys. Development and production would require collaboration with foreign companies and governments. - Cancel the Ground Combat Vehicle – If the Army reconditioned its current Bradley instead of replacing them, the current capability of the IFV fleet could be maintained through 2030. The Army could continue to investigate ways to improve the current Bradleys, but it would not field any new or improved vehicles. The \$24 billion saved in funding could be used on other programs. General Dynamics and BAE Systems, who received contracts in the Ground Combat Vehicle program, criticized the CBO report, saying they used the wrong vehicle in its analysis. Officials from both companies said they used the wrong notional model of the GCV that did not account for the change in requirements made by the Army or the advancements made in the technology development phase of the program. They also criticized the comparisons of the other vehicles. The report factored cost, survivability, mobility, and lethality, ranking the GCV's capabilities as lower than all others. The Army questioned the suitability of existing design. An Army test of currently fielded vehicles in 2012 revealed that some met critical GCV requirements, but none met enough without needing significant redesign. They also note that lethality was judged with a 25 mm cannon for analysis, before the Army planned to mount a 30 mm cannon. The CBO report did give credit to cost, assuming the Army's goal of \$13 million per vehicle. However, Pentagon cost assessments estimated the price at \$16–\$17 million per vehicle. ### Funding cut and prioritization In July 2013, Army Chief of Staff General Ray Odierno warned that the GCV program might be delayed or possibly even cancelled because of the sequestration budget cuts. In August 2013, Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel outlined two basic results if the effects of sequestration continued: modernization programs like the GCV would be cut to maintain troop levels, or high-end capability efforts like the GCV would be preserved to continue modernization and keep equipment technologically advanced with troop levels being cut. Odierno was committed to balancing soldiers, readiness, and modernization, and was intent on the need for the Ground Combat Vehicle. Some reports suggested that the Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle (AMPV) program to replace the M113 family of vehicles was being favored over the GCV program. While procurement of the AMPV fleet would cost over \$5 billion, the Government Accountability Office estimated the GCV fleet would cost \$37 billion. A September 2013 Congressional Research Service report suggested that given budgetary constraints, the GCV program may be unrealistic, and that one potential discussion could focus on a decision by the Army to replace the GCV with the AMPV as their number one ground combat vehicle acquisition priority. An October 2013 Congressional Budget Office report found that \$16 billion could be saved over the next 13 years if the GCV were canceled in favor of Bradley upgrades. Army leaders say having a large ground army is still necessary for deterrence and "regime change" operations. They also realize that their equipment will be mostly modernized versions of current equipment for the rest of the decade. Technologies from the GCV program are being explored, although development and procurement of a vehicle is not. By mid-November 2013, both BAE and General Dynamics designs had passed Preliminary Design Reviews (PDR), but neither company had commenced building prototypes. The Army was increasingly willing to slow down the GCV program or push it back from EMD to research and development. While the Army had said previously that it was their highest priority acquisition program, they had since shifted their main modernization priority to an integrated electronic command network. Short-term incremental upgrades will be applied to existing weapons systems to keep them from becoming obsolete, and advanced technologies available in the future will be used to build entirely new systems when funding is restored. In January 2014, a spending bill passed by the House appropriated \$100 million for the GCV program, even though the Army had requested \$592 million for the program for FY2014. The Army planned to spend 80 percent of its ground vehicle modernization budget on the GCV over the next five years, with costs ranging from \$29–34 billion depending on overruns and setbacks. Several options were being considered to make the program more affordable, including reducing the squad size from nine men and using new emerging and undeveloped technologies to reduce the weight of the vehicle to 30 tons for operations in urban environments. The two contractors would run out of money for development of their prototype vehicles by June 2014 unless the Army funded the rest of the technology development phase. The Pentagon and Army tried to find ways to continue the program, without actually starting vehicle production, through new technologies like advanced fire control systems and hybrid engines. Although the Army wanted 1,894 Ground Combat Vehicles with a target price of \$9–10.5 million per unit, the Pentagon's Office of Cost Assessment and Program Evaluation estimated a unit cost of up to \$17 million. The 83 percent cut in funding essentially scaled back the GCV program to a research effort. The program had declined in support over the past months with the Army determining that the desired vehicle was no longer feasible in the near term due to budget reductions, suspicion from the contractors that the program would not move past technology development, and Congress's believing it would not succeed. In January 2014, General Odierno confirmed that the Ground Combat Vehicle program was being put on hold due to budget difficulties. Odierno said that the Army needed a new IFV but that they could not afford one at the time. Odierno said that he was pleased with the requirements for the vehicle and that progress and development with the contractors was good. "Leap-ahead technologies" that make the vehicle light and mobile while still being protected against RPGs and roadside bombs are still desired. In the past decade, mobility was traded for protection, but Army war games caused the service to decide it will need small, mobile formations to be deployed quickly in the future, and recent conflicts showed the need for expeditionary forces to be transported quickly to remote areas in small packages with as little support as possible; weight estimates of 70 tons for the GCV IFV did not make it easily deployable. The Army may direct some funds for technology development so it can start another program within "three to four years." Science and technology investments were to be made to address the size and weight of armored ground vehicles to make it easier and cheaper to transport greater numbers of them across the world. ## Weight issues In November 2012, estimates of the GCV's weight, depending on armor packages, put the General Dynamics entry vehicle at 64–70 tons, and the BAE Systems entry vehicle at 70–84 tons. This made the planned infantry fighting vehicle designs heavier than the M1 Abrams tank. The reason was the vehicle had to have enough armor to protect a squad of nine troops from all battlefield threats (from rocket-propelled grenades to IEDs) as good as or better than other vehicles can protect against specific threats individually. This worked against the vehicle; as weight increases, cost goes up and maneuverability goes down. The contractors worked to bring the weight down. The Army maintained that heavy armor was needed to protect the squad from acceleration forces that come with an underside blast, and that thicker underbelly plates and V-shaped hulls do not give enough protection. More armor would come from the vehicle being larger for more internal space for the soldiers, and to allow for features such as floating floors for blast deflection and extra headroom. The Army also said heavy weight would not affect deployability because the Bradley it was planned to replace already requires strategic airlift transport aircraft. Both contractors claimed their designs were below the 70–84 tons expectation of what the GCV will weigh. BAE's vehicle weighed 60–70 tons, based on modular armor package, and a 20 percent margin for weight increase the Army had planned for future upgrades would bring it up to 84 tons. General Dynamic's vehicle with a diesel engine weighed 62 tons in its most heavily armored configuration, which increased to 76 tons with the 20 percent future upgrade margin. Removing protection for easier air transportation would have reduced it to 56 tons. The Army's consideration to slow down the GCV development program gave time to the companies to refine their designs and reduce weight. One way would have been to reduce squad size. A nine-man squad has been identified as best for being able to fight with the possibility of taking casualties with single-vehicle transportability. With a three-man crew, the GCV had to carry 12 men. A greater number of lighter IFVs that carry fewer soldiers would have similar carrying capacity and combined costs and weight to planned GCV numbers. Another way would be an advance in armor designs. Lighter and stronger armor materials had not made radical progressions in recent history, and domestic active protection intercept systems were not yet mature. Foreign systems like the Israeli Trophy had seen combat but cannot yet intercept tank shells. The GCV program originally included an APS, but was then delayed as a feature for later upgrades. The last effort to replace the Bradley had been FCS from 2003 to 2009, which developed a vehicle that relied on sensors to avoid danger and an APS in place of heavy armor. It was too ambitious for the time and the vehicle's weight had grown from 19 tons to 30 tons by the time it was cancelled. ## Termination In February 2014, Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel canceled the GCV, accepting the Army's request to do so. Army acquisition executive Heidi Shyu said that criticism of the program was "unfortunate" and cancelling it had nothing to do with vehicle performance. Shyu said the program had been doing "remarkably well" and wasn't having technical issues, and that the contracts were being executed well. The decision to cancel development was based entirely on budget calculations, with no possible way to come up with funds no matter how many other areas were reduced Money will be redistributed to engineering change proposals (ECP) on existing platforms until budget difficulties pass to allow investment in next-generation capabilities in about seven years. The decision had to be made to either exclusively fund the GCV or ECPs, so upgrades were chosen for the Bradley, Abrams, Stryker, and M109 Paladin. Vehicles like the Bradley and Abrams have been upgraded since the 1980s with new armor, sensors, and other gear that have maxed out the platforms for further horsepower and electrical advances, so the requirement for an entirely new ground combat vehicle built from the outset from lessons learned in combat from the previous decade remains. The Army's own budget proposal unveiled in March discontinued the program, and instead funds were shifted to the AMPV program as the main vehicle priority and to improving the Bradley IFV in the interim until more resources become available. Incremental improvements will be made to current vehicle fleets to improve protection and networking abilities. \$131 million will be directed into science and technology to look at the feasibility of future combat vehicle technologies, and Secretary Hagel has directed the Army, as well as the Marine Corps, to deliver "realistic" visions for vehicle modernization by the end of FY 2014. The cancellation of the GCV is the second time in 15 years an Army program to replace the Bradley has failed. FCS ran from 1999 to 2009, with the Manned Ground Vehicles portion for replacing several armored vehicle classes costing "hundreds of millions" of dollars out of \$20 billion total. From 2010 to 2014, the Army spent over \$1 billion on the GCV. Although there was criticism that vehicle weight could not be kept at a reasonable level while meeting its size and power requirements, the Army maintains the official reason for the cancellation was budgetary pressures. BAE Systems and General Dynamics will each receive \$50 million in FY 2015 to continue technology development. The next follow-up IFV development program is currently named the Future Fighting Vehicle (FFV). ### Continued technology development On 18 July 2014, BAE and General Dynamics were awarded \$7.9 million study contracts for technical, cost, and risk assessments to salvage subsystems and other technologies created under the GCV for use in the FFV system. General Dynamics will utilize the GCV integrated propulsion and mobility subsystems Automotive Test Rig (ATR), and the conventional drive integrated propulsion subsystem, while BAE will utilize the GCV TD phase integrated hybrid-electric propulsion and mobility subsystems ATR and the hybrid-electric integrated propulsion subsystem (Hotbuck). ## Design Following the cancelation of the Future Combat Systems family the Army assessed that a new infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) would be its first priority with the GCV program. The Army determined that it would reset the M1 Abrams main battle tank, the M2 Bradley IFV and the M109 Paladin self-propelled howitzer in the meantime while the GCV was undergoing development. The GCV could later serve as the common chassis for a family of vehicles to replace legacy armored vehicles. The Army emphasized affordability, rapid deployment, and low risk technology for the GCV. The Army required that all aspects of the GCV be at technology readiness level 6. The shortfalls of rapid deployment would be mitigated through an incremental addition of components as technology matures. The Army provided details from the Future Combat Systems (FCS) Manned Ground Vehicles (MGV) effort to utilize on the GCV. The GCV was required to have better protection than any vehicle in the military's inventory. Army General Peter W. Chiarelli said that the "four main fundamentals" of the vehicle were: The ability to carry 12 soldiers and operate in all forms of combat; have significant protection; and deliver the first production vehicle by 2018. The IFV would be modular and networked and offer improved survivability, mobility, and power management functions. The GCV family would use technologies pioneered with the IFV lead vehicle effort. Specific design elements of the GCV were contracted out, though the Army designed the architecture and retained overall responsibility for synchronization. This contrasted with the former FCS Manned Ground Vehicles program where contractors had more control over the design. The GCV was to be networked and offer improved survivability. Elements of the Manned Ground Vehicles program were provided—such as the armor matrix—were provided to contractors to be utilized in design proposals for the GCV. ### Network The GCV was to be operable with the current battle command control and communications suite but would gradually use a more state-of-the-art networked integration system known as the BCT Network. It would provide exportable electrical power, and a battery charging capability for external hardware including vehicles and electronics from the BCT Soldier subsystems. The system would be capable of integration with unmanned systems and dismounted soldiers. The Mounted Soldier System was to enhance situational awareness through wireless communications and input from vehicle sensors and external sources such as other vehicles. ### Electrical power The IFV would provide exportable electrical power, and battery charging capability for soldier systems. ### Mobility The GCV must have been transportable by cargo aircraft, rail, and ship. The Army required it to meet the availability rates of the current Stryker. The Army did not limit the vehicle by the dimensions of the C-130 Hercules, which, in the past, constrained many designs. Air mobility would be provided by the more spacious C-17 Globemaster III. The GCV was to have good cross-country mobility, with a baseline requirement of 30 mph off-road speed. The GCV should have delivered higher sustainability levels and consume less fuel than the Bradley or other vehicles of similar weight and power. The military was accepting both tracked and wheeled designs. The operational maintenance cost requirement of the GCV was up to \$200 per mile, compared to \$168 per mile for the M2 Bradley. In its standard configuration the IFV would have a crew of three and carry a squad of nine. The vehicle could be reconfigured to support casualty evacuation. The Army stated no preference as to whether the IFV should be tracked or wheeled but suggested that it be tracked due to the weight stemming from the requirements. ### Offensive capabilities The Army wanted the vehicle to feature a commander's weapons station, autocannon, coaxial weapon, and an anti-tank guided missile system. The weapons suite had to be manually operable when damaged and the commander's weapon station had to incorporate a shield. Additionally, a dismountable anti-armor weapon would be carried on board. The Army also stated that the weapon suite would emphasize modularity, be able to defeat other IFVs, and provide non-lethal capability to enable use in civilian environments. The Army evaluated weapons solutions ranging from 25 mm to 50 mm caliber, but 30x173mm was identified as "the most likely" design to meet lethality and stowed kill requirements. Specific requirements were for airburst capability to defeat infantry targets (with high explosive incendiary recognized as a "less effective alternative"), armor-piercing rounds to defeat material threats, and training ammunition for each tactical round. Potential candidates included five U.S. produced and three foreign-made rounds. In August 2013, a sources sought announcement was made for a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement for 30x173 mm ammunition: High Explosive Incendiary-Tracer (HEI-T), Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot-Tracer (APFSDS-T); Armor Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot-Tracer (APFSDS-T); and Target Practice Discarding Sabot-Tracer (TPDS-T). The announcement called for the cartridges to be compatible with the Bushmaster III weapon system, such as XM813 and/or Mk 44 Mod 1. ### Countermeasures The Army wanted the GCV to have a passive blast protection level equal to the MRAP and would utilize hit avoidance systems. The Army wanted to install an active protection system on the Ground Combat Vehicle. BAE tested the Artis LLC Iron Curtain and General Dynamics demonstrated a version of the Israeli Trophy system. By incorporating an APS, the GCV would only need 18 tons of ballistic armor protection, compared to 52 tons of armor required without it. Developers were considering modular armor technology, with the ability to add on and remove armor plates depending on threat levels and mission requirements. The Mounted Soldier System (MSS) was being developed for GCV crew members. Dismounted leaders would utilize the Ground Soldier Systems. Thermal management and acoustic noise reduction would be utilized to avoid detection. The vehicle would be able to avoid threats by laying obscurants. An array of hit avoidance systems would be leveraged and the Army offered the various active protection systems developed for the Manned Ground Vehicle program. The GCV enabled the detection and neutralization of mines at standoff ranges. The vehicle was to be equipped with an engagement detection system. The Army required the IFV to have the passive blast protection level equal to the MRAP. The Army made available the composition of the armor of the Manned Ground Vehicle program. A transparent armor shield would provide protection for the vehicle commander when exposed through the turret. In addition, a Vehicle Health Management System would provide vehicle diagnostic monitoring systems for commanders. A fire suppression system and ammunition detonation protection would be utilized for damage control. A secondary squad egress was to be provided for the squad to exit in emergencies. ## Tactics The Infantry Fighting Vehicle variant was intended to fill the infantry transport role in Heavy Brigade Combat Teams replacing the aging M2 Bradley. In the U.S. Army, as part of the ongoing restructuring, Heavy Brigade Combat Team Brigades would have 62 IFV's, battalions would have 29, and platoons would have 4. Platoons were to be led by platoon leader GCV which would be accompanied by platoon medic, forward observer, Radio Transmission Operator, and other attachments and would command three other GCVs. The Army placed importance on the GCV's ability to carry a full nine-man squad. Numerous Army studies have concluded that a squad, made up of two fireteams, should be composed of nine to eleven soldiers. The M2 Bradley cannot carry a complete squad from one vehicle, creating risk when transitioning from mounted to dismounted operations. The Bradley's lower carrying capacity was accepted for greater (than previous vehicles) mounted lethality and cost savings, leading to squads being broken apart for transport. A GCV with a nine-man squad would have allowed the squad leader to control and communicate with the squad while mounted, simplify the transition to dismounted operations in complex terrain, and allow the squad to conduct independent fire and maneuver immediately upon dismount. Replacing the Bradley on a one-for-one basis would have four GCVs per mechanized infantry platoon carrying one full nine-man squad in a single vehicle, with three vehicles carrying squads and one carrying the platoon's organic and attached enablers. ## Variants The Army was using an incremental approach to combat vehicle modernization, centered on the Ground Combat Vehicle. The deployment was to be synchronized with upgrades, reset, and divestiture of existing vehicles. Vehicles displaced by the IFV may then replace selected M113 family of vehicles such as command and control, medical evacuation, and mortar carrier, allowing the Army to begin divestiture of the M113 family of vehicles. Upgrades to existing Bradley and Stryker vehicles may have been considered as risk mitigation based on the rate at which the GCV was introduced. Although upgraded, the Bradley and Stryker would also be replaced in the midterm. ### Infantry Fighting Vehicle The Infantry Fighting Vehicle superseded the previous infantry carrier replacement effort, the XM1206 Infantry Carrier Vehicle of the FCS MGV program. The IFV was to hold a crew of three and a squad of nine. ## Competitors Competitors There were four known competing contractors for the Ground Combat Vehicle contract. - BAE Systems, Northrop Grumman, QinetiQ and Saft Group were working jointly on development. The program was managed by Mark Signorelli. The team believed it could field the vehicle up to two years sooner than projected. Development cost were "tens of millions of dollars". \*Work breakdown : \*BAE would provide general vehicle design, program management, integration of the vehicle components. : \*Northrop Grumman would provide technology pertaining to command, control, communications, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. : \*QinetiQ would provide the electric drive propulsion system. : \*Saft would provide the energy storage system. \*Features : \*Tracked with an E-X-Drive hybrid-electric engine. : \*Baseline weight of 53 tons with a weight tolerance of 75 tons for modular armor. : \*Manned turret. : \*Leveraged a V-hull and Hard-Kill and Soft-Kill active protection systems. : \*Wider and taller than a Bradley. All or most of the storage was internal accounting for the extra size. - General Dynamics Land Systems, Lockheed Martin, Detroit Diesel and Raytheon were working jointly on development. \*Work breakdown : \*General Dynamics Land Systems led the team as systems integrator and was responsible for soldier interfaces and chassis. : \*Lockheed Martin would develop the turret and weaponry. : \*Detroit Diesel would develop the propulsion system. : \*Raytheon would develop the active protection systems, sensors. \*Features : \*Used conventional diesel. : \*Used active protection systems. - SAIC led a consortium called Team Full Spectrum which included Boeing, Krauss-Maffei and Rheinmetall. The SAIC consortium is using a derivative of the Puma. \*Work breakdown : \*SAIC would lead the team as project manager. : \*Boeing would supply the weaponry. : \*Both Krauss-Maffei and Rheinmetall's roles were unknown. \*Features : \*Larger, reconfigured Puma chassis. : \*Used conventional diesel and a six-road-wheel configuration. - Advanced Defense Vehicle Systems (ADVS) submitted its wheeled proposal which was rejected for being non-compliant. ADVS protested the decision, but withdrew it after the Army canceled the RfP. \*Features : \*Wheeled. ### BAE Systems The BAE Systems GCV design had a steel-core hull and an integrated electronic network capability with embedded intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance equipment. Its turret was unmanned. The centerpiece of the vehicle was its simplified drive train. It was propelled by a hybrid electric drive (HED), which was developed by Northrop Grumman, that produced 1,100 kW of electricity. Advantages to it are fewer components and lower volume and weight compared to current power plants. The transmission was 40 percent smaller and the drive train had half the moving parts. The hybrid drive train cost 5 percent more than a mechanical system, but had a 20 percent reduction in life-cycle cost. The electric drive allows for smoother low-speed operation and less noise. The vehicle burned 20 percent less fuel while running, with 4.61 gallons (17.45 liters) per hour used while stationary. It had a top speed of 43 mph (70 km/h), could go from 0 to 20 mph (32.18 km/h) in 7.8 seconds, and had a range of 186 mi (299 km) with a 255-gallon fuel capacity. Disadvantages to the BAE design included a weight of 70 tons and fuel efficiency of 0.73 mpg. BAE integrated the Artis Iron Curtain active protection system to defeat incoming rockets and missiles before they can hit the vehicle. The Army conducted tests on the system in April 2013, and it successfully passed all tests. BAE tested a system for the vehicle to drive in low visibility conditions using a Humvee with blacked out windows as a surrogate. In August 2013, the BAE GCV's hybrid electric drive completed 2,000 miles of testing on a fully integrated stationary test stand. Although dramatic funding cuts for the GCV program in January 2014 put the very completion of the acquisition effort in jeopardy, funding remained for research on a hybrid-electric propulsion system. The BAE GCV's hybrid-electric engine is more fuel efficient, has fewer moving parts, and has faster acceleration than ordinary engines. While powering a vehicle concept that reached 70 tons proved impractical, its benefits of providing power for onboard electronics, silent overwatch, and short, stealthy movements are still promising. BAE has pledged to support future Army developmental efforts with technologies from their GCV entry. In July 2014, BAE Systems was awarded a \$7.9 million study contract for technical, cost, and risk assessments to utilize the GCV TD phase integrated hybrid-electric propulsion and mobility subsystems Automotive Test Rig (ATR) and the hybrid-electric integrated propulsion subsystem (Hotbuck) for the Future Fighting Vehicle (FFV) effort. ### General Dynamics In October 2013, General Dynamics successfully completed a preliminary design review of their GCV design. Subsystem and component design reviews were held from August to October of that year and led to the four-day PDR. General Dynamics demonstrated their vehicle met Tier 1 affordability, reliability, and other requirements. The success of the PDR meant that the General Dynamics GCV IFV could be expected to be operationally effective and suitable. ## See also Vehicles - Armored Multi-Purpose Vehicle, U.S. Army M113 replacement - Marine Personnel Carrier, wheeled U.S. Marine Corps troop carrier - Interim Armored Vehicle, a U.S. Army combat vehicle acquisition program that resulted in the Stryker - Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle, a canceled U.S. Marine Corps amphibious assault vehicle - M1126 Infantry Carrier Vehicle, a wheeled U.S. Army troop carrier - XM1206 Infantry Carrier Vehicle, a canceled tracked U.S. Army infantry fighting vehicle - Optionally Manned Fighting Vehicle, a current U.S. Army infantry fighting vehicle program (part of the Next Generation Combat Vehicle program) - Future Rapid Effect System, the planned set of armored cavalry vehicles for the British Army - Namer, a heavy infantry fighting vehicle of the Israeli Defence Forces - SPz Puma, an infantry fighting vehicle of the German Army - GTK Boxer, a wheeled German Army troop carrier - Bionix AFV, tracked Singapore Army troop carrier - K21, tracked South Korean Army troop carrier - Véhicule Blindé de Combat d'Infanterie, a wheeled French Army troop carrier

Joseph Franklin Rutherford

Second president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania

Joseph Franklin Rutherford (November 8, 1869 – January 8, 1942), also known as Judge Rutherford, was the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. He played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses, which emerged from the Bible Student movement established by Charles Taze Russell. Rutherford began a career in law, working as a court stenographer, trial lawyer and prosecutor. He became a special judge in the 14th Judicial District of Missouri at some time after 1895. He developed an interest in the doctrines of Watch Tower Society president Charles Taze Russell, which led to his joining the Bible Student movement, and he was baptized in 1906. He was appointed the legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society in 1907, as well as a traveling representative prior to his election as president in 1917. His early presidency was marked by a dispute with the Society's board of directors, in which four of its seven members accused him of autocratic behavior and sought to reduce his powers. The resulting leadership crisis divided the Bible Student community and contributed to the loss of one-seventh of adherents by 1919 and thousands more by 1931. Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower executives were imprisoned in 1918 after charges were laid over the publication of The Finished Mystery, a book deemed seditious for its opposition to World War I. Rutherford introduced many organizational and doctrinal changes that helped shape the current beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses. He imposed a centralized administrative structure on the worldwide Bible Student movement, which he later called a theocracy, requiring all adherents to distribute literature via door to door preaching and to provide regular reports of their preaching activity. He also instituted training programs for public speaking as part of their weekly meetings for worship. He established 1914 as the date of Christ's invisible return, asserted that Christ died on a tree rather than a cross, formulated the current Witness concept of Armageddon as God's war on the wicked, and reinforced the belief that the start of Christ's millennial reign was imminent. He condemned the observance of traditional celebrations such as Christmas and birthdays, the saluting of national flags and the singing of national anthems. He introduced the name "Jehovah's witnesses" in 1931 and the term "Kingdom Hall" for houses of worship in 1935. He wrote twenty-one books and was credited by the Society in 1942 with the distribution of almost 400 million books and booklets. Despite significant decreases during the 1920s, overall membership increased more than sixfold by the end of Rutherford's 25 years as president. ## Early life Rutherford was born on November 8, 1869, to James Calvin Rutherford and Leonora Strickland and raised in near-poverty in a Baptist farm family. Some sources list his place of birth as Boonville, Missouri, but according to his death certificate he was born in Versailles, Missouri. Rutherford developed an interest in law from the age of 16. Although his father discouraged this interest, he allowed Rutherford to go to college under the condition that he pay for a laborer to take his place on the family farm. Rutherford took out a loan and helped to pay for his law studies by working as a door-to-door encyclopedia salesman and court stenographer. ### Law career Rutherford spent two years as a judge's intern, became an official court reporter at age 20, and was admitted to The Missouri Bar in May 1892 at age 22. He became a trial lawyer for a law firm and later served for four years in Boonville as a public prosecutor. He campaigned briefly for Democratic presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan. He was appointed as a Special Judge in the Eighth Judicial Circuit Court of Missouri, sitting as a substitute judge at least once when a regular judge was unable to hold court. As a result of this appointment he became known by the sobriquet Judge Rutherford. He was admitted to the New York bar in 1909 and admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States the same year. ## Watch Tower Society In 1894, Rutherford purchased the first three volumes of Charles Taze Russell's Millennial Dawn series of Bible study textbooks from two colporteurs who visited his office. Rutherford, who then viewed all religions as insincere, shallow and hypocritical, was struck by Russell's sincerity and his sentiments towards religion, which mirrored his own view. Rutherford immediately wrote to the Watch Tower Society to express appreciation for the books. He was baptized twelve years later and he and his wife began holding Bible classes in their home. In 1907, he became legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society at its Pittsburgh headquarters, and from around that time began to give public talks as a "pilgrim" representative of the Society. As Russell's health deteriorated, Rutherford represented him on trips to Europe. In April 1915 he was deputized to speak at a major debate with Baptist preacher J. H. Troy over four nights in Los Angeles before an audience of 12,000, debating various subjects, including the state of the dead, hellfire and Christ's Second Coming. Rutherford wrote a pamphlet, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, in defense of Russell and served as chairman of the Bible Students' Los Angeles convention in September 1916. ### Board of directors By 1916, Rutherford had become one of the seven directors of the Watch Tower Society; when Russell died on October 31, 1916, he joined vice-President Alfred I. Ritchie and Secretary-Treasurer William E. Van Amburgh on a three-man executive committee that ran the Pennsylvania corporation until a new president was elected at the annual general meeting the following January. He also joined a five-person editorial committee to run The Watch Tower from the December 15, 1916 issue. Russell's will, drawn up in 1907, had named the five people he wished to run the magazine after his death; Rutherford appeared only on a second list of five alternative members to fill any vacancies that arose. Bible Student Alexander H. Macmillan, who served as an aide to the executive committee, later wrote that tensions at the Watch Tower Society headquarters mounted as the day for election of the Society's officers approached. He wrote: "A few ambitious ones at headquarters were holding caucuses here and there, doing a little electioneering to get their men in. However, Van Amburgh and I held a large number of votes. Many shareholders, knowing of our long association with Russell, sent their proxies to us to be cast for the one whom we thought best fitted for office." Macmillan, who claimed he had declined an offer from an ailing Russell months earlier to accept the position of president after his death, agreed with Van Amburgh that Rutherford was the best candidate. According to Macmillan, "Rutherford did not know what was going on. He certainly didn't do any electioneering or canvassing for votes, but I guess he was doing some worrying, knowing if he was elected he would have a big job on his hands ... There is no doubt in our minds that the Lord's will was done in this choice. It is certain that Rutherford himself had nothing to do with it." ### Presidency dispute On January 6, 1917, Rutherford, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at the Pittsburgh convention. By-laws passed by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors stated that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the Society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide. By June, four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors—Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright— had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's expanded powers of management, claiming Rutherford had become autocratic. In June, Hirsch attempted to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the board's authority from the president. Rutherford later claimed he had by then detected a conspiracy among the directors to seize control of the society. In July, Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that none of his opposers were legally directors of the society. The Watch Tower Society's official 1959 account of its history claimed the legal advice given to the ousted directors confirmed that given to Rutherford. The pamphlets produced by the expelled board members at the time indicated that their legal advice, acquired from several attorneys, disagreed with Rutherford's. On July 12, Rutherford filled what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet and George H. Fisher as directors. Between August and November the society and the four ousted directors published a series of pamphlets, with each side accusing the other of ambitious and reckless behavior. The former directors also claimed Rutherford had required all headquarters workers to sign a petition supporting him and threatened dismissal for any who refused to sign. The former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8. On January 5, 1918, shareholders returned Rutherford to office. The controversy fractured the Bible Student movement and some congregations split into opposing groups loyal either to Rutherford or those he had expelled. By mid-1919 about one in seven Bible Students had chosen to leave rather than accept Rutherford's leadership, and over the following decade they helped form or joined other groups including the Stand Fast Movement, the Layman's Home Missionary Movement, the Dawn Bible Students Association, the Pastoral Bible Institute, the Elijah Voice Movement, the Concordant Publishing Concern, and the Eagle Society. ## The Finished Mystery In late 1916, Fisher and another prominent Bible Student at the Brooklyn headquarters, Clayton J. Woodworth, sought the Executive Committee's approval to produce a book about the prophecies of the books of Revelation and Ezekiel based primarily on Russell's writings. Work on the book, The Finished Mystery, proceeded without the knowledge of the full Board of Directors and Editorial Committee and was released by Rutherford to headquarters staff on July 17, 1917, the day he announced the appointment of the four replacement directors. The book, which was misleadingly labeled as the posthumous seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures, was denounced by Rutherford's opponents, but became a best-seller and was translated into six languages and serialized in The Watch Tower. Expecting God's Kingdom to establish rule on earth and for the saints to be raised to heaven in 1918, Rutherford wrote in January of that year: "The Christian looks for the year to bring the full consummation of the church's hopes." He embarked on a vast advertising campaign to expose the "unrighteousness" of religions and their alliances with "beastly" governments, expanding on claims in The Finished Mystery that patriotism was a delusion and murder. The campaign attracted the attention of governments and on February 12, 1918, the book was banned by the Canadian government for what a Winnipeg newspaper described as "seditious and antiwar statements". On February 24 in Los Angeles Rutherford gave a talk entitled "The World Has Ended—Millions Now Living May Never Die" (subsequent talks in the series were renamed, "Millions Now Living Will Never Die") in which he attacked the clergy, declaring: "As a class, according to the Scriptures, the clergymen are the most reprehensible men on earth for the great war that is now afflicting mankind." Three days later the Army Intelligence Bureau seized the Society's Los Angeles offices and confiscated literature. ### Imprisonment and release In early May 1918, US Attorney General Thomas Watt Gregory condemned The Finished Mystery as "one of the most dangerous examples of ... propaganda ... a work written in extremely religious language and distributed in enormous numbers". Warrants were issued for the arrest of Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower directors, who were charged under the 1917 Espionage Act with attempting to cause insubordination, disloyalty, refusal of duty in the armed forces and obstructing the recruitment and enlistment service of the U.S. while it was at war. On June 21, seven of them, including Rutherford, were sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Rutherford feared his opponents would gain control of the Society in his absence, but on January 2, 1919, he learned he had been re-elected president at the Pittsburgh convention the day before, convincing him that God wanted him in the position. On 26 March 1919 the directors were released on bail after an appeals court ruled they had been wrongly convicted; in May 1920 the government announced that all charges had been dropped. ## Reorganization ### Administrative changes Following his release from prison, Rutherford began a major reorganization of Bible Student activities. At a May 1919 convention in Ohio he announced the publication of a new magazine, The Golden Age (later renamed Awake!). Because Russell's will had decreed the Society should publish no other periodicals the new magazine was at first published by "Woodworth, Hudgings & Martin", with a Manhattan (rather than Brooklyn) address. Within months Bible Students were organized to distribute it door-to-door. He expanded the Society's printing facilities, revived the colporteur work and in 1920 introduced the requirement for weekly reports of Bible Students' preaching activity. He expanded and reorganized overseas branch offices in what he regarded as a "cleansing" and "sifting" work. Beginning with an eight-day convention at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922 Rutherford, launched a series of major international conventions under the theme "Advertise the King and Kingdom", attracting crowds of up to 20,000. Audiences were urged to "herald the message far and wide". He stressed that the primary duty of all Bible Students was to become "publicity agents" in fulfillment of Matthew 24:14, especially in the form of door-to-door evangelism with the Society's publications. In 1928 Rutherford began to teach that the Cedar Point convention and the events resulting from it fulfilled the prophecy of the 1290 days at Daniel 12:11. In 1920, Rutherford published a booklet, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, and a year later published his first hardcover book, The Harp of God. This was followed by a further nineteen hardcover books, each with one-word titles, such as Creation (1927), Jehovah (1934) and Children (1941). His publications reached a total printing of 36 million copies. In 1925, he gained full control over what doctrines would be taught in Watch Tower Society publications, overruling the refusal by the five-man Editorial Committee to publish his article, "Birth of the Nation", which contained significant doctrinal changes. Rutherford later claimed Satan had "tried to prevent the publication of that article ... but failed in that effort"; In 1927 the Watch Tower Society ceased printing of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures. The Editorial Committee was dissolved in 1931, after which Rutherford wrote every leading article in The Watch Tower until his death. The 1933 Watch Tower Society Yearbook observed that the demise of the Editorial Committee indicated "that the Lord himself is running his organization". Rutherford expanded his means of spreading the Watch Tower message in 1924 with the start of 15-minute radio broadcasts, initially from WBBR, based on Staten Island, and eventually via a network of as many as 480 radio stations. A 1931 talk was broadcast throughout North America, Australia and France, but his attacks on the clergy resulted in both the NBC and BBC radio networks banning his broadcasts. In 1928, Rutherford began to abolish the system of electing elders by congregational voting, dismissing them as "haughty" and "lazy", and finally asserting in 1932 that electing elders was unscriptural. He impressed on elders the need to obey the Society's "regulations", "instructions" and "directions" without complaint. Service directors, who reported back to Brooklyn, were appointed in each congregation and a weekly "service meeting" introduced to meeting programs. In 1933 Rutherford claimed that abolishing elective elders was a fulfillment of the prophecy of 2300 days at Daniel 8:13–14, and that God's sanctuary (the Watch Tower Society) was thereby cleansed. At a 1931 Bible Student assembly in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford proposed a new name for the organization, Jehovah's witnesses, to differentiate them from the proliferation of other groups that followed Russell's teachings. Bible Students who opposed or abandoned Rutherford to form new groups were increasingly described as the "evil servant class" by The Watchtower, which said it was wrong to pray for those who were "unfaithful". Four years later the term "Kingdom Hall" was introduced for the local meeting place of congregations. In 1937, the door-to-door preaching program was extended to formally include "back calls" on interested people and Witnesses were urged to start one-hour Bible studies in the homes of householders. In the late 1930s, he advocated the use of "sound cars" and portable phonographs with which talks by Rutherford were played to passersby and householders. In 1938, he introduced the term "theocracy" to describe the denomination's system of government, with Consolation explaining: "The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager." "Zone servants" (now known as circuit overseers) were appointed to supervise congregations. In a Watchtower article Rutherford declared the need for congregations to "get in line" with the changed structure. By 1942, the year of his death, worldwide attendance at the annual Memorial of Christ's death was 140,450 though his restructuring of the Bible Student community coincided with a dramatic loss of followers during the 1920s and 1930s. Worldwide attendance of the annual Memorial of Christ's death fell from 90,434 in 1925 to 17,380 in 1928. Memorial attendance figures did not surpass 90,000 again until 1940. Author Tony Wills, who analyzed attendance and "field worker" statistics, suggests it was the "more dedicated" Bible Students who quit through the 1920s, to be replaced by newcomers in larger numbers, although Rutherford dismissed the loss of the original Bible Students as the Lord "shaking out" the unfaithful. In the 1942 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Rutherford wrote that the year's achievements "would, on the face of it, show that the Theocratic witness work on earth is about done". ### Doctrinal changes In July 1917, Rutherford had The Finished Mystery published as a seventh volume of the Studies in the Scriptures series. The volume, though written by Fisher and Woodworth, was advertised as Russell's "posthumous work" and "last legacy" but contained several interpretations and viewpoints not espoused by Russell, including an urging of all Bible Students to cast judgment upon Christendom and its clergy, the adoption of new dates for the fulfillment of particular prophecies, a claim that salvation is tied to membership within the Watch Tower Society, as well as shunning and censuring any who reject the interpretations given in the volume or related articles in Zion's Watch Tower magazine. In the February 1918 discourse "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" (printed in booklet form in May 1920) a revision of Russell's calculation of a "Jubilee type" was presented, changing it from 1875 to 1925, despite Russell's rejection of such a change a few months prior to his death. In October 1920 the Society published a new edition of Russell's 1881 Tabernacle Shadows of the Better Sacrifices. It included an appendix introducing many alterations or reinterpretations of Russell's original views on the death of Jesus and the role of Christ's followers in heaven as typified in the ceremonies of the Jewish tabernacle. At the 1922 Cedar Point convention Rutherford began teaching that Christ's reign had begun in 1914, and not 1878 as Russell had taught. Rutherford expanded on this view in the March 1, 1925 issue of The Watch Tower in the article "Birth of The Nation", which he later acknowledged "caused a real stir or shake-up within the ranks." In 1927 he moved the date of the resurrection of the "sleeping saints" (all Christians who had died since Jesus' time) from 1878 to 1918 and as early as 1930 began to dismiss the year 1874 as the date for the invisible presence of Christ in favor of the year 1914. From 1925 he developed the view of the battle of Armageddon as a universal war waged by God rather than Russell's belief that it was the decline of human society into social, political and religious anarchy. Rutherford based his interpretations on the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional material from the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. An article in the January 1, 1926 Watch Tower introduced new emphasis on the importance of the name "Jehovah"; from 1929 Rutherford taught that the vindication of God's name—which would ultimately occur when millions of unbelievers were destroyed at Armageddon—was the primary doctrine of Christianity and more important than God's display of goodness or grace toward humankind. In 1932 he published an interpretation of a passage in Ezekiel describing the attack on Jerusalem by Gog of Magog, in which he predicted an intensification of persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses that would culminate in God intervening on their behalf to begin the battle of Armageddon, which would destroy all opposers of God's organization. In 1926, he discredited Russell's teaching on the importance of Christian "character development" or personal "sanctification" and a year later discarded the teaching that Russell had been the "faithful and wise servant" of Matthew 24:45–47, warning that the desire to revere men was a snare set by the Devil. In May 1926 Rutherford released his book Deliverance at the Bible Student's convention in Kensington, England later interpreting the event as the fulfillment of the 1335 days of Daniel 12:12. In 1927, Christmas was declared to be of pagan origin, and the following year its celebration by Bible Students was condemned as supporting "Satan's organization". Mother's Day was condemned in 1931, with other holidays as well as birthdays officially renounced in subsequent years. In 1928, Rutherford discarded Russell's teaching that the natural Jews would be restored to Palestine and return to God's favor, despite having declared ten years earlier that prophecies of their restoration were already being fulfilled with the British takeover of Palestine from Turkey during World War I. He denied there was a role for Jews in God's Kingdom arrangement and by 1933 he had reversed Russell's earlier teaching, claiming that prominent Jewish business leaders were "arrogant, self-important and extremely selfish," and would gain no favored standing with God. The teaching that God would restore the Jews to Palestine was discontinued around the same time. Russell's teaching that the Great Pyramid of Giza was built under God's direction was overturned in 1928, when Rutherford asserted that it had been built under the direction of Satan for the purpose of deceiving God's people in the last days. The announcement prompted further defections among long-time Bible Students. In 1930, Rutherford published a systematic reinterpretation of the book of Revelation. Many of the symbols recorded in the book were applied to events following 1918, specifically to Watch Tower conventions held in the years 1922 through 1928. These reinterpretations reflected both a wholesale rejection of his own earlier views as well as the historicist interpretations of Pastor Russell. At a Washington, D.C. convention in 1935, Rutherford rejected Russell's teaching that the "great company" of Revelation 7:9 was a "secondary spiritual class" composed of millions of Christians who would be resurrected to heaven apart from the 144,000 "elect", and instead argued that the "great multitude", the "sheep" of Matthew 25 and the "Jonadabs" of 2 Kings chapter 10 all picture the people who could potentially survive Armageddon and receive everlasting human life on earth if they became Jehovah's Witnesses before it began. In 1935, Rutherford objected to U.S. state laws requiring school students to salute the flag as a means of instilling patriotism; in the 1936 Yearbook he declared that baptized Jehovah's Witnesses who did salute the flag were breaking their covenant with God and were thus "guilty of death". In 1940, children in 43 states were expelled for refusing to salute the flag and the Watch Tower Society took most cases to court, with Rutherford personally leading the unsuccessful case of Minersville School District v. Gobitis. Controversy over the flag salute issue escalated and mob attacks became prevalent in many U.S. states until 1943 when the court overruled its previous decision in the case of West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette. A U.S. law magazine noted how Jehovah's Witnesses had helped shape the course of constitutional law, remarking: "Through almost constant litigation this organization had made possible an ever-increasing list of precedents concerning the application of the 14th amendment to freedom of speech and religion". In 1936, Rutherford rejected the belief that Jesus had been executed on a Roman cross, in favor of an upright stake or "tree." ## Character and attitudes Biographers describe Rutherford as tall and solidly built with a senatorial demeanor, and a strong booming voice that helped make him a powerful orator. In 1917, The New York Times stated that Rutherford "has a reputation as an eloquent, forceful speaker". Watch Tower Society literature states that his personality contrasted strongly with that of his predecessor. One Watchtower history book says that while Russell was kind, warm and tactful, Rutherford "was warm and generous toward his associates but he was also a brusque and direct type of person, and his legal background and experiences in early life gave him a directness in his approach to problems in dealing with his brothers that caused some to take offense." Another Watch Tower Society account says he did not hide his feelings, adding, "His bluntness, even when spoken in kindness, was sometimes misunderstood." Fellow Watch Tower Society director A. H. Macmillan says Rutherford "spoke as simply and directly to the people as he knew how, and he was an extremely forthright man. He was thoroughly convinced that what he had to say was the truth and that it was a matter of life and death." Macmillan added, "He would never tolerate anything that would be contrary to what he clearly understood the Bible to teach. He was so strict about that, he would permit nothing that would seem to show a compromise when it came to an issue of the truth." Author Tony Wills describes him as charitable and generous, and says his sympathy for the poor and oppressed was exceeded only by his hatred for the rich, the oppressors. Wills also notes that he was a dynamic, impatient extrovert. Other authors also address Rutherford's abrasiveness: James Penton describes him as blunt and moody with an explosive temper, with "a streak of self-righteousness which caused him to regard anyone who opposed him as of the Devil", while Alan Rogerson notes that he was a "dogmatic and insensitive person, obsessed with his own self-importance." Rutherford's confrontation with four Watch Tower Society directors who opposed him in 1917 highlighted both the forcefulness of his personality and his determination to fight for what he believed was right. Penton claims Rutherford played "hard-fisted church politics" and Rogerson accuses Rutherford of using The Watchtower as a propaganda medium to attack his opposers in what was effectively a battle for his position as president. At the heart of his opponents' complaints was his "autocratic" behavior as he strove to "exercise complete management of the Society and its affairs." Penton similarly describes Rutherford's actions in his first year of presidency—including his appointment of new directors, refusal to allow the Society's accounts to be examined, and his unilateral decision to publish The Finished Mystery—as high-handed and secretive. In contrast, Rutherford claimed, "It was my duty to use the power the Lord had put into my hands to support the interests of the shareholders and all others interested in the Truth throughout the world ... to be unfaithful to them would be unfaithful to the Lord." Macmillan, who supported Rutherford throughout the crisis, claimed the president was extremely patient and "did everything that he could to help his opposers see their mistake, holding a number of meetings with them, trying to reason with them and show them how contrary their course was to the Society's charter". According to Wills, Rutherford emerged from prison in 1919 bitter against the world and the collusion he saw between the clergy and military that had secured his imprisonment. Soon after his release he coined the term "Satan's organization" to refer to this supposed conspiracy. In Watchtower articles Rutherford was similarly scathing towards big business, politics and the League of Nations. Rogerson describes Rutherford's attitude towards the clergy—his avowed enemies—as "unadulterated hatred". His attacks on clergymen, particularly those of the Catholic Church, from the late 1920s were strong enough to attract a ban on his broadcasts by the NBC radio network, which condemned his "rabid attack upon organized religion and the clergy". He also applied criticizing terms to those who had deserted Watch Tower ranks, calling them the "evil servant". He urged readers to view with contempt anyone who had "openly rebelled against God's order or commandments" and also described elective elders of the 1930s who refused to submit to Watch Tower Society administrative changes as "despicable". Wills states that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He claims that towards the close of his ministry Rutherford spent about half of each year's Watchtowers writing about Armageddon. According to Penton, Rutherford's austerity—evidenced by his distaste for Christmas, birthday parties and other popular customs that were described as of pagan origin or that encouraged idolatry and were not to be observed—led in turn to austerity becoming a part of Witness life. In 1938, he directed that singing be dispensed with at congregation meetings; singing was reinstated soon after his death. Rutherford's books and magazine articles reveal his strong views on "the proper place of women" in the church and society. In a 1931 book he linked the post-1919 rise of women's movements that encouraged equality of the sexes with satanic influence, and claimed the custom of men tipping their hats to women or standing when a woman approached was a scheme of the devil to turn men from God and indicated an effeminate streak in men who practiced the custom. Mother's Day was similarly described as part of a plan to turn people away from God. In 1938 he urged adherents to delay marriage and child-bearing until after Armageddon, which Wills claims prompted a strong community bias among Witnesses against marriage. Those who did marry, says Wills, were considered to be weak in faith. At a 1941 convention in Missouri he quoted Rudyard Kipling's description of women as "a rag and a bone and a hank of hair". Former Jehovah's Witness and former Governing Body member Raymond Franz claimed there was no evidence Rutherford engaged in door-to-door ministry despite his assertion that it was a requirement and sacred duty of all Witnesses. Franz claimed to have heard Rutherford's associates say his responsibilities as president "do not permit his engaging in this activity". Macmillan, however, related details of Rutherford's home preaching in 1905 or 1906 when he was baptized, and a 1975 article quoted several Witnesses relating their experiences with Rutherford in the house-to-house ministry in the 1920s. The official history of Jehovah's Witnesses also notes, "Rutherford personally shared with other conventioners as they engaged in the work of Kingdom proclamation from house to house." On August 2, 1928 in a meeting with the Bible Student elders who had attended a general convention in Detroit, Michigan Rutherford listed his responsibilities and concluded "when I have attended to many other details, I have not had very much time to go from door to door." Authors William Whalen and James Penton have claimed that Rutherford was to Russell what Brigham Young was to Mormon prophet Joseph Smith. Penton contends that both Russell and Smith were capable religious leaders but naive visionaries, while Rutherford and Young were "hard-bitten pragmatists who gave a degree of permanency to the movements they dominated". ## Personal life Rutherford married Mary Malcolm Fetzer of Boonville, Missouri on December 31, 1891. Their only child, Malcolm, was born on November 10, 1892. The couple separated after Joseph Rutherford became president of the Watch Tower Society. Mary remained an active member of the Jehovah's Witnesses until becoming confined to her home in the years before her death in 1962 at age 93. Rutherford had reportedly lost the use of one lung from pneumonia suffered during his imprisonment in 1918 and 1919. Finding New York's winter weather "impossible", Rutherford was encouraged by a doctor to "spend as much time as possible" in a more favorable climate. In 1929, a residence named Beth Sarim (literally, House of Princes) was constructed at San Diego, California for Rutherford's use, initially as winter accommodation and later as a full-time residence. He died at the property in 1942. The villa was sold in 1948, with The Watchtower declaring, "It had fully served its purpose and was now only serving as a monument quite expensive to keep." The standard of Rutherford's accommodation and his personal conduct attracted criticism from some Bible Students and Jehovah's Witnesses in the 1930s. Walter F. Salter, the Society's former branch manager in Canada, wrote a public letter to Rutherford in 1937, the month he was expelled from the group, claiming that Rutherford had exclusive use of "luxurious" and "expensive" residences (in Brooklyn, Staten Island, Germany, and San Diego), as well as two Cadillacs and alleged that on more than one occasion he had purchased for Rutherford cases of whiskey, brandy, beer and other liquors, and 'go from "drink to drink"'. In July 1939 Olin R. Moyle, legal counsel for the Society, wrote an open letter of resignation to the president, in which he complained about behavior of some members of the Watch Tower Society, including Rutherford himself, that he considered excessive and inappropriate. Moyle mentioned California when discussing "the difference between the accommodations furnished to you, and your personal attendants, compared with those furnished to some of your brethren." Moyle also accused Rutherford of "unkind treatment of the staff, outbursts of anger, discrimination and vulgar language" and condemned his allowing the "glorification of alcohol" at Bethel. Penton notes that Moyle was a "teetotaller" and "puritanical", but claims Rutherford's drinking habits were "notorious" and cites unnamed former Brooklyn Bethel workers who told of occasional difficulties in getting Rutherford to the podium to give public talks due to inebriation. ## Death and burial From the age of 70, Rutherford underwent several medical treatments for cancer of the colon. This included an operation on November 5, 1941, which found "carcinoma of the rectal sigmoid". Doctors gave him less than six months to live. Rutherford died at Beth Sarim on January 8, 1942, at the age of 72. Cause of death was "uraemia due to carcinoma of the rectum due to pelvic metastasis." A Watch Tower Society staff member said of the announcement of Rutherford's death, "It was at noontime when the family was assembled for lunch. ... The announcement was brief. There were no speeches. No one took the day off to mourn. Rather, we went back to the factory and worked harder than ever." Rutherford's burial was delayed for five months due to legal proceedings arising from his desire to be buried at Beth Sarim, which he had previously expressed to three close advisers from Brooklyn headquarters. According to Consolation, "Judge Rutherford looked for the early triumph of 'the King of the East', Christ Jesus, now leading the host of heaven, and he desired to be buried at dawn facing the rising sun, in an isolated part of the ground which would be administered by the princes, who should return from their graves." Based on his claims that resurrected biblical characters would live at Beth Sarim, Rutherford concluded that it was appropriate that his bones be buried on the property. The legal problem arose because Beth Sarim was not a legally zoned cemetery. Witnesses collected more than 14,000 signatures for two petitions—one supporting his burial at Beth Sarim, another for a second preferred site on a nearby Watch Tower Society property named Beth-Shan—that Rutherford's dying wish might be granted. Consolation condemned San Diego County officials for their refusal to grant a permit for Rutherford's burial at either property, stating "It was not the fate of the bones which they decided, but their own destiny. Nor is their blood on anyone else's head, because they were told three times that to fight against God, or to tamper with His servant's bones even, would bring upon them the condemnation of the Lord. ... So their responsibility is fixed, and they followed the course of Satan." Speculation that Rutherford was secretly buried at Beth Sarim has been called "private rumor", 'frequently disproven', and "myth". The May 4, 1942 issue of Time magazine noted Rutherford's burial at Rossville, New York, on Staten Island; a private burial plot for Watch Tower branch volunteers is on Woodrow Road. In 2002, a caretaker at the immediately adjoining graveyard answered an inquiry about Watch Tower's graveyard by noting, "I couldn't tell you who is buried on it because it has absolutely no markers or headstones". Rutherford was succeeded by Nathan Homer Knorr as president of the Watch Tower Society.

Summer of 4 Ft. 2

"Summer of 4 Ft. 2" is the twenty-fifth and final episode of the seventh season of the American animated television series, The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19, 1996. In the episode, the Simpson family stay in Ned Flanders' beach house. Hanging around with a new set of children, Lisa becomes popular, while Bart is left out. Bart tries to sabotage his sister's newfound acceptance, but fails. The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Mark Kirkland. The episode guest stars Christina Ricci. The beach house at Little Pwagmattasquarmsettport the Simpson family stays in is based on then-showrunner Josh Weinstein's parents' house in New Hampshire. The episode features cultural references to the George Lucas film American Graffiti, Pippi Longstocking, The New Yorker character Eustace Tilley, and Alice and The Hatter from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8.8, and was the second highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. ## Plot On the last day of school, Lisa realizes how unpopular she is when nobody signs her yearbook. Her disappointment grows when she sees students lining up to get Bart's signature. Ned Flanders offers the Simpsons the use of his beach house for the summer. Marge suggests that Bart bring Milhouse and Lisa invite a friend. Realizing she has no friends, Lisa decides to change her image to gain popularity. She leaves behind her nerdy belongings, since she fears they would make people like her less. At the beach house, Lisa tells Marge she forgot to pack, so she buys new clothes, hoping they will make her look cool to other children. Lisa succeeds in making friends by acting detached and hiding her intelligence. Bart grows jealous because Lisa becomes more popular than he is by using some of his own traits and tactics, which fails to win them over. Bart exacts revenge by showing Lisa's yearbook to her new friends, exposing her as a smart overachiever. Lisa runs away in tears. The next day, Bart begins to heckle Lisa at breakfast, and she is angry at him for supposedly ruining her newfound friendships. Later, Marge, Bart, Lisa and Milhouse visit a carnival, where Bart only heckles Lisa more until he finally regrets how low he stooped to ruin her life. After the carnival, Lisa returns to the beach house to find her friends decorating the Simpsons' car with seashells in her honor (much to Homer's horror). They explain that she does not need to fake being cool because they like her for her true self. To make amends with Lisa, Bart gets her new friends (and Milhouse) to sign her yearbook, which he hands to her as the family drive back to Springfield. ## Production The episode was written by Dan Greaney, and directed by Mark Kirkland. It was Greaney's second episode on The Simpsons. The staff of the show wanted to do a summer episode because there was "so much stuff" about summer vacations that they felt had to be covered in an episode. David Silverman, one of the show's animators, particularly liked the episode because he thought it captured the feeling of being on summer vacation. The area in which the Flanders family's beach house is located is based on the Cape Cod peninsula. Many of the writers of The Simpsons spent time on Cape Cod so they decided to model the new locations on it. The animators looked at Cape Cod photographs to get inspiration for the episode, and one of the show's background designers, Lance Wilder, grew up in that area. The beach house is based on then-show runner Josh Weinstein's parents' house in New Hampshire, which the writers had visited many times. They played several board games when they were there, which gave them the idea to have to the Simpson family play the Mystery Date board game in the episode. Silverman said that the episode was difficult to animate and direct because it had so many new and detailed backgrounds and completely different locations. American actress Christina Ricci guest starred in the episode as Erin, one of Lisa's new friends. Ricci was not able to come to the recording studio, so she recorded all of her lines over an ISDN line. Weinstein, who was a fan of Ricci, thought she did a nice performance in the episode. ## Cultural references The episode's title is a parody of the 1971 film Summer of '42. Lisa has a daydream in which the following fictional characters appear: Pippi Longstocking, The New Yorker character Eustace Tilley, and Alice and The Hatter from Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, attempting to entice her back to literature. Lisa references Gore Vidal and regarded him (or, at least, his books) as one of her only friends. Milhouse compares Lisa's new appearance to the character Blossom from the American television series Blossom. TeeJay's ZayMart is a spoof of defunct retailer Zayre and parent company T.J. Maxx. Homer replicates a scene from the 1973 film American Graffiti when he nonchalantly buys some stereotypically embarrassing products at the store in order to get some illegal fireworks. The Mystery Date board game that the family is forced to play is an actual Milton Bradley Company board game from the 1960s. Weinstein recalled playing it as a child and claimed it to be "a very disappointing game to play as a little boy" because of the female target audience. Lisa says she learned the word crustacean from Baywatch. Also a nod to American Graffiti, The Beach Boys song, "All Summer Long", plays during the credits. ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Summer of 4 Ft. 2" finished forty-second (tied with Melrose Place and Married... with Children) in the ratings for the week of May 13 to May 19, 1996, with a Nielsen rating of 8.8. The episode was the second highest-rated show on the Fox network that week (tied with Melrose Place and Married... with Children), following The X-Files. Since airing, the episode has received positive reviews from television critics. The authors of the book, I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, wrote: "This episode will strike a chord with anyone that's ever tried to fit in with the crowd [...] Lisa gets to show the many facets of her character, and there's a superb slapstick sequence as Homer tries to dispose of a firework." Dave Foster of DVD Times praised the episode and said: "The episode is quite simply my favourite Lisa episode regardless of season. From calm to cool and fiercely aggressive, we've rarely seen Lisa so enticing as we do here, and the episode's many elements including the side stories for the other family members culminate in one of the finest this season has to offer." DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and said that he likes how it addresses Bart's resentment of Lisa's popularity. "Granted, it makes [Bart] a little too mean, but it's entertaining", he added. Jacobson went on to say: "Marge gets the best moment again, as I love watching her non-violent approach to the bumper cars." Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best parts of the episode to be the scenes that feature Milhouse, particularly his yearbook message to Lisa and the scene with the Mystery Date board game. She concluded her review by giving the episode a grade of A. Voice actress Yeardley Smith has cited the episode as one of her favorite Simpsons episodes of all time. When The Simpsons began streaming on Disney+ in 2019, former Simpsons writer and executive producer Bill Oakley named the episode as one of the best classic Simpsons episodes to watch on the service. Mark Stock, writing for the website The Manual, chose the episode as one of the 10 best Simpsons episodes.

The Blip

Event in the Marvel Cinematic Universe

The Blip (also known as the Decimation and the Snap) is a major fictional event depicted in the Marvel Cinematic Universe franchise in which half of all living things in the universe, chosen at random, were exterminated by Thanos snapping his fingers while wearing the Infinity Gauntlet and wielding the Infinity Stones in 2018, and then restored in late 2023 by Bruce Banner using Infinity Stones recovered from different time periods. The Blip appears to refer to the entire event, including the elimination and restoration of the victims. It manifested in the form of the mass disintegration of individual beings into dust, while the reversal had the same dust reforming into the previously deceased individuals, who reappeared in the same location with no direct awareness of what occurred. Aspects of the Blip have been featured in Phase Three, Four, and Five of the MCU, most notably in Avengers: Infinity War (2018), which is when the first snap occurred, and Avengers: Endgame (2019), where the second snap by Banner took place. In addition, a variety of other MCU films and television series have referenced or depicted aspects of the Blip. The consequences of the Blip were substantial and far-reaching. Some were portrayed for comic effects, such as "blipped" school band members reappearing in the middle of a basketball game and "blipped" characters now being years younger than their own "unblipped" previously younger siblings. Others were portrayed for dramatic effect, such as blipped characters returning to general chaos and confusion, finding that loved ones had died in their absence, their homes and life savings were repossessed, and their jobs had been filled by others. The Blip inspired the creation of a real-world event on the website Reddit, in which a randomly-selected half of the members of a highly popular subreddit would be banned, simulating the effects of the Blip. The ban of over 300,000 accounts, which included Infinity War co-director Anthony Russo, was the largest in Reddit's history. The Blip, as an event within the MCU, has been compared to the COVID-19 pandemic, as something that has a sustained effect on people all over the world. Since the Blip in Infinity War, many scientific articles have been published analyzing various aspects of the event, including whether it would even be possible for Thanos to snap his fingers while wearing the Infinity Gauntlet. ## Etymology Following the release of Avengers: Infinity War, the event was dubbed by fans as "the Snap", "the Snappening", or "the Snapture". In the tie-in novel Marvel's Avengers: Infinity War: The Cosmic Quest Volume Two: Aftermath by Brandon T. Snider, the event was referred to as "the Decimation", but this naming was not used in any other related media. The event was referred to as "the Blip" in Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019), but Kevin Feige later clarified that "the Snap" referred to Thanos' finger snap in Avengers: Infinity War while "the Blip" referred to Bruce Banner's finger snap in Avengers: Endgame. Despite Feige's comments, both events were collectively referred to as "the Blip" in MCU projects such as WandaVision (2021) and The Falcon and the Winter Soldier (2021), and the term also appears to reference the five-year gap between the two snaps during which half of Earth's population was wiped from existence. Secret Invasion (2023) uses both "the Blip" and "the Snap". ## Known victims and survivors ### Victims The Blip wiped out 50% of all living creatures. Memorials to the "vanished" victims were erected in communities across the universe. Among the victims were: ### Survivors Those known to have survived the Blip include: - Ajak - Bruce Banner - Clint Barton - Kate Bishop - Sharon Carter - Carol Danvers - Brad Davis - Druig - Wilson Fisk - Gilgamesh - Roger Harrington - Tyler Hayward - Happy Hogan - Howard the Duck - Ikaris - Kingo - Korg - Cassie Lang - Scott Lang - Maya Lopez - William Lopez - Makkari - M'Baku - Miek - Nakia - Karli Morgenthau - Nebula - Okoye - Christine Palmer - Phastos - Pepper Potts - Maria Rambeau - Ramonda - James Rhodes - Rocket - Steve Rogers - Natasha Romanoff - Sersi - Sprite - Tony Stark - Marc Spector - Toussaint / T'Challa II - Talos - Thanos - Thena - Thor - Valkyrie - Varra / Priscilla Fury - Wong Scott Lang was in the Quantum Realm at the time of the Blip, and although only a few hours passed there from his perspective when he escaped from the Quantum Realm, because time passes slower there, five years had passed everywhere else. However, Lang was believed to have been a victim, due to his absence over those five years. The Eternals also survived the Blip due to them being artificial and not biological beings. ## Depictions ### Infinity Saga In Avengers: Infinity War, Thanos obtains the six Infinity Stones and places them within a Gauntlet built by Eitri, so that he can snap his fingers and eliminate half of all life in the universe, which he believes will bring a balance that will prevent greater catastrophes from fighting over resources. The Blip occurs at the end of the film in Wakanda, where numerous characters are blipped, including Bucky Barnes, Nick Fury, Maria Hill, Wanda Maximoff, Peter Parker, Stephen Strange, T'Challa, Sam Wilson, Peter Quill, Groot, Drax, and Mantis. The Russo brothers also revealed that, despite not appearing in Infinity War, Betty Ross and Sif were blipped as well. In a mid-credits scene in Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), Hank Pym, Hope van Dyne, and Janet van Dyne are blipped, leaving Scott Lang stranded in the Quantum Realm. In a subsequent post-credits scene, a nationwide broadcast of the Emergency Alert System is shown on a television in Lang's home. In a post-credits scene of Captain Marvel (2019), the Avengers are surveying reports of worldwide population losses at the Avengers Compound, when Carol Danvers abruptly appears, having received a distress signal from Fury that he sent through a pager before he blipped. When asked how the sixth season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., set one year after the events of the fifth season and Infinity War, would connect to the then-upcoming Avengers: Endgame, Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb suggested in March 2019 that the one-year time jump between the previous season of the series and this one was part of the series's tie-in to that film. After Endgame was released in April, the showrunners and Loeb revealed that the series would not directly depict or reference the Blip for several reasons. They began production on the season without knowing all of Endgame's plot or how Far From Home would be depicting a post-Endgame MCU. They were also unsure when the season would be released in relation to Endgame and how much they would be allowed to reveal if they had begun airing before the film was released. They wanted to focus on telling their own story rather than be "shackled too much to the universe-changing events from the films". While acknowledging that this meant the series seemingly no longer lined up with the films' timeline, producer Jed Whedon stated that the writers had an explanation for this that made sense to them even though they did not plan to "burden the audience" with it. A line referencing the Blip and how the Quantum Realm could be used to avoid it was filmed for the series finale but was ultimately cut from the aired episode. In Avengers: Endgame, Clint Barton's family, Erik Selvig, Shuri, and Jane Foster are confirmed to have been blipped. In the Avengers Compound, Sharon Carter and Scott Lang are also listed as blipped, though Carter went rogue to establish her identity as the Power Broker in Madripoor and Lang was unaccounted for due to being trapped in the Quantum Realm. Some of the surviving heroes travel to the planet where Thanos has gone to attempt to recover the Infinity Stones and undo the Blip, only to learn that Thanos had destroyed the Stones to ensure that his work could not be undone. Five years later, the effects of the disappearances are explored, with many characters having experiences resulting from the event. For example, Barton is distraught at the loss of his family and becomes a rogue warrior, travelling the world to massacre organized crime figures involved in the drug trade and child trafficking. Steve Rogers leads a support group for those dealing with the loss of loved ones in the Blip. Thor, who blames himself for failing to kill Thanos before the initial snap, becomes an out-of-shape alcoholic. Urban decay is apparent in cities such as New York City and San Francisco. Carol Danvers tells the Avengers that the chaos happening on Earth is also occurring on other planets throughout the cosmos. In the meantime, Scott Lang is freed from the Quantum Realm, having only experienced five hours instead of years. He comes across a memorial park listing names of the vanished, including himself, then reunites with his daughter Cassie, who had been a young girl when he last saw her and is now a teenager. Lang informs the remaining Avengers and allies about his discovery: the Quantum Realm can allow time travel. While they soon determine that the nature of time travel means that they cannot simply go back in time and stop Thanos from either causing the Blip or destroying the Stones in the first place, they are able to use Pym Particles to travel through the Quantum Realm to retrieve the Infinity Stones from alternate timelines in the past. Upon returning to the present, Tony Stark, Bruce Banner, and Rocket develop a Gauntlet composed of Stark's nanotech that is capable of harnessing the power of the Stones. Due to the powerful emission of gamma radiation resulting from the Stones' use, Banner volunteers to wear the Gauntlet and successfully restores the blipped victims in the condition they had vanished. The Avengers are then attacked by an alternate version of Thanos who intends to destroy and recreate the universe. A final battle ensues and Stark ultimately wins the battle by using the Stones to destroy Thanos and his army, at the cost of his own life. Following a funeral honoring Stark's sacrifice, Rogers travels back in time to return the Stones to their original time periods. In Spider-Man: Far From Home, the Blip is discussed in a school news broadcast at the beginning of the film, which is the first instance in any medium of the name. The broadcast shows Midtown School of Science and Technology band members reappearing in the middle of a basketball game. The film reveals that several more characters had been blipped and restored, including Peter's aunt May Parker and his classmates Ned Leeds, MJ, Betty Brant, and Flash Thompson. Parker's teacher Roger Harrington complains that his wife had pretended to have been blipped in order to leave him. As part of a viral marketing campaign to promote the home media release of Far From Home, a real version of the fictional TheDailyBugle.net website was created that featured testimonials from supposed victims of the Blip, including one complaining that they disappeared in a dangerous situation and were seriously injured when they reappeared. This contradicted a statement by Feige saying that anyone in such a situation would have reappeared safely. Several days after this was pointed out, the website was updated to say this story was faked for an insurance claim. ### Multiverse Saga #### Phase Four At the beginning of the fourth episode of WandaVision, "We Interrupt This Program", Monica Rambeau is shown returning from being blipped in a hospital room, discovering chaos outside as other people are un-blipped in many places and learning that her mother Maria had died of cancer while she was gone. In the same episode, when characters outside the Westview hex first see Vision onscreen, three weeks after everyone returned, Darcy Lewis asks her colleagues to confirm that "he's dead, right? Not blipped. Dead". The writers and producers had many conversations about how to portray people returning from the Blip, and decided to set the sequence in a hospital as an interesting place to depict the scariness and confusion of the event from Monica's perspective. This is different from the portrayal of the Blip in Far From Home, which had a more comedic tone, and Schaeffer explained that Marvel was happy for the series's tone to be different as long as the visuals of the sequence matched with those seen in Far From Home. In The Falcon and the Winter Soldier, set six months after Endgame, the Blip is referenced as having created chaos around the world. Millions of people who were displaced by the Blip came under the authority of the Global Repatriation Council, with a substantial number of people living as refugees awaiting repatriation to their home countries. Many express thankfulness to the Avengers for reversing the Blip but the event also caused violent revolutions throughout the world by organizations such as the Flag Smashers, who felt that life was better during the Blip and engage in terrorist activities to promote an anarchist society. On Sharon Carter surviving the Blip and becoming the Power Broker, series director Kari Skogland said that Carter "had to survive out there on her own during the Blip and being on the run without family — and look at what she built and where she went. She's clever, and that's what I love about it most." The Blip is not shown to occur in the alternate universes depicted in episodes of the Disney Plus series What If...?'s first season. In the second episode, T'Challa convinces Thanos to abandon his plans of erasing half of life in the universe, while in the fifth episode Thanos arrives on Earth, having acquired five of the Infinity Stones, but is infected by the quantum virus and transformed into a zombie before he can acquire the final Stone. In the eighth episode, Thanos arrives on Earth to retrieve the Mind Stone after collecting the other Infinity Stones but is swiftly killed by Ultron, who takes the Stones for himself and sets about to annihilate all life in the multiverse. In Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings (2021), the Blip is discussed, and fliers can be seen in San Francisco regarding a hotline for sufferers of "post-Blip anxiety". In Eternals (2021), Ajak reveals that the Blip delayed the onslaught of the Emergence for five years, as it halved the Earth's population from the necessary level needed for it to occur. An advertisement for the Global Repatriation Council is also featured in the film. In Hawkeye (2021), set one year after the Blip, the phrase "Thanos was right" is seen on a coffee mug and in graffiti in New York City. The event is mentioned by Kate Bishop when she deduces that Clint Barton was the Ronin. In the series it is also shown that Yelena Belova was blipped and that Maya Lopez and her father, William, survived the Blip, only for William to later die in an attack facilitated by their employer, Wilson Fisk. The series's fifth episode, "Ronin", was the first MCU media to show the Blip from the perspective of a person being blipped, with Belova seeming to almost instantly disintegrate and then reappear, with the room around her changing in appearance to signify the passage of five years. In Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021), it is revealed that Wong replaced Stephen Strange as the Sorcerer Supreme due to Strange's disappearance during the Blip. In a mid-credits scene, a bartender explains to a universe-displaced Eddie Brock how his family was among the victims of the Blip. Although the Blip is never mentioned in Moon Knight (2022), the issue date on Marc Spector's passport is visibly shown to be December 14, 2018, which is a post-Blip date, indicating that he survived. In addition, a Global Repatriation Council banner is seen on the side of a bus in the second episode. In Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness (2022), it is revealed that Strange's former girlfriend Dr. Christine Palmer survived the Blip and, during that time, found love with another man, whom she marries at the start of the film. During the wedding, Strange also learns that his former co-worker Dr. Nicodemus West was blipped, and when he returned five years later, he was devastated to discover that his brother and cats had died during his absence. This compels West to ask Strange if there was any way that Thanos could have been defeated without the Blip occurring, prompting Strange to confirm that there was no other way. In the first episode of She-Hulk: Attorney at Law (2022), Bruce Banner takes his cousin Jennifer Walters to his beach house/lab in Mexico that was built by Banner and Stark and explains to Walters that it's where he spent the Blip, fixing himself and merging the Hulk/Banner personas. In the second episode, Walters' mother, Elaine, reminds the family that Banner was responsible for the undoing of the Blip and that he had saved everyone with a snap of his finger. In Black Panther: Wakanda Forever (2022), it is revealed that Nakia and her son Toussaint left Wakanda immediately following the Blip, and Ramonda served as queen regnant of Wakanda during the subsequent five years. #### Phase Five In Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania (2023), it is revealed that Hope van Dyne founded the Pym van Dyne Foundation to help the world using Pym Particles in the aftermath of the Blip, by providing reforestation and other humanitarian efforts. Cassie Lang also tried to assist with activism in helping a settlement of people who had lost their homes due to displacement following the Blip. In Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3 (2023), Quill admits that he was partially responsible for the Blip happening as he recalled the events of Infinity War and how he got angry after learning about Gamora's death. In Secret Invasion (2023), Fury suffers from post-traumatic stress due to his Blip caused disintegration, leaving him more vulnerable. It is revealed that S.A.B.E.R. was made in the aftermath of Infinity War to protect Earth from other extraterrestrial threats. Fury learns that Talos, having survived the Blip, secretly brought a million refugee Skrulls to Earth while the blipped population was gone. ## Differences from the comics In the comic books published by Marvel Comics, the event on which the initial part of the Blip is based occurred during the 1991 The Infinity Gauntlet series and came to be called the Snap. While still carried out by Thanos, it was done in an effort to impress the female personification of Death, with whom he was enamored. Thanos collects the Infinity Gems— which he uses to create the Infinity Gauntlet, making himself omnipotent—and erases half the living things in the universe to prove his love to Death. The heroes of Earth and other worlds do not become aware of these events until the Snap itself occurs, after which the surviving heroes band together against Thanos. The Snap and several related acts are quickly undone by Nebula and Adam Warlock. Warlock reveals that Thanos has always allowed himself to be defeated because the Titan secretly knows he is not worthy of ultimate power. Thanos then joins Warlock as part of the Infinity Watch and helps him to defeat various threats to the universe. As the Snap is reversed shortly after it occurs, it does not have the sort of long-term societal effects and repercussions as the Blip in the MCU. Instead the members of the Infinity Watch are each given one of the Gems, which included giving Thanos the Reality Gem. Furthermore, because the Infinity Gems are recovered from Thanos immediately and are never destroyed, they continue to play a role in later storylines in the comic books. ## Design and special effects Weta Digital was in charge of creating the design of the dusting effect. One of the main instructions from the Russo brothers early on was that the effect had to look final, so that there was no doubt the characters were gone. The Russos also told Weta that they wanted the effect to look "painful with a component that was quite violent". They specifically didn't want it to be "too gentle or lyrical". Weta started out with a series of 2D concept frames, in which two were chosen to be combined into a full CG simulation test. The team chose to use Drax as the test character due to his lack of hair, as they wanted to get the effect design further along before dealing with hair. A highly detailed digital double was created and used as a canvas for Drax dusting. To apply the dusting effect to the other characters, complex growth algorithms were developed to apply the effect in "an organic way". Early on in the process, Digital Design considered having "snap" briefly pop up on screen when Thanos snapped his fingers as a reference to how the snap occurred in the Infinity Gauntlet comic. Digital Domain's VFX Supervisor Kelly Port said "as a fun aside, we explored the idea of lifting the actual graphic from the frame of the comic showing the snap, the little yellow action triangles for a single frame of the moment of the snap. They appreciated the idea but didn't ultimately go for it." Special effects supervisor Dan DeLeeuw said that many tests were done to make sure that dust scattered the correct way. The VFX team paid close attention to what each Stone did and originally incorporated all of them into the dusting effect, although DeLeeuw admits that the look was too mesmerizing, saying "we realized it had to become about less being more". The team then decided to make the Blip caused by the Power Stone specifically, as the characters' corporeal forms were left behind as they were being erased from the universe. The final version became more about depicting each character disappearing and less about the effect of the Stones. ## Reception and popular culture The introduction of the Blip drew positive reviews from critics and audiences as an effective plot device due to its use as a plot twist in Infinity War, serious tone, and overarching implications in the MCU. Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige viewed the inclusion of the Blip as a major crux in the MCU timeline, similar to how the Battle of New York in the third act of The Avengers (2012) would go on to be referenced as a pivotal event in multiple MCU media. The depiction of the Blip at the conclusion of Avengers: Infinity War sparked various Internet meme reactions, including one referencing Peter Parker saying he does not feel good as he disintegrates, which was applied to other things. The website, DidThanosKill.Me was created for fans to see if they would have been spared by Thanos or not, telling them either "You were spared by Thanos" or "You were slain by Thanos". The ending of Infinity War also spawned the creation of the Reddit subreddit r/thanosdidnothingwrong. A user within the subreddit suggested that half of the approximately 20,000 subscribers at the time be banned from the subreddit, in order to mimic the events of the film. After the community agreed to the measure, the moderators approached Reddit's administrators to see if the mass ban would even be possible. Once the administrators agreed to the random ban of half the subscribers, it was set to occur on July 9, 2018. Notice of the impending ban made the subreddit's subscribers increase to over 700,000, including both of the Russos who subscribed. Ahead of the ban, Brolin posted a video saying "Here we go, Reddit users," and ending it with a snap. Over 60,000 people watched a live Twitch stream of the ban occurring, which lasted several hours. The ban of over 300,000 accounts, which included Anthony Russo, was the largest in Reddit's history. Those banned then gathered in the new subreddit, /r/inthesoulstone. One Reddit user who participated described the ban as embodying "the spirit of the Internet" with people "banding together, en masse, around something relatively meaningless but somehow decidedly awesome and hilarious". Andrew Tigani of Screen Rant said this showed "how impactful the film has already become to pop culture. It is also a testament to how valuable fan interaction can be via social media". Following the premiere of Endgame, Google included a clickable icon of the Infinity Gauntlet in Google Search results for "Thanos" or "Infinity Gauntlet" as a digital Easter egg. The icon, when clicked, made a finger-snapping motion before half of the search results disappeared, akin to the disappearance of characters following the Blip. The disappearance of the search results could also be reversed, shown by the use of the Time Stone in the Infinity Gauntlet icon. Feige has noted the similar connotations and societal ramifications between the fictional Blip and the real-life COVID-19 pandemic, which began several months after the release of Endgame. Feige elaborated, "As we started getting into a global pandemic last March and April and May, we started to go, holy mackerel, the Blip, this universal experience...this experience that affected every human on Earth, now has a direct parallel between what people who live in the MCU had encountered, and what all of us in the real world have encountered." In late 2020, Funko released a Funko Pop of Nick Fury in the middle of being dusted. In March 2021, to congratulate James Cameron on Avatar (2009) regaining the title as the number one film of all-time at the worldwide box office over Endgame, the Russo brothers shared an image with Thanos' armor scarecrow and the Avengers' logo dusting away into the Avatar logo. ### Scientific analysis and accuracy The motivations held by Thanos that led to the Blip have drawn comparisons by experts to claims and works held by 18th-century scholar and economist Thomas Malthus. In 1798, Malthus theorized in An Essay on the Principle of Population, that if populations grew much faster than their food sources, and if growth remained unchecked, it would eventually lead to societal collapse. Malthus had argued that society could impose a preventative check on unrestrained growth, thereby avoiding catastrophic outcomes. While the event wipes out half of the universe's population and not necessarily half of Earth's, modern scientific experts have commented that, in a hypothetical real-world scenario, a reduction of half of all forms of biological life on Earth would have immediate effects on biodiversity, comparable to a mass extinction event. Threatened species with preexisting low populations, as well as those species involved in pollination and food production services that require pollination management would be adversely affected. Ecosystem collapse could be possible. In relation to humans, a decrease of human overpopulation would lead to fewer emissions of greenhouse gases, which would improve the prospects of climate change mitigation and reduce global warming and its related effects. Humans would lose approximately between 1 pound (0.45 kg) and 3 pounds (1.4 kg), due to the loss of microbes and bacteria in the body. A simultaneous mass disappearance of people would also immediately trigger a substantial number of accidental and circumstantial deaths, such as airplane crashes and vehicular accidents. ## See also - Malthusianism - The Population Bomb, a 1968 book by Paul R. Ehrlich that inaccurately predicted worldwide famine due to overpopulation, as well as other major societal upheavals

Pacific Tower (Seattle)

Hospital in Seattle, Washington, U.S.

The Pacific Tower, formerly the Pacific Medical Center, is a 16-story building at 1200 12th Avenue South on Beacon Hill in Seattle, Washington, United States. It was completed in 1932 and opened the following year as a U.S. Public Health Service facility. The lower floors of the facility still function as a medical center today. Amazon.com occupied much of the building as its headquarters from 1999 until 2010. Much of the space was left vacant after Amazon relocated to South Lake Union. In 2013, the state of Washington agreed to a 30-year lease of 13 floors. Seattle Central College subleases six floors for its healthcare training program. The building was designed by Carl Frelinghuysen Gould of Bebb and Gould with assistance from John Graham & Company, and built in a distinctive Art Deco style. The structure is perched on a hill overlooking downtown Seattle and is a prominent part of the city's skyline. It has been listed in the National Register of Historic Places and has been recognized as a landmark by the City of Seattle. The building was retrofitted to better withstand an earthquake in the 1990s; however, portions of the building suffered significant damage during the 2001 Nisqually earthquake. ## History ### Marine Hospital The building was opened in 1933 by the U.S. government as a U.S. Public Health Service Marine Hospital, replacing a facility in Port Townsend. Upon opening it had a total of 312 beds. The hospital originally served veterans, merchant seamen, the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Lighthouse Service, and poor and indigent people defined as "federal compensation cases". In 1951, it was re-designated as a Public Health Service Hospital along with all other Marine Hospitals. Two years later, a three-story annex was constructed on the east end of the building to serve outpatient clinics. Two stair towers were added to the south face in 1975. The building was further expanded in 1980, when a laboratory and primary care addition were built. ### Office building The federal government ceased operation of the facility and other similar hospitals in 1981. Control was shifted to the City of Seattle, and the city chartered the Pacific Hospital Preservation and Development Authority (PHPDA). The PHPDA owns the property and uses long-term tenants with leases. Lease revenues are to advance the PHPDA's mission of providing health care services to low-income uninsured and under-insured persons in King County. The lease agreement with WRC.Com Tower LLC was signed in 1998 and was terminated in 2012. A \$9.3 million county bond paid for seismic improvements between 1991 and 1994. A new tower was constructed on the north side of the building to create a buttress for the original structure. The addition was designed by architects Zimmer Gunsul Frasca, and received an award from the American Institute of Architects for its innovative design that was inline with the building's historical facade. The project created 70,000 sq ft (6,500 m²) of additional space that was not initially occupied. As the medical organization struggled financially, attempts to lease at least 155,000 sq ft (14,400 m²) of the building failed over the course of several years. With medical facilities continuing to occupy the bottom two floors of the building in 1998, Amazon.com signed a sublease for \$1.5 million a year through 2010. The building suffered substantial damage during the 2001 Nisqually earthquake as the structure's upper floor twisted in a corkscrew fashion. On the top three floors, 80 percent of the perimeter walls were damaged. A brick pinnacle on the upper roof collapsed and fell through a roof on the 10th floor. An elevator shaft and five floors were flooded when a mechanical water line ruptured. There were no injuries but it was estimated that the repairs would cost \$6 million. During repairs, efforts were made to reuse the brick and terracotta, and the same colors and style were sourced when replacement was needed.Amazon continued to occupy their floors during rehabilitation of the structure. In 2003, the clinical group practice of the PHPDA officially split off to form a 501(c)3 health care organization, PacMed Clinics (doing business as Pacific Medical Centers or PMC). The Pacific Medical Center Clinic continues to operate in the first two floors of the building. In 2010, Amazon.com ended its sub-lease with WRC.Com Tower LLC and began the move of its headquarters to a new campus in the city's South Lake Union neighborhood. Much of the building was left vacant without new tenants moving into the space. The location outside of downtown Seattle was a constraint for businesses. Washington State House Speaker Frank Chopp spearheaded a plan to use government funding to move community college health programs into the building. In August 2013, the PHPDA announced a 30-year lease with the Washington State Department of Commerce for 13 stories of Pacific Tower. Six of the stories will be subleased to Seattle Colleges for its healthcare training programs. Many nonprofit organizations are located in the building, including Neighborcare Health, 501 Commons, Building Changes, the Cross Cultural Health Care Program, and the Smart Buildings Center. Chopp and other state lawmakers consolidated several district offices into the location. The state capital budget allocated \$20 million for the tower's renovation, but the cost increased to \$54.3 million by the time it was completed in 2016 due to unexpected water damage and new city energy-use regulations. ### Housing In October 2022, construction began on a seven-story addition to the Pacific Tower that is planned to include 270 units of affordable housing. The addition includes two buildings on the north side of the tower with an early childhood education center operated by El Centro de la Raza and offices for an unspecified non-profit tenant. The project is managed by the Pacific Hospital Preservation & Development Authority and financed with loans and grants from local governments and private contributors, including Amazon. It is scheduled to open in two phases, with the first scheduled for 2024. ## Design Architectural firm Bebb and Gould, assisted by the John Graham Company, designed the original structure. Carl Frelinghuysen Gould designed it in an Art Deco style. Located 350 ft (110 m) above sea level at the northern edge of Beacon Hill, the 239 ft (73 m) tower overlooks downtown Seattle and Elliott Bay. The 259,703 sq ft (24,127.2 m²) building sits on a 9.5-acre (3.8 ha) landscaped property. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. In 1992, the building received landmark status from the city. The northern addition completed in 1994 was considered significant by the American Institute of Architects. It was noted that the exterior of the building could have been supported by new beams and trusses. Instead, the new space integrated almost seamlessly with the original building while being seismically beneficial. In 2017 painter Ari Glass was commissioned to create an installation at the Pacific Tower. Several of his new works will be a permanent addition to the North Entrance of the Pacific Tower. The main building and its surrounding campus are surrounded by manicured grounds. The property includes six buildings near the primary structure. These were originally quarters for officers but have since been converted into laboratory and office space. The buildings are in the same style as the main building with facades that include terracotta ornamental details and brick patterns. Other additions include a parking garage and smaller metal buildings. The property is surrounded by a detailed wrought iron fence.

Nostrana (restaurant)

Italian restaurant in Portland, Oregon, U.S.

Nostrana is an Italian restaurant and pizzeria in southeast Portland, Oregon, United States. Cathy Whims opened the restaurant in 2005 and serves as chef and owner. Nostrana serves classic Italian cuisine and has been dubbed "Portland's capital of the Negroni". The restaurant has received a generally positive reception, especially for its pizzas and happy hour menu. In 2018, Whims opened the European wine bar Enoteca Nostrana next door to the restaurant. ## Description and history Chef and owner Cathy Whims opened Nostrana in Portland's Buckman neighborhood in 2005, along with her partner David West as well as Mark and Deb Accuardi. Whims and West purchased the Accuardis' portion of the business in 2008 after differences of opinion over levels of service. Brian Murphy serves as executive chef. The menu features classic Italian cuisine such as pasta, pizzas, and salads. Entrées are seasonal, but Bistecca alla Fiorentina and fettuccine with tomato butter sauce inspired by Marcella Hazan (one of Whims' former teachers) are regular options. According to Thrillist, which dubbed the restaurant "Portland's capital of the Negroni", Nostrana started the costumed gala Negroni Social, which inspired Negroni Week. The restaurant's interior features vaulted ceilings and an iron chandelier. According to Eater Portland, the restaurant's atmosphere "straddles that line between 'casual-ish' and upscale". As of 2016, a sommelier is on the floor nightly. In 2017, the restaurant was featured on the "Italian Favorites" episode of Iron Chef Eats, a companion series to the Food Network's Iron Chef Gauntlet. ## Reception Nostrana was included in The Oregonian's 2012 overview of the city's best pizza and 2014 list of Portland's ten best restaurants bars. Nostrana ranked number 6 in the paper's 2015 list of Portland's 101 best restaurants, and number 3 on the same list in 2016. In 2017, The Oregonian's Michael Russell wrote: "On a perfect night here, the famous radicchio salad, the al dente pastas draped in tomato-butter sauce or sage butter and the attentive service can make you think you're eating at the best restaurant in Portland. Even when the kitchen isn't firing on all cylinders, Nostrana remains the neighborhood Italian joint of your dreams." In 2005, Willamette Week contributor Roger Porter described Nostrana as "a rustic yet beautiful Italian restaurant with a kitchen that turns out some of the most honest, authentic food in the city". The newspaper's Martin Cizmar wrote a review in 2016 called, "Nostrana Is What People Mean When They Ask for 'A Nice Italian Place with Good Wine'", in which he described Nostrana as "a classic" restaurant with "a steady, restrained fine-touching that delights traditionalists". Nostrana was included in Willamette Week's 2016 lists "My Oh My, Portland's 8 Best Pizza Pies" and "Our Favorite Italian Spots in Portland", as well as the 2017 list of best restaurants along southeast Portland's Belmont and Hawthorne districts. Nostrana was also included in the paper's lists of the city's best happy hours. In her Insiders' Guide to Portland, Oregon books, Rachel Dresbeck called the Neapolitan pizzas and desserts "outstanding", and wrote, "The grilled and rotisserie meats are perfectly done, sharing touches of Tuscany while being, at the same time, all Oregon." Julian Smith of Frommer's gave Nostrana two out of three stars, and said the restaurant hosts "one of the east-side's best happy hours". Sunset also recommended visiting for evening happy hour, available daily. Layla Schlack of Wine Enthusiast Magazine called Nostrana a "Portland institution" with a predominantly Old World wine list. Erin DeJesus included Nostrana in Eater Portland's 2013 list of "The 12 Best Restaurants for Dining Solo in Portland", and its 2014 list of "Essential 38 Portland Restaurants". The website's Alex Frane included Nostrana in his 2018 list of Portland's "primo" Italian restaurants, in which he describes Nostrana as "lauded" and "legendary". The restaurant was included in OpenTable's list of "The 100 Best Restaurants for Wine Lovers", according to data provided by more than twelve million verified reviews for more than 28,000 businesses in the U.S., collected between August 2017 and July 2018. Nostrana ranked number 15 on The Daily Meal's 2019 list of "The 75 Most Romantic Restaurants in America". Zagat gives the restaurant ratings of 4.5 for food, 4.3 for decor, and 4.4 for service, each on a scale of 5. ## Enoteca Nostrana Nostrana's "sister" wine bar, Enoteca Nostrana, opened next door to the restaurant in 2018. The 1,500-square-foot (140 m²), 40-seat bar emphasizes European and natural wines and has a modern aesthetic compared to Nostrana's "rustic" atmosphere. Enoteca Nostrana's interior features Italian design and a two-story wine cellar made of glass and steel, capable of storing 3,000 bottles. The bar's opening selection featured 130 wines. Condé Nast Traveler's Hannah Wallace described Enoteca Nostrana as "splashy", with a "short but fabulous" menu. She recommended select antipasti options and wrote, "Because of its stylish ambience, this restaurant feels like a quick jaunt to Europe." Brooke Jackson-Glidden of Eater Portland called the bar "glammed-out" and "glitzy", and noted the availability of pizzas from Nostrana during afternoon happy hour. Enoteca Nostrana won in the design category in Eater Portland's 2018 Eater Awards, which recognize the city's best new chefs and businesses in the restaurant industry. In her review of Enoteca Nostrana, Wine & Spirits' Kerry Newberry wrote, "the space evokes Milan more than Portland, with bold geometric flair [and] mod barstools shaped like Champagne corks". ## See also - List of Italian restaurants - Pizza in Portland, Oregon

St John's Church, Manchester

Church in Manchester, United Kingdom

St John's Church, Manchester, also known as St John's, Deansgate, was an Anglican parish church in Manchester, England, established in 1769 and demolished in 1931. Its site is now that of St John's Gardens, situated between Lower Byrom Street, Byrom Street and Quay Street. St John's Church was built in 1769 by Edward Byrom, a co-founder of the first bank in Manchester. Its parish encompassed a large and important section of the city of Manchester. The first rector, John Clowes, held the office for 62 years until his death in 1831. Clowes preached the first Sunday school sermon in the Manchester area, introduced Swedenborgianism there and was prominent in championing Whit Walks. Clowes was succeeded by William Huntington, who had held the post of curate since 1826 and continued as rector until his death in 1874. Huntington established the Sunday school, for which he laid the foundation stone in 1827. In 1906, around 250 children attended the Sunday school and the church had numerous affiliated groups, such as a Penny Bank and a Choral Society. By the early 1900s, the graveyard was overshadowed on its northern side by a warehouse built on the Quay Street site of the Byrom family residence, and with a declining congregation and some redundancy of provision given the nearby St Matthew's Church, the Manchester diocese decided to merge the parish of St John's with St Matthew's in 1927. As a result, the church was demolished in 1931. The church has been described as the first significant building in Manchester to be constructed in the Gothic Revival style of architecture. Construction of the tower, which contained a peal of eight bells manufactured by Lester and Pack, was completed in May 1770. The first restoration took place in 1821, including a re-roofing paid for by a daughter of Byrom. Between 1874 and 1878 work was done at a cost of £1600 and in 1898 the lighting was converted from gas to electric. The church bells, which were described as "among the best peal of bells in Manchester", were rehung in 1832 and again around 1883. The roof collapsed in 1924 and was rebuilt by 1926. Among people who were commemorated in the church windows were John Owens, and Sir Thomas Bazley. Today the graveyard of the church is commemorated by a stone cross and a plaque states that more than 22,000 bodies lie buried in the vicinity. Among those buried in the churchyard are John Owens, the founder of Owens College, and William Marsden, who founded the concept of a half-day holiday on Saturdays. ## Origins The rapid population growth of Manchester during the mid-18th century saw a rising demand for more churches. St John's Church was built in 1769 by Edward Byrom (13 June 1724 – 24 April 1773), a co-founder of the first bank in Manchester and the oldest surviving son of John Byrom, whose affluent family was well known in the area. According to William Shaw, a local historian and fellow of Owens College, the church was "intended for the 'genteel' residents who were migrating to the south side of the town". Byrom obtained permission from Edmund Keene, the Bishop of Chester, and was supported by many prominent local people. Its parish, which was not formalised until at least 1839, encompassed an area described by the Manchester Courier in 1900 as > Between Quay-street and Brazennose-street on the north, and the Central Station and Bridgewater-street on the south. Its eastern boundary is the Town Hall (which is within the parish), Cooper-street, and Lower Mosley-street; and its western limit the River Irwell, forming the boundary of Manchester and Salford. [Thus it covered] a large and important section of the city of Manchester. J. M. W. Turner sketched the tower of St John's and two nearby church spires in 1831. The sketch is in the Tate's collection. ## Structure Although contemporary sources such as the Manchester Mercury name Byrom as the sponsor of the building, they do not identify his architect. The church was described by the English author and historian Clare Hartwell as being the first significant building in Manchester to be constructed in the Gothic Revival style of architecture. It had galleries supported by slender cast-iron columns. The foundation stone was laid by Edward Byrom on 28 April 1768 and Keene performed the consecration on 7 July 1769, when the sermon was given by John Byrom's friend, John Clayton. Construction of the tower, which contained a peal of eight bells manufactured by Lester and Pack, was completed in May 1770. The first restoration took place in 1821, including a re-roofing paid for by a daughter of Byrom. Between 1874 and 1878 work was done at a cost of £1600 and in 1898 the lighting was converted from gas to electric, substantial internal modifications were carried out and repairs made to the clock tower which cost around £2200. The church bells, which were described by a local journalist for the Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser as "among the best peal of bells in Manchester", were rehung in 1832 and again around 1883. The tower had clock dials on all four sides. A minute hand was added to the clock in 1833 and its mechanism was replaced around 1906. The graveyard was paved with tombstones. In 1906, the church was looking to raise funds to acquire and convert the nearby St John's Hospital of Manchester and Salford for the Ear for use as a rectory. The roof collapsed in 1924 and was rebuilt by 1926. Among people who were commemorated in the church windows were John Owens, and Sir Thomas Bazley. Another window was of some antiquity, originating from a convent in Rouen, France, and presented to the church by a grateful French refugee priest. This Entry to Jerusalem window was moved in 1929 to the Church of St Mary the Virgin, Eccles and windows depicting St John, St Peter and St Matthew, dating from 1760 by William Peckitt, were at some time moved to St Ann's Church in the city. ## Functions The church held the right to conduct the marriages of people throughout Manchester, not only from within its parish, until 1874. Despite this, there were no such services for the first 35 years of its existence, perhaps because of the continued popularity of the Collegiate Church as a venue for weddings but probably because the latter insisted on collecting its own fees for marriages held in other local churches, which effectively doubled the cost of being married at St John's rather than at the Collegiate Church. Later, after the rights of the Collegiate Church were curtailed, some weeks saw more than 100 marriage services at St John's in the years just before 1874. Burials ceased completely in 1900 but there had been very few for some years previously because the available space had been exhausted and most graves were full. In 1827, the church erected a building dedicated as a Sunday school. This was also used as a day school from 1838. In 1906, around 250 children attended the Sunday school and the church had numerous affiliated groups, such as a Penny Bank and a Choral Society. The day school accommodation was at that time condemned by the Board of Education as unfit for purpose and it was operating under a stay issued by the board. In the same year, Hannah Mitchell, a suffragette, was arrested at the day school for protesting during an election campaign speech by Winston Churchill. The building was closed in 1908 and a new school building opened on Gartside Street in 1910 at a cost of £4000. This new facility was used only as Sunday school because, said the local clergy, the Board of Education put too many administrative obstacles and demands in their way, such as stipulating such a small attendance roll as to render any day school uneconomic and insisting on a dedicated playground despite there being a large open space next door that was traditionally used for that purpose. According to the foundation stone of the new school building, the church had operated the first Sunday school in Manchester, although Shaw attributes that distinction to a Mr Fildes, a Methodist whose establishment began operating from a Travis Street cellar in 1782. Shaw says that several other schools preceded that of St John's. Around 1781, the church had been the base for one of Manchester's eight fire engines. ## Clergy A condition imposed by Byrom was that he had the right to present the living. The first rector, John Clowes, held the office for 62 years until his death in 1831. He was commemorated by two stone tablets in the church, one by either Richard Westmacott or his son, erected after his death and one, the only example of the work of John Flaxman in Manchester, to celebrate his 50th anniversary as rector. Clowes preached the first Sunday school sermon in the Manchester area, introduced Swedenborgianism there and was prominent in championing Whit Walks. Clowes was succeeded by William Huntington, who had held the post of curate since 1826 and continued as rector until his death in 1874. Huntington established the Sunday school. Huntington's successor as rector was John Henn, who held office for 14 years before moving to Heaton Chapel. The next rector, G. R. Youngman, was in office from 1888 until his death in 1890. His position was taken by E. F. Leach. The last rector was Herbert Edmonds. William Cowherd, a Swedenborgian proponent of teetotalism and vegetarianism, was a curate in the late 1700s, before leaving to establish the Bible Christian Church in Salford. ## Demise By the early 1900s, the graveyard was overshadowed on its northern side by a warehouse built on the Quay Street site of the Byrom family residence. The area had been residential—Richard Cobden was among those who lived nearby and attended the church—but changed in character during the 19th century, as many homes once occupied by affluent families became lodging houses and the locale became increasingly a place of business. Those who did live there, or were patients in the nearby hospitals, were poor and unable to contribute significantly to the funds of the church and its schools. Fundraising bazaars were held in the 1890s and 1900s at the Free Trade Hall, in a nearby area that was more salubrious. Falling attendances due to the commercial nature of the district, and also a sense that there was some redundancy of provision given the nearby St Matthew's Church, caused the Manchester diocese to review the status of St John's and its parish in the 1920s. Following an internal review and a public consultation, in 1927 it was formally proposed that the two parishes should be merged as St Matthew's parish. The diocese preferred to retain St Matthew's and demolish St John's, at least in part because the former was a more recent construction. This was a reversal of a proposal made in 1919, when the predominantly transient Roman Catholic population of the St Matthew's parish was given as a reason to merge it into St John's. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners proposed to hand over the church site to Manchester Corporation in 1929, with the hope that the city would convert it into an open space similar to Parsonage Gardens. The Manchester Guardian had reported a similar proposal to convert the "bleak expanse" of the graveyard into an "open, cultivated space" in 1914. The church was demolished in 1931. It is commemorated by a stone cross and a plaque states that more than 22,000 bodies lie buried in the vicinity. Among those buried in the churchyard are John Owens, founder of Owens College, the forerunner of Manchester University and William Marsden, who pioneered the concept of a half-day holiday on Saturdays. ## See also - List of churches in Greater Manchester

Philosophie zoologique

Book by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Philosophie zoologique ("Zoological Philosophy, or Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals") is an 1809 book by the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in which he outlines his pre-Darwinian theory of evolution, part of which is now known as Lamarckism. In the book, Lamarck named two supposed laws that would enable animal species to acquire characteristics under the influence of the environment. The first law stated that use or disuse would cause body structures to grow or shrink over the generations. The second law asserted that such changes would be inherited. Those conditions together imply that species continuously change by adaptation to their environments, forming a branching series of evolutionary paths. Lamarck was largely ignored by the major French zoologist Cuvier, but he attracted much more interest abroad. The book was read carefully, but its thesis rejected, by nineteenth century scientists including the geologist Charles Lyell and the comparative anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Charles Darwin acknowledged Lamarck as an important zoologist, and his theory a forerunner of Darwin's evolution by natural selection. ## Context Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829) was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and a professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes and then became the first professor of zoology at the new Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle. He became known for his work on the taxonomy of the invertebrates, especially of molluscs. However, he is mainly remembered for the theory that now bears his name, Lamarckism, and in particular his view that the environment (called by Lamarck the conditions of life) gave rise to permanent, inherited, evolutionary changes in animals. He described his theory in his 1802 Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants, and in his 1809 Philosophie zoologique, and later in his Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres, (1815–1822). ## Book In the Philosophie zoologique, Lamarck proposed that species could acquire new characteristics from influences in their environment, in two rules that he named as laws. His first law stated that use or disuse of a body's structures would cause them to grow or shrink in the course of several generations. His second law held that any changes made in this way would be inherited. Together, Lamarck's laws imply the steady adaptation of animals to their environments. He gave names to a number of vestigial structures in the book, among them "Olivier's Spalax, which lives underground like the mole, and is apparently exposed to daylight even less than the mole, has altogether lost the use of sight: so that it shows nothing more than vestiges of this organ." Lamarck described speciation as follows: > as new modifications will necessarily continue to operate, however slowly, not only will there continually be found new species, new genera, and new orders, but each species will vary in some part of its structure and form ... individuals which from special causes are transported into very different situations from those where the others occur, and then constantly submitted to other influences – the former, I say, assume new forms, and then they constitute a new species. He argued that gaps between differing kinds of animals resulted from the extinction of intermediate forms, in: > a branching series, irregularly graduated which has no discontinuity in its parts, or which, at least, if its true that there are some because of lost species, has not always had such. It follows that the species that terminate each branch of the general series are related, at least on one side, to the other neighboring species that shade into them. Lamarck proposed the transmutation of species ("transformisme"), but did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor. Rather he believed that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation. He also believed that an innate life force, which he sometimes described as a nervous fluid, drove species to become more complex over time, advancing up a linear ladder of complexity similar to the mediaeval great chain of being. ## Contents The first volume concerns natural history, the second physiology, and the third psychology. Page numbers are given in parentheses. VOLUME 1 Avertissement (I–XXV) Discours Préliminaire (1) Première Partie (Considérations sur l'Histoire naturelle des Animaux, leurs caractères, leurs rapports, leur organisation, leur distribution, leur classification et leur espèces) I. Des Parties de l'art dans les productions de la Nature (17) II\. Importance des Rapports (39) III\. De l'Espèce parmi les Corps vivans, et de l'idée que nous devons attacher à ce mot (53) IV\. Généralités sur les Animaux (82) V. Sur l'Etat actuel de la Distribution et de la Classification des Animaux (102) VI\. Dégradation et simplification de l'organisation d'une extrémité a l'autre de la Chaîne animale (130) VII\. De l'influence des Circonstances sur les actions et les habitudes des Animaux, et de celle des actions et des habitudes de ces Corps vivans, comme causes qui modifient leur organisation et leurs parties (218) VIII\. De l'Ordre naturel des Animaux et de la disposition qu'il faut donner a leur distribution generale pour la rendre conforme a l'ordre meme de la nature (269) Seconde Partie (Considerations sur les Causes physiques de la Vie, les conditions qu'elle exige pour exister, la force excitatrice de ses mouvemens, les facultes qu'elle donne aux corps qui la possedent, et les resultats de son existence dans les corps)(359) Introduction (359) I. Comparison des Corps inorganiques avec les Corps vivans, suivie d'un Parallele entre les Animaux et les Vegetaux (377) II\. De la Vie, de ce qui la constitue, et des Conditions essentielles a son existence dans un corps (400) VOLUME 2 [1830 edition] III\. De la cause excitatrice des mouvemens organiques (1) IV\. De l'orgasme et de l'irritabilité (20) V. Du tissu cellulaire, considere comme la gangue dans laquelle toute organisation a ete formee (46) VI\. Des generations directes ou spontanees (61) VII\. Des resultats immediats de la vie dans un corps (91) VIII\. Des facultes communes a tous les corps vivans (113) IX\. Des facultes particulieres a certains corps vivans (127) Troisieme Partie Introduction (169) I. Du système nerveux (180) II\. Du fluide nerveux (235) III\. De la sensibilité physique et du mécanisme des sensations (252) IV\. Du sentiment intérieur, des émotions qu'il est susceptible d'éprouver, et de la puissance (276) V. De la force productrice des actions des animaux (302) VI\. De la volonté (330) VII\. De l'entendement, de son origine, et de celle des idees (346) VIII\. Des principaux actes de l'entendement (388) De l'imagination (411) De la raison et de sa comparaison avec l'instinct (441) Additions relatives aux chapitres VII et VIII de la premiere partie (451) ## Reception Lamarck's evolutionary theory made little immediate impact on his fellow zoologists, or on the public at the time. The historian of science Richard Burkhardt argues that this was because Lamarck was convinced his views would be poorly received, and made little effort to present his theory persuasively. In the French-speaking world in his lifetime, Lamarck and his theories were rejected by the major zoologists of the day, including Cuvier. However, he made more of an impact outside France and after his death, where leading scientists such as Ernst Haeckel, Charles Lyell and Darwin himself recognised him as a major zoologist, with theories that presaged Darwinian evolution. In 1830–1833, Charles Lyell, in his Principles of Geology, carefully summarised Lamarck's theory (in about 6 pages, with cross-references to the Philosophie zoologique) and then roundly criticised it. Lyell begins by noting that Lamarck gives no examples at all of the development of any entirely new function ("the substitution of some entirely new sense, faculty, or organ") but only proves that the "dimensions and strength" of some parts can be increased or decreased. Lyell says that with this "disregard to the strict rules of induction" Lamarck "resorts to fictions". Lyell goes on, assuming for the sake of argument that Lamarck was right about the creation of new organs, that Lamarck's theory would mean that instead of the nature and form of an animal giving rise to its behaviour, its behaviour would determine > the form of its body, the number and condition of its organs, in short, the faculties which it enjoys. Thus otters, beavers, waterfowl, turtles, and frogs, were not made web-footed in order that they might swim; but their wants having attracted them to the water in search of prey, they stretched out the toes of their feet to strike the water and move rapidly along its surface. By the repeated stretching of their toes, the skin which united them at the base, acquired a habit of extension, until, in the course of time, the broad membranes which now connect their extremities were formed. Lyell similarly criticises the way Lamarck supposed the antelope and gazelle acquired "light agile forms" able to run swiftly; or the "camelopard" (giraffe) became "gifted with a long flexible neck". Lamarckism was popularised in the English-speaking world by the speculative Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. In 1887 Thomas Henry Huxley, the comparative anatomist known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his energetic advocacy of Darwinian evolution, wrote that > With respect to the Philosophie Zoologique, it is no reproach to Lamarck to say that the discussion of the Species question in that work, whatever might be said for it in 1809, was miserably below the level of the knowledge of half a century later. In that interval of time the elucidation of the structure of the lower animals and plants had given rise to wholly new conceptions of their relations; histology and embryology, in the modern sense, had been created; physiology had been reconstituted; the facts of distribution, geological and geographical, had been prodigiously multiplied and reduced to order. To any biologist whose studies had carried him beyond mere species-mongering in 1850, one-half of Lamarck's arguments were obsolete and the other half erroneous, or defective, in virtue of omitting to deal with the various classes of evidence which had been brought to light since his time. Moreover his one suggestion as to the cause of the gradual modification of species—effort excited by change of conditions—was, on the face of it, inapplicable to the whole vegetable world. I do not think that any impartial judge who reads the Philosophie Zoologique now, and who afterwards takes up Lyell's trenchant and effectual criticism (published as far back as 1830), will be disposed to allot to Lamarck a much higher place in the establishment of biological evolution than that which Bacon assigns to himself in relation to physical science generally,—buccinator tantum. ## Versions - Lamarck: Contents - 1809, vol. I: (Oxford) - 1830, vol. I: (Harvard) - 1830, vol. I: (Michigan) - 1830, vol. II: (Michigan)

Laura Robson

British tennis player

Laura Robson (born 21 January 1994) is a British former professional tennis player. She debuted on the ITF Junior Circuit in 2007, and a year later won the Junior Wimbledon championships at the age of 14. As a junior, she also twice reached the final of the girls' singles tournament at the Australian Open, in 2009 and 2010. She won her first tournament on the ITF Women's Circuit in November 2008. In singles tennis, Robson was the first British woman since Samantha Smith at Wimbledon in 1998 to reach the fourth round of a Grand Slam tournament, doing so at the 2012 US Open and the 2013 Wimbledon Championships. At the 2012 Guangzhou International Open, Robson became the first British woman since Jo Durie in 1990 to reach a WTA Tour final, where she lost to Hsieh Su-wei. She was named WTA Newcomer of the Year for 2012 and reached a career-high singles ranking of world No. 27 the following year. In mixed doubles, she won a silver medal at the 2012 London Olympics playing with Andy Murray, with whom she also reached the 2010 Hopman Cup final. She has a career-high doubles ranking of No. 82 (July 2013). Robson suffered from various injuries throughout the 2014 and 2015 seasons, notably to her left (and dominant) wrist for which she underwent surgery in April 2014, resulting in multiple prolonged absences from the WTA Tour. She dropped out of the world rankings in early 2015, returning at No. 906 in July 2015. After returning to full-time tennis in January 2016 post-injury, Robson struggled with form and did not return to the top 150 in singles tennis. In July 2018, she underwent hip surgery, and she did not return to the WTA Tour afterwards. On 16 May 2022, Robson announced her retirement from tennis, aged 28. ## Early life and junior career Robson was born on 21 January 1994 in Melbourne, the third child of Australian parents Andrew, an oil executive with Shell, and Kathy Robson, a sports coach and former professional basketball player. Robson and her family moved from Melbourne to Singapore when she was 18 months old, where she attended Tanglin Trust School and then to the United Kingdom when she was six. According to her parents, she began playing tennis "as soon as she could hold a tennis racquet", and after being encouraged by them, she entered a junior tennis academy at age seven. She signed with management company Octagon when she was ten, with Adidas at age 11, and also signed a racquet deal with Wilson Sporting Goods. After working with several coaches, including the head of the Lawn Tennis Association Carl Maes, she chose coach Martijn Bok in 2007. Bok said later that although Robson "had trouble staying emotionally under control", he "saw right away...a lot of potential in Laura." Robson also began training at the National Tennis Centre, under the guidance of Bok, Maes, and the head of women's tennis at the centre, Nigel Sears, while taking school lessons at home. Robson's first tournament on the Junior ITF Circuit was in 2007. She went from the qualifying draw of the tournament to the quarterfinals, and reached the final of two other tournaments, and won her first title in October. In the first half of 2008, she reached the finals of three tournaments, but was also eliminated before the third round in three straight tournaments. Robson competed in her first junior Grand Slam at the Wimbledon girls' event, as an unseeded player. As the youngest player in the tournament, she beat top seed Melanie Oudin on her way to the finals where she defeated third seed Noppawan Lertcheewakarn. Her victory made her the first British player to win the girls' event since Annabel Croft in 1984, and the British media described her as the "new darling" of British tennis, and the "Queen of Wimbledon". After a brief period on the main tour, Robson returned to junior competition but was knocked out in the second round of a tournament in December. In the same month she played her final junior tournament of 2008, the Orange Bowl, where she had to retire in the third round with a stomach strain. At the end of the year, she was shortlisted for the BBC Young Sports Personality of the Year, but lost out to Paralympic swimmer Eleanor Simmonds. After recovering from her injury, Robson entered the junior tournament of the 2009 Australian Open, where she was seeded fifth. In the semifinals she faced a replay of her Wimbledon final, against top seed Tara Flanagan, whom she beat in straight sets to reach her second Grand Slam junior final. Facing third seed Ksenia Pervak from Russia, Robson was defeated in straight sets. She later attributed her loss to Pervak's greater consistency, and her coach Bok said that "everybody has to be patient". After the tournament, Robson started to train with Gil Reyes, the former trainer of Andre Agassi. She was also named the MCC Young Sportswoman of the Year. She claimed the top ranking of ITF Junior Tour in April, despite not playing for two months because of shin splints. At the French Open, Robson was the top seed in the junior's competition, but was defeated in round two by Sandra Zaniewska. Robson was the defending champion at Wimbledon, but she fell in the second round to Quirine Lemoine. Due to her focusing on her senior career, Robson entered the US Open unseeded. In the first round, she beat Ons Jabeur of Tunisia. She then faced the seventh seed Lauren Embree of the United States and beat her in three sets. She went on to face the 12th seed, Tamaryn Hendler, who she defeated in straight sets. Robson then beat Lauren Davis in the quarterfinals. In her semifinal, she faced Yana Buchina of Russia. Due to rain delay, both quarter- and semifinals were played on the same day. Therefore, the semifinal followed the quarterfinal match. Despite starting strongly, Robson tired, losing the match in three sets. At the junior singles at the 2010 Australian Open, Robson was unseeded and defeated Belinda Woolcock, Yulia Putintseva, and Cristina Dinu to reach the quarterfinals. In the last eight, she easily overcame American Ester Goldfeld to move through to her fourth junior Grand Slam semifinal where she defeated Kristýna Plíšková of the Czech Republic. She was defeated by Kristýna's twin sister Karolína in the final. In the Wimbledon junior singles she reached the semifinals, losing to Sachie Ishizu of Japan. ## Professional career ### 2008 Following her victory at Wimbledon, Robson made her debut on the ITF Women's Circuit at a \$10k tournament in Limoges, France. She won two matches to qualify for the main draw of the tournament, as well as her first-round match, before having to retire with a shoulder injury in the second round against the second seed Marina Melnikova. Robson was then given a wildcard into the main draw of the \$75k event in Shrewsbury. After beating 2007 Wimbledon girls' singles champion Urszula Radwańska and fourth seed Tzipi Obziler, Robson lost to second seed Maret Ani in three sets in the semifinals. She was given another wildcard into the \$50k in Barnstaple, but was defeated in three sets in her first round match against the seventh seed Angelique Kerber, who later said that it was "unbelievable how she's playing". Her first match on the WTA Tour was courtesy of a wildcard into the Luxembourg Open where she lost in the first round against world No. 42, Iveta Benešová. Returning to the ITF Circuit, Robson entered as the fifth seed in a \$10k event held in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear. After beating third seed Laura-Ioana Andrei in the quarterfinals, she also beat fellow Brits Tara Moore and Samantha Vickers in straight sets to win her first ITF title at the age of 14 years and 9 months. ### 2009 Robson returned to the junior circuit for the first half of 2009. On 9 June, Wimbledon announced that Robson received a wildcard for the singles event. She faced former world No. 5 and 2002 Wimbledon quarterfinalist, Daniela Hantuchová, in the first round but lost despite being a break up in the second set. With Georgie Stoop she also entered into the doubles tournament, progressing to the second round before losing to 16th seeds, Svetlana Kuznetsova and Amélie Mauresmo. In August 2009, Robson received also a wildcard into the US Open qualifying. She defeated Stéphanie Foretz in the first round in straight sets, and went on to beat Anikó Kapros of Hungary. In the final round, she lost to Eva Hrdinová, after leading 4–1 in the third set. On 17 October, Robson entered the qualifying draw at the Luxembourg Open. In the first round, she defeated world No. 180, Zuzana Ondrášková, and in the second Julia Görges, the world No. 79. In the final round of qualifying, she lost to Maria Elena Camerin. On 10 November, Robson beat Yuliya Beygelzimer in the first round of the Minsk ITF event. She defeated Tetyana Arefyeva in the second round but was defeated in the quarterfinals by Vitalia Diatchenko. ### 2010 Robson began the season playing with Andy Murray in the Hopman Cup, as part of Britain's first team in the tournament since 1992. She lost her opening match to Yaroslava Shvedova of Kazakhstan. Later in the day she won the mixed-doubles match against Kazakhstan, partnering with Murray to secure a win. Robson was defeated by Sabine Lisicki but won the mixed doubles against Germany. Robson and Murray defeated Russia to advance to the finals. Despite her first win of the tournament against world No. 26, María José Martínez Sánchez, Robson and Murray lost to Spain's Martínez Sánchez and Tommy Robredo in a very close match. Robson was granted a wildcard in the qualifying draw for the women's singles of the Australian Open. In her first match, she defeated Sophie Ferguson of Australia. In her second match, she lost to Michaëlla Krajicek. Robson, however, received a wildcard into the main draw of the doubles, partnering Sally Peers. They defeated Jill Craybas and Abigail Spears to set up a second-round clash with the 12th seeds Chuang Chia-jung and Květa Peschke, who they beat in straight sets. Peers and Robson won their third-round clash with Vera Dushevina and Anastasia Rodionova to advance to the quarterfinals, before falling to the No. 15 seeds, Maria Kirilenko and Agnieszka Radwańska. After the Australian Open, Robson did not play again until the start of April. In her third tournament back, she made the semifinal losing to Edina Gallovits of the ITF event in Dothan, after having to qualify for the main draw. She also played in the doubles, and after reaching the quarterfinals, she reached a career high of No. 102 for doubles. She followed this up with a quarterfinal appearance in Charlottesville losing to Anastasiya Yakimova. She then qualified for the main draw of the Aegon Classic in Edgbaston, after receiving a wildcard for the qualifying. She beat Nina Bratchikova and Vitalia Diatchenko. Robson then went on to win her first-ever match on the WTA Tour, after her opponent Stefanie Vögele retired during the second set of their first-round match. She lost to the third seed Yanina Wickmayer in the second round. She also received a wildcard for the Rosmalen Open but was beaten by Dominika Cibulková in the first round. She received a wildcard for Wimbledon, and faced fourth seed Jelena Janković to whom she lost in two sets. Robson's next senior level competition was a GB Pro-Series event at Woking. Seeded seventh, her first senior seeding, she reached the quarterfinals. Her next competitive match did not come till the end of August 2010, when she entered the qualifying tournament for the US Open. In the first round she shocked second seed Jelena Dokić. She beat Vesna Manasieva, but lost in the third round to Nuria Llagostera Vives. On 21 September, Robson announced that she was to split with her coach Martijn Bok, as Bok was unwilling to meet her more demanding 2011 tour schedule. Robson next competed in the Pan Pacific Open. She beat world No. 57, Anastasija Sevastova, in the first round of qualifying and reached the main draw by beating world No. 100, Simona Halep. She was defeated in the first round of the main draw by the experienced 31-year-old player Gréta Arn. ### 2011 For 2011, Robson hired a new coach, Frenchman Patrick Mouratoglou, and moved her working base to Paris. Her season was disrupted by injury at the Hopman Cup and she did not compete in a tournament until March 2011; her comeback was then delayed for a further month by an injury in her second competition. Returning again at the end of April 2011, Robson's best performance to date came at the \$50k tournament at Indian Harbor Beach, Florida, where she reached the semifinals. Robson split from Mouratoglou just before Wimbledon. She then won her first match at a Grand Slam tournament as she defeated Angelique Kerber, but lost to Maria Sharapova in the second round. At the US Open, Robson won her three qualifying matches to advance into the main draw. In the first round of the main draw, she was leading when her opponent, Ayumi Morita, retired from the match. She was then beaten by Anabel Medina Garrigues. ### 2012: First WTA final, Olympic mixed doubles silver medalist Robson came through three rounds of qualifying at the Australian Open, beating Melanie Oudin, Anna Floris and Olga Savchuk to advance to the main draw for the first time. She lost to 13th seed Jelena Janković in the first round. Robson was selected for the first time in her career to be a member of British Fed Cup team to play in the Europe/Africa Group-1 match at Eilat, Israel, on 1–4 February 2012. In the group stages she played doubles with Heather Watson, defeating pairs from Portugal, Netherlands and Israel in the group stages. Robson and Watson did not need to play the play-off match against Austria as Anne Keothavong and Elena Baltacha won their singles rubbers, and the 2–0 lead qualified the team for a place in the World Group-II promotion play-off in April 2012. Robson lost in the third round of qualifying for the 2012 French Open at Roland Garros. However, she got a place in the first round of the main draw as a lucky loser when Sílvia Soler Espinosa withdrew, but then lost her first-round match to Anabel Medina Garrigues. After a second round showing at the Birmingham Classic (lost to Marina Erakovic), Robson came through qualifying at the Eastbourne International. She reached the second round before losing to Ekaterina Makarova. However, the result helped Robson break into the top 100 for the first time in her career. In the first round of Wimbledon, Robson lost to Francesca Schiavone in three sets. Immediately after Wimbledon, Robson entered the Palermo Ladies Open where she reached her first ever WTA Tour semifinal. After beating the world No. 240, Valentyna Ivakhnenko, for the loss of just one game in the first round, she shocked the No. 2 seed and world No. 27, Roberta Vinci, in straight sets to reach her first ever WTA quarterfinal. She continued her good form in the quarterfinal, where she emerged victorious against No. 5 seed, Carla Suárez Navarro, in three sets. However, her run came to an end when she lost in the semifinals to Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová in three sets. Robson then received a wildcard to enter the main draw of the Swedish Open but lost her first match against Medina Garrigues. She received a late place into the women's singles at the 2012 Olympics due to the withdrawal of Croatian Petra Martić. In her first-round match, she beat the world No. 22, Lucie Šafářová, in straight sets, setting up a second round encounter with Maria Sharapova. She lost to the Russian world No. 3 in a tightly contested match. She also competed in the doubles competition with Heather Watson, losing in the first round to the German pairing of Angelique Kerber and Sabine Lisicki. She then received a wildcard entry into the mixed doubles with Andy Murray. They were drawn against Czech pair Lucie Hradecká/Radek Štěpánek in the first round and won in three sets. In the second round, the pair beat the Australian duo of Lleyton Hewitt and Samantha Stosur, and reached the final by beating Germans Sabine Lisicki and Christopher Kas, where they were beaten by the Belarusian pair Victoria Azarenka and Max Mirnyi. Robson had direct entry to the main draw of the US Open from her WTA ranking, where she defeated Samantha Crawford in the first round. In the second she defeated former US Open champion Kim Clijsters in Clijsters' final singles match before her retirement. Robson consequently reached the third round of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in her career and joined Serena Williams, Lindsay Davenport, Venus Williams, Amélie Mauresmo and Justine Henin as one of the only six people to beat Clijsters at the US Open championships, and the first player to beat her there since 2003. She followed up her performance with her first victory over a top-ten player, beating ninth seed Li Na in the third round, in three sets. Robson became the first female British tennis player to reach this stage of a Grand Slam tournament since Samantha Smith reached the fourth round of Wimbledon 14 years previously, but she was defeated by defending champion Stosur, ending her best run at a Grand Slam tournament to date. Her next appearance was at the Guangzhou Open where she beat the then world No. 22, Zheng Jie, and the No. 3 seed Sorana Cîrstea on the way to her first WTA Tour final against Hsieh Su-wei. This was the first WTA singles final for any British woman since Jo Durie in 1990. Robson was eventually defeated, having saved five championship points in the second set and despite taking a 3–0 lead in the third set. The result pushed her ranking inside the top 70 for the first time. Robson qualified for the main draw of the China Open after defeating Garbiñe Muguruza and Johanna Larsson and reached the second round but she lost to Lourdes Domínguez Lino in straight sets. At the Japan Women's Open in Osaka, she was seeded eighth, the first time in her career she had been seeded at a WTA tournament. She reached the quarterfinals before losing to Chang Kai-chen in three sets, but the result ensured that she finished the year with a ranking of 53. In October, Robson was nominated for the Sports Journalists' Association Sportswoman of the Year. In November, along with Heather Watson, won "Young Sportswoman of the Year" at the 2012 Sunday Times Sportswomen of the Year Awards. Robson was also nominated for "WTA Newcomer of the Year" and William Hill "Sportswoman of the Year" in November, winning the former award. ### 2013: Career-high ranking At the start of the year, Robson had reached the top 50 for the first time in her career. She followed this with her first victory at the Australian Open with a convincing straight sets victory over Melanie Oudin. In the second round she played former Wimbledon champion, and fellow left-hander, Petra Kvitová. Robson came back after losing the first set to beat Kvitová in a three-hour match, to set up a third-round meeting with Sloane Stephens. After stopping for several shoulder treatments, Robson was eventually beaten in two sets. After the Australian Open, Robson played six matches in Fed Cup competition that saw Great Britain earn a World Group II play-off spot against Argentina. Following this success, she went on to lose two successive matches, losing to Daniela Hantuchová in Doha and to wildcard Yulia Putintseva in Dubai. At Indian Wells, Robson lost her first-round match against Sofia Arvidsson in three sets. Her next tournament was at Miami. In the singles, Robson reached the second round before losing to Alizé Cornet. In the doubles Laura Robson was given a wildcard to play with Lisa Raymond. The pair reached the final, beating the world No. 1 pairing of Sara Errani and Roberta Vinci, in straight sets in the semifinals, before losing to Nadia Petrova and Katarina Srebotnik. Robson was seeded 16th at Charleston and reached the second round before losing to Eugenie Bouchard in three sets. At the Katowice Open, Robson was seeded eighth, but lost in the first round to Lourdes Domínguez Lino. Robson represented Great Britain in the Fed Cup World Group II play-off against Argentina. After Johanna Konta lost her opening rubber to Paula Ormaechea, Robson easily won her first match over Florencia Molinero. Robson lost her second match against Paula Ormaechea in three sets. After several first-round defeats at the start to the European clay-court season, Robson defeated world No. 4, Agnieszka Radwańska, in the second round of the Madrid Open. She subsequently lost to former world No. 1, Ana Ivanovic, in the next round, having led 5–2 in the final set. Robson then made her debut at the Italian Open where she defeated Venus Williams in the first round but subsequently lost to her sister, world No. 1 and eventual champion, Serena Williams, in the second round. At the French Open Robson was beaten in the first round by former world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki, in straight sets. To begin the grass-court season, Robson entered the Birmingham Classic where she was seeded seventh. Despite the seeding, she lost in straight sets to the eventual champion Daniela Hantuchová. She then participated in the Eastbourne International. In the first round, she faced Yuliya Beygelzimer in which she won in straight sets. In the second round, she lost to Caroline Wozniacki in straight sets for the second time in a row. In the first round of Wimbledon, she was drawn against the No. 10 seed Maria Kirilenko, whom she beat in straight sets. She beat world No. 117, Mariana Duque, in the second round on Centre Court. In the third round, she came from a set down to beat Marina Erakovic to progress to the last 16 where she was beaten by Kaia Kanepi. Her performance pushed her up to 27 in the world, the first Briton in the top 30 since Jo Durie in 1987. Robson started her US Open Series campaign on 30 July 2013 at the Southern California Open in Carlsbad being drawn against Ayumi Morita, whom she beat having come back from a set down in two hours and 40 minutes. Laura moved into the second round faced with the world No. 7 Petra Kvitová from Czech Republic but lost in straight sets putting an end to her Southern California Open. To start the Canadian Open in Toronto, Robson was due to play Yanina Wickmayer on 5 August 2013 in her opening match, but had to pull out due to a wrist injury. The same injury also led to her pulling out of the tournament in Cincinnati, however her ranking of No. 32 meant that she would be seeded at a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in her career, entering the US Open as the 30th seed. At the US Open, Robson returned after intensive rehab on her wrist injury and began her campaign against Spain's Lourdes Domínguez Lino, whom she had lost to twice previously. After winning a scrappy first set, Robson powered through the second at love. In the second round, she faced world No. 75 Caroline Garcia, and won in two tight sets. She then fell in straight sets in the next round to Li Na in the same place they had played last year, where Robson had won. The fifth seed Li powered 11 aces to beat her 12-year younger opponent, Robson in straight sets. After a break of around three weeks, Robson returned to action at the Guangzhou Open, a tournament in which she was a finalist the previous year. She started strongly, with straight sets wins over qualifier Jovana Jakšić in the first round, and Zheng Saisai in the second round. She subsequently lost to another Chinese player in Zheng Jie, despite taking the first set 6–1. In October 2013, it was announced that Miles Maclagan's coaching partnership with Laura had ended and that she would be taking a couple of weeks out and starting the search for a new coach. ### 2014–15: Wrist injury, extended absence Robson started her 2014 season at the Hobart International, where she had to retire in her first round match against Yanina Wickmayer due to a left wrist injury. Her wrist continued to affect her at the Australian Open, where Kirsten Flipkens defeated her in straight sets. After taking three-months rest from the tour, Robson underwent surgery on her left wrist in April. The surgery forced her to miss the French Open, Wimbledon and the US Open, and although Robson initially hoped to be playing by the end of the season, she only started training in October, and did not play again in 2014. Robson did not enter the Australian Open in 2015 and subsequently left the WTA rankings, having not competed for 12 months. Robson planned to return at the \$25k tournament at Surprise, Arizona, but delayed her return and did not enter another ITF event in February. She declined a wildcard into the qualifying event of the Miami Open in March. Her agent Eisenbund stated that she had not suffered a setback, and was "closer and closer" to a return. After an absence of a year and a half, Robson's first competitive match was at the qualifying draw of the Eastbourne International when she lost to top-seed Daria Gavrilova, in straight sets. Robson was granted a wildcard to compete at Wimbledon, but she was defeated in the first round by Evgeniya Rodina. In July 2015, she played at the \$50k event in Granby and won a tough three-set match over second seed Naomi Osaka. However, she lost her next match to American qualifier Ellie Halbauer. Robson also reached the final in doubles partnering Erin Routliffe. In Gatineau, she retired from her first-round match, generating fear that her wrist injury had returned, but Robson said that she had been hampered by a stomach strain she had suffered during practice. ### 2016: Return to tennis, struggle with form After receiving some further surgery on her wrist at the end of 2015, Robson took some more time off from tennis and subsequently missed the Australian Open. She started off the year playing some American Challenger events, with limited success. She made her return to WTA events by using her protected ranking to enter Indian Wells. Here she made a reasonable effort in her first round but lost to Magdaléna Rybáriková who subsequently went on to reach the quarterfinals of the event. She also received a wildcard entry into the main draw of Miami and used her protected ranking to enter into the qualifying of Charleston but lost in the first round at both events. Robson later won her first WTA match since her injury in 2013 by beating Klára Koukalová, 6–2, 6–3 in the qualifying of Stuttgart. However, she lost her next match in qualifying to Océane Dodin in straight sets. She also claimed her first main-draw WTA victory since 2013 in Rabat by defeating local wildcard Ghita Benhadi in straight sets. However, she later lost her next match to Tímea Babos. Robson also used her protected ranking to enter Premier clay events in Madrid and Rome, where she lost her first round matches to Victoria Azarenka and Christina McHale, respectively. She had put on a promising display against Azarenka, but was unable to convert 8 out of nine breakpoints, allowing Azarenka to clinch victory in straight sets. Robson was awarded a wildcard into Wimbledon for a second year, but was defeated in 69 minutes by Angelique Kerber in the first round in an error-strewn performance. In August Robson won a second tier ITF tournament in USA. She was then given a wildcard entry to the 2016 US Open qualifying tournament. Straight-set victories over Jang Su-jeong, Isabella Shinikova and Tatjana Maria gained her entry to the main draw of the tournament, losing in the first round to fellow Brit Naomi Broady, 7–6, 3–6, 4–6. After the US Open, Robson lost in the first round in four out of six ITF tournaments, including a loss to a player ranked 1048. ### 2017: Continued struggle with form Robson began her 2017 season at the Auckland, but lost in the first round of qualifying to Tereza Martincová. At the Australian Open, she also lost in the first round of qualifying to Amandine Hesse, in straight sets. She then played in the \$60k tournament at Andrézieux-Bouthéon and reached the quarterfinals, before losing in straight sets to Amra Sadiković. Between the end of January and the beginning of May, Robson reached three quarterfinals on the ITF Circuit. Robson won the biggest title of her career at a \$60k tournament in Kurume, defeating fellow Briton Katie Boulter, in straight sets. The tournament win moved her up 80 places in the ranking, causing her to reach the top 200 for the first time since 2014. At the beginning of her grass-court season, Robson played the \$100k event in Surbiton, but lost in the first round to Marina Erakovic. She then played at Nottingham, but fell to Julia Boserup in the first round. She reached the second round of the Ilkley \$100k event before falling to Maryna Zanevska in three sets. She received a wildcard for Wimbledon, but lost in the first round to Brazil's Beatriz Haddad Maia. She continued to struggle with form throughout the latter half of the season post-Wimbledon, losing eleven matches and winning just seven on the ITF Circuit, including a loss in the first round of the qualifying draw at the US Open to world No. 311, Alla Kudryavtseva. ### 2018: Hip surgery Robson was unable to play in the Australian Open qualifying draw as her ranking – at 230 – remained too low to gain direct entry. She did, however, play in the first round of the women's doubles draw with CoCo Vandeweghe, which they lost in straight sets. The following week, she lost in the first round of the Burnie International to world No. 415, Jennifer Elie, but won the doubles title partnering Vania King. In March, Robson teamed up with Fanny Stollár to win the doubles at the ITF event in Yokohama. In July 2018, she underwent hip surgery. ### 2019-2022: Return, further hip problems and retirement After eight months recovering from surgery, Robson returned to tennis on 12 February at the \$60k in Shrewsbury, losing to Kathinka von Deichmann, in three sets. Robson's world ranking at this point was 511. She then entered the Bolton \$25k qualifying tournament in April, and reached round two before falling to Tara Moore, in straight sets. The following week, Robson entered the \$25k Sunderland qualifying and beat Ellie Tsimbilakis, in straight sets, and Alicia Barnett in the match tiebreaker to qualify for the main draw. This was her first main-draw appearance after her comeback. She won her first-round match in a tight three-setter but eventually fell to fellow Brit and top seed Harriet Dart, after having to retire before the second set. However, this injury was not considered serious, and Robson stated she planned to play some tournaments in about two weeks time. In spite of this, Robson was not to play again for the rest of the year and announced in December that she had decided to have another operation on her hip. After missing the entire 2020 and 2021 seasons following continuous injuries and multiple hip surgeries, Robson announced her retirement from the sport shortly before the 2022 French Open. ## Playing style Robson played left-handed, with a two-handed backhand. One of her strengths was her "dominant" serve. She had a strong game from the back of the court and was also noted for having an aggressive forehand return. However, she has been criticised for having "poor lateral movement", as well as an inconsistent second serve, resulting in a considerable number of double faults. She has been praised for showing "extraordinary poise", and having "the attitude and technique required of a leading player". Commentator Simon Reed said that she "has every tool she needs", and former Grand Slam champion Pat Cash called her "a special talent" who "seems to have all the attributes to progress". Former WTA player Ana Ivanovic said that Robson "hits the ball really, really hard", former top British player Samantha Smith said that "she doesn't have any weaknesses at all", and Serena Williams stated that Robson is an "all-around good player". Robson's favourite surface to play on was grass and her favourite shot was her forehand down the line. ## Career statistics ### Olympic Games final #### Mixed doubles: 1 (runner-up) ### Grand Slam tournament performance timelines #### Singles ### Junior Grand Slam finals #### Singles: 3 (1–2)

England in the High Middle Ages

1066–1216 period in English history

In the history of England, the High Middle Ages spanned the period from the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the death of King John, considered by some historians to be the last Angevin king of England, in 1216. A disputed succession and victory at the Battle of Hastings led to the conquest of England by William of Normandy in 1066. This linked the Kingdom of England with Norman possessions in the Kingdom of France and brought a new aristocracy to the country that dominated landholding, government and the church. They brought with them the French language and maintained their rule through a system of castles and the introduction of a feudal system of landholding. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled by nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy and Wales. William's sons disputed succession to his lands, with William II emerging as ruler of England and much of Normandy. On his death in 1100 his younger brother claimed the throne as Henry I and defeated his brother Robert to reunite England and Normandy. Henry was a ruthless yet effective king, but after the death of his only male heir William Adelin, he persuaded his barons to recognise his daughter Matilda as heir. When Henry died in 1135 her cousin Stephen of Blois had himself proclaimed king, leading to a civil war known as The Anarchy. Eventually Stephen recognised Matilda's son Henry as his heir and when Stephen died in 1154, he succeeded as Henry II. Henry had extensive holdings in France and asserted his authority over Wales, Scotland and Ireland. He clashed with his appointee to the Archbishopric of Canterbury Thomas Becket, resulting in Becket's murder. The later part of his reign was dominated by rebellions involving his sons and Philip II of France that forced him to accept his son Richard as sole heir. Richard acceded to the Angevin inheritance on Henry's death in 1189 and almost immediately departed on a Crusade. On his return he was taken hostage in Germany and a huge ransom was paid in order to secure his release in 1194. He spent the remainder of his reign restoring his French lands, dying in 1199. His younger brother John succeeded in England and fought a successful war against Richard's nephew Arthur for control of the French domains. John's behaviour led to rebellions by the Norman and Angevin barons that dwindled his control of the continental possessions. His attempt to retake Normandy and Anjou failed at the Battle of Bouvines. This weakened his position in England, eventually resulting in the treaty called Magna Carta, which limited royal power, and the First Barons' War. His death in 1216 is considered by some historians to mark the end of the Angevin period and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty. The Normans adopted many Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, but the feudal system concentrated more power in the hands of the monarch and a small elite. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined. Noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events. During the twelfth century divisions between conquerors and the English began to dissolve and they began to consider themselves superior to their Celtic neighbours. The conquest brought Norman and French churchmen to power. New reformed religious and military orders were introduced into England. By the early thirteenth century the church had largely won its argument for independence from the state, answering almost entirely to Rome. Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice and accumulating relics became important for ambitious institutions. England played a prominent role in the Second, Third and Fifth Crusades. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries England experienced the Medieval Warm Period, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures that allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation. Agricultural land became typically organised around manors. By the eleventh century, a market economy was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Many hundreds of new towns, some of them planned communities, were built, supporting the creation of guilds and charter fairs. Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised by attritional military campaigns of raids and seizure of castles. Naval forces enabled the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. After the conquest the Normans built timber motte and bailey and ringwork castles in large numbers, which were replaced by stone buildings from the twelfth century. The period has been used in a wide range of popular culture, including William Shakespeare's plays. ## Political history ### Normans #### Norman conquest In 1002 King Æthelred II of England married Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042. This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy's ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edward's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats. Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York, Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand, the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury. Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this; King Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor Magnus I of Norway and the earlier English king, Harthacnut, whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England. Tostig Godwinson, brother of Harold, made a series of attacks in the north of England in early 1066 that may have been the beginning of a bid for the throne, but after defeat at the hands of Edwin and Morcar and the desertion of most of his followers he threw his lot in with Harald Hardrada, who invaded northern England in early September. Harold defeated and killed Hardrada and Tostig at the battle of Stamford Bridge. William invaded with an army of Norman followers and mercenaries. Harold marched south to meet him, but was defeated and killed at the battle of Hastings on 14 October and William's forces rapidly occupied the south of England. #### William I (1066–87) Major revolts followed, which William suppressed before intervening in the north-east of England, establishing Norman control of York and devastating the region. Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control. They were few in number compared to the native English population; including those from other parts of France, historians estimate the number of Norman settlers at around 8,000. William's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion, but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit. Henceforth, all land was "held" directly from the king in feudal tenure in return for military service. A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block. To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands. These confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings. To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers, initially mostly on the motte-and-bailey pattern. William distributed lands to the Church and appointed loyal Normans as bishops; he and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans. Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into South and North Wales, spreading up the valleys to create new Marcher territories. By the time of William's death in 1087, England formed the largest part of an Anglo-Norman empire, ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England, Normandy, and Wales. England's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the region, including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy. At Christmas 1085, William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings held by himself and by his vassals throughout the kingdom, organised by counties, a work now known as the Domesday Book. The listing for each county gives the holdings of each landholder, grouped by owners. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, its value, what the tax assessment was, and usually the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had. Towns were listed separately. All the English counties south of the River Tees and River Ribble are included, and the whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that William received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath, a renewal of their oaths of allegiance. #### William II (1087–1100) At the death of William the Conqueror in 1087 his lands were divided into two parts. His Norman lands went to the eldest son Robert Curthose and his English lands to the younger William Rufus. This presented a dilemma for those nobles who held land on both sides of the waterway of the English Channel, who decided to unite England and Normandy once more under a singular ruler. The pursuit of this aim led them to revolt against William in favour of Robert in the Rebellion of 1088, under the leadership of the powerful Bishop Odo of Bayeux, who was a half-brother of William the Conqueror. As Robert failed to appear in England to rally his supporters, William won the support of the English lords with silver and promises of better government, and defeated the rebellion. In 1091 he invaded Normandy, crushing Robert's forces and forcing him to cede a portion of his lands. The two made up their differences and William agreed to help Robert recover lands lost to the King of France, notably Le Maine. This plan was later abandoned, but William continued to pursue a ferociously warlike defence of his French possessions and interests, exemplified by his response to the attempt by Elias de la Flèche, Count of Maine, to take Le Mans in 1099. William came into conflict with Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury over Gregorian reforms in the Church. Eventually Anselm went into exile and Pope Urban II, involved in a major conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, came to a concordat with William, whereby William recognised Urban as pope, and Urban gave sanction to the Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical status quo. Anselm remained in exile, and William was able to claim the revenues of the archbishop of Canterbury to the end of his reign. William died while hunting in 1100. #### Henry I (1100–35) Despite Robert's rival claims, his younger brother Henry immediately seized power in England. Robert, who invaded in 1101, disputed Henry's control of England. This military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed Henry as king. The peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray. Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry's control of Normandy was challenged by Louis VI of France, Baldwin of Flanders and Fulk of Anjou, who promoted the rival claims of Robert's son, William Clito, and supported a major rebellion in the Duchy between 1116 and 1119. Following Henry's victory at the Battle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120. Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England and Normandy. In England, he drew on the existing Anglo-Saxon system of justice, local government and taxation, but also strengthened it with additional institutions, including the royal exchequer and itinerant justices. Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer. Many of the officials that ran Henry's system were "new men", relatively low-born individuals who rose through the ranks as administrators. Henry encouraged ecclesiastical reform, but from 1101 he also became embroiled in a serious dispute with Archbishop Anselm, which was resolved through a compromise solution in 1105. He supported the Cluniac order and played a major role in the selection of the senior clergy in England and Normandy. #### Stephen, Matilda and the Anarchy (1135–54) Henry's only legitimate son, William, died aboard the White Ship in the disaster of 1120, sparking a fresh succession crisis. Henry named his daughter Matilda as his heir, but on Henry's death in 1135 her cousin Stephen of Blois had himself proclaimed king. Matilda's husband Geoffrey, Count of Anjou showed little interest in England, but he supported Matilda by entering Normandy to claim her inheritance. Matilda landed in England to challenge Stephen and was declared "Lady of the English", which resulted in a civil war called the Anarchy. Stephen was defeated and captured at the Battle of Lincoln (1141) and Matilda was the effective ruler. When Matilda was forced to release Stephen in a hostage exchange for her half-brother Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, Stephen was re-crowned. The conflict in England continued inconclusively. However, Geoffrey secured the Duchy of Normandy. Matilda's son, Henry II, by his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine had acquired the Duchy of Aquitaine and was now immensely rich. With skilful negotiation with the war-weary barons of England and King Stephen, he agreed to the Treaty of Wallingford and was recognised as Stephen's heir. ### Angevins #### Henry II (1154–89) After Stephen's death in 1154 Henry succeeded as the first Angevin king of England, so-called because he was also the Count of Anjou in Northern France, adding it to his extensive holdings in Normandy and Aquitaine. England became a key part of a loose-knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe, later termed the Angevin Empire. Henry asserted his authority over Brittany, even reorganising the Duchy into eight administrative districts and introducing Angevin legal reforms. He pursued an aggressive policy in Wales, reclaiming lands lost by Anglo-Norman princes and conducting four punitive campaigns against Welsh princes that resulted in their submission to his authority. This underlined his overlordship, but he did not attempt a direct conquest. When the Scottish king William the Lion joined the rebellion of Henry's sons and was captured, it allowed Henry to extract homage from the Scottish king under the Treaty of Falaise (1174), which he did not pursue directly, but which would provide a justification for later interventions in Scottish kingship. In the mid-twelfth century Ireland was ruled by local kings, although their authority was more limited than their counterparts in the rest of western Europe. The deposed King of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada, turned to Henry for assistance in 1167; Henry allowed Diarmait to recruit mercenaries within his empire. Diarmait put together a force of Anglo-Norman and Flemish mercenaries drawn from the Welsh Marches, including Richard de Clare, known as Strongbow. With his new supporters, he reclaimed Leinster but died shortly afterwards in 1171; de Clare then claimed Leinster for himself. Henry took this opportunity to intervene personally in Ireland, landing in October 1171. Henry's timing was influenced by several factors, including encouragement from Pope Alexander, who saw the opportunity to establish papal authority over the Irish church. Henry's intervention was initially successful, with both the Irish and Anglo-Normans in the south and east of Ireland accepting his rule. However, the Treaty of Windsor in 1175, under which Rory O'Connor would be recognised as the High King of Ireland, giving homage to Henry and maintaining stability on the ground on his behalf, meant that he had little direct control. Henry saw an opportunity to re-establish what he saw as his rights over the Church in England by reasserting the privileges held by Henry I when Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, died, by appointing his friend, Thomas Becket to the post. Henry had clashed with the church over whether bishops could excommunicate royal officials without his permission and whether he could try clerics without them appealing to Rome. However, Becket opposed Henry's Constitutions of Clarendon and fled into exile. Relations later improved, allowing Becket's return, but soon soured again when Becket saw the crowning as coregent of Henry's son by the Archbishop of York as a challenge to his authority and excommunicated those who had offended him. On hearing the news Henry uttered the infamous phrase "what miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low born clerk". In response to please Henry three of his men murdered Becket in Canterbury Cathedral, probably by misadventure after Becket resisted a botched arrest attempt. In Christian Europe Henry was considered complicit in this crime, making him a pariah, and he was forced to make a dramatic exhibition of penance, publicly walking barefoot into the cathedral and allowing monks to scourge him. When Henry II attempted to give his land-less youngest son, John, a wedding gift of three castles it prompted his three eldest sons and wife to rebel in the revolt of 1173–1174. Louis VII encouraged the three elder sons to destabilise his mightiest subject and not to wait for their inheritances. It was only after eighteen months of conflict that Henry II was able to force the rebels to submit to his authority. In Le Mans in 1182 Henry II gathered his children to plan for partible inheritance in which his eldest son, also called Henry, would inherit England, Normandy and Anjou; Richard the Duchy of Aquitaine; Geoffrey Brittany and John would receive Ireland. This broke down into further conflict and the younger Henry rebelled again, but died of dysentery. In 1186 Geoffrey died as a result of a tournament accident but Henry was still reluctant to have a sole heir so, in 1189, Richard and Philip II of France took advantage of a sickening Henry II with more success. Henry II was forced to accept humiliating peace terms, including naming Richard as sole heir. When Henry II died shortly afterwards his last words to Richard were allegedly "God grant that I may not die until I have my revenge on you". #### Richard I (1189–99) On the day of Richard's coronation there was a mass slaughter of the Jews, described by Richard of Devizes as a "holocaust". Quickly putting the affairs of the Angevin Empire in order he departed on Crusade to the Middle East in early 1190. In Sicily he came into conflict with Tancred I over the rights of Richard's sister Queen Joan, widow of the former king William II of Sicily. Richard captured the city of Messina on 4 October 1190 and using it to force Tancred into a peace agreement. When his sister and his fiancée Berengaria along with several other ships, including the treasure ship were seized by the island's despot Isaac Komnenos, Richard conquered the island, which became a western feudal and Christian base in the Mediterranean. Opinions of Richard amongst his contemporaries were mixed. He had rejected and humiliated the king of France's sister; insulted and refused spoils of the third crusade to nobles like Leopold V, Duke of Austria, and was rumoured to have arranged the assassination of Conrad of Montferrat. His cruelty was demonstrated by his massacre of 2,600 prisoners in Acre. However, Richard was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners. He achieved victories in the Third Crusade but failed to capture Jerusalem, retreating from the Holy Land with a small band of followers. Richard was captured by Leopold on his return journey in 1192. Custody was passed to Henry the Lion and a tax of 25 per cent of movables and income was required in England to pay the ransom of 100,000 marks, with a promise of 50,000 more, before Richard was released in 1194. In his absence Philip II of France had overrun much of Normandy, while John of England controlled much of the remainder of Richard's lands. On his return to England, Richard forgave John and re-established his control. Leaving England in 1194 never to return, Richard battled Phillip for the next five years for the return of the holdings seized during his incarceration. Close to total victory he was injured by an arrow during the siege of Château de Châlus-Chabrol and died after lingering injured for ten days. #### John (1199–1216) Richard's failure in his duty to provide an heir caused a succession crisis. Anjou, Brittany, Maine and Touraine chose Richard's nephew and nominated heir, Arthur, while John succeeded in England and Normandy. Yet again Philip II of France took the opportunity to destabilise the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland, supporting his vassal Arthur's claim to the English crown. When Arthur's forces threatened his mother, John won a significant victory, capturing the entire rebel leadership at the Battle of Mirebeau. Arthur was murdered, it was rumoured by John's own hands, and his sister Eleanor would spend the rest of her life in captivity. John's behaviour drove numerous French barons to side with Phillip. The resulting rebellions by the Norman and Angevin barons broke John's control of the continental possessions, leading to the de facto end of the Angevin Empire, even though Henry III would maintain the claim until 1259. After re-establishing his authority in England, John planned to retake Normandy and Anjou. The strategy was to draw the French from Paris while another army, under Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor, attacked from the north. However, his allies were defeated at the Battle of Bouvines in one of the most decisive and symbolic battles in French history. The battle had both important and high-profile consequences. John's nephew Otto retreated and was soon overthrown while King John agreed to a five-year truce. Philip's decisive victory was crucial in ordering politics in both England and France. The battle was instrumental in forming the absolute monarchy in France. John's defeats in France weakened his position in England. The rebellion of his English vassals resulted in the treaty called Magna Carta, which limited royal power and established common law. This would form the basis of every constitutional battle through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. However, both the barons and the crown failed to abide by the terms of Magna Carta, leading to the First Barons' War in which the rebel barons invited an invasion by Prince Louis. This is considered by some historians to mark the end of the Angevin period and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty with John's death and William Marshall's appointment as the protector of the nine-year-old Henry III. Marshall won the war with victories at the battles of Lincoln and Dover in 1217, leading to the Treaty of Lambeth by which Louis renounced his claims. In victory, the Marshal Protectorate reissued the Magna Carta agreement as a basis for future government. ## Government Within twenty years of the Norman conquest, the Anglo-Saxon elite had been replaced by a new class of Norman nobility. The new earls (successors to the ealdermen), sheriffs and senior clergy were all drawn from their ranks. In many areas of society there was continuity, as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo-Saxon governmental institutions, including the tax system, mints and the centralisation of law-making and some judicial matters; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before. The method of government after the conquest can be described as a feudal system, in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance, called homage, they were granted lands termed a fief or an honour. Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support, and eventually the peasantry held land in return for local labour services, creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honourial courts. This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo-Saxon system of government. The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest, as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to the teachings of the church. The more prosperous peasants, however, lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord. They sank down the economic hierarchy, swelling the numbers of unfree villeins or serfs, forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment. At the centre of power, the kings employed a succession of clergy as chancellors, responsible for running the royal chancery, while the familia regis, the military household, emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff. England's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration, alongside the nobility. Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant legal reforms, extending and widening the scope of centralised, royal law; by the 1180s, the basis for the future English common law had largely been established, with a standing law court in Westminster—an early Common Bench—and travelling judges conducting eyres around the country. King John extended the royal role in delivering justice, and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the Magna Carta of 1215. Many tensions existed within the system of government. Royal landowning and wealth stretched across England, and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite. Successive kings still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns, conduct building programmes, or to reward their followers, and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land-holdings of nobles. This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint, as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right, not through the favour of the king. Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility, the great magnates, at the expense of the wider baronage, encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism. As time went by, the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo-Saxon families, and the links with the Duchy began to weaken. By the late twelfth century, mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult, and John's attempts to do so ended in civil war. ## Society ### Women in society Medieval England was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority. However, the position of women varied according to factors including their social class; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived. Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men. After the Norman Conquest, the position of women in society changed. The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined, in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system; some women benefited from this, while others lost out. The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the twelfth century, clarifying the right of free women to own property, but this did not necessarily prevent women from being forcibly remarried against their wishes. The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour. As in earlier centuries, most women worked in agriculture, but here roles became more clearly gendered, with ploughing and managing the fields defined as men's work, for example, and dairy production becoming dominated by women. ### Identity The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the twelfth century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the twelfth century, and possibly as early as the 1150s, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and Bretons. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late twelfth century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish. ## Religion ### Ecclesiastical structures and orders The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo-Saxon religious system, while others introduced practices from Normandy. Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy, allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom. The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations, with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown. The Normans adopted the Anglo-Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities, and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks; every English cathedral, however, was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers. England's bishops remained powerful temporal figures, and in the early twelfth-century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country. New orders began to be introduced into England. As ties to Normandy waned, the French Cluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England. The Augustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the twelfth century onwards, while later in the century the Cistercians reached England, creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx and Fountains. By 1215, there were over 600 monastic communities in England, but new endowments slowed during the thirteenth century, creating long-term financial problems for many institutions. The religious military orders that became popular across Europe from the twelfth century onwards, including the Templars, Teutonic Knights and Hospitallers, acquired possessions in England. ### Church and state William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform. William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power, but also reduced the Church's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king. Tensions arose between these practices and the reforming movement of Pope Gregory VII, which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy, condemned the practice of simony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters. Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government, tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church. Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy, and successive archbishops including Anselm, Theobald of Bec, Thomas Becket and Stephen Langton were variously forced into exile, arrested by royal knights or even killed. By the early thirteenth century, however, the church had largely won its argument for independence, answering almost entirely to Rome. ### Pilgrimages Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England, with the tradition dating back to the Roman period. Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church, either to do penance for a perceived sin, or to seek relief from an illness or other condition. Some pilgrims travelled further, either to more distant sites within Britain or, in a few cases, on to the continent. Under the Normans, religious institutions with important shrines, such as Glastonbury, Canterbury and Winchester, promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations, maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites. Accumulating relics became an important task for ambitious institutions, as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site. By the twelfth century reports of posthumous miracles by local saints were becoming increasingly common in England, adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics. ### Crusades The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not new in England, as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo-Saxon times. While English participation in the First Crusade between 1095–99 was limited, England played a prominent part in the Second, Third and Fifth Crusades over the next two centuries, with many crusaders leaving for the Levant during the intervening years. Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left, often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey. Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions, which affected their families and, at times, the economy as a whole was considerably affected. ## Geography England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the Fenlands of East Anglia or the heavily wooded Weald, through to the upland moors of Yorkshire. Despite this, medieval England broadly formed two zones, roughly divided by the rivers Exe and Tees: the south and east of England had lighter, richer soils, able to support both arable and pastoral agriculture, while the poorer soils and colder climate [sic] of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy. Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the twentieth century, and bears, beavers and wolves lived wild in England, bears being hunted to extinction by the eleventh century and beavers by the twelfth. Of the 10,000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans, many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance—the Icknield Way, the Fosse Way, Ermine Street and Watling Street—which criss-crossed the entire country. The road system was adequate for the needs of the period, although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water. The major river networks formed key transport routes, while many English towns formed navigable inland ports. For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the twenty-first century. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries England went through the Medieval Warm Period, a prolonged period of warmer temperatures; in the early thirteenth century, for example, summers were around 1 °C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier. These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for grapevines to be cultivated relatively far north. ## Economy and demography The English economy was fundamentally agricultural, depending on growing crops such as wheat, barley and oats on an open field system, and husbanding sheep, cattle and pigs. Agricultural land became typically organised around manors, and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly, called demesne land, and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants. These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce. By the eleventh century, a market economy was flourishing across much of England, while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade. Around 6,000 watermills were built to grind flour, freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks. Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building, the English economy was not greatly affected. Taxes were increased, however, and the Normans established extensive forests that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by royal laws. The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy, driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1.5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300. More land, much of it at the expense of the royal forests, was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce wool for export to Europe. Many hundreds of new towns, some of them planned communities, were built across England, supporting the creation of guilds, charter fairs and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade. Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy, along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north. Mining increased in England, with a silver boom in the twelfth century helping to fuel the expansion of the money supply. ## Warfare Anglo-Norman warfare was characterised by attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory, ultimately winning slow but strategic victories. Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders. The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted, armoured knights, supported by infantry. Crossbowmen become more numerous in the twelfth century, alongside the older shortbow. At the heart of these armies was the familia regis, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign. Mercenaries were increasingly employed, driving up the cost of warfare, and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns. Naval forces played an important role during the Middle Ages, enabling the transportation of troops and supplies, raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets. English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204, which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region. Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s, after the conquest the Normans began to build timber motte and bailey and ringwork castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories. During the twelfth century the Normans began to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square keeps that supported both military and political functions. Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons. Castles and sieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the twelfth century. ## Culture ### Art The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles, particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals, and reduced the demand for carvings. In other artistic areas, including embroidery, the Anglo-Saxon influence remained evident into the twelfth century, and the famous Bayeux Tapestry is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime. Stained glass had been introduced into Anglo-Saxon England. Very few examples of glass survive from the Norman period, but there are a few examples that survive from minor monasteries and parish churches. The largest collections of twelfth-century stained glass at the Cathedrals of York and Canterbury. ### Literature and music Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the twelfth century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse. Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of lays; stories about the court of King Arthur were also fashionable, due in part to the interest of Henry II. English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England, but most major works were produced in Latin or French. Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works. From the eleventh century distinctive monophonic plainchant was superseded, as elsewhere in Europe, by standardised Gregorian chant. ### Architecture The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy, where austere stone churches were preferred. Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large, plain cathedrals with ribbed vaulting. During the twelfth century the Anglo-Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termed Early English Gothic and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages. In domestic architecture, the Normans, having first occupied the older Anglo-Saxon dwellings, rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber. The elite preferred houses with large, ground-floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler houses with the halls on the first floor; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces. Wealthier town-houses were also built using stone, and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design. ## Popular representations The period has been used in a wide range of popular culture. William Shakespeare's plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal, heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John. Other playwrights have since taken key events and personalities as the subject of drama, including T. S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral (1935) and Jean Anouilh's Becket (1959), that focus on the death of Thomas Becket and James Goldman's The Lion in Winter (1966), which focuses on Henry II and his sons. Walter Scott's location of Robin Hood in the reign of Richard I and his emphasis on the conflict between Saxons and Normans set the template for much later fiction and film adaptations. Historical fiction set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular, with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical detective fiction such as Ellis Peters's The Cadfael Chronicles set in the Anarchy, which is also the location of much of Ken Follett's best-selling The Pillars of the Earth (1989). Film-makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period, often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration and adapting historical romantic novels as Ivanhoe (1952). More recent revivals of these genres include Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) and Kingdom of Heaven (2005). ## See also - Sussex in the High Middle Ages

Stephen Báthory

Transylvanian noble and ruler of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1576-86

Stephen Báthory (Hungarian: Báthory István; Polish: Stefan Batory; [] Error: : no text (help); 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586) was Voivode of Transylvania (1571–1576), Prince of Transylvania (1576–1586), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1576–1586). The son of Stephen VIII Báthory and a member of the Hungarian Báthory noble family, Báthory was a ruler of Transylvania in the 1570s, defeating another challenger for that title, Gáspár Bekes. In 1576 Báthory became the husband of Queen Anna Jagiellon and the third elected king of Poland. He worked closely with chancellor Jan Zamoyski. The first years of his reign were focused on establishing power, defeating a fellow claimant to the throne, Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, and quelling rebellions, most notably, the Danzig rebellion. He reigned only a decade, but is considered one of the most successful kings in Polish history, particularly in the realm of military history. His signal achievement was his victorious campaign in Livonia against Russia in the middle part of his reign, in which he repulsed a Russian invasion of Commonwealth borderlands and secured a highly favorable treaty of peace (the Peace of Jam Zapolski). ## Youth Stephen Báthory was born on 27 September 1533 in the castle at Somlyó, also known as Szilágysomlyó (today's Șimleu Silvaniei). He was the son of Stephen VIII Báthory (d. 1534) of the noble Hungarian Báthory family and his wife Catherine Telegdi. He had at least five siblings: two brothers and three sisters. Little is known about his childhood. Around 1549–1550, he briefly visited Italy and probably spent a few months attending lectures at the Padua University. Upon his return, he joined the army of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, and took part in his military struggle against the Turks. Some time after 1553, Báthory was captured by the Turks, and after Ferdinand I refused to pay his ransom, joined the opposing side, supporting John II Sigismund Zápolya in his struggle for power in the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. As Zápolya's supporter, Báthory acted both as a feudal lord, military commander and a diplomat. During one of his trips to Vienna he was put under house arrest for two years. During this time he fell out of favor at Zápolya's court, and his position was largely assumed by another Hungarian noble, Gáspár Bekes. Báthory briefly retired from politics, but he still wielded considerable influence and was seen as a possible successor to Zápolya. After Zápolya's death in 1571, the Transylvanian estates elected Báthory Voivode of Transylvania. Bekes, supported by the Habsburgs, disputed his election, but by 1573, Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and drove Bekes out of Transylvania. He subsequently attempted to play the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire against one another in an attempt to strengthen the Transylvania position. ## Elected king In 1572, the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, at the time the largest and one of the most populous states in Europe, was vacated when King Sigismund II Augustus died without heirs. The Sejm was given the power to elect a new king, and in the 1573 Polish–Lithuanian royal election chose Henry of France; Henry soon ascended the French throne and forfeited the Polish one by returning to France. Báthory decided to enter into the election; in the meantime he had to defeat another attempt by Bekes to challenge his authority in Transylvania, which he did by defeating Bekes at the Battle of Kerelőszentpál. On 12 December 1575, after an interregnum of roughly one and a half years, primate of Poland Jakub Uchański, representing a pro-Habsburg faction, declared Emperor Maximilian II as the new monarch. However, chancellor Jan Zamoyski and other opponents of Habsburgs persuaded many of the lesser nobility to demand a "Piast king", a Polish king. After a heated discussion, it was decided that Anna Jagiellon, sister of the former King Sigismund II Augustus, should be elected king and marry Stephen Báthory. In January 1576 Báthory passed the mantle of voivode of Transylvania to his brother Christopher Báthory and departed for Poland. On 1 May 1576 Báthory married Anna and was crowned king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania. After being chosen as king in the 1576 Polish–Lithuanian royal election, Báthory also began using the title of the prince of Transylvania. ## Establishing power Báthory's position was at first extremely difficult, as there was still some opposition to his election. Emperor Maximilian, insisting on his earlier election, fostered internal opposition and prepared to enforce his claim by military action. At first the representatives of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania refused to recognize Báthory as grand duke, and demanded concessions - that he return the estates of his wife Anne to the Lithuanian treasury, hold Sejm conventions in both Lithuania and Poland, and reserve the highest governmental official offices in Lithuania for Lithuanians. He accepted the conditions. In June Báthory was recognized as Grand Duke of Lithuania. With Lithuania secure, the other major region refusing to recognize his election was Prussia. Maximilian's sudden death improved Báthory's situation, but the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) still refused to recognize his election without significant concessions. The Hanseatic League city, bolstered by its immense wealth, fortifications, and the secret support of Maximilian, had supported the Emperor's election and decided not to recognize Báthory as legitimate ruler. The resulting conflict was known as the Danzig rebellion. Most armed opposition collapsed when the prolonged Siege of Danzig by Báthory's forces was lifted as an agreement was reached. The Danzig army was utterly defeated in a field battle on 17 April 1577. However, since Báthory's armies were unable to take the city by force, a compromise was reached. In exchange for some of Danzig's demands being favorably reviewed, the city recognised Báthory as ruler of Poland and paid the sum of 200,000 zlotys in gold as compensation. Tying up the administration of the Commonwealth's northern provinces, in February 1578 he acknowledged George Frederick as the ruler of Duchy of Prussia, receiving his feudal tribute. ## Policies After securing control over the Commonwealth, Báthory had a chance to devote himself to strengthening his authority, in which he was supported by his chancellor Jan Zamoyski, who would soon become one of the king's most trusted advisers. Báthory reorganised the judiciary by formation of legal tribunals (the Crown Tribunal in 1578 and the Lithuanian Tribunal in 1581). While this somewhat weakened the royal position, it was of little concern to Báthory, as the loss of power was not significant in the short term, and he was more concerned with the hereditary Hungarian throne. In exchange, the Sejm allowed him to raise taxes and push a number of reforms strengthening the military, including the establishment of the piechota wybraniecka, an infantry formation composed of peasants. Many of his projects aimed to modernize the Commonwealth army, reforming it in a model of Hungarian troops of Transylvania. He also founded the Academy of Vilnius, the third university in the Commonwealth, transforming what had been a Jesuit college into a major university. He founded several other Jesuit colleges, and was active in propagating Catholicism, while at the same time being respectful of the Commonwealth policy of religious tolerance, issuing a number of decrees offering protection to Polish Jews, and denouncing any religious violence. In external relations, Báthory sought peace through strong alliances. Though remaining distrustful of the Habsburgs, he maintained the tradition of good relations that the Commonwealth enjoyed with its Western neighbor and confirmed past treaties between the Commonwealth and Holy Roman Empire with diplomatic missions received by Maximilian's successor, Rudolf II. The troublesome south-eastern border with the Ottoman Empire was temporarily quelled by truces signed in July 1577 and April 1579. The Sejm of January 1578 gathered in Warsaw was persuaded to grant Báthory subsidies for the inevitable war against Muscovy. A number of his trusted advisers were Hungarian, and he remained interested in Hungarian politics. In his last years, Báthory, with Pope Gregory XVIII's approval, made a plan with Antonio Possevino for the liberation of Ottoman Hungary by a well organized (mostly Polish) Christian army, and the creation of a strong and independent Hungarian-Polish union under his rule. However, the unfavorable international situation did not allow him significantly to advance any of his plans in that area. In addition to Hungarian, he was well versed in Latin, and spoke Italian and German; he never learned the Polish language. In his personal life, he was described as rather frugal in his personal expenditures, with hunting and reading as his favorite pastimes. ## War with Muscovy Before Báthory's election to the throne of the Commonwealth, Ivan the Terrible of Russia had begun encroaching on its sphere of interest in the northeast, eventually invading the Commonwealth borderlands in Livonia; the conflict would grow to involve a number of nearby powers (outside Russia and Poland-Lithuania, also Sweden, the Kingdom of Livonia and Denmark-Norway). Each of them was vying for control of Livonia, and the resulting conflict, lasting for several years, became known as the Livonian War. By 1577, Ivan was in control of most of the disputed territory, but his conquest was short-lived. In 1578, Commonwealth forces scored a number of victories in Liviona and begun pushing Ivan's forces back; this marked the turning point in the war. Báthory, together with his chancellor Zamoyski, led the army of the Commonwealth in a series of decisive campaigns taking Polotsk in 1579 and Velikiye Luki in 1580. In 1581, Stephen penetrated once again into Russia and, on 22 August, laid siege to the city of Pskov. While the city held, on 13 December 1581 Ivan the Terrible began negotiations that concluded with the Truce of Jam Zapolski on 15 January 1582. The treaty was favorable to the Commonwealth, as Ivan ceded Polatsk, Veliz and most of the Duchy of Livonia in exchange for regaining Velikiye Luki and Nevel. ## Final years In 1584, Báthory allowed Zamoyski to execute Samuel Zborowski, whose death sentence for treason and murder had been pending for roughly a decade. This political conflict between Báthory and the Zborowski family, framed as the clash between the monarch and the nobility, would be a major recurring controversy in internal Polish politics for many years. In external politics, Báthory was considering another war with Russia, but his plans were delayed to the lack of support from the Sejm, which refused to pass the requested tax raises. Báthory's health had been declining for several years. He died on 12 December 1586. He had no legitimate children, though contemporary rumours suggested he might have had several illegitimate children. None of these rumours have been confirmed by modern historians. His death was followed by an interregnum of one year. Maximilian II's son, Archduke Maximilian III, was elected king but was contested by the Swedish Sigismund III Vasa, who defeated Maximilian at the Byczyna and succeeded as ruler of the Commonwealth. ## Remembrance Báthory actively promoted his legend, sponsoring many works about his life and achievements, from historical treatises to poetry. In his lifetime, he was featured in the works of Jan Kochanowski, Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński and many others. He became a recurring character in Polish poetry and literature and featured as a central figure in poems, novels and drama by Jakub Jasiński, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Henryk Rzewuski and others. He has been a subject of numerous paintings, both during his life and posthumously. Among the painters who took him as a subject were Jan Matejko and Stanisław Wyspiański. A statue of Báthory by Giovanni Ferrari was raised in 1789 in Padua, Italy, sponsored by the last king of the Commonwealth, Stanisław August Poniatowski. Other monuments to him include one in the Łazienki Palace (1795 by Andrzej Le Brun) and one in Sniatyn (1904, destroyed in 1939). He was a patron of the Vilnius University (then known as the Stefan Batory University) and several units in the Polish Army from 1919 to 1939. His name was borne by two 20th-century passenger ships of the Polish Merchant Navy, the MS Batory and TSS Stefan Batory. In modern Poland, he is the namesake of the Batory Steelmill, a nongovernmental Stefan Batory Foundation, the Polish 9th Armored Cavalry Brigade, and numerous Polish streets and schools. One of the districts of the town of Chorzów is named after him. Immediately after his death, he was not fondly remembered in the Commonwealth. Many nobles took his behavior in the Zborowski affair and his domestic policies as indicating an interest in curtailing the nobility's Golden Freedoms and establishing an absolute monarchy. His contemporaries were also rankled by his favoritism toward Hungarians over nationals of the Commonwealth. He was also remembered, more trivially, for his Hungarian-style cap and saber (szabla batorówka). His later resurgence in Polish memory and historiography can be traced to the 19th-century era of partitions of Poland when the Polish state lost its independence. He was remembered for his military triumphs and praised as an effective ruler by many, including John Baptist Albertrandi, Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie, Michał Bobrzyński, Józef Szujski and others. Though some historians like Tadeusz Korzon, Joachim Lelewel and Jędrzej Moraczewski remained more reserved, in 1887, Wincenty Zakrzewski noted that Báthory is "the darling of both the Polish public opinion and Polish historians". During the interwar period in the Second Polish Republic he was a cult figure, often compared - with the government's approval - to the contemporary dictator of Poland, Józef Piłsudski. After the Second World War, in the communist People's Republic of Poland, he became more of a controversial figure, with historians more ready to question his internal politics and attachment to Hungary. Nonetheless, his good image remained intact, reinforced by the positive views of a popular Polish historian of that period, Paweł Jasienica. ## See also - History of Poland (1569–1795) - Muscovite wars - Nyírbátor

Hemilepistus reaumuri

Species of woodlouse

Hemilepistus reaumuri is a species of woodlouse that lives in and around the deserts of North Africa and the Middle East, "the driest habitat conquered by any species of crustacean". It reaches a length of 22 mm (0.87 in) and a width of up to 12 mm (0.47 in), and has seven pairs of legs which hold its body unusually high off the ground. The species was described in the Description de l'Égypte after the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria of 1798–1801, but was first formally named by Henri Milne-Edwards in 1840 as Porcellio reaumuri. It reached its current scientific name in 1930 after the former subgenus Hemilepistus was raised to the rank of genus. H. reaumuri occurs at great population densities and fills an important niche in the desert ecosystem. It feeds on plant leaves, obtains most of its water from moisture in the air and sand, and is in turn an important prey item for the scorpion Scorpio maurus. H. reaumuri is only able to survive in such arid conditions because it has developed parental care of its offspring. Adults dig burrows which are inhabited by family groups, which are recognised using pheromones. The burrows are 40–50 cm (16–20 in) deep, and the woodlice retreat to the relatively cool and moist conditions of the burrow when surface conditions are unfavourable. The territorial limit of each colony is marked with a faecal embankment. ## Description Hemilepistus reaumuri is approximately 22 millimetres (0.87 in) long, and 9–12 millimetres (0.35–0.47 in) wide. In common with other woodlice, it has seven pairs of legs and a pair of conspicuous antennae. It is classified in the family Trachelipodidae; within that family, it is placed in the genus Hemilepistus because of the presence of tubercles only on the head and the nearby parts of the thorax. H. reaumuri differs from other desert woodlice in a number of respects. It is crepuscular, while other species are nocturnal. Apart from at the highest temperatures, it is also positively phototactic (is attracted to sunlight), while other species are negatively phototactic (move away from bright light). Compared to other woodlice, H. reaumuri walks in an unusual manner, with its body held high off the ground. ## Distribution Hemilepistus reaumuri is found in the steppes, semideserts and deserts of North Africa, and the Middle East, and occasionally on the margins of salt lakes. This has been described as "the driest habitat conquered by any species of crustacean". H. reaumuri is most closely associated with loess soils in the Sahara Desert and Negev Desert, although its range extends from eastern Algeria to western Syria. ## Ecology Hemilepistus reaumuri is an important part of the desert ecosystem. It has been found at population densities of up to 480,000 individuals per hectare, which is equivalent to a biomass of 19.2 kg/ha; in comparison, desert mammals are estimated to have a combined biomass of 39.9 kg/ha. The main predator of H. reaumuri is the scorpion Scorpio maurus, and it may compose up to 70% of the scorpion's diet. It appears to be vulnerable to attack only on the surface; no predators are known to attack H. reaumuri in its burrows. Hemilepistus reaumuri can only escape the heat of the desert by constructing a burrow, which is time-consuming and energetically costly. One parent must therefore guard the burrow while the other forages for food. H. reaumuri can spend up to ten months of the year returning to the surface to forage, which is far longer than species which do not dig burrows, such as Armadillidium vulgare or Armadillo officinalis. Although they will forage at temperatures as high as 35 °C (95 °F), these woodlice retreat to their burrow when the temperature is too high. They are also unable to tolerate air with a relative humidity below 6%, which often occurs at depths of up to 30 centimetres (12 in) in the desert soil in the hottest months, and the burrows are therefore dug at least 40–50 cm (16–20 in) deep. The burrows are vertical, with a single entrance 9–12 mm (0.35–0.47 in) in diameter, and there may be up to 20 burrows per square metre (nearly 2 per square foot) in favourable areas. If a foraging woodlouse cannot find the burrow entrance on its return, it employs a complex and efficient strategy to find it again. It begins with a spirally widening search, and develops into a more meandering approach the longer it is unable to find the burrow. Hemilepistus reaumuri has a significantly higher biomass than other herbivores in the Negev Desert, making it an important part of herbivore–omnivore food chains. They spend the day provisioning their burrows with leaf material from the surface of the desert, sometimes resting under stones or in crevices of rocks. Their faeces accumulates on the surface, and forms a "faecal embankment", similar to a levee, which demarcates the extent of the home territory of the colony in the burrow. The plants Artemisia herba-alba and Haloxylon scoparium are the most abundant bushes in the Negev desert, and seem to make up most of the diet of H. reaumuri. The bulk of the water intake of Hemilepistus reaumuri is by taking up water vapour from saturated air and by eating damp sand. Water loss is minimised by the rectal epithelium, which absorbs water, ensuring that the faeces is drier than the food the animal consumed. Evaporation of water through the permeable exoskeleton may, however, provide a valuable cooling effect. ## Life cycle Hemilepistus reaumuri is the only species of Hemilepistus to have developed parental care of its offspring, and it is only because of this development that the species can survive in the desert. It is monogamous, and, unusually, both parents tend the young. The colonies are quiescent during the winter, and young individuals emerge in February and March to establish new burrows. Sheltered sites below bushes are chosen, although larger males will often try to pair with a female who has already established a burrow, sometimes ousting her male partner. The anatomy of H. reaumuri is not specialised for digging, and the excavation is a slow process, taking place only in early spring. The first 3–5 centimetres (1.2–2.0 in) are dug by a single woodlouse, which then stops to guard the new burrow. Eventually, it will allow one other woodlouse of the opposite sex to enter, and they then engage in a ritual which often lasts for hours, before copulating. The female bears 50–100 live young, typically in May. The young remain in the burrow for 10–20 days, being provided with food by their parents. On leaving the burrow, they are wary of other families, and adults may catch other adults' offspring and feed them to their own, but do not normally attack their own children. Members of each social group recognise each other using pheromones. Each pair only produces one brood, and the life of an individual of H. reaumuri is typically around 15 months long, considerably shorter than the 2–4 year lifespans of woodlice from more mesic habitats, such as Armadillidium vulgare, Porcellio scaber or Philoscia muscorum. ## Taxonomic history Hemilepistus reaumuri was illustrated in volume 21 of the Description de l'Égypte, researched during Napoleon's campaign in Egypt and Syria of 1798–1801, and dedicated to René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur. The section on Crustacea was begun by Marie Jules César Savigny but finished by Jean Victoire Audouin after Savigny's health deteriorated. The species was not given a formal scientific name, however, until Henri Milne-Edwards did so in 1840, calling it Porcellio reaumuri. Although initially placed in the genus Porcellio, it was later moved by G. H. A. Budde-Lund in 1879 to his new subgenus Hemilepistus, which was raised from a subgenus of Porcellio to the rank of genus by Karl Wilhelm Verhoeff in 1930. Several species names that were previously thought to be synonyms of H. reaumuri have been re-examined, and found to refer to a species in a different family, now known as Porcellio brevicaudatus.

Eliza Meek

Royal mistress of King Lunalilo

Eliza Meek (March 3, 1832 – February 8, 1888) was the daughter of Captain John Meek, an early American settler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. In her early youth, she was renown for her equestrian skills on her father's land. She later became the royal mistress of King Lunalilo and formed a contentious relationship with Queen Emma of Hawaii and was rumored to be the main obstacle between a possible marriage between the two. Along with a group of other members of the royal court, Eliza accompanied the king to Kailua-Kona during his last illness and remained by Lunalilo's side until his death from tuberculosis on his return to Honolulu on February 3, 1874. Little is known about her later life; Eliza was financially well-off until her death on February 8, 1888. ## Early life Eliza Meek was born on March 3, 1832, to Captain John Meek (1792–1875) and Betsy W. Meek (1807–1848). John was a New Englander from Marblehead, Massachusetts, who first arrived in Hawaii about 1809 and served for many years as harbor master and pilot of Honolulu. Betsy was the Hawaiian wife of Captain Meek and died on May 5, 1848. Eliza grew up with many siblings including her youngest sister Elizabeth "Betsy" Meek (1841–1895), who married American settler Horace Gate Crabbe in 1857 and had five children. In her youth, Eliza was noted for her equestrian skills on her father's lands at Lihue and Wahiawa on the island of Oʻahu where their family raised thorough-bred horses which were well known across the islands. According to archivist and historian Albert Pierce Taylor, Eliza was often "seen riding the horse through the streets of Honolulu garbed in a wonderful pa-u, with a dozen or more followers riding behind her wearing the same color of garment". Eliza was considered a great beauty in her youth and possessed green-color eyes indicative of her hapa-haole (half-European, half-Hawaiian) heritage. ## Relationship with Lunalilo Eliza became the mistress of King Lunalilo, who had remained a bachelor for his entire life. She developed a contentious relationship with Queen Emma of Hawaii, the widow of Kamehameha IV and a close friend of Lunalilo. According to one of Emma's letters, an elderly palace attendant Waiaha and several other older women had given Lunalilo a "piece of bananannah [sic] stalk pressed to drink, medicated with love potions, to produce intense affections for Eliza Meek". Along with a group of Lunalilo's personal attendants and relatives (including his chamberlain and Eliza's brother-in-law Horace Crabbe), Eliza was present during the king's final months of illness. During this period, Eliza was notoriously hostile to Emma, who occasionally visited the ailing King to help nurse him. According to Dr. Georges Phillipe Trousseau, the King's personal physician, Lunalilo would have married Emma had it not been for Eliza's interference. Eliza would refuse to leave Emma alone with Lunalilo even at the king's command. One night, in a fit of rage, Lunalilo threw a chair and a spittoon at Eliza's head after an argument with between the two. Emma recounted the instance in a letter to her cousin Peter Kaʻeo: > The last bit of news yesterday morning is the King's anger against Eliza Wednesday (yesterday) night for being impudent to him. He threw a chair at her head and a spitoon also, which made a great cut on the side of her head. The nearest Doctor was sent for [and] both McGrew and McKibbin arrived. It seems the King told her to come to bed — she replied what right has a dog or a bitch there, which instantly gave vent to his ill temper that he had been brooding some days, and used a word of four letters belonging only to Waterclosets. She retorted, "Oh, I suppose that is what you eat to exist on." This brought the King's rage to an instant climax and [he] threw the articles at her head. I had intended to call yesterday to see how he continues to improve, but this domestic fracas of the Royal household puts it out of the question, till a few days more when the King will be settled and not so upset. Despite the scuffle, Eliza was part of the royal party who accompanied Lunalilo when he sailed to Kailua-Kona, in November 1873, the following month, in the hope that the dry weather would improve his tuberculosis. However, the trip had no lasting effect on Lunalilo's health. After returning to Honolulu, Lunalilo succumbed to the disease and died on February 3, 1874. ## Later life Little is known of Eliza's life after Lunalilo's death. She died at Peleula – her brother-in-law and sister's residence – on February 8, 1888, at the age of fifty-five. In her later life, Eliza was financially well-off and owned a half interest in property on King Street, near Maunakea. According to The Daily Bulletin newspaper, she had been ill for a month before she died and her death was "caused by a general breaking".

Vajroli mudra

Practice in Hatha yoga

Vajroli mudra (Sanskrit: वज्रोली मुद्रा vajrolī mudrā), the Vajroli Seal, is a practice in Hatha yoga which requires the yogin to preserve his semen, either by learning not to release it, or if released by drawing it up through his urethra from the vagina of "a woman devoted to the practice of yoga". The mudra was described as "obscene" by the translator Rai Bahadur Srisa Chandra Vasu, and as "obscure and repugnant" by another translator, Hans-Ulrich Rieker. The mudra is rarely practised in modern times. It was covered in the 1900s by the American sexologist Ida C. Craddock, the resulting legal proceedings against her leading to her imprisonment and suicide. The explorer Theos Bernard learnt and illustrated the posture associated with the mudra. The pioneer of modern yoga, Krishnamacharya, gives impractical instructions for the mudra, demonstrating in Norman Sjoman's opinion that he had never tried the practice. ## Context Hatha yoga is a branch of yoga that developed around the 11th century. Like earlier forms such as Patanjali's yoga, its ultimate goal was liberation, moksha, and its methods included meditation. It added a set of physical methods contributing to liberation including purification techniques (satkarmas), non-seated postures (asanas), elaborate breath-control (pranayama), and physical techniques to manipulate vital energy, the mudras. Mudras are gestures of the body, used in hatha yoga to assist in the spiritual journey towards liberation. Mudras such as Khechari Mudra and Mula Bandha are used to seal in the vital energy, which can take various forms such as prana (related to the breath) and bindu (related to the semen). The classical sources for the mudras in yoga are two medieval texts, the Gheranda Samhita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. However, many hatha yoga texts describe mudras. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika 3.5 states the importance of mudras in yoga practice: > Therefore the [Kundalini] goddess sleeping at the entrance of Brahma's door [at the base of the spine] should be constantly aroused with all effort, by performing mudra thoroughly. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the yoga teacher Satyananda Saraswati, founder of the Bihar School of Yoga, continued to emphasize the importance of mudras in his instructional text Asana, Pranayama, Mudrā, Bandha. ## Mudra Vajroli mudra, the Vajroli Seal, differs from other mudras in that it does not consist of sealing in a vital fluid physically, but involves its recovery. The mudra requires the yogin to preserve his semen, either by learning not to release it, or if released by drawing it up through his urethra from the vagina of "a woman devoted to the practice of yoga". It is described in the Hatha Yoga Pradipika 3.82–89. The Shiva Samhita 4.78–104 calls Vajroli mudra "the secret of all secrets" and claims that it enables "even a householder" (a married man, not a yogic renunciate) to be liberated. It calls for the man to draw up the rajas, the woman's sexual fluid, from her vagina. It explains that the loss of bindu, the vital force of the semen, causes death, while its retention causes life. The god Shiva says "I am bindu, the goddess (Shakti) is rajas." The Shiva Samhita states in the same passage that Sahajoli and Amaroli are variations of the mudra. The yogin is instructed to practice by using his wind to hold back the urine while he is urinating, and then to release it little by little. After six months' practice he will in this way become able to hold back his bindu, "even if he enjoys a hundred women". The practice has been proposed to serve to clean the bladder by drawing liquids towards the urethra as an auto-enema, similar to the intestinal shatkarma of basti. It might have also developed from a 1st millennium Tantric semen retention practice called asidharavrata. ## Reception ### Modern description Vajroli mudra is not often described in modern accounts, still less actually practised. The earliest Westerner to write about it was the American yoga scholar and sexologist Ida C. Craddock. Opposing the predominant religious culture of her nation at the time, fundamentalist Protestant Christianity, Craddock was struck by the Shiva Samhita's account of Vajroli mudra, with "the idea that sexual union could facilitate divine realization". She took the Hindu tantra concept that the male body was able to transform the sucked-up sexual fluids into an immortal "diamond body", and reworked it into a system involving delayed ejaculation to increase sexual pleasure within marriage. Further, she asserted that God was the third partner in such a marriage, "in what amounted to a sacred menage-a-trois." Craddock's emphasis on yoga and her new "mystico-erotic religion" enraged the authorities; she was tried in New York for obscenity and blasphemy, and imprisoned for three months. Facing federal charges on her release, in 1902 she killed herself. The yoga scholar Andrea Jain notes that Craddock's "sacralization of sexual intercourse" is far from radical by modern standards, but it was "antisocial heterodoxy" in the 1900s, leading indeed to her "martyrdom". The British Orientalist John Woodroffe describes the ability of a yogi to draw air and fluid into the urethra and out, and says, "Apart from its suggested medical value as a lavement of the bladder it is a mudra (physical technique) used in sexual connection whereby the Hathayogi sucks into himself the forces of the woman without ejecting any of his force or substance—a practice which is to be condemned as injurious to the woman who 'withers' under such treatment" The explorer and author Theos Bernard illustrates himself in a posture named Vajroli mudra in his 1943 participant observer book Hatha Yoga: The Report of a Personal Experience. The posture, somewhat resembling Navasana, is seated, the legs raised to about 45 degrees and held out straight, the body leaning back and the back rounded so that the palms can be placed on the ground below the raised thighs, the arms held straight. Bernard states that he was instructed to learn this once he could do lotus position (Padmasana) so that he would be strong enough to use it "in the more advanced stages" of his hatha yoga training; there is no suggestion in the book that he followed the full practice. The yoga scholar Norman Sjoman criticises Krishnamacharya, otherwise known as the father of modern yoga, for including "material on yogic practices from these academic sources in his text without knowing an actual tradition of teaching connected with the practice." Sjoman explains that Krishnamacharya recommended for Vajroli mudra "a glass rod to be inserted into the urethra an inch at a time." In Sjoman's view, this showed "that he has most certainly not experimented with this himself in the manner he recommends." The magazine of Satyananda Saraswati's Bihar School of Yoga, noting the criticism of Vajroli mudra, defends the practice in a 1985 article. It states that the Shatkarma Sangraha describes seven Vajroli practices, starting with "the simple contraction of the uro-genital muscles and later the sucking up of liquids". It adds that only when the first six practices are completed can the last, "yogic intercourse", succeed. It notes also that sexual climax is the one moment in ordinary lives when "the mind becomes completely void of its own accord", but the moment is brief as the lowest chakras (energy centres in the subtle body) are involved. Withholding the semen allows the energy to awaken kundalini, the energy supposedly coiled at the base of the spine, instead. Colin Hall and Sarah Garden, writing in Yoga International, note that, as with "yogic practices" like Khechari mudra, Mula bandha, and the various shatkarmas such as Dhauti (cleaning the gastro-intestinal tract by swallowing and pulling out lengths of cloth), Vajroli mudra is "rarely practiced by anyone at all." They state that the question is not whether these practices are right or wrong, but whether they are appropriate in a modern context. The practice is associated with bramacharya, dispassion towards sexual desire. ### Modern omission The lack of discussion of Vajroli mudra is related to the more general historic denigration of hatha yoga as unscientific and dangerous. The translator Rai Bahadur Srisa Chandra Vasu translated texts such as the Gheranda Samhita and the Shiva Samhita, starting in 1884, giving "stern warnings against the inherent perils of engaging in these practices". Vasu intentionally omitted Vajroli mudra from his translations, describing it as "an obscene practice indulged in by low class Tantrists". The yoga scholar Mark Singleton noted in 2010 that "the practice of vajroli has continued to be censored in modern editions of hatha yoga texts", giving as example Vishnudevananda's omission of it from his Hatha Yoga Pradipika with the explanation that "it falls outside the bounds of wholesome practice", "sattvic sadhana", along with sahajoli and amaroli. Similarly, Singleton notes, the leader of Arya Maitreya Mandala in Europe, Hans-Ulrich Rieker called these three practices "obscure and repugnant" and omitted them from his 1957 translation of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika.

The Jungle Book

1894 children's book by Rudyard Kipling

The Jungle Book (1894) is a collection of stories by the English author Rudyard Kipling. Most of the characters are animals such as Shere Khan the tiger and Baloo the bear, though a principal character is the boy or "man-cub" Mowgli, who is raised in the jungle by wolves. The stories are set in a forest in India; one place mentioned repeatedly is "Seeonee" (Seoni), in the central state of Madhya Pradesh. A major theme in the book is abandonment followed by fostering, as in the life of Mowgli, echoing Kipling's own childhood. The theme is echoed in the triumph of protagonists including Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal over their enemies, as well as Mowgli's. Another important theme is of law and freedom; the stories are not about animal behaviour, still less about the Darwinian struggle for survival, but about human archetypes in animal form. They teach respect for authority, obedience, and knowing one's place in society with "the law of the jungle", but the stories also illustrate the freedom to move between different worlds, such as when Mowgli moves between the jungle and the village. Critics have also noted the essential wildness and lawless energies in the stories, reflecting the irresponsible side of human nature. The Jungle Book has remained popular, partly through its many adaptations for film and other media. Critics such as Swati Singh have noted that even critics wary of Kipling for his supposed imperialism have admired the power of his storytelling. The book has been influential in the scout movement, whose founder, Robert Baden-Powell, was a friend of Kipling. Percy Grainger composed his Jungle Book Cycle around quotations from the book. ## Context The stories were first published in magazines in 1893–94. The original publications contain illustrations, some by the author's father, John Lockwood Kipling. Rudyard Kipling was born in India and spent the first six years of his childhood there. After about ten years in England, he went back to India and worked there for about six and a half years. These stories were written when Kipling lived in Naulakha, the home he built in Dummerston, Vermont, in the United States. There is evidence that Kipling wrote the collection of stories for his daughter Josephine, who died from pneumonia in 1899, aged 6; a first edition of the book with a handwritten note by the author to his young daughter was discovered at the National Trust's Wimpole Hall in Cambridgeshire, England, in 2010. ## Book ### Description The tales in the book (as well as those in The Second Jungle Book, which followed in 1895 and includes eight further stories, including five about Mowgli) are fables, using animals in an anthropomorphic manner to teach moral lessons. The verses of "The Law of the Jungle", for example, lay down rules for the safety of individuals, families, and communities. Kipling put in them nearly everything he knew or "heard or dreamed about the Indian jungle". Other readers have interpreted the work as allegories of the politics and society of the time. ### Origins The stories in The Jungle Book were inspired in part by the ancient Indian fable texts such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales. For example, an older moral-filled mongoose and snake version of the "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" story by Kipling is found in Book 5 of Panchatantra. In a letter to the American author Edward Everett Hale, Kipling wrote, > The idea of beast-tales seems to me new in that it is a most ancient and long forgotten idea. The really fascinating tales are those that the Bodhisat tells of his previous incarnations ending always with the beautiful moral. Most of the native hunters in India today think pretty much along the lines of an animal's brain and I have "cribbed" freely from their tales. In a letter written and signed by Kipling in or around 1895, states Alison Flood in The Guardian, Kipling confesses to borrowing ideas and stories in the Jungle Book: "I am afraid that all that code in its outlines has been manufactured to meet 'the necessities of the case': though a little of it is bodily taken from (Southern) Esquimaux rules for the division of spoils," Kipling wrote in the letter. "In fact, it is extremely possible that I have helped myself promiscuously but at present cannot remember from whose stories I have stolen." ### Setting Kipling lived in India as a child, and most of the stories are evidently set there, though it is not entirely clear where. The Kipling Society notes that "Seeonee" (Seoni, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh) is mentioned several times; that the "cold lairs" must be in the jungled hills of Chittorgarh; and that the first Mowgli story, "In the Rukh", is set in a forest reserve somewhere in North India, south of Simla. "Mowgli's Brothers" was positioned in the Aravalli hills of Rajasthan (northwestern India) in an early manuscript, later changed to Seonee, and Bagheera treks from "Oodeypore" (Udaipur), a journey of reasonable length to Aravalli but a long way from Seoni. Seoni has a tropical savanna climate, with a dry and a rainy season. This is drier than a monsoon climate and does not support tropical rainforest. Forested parks and reserves that claim to be associated with the stories include Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, and Pench National Park, near Seoni. However, Kipling never visited the area. ## Chapters The book is arranged with a story in each chapter. Each story is followed by a poem that serves as an epigram. ### Characters Many of the characters (marked \*) are named simply for the Hindustani names of their species: for example, Baloo is a transliteration of Hindustani भालू/بھالو Bhālū, "bear". The characters (marked ^) from "The White Seal" are transliterations from the Russian of the Pribilof Islands. - Akela \* – A wolf - Bagheera \* – A black panther - Baloo \* — A bear - Bandar-log \* – A tribe of monkeys - Chil \* – A kite, in earlier editions called Rann (रण Raṇ, "battle") - Chuchundra \* – A muskrat - Darzee \* – A tailorbird - Father Wolf – The father wolf who raised Mowgli as his own cub - Grey brother – One of Mother and Father Wolf's cubs - Hathi \* – An Indian elephant - Ikki \* – A porcupine - Kaa \* – A python - Karait \* – A krait - Kotick ^ – A white seal - Mang \* – A bat - Mor \* – An Indian peafowl - Mowgli – Main character, the young jungle boy - Nag \* – A male cobra - Nagaina \* – A female cobra, Nag's mate - Raksha – The Mother wolf who raised Mowgli as her own cub - Rikki-Tikki-Tavi – A mongoose - Sea Catch ^ – A seal and Kotick's father - Sea Cow – A (Steller's) sea cow - Sea Vitch ^ – A walrus - Shere Khan \* — A tiger - Tabaqui \* – A jackal ### Illustrations The early editions were illustrated with drawings in the text by John Lockwood Kipling (Rudyard's father), and the American artists W. H. Drake and Paul Frenzeny. ### Editions and translations The book has appeared in over 500 print editions, and over 100 audiobooks. It has been translated into at least 36 languages. ## Themes ### Abandonment and fostering Critics such as Harry Ricketts have observed that Kipling returns repeatedly to the theme of the abandoned and fostered child, recalling his own childhood feelings of abandonment. In his view, the enemy, Shere Khan, represents the "malevolent would-be foster-parent" who Mowgli in the end outwits and destroys, just as Kipling as a boy had to face Mrs Holloway in place of his parents. Ricketts writes that in "Mowgli's Brothers", the hero loses his human parents at the outset, and his wolf fosterers at the conclusion; and Mowgli is again rejected at the end of "Tiger! Tiger!", but each time is compensated by "a queue of would-be foster-parents" including the wolves, Baloo, Bagheera and Kaa. In Ricketts's view, the power that Mowgli has over all these characters who compete for his affection is part of the book's appeal to children. The historian of India Philip Mason similarly emphasises the Mowgli myth, where the fostered hero, "the odd man out among wolves and men alike", eventually triumphs over his enemies. Mason notes that both Rikki-Tikki-Tavi and The White Seal do much the same. ### Law and freedom The novelist Marghanita Laski argued that the purpose of the stories was not to teach about animals but to create human archetypes through the animal characters, with lessons of respect for authority. She noted that Kipling was a friend of the founder of the Scout Movement, Robert Baden-Powell, who based the junior scout "Wolf Cubs" on the stories, and that Kipling admired the movement. Ricketts wrote that Kipling was obsessed by rules, a theme running throughout the stories and named explicitly as "the law of the jungle". Part of this, Ricketts supposed, was Mrs Holloway's evangelicalism, suitably transformed. The rules required obedience and "knowing your place", but also provided social relationships and "freedom to move between different worlds". Sandra Kemp observed that the law may be highly codified, but that the energies are also lawless, embodying the part of human nature which is "floating, irresponsible and self-absorbed". There is a duality between the two worlds of the village and the jungle, but Mowgli, like Mang the bat, can travel between the two. The novelist and critic Angus Wilson noted that Kipling's law of the jungle was "far from Darwinian", since no attacks were allowed at the water-hole, even in drought. In Wilson's view, the popularity of the Mowgli stories is thus not literary but moral: the animals can follow the law easily, but Mowgli has human joys and sorrows, and the burden of making decisions. Kipling's biographer, Charles Carrington, argued that the "fables" about Mowgli illustrate truths directly, as successful fables do, through the character of Mowgli himself; through his "kindly mentors", Bagheera and Baloo; through the repeated failure of the "bully" Shere Khan; through the endless but useless talk of the Bandar-log; and through the law, which makes the jungle "an integrated whole" while enabling Mowgli's brothers to live as the "Free People". The academic Jan Montefiore commented on the book's balance of law and freedom that "You don't need to invoke Jacqueline Rose on the adult's dream of the child's innocence or Perry Nodelman's theory of children's literature colonising its readers' minds with a double fantasy of the child as both noble savage and embryo good citizen, to see that the Jungle Books .. give their readers a vicarious experience of adventure both as freedom and as service to a just State". ## Reception Sayan Mukherjee, writing for the Book Review Circle, calls The Jungle Book "One of the most enjoyable books of my childhood and even in adulthood, highly informative as to the outlook of the British on their 'native population'." The academic Jopi Nyman argued in 2001 that the book formed part of the construction of "colonial English national identity" within Kipling's "imperial project". In Nyman's view, nation, race and class are mapped out in the stories, contributing to "an imagining of Englishness as a site of power and racial superiority." Nyman suggested that The Jungle Book'''s monkeys and snakes represent "colonial animals" and "racialized Others" within the Indian jungle, whereas the White Seal promotes "'truly English' identities in the nationalist allegory" of that story. Swati Singh, in his Secret History of the Jungle Book, notes that the tone is like that of Indian folklore, fable-like, and that critics have speculated that the Kipling may have heard similar stories from his Hindu bearer and his Portuguese ayah (nanny) during his childhood in India. Singh observes, too, that Kipling wove "magic and fantasy" into the stories for his daughter Josephine, and that even critics reading Kipling for signs of imperialism could not help admiring the power of his storytelling. The Jungle Book came to be used as a motivational book by the Cub Scouts, a junior element of the Scouting movement. This use of the book's universe was approved by Kipling at the request of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouting movement, who had originally asked for the author's permission for the use of the Memory Game from Kim in his scheme to develop the morale and fitness of working-class youths in cities. Akela, the head wolf in The Jungle Book, has become a senior figure in the movement; the name is traditionally adopted by the leader of each Cub Scout pack. ## Adaptations The Jungle Book has been adapted many times in a wide variety of media. In literature, Robert Heinlein wrote the Hugo Award-winning science fiction novel, Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), when his wife, Virginia, suggested a new version of The Jungle Book, but with a child raised by Martians instead of wolves. Neil Gaiman's The Graveyard Book (2008) is inspired by The Jungle Book. It follows a baby boy who is found and brought up by the dead in a cemetery. It has many scenes that can be traced to Kipling, but with Gaiman's dark twist. In music, the Jungle Book cycle (1958) was written by the Australian composer Percy Grainger, an avid Kipling reader. It consists of quotations from the book, set as choral pieces and solos for soprano, tenor or baritone. The French composer Charles Koechlin wrote several symphonic works inspired by the book. BBC Radio broadcast an adaptation on 14 February 1994 and released it as a BBC audiobook in 2008. It was directed by Chris Wallis with Nisha K. Nayar as Mowgli, Eartha Kitt as Kaa, Freddie Jones as Baloo, and Jonathan Hyde as Bagheera. The music was by John Mayer. The book's text has been adapted for younger readers with comic book adaptations such as DC Comics Elseworlds' story, "Superman: The Feral Man of Steel", in which an infant Superman is raised by wolves, while Bagheera, Akela, and Shere Khan make appearances. Marvel Comics published several adaptations by Mary Jo Duffy and Gil Kane in the pages of Marvel Fanfare (vol. 1). These were collected in the one-shot Marvel Illustrated: The Jungle Book (2007). Bill Willingham's comic book series, Fables, features The Jungle Book's Mowgli, Bagheera, and Shere Khan. Manga Classics: The Jungle Book was published by UDON Entertainment's Manga Classics imprint in June 2017. Many films have been based on one or another of Kipling's stories, including Elephant Boy (1937), Chuck Jones's made for-TV cartoons Rikki-Tikki-Tavi (1975), The White Seal (1975), and Mowgli's Brothers (1976). Many films, too, have been made of the book as a whole, such as Zoltán Korda's 1942 film, Disney's 1967 animated film and its 2016 remake, the Russian: Маугли (Mowgli) published as Adventures of Mowgli in the US, an animation released between 1967 and 1971, and combined into a single 96-minute feature film in 1973, and the 1989 Italian-Japanese anime The Jungle Book: Adventures of Mogwli''. Stuart Paterson wrote a stage adaptation in 2004, first produced by the Birmingham Old Rep in 2004 and published in 2007 by Nick Hern Books. In 2021 BBC Radio 4 broadcast an adaptation by Ayeesha Menon which resets the story as a "gangland coming-of-age fable" in modern India.' ## See also - Feral children in mythology and fiction

Steven Pinker

Canadian-American psycholinguist and author (born 1954)

Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18, 1954) is a Canadian-American cognitive psychologist, psycholinguist, popular science author, and public intellectual. He is an advocate of evolutionary psychology and the computational theory of mind. Pinker is the Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology at Harvard University, and his academic specializations are visual cognition and developmental linguistics. His experimental subjects include mental imagery, shape recognition, visual attention, children's language development, regular and irregular phenomena in language, the neural bases of words and grammar, as well as the psychology of cooperation and communication, including euphemism, innuendo, emotional expression, and common knowledge. He has written two technical books that proposed a general theory of language acquisition and applied it to children's learning of verbs. In particular, his work with Alan Prince published in 1989 critiqued the connectionist model of how children acquire the past tense of English verbs, positing that children use default rules, such as adding -ed to make regular forms, sometimes in error, but are obliged to learn irregular forms one by one. Pinker is the author of nine books for general audiences. The Language Instinct (1994), How the Mind Works (1997), Words and Rules (2000), The Blank Slate (2002), and The Stuff of Thought (2007) describe aspects of psycholinguistics and cognitive science, and include accounts of his own research, positing that language is an innate behavior shaped by natural selection and adapted to our communication needs. Pinker's The Sense of Style (2014) is a general language-oriented style guide. Pinker's book The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011) posits that violence in human societies has generally declined over time, and identifies six major trends and five historical forces of this decline, the most important being the humanitarian revolution brought by the Enlightenment and its associated cultivation of reason. Enlightenment Now (2018) further argues that the human condition has generally improved over recent history because of reason, science, and humanism. The nature and importance of reason is also discussed in his next book Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters (2021). In 2004, Pinker was named in Time's "The 100 Most Influential People in the World Today", and in the years 2005, 2008, 2010, and 2011 in Foreign Policy's list of "Top 100 Global Thinkers". Pinker was also included in Prospect Magazine's top 10 "World Thinkers" in 2013. He has won awards from the American Psychological Association, the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Institution, the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, and the American Humanist Association. He delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh in 2013. He has served on the editorial boards of a variety of journals, and on the advisory boards of several institutions. Pinker was the chair of the Usage Panel of the American Heritage Dictionary from 2008 to 2018. ## Biography Pinker was born in Montreal, Quebec, in 1954, to a middle-class secular Jewish family in an English-speaking community. His grandparents emigrated to Canada from Poland and Romania in 1926, and owned a small necktie factory in Montreal. His father, Harry, worked in real estate and was a lawyer. His mother, Roslyn, was originally a homemaker, but later became a guidance counsellor and a high-school vice-principal. In an interview, Pinker described his mother as "very intellectual" and "an intense reader [who] knows everything". His brother, Robert, worked for the Canadian government for several decades as an administrator and a policy analyst, while his sister, Susan Pinker, is a psychologist and writer who authored The Sexual Paradox and The Village Effect. Susan is also a columnist for The Wall Street Journal. Pinker graduated from Dawson College in 1973. He graduated from McGill University in 1976 with a Bachelor of Arts in psychology, then did doctoral studies in experimental psychology at Harvard University under Stephen Kosslyn, receiving a PhD in 1979. He did research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for a year, then became a professor at Harvard and then Stanford University. From 1982 until 2003 Pinker taught at the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT, was the co-director of the Center for Cognitive Science (1985–1994), and eventually became the director of the Center for Cognitive Neuroscience (1994–1999), taking a one-year sabbatical at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1995–96. Since 2003 he has been serving as the Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology at Harvard and between 2008 and 2013 he also held the title of Harvard College Professor in recognition of his dedication to teaching. He currently gives lectures as a visiting professor at the New College of the Humanities, a private college in London. Pinker married Nancy Etcoff in 1980 and they divorced in 1992; he married again in 1995 and again divorced. His third wife, whom he married in 2007, is the novelist and philosopher Rebecca Goldstein. He has two stepdaughters, the novelist Yael Goldstein Love and the poet Danielle Blau. Pinker adopted atheism at 13, but at various times was a serious "cultural Jew." Pinker is an avid cyclist. ## Linguistic career Pinker's research on visual cognition, begun in collaboration with his thesis adviser, Stephen Kosslyn, showed that mental images represent scenes and objects as they appear from a specific vantage point (rather than capturing their intrinsic three-dimensional structure), and thus correspond to the neuroscientist David Marr's theory of a "two-and-a-half-dimensional sketch." He also showed that this level of representation is used in visual attention, and in object recognition (at least for asymmetrical shapes), contrary to Marr's theory that recognition uses viewpoint-independent representations. In psycholinguistics, Pinker became known early in his career for promoting computational learning theory as a way to understand language acquisition in children. He wrote a tutorial review of the field followed by two books that advanced his own theory of language acquisition, and a series of experiments on how children acquire the passive, dative, and locative constructions. These books were Language Learnability and Language Development (1984), in Pinker's words "outlin[ing] a theory of how children acquire the words and grammatical structures of their mother tongue", and Learnability and Cognition: The Acquisition of Argument Structure (1989), in Pinker's words "focus[ing] on one aspect of this process, the ability to use different kinds of verbs in appropriate sentences, such as intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, and verbs taking different combinations of complements and indirect objects". He then focused on verbs of two kinds that illustrate what he considers to be the processes required for human language: retrieving whole words from memory, like the past form of the irregular verb "bring", namely "brought"; and using rules to combine (parts of) words, like the past form of the regular verb "walk", namely "walked". In 1988 Pinker and Alan Prince published a critique of a connectionist model of the acquisition of the past tense (a textbook problem in language acquisition), followed by a series of studies of how people use and acquire the past tense. This included a monograph on children's regularization of irregular forms and his popular 1999 book, Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language. Pinker argued that language depends on two things: the associative remembering of sounds and their meanings in words, and the use of rules to manipulate symbols for grammar. He presented evidence against connectionism, where a child would have to learn all forms of all words and would simply retrieve each needed form from memory, in favour of the older alternative theory, the use of words and rules combined by generative phonology. He showed that mistakes made by children indicate the use of default rules to add suffixes such as "-ed": for instance 'breaked' and 'comed' for 'broke' and 'came'. He argued that this shows that irregular verb-forms in English have to be learnt and retrieved from memory individually, and that the children making these errors were predicting the regular "-ed" ending in an open-ended way by applying a mental rule. This rule for combining verb stems and the usual suffix can be expressed as V_past → V_stem + d, where V is a verb and d is the regular ending. Pinker further argued that since the ten most frequently occurring English verbs (be, have, do, say, make ... ) are all irregular, while 98.2% of the thousand least common verbs are regular, there is a "massive correlation" of frequency and irregularity. He explains this by arguing that every irregular form, such as 'took', 'came' and 'got', has to be committed to memory by the children in each generation, or else lost, and that the common forms are the most easily memorized. Any irregular verb that falls in popularity past a certain point is lost, and all future generations will treat it as a regular verb instead. In 1990 Pinker, with Paul Bloom, published a paper arguing that the human language faculty must have evolved through natural selection. The article provided arguments for a continuity-based view of language evolution, contrary to then-current discontinuity-based theories that see language as suddenly appearing with the advent of Homo sapiens as a kind of evolutionary accident. This discontinuity-based view was prominently argued by two main authorities, linguist Noam Chomsky and Stephen Jay Gould. The paper became widely cited and created renewed interest in the evolutionary prehistory of language, and has been credited with shifting the central question of the debate from "did language evolve?" to "how did language evolve?" The article also presaged Pinker's argument in The Language Instinct. In 2006 Pinker provided to Alan Dershowitz, a personal friend of Pinker's who was Jeffrey Epstein's defense attorney, Pinker's own interpretation of the wording of a federal law pertaining to the enticement of minors into illegal sex acts via the internet. Dershowitz included Pinker's opinion in a letter to the court during proceedings that resulted in a plea deal in which all federal sex trafficking charges against Epstein were dropped. In 2019, Pinker stated that he was unaware of the nature of the charges against Epstein, and that he engaged in an unpaid favor for his Harvard colleague Dershowitz, as he had regularly done. He stated in an interview with BuzzFeed News that he regrets writing the letter. Pinker says he never received money from Epstein and met with him three times over more than a dozen years, and said he could never stand Epstein and tried to keep his distance. ## Popularization of science ### Human cognition and natural language Pinker's 1994 The Language Instinct was the first of several books to combine cognitive science with behavioral genetics and evolutionary psychology. It introduces the science of language and popularizes Noam Chomsky's theory that language is an innate faculty of mind, with the controversial twist that the faculty for language evolved by natural selection as an adaptation for communication. Pinker criticizes several widely held ideas about language – that it needs to be taught, that people's grammar is poor and getting worse with new ways of speaking, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis that language limits the kinds of thoughts a person can have, and that other great apes can learn languages. Pinker sees language as unique to humans, evolved to solve the specific problem of communication among social hunter-gatherers. He argues that it is as much an instinct as specialized adaptative behavior in other species, such as a spider's web-weaving or a beaver's dam-building. Pinker states in his introduction that his ideas are "deeply influenced" by Chomsky; he also lists scientists whom Chomsky influenced to "open up whole new areas of language study, from child development and speech perception to neurology and genetics" – Eric Lenneberg, George Miller, Roger Brown, Morris Halle and Alvin Liberman. Brown mentored Pinker through his thesis; Pinker stated that Brown's "funny and instructive" book Words and Things (1958) was one of the inspirations for The Language Instinct. There has been debate about the explanatory adequacy of the theory. By 2015, the nativist views of Pinker and Chomsky had a number of challenges on the grounds that they had incorrect core assumptions and were inconsistent with research evidence from psycholinguistics and child language acquisition. The reality of Pinker's proposed language instinct, and the related claim that grammar is innate and genetically based, has been contested by linguists such as Geoffrey Sampson in his 1997 book, Educating Eve: The 'Language Instinct' Debate. Sampson argues that "while it may seem attractive to argue the nature side of the 'nature versus nurture' debate, the nurture side may better support the creativity and nobility of the human mind." Sampson denies there is a language instinct, and argues that children can learn language because people can learn anything. Others have sought a middle ground between Pinker's nativism and Sampson's culturalism. The assumptions underlying the nativist view have also been questioned in Jeffrey Elman's Rethinking Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development, which defends the connectionist approach that Pinker attacked. In his 1996 book Impossible Minds, the machine intelligence researcher Igor Aleksander calls The Language Instinct excellent, and argues that Pinker presents a relatively soft claim for innatism, accompanied by a strong dislike of the 'Standard Social Sciences Model' or SSSM (Pinker's term), which supposes that development is purely dependent on culture. Further, Aleksander writes that while Pinker criticises some attempts to explain language processing with neural nets, Pinker later makes use of a neural net to create past tense verb forms correctly. Aleksander concludes that while he doesn't support the SSSM, "a cultural repository of language just seems the easy trick for an efficient evolutionary system armed with an iconic state machine to play." Two other books, How the Mind Works (1997) and The Blank Slate (2002), broadly surveyed the mind and defended the idea of a complex human nature with many mental faculties that are genetically adaptive (Pinker is an ally of Daniel Dennett and Richard Dawkins in many disputes surrounding adaptationism). Another major theme in Pinker's theories is that human cognition works, in part, by combinatorial symbol-manipulation, not just associations among sensory features, as in many connectionist models. On the debate around The Blank Slate, Pinker called Thomas Sowell's book A Conflict of Visions "wonderful", and explained that "The Tragic Vision" and the "Utopian Vision" are the views of human nature behind right- and left-wing ideologies. In Words and Rules: the Ingredients of Language (1999), Pinker argues from his own research that regular and irregular phenomena are products of computation and memory lookup, respectively, and that language can be understood as an interaction between the two. "Words and Rules" is also the title of an essay by Pinker outlining many of the topics discussed in the book. Critiqueing the book from the perspective of generative linguistics Charles Yang, in the London Review of Books, writes that "this book never runs low on hubris or hyperbole". The book's topic, the English past tense, is in Yang's view unglamorous, and Pinker's attempts at compromise risk being in no man's land between rival theories. Giving the example of German, Yang argues that irregular nouns in that language at least all belong to classes, governed by rules, and that things get even worse in languages that attach prefixes and suffixes to make up long 'words': they can't be learnt individually, as there are untold numbers of combinations. "All Pinker (and the connectionists) are doing is turning over the rocks at the base of the intellectual landslide caused by the Chomskian revolution." In The Stuff of Thought (2007), Pinker looks at a wide range of issues around the way words related to thoughts on the one hand, and to the world outside ourselves on the other. Given his evolutionary perspective, a central question is how an intelligent mind capable of abstract thought evolved: how a mind adapted to Stone Age life could work in the modern world. Many quirks of language are the result. Pinker is critical of theories about the evolutionary origins of language that argue that linguistic cognition might have evolved from earlier musical cognition. He sees language as being tied primarily to the capacity for logical reasoning, and speculates that human proclivity for music may be a spandrel – a feature not adaptive in its own right, but that has persisted through other traits that are more broadly practical, and thus selected for. In How the Mind Works, Pinker reiterates Immanuel Kant's view that music is not in itself an important cognitive phenomenon, but that it happens to stimulate important auditory and spatio-motor cognitive functions. Pinker compares music to "auditory cheesecake", stating that "As far as biological cause and effect is concerned, music is useless". This argument has been rejected by Daniel Levitin and Joseph Carroll, experts in music cognition, who argue that music has had an important role in the evolution of human cognition. In his book This Is Your Brain On Music, Levitin argues that music could provide adaptive advantage through sexual selection, social bonding, and cognitive development; he questions the assumption that music is the antecedent to language, as opposed to its progenitor, noting that many species display music-like habits that could be seen as precursors to human music. Pinker has also been critical of "whole language" reading instruction techniques, stating in How the Mind Works, "... the dominant technique, called 'whole language,' the insight that [spoken] language is a naturally developing human instinct has been garbled into the evolutionarily improbable claim that reading is a naturally developing human instinct." In the appendix to the 2007 reprinted edition of The Language Instinct, Pinker cited Why Our Children Can't Read by cognitive psychologist Diane McGuinness as his favorite book on the subject and noted: > One raging public debate involving language went unmentioned in The Language Instinct: the "reading wars," or dispute over whether children should be explicitly taught to read by decoding the sounds of words from their spelling (loosely known as "phonics") or whether they can develop it instinctively by being immersed in a text-rich environment (often called "whole language"). I tipped my hand in the paragraph in [the sixth chapter of the book] which said that language is an instinct but reading is not. Like most psycholinguists (but apparently unlike many school boards), I think it's essential for children to be taught to become aware of speech sounds and how they are coded in strings of letters. ### The Better Angels of Our Nature In The Better Angels of Our Nature, published in 2011, Pinker argues that violence, including tribal warfare, homicide, cruel punishments, child abuse, animal cruelty, domestic violence, lynching, pogroms, and international and civil wars, has decreased over multiple scales of time and magnitude. Pinker considers it unlikely that human nature has changed. In his view, it is more likely that human nature comprises inclinations toward violence and those that counteract them, the "better angels of our nature". He outlines several "major historical declines of violence" that all have their own social/cultural/economic causes. Response to the book was divided. Many critics found its arguments convincing and its synthesis of a large volume of historical evidence compelling. Other aspects drew criticism, including the use of deaths per capita as a metric, Pinker's liberal humanism, the focus on Europe, the interpretation of historical data, and its image of indigenous people. Archaeologist David Wengrow summarized Pinker's approach to archaeological science as "a modern psychologist making it up as he goes along". ### English writing style in the 21st century In his seventh popular book, The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person's Guide to Writing in the 21st Century (2014), Pinker attempts to provide a writing style guide that is informed by modern science and psychology, because a long time has passed since William Strunk wrote The Elements of Style in 1918. ## Public debate Pinker is a frequent participant in public debates surrounding the contributions of science to contemporary society. Social commentators such as Ed West, author of The Diversity Illusion, consider Pinker important and daring in his willingness to confront taboos, as in The Blank Slate. According to West, the doctrine of tabula rasa remained accepted "as fact, rather than fantasy" a decade after the book's publication. West describes Pinker as "no polemicist, and he leaves readers to draw their own conclusions". In January 2005 Pinker defended comments by then-President of Harvard University Lawrence Summers. Summers had speculated that in addition to differing societal demands and discrimination, "different availability of aptitude at the high end" may contribute to gender gaps in mathematics and science. In a debate between Pinker and Elizabeth Spelke on gender and science, Pinker argued in favor of the proposition that the gender difference in representation in elite universities was "explainable by some combination of biological differences in average temperaments and talents interacting with socialization and bias". In January 2009 Pinker wrote an article about the Personal Genome Project and its possible impact on the understanding of human nature in The New York Times. He discussed the new developments in epigenetics and gene-environment interactions in the afterword to the 2016 edition of his book The Blank Slate. Pinker has been criticised for his association with scientific racists, such as the blogger Steven Sailer, with journalist Angela Saini stating that “for many people, Pinker’s willingness to entertain the work of individuals who are on the far right and white supremacists has gone beyond the pale”. Pinker has stated that he condemns racism. In a November 2009 article for The New York Times Pinker wrote a mixed review of Malcolm Gladwell's essays, criticizing his analytical methods. Gladwell replied, disputing Pinker's comments about the importance of IQ on teaching performance and by analogy the effect, if any, of draft order on quarterback performance in the National Football League. Advanced NFL Stats addressed the issue statistically, siding with Pinker and showing that differences in methodology could explain the two men's differing opinions. In an appearance for BBC World Service's "Exchanges At The Frontier" programme, an audience member questioned whether the virtuous developments in culture and human nature (documented in The Better Angels of Our Nature) could have expressed in our biology either through genetic or epigenetic expression. Pinker responded that it was unlikely since "some of the declines have occurred far too rapidly for them to be explicable by biological evolution which has a speed limit measured in generations, but crime can plummet in a span of 15 years and some of these humanitarian reforms like eliminating slavery and torture occurred in say 50 years". Helga Vierich and Cathryn Townsend wrote a critical review of Pinker's sweeping "civilizational" explanations for patterns of human violence and warfare in response to a lecture he gave at Cambridge University in September 2015. In his 2018 book Enlightenment Now, Pinker posited that Enlightenment rationality should be defended against attacks from both the political left and political right. In a debate with Pinker, post-colonial theorist Homi Bhabha said that Enlightenment philosophy had immoral consequences such as inequality, slavery, imperialism, world wars, and genocide, and that Pinker downplayed them. Pinker argued that Bhabha had perceived the causal relationship between Enlightenment thinking and these sources of suffering "backwards", responding in part that "The natural state of humanity, at least since the dawn of civilization, is poverty, disease, ignorance, exploitation, and violence (including slavery and imperial conquest). It is knowledge, mobilised to improve human welfare, that allows anyone to rise above this state." In a 2019 story in Current Affairs proprietor Nathan Robinson criticised Pinker, saying that he misrepresents his critics arguments against his work. In 2020, an open letter to the Linguistic Society of America requesting the removal of Pinker from its list of LSA Fellows and its list of media experts was signed by hundreds of academics. The letter accused Pinker of a "pattern of drowning out the voices of people suffering from racist and sexist violence, in particular in the immediate aftermath of violent acts and/or protests against the systems that created them," citing as examples six of Pinker's tweets. Pinker said in reply that through this letter he, and more importantly, younger academics with less protection, were being threatened by "a regime of intimidation that constricts the theatre of ideas." Several academics criticized the letter and expressed support for Pinker. The executive committee of the Linguistic Society of America declined to strike Pinker from its lists and issued a response letter stating that "It is not the mission of the Society to control the opinions of its members, nor their expression." ## Awards and distinctions Pinker was named one of Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2004 and one of Prospect and Foreign Policy's 100 top public intellectuals in both years the poll was carried out, 2005 and 2008; in 2010 and 2011 he was named by Foreign Policy to its list of top global thinkers. In 2016, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. His research in cognitive psychology has won the Early Career Award (1984) and Boyd McCandless Award (1986) from the American Psychological Association, the Troland Research Award (1993) from the National Academy of Sciences, the Henry Dale Prize (2004) from the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and the George Miller Prize (2010) from the Cognitive Neuroscience Society. He has also received honorary doctorates from the universities of Newcastle, Surrey, Tel Aviv, McGill, Simon Fraser University and the University of Tromsø. He was twice a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize, in 1998 and in 2003. Pinker received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1999. On May 13, 2006, he received the American Humanist Association's Humanist of the Year award for his contributions to public understanding of human evolution. For 2022 he was awarded the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of "Humanities and Social Sciences". Pinker has served on the editorial boards of journals such as Cognition, Daedalus, and PLOS One, and on the advisory boards of institutions for scientific research (e.g., the Allen Institute for Brain Science), free speech (e.g., the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression), the popularization of science (e.g., the World Science Festival and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry), peace (e.g., the Peace Research Endowment), and secular humanism (e.g., the Freedom From Religion Foundation and the Secular Coalition for America). From 2008 to 2018, Pinker chaired the Usage Panel of the American Heritage Dictionary. He wrote the essay on usage for the fifth edition of the Dictionary, published in 2011. In February 2001, Pinker, "whose hair has long been the object of admiration, and envy, and intense study", was nominated by acclamation as the first member of the Luxuriant Flowing Hair Club for Scientists (LFHCfS) organized by the Annals of Improbable Research.

Interstate 495 (Delaware)

Highway in Delaware

Interstate 495 (I-495) is an 11.47-mile-long (18.46 km) auxiliary Interstate Highway in the US state of Delaware. The highway, named the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway, serves as a six-lane bypass of I-95 around the city of Wilmington. I-495 begins at an interchange with I-95 and I-295 near Newport to the southwest of Wilmington. From here, the road heads east to the Port of Wilmington, where it turns northeast and crosses the Christina River as it heads to the east of downtown Wilmington. Upon reaching Edgemoor, I-495 runs between the Delaware River to the east and U.S. Route 13 (US 13) to the west, continuing to Claymont. In Claymont, I-495 turns north and merges into northbound I-95 at an interchange with Delaware Route 92 (DE 92) just south of the Pennsylvania state line. Plans for a bypass of Wilmington to the east date back to 1948 and were incorporated into the Interstate Highway System in 1956. This Interstate bypass was numbered I-495 in the 1960s. Construction of I-495 took place during the course of the 1970s, with the entire length of the highway completed and opened to traffic in 1977. Between 1978 and 1980, I-95 was designated along the I-495 alignment while the South Wilmington Viaduct along I-95 was reconstructed; during this time the route through Wilmington was known as I-895. The US 13/DE 3 interchange in Edgemoor opened in 1988. In 2014, the bridge over the Christina River was closed due to tilting support columns until repairs were completed. ## Route description I-495 begins at an interchange with I-95/US 202 and I-295 near the town of Newport, heading to the east on a six-lane freeway called the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway. At the southern terminus, southbound I-495 merges into southbound I-95 and also has a ramp that provides easier access to the DE 141 interchange along I-95. The route passes over the Jack A. Markell Trail and runs between the Christina River to the north and a landfill to the south prior to reaching an interchange with US 13 and the southern terminus of US 13 Business (US 13 Bus.) in Minquadale. Past this, the highway enters industrial areas and reaches the DE 9A exit near the Port of Wilmington, turning to the northeast. From here, the highway heads into the eastern part of the city of Wilmington. I-495 comes to a bridge that crosses over Norfolk Southern Railway's New Castle Secondary and Christiana Avenue Industrial Track railroad lines, DE 9A, and the Christina River. The freeway passes near another landfill as it comes to the 12th Street exit. The road runs through some marshland, crossing Shellpot Creek and Norfolk Southern Railway's Edgemoor Lead railroad line, before coming to an interchange in an industrial area of Edgemoor that connects to the southern terminus of DE 3 as well as to US 13. Following this interchange, I-495 crosses over Norfolk Southern Railway's Shellpot Secondary and Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad lines before it runs between US 13 and suburban areas to the west and the Northeast Corridor and the Delaware River to the east, passing northwest of Fox Point State Park and crossing Stoney Creek and Perkins Run. I-495 continues along this configuration until it reaches Claymont. US 13 heads farther west from the freeway and I-495 makes a turn to the north away from the railroad tracks and the river near Claymont station along SEPTA's Wilmington/Newark Line that uses the Northeast Corridor. The road comes to another exit for US 13 before merging into northbound I-95 at the DE 92 interchange near the former Tri-State Mall and the Pennsylvania state line. Southbound I-495 features an exit to DE 92; the remaining ramps of the DE 92 interchange connect directly to I-95. Southbound, the I-495 splitoff from I-95 actually starts in Pennsylvania but crosses into Delaware 220 feet (67 m) later before the exit to DE 92. This ramp is inventoried by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as State Route 8009. I-495 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 105,159 vehicles at the south end of Wilmington near the Christina River to a low of 22,379 vehicles at the ramp to I-95 at the southern terminus. As part of the Interstate Highway System, the entire length of I-495 is a part of the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. ## History In 1948, the Wilmington Transportation Study proposed two new roads running between the southern end of Wilmington and the Pennsylvania state line to improve traffic flow in the Wilmington area. Route A followed the current alignment of I-95 through the city while Route B bypassed the city to the east along the current alignment of I-495. In 1956, the Interstate Highway System was created, with FAI-3 proposed along the current alignment of I-495. In 1960, design work on FAI-3 was underway. The route of FAI-3 was numbered as I-495 in 1962. In 1968, structural design for bridges along I-495 was underway. The same year, the first construction contracts began with three demolition contracts, the building of a culvert under the Penn Central railroad line at Holly Oak Creek, and the relocation of a section of US 13 to the west to allow for room to build I-495. In 1970, work continued on relocating US 13 along with the construction of bridges carrying the interstate over Stoney Creek. A contract was awarded to build I-495 between Edgemoor and I-95 in Claymont in 1971. The same year, work was underway on building the bridge over the Christina River. Design work on the interstate was completed at this time. The following year, construction contracts were awarded to build I-495 south of the Christina River and to stabilize the road near Cherry Island. Paving was also underway between the Christina River and Edgemoor. In 1973, contracts were let to build structures along the freeway between the Christina River and Edgemoor. Work on the highway between New Castle Avenue and the Christina River bridge was finished in 1975. In 1976, the first section of I-495 was opened between US 13 and I-95 in Claymont. The same year, the bridge carrying the highway over Edgemoor Road was completed. In June 1977, the remainder of I-495 was completed and opened to traffic. On June 28, 1978, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) approved rerouting I-95 along the I-495 alignment. However, AASHTO disapproved renumbering the alignment of I-95 through Wilmington as I-595. On October 27 of that year, AASHTO gave conditional approval for I-95 through Wilmington to be designated as I-195 from I-95 near Newport north to US 202 while the route from US 202 north to I-95 in Claymont would become I-395. I-895 was designated along the conditionally approved route of I-195 and I-395 on June 25, 1979. In 1980, the South Wilmington Viaduct along I-895 was reconstructed. On November 14, 1980, I-95 and I-495 were returned to their original alignments, with I-895 decommissioned. In 1988, an interchange was built at US 13 and DE 3 in Edgemoor. This interchange was numbered as exit 4, which resulted in the US 13 interchange in Claymont being renumbered from exit 4 to exit 5. In February 1988, a tanker drove off the Christina River bridge and exploded, with the truck driver killed. The accident forced the closure of I-495 in order to repair the heat damage to the bridge structure. In 2000, through traffic from I-95 was detoured onto I-495 while I-95 was rebuilt between Wilmington and the Pennsylvania state line. On June 2, 2014, the bridge over the Christina River was closed after it was discovered that four support columns were tilting. I-495 was indefinitely closed to traffic between the DE 9A and 12th Street interchanges. Delaware Department of Transportation officials later announced plans to have the southbound side of the bridge reopened by Labor Day, with the northbound side to follow by late September. The southbound lanes reopened on July 31, a month earlier than expected, and the northbound lanes reopened on August 23. During the closure, traffic was detoured onto I-95, and several major roads in the Wilmington area experienced increased traffic congestion. ## Exit list ## See also

Better When I'm Dancin'

"Better When I'm Dancin'" is a song recorded by American singer-songwriter Meghan Trainor for the soundtrack to the film The Peanuts Movie, based on the popular comic strip of the same name created by cartoonist Charles M. Schulz. Trainor co-wrote it with Thaddeus Dixon and co-produced it with her brother, Justin. Epic Records released it on October 14, 2015, as the first and only promotional single from the soundtrack. Backed by an instrumentation of salsa-inspired drums, the tropical song has house influences and optimistic lyrics that were inspired by Trainor's fans. "Better When I'm Dancin'" peaked at number 76 in Australia, and at number one on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, certified Platinum in both countries. Philip Andelman directed the music video, which was released on October 14, 2015. Trainor has performed "Better When I'm Dancin'" live on several shows, including The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and Dancing with the Stars. It was performed during her MTrain Tour (2015). ## Background and release In July 2015, Trainor embarked on the MTrain Tour in support of her debut major-label studio album Title (2015). She accompanied herself on a ukulele and wrote "Better When I'm Dancin'" in "a short amount of time" on her tour bus. She approached American record producer Thaddeus Dixon to produce the song, against the wishes of her label Epic Records. Dixon recalled that Trainor said "if Thaddeus isn't producing it, I'm not doing it", and "stuck up" for him. Ultimately, Dixon ended up co-writing "Better When I'm Dancin'" with Trainor, while the latter co-produced it with her brother Justin Trainor. In an interview with People that month, Trainor revealed that she was recording the song for The Peanuts Movie soundtrack. According to her, she was approached to soundtrack the film due to her ability to write "a song about confidence". An animated version of Trainor was used to promote the announcement on her Instagram account. A 20-second clip of "Better When I'm Dancin'" was made available on October 9, 2015. The song was released for digital download and streaming on October 14, 2015, being offered as an instant download with the soundtrack's pre-order. It was released to Italian contemporary hit radio stations on October 23. Trainor contributed an additional song called "Good to be Alive" to the Target edition of The Peanuts Movie soundtrack. "Better When I'm Dancin'" was released as a 7" Vinyl single on February 26, 2016, with the song "Bang Dem Sticks" as its B-side. ## Composition "Better When I'm Dancin'" was inspired by Trainor's fans, who "make [her] feel like a star on that stage". The song is about confidence and releasing your insecurities on the dance floor, and has been described as a "classic confidence-boosting tune". A tropical song, it has a peppy beat and optimistic message, along with instrumentation of salsa-inspired drums. "Better When I'm Dancin'" strays from Trainor's usual doo-wop-influenced musical style, being described as "breezy and harmless" with traces of house music. The song is written in the key of D major with a tempo of 128 beats per minute. In the verses, the song follows a chord progression of D–D/F–G5–D/F–Em7–Asus, and Trainor's vocals span from G₄ to D₆ in the song. ## Reception Idolator's Robbie Daw wrote that "Better When I'm Dancin'" would make listeners realize that "everything [they] thought [they] knew about Meghan Trainor was a dark and twisted lie", calling it the "most un-Meghan Trainor song we've heard so far". Carolyn Menyes of Music Times stated that the song is "perfectly fitted for a children's movie but won't break much out of that space", the reason being that it is "overly cutesy". Time included it in their list of the Top 10 Worst Songs of 2015, criticizing how little the lyrics relate to the Peanuts franchise and noting that their "attitude of high-spirited joy aren't (sic) matched by a blandly indifferent delivery". "Better When I'm Dancin'" received a nomination for the Hollywood Music in Media Award for Best Original Song in an Animated Film at the 2015 Hollywood Music in Media Awards, and won the Radio Disney Music Award for Best Song That Makes You Smile at the 2016 Radio Disney Music Awards. "Better When I'm Dancin'" topped the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, as well as the Kid Digital Songs chart. The song attained a Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It also charted at number 93 on the Canadian Hot 100. "Better When I'm Dancin'" reached number 76 in Australia, achieving a quadruple Platinum certification in the country in 2023. Additionally, it peaked at numbers 99, 29 and 17 on Venezuela's Record Report, Pop General and Top Anglo charts, respectively, and received a Gold certification in Poland. ## Music video Directed by Philip Andelman, the video premiered on Apple Music on October 14, 2015. It features Trainor with appearances from Snoopy, Woodstock, Charlie Brown, among other characters from Peanuts. Several of Trainor's relatives traveled to Los Angeles to appear in the video, including her aunt and uncle, Lisa and Burton Toney, and their three children. Her high school friend Lily Harrington and father Gary Trainor also made cameos, while her mother filmed the making of the video. In the music video, Trainor wears a red, long-sleeved dress and performs choreography at locations such as a diner and a street corner. Her relatives are also featured dancing. The beginning of the video was filmed in black and white, which changes to bright colors during shots of Trainor's family. Menyes compared the video's transition, from black and white to the "big, colorful comic world" of Peanuts, to Smallville. Writing for Idolator, Mike Wass described it as "a suitably lighthearted affair", commenting that its "retro look" is similar to Trainor's previous music videos, with the singer "rocking vintage fashions and working behind the counter of an old-school diner". ## Live performances Trainor performed "Better When I'm Dancin'" and "Good to be Alive" during selected shows of her MTrain Tour, such as on July 24 in Los Angeles and August 6 in Boston, prior to their release. On November 5, 2015, she played it on Today, and the following day on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.[^1] She also performed the song on the Dancing with the Stars'' season 21 finale on November 24, 2015, followed by her collaboration with Who Is Fancy and Ariana Grande, "Boys like You". ## Track listing - Digital download 1. "Better When I'm Dancin'" – 2:56 - 7" Vinyl 1. "Better When I'm Dancin'" – 2:56 2. "Bang Dem Sticks" – 3:00 ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from Tidal. - Meghan Trainor – lead vocals, producer, programmer, recording engineer - Justin Trainor – producer, programmer - Brandon Brown – bass - Kendall Gilder – guitar - Dave Kutch – mastering engineer - Manny Marroquin – mixing engineer ## Charts ## Certifications ## Release history [^1]:

Tonga at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games

Tonga competed in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the British Crown Dependency of Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011. Their participation marked their second Commonwealth Youth Games appearance. The delegation of Tonga consisted of three officials and four competitors (two men and two women) participating in three different sports— athletics, boxing and swimming. This was a decrease in the number of athletes from the nation's last appearance at the Games, when nine athletes were sent to the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games in Pune. Heamasi Sekona won a bronze in the light heavyweight class of boxing without winning a single bout. Sekona was the only medalist from Tongan side. None of the rest three athletes advanced past the qualifying stages, and thus did not win any medals. Katiloka ranked eighth overall in the qualifying round for triple jump; middleweight boxer, Pomale, lost to Cody Crowley of Canada in his first round match. Additionally, Prescott ranked 18th and 13th in the heat rounds of 50 m and 100 m backstroke events respectively. Sekona's was the first medal for Tonga in the history of the Games. ## Background Independent Tonga became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1970, and debuted in the Commonwealth Games in 1974 in Christchurch, New Zealand. Tonga did not participate in first two—2000 Edinburgh and 2004 Bendigo—Commonwealth Youth Games. It entered nine athletes (two men and seven women) in the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games in Pune, India, competed in athletics, table tennis and tennis; but failed to win any medal. Tonga was one of the 63 nations that participated in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the British Crown Dependency of Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011, making its second Commonwealth Youth Games appearance. Tonga finished last in the medal table, in 22nd, sharing the position with nine other Commonwealth Games Associations. ## Delegation The Tonga Association of Sports and National Olympic Committee selected a delegation consisting of three officials and four competitors for the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games. None of the athletes had previously participated in the Commonwealth Youth Games. The first, Ana Katiloka, was the sole athlete to represent the nation in athletics. Two pugilists—Tevita Pomale and Heamasi Sekona—competed in the middleweight and light heavyweight classes. Irene Prescott, as the only swimmer from Tongan side, participated in two events. Also in the delegation as a chef de mission of Tonga for the Games was Hiko Fungavaka. The delegation was also accompanied by the head boxing coach Lolo Heimuli. The final member of the delegation was Sione Prescott as an extra official. ## Athletics Athletics events were held in the National Sports Center Athletics Stadium. Ana Katiloka represented Tonga in the triple jump event of athletics. This event took place on 11 September 2011. Katiloka's best jump in the event was 10.41 m, and she finished last (eighth) in the final standings. The gold medal in this event was won by Nat Apikotoa of Australia with a best jump of 12.55 m. ## Boxing Tonga's boxing squad consisted of two pugilists, Tevita Pomale and Heamasi Sekona, who participated in the middleweight and light heavyweight classes, respectively. Pomale was eliminated in the first round after losing to Cody Crowley of Canada. Sekona won a bronze medal in the light heavyweight class without winning a single match. He received a bye in his first match (quarterfinals), and lost to Calum Evans of Wales in the semifinals by a points difference of 23–14. The semifinal appearance of Sekona guaranteed him a bronze medal, which he shared with Jack Massey of England—another semifinalist who lost to gold medalist of the event, Brandon Allan of Australia. - Bye = Athlete received a bye. ## Swimming Irene Prescott was the sole swimmer in the delegation of Tonga. She competed in two events, the 50– and 100 m backstrokes. Prescott took a time of 33.52 to complete her preliminary heat of the 50 m backstroke and finished in 18th place, not high enough to ensure a berth in the final. She was also eliminated in the preliminary heat of 100 m backstroke after ranking 13th with a time of 1:13.42. ## See also - Tonga at the 2010 Commonwealth Games - Tonga at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics

Steve Gromek

American baseball player

Stephen Joseph Gromek (January 15, 1920 – March 12, 2002) was an American right-handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for 17 seasons in the American League with the Cleveland Indians and Detroit Tigers. In 447 career games, Gromek pitched 2,064+2⁄3 innings and posted a win–loss record of 123–108 with 92 complete games, 17 shutouts, and a 3.41 earned run average (ERA). Born in Hamtramck, Michigan, Gromek originally began playing professionally with the Indians organization as an infielder, but became a pitcher early on, and made his major league debut in 1941. He played sparingly his first three years before becoming an everyday starter in 1944 and 1945, earning his lone All-Star appearance in the latter year. After the war ended, he became a spot starter, spending time as both a starting pitcher and relief pitcher. Gromek was the winning pitcher in game four of the World Series with the Cleveland Indians. His career is best remembered for a post game celebratory photo taken of him hugging Larry Doby, the first black player in the American League, whose third inning home run provided the margin of victory. The photo became a symbol for integration in baseball. Gromek remained in the spot starter role with the Indians until 1953, when he was traded to the Tigers. The Tigers used him solely as a starting pitcher, and had 18 wins in his first full season with them in 1954. He played two more full seasons with the Tigers, and retired during the 1957 season. Gromek then became a player-manager for the Erie Sailors for one year, became a car insurance sales representative after his retirement, and died in 2002. ## Early life and career Gromek was born Hamtramck, Michigan to Polish immigrant parents. His father worked in Hamtramck as a laborer. While attended St. Ladislaus High School in Hamtramck, Gromek considered becoming a priest, but decided on a career in baseball instead, playing sandlot baseball in the area, as the school did not have a baseball team. Shortly after graduating, Gromek signed with the Cleveland Indians as an infielder after being discovered by Indians scout Bill Bradley. In his first professional season, Gromek batted .283 with two home runs as a second baseman for the Mansfield Braves and Logan Indians. He moved over to shortstop in 1940 with the Michigan State League's Flint Gems. After suffering an injury in his left shoulder that hampered his swing, he decided to become an outfielder. His ability to throw strikes to the plate on throws from the outfield inspired manager Jack Knight, who was a former pitcher, to try him on the mound. Gromek pitched four games, and won all four with a 1.61 ERA. A year later, Gromek went 14–2 with a 2.90 ERA for the newly renamed Flint Arrows. In July, Gromek and the Arrows faced the Indians in an exhibition game, which they won, 3–2; the victory led the Indians to promote him to the major league club a month later. He lost his major league debut to the Washington Senators, and earned his first major league win in his only other start of the season against the Philadelphia Athletics. He spent the rest of the season as a relief pitcher, and finished the season with a 1–1 record and a 4.24 ERA in nine appearances. New Cleveland manager Lou Boudreau used Gromek as a relief pitcher in 1942. On July 12, facing the Washington Senators at Griffith Stadium, Gromek entered the game in the fifth inning behind 6–5 with two outs and a runner on third. He struck out Al Evans to end the inning without further damage, and earned the win in extra innings, but walked three consecutive batters in the seventh, the third of which forced in a run. Shortly after the game, he was demoted to the double A Baltimore Orioles for the rest of the season, the result of an agreement the Indians and Orioles had made before the season began where the Indians would allow use of certain players during the season if requested. He finished the season with a 2–0 record and a 3.65 ERA in 14 appearances with the Indians, and a 4–6 record with a 5.14 ERA in 20 games with the Orioles. He spent the entire 1943 season with Baltimore, going 16–13 with a 3.34 ERA, with the exception of September, when he received a call up to the major leagues. There, he made three appearances, totaling four innings of work. ## Gromek as a starting pitcher Gromek started the 1944 season in Cleveland's bullpen. On May 16, he entered a game against the Senators in the first inning after starter Allie Reynolds had already allowed three runs. From there, Gromek held the Senators scoreless on just two hits, bringing his ERA for the season down to 0.57 (1 earned run in 15.2 innings). Though the Indians still lost the game, it convinced Boudreau to try Gromek as a starter. On May 21, Gromek made his first start of the season in the second game of a doubleheader with the A's. Through the first six innings, Gromek held the A's scoreless on four hits. Meanwhile, back-to-back home runs by Roy Cullenbine and Pat Seerey in the fourth inning gave Cleveland a 2–0 lead. A seventh-inning error by third baseman Ken Keltner allowed two unearned runs to tie the score, and a wild pitch the following inning allowed the winning run to score. On July 2, after spending June as a reliever, Gromek earned his first win of the season against the Washington Senators after being placed back in the starting rotation, and did not allow a hit until the eighth inning in a 6–3 win; he remained a starter for the rest of the season. On July 14 against the St. Louis Browns, Gromek pitched 14 innings to earn the complete game 3–2 victory over Bob Muncrief, who also pitched all 14 innings for St. Louis. He followed that up with a complete game shutout against the New York Yankees, and 1–0 loss in which Gromek allowed two hits against the Boston Red Sox. He ended the season winning six of his final seven decisions, finishing the year with a 10–9 record with a 2.56 ERA, and had a league leading 7.1 hits per nine innings. Entering the 1945 season, Gromek was named one of the Indians' main starting pitchers, and would hold that title throughout the season. On June 8, Gromek defeated the Browns, 2–1, to improve to 7–1 with a 1.62 ERA. On July 4, the Indians accomplished one of the more bizarre firsts in baseball history with Gromek on the mound. In a complete game victory over the Yankees, Gromek struck out four. Fifteen outs came via fly balls to the outfield; another four pop-ups were handled by the infielders. Catcher Frankie Hayes caught two foul balls, and the only ground ball outs recorded were handled by first baseman Mickey Rocco unassisted. It was the only time in major league history that a team went nine innings without recording an assist. A week later, Gromek was named to the All-Star team for the 1945 All-Star Game, which was cancelled due to travel restrictions in place during World War II. In late August, Gromek won his 16th game in a 5–4 victory against the Detroit Tigers, but injured his knee when scoring the winning run, causing him to miss two weeks. For the year, Gromek went 19–9, with a career best 2.55 ERA; he ranked fourth in wins and seventh in ERA in the American League that season. After getting married in the offseason, Gromek entered the 1946 season as one of the four primary starting pitchers alongside Allie Reynolds, as well as Bob Feller and Red Embree who had returned from the war. Gromek started the season by pitching in the home opener against Detroit. In a 7–0 loss, the Tigers allowed two hits, one of which was a single by Gromek, who allowed five runs in six innings. After losing his first three games of the season, he won his next three in May, which included two complete game shutouts against the Athletics and Browns. He followed that up with a four-game losing streak, which went through the end of June. After his June 28th win, however, Gromek fell in a slump, and Indians management reduced his role to that of a part-time starter who would only see action in a few innings at a time. Gromek lost seven straight games between June 28 and September 10 before breaking the streak in his second-to-last appearance of the season, a 4–2 victory against the Yankees. Gromek finished the season with a 5–15 record and a 4.33 ERA in 29 games. The Indians hired Bill McKechnie as a pitching coach after the 1946 season. One of his first jobs was to work with Gromek during the offseason and improve his pitching due to his struggles the prior year, in particular against left-handed batters. The Indians talked with the Yankees during the offseason about making a trade for second baseman Joe Gordon. The teams settled on Gromek as the main piece originally, but Joe DiMaggio suggested the team trade for Reynolds instead. Gromek remained on the Indians for the 1947 season as a result, but was moved to the bullpen instead of remaining in the starting rotation. The highlight of his season came on July 1 in relief of Feller, who left the game due to injury. In the game against the Browns, he threw 7.2 innings and allowed two runs in a 9–3 victory in what was his longest appearance of the season at that time. For the year, Gromek pitched in 29 games, starting 7, and had a 2–5 record and a 3.74 ERA in 84.1 innings pitched, his first full season in which he pitched under 150 innings. ## 1948 World Series and conversion to spot starter Gromek entered the 1948 season fighting for a spot on the pitching staff after spending the offseason recovering from a knee injury, which had bothered the season prior, and while he did make the roster, he remained solely a relief pitcher to start the season. He made one start as a replacement for Don Black on June 6 against the Athletics, and won the game 11–1 in a complete game effort. Boudreau considered moving him into the starting rotation, but instead considered it a one-time appearance due to Black's injury, and he remained in a relief role though mid-July. After a second complete game victory against the Athletics on July 15, Gromek was moved to a part-time starter role, where he remained the rest of the season. He ended the regular season with a 9–3 record and a 2.84 ERA in 130 innings pitched, and as a result he was a surprise choice to start game four of the 1948 World Series, which was partially due to Boudreau's trust of Gromek, as well as an opportunity to give Bob Feller some rest, as well as the potential series-clinching game five. The Boston Braves countered with Johnny Sain, who had shut out the Indians in game one of the series. Boudreau got the Indians on the board first with a first-inning double that scored Dale Mitchell. The Indians took a 2–0 lead in the third when Larry Doby homered. Gromek, meanwhile, held the Braves scoreless with the exception of a Marv Rickert home run in the seventh inning, giving the Indians the win by a final score of 2–1. Following the game, The Plain Dealer of Cleveland snapped a photograph of Gromek and Doby celebrating in the locker room. Doby had just broken the color barrier in the American League a season earlier, and resistance to integration in baseball was still intense. This spontaneous moment of post game celebration became a symbol of acceptance. In his Hall of Fame acceptance speech, Doby fondly remembered that picture: > That was a feeling from within, the human side of two people, one black and one white. That made up for everything I went through. I would always relate back to that whenever I was insulted or rejected from hotels. I'd always think about that picture. It would take away all the negatives. Boudreau placed Gromek in the starting rotation to begin the 1949 season, giving the team a big four of Feller, Bob Lemon, Gene Bearden, and Gromek, who had spent the past year working on his curveball to help him improve on his 1948 season. In his first start of the season, he allowed two hits in an 8–2 victory against the Browns. By the end of May, he had an ERA of 2.80, which was among the lowest on the team, but only had a 2–4 record to show for it due to a lack of run support; the four losses included both a 1–0 and 2–0 defeat. With the increased productivity of Early Wynn and Mike Garcia, Gromek fell out of favor with Boudreau, and he was moved primarily to relief duty. After being pulled in the second inning in a July 16 start against the Athletics, he was kept as a reliever the rest of the year. Gromek finished the season with four wins, six losses, and a 3.33 ERA in 92 innings over 27 games, 12 of them starts. The Indians offered Gromek a salary cut for 1950 due to his losing record the prior year, to which Gromek objected. In voicing his objection, Gromek offered that he would welcome being dealt to his hometown Detroit Tigers. The Indians used a four-man starting rotation for most of the season, relegating Gromek to spot starter status as they had done in prior seasons. The highlight of his season came on May 28 against the Chicago White Sox, throwing a 7–0 complete game shutout, dropping his ERA on the year from 7.98 to 4.94 in the process. Gromek had a 10–7 record and a 3.65 ERA in 31 games on the year. The Indians had a new manager, Al López, entering the 1951 season, and as a result Gromek signed a new contract immediately, feeling that López would utilize him as more than a spot starter and that he would be treated more fairly than he had under Boudreau. Lopez ended up using Gromek the same way Boudreau had, keeping him primarily in the bullpen, but using him as a starting pitcher when one of the regular starters was injured or they needed a second pitcher for a doubleheader. Gromek finished the year with seven wins, four losses, and a 2.77 ERA, lowest on the team, in 27 games. Gromek remained in his spot starter role for the 1952 season. He struggled in spring training, but he was not considered in danger of losing his role to a rookie, as López felt that he knew what Gromek could and could not do on the mound. He won his first three starts in April and May before getting his first loss of the year, and stayed around .500 the rest of the season. He finished the season with a 7–7 record and a 3.67 ERA in 29 games, 13 of them starts; three of his victories came against the Yankees, of only three pitchers who had three against them that season. His wish to play for the Tigers was granted early in 1953. On June 15, after pitching in five games for the Indians, he, Al Aber, Ray Boone and Dick Weik were traded to the Tigers for Owen Friend, Joe Ginsberg, Art Houtteman and Bill Wight. In the case of both Gromek and Houtteman, it was thought that a change of scenery would benefit both players as both had been inconsistent in recent years, so the two were added into the trade package. ## Detroit Tigers In his first appearance upon joining his new club, Gromek allowed nine earned runs in one inning in a 23–3 blowout loss to the Boston Red Sox. Despite the poor first outing, Tigers manager Fred Hutchinson decided that the veteran Gromek's best fit would be as a starter with his staff of young pitchers. His confidence paid off, as Gromek shut out Philadelphia in his next appearance, allowing four hits and cementing his role in the starting rotation for the rest of the season. In his third start for the Tigers on July 2, he faced the Indians, and defeated the team who had traded him three weeks prior, 4–2. He ended up facing the Indians two more times, winning in August and losing in September, his final start of the year. In his first season in Detroit, Gromek went 6–8 with a 4.51 ERA in 19 games, 17 of them starts. Hutchinson chose Gromek as his opening day starter for the 1954 season against the former St. Louis Browns in their first game as the Baltimore Orioles, using the starter with the most experience in order to get the Tigers to start the season strong; he shut them out on seven hits in a 3–0 win. After his first four games, he developed a reputation for his quick pitching, with baseball games ending half an hour earlier on average on days he pitched. On May 9, his complete game eleven inning victory over the Chicago White Sox improved Gromek's record to 5–0 with a 1.72 ERA, making him the first pitcher in the league with five wins. He also became the first to seven wins in mid-May, but then went on five-game losing streak, not winning game eight until June 15 against the Red Sox. For the season, Gromek had 18 wins, 16 losses, a 2.74 ERA, and 102 strikeouts in 252.2 innings pitched and 36 games, 32 of them starts. He led the Tigers in wins, losses, ERA, and innings pitched, and his ERA and innings pitched were both ranked fifth in the AL. Gromek also led the AL with twelve hit batsmen in 1954. On August 29, he hit Bill Wilson in the fourth inning of a 14–3 win against the Athletics. In the ninth inning, Athletics pitcher Marion Fricano, who had a reputation as a head hunter himself (two days prior, he ended the Chicago White Sox's Cass Michaels' career with a beanball), retaliated and threw at Gromek's back. Gromek charged the mound, causing both dugouts and bullpens to empty. Both players were ejected from the game, and fined by the league. Gromek entered the 1955 season as an everyday starting pitcher, though he was not the opening day starter that year. During the offseason, he worked to lessen the control he had on the ball, as he felt his low ERA but league-leading 26 home runs allowed was the result of overly controlling the ball. He remained a starter throughout the season, with the exception of September, in which Gromek pitched three games in relief, earning two wins in the process. He finished the season with 13 wins and 10 losses and a 3.98 ERA in 28 appearances, and led the league with 26 home runs allowed for the second straight year. He remained a starter with the Tigers to begin the 1956 season, but after struggling early in the season (he had a 1–3 record and a 6.12 ERA in his first four games) he was relegated to the bullpen. He spent most of the season in the bullpen, but due to injuries late in the season, Gromek was placed back in the starting rotation in August, getting a complete game win over the Senators in his first game back as a starter. He finished the season with a record of 8–6 and a 4.28 ERA in 40 games, 13 of them starts. Gromek was pulled in the third inning in his first start of 1957 and spent the rest of his tenure with the Tigers as a short-term reliever; in a May 2 game against the Red Sox, he was brought in solely to face one batter, Jackie Jensen. Due to arm trouble, he was released by the Tigers in August, and subsequently retired, finishing the year with a 6.08 ERA in 15 appearances. ## Later life Gromek was immediately hired by the Tigers after his playing career ended to manage the Erie Sailors of the New York–Penn League. As a player-manager, the team had 53 wins and 72 losses, and Gromek pitched in 17 games for the team as well. After managing in the minors for one season, Gromek retired from the game of baseball, and worked as a car insurance sales representative. He and his wife, Jeanette, had three sons, Carl, Greg and Brian. Greg and Carl both pitched for the Florida State Seminoles baseball team, and Greg, who pitched in the Tigers' organization for four years, made the transition from infielder to pitcher after college just as his father had. In 1981, Gromek became a member of the National Polish-American Hall of Fame. He died on March 12, 2002, of complications from diabetes, a stroke and pneumonia. ## See also - List of Polish Americans

SMS Charlotte

Screw corvette of the German Imperial Navy

SMS Charlotte was a German screw corvette built for the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) in the 1880s, being laid down in April 1883, launched in September 1885, and commissioned in November 1886. The only vessel of her class, Charlotte was the last sailing warship built for the German navy. She was armed with a battery of eighteen 15 cm (5.9 in) guns. Charlotte spent her career as a training ship, responsible for the training of naval cadets and apprentice seamen. This duty frequently took the ship on overseas cruises, and on one such cruise in 1897, she and the corvette Stein participated in the Lüders affair, a diplomatic humiliation of Haiti over the arrest and jailing of a German national. Charlotte also took part in other diplomatic initiatives, including in 1899 the first visit of a German warship to French ports since the Franco-Prussian War. The ship remained in service until May 1909, when she was stricken from the naval register and thereafter converted into a barracks ship and tender. She served in these capacities to the outbreak of World War I in July 1914; in August, she was briefly reactivated, the only time in the history of the German navies that a vessel that had been stricken was re-commissioned. In October, she was again removed from service and returned to barracks ship duties. In 1921, after the war, she was sold to a firm in Hamburg and hulked; her ultimate fate is unknown. ## Design After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the Kaiserliche Marine began an expansion program to strengthen the fleet to meet the demands imposed by Germany's increased economic activities abroad and to prepare it for a potential future conflict with France. Through the mid and late 1870s, the German fleet ordered twelve corvettes of the Bismarck and Carola classes; these vessels had limited combat capabilities, emphasizing long range cruising rather than engaging hostile cruisers. This program began under the direction of General Albrecht von Stosch, the chief of the Kaiserliche Admiralität (Imperial Admiralty); he was replaced in 1883 by General Leo von Caprivi. Caprivi believed that all new cruisers should have a more balanced design that placed greater emphasis on combat power. Nevertheless, he authorized two new corvettes that were laid down in 1883, Charlotte and a smaller vessel, Nixe. The design for Charlotte had been prepared in 1881–1882, essentially as a repeat of the Bismarck design, though she was slightly larger and carried a heavier armament. Due to the time the ship was built, a transitional period between traditional sail-powered ships armed with slow-firing breech-loading guns and modern cruisers armed with quick-firing guns and powered solely with steam engines, Charlotte emerged as an anachronism compared to contemporary cruising vessels in other fleets. But the German navy still placed an emphasis on training its sailors to use sails, so the full rigging was retained, making Charlotte the last vessel of the Kaiserliche Marine to be equipped with a sailing rig. In addition, despite Caprivi's insistence that new cruisers should be capable of combat, Charlotte was designed with the role as a training ship in mind, which was better suited to the characteristics of the earlier corvettes. ### Characteristics Charlotte was 76.85 meters (252 ft 2 in) long at the waterline and 83.85 meters (275 ft 1 in) long overall. She had a beam of 14.6 m (47 ft 11 in) and a draft of 6.04 m (19 ft 10 in) forward and 6.86 to 6.3 m (22 ft 6 in to 20 ft 8 in). She displaced 3,288 metric tons (3,236 long tons) normally and up to 3,763 t (3,704 long tons) at full load. The ship's hull was constructed with transverse iron frames with one layer of wood planks, which were sheathed with Muntz metal to prevent biofouling on extended cruises abroad, where shipyard facilities were not readily available. She had a double bottom below the engine room and her hull was divided into ten watertight compartments. The ship's crew consisted of 20 officers and 486 enlisted men, though as a training ship later in her career, her complement amounted to 20 officers and 475 sailors, of whom 50 were naval cadets and 230 were Schiffsjungen (apprentice seamen). She carried a variety of small boats, including one picket boat, two launches, six cutters, one yawl, and one dinghy. Steering was controlled with a single rudder. The vessel was a good sea boat, but she made bad leeway in even mild winds and she was difficult to maneuver. She lost a significant amount of speed in a head sea, and she had limited performance under sail. ### Machinery The ship was powered by a pair of 2-cylinder marine steam engines that were coupled together driving a single shaft with one 2-bladed screw propeller. Steam was provided by eight coal-fired fire-tube boilers, which were ducted into two retractable funnels. The ship had a top speed of 13.5 knots (25.0 km/h; 15.5 mph) at 3,119 metric horsepower (3,076 ihp). Coal storage amounted to 528 t (520 long tons). She had a cruising radius of 2,300 nautical miles (4,300 km; 2,600 mi) at a speed of 11 knots (20 km/h; 13 mph), though this fell to 2,200 nmi (4,100 km; 2,500 mi) at 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph). As built, Charlotte was equipped with a full ship rig to supplement their steam engines on overseas cruising missions, but this was later reduced to a barque rig. In 1903–1905, Charlotte was modernized, which involved the removal of the second engine and two of the boilers. The remaining six boilers were replaced with newer equipment. This reduced her speed to 11.4 knots (21.1 km/h; 13.1 mph) from 1,473 PS (1,453 ihp), though her cruising range was increased to 4,000 nmi (7,400 km; 4,600 mi) at her maximum speed. ### Armament Charlotte was armed with a battery of eighteen 15 cm (5.9 in) L/22 breech-loading hoop guns, six of which were later removed in 1899; these were supplied with a total of 1868 shells for her guns. These guns had a range of 5,500 m (18,000 ft). She also had two 8.8 cm (3.5 in) SK L/30 quick-firing guns and six 37 mm (1.5 in) Hotchkiss revolver cannon. In 1899, her secondary armament was revised to a pair of 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/35 guns, sixteen of the 8.8 cm SK L/30 guns and four of the Hotchkiss cannon. ## Service history ### Construction The keel for Charlotte was laid down on 2 April 1883 at the Kaiserliche Werft (Imperial Shipyard) in Wilhelmshaven, under the contract name Ersatz Victoria, as a replacement for the older corvette. She was launched on 5 September 1885; this was delayed significantly by budget cuts from the Reichstag (Imperial Diet). At her launching ceremony, then-prince Wilhelm christened the ship for his sister, Princess Charlotte. The corvette was commissioned on 1 November 1886 and she began sea trials, which ended on 28 January 1887, though she remained out of service for more than a year. ### 1888–1898 Charlotte was commissioned for active service on 22 September 1888 to replace the corvette Prinz Adalbert, which was in need of repair. Charlotte took her place in the Training Squadron, and she took aboard her first contingent of 50 cadets and 230 Schiffsjungen from the 1887 crew year. She joined the rest of the Squadron for a training cruise to the Mediterranean Sea, leaving Wilhelmshaven on 29 September. While on the cruise, Charlotte participated in a celebration commemorating the 25th anniversary of King George I of Greece from 27 October to 5 November in Piraeus. The ships of the squadron also visited ports in Austria-Hungary, Italy, and in the Levant in the course of their voyage. They arrived back in Kiel, Germany on 16 April 1889, after which Charlotte moved to Wilhelmshaven, where she was decommissioned on 25 April. She underwent an overhaul and then remained in reserve for nearly a decade. On 22 April 1897, Charlotte was reactivated for additional training duties. She took part in training exercises in the Baltic Sea before joining the main fleet to accompany now-Kaiser Wilhelm II's yacht, Hohenzollern on a visit to Kronstadt, Russia, where he met Czar Nicholas II in early August. Later that month, Charlotte took part in the annual fleet training exercises. She embarked on a cruise to Central America on 16 September. While in Charlotte Amalie in St. Thomas, Charlotte met the corvette Stein on 29 September; both ships were ordered to Port-au-Prince, Haiti, where a German national, Lüders, had been arrested and sent to prison. Since the Haitian government refused demands for his release from the German ambassador, the two corvettes were sent to secure Lüders's release, resulting in the Lüders affair. Charlotte and Stein arrived on 6 December, where Charlotte's commander, August Carl Thiele, issued an ultimatum to pay an indemnity of 20,000 dollars, suspend Lüders's conviction, and protect him while he was still in the country, to be completed within thirteen hours. The Haitian government refused the demands, so Charlotte and Stein went to battle stations and prepared to open fire on the Haitian naval vessels in the port, the fortress protecting the harbor, and the Government Palace in Haiti. After the German ships fired a warning shot, the Haitian government acquiesced, though it requested an extension of two hours to arrange the payment of the indemnity. To gain leverage to secure the payment, German sailors went aboard the three Haitian naval vessels in the port to neutralize them. Once the terms of the ultimatum were fulfilled, the German commanders went ashore to make a formal visit to the government, and on their departure, the Germans fired salutes as a sign of good will. The United States informed the German government that it would take action against the German corvettes if they made further demands on Haiti or attempted to annex the country, but the issue came to nothing. Charlotte left the West Indies on 10 January 1898, having been replaced by the unprotected cruiser Geier. ### 1898–1903 After arriving back in Germany, Charlotte underwent an overhaul, which was completed on 31 May. Her training activities were interrupted by an outbreak of measles among the cadets and Schiffsjungen, which lasted until early July when she began a cruise in the Baltic. In August, she joined the temporarily-formed V Division for the annual fleet exercises. Charlotte embarked on another major training cruise on 8 September in company with the corvette Stosch. They visited several islands in the Atlantic before proceeding to Tangier, Morocco in January 1899, since civil disturbances in the country threatened German interests. There, they forced the Moroccan government to pay an indemnity it had agreed to pay and then delayed repeatedly. At the time, Franco-British relations had soured, leading to a rapprochement between France and Germany, the first time relations between the two countries had thawed since the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. In a show of good will, Charlotte and Stosch were sent to visit French ports in North Africa, including Oran, Algiers, and Tunis, where they received a friendly welcome. The ships then visited Spanish cities before returning to Germany; Charlotte arrived in Kiel on 23 March. Charlotte then went into the shipyard for a modernization that included a revision of her armament. She then went on a short cruise in the Baltic before beginning the next overseas training cruise in July. This trip went to the southern Atlantic Ocean, as far south as Rio de Janeiro, and she arrived back in Kiel on 23 March 1900. The ship made two short cruises in the Baltic and to Norway in May and September, respectively, before beginning the year's major cruise to the Mediterranean on 18 September. This trip included stops in Moroccan ports and Alexandria, Egypt. While in Corfu on 17 December, Charlotte was ordered to steam to Málaga, where the corvette Gneisenau had been wrecked in a gale. Charlotte arrived on 22 December, along with the British ironclad HMS Devastation, which helped to remove the remains of crewmen who had been killed in the accident and salvage valuable equipment. This work lasted until 12 January 1901, after which Charlotte left to transport the German ambassador to Morocco from Mogador to Tangier. She then visited ports in Italy before returning to Kiel on 9 March. The ship had another overhaul in March and returned to service on 18 April and embarked cadets from the 1901 crew year, which included Price Adalbert, the Kaiser's son. Charlotte participated in a survey of the Adlergrund in the aftermath of the grounding of the pre-dreadnought battleship Kaiser Friedrich III, which had been badly damaged in the accident. Charlotte then went on a cruise to Kronstadt, followed by another cruise to the Mediterranean on 14 August. During the voyage, she stopped in Piraeus, Constantinople, and Trieste, before arriving back in Kiel on 16 March 1902. After another overhaul, she went on a training cruise in the Baltic from 12 May to 12 July before starting another major cruise to South American waters. She visited Brazil and Uruguay before being recalled to Venezuela late in the year during the Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903; she did not take an active role in the conflict and she was used to support the more modern German warships in the East American Cruiser Division. She was detached from the unit on 19 January 1903 and sent home, arriving in Kiel on 23 March. ### 1903–1920 In addition to periodic maintenance, additional modernization work was carried out beginning in early 1903, including the installation of new boilers, the removal of the rest of the 15 cm guns, and the reduction of her sailing rig. Charlotte returned to service on 1 April 1905, and she began an overseas cruise on 18 July, first visiting Scotland and then cruising in the Atlantic and stopping in Mogador, before entering the Mediterranean. The cruise ended on 30 March 1906 in Kiel, and the cruise of 1906 followed a similar to the 1905 voyage. During this trip, she took part in a memorial service in Málaga in remembrance of those killed in the sinking of Gneisenau. Charlotte arrived back in Kiel on 23 March 1907; the rest of the year was filled with a long cruise in the Baltic and another major voyage to the West Indies that lasted until 16 March 1908. The 1908–1909 cruise also went to the West Indies, during which her crew helped suppress a fire in Santiago de Cuba. Charlotte, the last sailing ship of the Kaiserliche Marine was decommissioned on 31 March 1909 in Kiel. Charlotte was stricken from the naval register on 26 May 1909 and converted into a barracks ship and tender for the old ironclad König Wilhelm, which was used as a training ship for cadets, beginning in 1910. Following the outbreak of World War I and the general mobilization of forces in 1914, Charlotte was reinstated into the Navy List under the command of Andreas Fischer on 20 October, to replace König Wilhelm, which had been redeployed as a depot ship in the Elbe; this was the first and only time a warship of the Kaiserliche Marine that had been stricken from the register was replaced on it. This proved to be short-lived, and the naval command ordered that Charlotte be stricken once again on 4 November, when König Wilhelm returned. In 1917, Charlotte was replaced as König Wilhelm's tender by the light cruiser Medusa. Charlotte was sold to a private company in Hamburg in 1921 and was subsequently used as a storage hulk. Her ultimate fate is unknown.

California State Route 115

Highway in California

State Route 115 (SR 115) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California. It runs in Imperial County from Interstate 8 (I-8) southeast of Holtville to SR 111 in Calipatria. The routing was added to the state highway system in 1933, and was constructed by 1934; SR 115 was officially designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering. ## Route description SR 115 begins with an interchange at I-8. It then heads northwest through the community of Date City and briefly enters the city of Holtville. Near its exit of the city, it intersects a few county roads before turning due north and continuing through rural Imperial County, eventually beginning an overlap with SR 78 and continuing west. East of Alamorio, SR 115 turns due north again, and intersects CR S26. After a few miles, the highway turns due west, reaching its north end in Calipatria at SR 111. SR 115 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, but is not part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration. SR 115 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System, but it is not officially designated as a scenic highway by the California Department of Transportation. In 2013, SR 115 had an annual average daily traffic (AADT) of 830 between Wirt Road and East Avenue, and 5,800 between the intersection of Walnut Avenue and 5th Street and the intersection of the highway with Holt Avenue, the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway. ## History The routing from Brawley to Calipatria was added to the state highway system in 1933; following the completion of the road from Yuma to San Diego, increased tourism and growth led to the development of more highways in Imperial County, and the construction of the system was expected to aid in future growth, according to the Los Angeles Times. The northern section above SR 78 was legislatively defined as Route 187; the part of the highway south of Route 187 was defined as Route 201. The roadway had been constructed by 1934, though the state described the majority of it as a "low type" road. The portion from Route 78 to US 80 was paved by 1938, and the entire road had been paved by 1940. By 1956, the routing was signed as Route 115. By 1961, the highway continued just west of Holtville to an intersection with US 80 (later I-8), where it ran concurrently with US 80 briefly before heading south to a junction with SR 98 in Bonds Corner. SR 115 was officially defined in the 1964 state highway renumbering. The segment south of SR 78 was altered in 1972; the portion between I-8 south to SR 98 near Bonds Corner was deleted, and the definition was clarified from "Route 8 near Holtville" to "Route 8 southeasterly of Holtville". By 1975, the routing of SR 115 had been adjusted to end at I-8, south of the old US 80 routing. ## Future The 2007 Imperial County Transportation Plan proposed the improvement of SR 115 from the Evan Hewes Highway north to SR 111 from a two-lane highway to a four-lane expressway. ## Major intersections ## See also

Jonathan Sánchez

Puerto Rican baseball player (born 1982)

Jonathan Omar Sánchez (born November 19, 1982), nicknamed "The Kid" and "The Comeback Kid", is a Puerto Rican former professional baseball pitcher. He is one of only three Puerto Rican players to throw a no-hitter game in MLB, the others being John Candelaria in 1976 and Juanchi Nieves in 1987. A left-handed starter, Sánchez's pitching repertoire consisted of a low-to-mid 90s mph fastball, a change-up, and a slurve in the 80s. After being drafted by the San Francisco Giants in 2004, Sánchez quickly worked his way through the Giants' minor league system. In 2006, he was called up to the major leagues and was used mostly in a long relief role. In 2007, he made the team out of spring training and was again used mostly in long relief, though he spent part of his season in the minors. In 2008, he made the Giants' starting rotation and remained in it for the entire year, except for a stint on the disabled list. Sánchez began 2009 as a starter but was moved to the bullpen during the season. On July 10, threw a no-hitter against the San Diego Padres, starting in place of an injured Randy Johnson. In 2010, Sánchez struck out 200 batters for the first time and was a member of the Giants team that won the World Series. In 2011 he married a Dominican model named Audris Rijo. He was traded to the Kansas City Royals in 2012, and traded again to the Colorado Rockies after he struggled in the first half of the season. He began 2013 with the Pittsburgh Pirates. ## Early life Sánchez attended Blanca Malaret High School in Sabana Grande, Puerto Rico. After graduating in 2000, Sánchez pitched for four seasons at Ohio Dominican University in Columbus, Ohio. While at the university, Sánchez threw four no-hitters and set school records for most strikeouts in a single game (sixteen), most strikeouts in a single season (105), most strikeouts in a career (311), and most shutouts in a career (ten). However, his final collegiate appearance was arguably his worst, as he was saddled with the loss in the Panthers' NAIA regional playoff defeat to Saint Vincent College, going five innings and allowing six runs on six hits. ## Professional career ### Draft and minor leagues Sánchez was selected by the San Francisco Giants in the twenty-seventh round (820th overall) of the 2004 MLB draft. In his first year of professional ball, he went 7–1 with a 3.72 earned run average in fifteen games (nine were starts) with the Rookie league Arizona League Giants and the Single-A (short-season) Salem-Keizer Volcanoes. While pitching in the Arizona League, he tied for third in the league in wins, with five. Sánchez was promoted to the Single-A Augusta GreenJackets of the South Atlantic League in 2005. He went 5–7 with a 4.08 ERA in twenty-five starts, led the South Atlantic League in strikeouts with 166, averaged 11.9 in nine innings pitched, and was selected to the league's All-star team. During the offseason, Sánchez pitched for the Carolina club of the Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League, posting a 2–2 record with a 2.91 ERA in 19 relief appearances. Coming into 2006, Sánchez was ranked as the sixth best prospect in the Giants' organization by Baseball America. He began the 2006 season with the Double-A Connecticut Defenders, where in thirteen appearances (three starts) he went 2–1 with a 1.15 ERA and forty-six strikeouts. ### San Francisco Giants (2006–2011) #### 2006 Sánchez was called up to the Giants on May 26, 2006, as a reliever. He made his MLB debut two days later on May 28 against the Colorado Rockies. He pitched one inning in relief and retired all three batters he faced (Todd Helton, Matt Holliday, and Garrett Atkins). His performance was overshadowed, however, because Barry Bonds hit his 715th home run in the same game to surpass Babe Ruth for second place on the all-time home run list. On June 4, Sánchez picked up his first major league win. With the score tied at six in the eleventh inning against the New York Mets, Sánchez entered the game and pitched a scoreless inning. The Giants won the game 7–6 in the twelfth on an RBI single by Pedro Feliz. Sánchez posted a 2–0 record with a 1.37 ERA in twenty-two games in his first stint with the team. On July 29, the Giants sent him to their AAA affiliate, the Fresno Grizzlies to improve his abilities as a starter. While at Fresno, he went 2–2 with a 3.80 ERA in six starts. With the expansion of the MLB rosters on September 1, Sánchez was recalled from Fresno. Sánchez won his first major league start on September 6 (in place of Noah Lowry, who was injured), giving up one run in 5+2⁄3 innings pitched in a 3–2 victory over the Cincinnati Reds. After that, Sánchez replaced Brad Hennessey in the rotation. However, Sánchez did not pitch well in his last four appearances of the season (one came in relief), as he had an 11.36 ERA in them. #### 2007 Entering the 2007 season, Sánchez was ranked as the second best prospect in the Giants' organization (behind only Tim Lincecum) by Baseball America. Sánchez made the Giants' roster out of spring training. He struggled in his first fourteen games, however, and was sent down to Fresno on May 21 when Russ Ortiz came off the disabled list. Sánchez returned to the majors on June 6 when, coincidentally, Ortiz got hurt again. On June 13, he picked up his first major league hit (an RBI double) in a 7–4 loss to the Toronto Blue Jays. On July 4, he was placed on the disabled list with a strained rib cage, but he was reactivated on July 18. Sánchez was sent back to Fresno on August 11 to make room for Brian Wilson on the roster. He returned in September, and he replaced Lowry (who was injured) in the rotation. He made four starts, but he lost three of them and had a 7.16 ERA in all four of them. After straining his left oblique muscle in his fourth start, he was shut down for the rest of the season and replaced in the rotation by Travis Blackley. He finished the year 1–5 with a 5.88 ERA in thirty-three games (four starts). #### 2008 In 2008, Sánchez made the Giants' starting rotation out of spring training as the fifth starter. In only his second start of the season, he struck out a career high ten batters against the San Diego Padres in a game the Giants eventually won 1–0. Sánchez struck out ten batters again in a 3–1 victory against the Cincinnati Reds on April 25, becoming the first Giants left-handed pitcher since Shawn Estes to strike out at least ten batters in a game more than once in a season. From May 28 through June 12, Sánchez won a career best four straight starts. On June 12, in a 10–7 victory over the Colorado Rockies, he became the first Giants' starter to allow seven runs and win a game since Russ Ortiz did it in 2000. In his next start, on June 17 against the Detroit Tigers, Sánchez took a no-hitter into the sixth inning, but he was ultimately the losing pitcher in a 5–1 loss. Sánchez finished the first half with an 8–5 record and 115 strikeouts, which were the most ever in the first half of a season by a Giants' left-hander during the Giants' tenure in San Francisco. The second half did not go well for Sánchez. He lost five straight decisions starting on July 9 before getting placed on the disabled list on August 16. In his last start before going on the disabled list, he no-hit the Houston Astros through five innings. However, he was the losing pitcher in a 3–1 loss. Sánchez returned on September 1, but lost his sixth straight game as the Colorado Rockies prevailed by a score of 4–0. He finally ended his losing streak on September 12, when he was the winning pitcher in a 5–2 win over the San Diego Padres. Sánchez did not win another game all year, though, and he finished the second half of the season with a 1–7 record. Sánchez still finished with a 9–12 record, and he struck out 157 batters in 158 innings. #### 2009 Sánchez was again the fifth starter in the Giants' rotation in 2009. The season did not start well for him, though, as he had a 2–8 record in the first part of the year. On June 28, Ryan Sadowski replaced him in the rotation. Sánchez did not stay in the bullpen very long though. After Randy Johnson strained his shoulder, Sánchez was chosen to start against the San Diego Padres on July 10. In that game, Sánchez not only threw the first complete game and the first shutout of his career; he threw a no-hitter, becoming the first Giants' pitcher to do so since John Montefusco no-hit the Atlanta Braves in 1976. In the process, Sánchez struck out a new career high of eleven batters. Sánchez had a perfect game going into the eighth inning, but an error by Juan Uribe off the bat of Chase Headley allowed the only baserunner of the night. Sánchez almost lost the no-hitter during the ninth inning when Edgar Gonzalez hit a ball deep to centerfield. However, Aaron Rowand made a spectacular catch, and Sánchez got his no-hitter. Sánchez's no-hitter was also special because his father Sigfredo, who had never seen his son start a major league game, was in attendance. The no-hitter proved to be a turning point in Sánchez's season, as he went 6–4 the rest of the way to finish with an 8–12 record. He remained in the rotation for the entire time. Sánchez also struck out 177 batters in 163.1 innings for a 9.75 average per nine innings. This was good for fourth in the National League, behind only Tim Lincecum, Yovani Gallardo, and Javier Vázquez. #### 2010 Sánchez was arbitration eligible to begin 2010, but he avoided arbitration by signing a one-year contract with the Giants. He was named the fourth starter out of spring training this time. Sánchez began started strong in 2010, as he was 7–6 by the All-Star break. Because of injuries to the Giants' left-handed relief pitchers, Sánchez made his only relief appearance of the year on July 30 in a 6–5 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers. On August 3, Sánchez tied Juan Marichal's record when he struck out seven straight batters in a 10–0 win over the Colorado Rockies. Two months later, on the last day of the season, Sánchez started against the San Diego Padres. Sánchez pitched five shutout innings, scored the first run after hitting a triple in the third inning, and was the winning pitcher in a 3–0 win. The win sent the Giants to the playoffs for the first time since 2003. In Game three of the 2010 NLDS against the Atlanta Braves, Sánchez struck out eleven batters in a game the Giants won 3–2. Sánchez gave up three runs over six innings in Game two of the 2010 NLCS, but he was the losing pitcher in a 6–1 loss. Sánchez also started Game six. He only lasted two innings, giving up two runs and getting pulled from the game after an argument with Chase Utley. However, the Giants won the game 3–2 and returned to the World Series. Sánchez's only World Series game was unsuccessful, as he gave up all four runs in 4.2 innings in the Giants' 4–2 loss to the Texas Rangers in Game three. However, the Giants ultimately won the World Series for the first time in fifty-six years. Sánchez was arbitration-eligible following the season, but the Giants avoided arbitration with him by signing him to a one-year contract. #### 2011 Sánchez started the season second in the Giants' rotation, as to split the righties Lincecum and Cain, as well as to split the lefties Sánchez, Zito, and Bumgarner. He did not fare well early in the season, and was placed on the disabled list shortly before Barry Zito was activated in June. When Sánchez returned from the disabled list, he was still experiencing the control problems that had plagued him before he was injured. Sánchez sprained his foot in August while on the road in Atlanta, and remained on the disabled list until the end of the season, ending with a line of 4–7 W/L; 4.26 ERA; 101.1 IP; 102 Ks; 66 BBs; .220 Opp AVG; and a WHIP of 1.44. ### Kansas City Royals (2012) On November 7, 2011, Sánchez was traded to the Kansas City Royals with prospect Ryan Verdugo for outfielder Melky Cabrera. He struggled with the Royals, pitching to a 1-6 record and 7.76 ERA in 53+1⁄3 innings, while allowing 65 hits, including eight home runs, and 44 walks. After allowing seven runs on seven hits and one walk in 1+1⁄3 innings in a start against the Seattle Mariners, the Royals designated Sánchez for assignment on July 17, 2012. ### Colorado Rockies (2012) The Royals traded Sánchez to the Colorado Rockies for Jeremy Guthrie on July 20. He only made 3 starts for the Rockies and was 0-3 with a 9.53 ERA. ### Pittsburgh Pirates (2013) The Pirates signed Sánchez to a minor-league deal on February 6, 2013. The deal included an invitation to spring training. Sanchez made the team and was in the starting rotation to begin the season. On April 26, 2013, he was ejected for the first time in his MLB career by umpire Tim Timmons after intentionally pitching at St. Louis Cardinals batter Allen Craig following back-to-back home runs by Matt Carpenter and Carlos Beltrán and a single by Matt Holliday. After posting an 11.85 ERA with the Pirates, he was designated for assignment on April 30, and was later released on May 8. ### Los Angeles Dodgers On May 13, 2013, Sánchez signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers. After spending a month at the Dodgers extended spring training location in Arizona, Sánchez joined the AAA Albuquerque Isotopes on June 24. He made 14 starts and was 7-3 with a 5.13 ERA. ### Chicago Cubs On December 18, 2013, Sánchez signed a minor league deal with the Chicago Cubs. He was released on July 2, 2014. ### Cincinnati Reds On January 29, 2016, Sánchez signed a minor league deal with the Cincinnati Reds. He was released on March 18. ### Second Stint with Kansas City In December 2016, Sánchez signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals. He was released on March 20, 2017. ### York Revolution On June 30, 2018, Sánchez signed with the York Revolution of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. ### Saraperos de Saltillo On March 7, 2019, Sánchez signed with the Saraperos de Saltillo of the Mexican League. Sánchez did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the COVID-19 pandemic. ## International play Sánchez was chosen to pitch for Puerto Rico in the 2009 World Baseball Classic. He made two starts in the Classic. He won the first one on March 11 by pitching four scoreless innings in a 5–0 victory over the Netherlands. Although he only pitched 22⁄3 innings and gave up three runs in his next start against the United States, he was in line for the win going into the ninth inning. However, J. C. Romero and Fernando Cabrera blew the lead, and the United States knocked Puerto Rico out of the Classic with a 6–5 victory. ## Pitch repertoire Sánchez throws a fastball that travels about ninety-one mph for his main pitch, though it sometimes can go up to ninety-five mph. His other pitches (slurve and change-up) travel in the low eighties. Wildness has been a problem for Sánchez; he has walked 10% – 15% of major-league batters faced each season. However, he also strikes out a lot of batters; he struck out two hundred for the first time in his career in 2010. That year, he led all qualifying MLB starting pitchers in limiting hits per innings pitched (6.61 H/9), and his career swinging-strike percentage is among the best in the majors. ## See also - List of Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico

Van Morrison: No Surrender

Biography of musician Van Morrison, written by Johnny Rogan

Van Morrison: No Surrender is a biography of musician Van Morrison, written by Johnny Rogan. It was first published in 2005 by Secker & Warburg, and another edition was published by Vintage Books in 2006. Rogan interviewed musicians and friends of Morrison, and spent 20 years researching the book and four years writing it. The book is comprehensive, and goes into detail about multiple facets of Morrison's life. Rogan recounts Morrison's youth in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and how early experiences there informed his music. He discusses how Morrison joined various bands before experiencing success with Them. Morrison later signed a contract with Bert Berns and moved to New York, where he became quite popular after recording "Brown Eyed Girl" and albums Astral Weeks and Moondance. Rogan comments on Morrison's exploration of spirituality, and describes how these experiences influenced his musical work. The biography discusses Morrison's move to Britain and then Dublin, and his relationship with model Michelle Rocca. The book received mostly positive reviews in the media. Kirkus Reviews called it "a narrative of propulsive drive that is also a reflective, associative piece of social history," and The Sunday Independent described it as "an exhaustive study". The Sunday Times noted: "What makes this book worthwhile is its fiercely illuminating angle. ... Morrison, as usual, declined to take part but the author's scholarly methods lend this weighty volume a real authority." The Irish Times referred to the biography as a "superb book", and a review in The Observer stated "This characteristically accomplished biography shows the singer from every angle." Diarmaid Ferriter selected the book as his pick in The Sunday Business Post feature "Authors' choices". The book received negative reviews in The Toronto Star and The Herald. ## Research and publication Prior to completing the book, Rogan had written music biographies on The Byrds, The Smiths, and Neil Young. According to Kirkus Reviews, "there is nary a word directly from the reclusive Morrison's lips" in the book. The Irish Independent reported that the author relied on interviews with "friends, acquaintances and musicians". Rogan spent over 20 years researching the book, and it took him four years to write it. Rogan recounted to The Irish Times the value he obtained from interviews with Morrison's first wife, as well as his partner in a later relationship, Michelle Rocca. "Here was a man who had explored all these mystic religions, had undergone Gestalt therapy, who had been told by a Rosacrucian master that he had something called an 'Angelic Knot', suddenly hanging around fashionable nightclubs and being written about in gossip columns. The relationship with Michelle Rocca certainly helped, in that I got more out of one single interview done by Michelle Rocca than I did, in entirety, from his first wife, Janet Planet," said Rogan. When it became public in early 2005 that the book would be published, representatives of Morrison contacted the publishers of the book. Said Rogan to The Irish Times: "There has been contact with the publishers, I know that much. When the news broke earlier this year that the book was being published, his lawyers asked to see an advance copy of the manuscript. The publishers refused the request. But then this is a man who when he learnt that there was going to be a plaque erected outside his former Belfast home, got his solicitors to write to the Belfast Telegraph dissociating himself from the tribute." The book was first published in 2005 by Secker & Warburg, and a 2006 edition was published by Vintage Books. Johnny Rogan appeared on a panel of experts in the 2008 documentary Van Morrison: Under Review 1964–1974, along with Steve Turner, author of the 1993 biography Van Morrison: Too Late to Stop Now. ## Contents Rogan writes in the book's introduction: "an important caveat to any serious, well-researched biography or study of Morrison's life is that the reader should be aware that a number of allegations against the subject cannot be featured in print for legal reasons. The author may feel that the final portrayal is far too flattering in certain places, while the reader who neglects to read between the lines may think the biographer could have been a little more sympathetic at times. Death alone will open this Pandora's box." Morrison himself is quoted on the first page of the book, saying: "Rogan's got something to hide. What's he hiding? I'd like to do a book on him." The biography is comprehensive, covering many different aspects of its subject's life. The author discusses Morrison's early life in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and how this influenced his perspective of "no surrender", a reference to Ulster Unionism. Rogan writes how, a young boy, Morrison exhibited "poor communication skills, aggressive impatience, and absence of empathy", and yearned for positive relations between his Protestant and Catholic friends. The author notes that a theme of Morrison's youth was his appreciation of music and his pleasure of creating music influenced by gospel and love. He cites Morrison's cousin Jackie Stitt who said: "He could have been a good sportsman but he had no interest in it at all. He'd play along with you for a while until he got bored – he seemed to tire of it quickly. He'd go indoors." Morrison did not excel at academics, and focused instead on music. He practised his music in solitude, and was not skilled at socialising. "One time he said to me it wasn't that he didn't want to talk, but tunes were running through his head all the time. He said he didn't know whether he'd been blessed or cursed because the words and music wouldn't go out of his head," said his mother Violet. The book focuses on Morrison's musical profession. Morrison joined a band called The Sputniks, which became The Javelins. He joined up with a showband called the Monarchs, then another called Manhattan, and another called the Gamblers. The Gamblers became the group Them, and Morrison developed his stage presence. "He was a wee runt. Offstage you wouldn't have looked sideways at him. But on stage it was different. There was an animalistic sexuality that he didn't have in his person," said a female fan of Morrison's who witnessed him perform with the band. The band Them was signed by Phil Solomon, who contracted producer Bert Berns to work with the group, and Phil Coulter came on as a musical arranger and lyricist. The group became popular with songs including "Baby Please Don't Go", "Gloria", and "Here Comes the Night". Morrison commented of Them: "Them were never meant to be on Top of the Pops. I mean, miming? lip syncing? We used to laugh at that programme, think it was a joke. Then we were on it ourselves. It was ridiculous. We were totally anti that sort of thing. We were really into the blues... and we had to get into suits and have make-up put on and all that shit." The group were not sociable with reporters, and according to the book Morrison's drinking habits made him reclusive. "I regret that we couldn't have controlled Morrison better... I think he would have been big if he'd been straightened out at the beginning of his career," comments Phil Solomon about Morrison. "He was on a downer and he was drinking. He wasn't the most bankable of artists. He had been the frontman for another of those R & B bands that had gone up the Swanee and there were three or four versions of Them touring. It was a joke. He was no gift. There weren't record companies falling over themselves to sign him up." says Phil Coulter in the book. Morrison signed a contract with Bert Berns, and just before he left for New York made a speech to his friends and ended with: "One day you'll see my picture up on the wall and you'll all say 'I knew him'." An acquaintance who witnessed the speech told the author: "He knew he was different and that his music was good but I thought he was such a nasty character; always rude and quite vulgar." Morrison recorded the song "Brown Eyed Girl" in New York with Berns, as well as the album Astral Weeks. He became much more popular with the album Moondance, and Rolling Stone commented he had "the striking imagination of a consciousness that is visionary in the strongest sense of the word". Morrison's image appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone a year after releasing Moondance. Rogan discusses Morrison's exploration of religion and spirituality. He cites Tom Paulin, a poet based in Belfast, who notes: "Morrison comes out of not traditional Protestantism, but evangelical Protestantism. That's the foundation of his imagination. He's testifying." Rogan recounts how Morrison became exposed to alternative practices including Gestalt therapy and Rosicrucianism. According to Rogan, Morrison's exploration of mysticism, Christianity, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Scientology were influential in his works including Astral Weeks, "Kingdom Hall", Enlightenment and "Whenever God Shines His Light". Morrison became wealthy through his music, but he became less successful over the next 20 years of his career. He moved back to Europe, and lived in Britain and then settled in Dublin in the 1990s. He met model Michelle Rocca at a fundraiser held at Leixlip Castle, and they began a relationship. ## Reception A review of the book in Kirkus Reviews described it as a "nearly breath-by-breath biography", and comments: "Rogan's analyses of Morrison's musical palette, critical standing and public image are exhaustive yet never exhausting. ... Sprightly despite its amplitude, a narrative of propulsive drive that is also a reflective, associative piece of social history." The title of a review in the Irish Independent referred to the book as "an enthralling new biography of the Belfast cowboy", and The Sunday Independent called it "an exhaustive study of Belfast's most famous musical son". A review in The Observer commented of the book: "This characteristically accomplished biography shows the singer from every angle." Robert Sandall gave the book a positive review in The Sunday Times, and wrote: "What makes this book worthwhile is its fiercely illuminating angle. ... Morrison, as usual, declined to take part but the author's scholarly methods lend this weighty volume a real authority." The Journal Gazette called the book: "A definitive, provocative and revelatory portrait of an endlessly complicated man and his music." A review in The Irish Times characterised the book as a "magical" journey into Van Morrison's life, noting: "Johnny Rogan spent 23 years researching his biography of Van Morrison. It shows. In a book that really should have been titled Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Van Morrison But Were Too Petrified To Ask, this is a magical 'into the mystic' journey which vertiginously takes you from Edward Carson to Leadbelly, from the Mafia to the Rosacrucians, from drinking stories to Gestalt therapy, and from Bernadette Devlin to Terry Keane." Brian Boyd of The Irish Times described Rogan's work as a "superb book". Diarmaid Ferriter selected the book as his pick in The Sunday Business Post feature "Authors' choices". Ferriter commented: "Rogan has to be admired for his perseverance and determination when it comes to chronicling the life and times of contrary musical giants – having previously tackled Morrissey. Well-researched biography is always to be encouraged, particularly when dealing with a difficult and elusive character". David Sinclair, author of Wannabe: How The Spice Girls Reinvented Pop Fam, reviewed the book for The Guardian, and commented: "Rogan's scrutiny of Morrison's work is undertaken with no less care than that devoted to the details of the singer's life story, and the analysis and appreciation of Morrison's very real accomplishments as a musician provide some welcome ballast to a personal portrayal that is otherwise almost comically unflattering. Rogan's book certainly sheds new light on the life and times of this puzzling and reclusive performer." Sinclair also noted the book takes a negative tone towards some of Morrison's mannerisms, and concluded his review with: "But it may be as well to get hold of a copy before Morrison's legal representatives have had a chance to get out their fine-tooth combs." Jonathan O'Brien recommended the book in a review in The Sunday Business Post, but noted it focuses more on his life than an analysis of his music: "If you want a meticulously researched, mind-bogglingly detailed account of his early years growing up in Belfast, his schooldays in Orangefield, his time as an unpopular member of the Olympics showband and so on, then, once again, No Surrender is heartily recommended. If, however, you're expecting a rigorous and comprehensive analysis of Morrison's music, of its textures, its surfaces – how and why it sounds the way it does – then you've probably come to the wrong place." O'Brien concluded his review by writing: "For all its flaws, No Surrender is a strong, absorbing biography, and never less than well written. It's just that it could potentially have been far, far better." John Beck of The Press Democrat observed that the biography "paints him [Morrison] as a mercurial genius at best and a cantankerous lout on a bad day". In their 2008 book Northern Ireland After the Troubles, Colin Coulter and Michael Murray referenced the biography and stated it puts forth "the view that Morrison's persona has been shaped by a specifically Ulster Protestant sensibility". Bernard Perusse of The Gazette described the earlier biography Van Morrison: Too Late to Stop Now as "more superficial but more positive" than Rogan's book. Kevin Courtney reviewed the book for The Irish Times, and observed: "For fans of Van Morrison's music, No Surrender might seem somewhat blasphemous, focusing not so much on Van the artist, but on Van the not-very-nice man. But Rogan also pays tribute to Morrison's pure, untainted artistry, and details the development – and subsequent decline – of Morrison's muse over the past 40 years or so. For the serious Van-ologist, Rogan's painstaking research yields an abundance of detail about Morrison's early years". Graeme Green of the Daily Express noted that Rogan "concentrates far more on Van the man than it does on his music, with the singer largely portrayed as difficult, selfish and aloof". He noted that Morrison would turn 60 the year the book was published, and commented "When the singer celebrates his landmark birthday this year, it's a safe bet Rogan's name won't be on the invite list." Nick Krewen gave the book a negative review in The Toronto Star. Krewen critiqued what he saw as the thesis to Rogan's book, commenting: "Here is the premise of Van Morrison: No Surrender: Because the Belfast-born Morrison was raised in Ulster ... and subjected to violent religious prejudice, the musician embodies a symbolic metaphor of Northern Ireland's defiant nature. That's it." Krewen noted that "the book does capture Van the Man's evolution into an electrifying showman during his Monarchs and Them years." The book also received a negative review from Martin Tierney in The Herald, who wrote: "The title here is more than a little contrived as Rogan attempts to draw parallels with the sectarian troubles in Morrison's home turf and the maestro himself. It doesn't work, given that Morrison has never been political, thankfully sticking to music. It is, however, detailed and comprehensive in its sources, and as such carries on that great tradition of bashing the odious one." ## See also - Van Morrison: Too Late to Stop Now

La Tierra del Olvido (song)

1995 song by Carlos Vives

"La Tierra del Olvido" ("The Land of the Forgotten") is a song by Colombian singer Carlos Vives from his seventh studio album of the same name (1995). The song was written by Iván Benavides and Vives, who handled production alongside Richard Blair. It was released as the lead single from the album in 1995. The song is a neo-vallenato number that utilizes the folk guitar and accordion, on which Vives longs for his homeland. The song received positive reactions from three music critics, being found as one of the album's catchiest tunes by them. It was a recipient at the ASCAP Latin Awards in 1996. Commercially, the song peaked at number five on the Hot Latin Songs chart and number one on the Latin Pop Airplay chart in the United States. A music video for the song was filmed in Colombia in which the band performs at Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range while also depicting a love story with a couple; it was nominated for Video of the Year at the 1996 Lo Nuestro Awards. In 2015, Vives re-recorded "La Tierra del Olvido" with several fellow Colombian acts. Its music video features the musicians performing the song in various locations of Colombia and further received a nomination for Video of the Year at the 2016 Lo Nuestro Awards. ## Background and composition In 1993, Vives released his sixth studio album Clasicos de la Provincia, a collection of vallenato covers performed by the artist. The album was a modern pop take on the genre, which helped revitalize its popularity and sold over 2.5 million copies. Following the album's release, Vives and his band La Provincia spent weeks in a farm conceptualizing music for Vives' next project.. The result was La Tierra del Olvido, which blends Colombian folk music with contemporary music. The title track was written by Iván Benavides and Vives, who handled production alongside Richard Blair. Benavides commented that the song was "the result of a creative laboratory that allowed us to create a powerful concept, in which the local culture dialogued with the world". Vives remarked it "was a moment to understand that we could have global hits without losing our local connection". Musically, "La Tierra de Olvido" is a neo-vallenato song that utilizes the folk guitar and accordion. According to the Miami Herald writer Fernando Gonzalez, the track sounds "closer to nuevo tango than vallenato". In her book, Musical ImagiNation: U.S-Colombian Identity and the Latin Music Boom (2010), Maria Elena Cepeda wrote that the song's lyrics are allegedly about a "patient ode to a far-away lover" and that it "narrates the pain and longing provoked by distance". However, Cepeda noted that when read as a homage to Colombia, it references the country's culture. Similarly, the Los Angeles Times editor Agustin Garza interpreted the song's meaning as an "aching nostalgia for his homeland". ## Promotion and reception The song was released as the album's lead single by Sonolux Records in 1995. The music video for "La Tierra del Olvido" was filmed in at the Tayrona National Natural Park in Santa Marta, Colombia and directed by Germano Saracco. It was filmed with a 35 mm movie camera and digitally remastered in 2015. Billboard's Leila Cobo regarded the video as a "love letter to Vives' Colombia, beautifully depicted via a love story set in some of the country’s most gorgeous vistas". The video depicts Vives and his band performing the song at the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range as well as a couple "synthesizing the feeling of a wounded country and at the same time hopeful in better times". Jose Vasquez of La Mezcla felt that it is "an emblematic audiovisual work from the 90s era in Colombia". At the 8th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in 1996, it was nominated Video of the Year, but lost to "Te Extraño, Te Olvido, Te Amo" by Ricky Martin. Vives performed "La Tierra del Olvido" live at the Radio City Music Hall in 1995 and the Universal Amphitheatre in 2002. Vives opened the 2020 Premios Nuestra Tierra awards ceremony, where he performed an interpretation of the song with Fonseca, Sebastián Yatra, Camilo, Andrés Cepeda, and Goyo. A live version of the track was recorded for Vives' album Más + Corazón Profundo Tour: En Vivo Desde la Bahiá de Santa Marta (2015). Parry Gettelman of the Orlando Sentinel "complimented the song as "definitely one of the most hummable songs of the year". The New York Daily News critic Mary Talbot cited "Pa' Mayte" and "La Tierra del Olvido" as La Tierra del Olvido''s "two infectious danceable Afro-Colombian numbers". Likewise, an editor for RPM magazine listed the latter of the two as one of the songs from the album that "seamlessly consolidate influences and innovation without losing the crucial campfire feel". The track was recognized as one of the best-performing songs of the year at the 1996 ASCAP Latin Awards. In the United States, the song peaked at numbers five and eight on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Airplay charts, respectively; it also reached the top of the Latin Pop Airplay chart. ## 2015 re-recording 20 years later, Vives re-recorded "La Tierra del Olvido" with eight Colombian musicians. The acts include Maluma, Fanny Lu, Fonseca, "El Cholo" Valderrama, Herencia de Timbiqui, Andrea Echeverri, and Coral Group. This version was included as a bonus track for Más + Corazón Profundo Tour: En Vivo Desde la Bahiá de Santa Marta. The music video for the song's 2015 version was produced by ProColombia and premiered at the Expo 2015 in Milan, Italy. It features the musicians performing the song in various locations of Colombia including Bogota, the Amazon River, Valle del Cauca, and San Andrés. It received over two million views within two days of its release on YouTube and was also nominated for Video of the Year at the 28th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in 2016. ## Charts ## See also - List of Billboard Latin Pop Airplay number ones of 1994 and 1995

Sex (The 1975 EP)

Sex is the second extended play (EP) by English band the 1975. It was released on 19 November 2012 by Dirty Hit. A modified version was released in the US on 1 January 2013 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records. The band produced the EP alongside Michael Coles, Robert Coles and Mike Crossey. They drew musical inspiration from Sigur Rós, Brian Eno and filmmaker John Hughes while thematically focusing on the passage of time. Prior to the record's debut, a music video for "Sex" was released. An ambient rock-influenced rock, R&B, electro, pop and emo record, Sex is musically divided into two halves. Its first half is characterised by its ethereal compositions which draw from electropop, while the second half is informed by an extensive use of guitars. The record's lyrics incorporate themes of love, sex and drugs. Upon release, the EP received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised the exploration of various genres but felt the record suffered from a lack of cohesion. ## Development and release In January 2012, the 1975 was formed by lead singer Matty Healy, drummer George Daniel, guitarist Adam Hann and bassist Ross MacDonald, who had played music together since 2002. After being rejected by all major record labels, artist manager Jamie Osborne discovered the band and signed them to his label Dirty Hit. The 1975 began a process of releasing three extended plays (EP) leading to their debut album. In August of the same year, the band released their debut EP, Facedown, to critical success. To aid in developing the follow-up record, Sex, the 1975 approached Mike Crossey, who provided additional production and mixing on "Sex" and "You". In addition to working with producers Michael and Robert Coles, the band self-produced "Intro/Set3". Regarding the creative process behind Sex, Healy said: "We were planning on putting out [the EPs] with absolutely no intention of them being accepted in the way they have. We kind of got used to being in really underground bands - where the world of mainstream radio and media just seems so genuinely far away." The 1975 drew inspiration from Sigur Rós, ambient musician Brian Eno and filmmaker John Hughes. The singer noted that his affection for ambient music stems from the genre's use in movies, which he enjoyed at a young age, saying it "commands you how to feel without the use of words". Discussing the overall theme of the EPs, Healy said they were focused on sex, love, drugs and fear, while also noting: "The songs on Sex are all about passing moments. Moments that we don't analyse at the time – only to understand them retrospectively." A music video for "Sex" was released on 5 October 2012, while the EP was released by Dirty Hit on 19 November 2012. A different version of Sex containing a modified tracklist was released in the US on 1 January 2013 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records. ## Composition ### Music and lyrics Exploring ambient rock concepts, Sex combines rock, R&B, electro, pop and emo music, while the lyrics deal with themes of love, sex and drugs. Writing for Hit the Floor Magazine, Amy Jones said that in contrast to Facedown, Sex contains a "slightly darker [and] more foreboding" tone, while Paste writer Shaina Pearlman observed "equal parts ethereal and synth pop" throughout the record. Amanda Koellner of Consequence identified two distinct sounds within Sex. She described the first as recalling the "intricate electropop" of Passion Pit's "more mellow songs". Koellner wrote that "Sex" marks the EP's sonic shift from a "companionless headphone" record to the "centre of a party", characterised by "traditional" guitar-heavy compositions. DIY's Martyn Young shared this opinion and said the EP is "arbitrar[ily] split between the first two overtly electronic hazy pop songs and the second two "more straightforward traditional guitar tracks". QRO Magazine writer Robin Sinhababu noted that Sex is composed of four different styles of British emo. ### Songs "Intro/Set3", an electronic, R&B and pop slow jam, opens Sex with "glitching" layers instruments and effects, electronic synth beats and tiered vocals which utilise a "cut up vocal effect". The song gradually builds until reaching a plateau in its mid-section. A "hazy" and "futuristic" 1990s-style electronic, R&B and pop slow jam, "Undo" contains electronic synths and elements of chillwave, indie and acoustic. "Sex" is an indie rock, indie pop and emo-rock song. Drawing from pop-punk, Britpop and power pop, the production features minimal synths and a post-rock-influenced middle eight. Lyrically, the song is about spontaneous sexual intercourse ("But if we're gonna do anything we might as well just fuck") while Healy repeats the hook: "She's got a boyfriend anyway". Incorporating elements of shoegaze, "You" is a guitar-heavy ballad that begins with gentle and quiet distorted guitars as Healy sings: "You're a liar / At least all of your friends are". As the song continues to build, subtle drums are added at the 40-second mark while Healy sings the hook: "It takes a bit more than you". Thematically, Healy said the track was inspired by the dissolution of his social group, noting it represents "that moment when you realise, [']Oh, that was a bit of a waste of time--but fuck it, I'm actually just as happy as I was before so no harm done[']". "Milk" is a hidden track that occupies the final two minutes and twelve seconds of "You". It is a guitar-heavy pop rock and indie song containing elements of electro and shoegaze, while the lyrics deal with drugs and sex. "Head.Cars.Bending (George Daniel Remix)" is an electronic and dance song that incorporates elements of UK garage. The song's original version was later released on the 1975's third EP, Music for Cars (2013). ## Critical reception Awarding Sex a score of 9 out of 10, Amy Jones commended the EP's musical diversity and its development of the 1975's signature sound, asserting the record shows promise for the band's debut album. In addition to praising the title track as a highlight from the EP, she wrote: "Every track on this is incredible and shows off the band's spectrum of talents with ease and simplicity." Pearlman lauded the diversity of genres on Sex, writing that while it did not appear entirely cohesive at first, repeated listens helped the EP "[come] together remarkably well". She was particularly favourable toward the second half of the record, writing that the 1975 excel on pop-oriented songs such as "Sex" and "You", the latter of which she deemed as "undoubtedly the standout". Norman Fleischer of Nothing but Hope and Passion praised the variety of styles present on the EP and deemed the title track an "obvious hit single", writing that the band "stick[s] up to the expectations" set by fellow Manchester musicians. Martyn Young awarded Sex three out of five stars; asserting that while the record showed "a great deal of promise"—with the exception of "You", which he opined ends the EP on a disappointing note—he struggled to understand "exactly who [t]he 1975 are", owing to the band's "wildly fluctuating" sound. Amanda Koellner gave Sex a grade of C−. She commended the 1975's exploration of different styles and called the EP a "fun listen with lots to offer". However, she felt it was "apparent that The 1975 are still searching for their sound" and criticised the transition from the first half of the record to the second, comparing it to "an accidental click of the shuffle button". In a negative review, Robin Sinhababu gave the EP a score of 3.5 out of 10. Despite praising the "dynamic" sound of "You", she called Healy a nuisance and criticised the record's overtly sexual nature, saying the singer "whines melodramatically about all kinds of things, from the irrelevant to the trivial". ## Track listing Later digital editions of Sex replace the 19 minutes of silence with just under 3 minutes; this version is 9:52 in length and "Milk" begins at 7:36. Notes - signifies an additional producer - On the standard version, "Sex" is alternatively titled "Sex - EP Version" - "Head.Cars.Bending (George Daniel Remix)" is alternatively titled "Head.Cars.Bending (The 1975 Remix)" ## See also - The 1975 discography - List of songs by Matty Healy

Robert F. Travis

U.S. Army Air Forces general

Brigadier General Robert Falligant Travis (26 December 1904 – 5 August 1950) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II. A 1928 graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, Travis saw action as commander of the Eighth Air Force's 41st Combat Bombardment Wing, based at RAF Molesworth in England. He personally led 35 combat missions over Nazi-occupied Europe, including a costly raid on a fighter plant in Oschersleben, Germany, on 11 January 1944, for which the wing received a Distinguished Unit Citation. His decorations included the Distinguished Service Cross, the Silver Star with two oak leaf clusters, the Distinguished Flying Cross with three oak leaf clusters, and the Purple Heart. Travis was killed in the crash of a B-29 Superfortress at Fairfield-Suisun Air Force Base near Fairfield, California. The base was named for him the following year. ## Early career Robert Falligant Travis was born in Savannah, Georgia, on 26 December 1904, the son of Robert Jessie Travis, a lawyer who reached the rank of major general in the Georgia National Guard, and his wife Rena née Falligant. He had a younger brother, William Livingston, and two sisters, Rena and Cecilia. Travis entered the University of Georgia in Athens in 1924, but received an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, which he entered on 1 July 1924. He graduated on 9 June 1928 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Field Artillery, ranking 115th out of 261 in class of 1928. His brother, William, graduated 53d in the class of 1933, and would eventually reach the rank of colonel in the United States Air Force. Travis commenced flight training on 1 September 1928 at the Air Corps Primary Flying School at Brooks Field, Texas. On completion of the course he attended the Air Corps Advanced Flying School at Kelly Field, Texas. On 15 November 1929, he was posted to the 1st Observation Squadron at Mitchel Field, New York, as an engineering officer. He was transferred to the Air Corps on 21 November 1929. From 19 July 1932 to 7 August 1933 he was a student at the Air Corps Engineering School at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. He then joined the 59th Service Squadron at Langley Field, Virginia, as its supply engineering and operations officer. From February to May 1934, during the Air Mail scandal, Travis served as the engineering inspector for the Eastern Zone of the Army Air Corps Mail Operation (AACMO) based at Floyd Bennett Field, Brooklyn, and Mitchel Field, Long Island, in New York. Upon completion of this assignment, he returned to Langley Field, where he became the engineering and armament officer of the 49th Bombardment Squadron, 2d Bombardment Group, in December 1934. In March 1935, he was made a flight commander in the 49th Bombardment Squadron. By October 1937, he transferred to the headquarters staff of the 2nd Bombardment Group as the group intelligence and armament officer. He was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 June 1934, and was temporary captain from 20 April 1935 to 16 June 1936. He was promoted to captain again on 9 June 1938. ## World War II In March 1939, Travis went to the 72d Bombardment Squadron at Hickam Field, Hawaii, to serve as operations officer and a flight commander. In July 1939, he became its commanding officer. He then became materiel officer of the 5th Bombardment Group in September 1940, and was promoted to major on 31 January 1941. In May 1941, he returned to the United States, where he was assigned to the 29th Bombardment Group at MacDill Field, Florida, as the commanding officer of the 43d Bombardment Squadron. He was subsequently elevated to Executive Officer and then commander of the 29th Bombardment Group, with the rank of lieutenant colonel from 5 January 1942, and colonel from 1 March 1942. He moved with the 29th Bombardment Group in June 1942, when it was relocated to Gowen Field in Boise, Idaho. In September 1942, he became the commanding officer of the 15th Bombardment Training Wing at Gowen Field. He moved with it to Sioux City Army Air Base in Iowa, in February 1943. He was promoted to brigadier general on 4 May 1943. In July, he became the Commanding General of the I Bomber Command at El Paso Army Airfield in Texas. Travis was next assigned to the European Theater of Operations, and assumed command of the 41st Combat Bombardment Wing of the Eighth Air Force based at RAF Molesworth in England on 16 September 1943. Travis flew 35 missions over enemy-occupied territory, including a mission to destroy the Focke-Wulf AGO Flugzeugwerke fighter plant in Oschersleben, Germany, on 11 January 1944, for which the wing received a Distinguished Unit Citation. The Eighth Air Force lost 60 bombers that day, 34 of them in the attack on Oschersleben. For his services as commander of 41st Combat Bombardment Wing, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the Silver Star with two oak leaf clusters, the Distinguished Flying Cross with three oak leaf clusters, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, the Army Commendation Medal and the Purple Heart. Travis returned to the United States in October 1944 and was named Commanding General of the 17th Bombardment Training Wing at Grand Island Army Airfield in Nebraska. The wing later moved to Sioux City Army Air Base in Iowa. In August 1945, he was assigned to command the Sioux Falls Army Air Field in South Dakota. ## Post-war career Travis was deputy commander of the Fourteenth Air Force at Orlando Air Force Base in Florida from May to September 1946, when he entered the National War College. He graduated in June 1947, and in September he became the deputy commander of the Seventh Air Force at Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii. He assumed command of the 7th Air Division (formally the Seventh Air Force) there in May 1948. In September 1948, he was appointed Commanding General of the Pacific Air Command at Hickam. On 17 June 1949, he became the Commanding General of the 9th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing at Fairfield-Suisun Air Force Base, California. He assumed command of the 5th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing on 8 November 1949, commanding both wings at the base. In July 1950, soon after the outbreak of the Korean War, the Joint Chiefs of Staff decided to send ten nuclear-capable B-29 Superfortress bombers to Guam as a deterrent to a Chinese attack on Taiwan, and possible future use in Korea. They were loaded with Mark 4 nuclear bombs, but without the fissile cores. Travis was one of twenty passengers and crewmen on board B-29 Superfortress 44-87651 when it commenced take off from Fairfield-Suisun at 2200 on 5 August 1950. The plane was piloted by Captain Eugene Q. Steffes, with First Lieutenant Carter W. Johnson as his co-pilot and Technical Sergeant Donald W. Moore as his flight engineer. As the plane reached a speed of 125 miles per hour (201 km/h) about three quarters of the way down the 8,000-foot (2,400 m) runway with the propellers rotating at 2,800 rpm, the number two propeller suddenly went up to 3,500 rpm. Steffes ordered the propeller feathered. The aircraft lifted off at an airspeed of 155 miles per hour (249 km/h), but the landing gear failed to retract. Then the number three propeller suddenly went to 3,500 rpm. Moore reduced its speed to 2,800 rpm by reducing the manifold pressure. The drag caused by the landing gear reduced the plane's speed to 145 miles per hour (233 km/h). The crew attempted an emergency landing. The plane turned around but lost lift, and crashed at 120 miles per hour (190 km/h). The plane broke up on landing, and burst into flames. All ten people in the rear compartment died in the crash, but eight of the ten in the nose section, which broke off, escaped. Travis was pulled alive from the wreckage but died on his way to hospital. The high explosives in the bomb detonated during the fire 20 minutes after the crash, spreading wreckage and burning fuel over a wide area. An additional seven people who were not part of the crew died on the ground in the explosion. The 19 bodies were taken to the McCune Garden Chapel in Vacaville. Travis was buried at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors on 16 August 1950. He was survived by his wife, Jane Frances Travis, who was interred with him after she died on 22 November 1987, and his four children: Jayne, Robert, John and Roger. Fairfield-Suisun Air Force Base was officially renamed Travis Air Force Base in his honor on 20 October 1950. A formal renaming ceremony was held on 20 April 1951, presided over by the Governor of California, Earl Warren, which was attended by Travis' family. ## Awards and decorations ### Distinguished Service Cross citation Travis, Robert F. Brigadier General, U.S. Army Air Forces 41st Bombardment Wing, Eighth Air Force Date of Action: August 31, 1943 to September 21, 1944 Citation: The President of the United States of America, authorized by Act of Congress July 9, 1918, takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Service Cross to Brigadier General Robert Falligant Travis, United States Army Air Forces, for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy while serving as Commanding Officer of the 41st Bombardment Wing, Eighth Air Force, while directing bombing missions from 31 August 1943 through 21 September 1944. In operations over Germany, Denmark, France, and Czechoslovakia, with and without fighter support, General Travis distinguished himself by personally choosing to lead bombardment elements on combat missions in which it was known that heavy and extremely hazardous opposition would be met. In the face of fierce attacks by enemy airplanes which often completely overwhelmed fighter support, and very often under unusually adverse weather conditions which caused other elements to abort, this officer has exhibited great courage, coolness, and determination in carrying out operations as planned. On twenty-three missions he occupied the position of Air Commander of the 1st Bombardment Division and as such he was responsible for the efforts of hundreds of B-17 aircraft. Six times he has commanded Combat Bombardment Wing formations with great skill. During this period he has been wounded in action and the airplanes in which he has flown have repeatedly received battle damage as a result of enemy attacks. The extraordinary heroism displayed by General Travis in sustained operations has been, in large measure, responsible for the infliction of severe damage on enemy installations throughout Continental Europe. His gallant leadership, personal courage and zealous devotion to duty displayed by Brigadier General Travis on this occasion have upheld the highest traditions of the military service and reflect great credit upon himself, the 8th Air Force, and the United States Army Air Forces. ## Dates of rank

Bob Barr 2008 presidential campaign

American presidential campaign

The 2008 presidential campaign of Bob Barr, former Congressman of Georgia began on May 12, 2008. He announced his candidacy for the Libertarian Party's president after months of grassroots draft efforts. Barr (who had formerly been a Republican) was criticized by Libertarians who opposed his efforts in Congress, which included sponsorship of the Defense of Marriage Act and votes in favor of the USA PATRIOT Act and authorization of the War in Iraq, but he was supported by others who accepted his regret for those positions. Barr won the party's nomination after six rounds of balloting at the 2008 Libertarian Party National Convention. Former contender Wayne Allyn Root was named as his running mate. Reason magazine senior editor Radley Balko called Barr "the first serious candidate the LP has run since I've been eligible to vote." In the general election, Barr hoped to portray himself as a conservative alternative to the Republican nominee John McCain. He emphasized his opposition to the Republican Party for its positions on the War in Iraq and the USA PATRIOT Act and stood as an advocate of fiscal constraint, demonstrated by his opposition to the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008. The candidate never made headway in election polls, placing third or fourth when included. Barr's efforts to be invited to presidential debates with the two main candidates also fell short when he failed to meet the 15% polling threshold. Barr campaigned throughout the nation. He litigated to gain ballot access in several states and to prevent McCain and the Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama from appearing on the Texas ballot for failing to meet the filing deadline. On election day, Barr appeared on the ballot in 44 states; he finished fourth in the general election, behind Ralph Nader, receiving 523,686 votes, or 0.4% of the total, 126,448 more votes than the Badnarik/Campagna ticket four years prior. ## Background Bob Barr was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1994 as part of the Republican Revolution. While in office, he was a strong proponent of the War on Drugs, called for further investigations into the Waco Siege, and authored the Defense of Marriage Act. In 1998, he was a central figure in the Lewinsky scandal investigation, being the first congressman to call for President Bill Clinton's resignation after the allegations surfaced. Near the end of his time in Congress, Barr voted in favor of the USA PATRIOT Act and the authorization for use of force against Iraq. After his congressional district was redrawn in 2002, making reelection more difficult, Barr was ousted from the House. After leaving Congress, Barr became critical of the Bush administration, specifically for the administration's use of the USA PATRIOT Act, which Barr now believed to be unconstitutional. He also worked as a privacy consultant for the American Civil Liberties Union. In 2004, he left the Republican Party and endorsed Libertarian Party nominee Michael Badnarik for president, formally joining the party in 2006. ## Early stages On March 19, 2008, Barr confirmed his interest in running for president. This coincided with the media acknowledging a movement on Facebook encouraging the former Congressman to begin a campaign. Barr talked about a widespread "dissatisfaction with the candidates for the two major parties" but complimented presidential candidate and Republican Congressman Ron Paul for "advocat[ing] libertarian and true conservative principles". Pollster John Zogby commented that a possible Barr candidacy would be potentially upsetting for Republicans, and described his possible supporters as individuals who saw him "as a consistent libertarian who opposed the PATRIOT Act, budget deficits and gun control." Later in the month, Barr stated that he was "looking very seriously at" a presidential run. Barr launched an exploratory committee and created a campaign website on April 5, 2008. Within two days, the committee reported that \$25,000 had been contributed. Russ Verney, who had served as an adviser to Ross Perot in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections, joined the campaign as a volunteer adviser and worked with Barr's consulting firm, Liberty Strategies LLC, to form a campaign team and build an organization. Verney became the campaign manager after Barr officially announced his candidacy. A poll in late April by Barr's exploratory committee showed that Barr had the support of 7% of the electorate before he had officially declared his candidacy. Leading up to Barr's announcement, columnist George Will wrote an article in Newsweek chronicling the Libertarian Party and the potential candidate's run. Will stated that Barr could have an effect on the election similar to Ralph Nader's in 2000. He described the potential effect as a "condign punishment" for presumptive Republican Party nominee John McCain for his co-sponsorship of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, which Barr opposed. ## Campaign developments ### Libertarian Party nomination campaign Barr publicly announced his candidacy on May 12, 2008. He commented that his run would give the American people a "meaningful choice" to vote for in November, preventing them from having to "hold their nose and pull a lever... for the lesser of two evils." During his speech, Barr cited out of control government growth as the primary reason for his run. In response to the announcement, Republican consultant Christopher Barron countered the claim of George Will on the campaign's potential "spoiler effect." Baron stated that Barr's run "is unlikely to hurt Sen. McCain in any significant way" but would aide the Republican Party "by siphoning off some of the enthusiasm among college voters and antiwar advocates for Obama." During an interview with Newsweek following his entrance into the race, Barr was asked why he had announced his candidacy only two weeks before the Libertarian Party convention. He remarked that he had not "seriously consider[ed] [running] until about five or six weeks" prior to his official announcement. When asked about the "spoiler effect", he stated that "the votes [Barr would receive] are not going to come from people that are committed to voting for McCain." Also during the interview, Barr articulated that his campaign would make use of the internet with methods similar to those employed by Ron Paul and Barack Obama to mobilize young voters. Barr attempted to tap into Ron Paul's resources and supporters to raise funds, and used the same company that Paul used, Terra Eclipse, to design his campaign website. Stephen P. Gordon, who worked for Paul, was hired as the e-Campaign manager, and Doug Bandow, who previously worked as an advisor for both Ron Paul and Ronald Reagan, was hired as the Senior Policy Advisor. Barr's campaign manager Russ Verney sent a fundraising memorandum on May 19 that included his projections for the campaign, and compared Barr favorably to Ross Perot. His predictions included participation in the nationally televised debates in October 2008 and a popular vote total of 19%. The manager commented that this was "no ordinary presidential campaign" and that Barr would do well because "America is swamped in Libertarian information." May 18, 2008 Rasmussen polling reports showed Barr at 6% nationally in a four-way race with Barack Obama, John McCain, Ralph Nader. He led Nader by 2%. A breakdown of Barr's support showed that 7% of Republicans, 5% of Democrats and 5% of unaffiliated voters supported his campaign. The report concluded that most Americans did not have enough information about Barr to form an opinion. May 20 polls from the Insider Advantage-Majority Opinion Survey of 652 individuals showed that in his home state of Georgia, Barr would receive 8% of the popular vote, placing him in third place, and 27% behind Barack Obama for second. Barr participated in the Libertarian Party presidential debate, an event sponsored by Reason Magazine, on May 20, 2008, at Dupont Circle. Fellow contenders Mike Gravel and Wayne Allyn Root each appeared at the event. During the discussion, Barr remarked that "inside the heart of every American beats the heart of a libertarian", and said that the nation was on the verge of entering a "Libertarian era." He also stated that as president he would eliminate the Department of Education, a mainstay of the party platform. Later in the debate, Barr's opponent, Root, criticized the Washington media for its portrayal of Barr as the "only candidate", an action he described as "absurd". ### Libertarian Party presidential nomination As the 2008 Libertarian National Convention in Denver approached, members of the Libertarian Party's Radical Caucus criticized Barr by distributing fliers that declared: the "Libertarian Party [is] not for sale." The criticism was in response to allegations that Barr's campaign was an attempt by conservatives to take over the party. Libertarian delegates disagreed with the media's portrayal of the race and said that Barr was "not a shoo-in" for the nomination. At the convention, Barr was attacked by fellow candidates Steve Kubby and Mary Ruwart for his PATRIOT Act vote in 2001. Barr responded, by saying that he regretted the vote and had spent the previous five years "working [to]...drive a stake through [the PATRIOT ACT's] heart, burn it, shoot it, [and] burn it again..." Barr was named the Libertarian Party's nominee after six rounds of balloting on May 25, 2008. Las Vegas businessman, and fellow Libertarian primary opponent Wayne Allyn Root, was named as his running mate. ## General election campaign As the nominee of the Libertarian Party, Barr promised to "travel the width and breadth of this great land" to vie for the presidency. Executive Vice President of the Cato Institute David Boaz commented that Barr had the best chance to be successful in the western states. Russ Verney confirmed that certain states would be targeted, and that a strategy would be drawn that would enable the campaign to raise \$30 million. On May 28, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported that Barr had raised \$163,000 in cash donations. Barr invited the Republican and Democratic Parties' presumptive presidential nominees, John McCain and Barack Obama respectively, to participate in weekly presidential debates. To participate in official presidential debates the Barr campaign had to surpass the 15% threshold put in place by the Commission on Presidential Debates. CNN polling on June 7 placed Barr at 2% nationally. ### Campaign exposure Barr received some media exposure a few days after his nomination by visiting New York City to appear on both the Colbert Report and on Glenn Beck's Headline News program for an hour-long interview. The former appearance was part of the campaign's strategy to inform young voters and former Ron Paul supporters about the campaign. During the interview with Colbert, Barr was asked why he "voted for the PATRIOT Act" if he was such a "big advocate of personal privacy." He responded by saying that the Bush Administration "went back on everything they told us [in Congress] they would do with the PATRIOT Act." In early June, the campaign dealt with the issue of racism when a white supremacist group posted a Barr endorsement on Stormfront, urging whites to vote for the "best man" rather than the "liberal" John McCain. The Barr campaign repudiated this endorsement. Campaign manager Russ Verney stated, "We do not want and will not accept the support of haters. Tell the haters I said don't let the door hit you in the backside on the way out." He emphasized that "anyone with love in their heart for our country and for every resident of our country regardless of race, religion, nationality, or sexual orientation is welcome with open arms." Although the campaign garnered \$300,000 in donations by June 28, Barr had yet to hold a campaign fundraiser or film television advertisements. On June 30, Barr appeared on Fox News Sunday with Chris Wallace. He described his qualms with the presumptive Republican nominee, and said "John McCain is symptomatic of what's wrong with the Republican Party in these first years of the 21st century. They talk one thing but do something different." When asked if he agreed that McCain would be a better choice than Barack Obama, he responded that it was "a mixed bag" and that "Senator Obama clearly is much better [on] civil liberties and privacy issues" but that he "would favor a more expansive federal spending policy." Barr opined that "neither of these candidates is talking about the deep cuts in government spending and returning power to the people." He identified the Republican Party's position on FISA legislation as his biggest aversion to the party. When confronted with opinion polls that showed the candidate with 3% in the presidential race, Barr explained that the numbers would increase in the following weeks, announcing that his campaign would be launched "full-time" on July 4. ### Full-time escalation Barr launched his "full-time" campaign at Atlanta's Fourth of July parade, where the city celebrated the opening of the Millennium Gate arch. Democratic Congressman John Lewis spoke alongside Barr at the dedication. The next week, Barr appeared on Fox News, where he criticized the United States Treasury Department's plan to help Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae. His opposition was based on the government's use of taxpayer money to credit the enterprises, explaining that "the taxpayers of this country are being put at further risk." But Barr did state that "doing nothing would not be advisable" and that the government "has to do something." He explained that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac must be restructered. Barr was criticized by some Libertarians for these remarks. During a visit to Austin for a fundraiser, Barr made a surprise appearance at the July 19 Netroots Nation convention. The candidate remarked at the meeting of progressive bloggers that "there are a lot of libertarians here, [and] a lot of [Barr] supporters." His presence was acknowledged by Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, who observed that "Bob Barr – even Bob Barr – opposed" the domestic spying bill that she was discussing. On July 23, CNN polling placed Barr at 3% in a four-way race, while Zogby placed Barr at 6%. He polled at 8% in Georgia, Colorado, Iowa, and Minnesota, and at 9% in Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Nevada. Surveys in New Hampshire put Barr at 10%. In August, Barr spoke at the Minuteman Civil Defense Corps' protest during the Democratic National Convention in Denver. Approximately a dozen individuals were in attendance at the event. Former Republican candidates Tom Tancredo and Alan Keyes also attended the event, which organizers called a success. Barr presented a "common sense" approach to the issue by promising to put an end to birthright citizenship and public education for illegal immigrants, while supporting an increase in green cards. Claremont McKenna College professor John Pitney argued that the candidate was sending mixed messages since "the Libertarian Party essentially supports open borders," and was unlikely to gain the support of anti-immigration activists. A Zogby poll released on August 15, 2008 indicated that most Republicans and Democrats wanted Barr included in the presidential debates. The poll also indicated that nearly 70% of independent voters would have liked to see him included. ### Final stages As September began, commentator Greg Pierce of The Washington Times noted that the "grass-roots enthusiasm for [Barr's] candidacy seems to have faded a bit in the wake of individualist Governor Sarah Palin joining the Republican ticket." It was announced at a press conference on September 10, 2008 that former Republican Presidential candidate Ron Paul would give his open endorsement to Constitution Party nominee Chuck Baldwin, Green Party nominee Cynthia McKinney, independent Ralph Nader, and Barr, in opposition to the Republican and Democratic Parties' nominees. Barr chose not to attend the event, and his name was not included in the final statement released by the other candidates. Paul had previously made favorable comments about Barr's campaign, leaving the candidate to feel that he alone should have received the endorsement. Later that day, it was revealed that Barr had earlier offered the Libertarian vice-presidential nomination to Paul, via a letter. The letter stated that Barr's current running mate, Wayne Allyn Root, would willingly step down should Paul accept the offer. A spokesman for the Paul campaign called Barr's offer "terribly interesting", but added that Paul had no intentions of running on a third party ticket. Ron Paul dropped his endorsement of Barr on September 22, citing the candidate's criticism of his earlier endorsements. Paul opted to instead support Chuck Baldwin's candidacy. Barr received \$252,383 of donations in September, which was slightly more than the \$224,350 the campaign raised in August. On the dawn of the final month of campaigning, Barr appeared on National Public Radio, and discussed his political positions, including those on health care, a topic that had rarely been discussed by Barr over the course of his campaign. Barr gave his shortest response to the issue, saying that "everybody ought to be able to get health care, but that's up to them..." and went on to say that "the government could be...reducing and removing the onerous regulations that actually prevent people from being able to afford health care." Close to the end of the campaign, Barr's polling numbers remained stagnant. An Associated Press-GfK poll from late October placed the candidate at 1% nationally, the same figure he had stood at three weeks previously. ## Ballot access Barr achieved ballot access in 45 states according to the Libertarian Party website. This was the first time since 1988 that the Libertarian ticket did not have access to over 500 electoral votes. He was denied access in Oklahoma after failing to reach the minimum threshold of petition signatures. In July, the campaign filed a lawsuit against the state to try to get the candidate on the ballot despite not meeting the guidelines. Barr also filed lawsuits in Massachusetts, West Virginia and Maine to appear on the ballot under similar circumstances. Barr's plea in West Virginia failed on September 7 after U.S. District Court Judge John T. Copenhaver Jr. dismissed the lawsuit. The judge proclaimed that "it was their (the campaign's) lack of reasonable diligence that ultimately thwarted their effort to gain ballot access here" in West Virginia. Lawsuits were filed against Barr by GOP members in Pennsylvania to prevent the candidate from appearing on the state's ballot on charges that the Libertarian Party tricked individuals into signing the state's ballot access petition. Commonwealth Court Judge Johnny Butler dismissed these allegations on September 16, allowing Barr to remain on the state's ballot. The Barr campaign filed a lawsuit to prevent John McCain and Barack Obama from appearing on the ballot in Texas, charging that the candidates' parties did not reach the state's August 26 deadline to report their nominations to the Secretary of State. Texas Secretary of State Esperanza Andrade reported that all the correct paperwork was filed, though neither the Democratic nor Republican parties formally nominated their candidates (at their respective conventions) until after the deadline. On September 23, 2008, the Texas Supreme Court rejected Barr's request without giving a reason. On September 26, 2008, the Louisiana Supreme Court reversed an earlier decision to keep Barr and Root on the ballot, and ordered that they both be removed due to missing the state's deadline, which passed while state offices were closed due to Hurricane Gustav. The Barr-Root campaign announced that it planned to appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. The court refused to hear the case, and Barr's name was absent from the state's ballot on election day. ## Results Barr's campaign ended after receiving 523,686 (0.4%) of the popular vote on Election Day. He finished in fourth place, winning a higher percentage than the 2004 Libertarian nominee Michael Badnarik. 67,582 of his votes were won in California, the nation's most populous state, but Barr won his largest percentage in Indiana with 1.1%. Reason Magazine'''s Brian Doherty commented that Barr's showing did not meet earlier expectations. He wrote that Barr did not win a significant percentage of the population because he was "not Libertarian enough," distanced himself too far from Ron Paul, and lacked adequate "communication and coordination." ## Aftermath Following the campaign, Barr was certified as a mediator to resolve disputes upon request. He currently writes a regular column for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution titled "The Barr Code", and is a contributor for CNN. In his column, he discusses privacy issues and often criticizes the Obama administration, disapproving of the effect of its spending on the federal budget. He has become involved in the Tea Party movement, and has left the Libertarian Party, rejoining the Republicans. He supported former running mate Wayne Allyn Root's bid to be chairman of the Party. Root was considered a potential 2012 Libertarian presidential candidate. He did not run, and like Barr, rejoined the Republican Party. Barr reflected on the campaign in an interview with Reason'' shortly after the election. He explained that his campaign's inability to gain access to donor lists hindered the campaign's fundraising capacity. In April 2009, he commented that his exclusion from the presidential debates prevented his campaign from gaining significant traction. Barr said he would not run for public office in the future. However, he attempted to regain his seat in Congress in 2014, losing in the Republican Party primary runoff election. In May 2010, the Barr campaign was sued by libertarian pundit Jim Bovard, who was hired to ghostwrite a book about the campaign. Bovard claims he was never paid the \$47,000 he was to receive for his efforts. Campaign manager Russ Verney stated that the campaign hoped to raise enough money to pay Bovard, and asked for donations. The ensuing litigation resulted in a judgment entered for Bovard against the Barr 2008 Presidential Committee, Inc., in the full amount of \$47,000.00. ## See also - Comparison of United States presidential candidates, 2008 - Electoral history of Bob Barr - List of candidates in the United States presidential election, 2008 - Political positions of Bob Barr - United States third party and independent presidential candidates, 2008

Gus Grissom

American astronaut (1926–1967)

Virgil Ivan "Gus" Grissom (April 3, 1926 – January 27, 1967) was an American engineer, pilot in the United States Air Force, and member of the Mercury Seven selected by National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) as Project Mercury astronauts to be the first Americans in outer space. He was a Project Gemini and an Apollo program astronaut. As a member of the NASA Astronaut Corps, Grissom was the second American to fly in space in 1961. He was also the second American to fly in space twice, preceded only by Joe Walker with his sub-orbital X-15 flights. Grissom was a World War II and Korean War veteran, mechanical engineer, and USAF test pilot. He was a recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Air Medal with an oak leaf cluster, two NASA Distinguished Service Medals, and, posthumously, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. Grissom, commander of AS-204 (Apollo 1), died with astronauts Ed White and Roger B. Chaffee on January 27, 1967, during a pre-launch test for the Apollo 1 mission at Cape Kennedy, Florida. ## Early life Virgil Ivan Grissom was born in the small town of Mitchell, Indiana, on April 3, 1926, to Dennis David Grissom (1903–1994), a signalman for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and Cecile King Grissom (1901–1995), a homemaker. Virgil was the family's second child (an older sister died in infancy shortly before his birth). He was followed by three younger siblings: a sister, Wilma, and two brothers, Norman and Lowell. Grissom started school at Riley grade school. His interest in flying began in that time, building model airplanes. He received his nickname when his friend was reading his name on a scorecard upside down and misread "Griss" as "Gus". As a youth, Grissom attended the local Church of Christ, where he remained a lifelong member. He joined the local Boy Scout Troop and earned the rank of Star Scout. Grissom credited the Scouts for his love of hunting and fishing. He was the leader of the honor guard in his troop. His first jobs were delivering newspapers for The Indianapolis Star in the morning and the Bedford Times in the evening. In the summer he picked fruit in area orchards and worked at a dry-goods store. He also worked at a local meat market, a service station, and a clothing store in Mitchell. Grissom started attending Mitchell High School in 1940. He wanted to play varsity basketball but he was too short. His father encouraged him to find sports he was more suited for, and he joined the swimming team. Although he excelled at mathematics, Grissom was an average high school student in other subjects. He graduated from high school in 1944. In addition, Grissom occasionally spent time at a local airport in Bedford, Indiana, where he first became interested in aviation. A local attorney who owned a small plane would take him on flights and taught him the basics of flying. Grissom was a Freemason. ## World War II World War II began while Grissom was still in high school, but he was eager to join the armed services upon graduation. Grissom enlisted as an aviation cadet in the U.S. Army Air Forces during his senior year in high school, and completed an entrance exam in November 1943. Grissom was inducted into the U.S. Army Air Forces on August 8, 1944, at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana. He was sent to Sheppard Field in Wichita Falls, Texas, for five weeks of basic flight training, and was later stationed at Brooks Field in San Antonio, Texas. In January 1945 Grissom was assigned to Boca Raton Army Airfield in Florida. Although he was interested in becoming a pilot, most of Grissom's time before his discharge in 1945 was spent as a clerk. ## Post-war employment Grissom was discharged from military service in November 1945, after the war had ended, and returned to Mitchell, where he took a job at Carpenter Body Works, a local bus manufacturing business. Grissom was determined to make his career in aviation and attend college. Using the G.I. Bill for partial payment of his school tuition, Grissom enrolled at Purdue University in September 1946. Due to a shortage of campus housing during her husband's first semester in college in West Lafayette, Indiana, Grissom's wife, Betty, stayed in Mitchell living with her parents, while Grissom lived in a rented apartment with another male student. Betty Grissom joined her husband on campus during his second semester, and the couple settled into a small, one-bedroom apartment. Grissom continued his studies at Purdue, worked part-time as a cook at a local restaurant, and took summer classes to finish college early, while his wife worked the night shift as a long-distance operator for the Indiana Bell Telephone Company to help pay for his schooling and their living expenses. Grissom graduated from Purdue with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering in February 1950. ## Korean War After he graduated from Purdue, Grissom re-enlisted in the newly formed U.S. Air Force. He was accepted into the Air Cadet Basic Training Program at Randolph Air Force Base in Universal City, Texas. Upon completion of the program, he was assigned to Williams Air Force Base in Mesa, Arizona, where his wife, Betty, and infant son, Scott, joined him, but the family remained there only briefly. In March 1951, Grissom received his pilot wings and a commission as a second lieutenant. Nine months later, in December 1951, Grissom and his family moved into new living quarters in Presque Isle, Maine, where he was assigned to Presque Isle Air Force Base and became a member of the 75th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. With the ongoing Korean War, Grissom's squadron was dispatched to the war zone in February 1952. There he flew as an F-86 Sabre replacement pilot and was reassigned to the 334th Fighter Squadron of the 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing stationed at Kimpo Air Base. He flew one hundred combat missions during approximately six months of service in Korea, including multiple occasions when he broke up air raids from North Korean MiGs. On March 11, 1952, Grissom was promoted to first lieutenant and was cited for his "superlative airmanship" for his actions on March 23, 1952, when he flew cover for a photo reconnaissance mission. Grissom was also awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal with an oak leaf cluster for his military service in Korea. After flying his quota of one hundred missions, Grissom asked to remain in Korea to fly another twenty-five flights, but his request was denied. Grissom returned to the United States to serve as a flight instructor at Bryan AFB in Bryan, Texas, where he was joined by his wife, Betty, and son, Scott. The Grissoms' second child, Mark, was born there in 1953. Grissom soon learned that flight instructors faced their own set of on-the-job risks. During a training exercise with a cadet, the trainee pilot caused a flap to break off from their two-seat trainer, sending it into a roll. Grissom quickly climbed from the rear seat of the small aircraft to take over the controls and safely land it. In August 1955, Grissom was reassigned to the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. After completing the year-long course he earned a bachelor's degree in aeromechanics in 1956. In October 1956, he entered the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California, and returned to Wright-Patterson AFB in Ohio in May 1957, after attaining the rank of captain. Grissom served as a test pilot assigned to the fighter branch. ## NASA career In 1959, Grissom received an official teletype message instructing him to report to an address in Washington, D.C., wearing civilian clothes. The message was classified "Top Secret" and Grissom was ordered not to discuss its contents with anyone. Of the 508 military candidates who were considered, he was one of 110 test pilots whose credentials had earned them an invitation to learn more about the U.S. space program in general and its Project Mercury. Grissom was intrigued by the program, but knew that competition for the final spots would be fierce. Grissom passed the initial screening in Washington, D.C., and was among the thirty-nine candidates sent to the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and the Aeromedical Laboratory of the Wright Air Development Center in Dayton, Ohio, to undergo extensive physical and psychological testing. He was nearly disqualified when doctors discovered that he suffered from hay fever, but was permitted to continue after he argued that his allergies would not be a problem due to the absence of ragweed pollen in space. On April 13, 1959, Grissom received official notification that he had been selected as one of the seven Project Mercury astronauts. Grissom and the six other men, after taking a leave of absence from their respective branches of the military service, reported to the Special Task Group at Langley Air Force Base in Virginia on April 27, 1959, to begin their astronaut training. ### Project Mercury On July 21, 1961, Grissom was pilot of the second Project Mercury flight, Mercury-Redstone 4. Grissom's spacecraft, which he named Liberty Bell 7, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, a sub-orbital flight that lasted 15 minutes and 37 seconds. After splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean, the Liberty Bell 7's emergency explosive bolts unexpectedly fired, blowing off the hatch and causing water to flood into the spacecraft. Grissom quickly exited through the open hatch and into the ocean. While waiting for recovery helicopters from USS Randolph to pick him up, Grissom struggled to keep from drowning after his spacesuit began losing buoyancy due to an open air inlet. Grissom managed to stay afloat until he was pulled from the water by a helicopter and taken to the U.S. Navy ship. In the meantime another recovery helicopter tried to lift and retrieve the Liberty Bell 7, but the flooding spacecraft became too heavy, forcing the recovery crew to cut it loose, and it ultimately sank. When reporters at a news conference surrounded Grissom after his space flight to ask how he felt, Grissom replied, "Well, I was scared a good portion of the time; I guess that's a pretty good indication." Grissom stated he had done nothing to cause the hatch to blow, and no definitive explanation for the incident was found. Robert F. Thompson, director of Mercury operations, was dispatched to USS Randolph by Space Task Group Director Robert Gilruth and spoke with Grissom upon his arrival on the aircraft carrier. Grissom explained that he had gotten ahead in the mission timeline and had removed the detonator cap, and also pulled the safety pin. Once the pin was removed, the trigger was no longer held in place and could have inadvertently fired as a result of ocean wave action, bobbing as a result of helicopter rotor wash, or other activity. NASA officials concluded Grissom had not necessarily initiated the firing of the explosive hatch, which would have required pressing a plunger that required five pounds of force to depress. Hitting this metal trigger with the hand typically left a large bruise, but Grissom was found not to have any of the telltale hand bruising. While the debate continued about the premature detonation of Liberty Bell 7'''s hatch bolts, precautions were initiated for subsequent flights. Fellow Mercury astronaut Wally Schirra, at the end of his October 3, 1962, flight, remained inside his spacecraft until it was safely aboard the recovery ship, and made a point of deliberately blowing the hatch to get out of the spacecraft, bruising his hand. Grissom's spacecraft was recovered in 1999, but no evidence was found that could conclusively explain how the explosive hatch release had occurred. Later, Guenter Wendt, pad leader for the early American crewed space launches, wrote that he believed a small cover over the external release actuator was accidentally lost sometime during the flight or splashdown. Another possible explanation was that the hatch's T-handle may have been tugged by a stray parachute suspension line, or was perhaps damaged by the heat of re-entry, and after cooling upon splashdown it contracted and caught fire. It has also been suggested that a static electricity discharge during initial contact between the spacecraft and the rescue helicopter may have caused the hatch's explosive bolts to blow. The co-pilot of the helicopter, U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant John Reinhard, had the job of using a cutting pole to snip off an antenna before the helicopter could latch onto the capsule. In the 1990s, he told a researcher that he remembered seeing an electric arc jump between the capsule and his pole right before the hatch blew. Jim Lewis, the pilot of Grissom's rescue helicopter, told Smithsonian Magazine that closer inspection of film footage made him remember the day in better detail. He recalled that "Reinhard must have cut the antenna a mere second or two before I got us in a position for him to attach our harness to the capsule lifting bale," indicating that the timing of the helicopter's approach aligned with the static discharge theory. ### Project Gemini In early 1964, Alan Shepard was grounded after being diagnosed with Ménière's disease and Grissom was designated command pilot for Gemini 3, the first crewed Project Gemini flight, which flew on March 23, 1965. This mission made Grissom the first NASA astronaut to fly into space twice. The two-man flight on Gemini 3 with Grissom and John W. Young made three revolutions of the Earth and lasted for 4 hours, 52 minutes and 31 seconds. Grissom was one of the eight pilots of the NASA paraglider research vehicle (Paresev). Grissom, the shortest of the original seven astronauts at five feet seven inches tall, worked very closely with the engineers and technicians from McDonnell Aircraft who built the Gemini spacecraft. Because of his involvement in the design of the first three spacecraft, his fellow astronauts humorously referred to the craft as "the Gusmobile". By July 1963 NASA discovered 14 out of its 16 astronauts could not fit themselves into the cabin and the later cockpits were modified. During this time Grissom invented the multi-axis translation thruster controller used to push the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft in linear directions for rendezvous and docking. In a joking nod to the sinking of his Mercury craft, Grissom named the first Gemini spacecraft Molly Brown (after the popular Broadway show, The Unsinkable Molly Brown). Some NASA publicity officials were unhappy with this name and asked Grissom and his pilot, John Young, to come up with a new one. When they offered Titanic as an alternate, NASA executives decided to allow them to use the name of Molly Brown for Gemini 3, but did not use it in official references. Much to the agency's chagrin, CAPCOM Gordon Cooper gave Gemini 3 its sendoff on launch with the remark to Grissom and Young, "You're on your way, Molly Brown!" Ground controllers also used it to refer to the spacecraft throughout its flight. After the safe return of Gemini 3, NASA announced new spacecraft would not be nicknamed. Hence, Gemini 4 was not called American Eagle as its crew had planned. The practice of nicknaming spacecraft resumed in 1967, when managers realized that the Apollo flights needed a name for each of two flight elements, the Command Module (CSM) and the Lunar Module. Lobbying by the astronauts and senior NASA administrators also had an effect. Apollo 9 used the name Gumdrop for the Command Module and Spider for the Lunar Module. However, Wally Schirra was prevented from naming his Apollo 7 spacecraft Phoenix in honor of the Apollo 1 crew because some believed that its nickname as a metaphor for "fire" might be misunderstood. ### Apollo program Grissom was backup command pilot for Gemini 6A when he was transferred to the Apollo program and was assigned as commander of the first crewed mission, AS-204, with Senior Pilot Ed White, who had flown in space on the Gemini 4 mission, when he became the first American to make a spacewalk, and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee. The three men were granted permission to refer to their flight as "Apollo 1" on their mission insignia patch. Problems with the simulator proved extremely annoying to Grissom, who told a reporter the problems with Apollo 1 came "in bushelfuls" and that he was skeptical of its chances to complete its fourteen-day mission. Grissom earned the nickname "Gruff Gus" by being outspoken about the technical deficiencies of the spacecraft. The engineers who programmed the Apollo training simulator had a difficult time keeping the simulator in sync with the continuous changes being made to the spacecraft. According to backup astronaut Walter Cunningham, "We knew that the spacecraft was, you know, in poor shape relative to what it ought to be. We felt like we could fly it, but let's face it, it just wasn't as good as it should have been for the job of flying the first crewed Apollo mission." NASA pressed on. In mid-January 1967, "preparations were being made for the final pre-flight tests of Spacecraft 012." On January 22, 1967, before returning to Cape Kennedy to conduct the January 27 plugs-out test that ended his life, Grissom's wife, Betty, later recalled that he took a lemon from a tree in his back yard and explained that he intended to hang it on that spacecraft, although he actually hung the lemon on the simulator (a duplicate of the Apollo spacecraft). ## Personal Grissom met Betty Lavonne Moore (1927–2018), in high school. They were married on July 6, 1945, at First Baptist Church in Mitchell when he was home on leave during World War II. The couple had two sons, Scott, (1950), and Mark (1953). Two of Grissom's pastimes were hunting and fishing. The family also enjoyed water sports and skiing. ## Death Before Apollo 1's planned launch on February 21, 1967, the Command Module interior caught fire and burned on January 27, 1967, during a pre-launch test on Launch Pad 34 at Cape Kennedy. Astronauts Grissom, White, and Chaffee, who were working inside the closed Command Module, were asphyxiated. Awaiting launch, Grissom said, "How are we going to get to the Moon if we can't talk between two or three buildings," then shouted "fire!" The fire's ignition source was damaged wiring. The pilots' deaths were attributed to lethal hazards in the early CSM design and conditions of the test, including a pressurized 100 percent oxygen prelaunch atmosphere, wiring and plumbing flaws, flammable materials used in the cockpit and in the astronauts' flight suits, and an inward-opening hatch that could not be opened quickly in an emergency and not at all with full internal pressure. Grissom's funeral services and burial at Arlington National Cemetery were held on January 31, 1967. Dignitaries in attendance included President Lyndon B. Johnson, members of the U.S. Congress, and fellow NASA astronauts, among others. Grissom was interred at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington County, Virginia, beside Roger Chaffee. White's remains are interred at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York. ## Legacy After the accident, NASA decided to give the flight the official designation of Apollo 1 and skip to Apollo 4 for the first uncrewed flight of the Saturn V, counting the two uncrewed suborbital tests, AS-201 and 202, as part of the sequence. The Apollo spacecraft problems were corrected, with Apollo 7, commanded by Wally Schirra, launched on October 11, 1968, more than a year after the Apollo 1 accident. The Apollo program reached its objective of successfully landing men on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with Apollo 11. At the time of his death, Grissom had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel and had logged a total of 4,600 hours flying time, including 3,500 hours in jet airplanes. Some contend that Grissom could have been selected as one of the astronauts to walk on the Moon. Deke Slayton wrote that he had hoped for one of the original Mercury astronauts to go to the Moon, noting: "It wasn't just a cut-and-dried decision as to who should make the first steps on the Moon. If I had to select on that basis, my first choice would have been Gus, which both Chris Kraft and Bob Gilruth seconded." Ultimately, Alan Shepard, one of the original seven NASA astronauts, would receive the honor of commanding the Apollo 14 lunar landing. ## Liberty Bell 7 spacesuit controversy When the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame opened in 1990, his family lent it the spacesuit worn by Grissom during Mercury 4 along with other personal artifacts belonging to the astronaut. In 2002, the museum went into bankruptcy and was taken over by a NASA contractor, whereupon the family sought the exhibit's return. All the artifacts were returned to them except the spacesuit, which NASA claimed was government property. NASA insisted Grissom got authorization to use the spacesuit for a show and tell at his son's school in 1965 and never returned it, but some of Grissom family members claimed the astronaut rescued the spacesuit from a scrap heap. As of December 2016, the space suit was part of the Kennedy Space Center Hall of Fame's Heroes and Legends exhibit. ## Awards and honors - John J. Montgomery Award To celebrate his spaceflight in 1961, Grissom was made honorary Mayor of Newport News, Virginia, and a new library was dubbed the Virgil I. Grissom Library in the Denbigh section of Newport News, Virginia. The airport in Bedford, Indiana, where Grissom flew as a teenager was renamed Virgil I. Grissom Municipal Airport in 1965. A three-ton piece of limestone, inscribed with his name, was unveiled at the airport. His fellow astronauts ribbed him about the name, saying that airports were normally named for dead aviators. Grissom replied, "But this time they've named one for a live one." Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Old Bridge, New Jersey, was named for Grissom the year before his death. His death forced the cancellation of a student project to design a flag to represent Grissom and their school, which would have flown on the mission. Grissom was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his Mercury flight and was awarded it a second time for his role in Gemini 3. The Apollo 1 crew was awarded the medal posthumously in a 1969 presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the Apollo 11 crew. Grissom's family received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978 from President Carter (White's and Chaffee's families received it in 1997). Grissom was granted an honorary doctorate from Florida Institute of Technology in 1962, the first-ever awarded by the university. Grissom was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1981, and the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1987. Grissom was posthumously inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990. His wife, Betty Lavonne Moore, donated his Congressional Space Medal of Honor to the accompanying museum. Grissom posthumously received AIAA's Haley Astronautics Award for 1968. ## Memorials The dismantled Launch Pad 34 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station bears two memorial plaques to the crew of Apollo 1. The Kennedy Space Center features a memorial exhibit honoring the Apollo 1 crew in the Apollo/Saturn V Center, which includes artifacts and personal mementos of Grissom, Chaffee, and White. Grissom's name is included on the plaque left on the Moon with the Fallen Astronaut statue in 1971 by the crew of Apollo 15. The Grissom Memorial, a 44-foot (13 m) tall limestone monument representing the Redstone rocket and his Mercury space capsule was dedicated in downtown Mitchell, Indiana, in 1981. The Virgil I. Grissom Memorial in Spring Mill State Park, near Grissom's hometown of Mitchell, Indiana, was dedicated in 1971, the tenth anniversary of his Mercury flight. The governor declared it a state holiday for the second year in a row. The Gus Grissom Stakes is a thoroughbred horse race run in Indiana each fall; originally held at Hoosier Park in Anderson, it was moved to Horseshoe Indianapolis in Shelbyville in 2014. Grissom Island is an artificial island off of Long Beach, California, created in 1966 for drilling oil (along with White, Chaffee and Freeman Islands). Virgil "Gus" Grissom Park opened in 1971 in Fullerton, California. His widow and son were invited to the dedication ceremony and planted the first large tree in the park. Grissom is named with his Apollo 1 crewmates on the Space Mirror Memorial, which was dedicated in 1991. His son, Gary Grissom, said, "When I was younger, I thought NASA would do something. It's a shame it has taken this long". Navi (Ivan spelled backwards), is a seldom-used nickname for the star Gamma Cassiopeiae. Grissom used this name, plus two others for White and Chaffee, on his Apollo 1 mission planning star charts as a joke, and the succeeding Apollo astronauts kept using the names as a memorial. Grissom crater is one of several located on the far side of the Moon named for Apollo astronauts. The name was created and used unofficially by the Apollo 8 astronauts and was adopted as the official name by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1970. 2161 Grissom is a main belt asteroid that was discovered in 1963 and officially designated in 1981. The name references his launch date of July 21, 1961. Grissom Hill, one of the Apollo 1 Hills on Mars was named by NASA on January 27, 2004, the 37th anniversary of the Apollo 1 fire. Bunker Hill Air Force Base in Peru, Indiana, was renamed on May 12, 1968, to Grissom Air Force Base. During the dedication ceremony, his son said, "Of all the honors he won, none would please him more than this one today." In 1994, it was again renamed to Grissom Air Reserve Base following the USAF's realignment program. The three-letter identifier of the VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) located at Grissom Air Reserve Base is GUS. In 2000, classes of the United States Air Force Academy began selecting a Class Exemplar who embodies the type of person they strive to be. The class of 2007 selected Grissom. An academic building was renamed Grissom Hall in 1968 at the former Chanute Air Force Base, Rantoul, Illinois, where Minuteman missile maintenance training was conducted. It was one of five buildings renamed for deceased Air Force personnel. The Virgil I. Grissom Museum, dedicated in 1971 by Governor Edgar Whitcomb, is located just inside the entrance to Spring Mill State Park in Mitchell, Indiana. The Molly Brown was transferred to be displayed in the museum in 1974. His boyhood home in Mitchell, Indiana, is located on Grissom Avenue. The street was renamed in his honor after his Mercury flight. ### Schools Florida Institute of Technology dedicated Grissom Hall, a residence hall, in 1967. State University of New York at Fredonia dubbed their new residence hall Grissom Hall in 1967. Grissom Hall, dedicated in 1968 at Purdue University, was the home of the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics for several decades. It is currently home of the Purdue department of Industrial Engineering. Virgil I. Grissom Elementary School was built in Houston, Texas, in 1967. Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Princeton, Iowa was one of four schools in Iowa named after astronauts in late 1967. Grissom's family members attended the 1968 dedication of Virgil I. Grissom Middle School in Mishawaka, Indiana. School No. 7 in Rochester, New York, was named for Grissom in April 1968. Devault Elementary School in Gary, Indiana, was renamed Grissom Elementary School in 1969 after Devault was convicted of conspiring to forge purchase orders. Virgil I. Grissom Middle School was dedicated in November 1969 in Sterling Heights, Michigan. Virgil I. Grissom High School was built in 1969 in Huntsville, Alabama. The school board in the Hegewisch community of Chicago, Illinois, voted to name their new school under construction Virgil I. Grissom Elementary School in March 1969. Grissom Elementary School in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was founded in 1969 and dedicated by Betty Grissom in 1970. Grissom Memorial Elementary School was dedicated in 1973 in Muncie, Indiana. Virgil I. Grissom Middle School was founded in Tinley Park, Illinois, in 1975. Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom Elementary School was operated by the Department of Defense Dependents Schools at the former Clark Air Base, Philippines. Originally named the Wurtsmith Hill School, it was renamed on November 14, 1968. It housed 3rd and 4th grade students. The school was severely damaged by the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991. - Virgil I. Grissom Junior High School 226, South Ozone Park, Queens, New York City ## Film and television Grissom has been noted and remembered in many film and television productions. Before he became widely known as an astronaut, the film Air Cadet (1951) starring Richard Long and Rock Hudson briefly featured Grissom early in the movie as a U.S. Air Force candidate for flight school at Randolph Field, San Antonio, Texas. Grissom was depicted by Fred Ward in the film The Right Stuff (1983) and (very briefly) in the film Apollo 13 (1995) by Steve Bernie. He was portrayed in the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon (1998) by Mark Rolston. Actor Kevin McCorkle played Grissom in the third-season finale of the NBC television show American Dreams. Bryan Cranston played Grissom as a variety-show guest in the film That Thing You Do! Actor Joel Johnstone portrays Gus Grissom in the 2015 ABC TV series The Astronaut Wives Club. In 2016 Gus Grissom was included in the narrative of the movie Hidden Figures. In 2018, he was portrayed by Shea Whigham in First Man. In 2020's Disney+ miniseries The Right Stuff, Grissom is portrayed by Michael Trotter. In the 1984 film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, the Federation starship USS Grissom is named for Grissom. Another USS Grissom was featured in a 1990 episode of the TV series Star Trek: The Next Generation, and was mentioned in a 1999 episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. The character Gil Grissom in the CBS television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and the character Virgil Tracy in the British television series Thunderbirds are also named after the astronaut. NASA footage, including Grissom's Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo missions, was released in high definition on the Discovery Channel in June 2008 in the television series When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions''. When Grissom died, he was in the process of writing a book about Gemini.

H. P. Lovecraft

American author (1890–1937)

Howard Phillips Lovecraft (US: /ˈlʌvkræft/; August 20, 1890 – March 15, 1937) was an American writer of weird, science, fantasy, and horror fiction. He is best known for his creation of the Cthulhu Mythos. Born in Providence, Rhode Island, Lovecraft spent most of his life in New England. After his father's institutionalization in 1893, he lived affluently until his family's wealth dissipated after the death of his grandfather. Lovecraft then lived with his mother, in reduced financial security, until her institutionalization in 1919. He began to write essays for the United Amateur Press Association, and in 1913 wrote a critical letter to a pulp magazine that ultimately led to his involvement in pulp fiction. He became active in the speculative fiction community and was published in several pulp magazines. Lovecraft moved to New York City, marrying Sonia Greene in 1924, and later became the center of a wider group of authors known as the "Lovecraft Circle". They introduced him to Weird Tales, which would become his most prominent publisher. Lovecraft's time in New York took a toll on his mental state and financial conditions. He returned to Providence in 1926 and produced some of his most popular works, including The Call of Cthulhu, At the Mountains of Madness, The Shadow over Innsmouth, and The Shadow Out of Time. He would remain active as a writer for 11 years until his death from intestinal cancer at the age of 46. Lovecraft's literary corpus is based around the idea of cosmicism, which was simultaneously his personal philosophy and the main theme of his fiction. Cosmicism posits that humanity is an insignificant part of the cosmos, and could be swept away at any moment. He incorporated fantasy and science fiction elements into his stories, representing the perceived fragility of anthropocentrism. This was tied to his ambivalent views on knowledge. His works were largely set in a fictionalized version of New England. Civilizational decline also plays a major role in his works, as he believed that the West was in decline during his lifetime. Lovecraft's early political opinions were conservative and traditionalist; additionally, he held a number of racist views for much of his adult life. Following the Great Depression, Lovecraft became a socialist, no longer believing a just aristocracy would make the world more fair. Throughout his adult life, Lovecraft was never able to support himself from earnings as an author and editor. He was virtually unknown during his lifetime and was almost exclusively published in pulp magazines before his death. A scholarly revival of Lovecraft's work began in the 1970s, and he is now regarded as one of the most significant 20th-century authors of supernatural horror fiction. Many direct adaptations and spiritual successors followed. Works inspired by Lovecraft, adaptations or original works, began to form the basis of the Cthulhu Mythos, which utilizes Lovecraft's characters, setting, and themes. ## Biography ### Early life and family tragedies Lovecraft was born in his family home on August 20, 1890, in Providence, Rhode Island. He was the only child of Winfield Scott Lovecraft and Sarah Susan (née Phillips) Lovecraft. Susie's family was of substantial means at the time of their marriage, as her father, Whipple Van Buren Phillips, was involved in business ventures. In April 1893, after a psychotic episode in a Chicago hotel, Winfield was committed to Butler Hospital in Providence. His medical records state that he had been "doing and saying strange things at times" for a year before his commitment. The person who reported these symptoms is unknown. Winfield spent five years in Butler before dying in 1898. His death certificate listed the cause of death as general paresis, a term synonymous with late-stage syphilis. Throughout his life, Lovecraft maintained that his father fell into a paralytic state, due to insomnia and overwork, and remained that way until his death. It is not known whether Lovecraft was simply kept ignorant of his father's illness or whether his later statements were intentionally misleading. After his father's institutionalization, Lovecraft resided in the family home with his mother, his maternal aunts Lillian and Annie, and his maternal grandparents Whipple and Robie. According to family friends, his mother, known as Susie, doted on the young Lovecraft excessively, pampering him and never letting him out of her sight. Lovecraft later recollected that his mother was "permanently stricken with grief" after his father's illness. Whipple became a father figure to Lovecraft in this time, Lovecraft noting that his grandfather became the "centre of my entire universe". Whipple, who often traveled to manage his business, maintained correspondence by letter with the young Lovecraft who, by the age of three, was already proficient at reading and writing. Whipple encouraged the young Lovecraft to have an appreciation of literature, especially classical literature and English poetry. In his old age, he helped raise the young H. P. Lovecraft and educated him not only in the classics, but also in original weird tales of "winged horrors" and "deep, low, moaning sounds" which he created for his grandchild's entertainment. The original sources of Phillips' weird tales are unidentified. Lovecraft himself guessed that they originated from Gothic novelists like Ann Radcliffe, Matthew Lewis, and Charles Maturin. It was during this period that Lovecraft was introduced to some of his earliest literary influences, such as The Rime of the Ancient Mariner illustrated by Gustave Doré, One Thousand and One Nights, Thomas Bulfinch's Age of Fable, and Ovid's Metamorphoses. While there is no indication that Lovecraft was particularly close to his grandmother Robie, her death in 1896 had a profound effect on him. By his own account, it sent his family into "a gloom from which it never fully recovered". His mother and aunts wore black mourning dresses that "terrified" him. This is also the time that Lovecraft, approximately five-and-a-half years old, started having nightmares that later would inform his fictional writings. Specifically, he began to have recurring nightmares of beings he referred to as "night-gaunts". He credited their appearance to the influence of Doré's illustrations, which would "whirl me through space at a sickening rate of speed, the while fretting & impelling me with their detestable tridents". Thirty years later, night-gaunts would appear in Lovecraft's fiction. Lovecraft's earliest known literary works were written at the age of seven, and were poems restyling the Odyssey and other Greco-Roman mythological stories. Lovecraft would later write that during his childhood he was fixated on the Greco-Roman pantheon, and briefly accepted them as genuine expressions of divinity, foregoing his Christian upbringing. He recalled, at five years old, being told Santa Claus did not exist and retorted by asking why "God is not equally a myth?" At the age of eight, he took a keen interest in the sciences, particularly astronomy and chemistry. He also examined the anatomical books that were held in the family library, which taught him the specifics of human reproduction that were not yet explained to him. As a result, he found that it "virtually killed my interest in the subject". In 1902, according to Lovecraft's later correspondence, astronomy became a guiding influence on his worldview. He began publishing the periodical Rhode Island Journal of Astronomy, using the hectograph printing method. Lovecraft went in and out of elementary school repeatedly, oftentimes with home tutors making up for the lost years, missing time due to health concerns that have not been determined. The written recollections of his peers described him as withdrawn but welcoming to those who shared his then-current fascination with astronomy, inviting them to look through his prized telescope. ### Education and financial decline By 1900, Whipple's various business concerns were suffering a downturn, which resulted in the slow erosion of his family's wealth. He was forced to let his family's hired servants go, leaving Lovecraft, Whipple, and Susie, being the only unmarried sister, alone in the family home. In the spring of 1904, Whipple's largest business venture suffered a catastrophic failure. Within months, he died at age 70 due to a stroke. After Whipple's death, Susie was unable to financially support the upkeep of the expansive family home on what remained of the Phillips' estate. Later that year, she was forced to move to a small duplex with her son. Lovecraft called this time one of the darkest of his life, remarking in a 1934 letter that he saw no point in living anymore; he considered the possibility of committing suicide. His scientific curiosity and desire to know more about the world prevented him from doing so. In fall 1904, he entered high school. Much like his earlier school years, Lovecraft was periodically removed from school for long periods for what he termed "near breakdowns". He did say, though, that while having some conflicts with teachers, he enjoyed high school, becoming close with a small circle of friends. Lovecraft also performed well academically, excelling in particular at chemistry and physics. Aside from a pause in 1904, he also resumed publishing the Rhode Island Journal of Astronomy as well as starting the Scientific Gazette, which dealt mostly with chemistry. It was also during this period that Lovecraft produced the first of the fictional works that he would later be known for, namely "The Beast in the Cave" and "The Alchemist". It was in 1908, prior to what would have been his high school graduation, that Lovecraft suffered another unidentified health crisis, though this instance was more severe than his prior illnesses. The exact circumstances and causes remain unknown. The only direct records are Lovecraft's own correspondence wherein he retrospectively described it variously as a "nervous collapse" and "a sort of breakdown", in one letter blaming it on the stress of high school despite his enjoying it. In another letter concerning the events of 1908, he notes, "I was and am prey to intense headaches, insomnia, and general nervous weakness which prevents my continuous application to any thing". Though Lovecraft maintained that he was going to attend Brown University after high school, he never graduated and never attended school again. Whether Lovecraft suffered from a physical ailment, a mental one, or some combination thereof has never been determined. An account from a high school classmate described Lovecraft as exhibiting "terrible tics" and that at times "he'd be sitting in his seat and he'd suddenly up and jump". Harry Brobst, a psychology professor, examined the account and claimed that chorea minor was the probable cause of Lovecraft's childhood symptoms, while noting that instances of chorea minor after adolescence are very rare. In his letters, Lovecraft acknowledged that he suffered from bouts of chorea as a child. Brobst further ventured that Lovecraft's 1908 breakdown was attributed to a "hysteroid seizure", a term that has become synonymous with atypical depression. In another letter concerning the events of 1908, Lovecraft stated that he "could hardly bear to see or speak to anyone, & liked to shut out the world by pulling down dark shades & using artificial light". ### Earliest recognition Few of Lovecraft and Susie's activities between late 1908 and 1913 were recorded. Lovecraft described the steady continuation of their financial decline highlighted by his uncle's failed business that cost Susie a large portion of their already dwindling wealth. One of Susie's friends, Clara Hess, recalled a visit during which Susie spoke continuously about Lovecraft being "so hideous that he hid from everyone and did not like to walk upon the streets where people could gaze on him." Despite Hess' protests to the contrary, Susie maintained this stance. For his part, Lovecraft said he found his mother to be "a positive marvel of consideration". A next-door neighbor later pointed out that what others in the neighborhood often assumed were loud, nocturnal quarrels between mother and son, were actually recitations of William Shakespeare, an activity that seemed to delight mother and son. During this period, Lovecraft revived his earlier scientific periodicals. He endeavored to commit himself to the study of organic chemistry, Susie buying the expensive glass chemistry assemblage he wanted. Lovecraft found his studies were stymied by the mathematics involved, which he found boring and would cause headaches that would incapacitate him for the remainder of the day. Lovecraft's first non-self-published poem appeared in a local newspaper in 1912. Called Providence in 2000 A.D., it envisioned a future where Americans of English descent were displaced by Irish, Italian, Portuguese, and Jewish immigrants. In this period he also wrote racist poetry, including "New-England Fallen" and "On the Creation of Niggers", but there is no indication that either were published during his lifetime. In 1911, Lovecraft's letters to editors began appearing in pulp and weird-fiction magazines, most notably Argosy. A 1913 letter critical of Fred Jackson, one of Argosy'''s more prominent writers, started Lovecraft down a path that would define the remainder of his career as a writer. In the following letters, Lovecraft described Jackson's stories as being "trivial, effeminate, and, in places, coarse". Continuing, Lovecraft argued that Jackson's characters exhibit the "delicate passions and emotions proper to negroes and anthropoid apes." This sparked a nearly year-long feud in the magazine's letters section between the two writers and their respective supporters. Lovecraft's most prominent opponent was John Russell, who often replied in verse, and to whom Lovecraft felt compelled to reply because he respected Russell's writing skills. The most immediate effect of this feud was the recognition garnered from Edward F. Daas, then head editor of the United Amateur Press Association (UAPA). Daas invited Russell and Lovecraft to join the organization and both accepted, Lovecraft in April 1914. ### Rejuvenation and tragedy Lovecraft immersed himself in the world of amateur journalism for most of the following decade. During this period, he advocated for amateurism's superiority to commercialism. Lovecraft defined commercialism as writing for what he considered low-brow publications for pay. This was contrasted with his view of "professional publication", which was what he called writing for what he considered respectable journals and publishers. He thought of amateur journalism as serving as practice for a professional career. Lovecraft was appointed chairman of the Department of Public Criticism of the UAPA in late 1914. He used this position to advocate for what he saw as the superiority of archaic English language usage. Emblematic of the Anglophilic opinions he maintained throughout his life, he openly criticized other UAPA contributors for their "Americanisms" and "slang". Often, these criticisms were embedded in xenophobic and racist statements that the "national language" was being negatively changed by immigrants. In mid-1915, Lovecraft was elected vice-president of the UAPA. Two years later, he was elected president and appointed other board members who mostly shared his belief in the supremacy of British English over modern American English. Another significant event of this time was the beginning of World War I. Lovecraft published multiple criticisms of the American government and public's reluctance to join the war to protect England, which he viewed as America's ancestral homeland. In 1916, Lovecraft published his first short story, "The Alchemist", in the main UAPA journal, which was a departure from his usual verse. Due to the encouragement of W. Paul Cook, another UAPA member and future lifelong friend, Lovecraft began writing and publishing more prose fiction. Soon afterwards, he wrote "The Tomb" and "Dagon". "The Tomb", by Lovecraft's own admission, was greatly influenced by the style and structure of Edgar Allan Poe's works. Meanwhile, "Dagon" is considered Lovecraft's first work that displays the concepts and themes that his writings would later become known for. Lovecraft published another short story, "Beyond the Wall of Sleep" in 1919, which was his first science fiction story. Lovecraft's term as president of the UAPA ended in 1918, and he returned to his former post as chairman of the Department of Public Criticism. In 1917, as Lovecraft related to Kleiner, Lovecraft made an aborted attempt to enlist in the United States Army. Though he passed the physical exam, he told Kleiner that his mother threatened to do anything, legal or otherwise, to prove that he was unfit for service. After his failed attempt to serve in World War I, he attempted to enroll in the Rhode Island Army National Guard, but his mother used her family connections to prevent it. During the winter of 1918–1919, Susie, exhibiting the symptoms of a nervous breakdown, went to live with her elder sister, Lillian. The nature of Susie's illness is unclear, as her medical papers were later destroyed in a fire at Butler Hospital. Winfield Townley Scott, who was able to read the papers before the fire, described Susie as having suffered a psychological collapse. Neighbour and friend Clara Hess, interviewed in 1948, recalled instances of Susie describing "weird and fantastic creatures that rushed out from behind buildings and from corners at dark." In the same account, Hess described a time when they crossed paths in downtown Providence and Susie was unaware of where she was. In March 1919, she was committed to Butler Hospital, like her husband before her. Lovecraft's immediate reaction to Susie's commitment was visceral, writing to Kleiner that "existence seems of little value", and that he wished "it might terminate". During Susie's time at Butler, Lovecraft periodically visited her and walked the large grounds with her. Late 1919 saw Lovecraft become more outgoing. After a period of isolation, he began joining friends in trips to writer gatherings; the first being a talk in Boston presented by Lord Dunsany, whom Lovecraft had recently discovered and idolized. In early 1920, at an amateur writer convention, he met Frank Belknap Long, who would end up being Lovecraft's most influential and closest confidant for the remainder of his life. The influence of Dunsany is apparent in his 1919 output, which is part of what would be called Lovecraft's Dream Cycle, including "The White Ship" and "The Doom That Came to Sarnath". In early 1920, he wrote "The Cats of Ulthar" and "Celephaïs", which were also strongly influenced by Dunsany. It was later in 1920 that Lovecraft began publishing the earliest Cthulhu Mythos stories. The Cthulhu Mythos, a term coined by later authors, encompasses Lovecraft's stories that share a commonality in the revelation of cosmic insignificance, initially realistic settings, and recurring entities and texts. The prose poem "Nyarlathotep" and the short story "The Crawling Chaos", in collaboration with Winifred Virginia Jackson, were written in late 1920. Following in early 1921 came "The Nameless City", the first story that falls definitively within the Cthulhu Mythos. In it is one of Lovecraft's most enduring phrases, a couplet recited by Abdul Alhazred; "That is not dead which can eternal lie; And with strange aeons even death may die." In the same year, he also wrote "The Outsider", which has become one of Lovecraft's most heavily analyzed, and differently interpreted, stories. It has been variously interpreted as being autobiographical, an allegory of the psyche, a parody of the afterlife, a commentary on humanity's place in the universe, and a critique of progress. On May 24, 1921, Susie died in Butler Hospital, due to complications from an operation on her gallbladder five days earlier. Lovecraft's initial reaction, expressed in a letter written nine days after Susie's death, was a deep state of sadness that crippled him physically and emotionally. He again expressed a desire that his life might end. Lovecraft's later response was relief, as he had become able to live independently from his mother. His physical health also began to improve, although he was unaware of the exact cause. Despite Lovecraft's reaction, he continued to attend amateur journalist conventions. Lovecraft met his future wife, Sonia Greene, at one such convention in July. ### Marriage and New York Lovecraft's aunts disapproved of his relationship with Sonia. Lovecraft and Greene married on March 3, 1924, and relocated to her Brooklyn apartment at 259 Parkside Avenue; she thought he needed to leave Providence to flourish and was willing to support him financially. Greene, who had been married before, later said Lovecraft had performed satisfactorily as a lover, though she had to take the initiative in all aspects of the relationship. She attributed Lovecraft's passive nature to a stultifying upbringing by his mother. Lovecraft's weight increased to 200 lb (91 kg) on his wife's home cooking. He was enthralled by New York City, and, in what was informally dubbed the Kalem Club, he acquired a group of encouraging intellectual and literary friends who urged him to submit stories to Weird Tales. Its editor, Edwin Baird, accepted many of Lovecraft's stories for the ailing publication, including "Under the Pyramids", which was ghostwritten for Harry Houdini. Established informally some years before Lovecraft arrived in New York, the core Kalem Club members were boys' adventure novelist Henry Everett McNeil, the lawyer and anarchist writer James Ferdinand Morton Jr., and the poet Reinhardt Kleiner. On January 1, 1925, Sonia moved from Parkside to Cleveland in response to a job opportunity, and Lovecraft left for a small first-floor apartment on 169 Clinton Street "at the edge of Red Hook"—a location which came to discomfort him greatly. Later that year, the Kalem Club's four regular attendees were joined by Lovecraft along with his protégé Frank Belknap Long, bookseller George Willard Kirk, and Samuel Loveman. Loveman was Jewish, but he and Lovecraft became close friends in spite of the latter's antisemitic attitudes. By the 1930s, writer and publisher Herman Charles Koenig would be one of the last to become involved with the Kalem Club. Not long after the marriage, Greene lost her business and her assets disappeared in a bank failure. Lovecraft made efforts to support his wife through regular jobs, but his lack of previous work experience meant he lacked proven marketable skills. The publisher of Weird Tales was attempting to make the loss-making magazine profitable and offered the job of editor to Lovecraft, who declined, citing his reluctance to relocate to Chicago on aesthetic grounds. Baird was succeeded by Farnsworth Wright, whose writing Lovecraft had criticized. Lovecraft's submissions were often rejected by Wright. This may have been partially due to censorship guidelines imposed in the aftermath of a Weird Tales story that hinted at necrophilia, although after Lovecraft's death, Wright accepted many of the stories he had originally rejected. Sonia also became ill and immediately after recovering, relocated to Cincinnati, and then to Cleveland; her employment required constant travel. Added to his feelings of failure in a city with a large immigrant population, Lovecraft's single-room apartment was burgled, leaving him with only the clothes he was wearing. In August 1925, he wrote "The Horror at Red Hook" and "He", in the latter of which the narrator says "My coming to New York had been a mistake; for whereas I had looked for poignant wonder and inspiration [...] I had found instead only a sense of horror and oppression which threatened to master, paralyze, and annihilate me." This was an expression of his despair at being in New York. It was at around this time he wrote the outline for "The Call of Cthulhu", with its theme of the insignificance of all humanity. During this time, Lovecraft wrote "Supernatural Horror in Literature" on the eponymous subject. It later became one of the most influential essays on supernatural horror. With a weekly allowance Greene sent, Lovecraft moved to a working-class area of Brooklyn Heights, where he resided in a tiny apartment. He had lost approximately 40 pounds (18 kg) of body weight by 1926, when he left for Providence. ### Return to Providence and death Back in Providence, Lovecraft lived with his aunts in a "spacious brown Victorian wooden house" at 10 Barnes Street until 1933. He then moved to 66 Prospect Street, which would become his final home. The period beginning after his return to Providence contains some of his most prominent works, including The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath, The Case of Charles Dexter Ward, "The Call of Cthulhu" and The Shadow over Innsmouth. The former two stories are partially autobiographical, as scholars have argued that The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath is about Lovecraft's return to Providence and The Case of Charles Dexter Ward is, in part, about the city itself. The former story also represents a partial repudiation of Dunsany's influence, as Lovecraft had decided that his style did not come to him naturally. At this time, he frequently revised work for other authors and did a large amount of ghostwriting, including The Mound, "Winged Death", and "The Diary of Alonzo Typer". Client Harry Houdini was laudatory, and attempted to help Lovecraft by introducing him to the head of a newspaper syndicate. Plans for a further project were ended by Houdini's death in 1926. After returning, he also began to engage in antiquarian travels across the eastern seaboard during the summer months. During the spring–summer of 1930, Lovecraft visited, among other locations, New York City, Brattleboro, Vermont, Wilbraham, Massachusetts, Charleston, South Carolina, and Quebec City. Later, in August, Robert E. Howard wrote a letter to Weird Tales praising a then-recent reprint of Lovecraft's "The Rats in the Walls" and discussing some of the Gaelic references used within. Editor Farnsworth Wright forwarded the letter to Lovecraft, who responded positively to Howard, and soon the two writers were engaged in a vigorous correspondence that would last for the rest of Howard's life. Howard quickly became a member of the Lovecraft Circle, a group of writers and friends all linked through Lovecraft's voluminous correspondence, as he introduced his many like-minded friends to one another and encouraged them to share their stories, utilize each other's fictional creations, and help each other succeed in the field of pulp fiction. Meanwhile, Lovecraft was increasingly producing work that brought him no remuneration. Affecting a calm indifference to the reception of his works, Lovecraft was in reality extremely sensitive to criticism and easily precipitated into withdrawal. He was known to give up trying to sell a story after it had been once rejected. Sometimes, as with The Shadow over Innsmouth, he wrote a story that might have been commercially viable but did not try to sell it. Lovecraft even ignored interested publishers. He failed to reply when one inquired about any novel Lovecraft might have ready: although he had completed such a work, The Case of Charles Dexter Ward, it was never typed up. A few years after Lovecraft had moved to Providence, he and his wife Sonia Greene, having lived separately for so long, agreed to an amicable divorce. Greene moved to California in 1933 and remarried in 1936, unaware that Lovecraft, despite his assurances to the contrary, had never officially signed the final decree. As a result of the Great Depression, he shifted towards socialism, decrying both his prior political beliefs and the rising tide of fascism. He thought that socialism was a workable middle ground between what he saw as the destructive impulses of both the capitalists and the Marxists of his day. This was based in a general opposition to cultural upheaval, as well as support for an ordered society. Electorally, he supported Franklin D. Roosevelt, but he thought that the New Deal was not sufficiently leftist. Lovecraft's support for it was based in his view that no other set of reforms were possible at that time. In late 1936, he witnessed the publication of The Shadow over Innsmouth as a paperback book. 400 copies were printed, and the work was advertised in Weird Tales and several fan magazines. However, Lovecraft was displeased, as this book was riddled with errors that required extensive editing. It sold slowly and only approximately 200 copies were bound. The remaining 200 copies were destroyed after the publisher went out of business for the next seven years. By this point, Lovecraft's literary career was reaching its end. Shortly after having written his last original short story, "The Haunter of the Dark", he stated that the hostile reception of At the Mountains of Madness had done "more than anything to end my effective fictional career". His declining psychological and physical states made it impossible for him to continue writing fiction. On June 11, Howard was informed that his chronically ill mother would not awaken from her coma. He walked out to his car and committed suicide with a pistol that he had stored there. His mother died shortly thereafter. This deeply affected Lovecraft, who consoled Howard's father through correspondence. Almost immediately after hearing about Howard's death, Lovecraft wrote a brief memoir titled "In Memoriam: Robert Ervin Howard", which he distributed to his correspondents. Meanwhile, Lovecraft's physical health was deteriorating. He was suffering from an affliction that he referred to as "grippe". Due to his fear of doctors, Lovecraft was not examined until a month before his death. After seeing a doctor, he was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the small intestine. He remained hospitalized until he died. He lived in constant pain until his death on March 15, 1937, in Providence. In accordance with his lifelong scientific curiosity, he kept a diary of his illness until he was physically incapable of holding a pen. Lovecraft was listed along with his parents on the Phillips family monument. In 1977, fans erected a headstone in Swan Point Cemetery on which they inscribed his name, the dates of his birth and death, and the phrase "I AM PROVIDENCE"—a line from one of his personal letters. ## Personal views ### Politics Lovecraft began his life as a Tory, which was likely the result of his conservative upbringing. His family supported the Republican Party for the entirety of his life. While it is unclear how consistently he voted, he voted for Herbert Hoover in the 1928 U.S. presidential election. Rhode Island as a whole remained politically conservative and Republican into the 1930s. Lovecraft himself was an Anglophile who supported the British monarchy. He opposed democracy and thought that the United States should be governed by an aristocracy. This viewpoint emerged during his youth and lasted until the end of the 1920s. During World War I, his Anglophilia caused him to strongly support the entente against the Central Powers. Many of his earlier poems were devoted to then-current political subjects, and he published several political essays in his amateur journal, The Conservative. He was a teetotaler who supported the implementation of Prohibition, which was one of the few reforms that he supported during the early part of his life. While remaining a teetotaler, he later became convinced that Prohibition was ineffectual in the 1930s. His personal justification for his early political viewpoints was primarily based on tradition and aesthetics. As a result of the Great Depression, Lovecraft reexamined his political views. Initially, he thought that affluent people would take on the characteristics of his ideal aristocracy and solve America's problems. When this did not occur, he became a socialist. This shift was caused by his observation that the Depression was harming American society. It was also influenced by the increase in socialism's political capital during the 1930s. One of the main points of Lovecraft's socialism was its opposition to Soviet Marxism, as he thought that a Marxist revolution would bring about the destruction of American civilization. Lovecraft thought that an intellectual aristocracy needed to be formed to preserve America. His ideal political system is outlined in his 1933 essay "Some Repetitions on the Times". Lovecraft used this essay to echo the political proposals that had been made over the course of the last few decades. In this essay, he advocates governmental control of resource distribution, fewer working hours and a higher wage, and unemployment insurance and old age pensions. He also outlines the need for an oligarchy of intellectuals. In his view, power must be restricted to those who are sufficiently intelligent and educated. He frequently used the term "fascism" to describe this form of government, but, according to S. T. Joshi, it bears little resemblance to that ideology. Lovecraft had varied views on the political figures of his day. He was an ardent supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt. He saw that Roosevelt was trying to steer a middle course between the conservatives and the revolutionaries, which he approved of. While he thought that Roosevelt should have been enacting more progressive policies, he came to the conclusion that the New Deal was the only realistic option for reform. He thought that voting for his opponents on the political left would be a wasted effort. Internationally, like many Americans, he initially expressed support for Adolf Hitler. More specifically, he thought that Hitler would preserve German culture. However, he thought that Hitler's racial policies should be based on culture rather than descent. There is evidence that, at the end of his life, Lovecraft began to oppose Hitler. Harry K. Brobst, Lovecraft's downstairs neighbor, went to Germany and witnessed Jews being beaten. Lovecraft and his aunt were angered by this, and his discussions of Hitler drop off after this point. ### Atheism Lovecraft was an atheist. His viewpoints on religion are outlined in his 1922 essay "A Confession of Unfaith". In this essay, he describes his shift away from the Protestantism of his parents to the atheism of his adulthood. Lovecraft was raised by a conservative Protestant family. He was introduced to the Bible and the mythos of Saint Nicholas when he was two. He passively accepted both of them. Over the course of the next few years, he was introduced to Grimms' Fairy Tales and One Thousand and One Nights, favoring the latter. In response, Lovecraft took on the identity of "Abdul Alhazred", a name he would later use for the author of the Necronomicon. Lovecraft experienced a brief period as a Greco-Roman pagan shortly thereafter. According to this account, his first moment of skepticism occurred before his fifth birthday, when he questioned if God is a myth after learning that Santa Claus is not real. In 1896, he was introduced to Greco-Roman myths and became "a genuine pagan". This came to an end in 1902, when Lovecraft was introduced to space. He later described this event as the most poignant in his life. In response to this discovery, Lovecraft took to studying astronomy and described his observations in the local newspaper. Before his thirteenth birthday, he had become convinced of humanity's impermanence. By the time he was seventeen, he had read detailed writings that agreed with his worldview. Lovecraft ceased writing positively about progress, instead developing his later cosmic philosophy. Despite his interests in science, he had an aversion to realistic literature, so he became interested in fantastical fiction. Lovecraft became pessimistic when he entered amateur journalism in 1914. The Great War seemed to confirm his viewpoints. He began to despise philosophical idealism. Lovecraft took to discussing and debating his pessimism with his peers, which allowed him to solidify his philosophy. His readings of Friedrich Nietzsche and H. L. Mencken, among other pessimistic writers, furthered this development. At the end of his essay, Lovecraft states that all he desired was oblivion. He was willing to cast aside any illusion that he may still have held. ### Race Race is the most controversial aspect of Lovecraft's legacy, expressed in many disparaging remarks against non-Anglo-Saxon races and cultures in his works. Scholars have argued that these racial attitudes were common in the American society of his day, particularly in New England. As he grew older, his original racial worldview became classist and elitist, which regarded non-white members of the upper class as honorary members of the superior race. Lovecraft was a white supremacist. Despite this, he did not hold all white people in uniform high regard, but rather esteemed English people and those of English descent. In his early published essays, private letters, and personal utterances, he argued for a strong color line to preserve race and culture. His arguments were supported using disparagements of various races in his journalism and letters, and allegorically in some of his fictional works that depict miscegenation between humans and non-human creatures. This is evident in his portrayal of the Deep Ones in The Shadow over Innsmouth. Their interbreeding with humanity is framed as being a type of miscegenation that corrupts both the town of Innsmouth and the protagonist. Initially, Lovecraft showed sympathy to minorities who adopted Western culture, even to the extent of marrying a Jewish woman he viewed as being "well assimilated". By the 1930s, Lovecraft's views on ethnicity and race had moderated. He supported ethnicities' preserving their native cultures; for example, he thought that "a real friend of civilisation wishes merely to make the Germans more German, the French more French, the Spaniards more Spanish, & so on". This represented a shift from his previous support for cultural assimilation. His shift was partially the result of his exposure to different cultures through his travels and circle. The former resulted in him writing positively about Québécois and First Nations cultural traditions in his travelogue of Quebec. However, this did not represent a complete elimination of his racial prejudices. ## Influences His interest in weird fiction began in his childhood when his grandfather, who preferred Gothic stories, would tell him stories of his own design. Lovecraft's childhood home on Angell Street had a large library that contained classical literature, scientific works, and early weird fiction. At the age of five, Lovecraft enjoyed reading One Thousand and One Nights, and was reading Nathaniel Hawthorne a year later. He was also influenced by the travel literature of John Mandeville and Marco Polo. This led to his discovery of gaps in then-contemporary science, which prevented Lovecraft from committing suicide in response to the death of his grandfather and his family's declining financial situation during his adolescence. These travelogues may have also had an influence on how Lovecraft's later works describe their characters and locations. For example, there is a resemblance between the powers of the Tibetan enchanters in The Travels of Marco Polo and the powers unleashed on Sentinel Hill in "The Dunwich Horror". One of Lovecraft's most significant literary influences was Edgar Allan Poe, whom he described as his "God of Fiction". Poe's fiction was introduced to Lovecraft when the latter was eight years old. His earlier works were significantly influenced by Poe's prose and writing style. He also made extensive use of Poe's unity of effect in his fiction. Furthermore, At the Mountains of Madness directly quotes Poe and was influenced by The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket. One of the main themes of the two stories is to discuss the unreliable nature of language as a method of expressing meaning. In 1919, Lovecraft's discovery of the stories of Lord Dunsany moved his writing in a new direction, resulting in a series of fantasies. Throughout his life, Lovecraft referred to Dunsany as the author who had the greatest impact on his literary career. The initial result of this influence was the Dream Cycle, a series of fantasies that originally take place in prehistory, but later shift to a dreamworld setting. By 1930, Lovecraft decided that he would no longer write Dunsanian fantasies, arguing that the style did not come naturally to him. Additionally, he also read and cited Arthur Machen and Algernon Blackwood as influences in the 1920s. Aside from horror authors, Lovecraft was significantly influenced by the Decadents, the Puritans, and the Aesthetic movement. In "H. P. Lovecraft: New England Decadent", Barton Levi St. Armand, a professor emeritus of English and American studies at Brown University, has argued that these three influences combined to define Lovecraft as a writer. He traces this influence to both Lovecraft's stories and letters, noting that he actively cultivated the image of a New England gentleman in his letters. Meanwhile, his influence from the Decadents and the Aesthetic Movement stems from his readings of Edgar Allan Poe. Lovecraft's aesthetic worldview and fixation on decline stems from these readings. The idea of cosmic decline is described as having been Lovecraft's response to both the Aesthetic Movement and the 19th century Decadents. St. Armand describes it as being a combination of non-theological Puritan thought and the Decadent worldview. This is used as a division in his stories, particularly in "The Horror at Red Hook", "Pickman's Model", and "The Music of Erich Zann". The division between Puritanism and Decadence, St. Armand argues, represents a polarization between an artificial paradise and oneiriscopic visions of different worlds. A non-literary inspiration came from then-contemporary scientific advances in biology, astronomy, geology, and physics. Lovecraft's study of science contributed to his view of the human race as insignificant, powerless, and doomed in a materialistic and mechanistic universe. Lovecraft was a keen amateur astronomer from his youth, often visiting the Ladd Observatory in Providence, and penning numerous astronomical articles for his personal journal and local newspapers. Lovecraft's materialist views led him to espouse his philosophical views through his fiction; these philosophical views came to be called cosmicism. Cosmicism took on a more pessimistic tone with his creation of what is now known as the Cthulhu Mythos, a fictional universe that contains alien deities and horrors. The term "Cthulhu Mythos" was likely coined by later writers after Lovecraft's death. In his letters, Lovecraft jokingly called his fictional mythology "Yog-Sothothery". Dreams had a major role in Lovecraft's literary career. In 1991, as a result of his rising place in American literature, it was popularly thought that Lovecraft extensively transcribed his dreams when writing fiction. However, the majority of his stories are not transcribed dreams. Instead, many of them are directly influenced by dreams and dreamlike phenomena. In his letters, Lovecraft frequently compared his characters to dreamers. They are described as being as helpless as a real dreamer who is experiencing a nightmare. His stories also have dreamlike qualities. The Randolph Carter stories deconstruct the division between dreams and reality. The dreamlands in The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath are a shared dreamworld that can be accessed by a sensitive dreamer. Meanwhile, in "The Silver Key", Lovecraft mentions the concept of "inward dreams", which implies the existence of outward dreams. Burleson compares this deconstruction to Carl Jung's argument that dreams are the source of archetypal myths. Lovecraft's way of writing fiction required both a level of realism and dreamlike elements. Citing Jung, Burleson argues that a writer may create realism by being inspired by dreams. ## Themes ### Cosmicism The central theme of Lovecraft's corpus is cosmicism. Cosmicism is a literary philosophy that argues that humanity is an insignificant force in the universe. Despite appearing pessimistic, Lovecraft thought of himself as being a cosmic indifferentist, which is expressed in his fiction. In it, human beings are often subject to powerful beings and other cosmic forces, but these forces are not so much malevolent as they are indifferent toward humanity. He believed in a meaningless, mechanical, and uncaring universe that human beings could never fully understand. There is no allowance for beliefs that could not be supported scientifically. Lovecraft first articulated this philosophy in 1921, but he did not fully incorporate it into his fiction until five years later. "Dagon", "Beyond the Wall of Sleep", and "The Temple" contain early depictions of this concept, but the majority of his early tales do not analyze the concept. "Nyarlathotep" interprets the collapse of human civilization as being a corollary to the collapse of the universe. "The Call of Cthulhu" represents an intensification of this theme. In it, Lovecraft introduces the idea of alien influences on humanity, which would come to dominate all subsequent works. In these works, Lovecraft expresses cosmicism through the usage of confirmation rather than revelation. Lovecraftian protagonists do not learn that they are insignificant. Instead, they already know it and have it confirmed to them through an event. ### Knowledge Lovecraft's fiction reflects his own ambivalent views regarding the nature of knowledge. This expresses itself in the concept of forbidden knowledge. In Lovecraft's stories, happiness is only achievable through blissful ignorance. Trying to know things that are not meant to be known leads to harm and psychological danger. This concept intersects with several other ideas. This includes the idea that the visible reality is an illusion masking the horrific true reality. Similarly, there are also intersections with the concepts of ancient civilizations that exert a malign influence on humanity and the general philosophy of cosmicism. According to Lovecraft, self-knowledge can bring ruin to those who seek it. Those seekers would become aware of their own insignificance in the wider cosmos and would be unable to bear the weight of this knowledge. Lovecraftian horror is not achieved through external phenomena. Instead, it is reached through the internalized psychological impact that knowledge has on its protagonists. "The Call of Cthulhu", The Shadow over Innsmouth, and The Shadow Out of Time feature protagonists who experience both external and internal horror through the acquisition of self-knowledge. The Case of Charles Dexter Ward also reflects this. One of its central themes is the danger of knowing too much about one's family history. Charles Dexter Ward, the protagonist, engages in historical and genealogical research that ultimately leads to both madness and his own self-destruction. ### Decline of civilization For much of his life, Lovecraft was fixated on the concepts of decline and decadence. More specifically, he thought that the West was in a state of terminal decline. Starting in the 1920s, Lovecraft became familiar with the work of the German conservative-revolutionary theorist Oswald Spengler, whose pessimistic thesis of the decadence of the modern West formed a crucial element in Lovecraft's overall anti-modern worldview. Spenglerian imagery of cyclical decay is a central theme in At the Mountains of Madness. S. T. Joshi, in H. P. Lovecraft: The Decline of the West, places Spengler at the center of his discussion of Lovecraft's political and philosophical ideas. According to him, the idea of decline is the single idea that permeates and connects his personal philosophy. The main Spenglerian influence on Lovecraft would be his view that politics, economics, science, and art are all interdependent aspects of civilization. This realization led him to shed his personal ignorance of then-current political and economic developments after 1927. Lovecraft had developed his idea of Western decline independently, but Spengler gave it a clear framework. ### Science Lovecraft shifted supernatural horror away from its previous focus on human issues to a focus on cosmic ones. In this way, he merged the elements of supernatural fiction that he deemed to be scientifically viable with science fiction. This merge required an understanding of both supernatural horror and then-contemporary science. Lovecraft used this combined knowledge to create stories that extensively reference trends in scientific development. Beginning with "The Shunned House", Lovecraft increasingly incorporated elements of both Einsteinian science and his own personal materialism into his stories. This intensified with the writing of "The Call of Cthulhu", where he depicted alien influences on humanity. This trend would continue throughout the remainder of his literary career. "The Colour Out of Space" represents what scholars have called the peak of this trend. It portrays an alien lifeform whose otherness prevents it from being defined by then-contemporary science. Another part of this effort was the repeated usage of mathematics in an effort to make his creatures and settings appear more alien. Tom Hull, a mathematician, regards this as enhancing his ability to invoke a sense of otherness and fear. He attributes this use of mathematics to Lovecraft's childhood interest in astronomy and his adulthood awareness of non-Euclidean geometry. Another reason for his use of mathematics was his reaction to the scientific developments of his day. These developments convinced him that humanity's primary means of understanding the world was no longer trustable. Lovecraft's usage of mathematics in his fiction serves to convert otherwise supernatural elements into things that have in-universe scientific explanations. "The Dreams in the Witch House" and The Shadow Out of Time both have elements of this. The former uses a witch and her familiar, while the latter uses the idea of mind transference. These elements are explained using scientific theories that were prevalent during Lovecraft's lifetime. ### Lovecraft Country Setting plays a major role in Lovecraft's fiction. A fictionalized version of New England serves as the central hub for his mythos, called "Lovecraft Country" by later commentators. It represents the history, culture, and folklore of the region, as interpreted by Lovecraft. These attributes are exaggerated and altered to provide a suitable setting for his stories. The names of the locations in the region were directly influenced by the names of real locations in the region, which was done to increase their realism. Lovecraft's stories use their connections with New England to imbue themselves with the ability to instill fear. Lovecraft was primarily inspired by the cities and towns in Massachusetts. However, the specific location of Lovecraft Country is variable, as it moved according to Lovecraft's literary needs. Starting with areas that he thought were evocative, Lovecraft redefined and exaggerated them under fictional names. For example, Lovecraft based Arkham on the town of Oakham and expanded it to include a nearby landmark. Its location was moved, as Lovecraft decided that it would have been destroyed by the recently-built Quabbin Reservoir. This is alluded to in "The Colour Out of Space", as the "blasted heath" is submerged by the creation of a fictionalized version of the reservoir. Similarly, Lovecraft's other towns were based on other locations in Massachusetts. Innsmouth was based on Newburyport, and Dunwich was based on Greenwich. The vague locations of these towns also played into Lovecraft's desire to create a mood in his stories. In his view, a mood can only be evoked through reading. ## Critical reception ### Literary Early efforts to revise an established literary view of Lovecraft as an author of "pulp" were resisted by some eminent critics; in 1945, Edmund Wilson sneered: "the only real horror in most of these fictions is the horror of bad taste and bad art." However, Wilson praised Lovecraft's ability to write about his chosen field; he described him as having written about it "with much intelligence". According to L. Sprague de Camp, Wilson later improved his opinion of Lovecraft, citing a report of David Chavchavadze that Wilson had included a Lovecraftian reference in Little Blue Light: A Play in Three Acts. After Chavchavadze met with him to discuss this, Wilson revealed that he had been reading a copy of Lovecraft's correspondence. Two years before Wilson's critique, Lovecraft's works were reviewed by Winfield Townley Scott, the literary editor of The Providence Journal. He argued that Lovecraft was one of the most significant Rhode Island authors and that it was regrettable that he had received little attention from mainstream critics at the time. Mystery and Adventure columnist Will Cuppy of the New York Herald Tribune recommended to readers a volume of Lovecraft's stories in 1944, asserting that "the literature of horror and macabre fantasy belongs with mystery in its broader sense." By 1957, Floyd C. Gale of Galaxy Science Fiction said that Lovecraft was comparable to Robert E. Howard, stating that "they appear more prolific than ever," noting L. Sprague de Camp, Björn Nyberg, and August Derleth's usage of their creations. He said that "Lovecraft at his best could build a mood of horror unsurpassed; at his worst, he was laughable." In 1962, Colin Wilson, in his survey of anti-realist trends in fiction The Strength to Dream, cited Lovecraft as one of the pioneers of the "assault on rationality" and included him with M. R. James, H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, J. R. R. Tolkien, and others as one of the builders of mythicised realities contending against what he considered the failing project of literary realism. Subsequently, Lovecraft began to acquire the status of a cult writer in the counterculture of the 1960s, and reprints of his work proliferated. Michael Dirda, a reviewer for The Times Literary Supplement, has described Lovecraft as being a "visionary" who is "rightly regarded as second only to Edgar Allan Poe in the annals of American supernatural literature." According to him, Lovecraft's works prove that mankind cannot bear the weight of reality, as the true nature of reality cannot be understood by either science or history. In addition, Dirda praises Lovecraft's ability to create an uncanny atmosphere. This atmosphere is created through the feeling of wrongness that pervades the objects, places, and people in Lovecraft's works. He also comments favorably on Lovecraft's correspondence, and compares him to Horace Walpole. Particular attention is given to his correspondence with August Derleth and Robert E. Howard. The Derleth letters are called "delightful", while the Howard letters are described as being an ideological debate. Overall, Dirda believes that Lovecraft's letters are equal to, or better than, his fictional output. Los Angeles Review of Books reviewer Nick Mamatas has stated that Lovecraft was a particularly difficult author, rather than a bad one. He described Lovecraft as being "perfectly capable" in the fields of story logic, pacing, innovation, and generating quotable phrases. However, Lovecraft's difficulty made him ill-suited to the pulps; he was unable to compete with the popular recurring protagonists and damsel in distress stories. Furthermore, he compared a paragraph from The Shadow Out of Time to a paragraph from the introduction to The Economic Consequences of the Peace. In Mamatas' view, Lovecraft's quality is obscured by his difficulty, and his skill is what has allowed his following to outlive the followings of other then-prominent authors, such as Seabury Quinn and Kenneth Patchen. In 2005, the Library of America published a volume of Lovecraft's works. This volume was reviewed by many publications, including The New York Times Book Review and The Wall Street Journal, and sold 25,000 copies within a month of release. The overall critical reception of the volume was mixed. Several scholars, including S. T. Joshi and Alison Sperling, have said that this confirms H. P. Lovecraft's place in the western canon. The editors of The Age of Lovecraft, Carl H. Sederholm and Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock, attributed the rise of mainstream popular and academic interest in Lovecraft to this volume, along with the Penguin Classics volumes and the Modern Library edition of At the Mountains of Madness. These volumes led to a proliferation of other volumes containing Lovecraft's works. According to the two authors, these volumes are part of a trend in Lovecraft's popular and academic reception: increased attention by one audience causes the other to also become more interested. Lovecraft's success is, in part, the result of his success. Lovecraft's style has often been subject to criticism, but scholars such as S. T. Joshi have argued that Lovecraft consciously utilized a variety of literary devices to form a unique style of his own—these include prose-poetic rhythm, stream of consciousness, alliteration, and conscious archaism. According to Joyce Carol Oates, Lovecraft and Edgar Allan Poe have exerted a significant influence on later writers in the horror genre. Horror author Stephen King called Lovecraft "the twentieth century's greatest practitioner of the classic horror tale." King stated in his semi-autobiographical non-fiction book Danse Macabre that Lovecraft was responsible for his own fascination with horror and the macabre and was the largest influence on his writing. ### Philosophical Lovecraft's writings have influenced the speculative realist philosophical movement during the early twentieth-first century. The four founders of the movement, Ray Brassier, Iain Hamilton Grant, Graham Harman, and Quentin Meillassoux, have cited Lovecraft as an inspiration for their worldviews. Graham Harman wrote a monograph, Weird Realism: Lovecraft and Philosophy, about Lovecraft and philosophy. In it, he argues that Lovecraft was a "productionist" author. He describes Lovecraft as having been an author who was uniquely obsessed with gaps in human knowledge. He goes further and asserts Lovecraft's personal philosophy as being in opposition to both idealism and David Hume. In his view, Lovecraft resembles Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, and Edmund Husserl in his division of objects into different parts that do not exhaust the potential meanings of the whole. The anti-idealism of Lovecraft is represented through his commentary on the inability of language to describe his horrors. Harman also credits Lovecraft with inspiring parts of his own articulation of object-oriented ontology. According to Lovecraft scholar Alison Sperling, this philosophical interpretation of Lovecraft's fiction has caused other philosophers in Harmon's tradition to write about Lovecraft. These philosophers seek to remove human perception and human life from the foundations of ethics. These scholars have used Lovecraft's works as the central example of their worldview. They base this usage in Lovecraft's arguments against anthropocentrism and the ability of the human mind to truly understand the universe. They have also played a role in Lovecraft's improving literary reputation by focusing on his interpretation of ontology, which gives him a central position in Anthropocene studies. ## Legacy Lovecraft was relatively unknown during his lifetime. While his stories appeared in prominent pulp magazines such as Weird Tales, not many people knew his name. He did, however, correspond regularly with other contemporary writers such as Clark Ashton Smith and August Derleth, who became his friends, even though he never met them in person. This group became known as the "Lovecraft Circle", since their writings freely borrowed Lovecraft's motifs, with his encouragement. He borrowed from them as well. For example, he made use of Clark Ashton Smith's Tsathoggua in The Mound. After Lovecraft's death, the Lovecraft Circle carried on. August Derleth founded Arkham House with Donald Wandrei to preserve Lovecraft's works and keep them in print. He added to and expanded on Lovecraft's vision, not without controversy. While Lovecraft considered his pantheon of alien gods a mere plot device, Derleth created an entire cosmology, complete with a war between the good Elder Gods and the evil Outer Gods, such as Cthulhu and his ilk. The forces of good were supposed to have won, locking Cthulhu and others beneath the earth, the ocean, and elsewhere. Derleth's Cthulhu Mythos stories went on to associate different gods with the traditional four elements of fire, air, earth, and water, which did not line up with Lovecraft's original vision of his mythos. However, Derleth's ownership of Arkham House gave him a position of authority in Lovecraftiana that would not dissipate until his death, and through the efforts of Lovecraft scholars in the 1970s. Lovecraft's works have influenced many writers and other creators. Stephen King has cited Lovecraft as a major influence on his works. As a child in the 1960s, he came across a volume of Lovecraft's works which inspired him to write his fiction. He goes on to argue that all works in the horror genre that were written after Lovecraft were influenced by him. In the field of comics, Alan Moore has described Lovecraft as having been a formative influence on his graphic novels. Film director John Carpenter's films include direct references and quotations of Lovecraft's fiction, in addition to their use of a Lovecraftian aesthetic and themes. Guillermo del Toro has been similarly influenced by Lovecraft's corpus. The first World Fantasy Awards were held in Providence in 1975. The theme was "The Lovecraft Circle". Until 2015, winners were presented with an elongated bust of Lovecraft that was designed by cartoonist Gahan Wilson, nicknamed the "Howard". In November 2015 it was announced that the World Fantasy Award trophy would no longer be modeled on H. P. Lovecraft in response to the author's views on race. After the World Fantasy Award dropped their connection to Lovecraft, The Atlantic commented that "In the end, Lovecraft still wins—people who've never read a page of his work will still know who Cthulhu is for years to come, and his legacy lives on in the work of Stephen King, Guillermo del Toro, and Neil Gaiman." In 2016, Lovecraft was inducted into the Museum of Pop Culture's Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame. Three years later, Lovecraft and the other mythos authors were posthumously awarded the 1945 Retro-Hugo Award for Best Series for their contributions to the Cthulhu Mythos. ### Lovecraft studies Starting in the early 1970s, a body of scholarly work began to emerge around Lovecraft's life and works. Referred to as Lovecraft studies, its proponents sought to establish Lovecraft as a significant author in the American literary canon. This can be traced to Derleth's preservation and dissemination of Lovecraft's fiction, non-fiction, and letters through Arkham House. Joshi credits the development of the field to this process. However, it was marred by low quality editions and misinterpretations of Lovecraft's worldview. After Derleth's death in 1971, the scholarship entered a new phase. There was a push to create a book-length biography of Lovecraft. L. Sprague de Camp, a science fiction scholar, wrote the first major one in 1975. This biography was criticized by early Lovecraft scholars for its lack of scholarly merit and its lack of sympathy for its subject. Despite this, it played a significant role in Lovecraft's literary rise. It exposed Lovecraft to the mainstream of American literary criticism. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a division in the field between the "Derlethian traditionalists" who wished to interpret Lovecraft through the lens of fantasy literature and the newer scholars who wished to place greater attention on the entirety of his corpus. The 1980s and 1990s saw a further proliferation of the field. The 1990 H. P. Lovecraft Centennial Conference and the republishing of older essays in An Epicure in the Terrible represented the publishing of many basic studies that would be used as a base for then-future studies. The 1990 centennial also saw the installation of the "H. P. Lovecraft Memorial Plaque" in a garden adjoining John Hay Library, that features a portrait by silhouettist E. J. Perry. Following this, in 1996, S. T. Joshi wrote his own biography of Lovecraft. This biography was met with positive reviews and became the main biography in the field. It has since been superseded by his expanded edition of the book, I am Providence in 2010. Lovecraft's improving literary reputation has caused his works to receive increased attention by both classics publishers and scholarly fans. His works have been published by several different series of literary classics. Penguin Classics published three volumes of Lovecraft's works between 1999 and 2004. These volumes were edited by S. T. Joshi. Barnes & Noble would publish their own volume of Lovecraft's complete fiction in 2008. The Library of America published a volume of Lovecraft's works in 2005. The publishing of these volumes represented a reversal of the traditional judgment that Lovecraft was not part of the Western canon. Meanwhile, the biannual NecronomiCon Providence convention was first held in 2013. Its purpose is to serve as a fan and scholarly convention that discusses both Lovecraft and the wider field of weird fiction. It is organized by the Lovecraft Arts and Sciences organization and is held on the weekend of Lovecraft's birth. That July, the Providence City Council designated the "H. P. Lovecraft Memorial Square" and installed a commemorative sign at the intersection of Angell and Prospect streets, near the author's former residences. ### Music Lovecraft's fictional Mythos has influenced a number of musicians, particularly in rock and heavy metal music. This began in the 1960s with the formation of the psychedelic rock band H. P. Lovecraft, who released the albums H. P. Lovecraft and H. P. Lovecraft II in 1967 and 1968 respectively. They broke up afterwards, but later songs were released. This included "The White Ship" and "At the Mountains of Madness", both titled after Lovecraft stories. Extreme metal has also been influenced by Lovecraft. This has expressed itself in both the names of bands and the contents of their albums. This began in 1970 with the release of Black Sabbath's first album, Black Sabbath, which contained a song titled "Behind the Wall of Sleep", deriving its name from the 1919 story "Beyond the Wall of Sleep." Heavy metal band Metallica was also inspired by Lovecraft. They recorded a song inspired by "The Call of Cthulhu" titled "The Call of Ktulu", and a song based on The Shadow over Innsmouth titled "The Thing That Should Not Be". These songs contain direct quotations of Lovecraft's works. Joseph Norman, a speculative scholar, has argued that there are similarities between the music described in Lovecraft's fiction and the aesthetics and atmosphere of black metal. He argues that this is evident through the "animalistic" qualities of black metal vocals. The usage of occult elements is also cited as a thematic commonality. In terms of atmosphere, he asserts that both Lovecraft's works and extreme metal place heavy focus on creating a strong negative mood. ### Games Lovecraft has also influenced gaming, despite having personally disliked games during his lifetime. Chaosium's tabletop role-playing game Call of Cthulhu, released in 1981 and currently in its seventh major edition, was one of the first games to draw heavily from Lovecraft. It includes a Lovecraft-inspired insanity mechanic, which allowed for player characters to go insane from contact with cosmic horrors. This mechanic would go on to make appearance in subsequent tabletop and video games. 1987 saw the release of another Lovecraftian board game, Arkham Horror, which was published by Fantasy Flight Games. Though few subsequent Lovecraftian board games were released annually from 1987 to 2014, the years after 2014 saw a rapid increase in the number of Lovecraftian board games. According to Christina Silva, this revival may have been influenced by the entry of Lovecraft's work into the public domain and a revival of interest in board games. Few video games are direct adaptations of Lovecraft's works, but many video games have been inspired or heavily influenced by Lovecraft. Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth, a Lovecraftian first-person video game, was released in 2005. It is a loose adaptation of The Shadow over Innsmouth, The Shadow Out of Time, and "The Thing on the Doorstep" that uses noir themes. These adaptations focus more on Lovecraft's monsters and gamification than they do on his themes, which represents a break from Lovecraft's core theme of human insignificance. ### Religion and occultism Several contemporary religions have been influenced by Lovecraft's works. Kenneth Grant, the founder of the Typhonian Order, incorporated Lovecraft's Mythos into his ritual and occult system. Grant combined his interest in Lovecraft's fiction with his adherence to Aleister Crowley's Thelema. The Typhonian Order considers Lovecraftian entities to be symbols through which people may interact with something inhuman. Grant also argued that Crowley himself was influenced by Lovecraft's writings, particularly in the naming of characters in The Book of the Law. Similarly, The Satanic Rituals, co-written by Anton LaVey and Michael A. Aquino, includes the "Ceremony of the Nine Angles", which is a ritual that was influenced by the descriptions in "The Dreams in the Witch House". It contains invocations of several of Lovecraft's fictional gods. There have been several books that have claimed to be an authentic edition of Lovecraft's Necronomicon. The Simon Necronomicon is one such example. It was written by an unknown figure who identified themselves as "Simon". Peter Levenda, an occult author who has written about the Necronomicon, claims that he and "Simon" came across a hidden Greek translation of the grimoire while looking through a collection of antiquities at a New York bookstore during the 1960s or 1970s. This book was claimed to have borne the seal of the Necronomicon. Levenda went on to claim that Lovecraft had access to this purported scroll. A textual analysis has determined that the contents of this book were derived from multiple documents that discuss Mesopotamian myth and magic. The finding of a magical text by monks is also a common theme in the history of grimoires. It has been suggested that Levenda is the true author of the Simon Necronomicon. ## Correspondence Although Lovecraft is known mostly for his works of weird fiction, the bulk of his writing consists of voluminous letters about a variety of topics, from weird fiction and art criticism to politics and history. Lovecraft biographers L. Sprague de Camp and S. T. Joshi have estimated that Lovecraft wrote 100,000 letters in his lifetime, a fifth of which are believed to survive. These letters were directed at fellow writers and members of the amateur press. His involvement in the latter was what caused him to begin writing them. He included comedic elements in these letters. This included posing as an eighteenth-century gentleman and signing them with pseudonyms, most commonly "Grandpa Theobald" and "E'ch-Pi-El." According to Joshi, the most important sets of letters were those written to Frank Belknap Long, Clark Ashton Smith, and James F. Morton. He attributes this importance to the contents of these letters. With Long, Lovecraft argued in support and in opposition to many of Long's viewpoints. The letters to Smith are characterized by their focus on weird fiction. Lovecraft and Morton debated many scholarly subjects in their letters, resulting in what Joshi has called the "single greatest correspondence Lovecraft ever wrote." ## Copyright and other legal issues Despite several claims to the contrary, there is currently no evidence that any company or individual owns the copyright to any of Lovecraft's works, and it is generally accepted that it has passed into the public domain. Lovecraft had specified that R. H. Barlow would serve as the executor of his literary estate, but these instructions were not incorporated into his will. Nevertheless, his surviving aunt carried out his expressed wishes, and Barlow was given control of Lovecraft's literary estate upon his death. Barlow deposited the bulk of the papers, including the voluminous correspondence, in the John Hay Library, and attempted to organize and maintain Lovecraft's other writings. Lovecraft protégé August Derleth, an older and more established writer than Barlow, vied for control of the literary estate. He and Donald Wandrei, a fellow protégé and co-owner of Arkham House, falsely claimed that Derleth was the true literary executor. Barlow capitulated, and later committed suicide in 1951. This gave Derleth and Wandrei complete control over Lovecraft's corpus. On October 9, 1947, Derleth purchased all rights to the stories that were published in Weird Tales. However, since April 1926 at the latest, Lovecraft had reserved all second printing rights to stories published in Weird Tales. Therefore, Weird Tales only owned the rights to at most six of Lovecraft's tales. If Derleth had legally obtained the copyrights to these tales, there is no evidence that they were renewed before the rights expired. Following Derleth's death in 1971, Donald Wandrei sued his estate to challenge Derleth's will, which stated that he only held the copyrights and royalties to Lovecraft's works that were published under both his and Derleth's names. Arkham House's lawyer, Forrest D. Hartmann, argued that the rights to Lovecraft's works were never renewed. Wandrei won the case, but Arkham House's actions regarding copyright have damaged their ability to claim ownership of them. In H. P. Lovecraft: A Life'', S. T. Joshi concludes that Derleth's claims are "almost certainly fictitious" and argues that most of Lovecraft's works that were published in the amateur press are likely in the public domain. The copyright for Lovecraft's works would have been inherited by the only surviving heir named in his 1912 will, his aunt Annie Gamwell. When she died in 1941, the copyrights passed to her remaining descendants, Ethel Phillips Morrish and Edna Lewis. They signed a document, sometimes referred to as the Morrish-Lewis gift, permitting Arkham House to republish Lovecraft's works while retaining their ownership of the copyrights. Searches of the Library of Congress have failed to find any evidence that these copyrights were renewed after the 28-year period, making it likely that these works are in the public domain. However, the Lovecraft literary estate, reconstituted in 1998 under Robert C. Harrall, has claimed that they own the rights. They have been based in Providence since 2009 and have been granting the rights to Lovecraft's works to several publishers. Their claims have been criticized by scholars, such as Chris J. Karr, who has argued that the rights had not been renewed. Joshi has withdrawn his support for his conclusion, and now supports the estate's copyright claims. ## See also - H. P. Lovecraft scholars ## Explanatory notes ## General and cited sources

USS New Jersey (BB-16)

Pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy

USS New Jersey (BB-16) was the fourth of five Virginia-class battleships of the United States Navy, and the first ship to carry her name. She was laid down at the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in Quincy, Massachusetts, in May 1902, launched in November 1904, and commissioned into the fleet in May 1906. The ship was armed with an offensive battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns and eight 8-inch (203 mm) guns, and she was capable of a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). New Jersey spent her entire career in the Atlantic Fleet. In late 1906, she took part in the Second Occupation of Cuba, and she participated in the Jamestown Exposition in April – May 1907. At the end of the year, she joined the Great White Fleet for its circumnavigation of the globe, which lasted into 1909. The ship spent the following five years conducting peacetime training. In April 1914, New Jersey took part in the occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution. During World War I, she was used as a training ship, and after the war, she was tasked with transporting American soldiers back from Europe. New Jersey was decommissioned in 1920 and slated for destruction in bombing tests in 1923. Martin NBS-1 bombers sank the ship on 5 September 1923 in a series of bomb attacks. ## Design Design work on the Virginia class began in 1899, after the United States' victory in the Spanish–American War, which had demonstrated the need for sea-going battleships suitable for operations abroad, finally resolving the debate between proponents of that type and those who favored low-freeboard types useful for coastal defense. The designers included a superposed arrangement of the main and some of the secondary guns, which proved to be a significant disappointment in service, as firing either set of guns interfered with the others, slowing the rate of fire. New Jersey was 441 feet 3 inches (134.49 m) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 3 in (23.24 m) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m). She displaced 14,948 long tons (15,188 t) as designed and up to 16,094 long tons (16,352 t) at full load. The ship was powered by two-shaft triple-expansion steam engines rated at 19,000 indicated horsepower (14,000 kW), with steam provided by twelve coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The propulsion system generated a top speed of 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). As built, she was fitted with heavy military masts, but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909. She had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men. The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 in (305 mm) /40 caliber Mark 4 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline, one forward and aft. The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 in (203 mm) /45 caliber guns and twelve 6 in (152 mm) /50 caliber guns. The 8-inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets, with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel. The 6-inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull. For close-range defense against torpedo boats, she carried twelve 3-inch (76 mm)/50 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3-pounder guns. She also carried two 1-pounder guns. As was standard for capital ships of the period, New Jersey carried four 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes, submerged in her hull on the broadside. New Jersey's main armored belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in (152 mm) elsewhere. The faces of the main battery gun turrets (and the secondary turrets on top of them) were 12-inch (305 mm) thick. Each turret rested on a supporting barbettes that had 10 in (254 mm) of armor plating. The conning tower had 9 in (229 mm) thick sides. ## Service history ### Early career and Great White Fleet The keel for New Jersey was laid down at the Fore River Shipyard on 3 April 1902. She was launched on 10 November 1904; the daughter of Franklin Murphy, then the Governor of New Jersey, christened the ship. She was commissioned into the US fleet on 12 May 1906, Captain William Kimball in command. New Jersey began her initial training in the Atlantic and Caribbean, which was interrupted by a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Oyster Bay in September. On 21 September, the ship was deployed to Cuba to take part in the Second Occupation of Cuba; she remained there until 13 October. New Jersey participated in the Jamestown Exposition from 15 April to 14 May 1907, which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown colony. An international fleet that included British, French, German, Japanese, and Austro-Hungarian warships joined the US Navy at the event. New Jersey joined the Great White Fleet on 16 December 1907, when they departed Hampton Roads to begin their circumnavigation of the globe. The cruise of the Great White Fleet was conceived as a way to demonstrate American military power, particularly to Japan. Tensions had begun to rise between the United States and Japan after the latter's victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, particularly over racist opposition to Japanese immigration to the United States. The press in both countries began to call for war, and Roosevelt hoped to use the demonstration of naval might to deter Japanese aggression. The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America, making stops in Port of Spain, Rio de Janeiro, Punta Arenas, and Valparaíso, among other cities. After arriving in Mexico in March 1908, the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice. The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas, stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia, stopping in Hawaii on the way. Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne, Sydney, and Auckland. After leaving Australia, the fleet turned north for the Philippines, stopping in Manila, before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama, which helped to defuse tensions between the two countries. Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November. The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said, Egypt. The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar, where an international fleet of British, Russian, French, and Dutch warships greeted the Americans. The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909, having traveled 46,729 nautical miles (86,542 km; 53,775 mi). There, they conducted a naval review for Theodore Roosevelt. ### 1910–1923 New Jersey spent the next several years in the peacetime routine of the Atlantic Fleet, with various training maneuvers and gunnery practice in the Atlantic and Caribbean. During this period, she spent a year out of commission at Boston from 2 May 1910 to 15 July 1911, and in the summers of 1912 and 1913, she conducted training cruises for midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy. The ship was deployed to the Caribbean to protect American interests as the Mexican Revolution worsened in late 1913. On 21 April 1914, the United States occupied Veracruz in the aftermath of the Tampico Affair. On 13 August, New Jersey departed Mexican waters and steamed to Santo Domingo, where unrest gripped both the Dominican Republic and Haiti. After observing conditions in the two countries, the ship continued on, arriving in Hampton Roads on 9 October. She spent the next three years conducting her normal training routine. On 6 April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany owing to the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign Germany initiated earlier that year. New Jersey was employed as a training ship for naval draftees, based in Chesapeake Bay. In November 1918, Germany signed the Armistice that ended the war; New Jersey was thereafter used to transport American soldiers back from Europe. In the course of four voyages between late 1918 and 9 June 1919, she carried some 5,000 soldiers. New Jersey was decommissioned on 6 August 1920 at the Boston Naval Shipyard, and was to be disposed of under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty signed in 1922. New Jersey, along with her sister Virginia and the battleship Alabama were allocated for weapons tests conducted with the US Army Air Service, under the supervision of General Billy Mitchell. The bombing tests against New Jersey were conducted on 5 September 1923 in the Atlantic Ocean off Diamond Shoals, North Carolina, by Martin NBS-1 bombers of the 2nd Bombardment Group. Observers were aboard the Army transport ship . Four of the NBS-1s attacked New Jersey with 600-pound (270 kg) bombs at an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,000 m), scoring four hits and several near-misses, which caused significant flooding. Another attack was made, this time with 2,000-pound (910 kg) bombs at 6,000 feet (1,800 m), seven of which landed close to the ship. By this time, flooding had increased to the point that the casemate gun ports were submerged. Two more NBS-1s then attacked with two 1,100-pound (500 kg) bombs apiece; the first two missed but the third was a direct hit. It caused a large explosion and New Jersey capsized and sank 24 minutes later.

Florida-class battleship

Dreadnought battleship class of the United States Navy

The Florida-class battleships of the United States Navy comprised two ships: Florida and Utah. Launched in 1910 and 1909 respectively and commissioned in 1911, they were slightly larger than the preceding Delaware class design but were otherwise very similar. This was the first US battleship class in which all ships received steam turbine engines. In the previous Delaware-class, North Dakota received steam turbine propulsion as an experiment while Delaware retained triple-expansion engines. Both ships were involved in the 1914 Second Battle of Vera Cruz, deploying their Marine contingents as part of the operation. Following the entrance of the United States into World War I in 1917, both ships were deployed to Europe. Florida was assigned to the British Grand Fleet and based in Scapa Flow; in December 1918 she escorted President Woodrow Wilson to France for the peace negotiations. Utah was assigned to convoy escort duty; she was based in Ireland and was tasked with protecting convoys as they approached the European continent. Retained under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, both ships were modernized significantly, with torpedo bulges and oil-fired boilers installed and other improvements made, but were demilitarized under terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty. Florida was scrapped, Utah converted into first a radio-controlled target ship, then an anti-aircraft gunnery trainer. She served in the latter role until sunk by the Japanese during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. Her hull, never raised, remains on the bottom of the harbor as a war memorial. ## Design The Floridas were the third of 10 separate classes built between 1906 and 1919, a total of 22 battleships being commissioned. The new dreadnoughts of the American battle line were being designed from pre-dreadnought experience and observation of foreign designs, as no US dreadnought had yet been commissioned at the time that the Floridas were designed; all were either at some stage of building or in design. American capital ship design was also heavily influenced by war games conducted at the US Navy's Naval War College. Captain William Sims led a reform movement that assigned warship design to the General Board. These ships were an improvement over the preceding Delaware class. Their engine rooms were larger to hold four Curtis or Parsons steam turbines. Their larger beam gave them greater metacentric height, in which the Delawares were notably deficient, which improved buoyancy and reduced hull stress. The ships mounted new 5-inch (127 mm)/51 caliber guns as secondary batteries in casemates that boasted increased armor protection. The class retained the large and fully enclosed conning towers that were adopted for the preceding Delawares, as a result of American studies of the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. The design reduced the vulnerability of the command staff. Overall, these ships were much better protected than their British counterparts, although they were modified extensively during the interwar period. ### General characteristics The Florida-class ships were 510 ft (160 m) long at the waterline and 521 ft 6 in (158.95 m) overall. They had a beam of 88 ft 3 in (26.90 m) and a draft of 28 ft 6 in (8.69 m). They displaced 21,825 long tons (22,175 t) at standard displacement and 23,033 long tons (23,403 t) at full load. This was an increase of approximately 2,500 long tons (2,500 t) over the previous Delaware class. The ships also had some of their superstructure rearranged, including the lattice masts and the funnels. The Florida-class ships had a crew of 1,001 officers and men. The wider beam increased the vessels' metacentric height, which allowed the Floridas to accommodate their larger medium-caliber guns without any real penalty in topweight. Florida was fitted experimentally with a larger bridge than was then standard, to house both ship and fire control personnel under armor, while Utah received a heavily armored fire-control tower atop a standard-sized bridge. The former proved especially successful, to the point that when a larger armored fire-control tower and standard bridge was proposed for the Nevada class, it was rejected in favor of a roomier bridge like that of Florida. The two ships were modernized in 1925–27; among the improvements were the addition of torpedo bulges, which were designed to increase resistance to underwater damage—this widened the ships to 106 ft (32 m). The ships also had their rear lattice masts removed and replaced with a pole mast. A catapult for launching aircraft was mounted on the number 3 gun turret. ### Propulsion The ships were propelled by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines; steam was provided by 12 Babcock & Wilcox coal-fired boilers. The engines were rated at 28,000 shp (20,880 kW) to give a top speed of 21 kn (39 km/h). On trials, Florida made 22.08 kn (40.89 km/h; 25.41 mph) on 40,511 shp (30,209 kW); Utah's turbines produced only 27,028 shp (20,155 kW) but still propelled the ship at 21.04 kn (38.97 km/h; 24.21 mph). However, the engine and boiler room arrangements remained the same as in the Delawares, with the engine room situated between the rear main turrets and steam lines running beneath the superfiring rear turret. The ships had a range of 5,776 nmi (6,650 mi; 10,700 km) at a cruising speed of 10 kn (19 km/h; 12 mph). The engine rooms on these ships were lengthened to accommodate the larger Parsons steam turbines, which meant the after boiler room had to be eliminated. Funnel spacing was therefore closer than in the Delawares. The remaining boiler rooms were widened by 4 ft (1.2 m); to do this and maintain adequate underwater and coal bunker protection, the ships were made 3 ft (0.91 m) beamier than the Delawares. During Florida and Utah's reconstruction in 1925–1927, their coal-fired boilers were replaced with four White-Forster oil-fired boilers. The reduction in the number of boilers allowed their twin funnels to be trunked into one single larger funnel. ### Armament #### Main guns It was intended originally to arm these ships with eight 14-inch (356 mm)/45 caliber guns then in development in superfiring fore-and-aft mountings. As this gun did not go into service until 1914, the arrangement of ten 12-inch (305 mm)/45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin gun turrets was retained from the Delaware class. The gun housings were the Mark 8 type, and they allowed for depression to −5 degrees and elevation to 15 degrees. The guns had a rate of fire of 2 to 3 rounds per minute. They fired 870 lb (395 kg) shells, of either armor-piercing (AP) or Common types, though the Common type was obsolete by 1915 and put out of production. The propellant charge was 310 lb (141 kg) in silk bags, and provided a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s (823 m/s). The guns were expected to fire 175 rounds before the barrels would require replacement. The two ships carried 100 shells per gun, or 1,000 rounds in total. At 15 degrees elevation, the guns could hit targets out to approximately 20,000 yd (18,288 m) Unfortunately, the turret layout of the Delawares was also retained, with its respective challenges. Two turrets, Numbers 1 and 2, were mounted fore in a superfiring pair, while the other three were mounted aft of the main superstructure, all on the centerline. The rearmost turret, number 5, was placed on the main deck, facing rearward, the next turret, Number 4, was placed on the main deck facing forward, but could only have fired on either broadside, it could not have fired straight forward or aft. The center turret, Number 3, placed in a superfiring position facing rearward, could not fire astern when the turret directly under it had its guns trained forward. This left only the rearmost turret, with its pair of 12-inch guns, to cover the rear quarter of the ship. Also, since the engine room was situated between the superfiring rear turret and the ones behind it, steam lines ran from the boiler rooms amidships around the ammunition magazine for Number 3 turret to the engine room. These lines, it was later found, had the potential to heat the powder in the magazine and degrade its ballistics. This design flaw was also prevalent in several British dreadnoughts but was considered inescapable by naval designers on structural grounds. #### Other weapons C&R proposed 6-inch (152 mm) secondary guns for these ships, protected by 6.5 in (165 mm) casemate armor. This would have been the only change from the protective scheme carried over from the Delaware class. However, a new 5-inch/51 caliber gun was adopted instead after concerns about inadequate splinter protection for secondary gun casemates and smoke uptakes led to an increase in armor. Sixteen of these weapons were fitted in individual casemates. These guns fired a 50 lb (23 kg) armor-piercing (AP) shell at a muzzle velocity of 3,150 ft/s (960 m/s) and a rate of 8 to 9 rounds per minute. The guns could depress to −10 degrees and elevate to 15 degrees. The guns were manually operated, and had a range of train of about 150 degrees in either direction. Florida and Utah received two 3-inch (76 mm)/23 caliber guns in 1917 for anti-aircraft (AA) defense. This was increased to eight guns between 1926 and 1928. These guns fired a 16.5 lb (7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,650 ft/s (503 m/s) to a maximum range of 8,800 yd (8,047 m) and ceiling of 18,000 ft (5,486 m) at an elevation of 75 degrees and a rate of between eight and nine rounds per minute. The ships were also armed with two 21-inch (533 mm) submerged torpedo tubes. The tubes were mounted one on each broadside. The torpedoes were 16.4 ft (5 m) long and carried a 200 lb (91 kg) warhead. They had a range of 4,000 yd (3,658 m) and traveled at a speed of 26 kn (48 km/h; 30 mph). ### Armor The armor layout was largely the same as in the preceding Delaware-class battleships. The armored belt ranged in thickness from 9 to 11 in (229 to 279 mm) in the more important areas of the ship. Casemated guns mounted in the hull had between 8 and 10 in (203 and 254 mm) of armor plate. After modernization, some of the casemated guns were moved to the superstructure; these guns were protected with only 5 in (127 mm) of armor. The barbettes that housed the main gun turrets were armored with between 4 and 10 in (102 and 254 mm) of armor; the side portions more vulnerable to shell fire were thicker, while the front and rear sections of the barbette, which were less likely to be hit, received thinner armor to save weight. The gun turrets themselves were armored with 12 in (305 mm) of armor. The conning tower was 11.5 in (292 mm) thick. The armored deck was slightly reduced in thickness, from 2 to 1.5 in (51 to 38 mm). ## Construction Florida, ordered under hull number "Battleship \#30", was laid down at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in New York on 9 March 1909. She was launched on 12 May 1910, after which fitting out work commenced. She was completed on 15 September 1911, and commissioned into the United States Navy. Utah was ordered under hull number "Battleship \#31". She was laid down in Camden, New Jersey, at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, 6 days later on 15 March. Work proceeded faster on Utah than on her sister ship, and she was launched about four and a half months earlier, on 23 December 1909. Her fitting out lasted until 31 August 1911, when she was commissioned into the Navy. ## Service history ### USS Florida Florida took part in the Second battle of Vera Cruz in 1914. She and her sister Utah were the first two ships on the scene; the two ships landed some 1,000 sailors and Marines under the command of Florida's captain on 21 April. Fighting lasted for 3 days; the contingent from Florida and Utah suffered a total of 94 casualties. After the United States entered World War I in April 1917, Florida was dispatched to Europe; she departed the United States in December 1917. After arriving in the North Sea, she was assigned to the British Grand Fleet. The ship, part of the US Navy's Battleship Division Nine, under the command of Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman, arrived on 7 December and was assigned to the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet. Following training exercises with the British fleet, 6th Battle Squadron was tasked with convoy protection duty on the route to Scandinavia. Following the end of the war, in December 1918, the ship escorted President Woodrow Wilson on his trip to Europe to participate in the peace negotiations at Versailles. Later in December, Florida returned to the United States to participate in the Victory Fleet Review in New York harbor. Post-war, Florida returned to the US Navy's Atlantic Fleet; she operated along the east coast of the United States and into Central America. In July 1920, she was assigned the hull number "BB-30". In December 1920, she carried the US Secretary of State, Bainbridge Colby, on a diplomatic trip around the Caribbean and South America. Florida was the oldest American battleship that was retained under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. She underwent extensive reconstruction and modernization during the mid-1920s. After emerging from the shipyard, she was assigned as the flagship of the Control Force, US Fleet. The ship conducted a series of training cruises for the remainder of the decade. Under the London Naval Treaty of 1930, the ship was to be discarded. She was decommissioned in February 1931 and towed to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, where she was broken up for scrap. ### USS Utah Utah's first assignment was with the US Navy's Atlantic Fleet. During 1913, she took a goodwill voyage to the Mediterranean. Utah was also involved in the Second Battle of Vera Cruz, alongside her sister Florida. The ship also saw front-line duty in the First World War, although she was not attached to the British Grand Fleet. Starting in September 1918, Utah was based in Bantry Bay, Ireland. Here she conducted convoy escort duties on the approach to Europe. Post-war service saw Utah again in the Atlantic Fleet; during 1921–22, she was stationed in Europe. Utah was also retained under the Washington Naval Treaty. In 1924–1925, the ship sailed on a goodwill cruise to South America. Following her return to the United States, she was taken into dry dock for significant reconstruction. After she rejoined the active fleet, she was assigned to the US Scouting Fleet. Late in 1928, she steamed to the South Atlantic, where she picked up President-Elect Herbert Hoover, who was returning from an ambassadorial visit to several South American countries. According to the London Naval Treaty, the ship was to be removed from front-line service. In 1931 she had her main battery guns removed and was converted into a radio-controlled target ship. She was redesignated AG-16, and served in this capacity through 1941. In 1935 she was rebuilt again, gaining a single 1.1-inch (28 mm)/75 caliber anti-aircraft gun in a quadruple mount for experimental testing and development of the new type of weapon. She continued her role as a target ship, and in 1941 had several additional anti-aircraft guns installed to increase her capacity to train gunners. Later that year she was transferred to the US Pacific Fleet and based in Pearl Harbor. She was present in Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, was hit by two torpedoes, capsized, and sank. A few years later, the hull was partially righted and towed closer to Ford Island in a failed salvage effort, where the wreck remains today.

Nashville sit-ins

Nonviolent protests against racial segregation in Tennessee (1960)

The Nashville sit-ins, which lasted from February 13 to May 10, 1960, were part of a protest to end racial segregation at lunch counters in downtown Nashville, Tennessee. The sit-in campaign, coordinated by the Nashville Student Movement and the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, was notable for its early success and its emphasis on disciplined nonviolence. It was part of a broader sit-in movement that spread across the southern United States in the wake of the Greensboro sit-ins in North Carolina. Over the course of the Nashville sit-in campaign, sit-ins were staged at numerous stores in the central business district. Over 150 students were eventually arrested for refusing to vacate store lunch counters when ordered to do so by police. At trial, the students were represented by a group of 13 lawyers, headed by Z. Alexander Looby. On April 19, Looby's home was bombed, although he escaped uninjured. Later that day, at least 3,000 people marched to City Hall to confront Mayor Ben West about the escalating violence. When asked if he believed the lunch counters in Nashville should be desegregated, West agreed that they should. After subsequent negotiations between the store owners and protest leaders, an agreement was reached during the first week of May. On May 10, six downtown stores began serving black customers at their lunch counters for the first time. Although the initial campaign successfully desegregated downtown lunch counters, sit-ins, pickets, and protests against other segregated facilities continued in Nashville until passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended overt, legally sanctioned segregation nationwide. Many of the organizers of the Nashville sit-ins went on to become important leaders in the Civil Rights Movement. ## Background In 1896, the United States Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal". This decision led to the proliferation of Jim Crow laws throughout the United States. These laws mandated or explicitly allowed segregation in virtually all spheres of public life and allowed racial discrimination to flourish across the country, especially in the southern United States. In Nashville, like most Southern cities, African Americans were severely disadvantaged under the system of Jim Crow segregation. Besides being relegated to underfunded schools and barred from numerous public accommodations, African Americans had few prospects for skilled employment and were subject to constant discrimination from the white majority. Although serious efforts were made to oppose Jim Crow laws in Nashville as early as 1905, it was not until 1958, with the formation of the Nashville Christian Leadership Council, that Nashville's African American community would lay the foundation for dismantling racial segregation. ## Precursors and organization The Nashville Christian Leadership Council (or NCLC), was founded by the Reverend Kelly Miller Smith, pastor of First Baptist Church, Capitol Hill. This organization was an affiliate of Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and was established to promote civil rights for African Americans through nonviolent civil disobedience. Smith believed that White Americans would be more sympathetic to desegregation if African Americans obtained their rights through peaceful demonstration rather than through the judicial system or violent confrontation. From March 26 to 28, 1958, the NCLC held the first of many workshops on using nonviolent tactics to challenge segregation. These workshops were led by James Lawson, who had studied the principles of nonviolent resistance while working as a missionary in India. Later workshops were mainly attended by students from Fisk University, Tennessee A&I (later Tennessee State University), American Baptist Theological Seminary (later American Baptist College), and Meharry Medical College. Among those attending Lawson's sessions were students who would become significant leaders in the Civil Rights Movement, among them: Marion Barry, James Bevel, Bernard Lafayette, John Lewis, Diane Nash, and C. T. Vivian. During these workshops it was decided that the first target for the group's actions would be downtown lunch counters. At the time, African Americans were allowed to shop in downtown stores but were not allowed to eat in the stores' restaurants. The group felt that the lunch counters were a good objective because they were highly visible, easily accessible, and provided a stark example of the injustices black Southerners faced every day. In late 1959, James Lawson and other members of the NCLC's projects committee met with department store owners Fred Harvey and John Sloan, and asked them to voluntarily serve African Americans at their lunch counters. Both men declined, saying that they would lose more business than they would gain. The students then began doing reconnaissance for sit-in demonstrations. The first test took place at Harveys Department Store in downtown Nashville on November 28, followed by the Cain-Sloan store on December 5. Small groups of students purchased items at the stores and then sat at their lunch counters and attempted to order food. Their goal was to try to sense the mood and degree of resistance in each store. Although they were refused service at both lunch counters, the reactions varied significantly. At Harveys, they received surprisingly polite responses, while at Cain-Sloan they were treated with contempt. These reconnaissance actions were low-key and neither of the city's newspapers was notified of them. ## Full-scale demonstrations Before the students in Nashville had a chance to formalize their plans, events elsewhere brought renewed urgency to the effort. During the first week of February 1960, a small sit-in demonstration in Greensboro, North Carolina, grew into a significant protest with over eighty students participating by the third day. Although similar demonstrations had occurred previously in other cities, this was the first to attract substantial media attention and public notice. When Lawson's group met the subsequent Friday night, about 500 new volunteers showed up to join the cause. Although Lawson and other adult organizers argued for delay, the student leaders insisted that the time had come for action. The first large-scale organized sit-in was on Saturday, February 13, 1960. At about 12:30 pm, 124 students, most of them black, walked into the downtown Woolworths, S. H. Kress, and McLellan stores and asked to be served at the lunch counters. After the staff refused to serve them, they sat in the stores for two hours and then left without incident. On the Monday following the first sit-in, the Baptist Minister's Conference of Nashville, representing 79 congregations, unanimously voted to support the student movement, thus throwing the weight of Nashville's black religious community behind the students. Local religious leaders called on people of good will to boycott downtown merchants who practiced segregation. Nashville's black community strongly supported the boycott, causing economic hardship for the merchants. The second sit-in occurred on Thursday, February 18, when more than 200 students entered Woolworths, S. H. Kress, McClellan, and Grants. The lunch counters were immediately closed. The students remained for about half an hour and then left, again without incident. The third sit-in occurred on February 20 when about 350 students entered the previous four stores and the downtown Walgreens drugstore. As the students sat at the counters, crowds of white youths gathered in several of the stores. Police kept a watchful eye on all five locations, but no incidents of violence occurred. The students remained for nearly three hours until adjourning to a mass meeting at the First Baptist Church. Tensions mounted over the following week as sit-in demonstrations spread to other cities and race riots broke out in nearby Chattanooga. On February 27, the Nashville student activists held a fourth sit-in at the Woolworths, McClellan, and Walgreens stores. Crowds of white youths again gathered in the stores to taunt and harass the demonstrators. This time, however, police were not present. Eventually, several of the sit-in demonstrators were attacked by hecklers in the McClellan and Woolworths stores. Some were pulled from their seats and beaten, and one demonstrator was pushed down a flight of stairs. When police arrived, the white attackers fled and none were arrested. Police then ordered the demonstrators at all three locations to leave the stores. When the demonstrators refused to leave, they were arrested and loaded into police vehicles as onlookers applauded. Eighty-one students were arrested and charged with loitering and disorderly conduct. The arrests brought a surge of media coverage to the sit-in campaign, including national television news coverage, front-page stories in both of Nashville's daily newspapers, and an Associated Press story. The students generally viewed any media coverage as helpful to their cause, especially when it illustrated their commitment to nonviolence. Several other sit-ins took place over the following two months, resulting in more arrests and further attacks against sit-in participants. Over 150 students were arrested. Throughout the demonstrations, the student activists maintained a policy of disciplined nonviolence. Their written code of conduct became a model followed by demonstrators in other cities: > "Do not strike back or curse if abused. Do not laugh out. Do not hold conversations with the floor walker. Do not leave your seat until your leader has given you permission to do so. Do not block entrances to stores outside nor the aisles inside. Do show yourself courteous and friendly at all times. Do sit straight; always face the counter. Do report all serious incidents to your leader. Do refer information seekers to your leader in a polite manner. Remember the teachings of Jesus, Gandhi, Martin Luther King. Love and nonviolence is the way." ## Trials and Lawson expulsion The trials of the sit-in participants attracted widespread interest throughout Nashville and the surrounding region. On February 29, the first day of the trials, a crowd of more than 2000 people lined the streets surrounding the city courthouse to show their support for the defendants. A group of 13 lawyers, headed by Z. Alexander Looby, represented the students. Initially, the trial was presided over by City Judge Andrew J. Doyle. Doyle dismissed the loitering charges against the students and then stepped down from the bench, turning the trial over to Special City Judge John I. Harris. Despite strong support from the black community, all the students who had been arrested were convicted of disorderly conduct and fined \$50. The students refused to pay the fines, however, and chose instead to serve thirty-three days in the county workhouse. Diane Nash issued a statement on behalf of the students explaining the decision: "We feel that if we pay these fines we would be contributing to and supporting the injustice and immoral practices that have been performed in the arrest and conviction of the defendants." The same day the trials began, a group of black ministers, including James Lawson, met with Mayor Ben West to discuss the sit-ins. Coverage of the meeting by the local press, including a scathing editorial in the Nashville Banner denouncing Lawson as a "flannel-mouth agitator", brought Lawson's activities to the attention of Vanderbilt University where he was enrolled as a Divinity School student. The newspaper was owned by James G. Stahlman, a Vanderbilt trustee who was "strongly anti-integration"; it published misleading stories, including the suggestion that Lawson had incited others to "violate the law." When Lawson was confronted by Vanderbilt's executive committee and told he would have to end his involvement with the sit-ins, Lawson refused. He was immediately expelled from the university by Chancellor Harvie Branscomb, and arrested the next day. Dean J. Robert Nelson resigned in protest and paid Lawson's bail with three of his colleagues, and the school was placed on probation for a year by the American Association of Theological Schools. ## Biracial Committee On March 3, in an effort to defuse the racial tensions caused by the sit-ins, Mayor West announced the formation of a Biracial Committee to seek a solution to the city's racial strife. The committee included the presidents of two of the city's black universities, but did not include any representatives from the student movement. The committee met several times over the next month and delivered its recommendations in a report on April 5. The committee recommended to partially integrate the city's lunch counters. Each store would have one section that was for whites only and another section for whites and blacks. This solution was rejected by the student leaders, who considered the recommendations to be morally unacceptable and based upon a policy of segregation. Less than a week after the Biracial Committee issued its report, the sit-ins resumed and the boycott of downtown businesses was intensified. ## Looby residence bombing At 5:30 am on April 19, dynamite was thrown through a front window of Z. Alexander Looby's home in north Nashville, apparently in retaliation for his support of the demonstrators. Although the explosion almost destroyed the house, Looby and his wife, who were asleep in a back bedroom, were not injured. More than 140 windows in a nearby dormitory were broken by the blast. Rather than discouraging the protesters, this event served as a catalyst for the movement. Within hours, news of the bombing had spread throughout the community. Around noon, nearly 4000 people marched silently to City Hall to confront the mayor. Mayor West met the marchers at the courthouse steps. Reverend C. T. Vivian read a prepared statement accusing the mayor of ignoring the moral issues involved in segregation and turning a blind eye to violence and injustice. Diane Nash then asked the mayor if he felt it was wrong to discriminate against a person based solely on their race or skin color. West answered that he agreed it was wrong. Nash then asked him if he believed that lunch counters in the city should be desegregated. West answered, "Yes", then added, "That's up to the store managers, of course." Coverage of this event varied significantly between Nashville's two major newspapers. The Tennessean emphasized the mayor's agreement that lunch counters should be desegregated, while the Nashville Banner emphasized the mayor's statement that it was up to the city's merchants to decide whether to desegregate. This was largely indicative of the two papers' opposing stances on the issue. Regardless, the mayor's response was later cited as an important turning point by both activists and Nashville business owners. The day after the bombing, Martin Luther King Jr. came to Nashville to speak at Fisk University. During the speech, he praised the Nashville sit-in movement as "the best organized and the most disciplined in the Southland." He further stated that he came to Nashville "not to bring inspiration but to gain inspiration from the great movement that has taken place in this community." ## Desegregation After weeks of secret negotiations between merchants and protest leaders, an agreement was finally reached during the first week of May. According to the agreement, small, selected groups of African Americans would order food at the downtown lunch counters on a day known in advance to the merchants. The merchants would prepare their employees for the event and instruct them to serve the customers without trouble. This arrangement would continue in a controlled manner for a couple of weeks and then all controls would be taken off, at which point the merchants and protest leaders would reconvene to evaluate the results. Also as part of the agreement, the media was to be informed of the settlement and requested to provide only accurate, non-sensational coverage. On May 10, six downtown stores opened their lunch counters to black customers for the first time. The customers arrived in groups of two or three during the afternoon and were served without incident. At the same time, African Americans ended their six-week-old boycott of the downtown stores. The plan continued successfully and the lunch counters were integrated without any further incidents of violence. Nashville thus became the first major city in the southern United States to begin desegregating its public facilities. Although the end of the sit-in campaign brought a brief respite for civil rights activists in Nashville, institutionalized racism remained a problem throughout the city. Over the next few years, further sit-ins, pickets, and other actions would take place at restaurants, movie theaters, public swimming pools, and other segregated facilities across Nashville. These actions continued until Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited segregation in public places throughout the United States. In that year, many of the key figures of the sit-ins, including James Lawson and Kelly Miller Smith, were interviewed by Robert Penn Warren for his book Who Speaks for the Negro?, in which they reflected on their experiences. ## Fiftieth anniversary Several events were held in 2010 in order to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Nashville sit-ins. - On January 20, Vanderbilt University hosted a panel discussion entitled "Veterans of the Nashville Sit-ins – The Struggle Continues". The featured speakers were Kwame Leo Lillard and Matthew Walker, Jr. - Tennessee State Museum hosted an exhibition from February 4 to May 16 entitled "We Shall Not Be Moved: The 50th Anniversary of Tennessee's Civil Rights Sit-Ins". - At Tennessee State University on February 10, the 29th annual Conference on African American History and Culture held a special commemoration of the sit-ins, with Diane Nash as the featured guest speaker. - On February 12, Vanderbilt University hosted a panel discussion on media coverage of the Nashville sit-ins. The featured speakers were James Lawson and John Seigenthaler. - The downtown Nashville library hosted a photography exhibit entitled "Visions & Voices: The Civil Rights Movement in Nashville & Tennessee" from February 9 to May 22. - Author and commentator Juan Williams led a forum to discuss civil rights issues at the downtown Nashville library auditorium on February 13.

2009–10 Big Ten Conference men's basketball season

The 2009–10 Big Ten Conference men's basketball season marked the continuation of competitive basketball among Big Ten Conference members that began in 1904. On October 16, 2009 five schools celebrated Midnight Madness to mark the beginning of the 2009–10 NCAA Division I men's basketball season. Michigan State, Ohio State, and Purdue ended the season tied for the conference championship with win–loss records of 14–4, followed by Wisconsin at 13–5. In the 2010 Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament, Ohio State defeated Minnesota for the championship, and the conference named Evan Turner as the tournament's most outstanding player. The conference earned five bids to the 2010 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament by the Co-Champions, runner-up and tournament runner-up. Big Ten teams posted a 9–5 overall record including three Sweet Sixteen appearances and one Final Four appearance. Two members of the conference received invitations to play in the 2010 National Invitation Tournament (NIT), in which they posted a 2–2 record. 2010 Big Ten Conference Men's Basketball Player of the Year Evan Turner received multiple first team 2010 NCAA Men's Basketball All-Americans and National Player of the Year recognitions. Trévon Hughes, E'Twaun Moore, Kalin Lucas and Robbie Hummel also received various All-American recognitions. Moore was also recognized as an Academic All-American. ## Preseason On October 16, 2009 Illinois, Indiana, Michigan State, Michigan, and Minnesota celebrated Midnight Madness, and several other schools celebrated it in the subsequent days. Michigan State, Purdue and Michigan were ranked in the top 25 by all preseason polls. The entire 2008–09 All-Big Ten Conference first-team returned: Manny Harris MICH; Kalin Lucas MSU; Evan Turner OSU; Talor Battle PSU; and JaJuan Johnson PUR. The 24-member Big Ten media panel selected Lucas as the preseason conference player of the year, and he was joined on the first team preseason All-Big Ten team by Harris, Turner, Battle and Robbie Hummel PUR. The same media panel selected Michigan State as the preseason conference favorite followed by Purdue and Ohio State. Various publications released their preseason predictions for conference standings and All-Big Ten teams. Predicted Big-Ten Results - Big Ten Media select only the top three teams Pre-Season All-Big Ten Teams Preseason national polls: ### Preseason watch lists On August 19, 2009, the Wooden Award preseason watch list included eight Big Ten players. The watch list was composed of 50 players who were not transfers, freshmen or medical redshirts. The list will be reduced to a 30-player mid-season watch list in December and a final national ballot of about 20 players in March. On October 29, the Naismith College Player of the Year watch list of 50 players was announced. In late February, a shorter list of the Top 30 was compiled in preparation for a March vote to narrow the list to the four finalists. ## Player of the week ### In season honors Players of the week Throughout the conference regular season, the Big Ten offices named a player of the week each Monday. ## Regular season November The season opened with the Big Ten Conference holding the leadership with six teams ranked among the preseason top 25 in both the AP Poll and the Coaches' Poll, setting a new conference record for the most teams ranked to open a season. The season also opened with the entire 2008–09 first team All-Big Ten players returning. Both Manny Harris (November 14) and Evan Turner (November 9) recorded triple doubles in the opening week of the season marking the first times a Big Ten player has accomplished the feat since January 13, 2001. Six of the eleven conference teams started at least one freshman. The following week, three schools (Michigan State, Illinois and Iowa) participated in ESPN's Tuesday, November 17 24-hour hoops marathon across its family of networks (ESPN, ESPN2, ESPNU & ESPN360). Michigan State's Magic Johnson and Jud Heathcote were inducted into the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame on November 22. With his 341st victory, Tom Izzo became Michigan State's all-time leader in basketball coaching victories. Turner became the second player in conference history to be named conference player of the week three weeks in a row. On November 28, both Ohio State and Michigan State scored 100 points, marking the first time two conference teams have done so since December 22, 1997. December For the second time in the season, two teams scored 100 points on the same night on December 5. For the first time in eleven attempts, the Big Ten won the ACC – Big Ten Challenge. In his 275th game, Bo Ryan reached the 200-win milestone with Wisconsin Badgers men's basketball. In the same week, Tom Crean raised his record to 200-–125. The Big Ten entered intraconference play tied with the Big East Conference by having five ranked teams. Northwestern entered conference play on its longest winning streak in 16 years (9), and Purdue reached the 11–0 mark for the second time and had a perfect record at the end of December for the first time since the 1936–37 season. January Purdue ran its record to 14–0 to start the season, which tied the Glenn Robinson-led 1993–94 Purdue Boilermakers for the best start in school history. Four Big Ten athletes (Talor Battle, Harris, Trevon Hughes and Lucas) were named as finalists for the 2010 Bob Cousy Award to lead all conferences. Harris, Lucas, Robbie Hummel and Turner were also selected Midseason Top 30 finalists for the 2010 John Wooden Award. On January 12, Hummel and Turner became only the third pair of opposing Big Ten players to post 30 points against each other in one night. Michigan State established a new school record by winning its first eight conference games and extended the streak to nine by the end of the month. February On February 8 Turner recorded his fifth Conference Player of the Week award and eighth of his career surpassing the former conference record held by Glenn Robinson and Jim Jackson, who each had seven career and tied Robinson's single-season record with five. Two weeks later he set the single-season record with his sixth recognition when he averaged 24.5 points, 8.5 rebounds and 5.5 assists against two ranked opponents (No. 4 Purdue and at No. 11 Michigan State). Three Big Ten players made the February Top 30 midseason Naismith College Player of the Year watch list: Hummel, Lucas and Turner. Hummel and Turner were selected among the 16 finalists for the 2010 Oscar Robertson Trophy. March Turner was selected as one of six finalists for the Bob Cousy Award. Lucas, Hummel and Turner were included on the final 26-man ballot for the Wooden Award. ## Rankings During the season, seven of the Big Ten teams received enough votes to be ranked and an eight team received voted during several weekly polls. Michigan State and Purdue were ranked during every weekly poll during the season. ## Preconference ### Tournaments Big Ten teams emerged victorious in the following tournament: - Although these tournaments include more teams, only 4 play for the championship. ### ACC–Big Ten Challenge The Big Ten Conference won the 11th annual ACC – Big Ten Challenge for the first time in the challenge's history. <table> <thead> <tr class="header"> <th><p>ACC Team</p></th> <th><p>Big Ten Team</p></th> <th><p>Location</p></th> <th><p>Attendance</p></th> <th><p>Winner</p></th> <th><p>Challenge<br /> Leader</p></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>Virginia</p></td> <td><p>Penn State</p></td> <td><p>John Paul Jones Arena • Charlottesville, VA</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Penn State (69–66)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>Wake Forest</p></td> <td><p>#4 Purdue</p></td> <td><p>Mackey Arena • West Lafayette, IN</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Purdue (69–58)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>NC State</p></td> <td><p>Northwestern</p></td> <td><p>RBC Center • Raleigh, NC</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Northwestern (65–53)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>Maryland</p></td> <td><p>Indiana</p></td> <td><p>Assembly Hall • Bloomington, IN</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Maryland (80–68)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>#10 North Carolina</p></td> <td><p>#9 Michigan State</p></td> <td><p>|Dean Smith Center • Chapel Hill, NC</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>North Carolina (89–82)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>Virginia Tech</p></td> <td><p>Iowa</p></td> <td><p>Carver-Hawkeye Arena • Iowa City, IA</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Virginia Tech (70–64)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>#18 Clemson</p></td> <td><p>Illinois</p></td> <td><p>Littlejohn Coliseum • Clemson, SC</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Illinois (76–74)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>'</p></td> <td><p>Minnesota</p></td> <td><p>BankUnited Center • Coral Gables, FL</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Miami (63–58)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>Boston College</p></td> <td><p>Michigan</p></td> <td><p>Crisler Arena • Ann Arbor, MI</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Boston College (62–58)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>#6 Duke</p></td> <td><p>Wisconsin</p></td> <td><p>Kohl Center • Madison, WI</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Wisconsin (73–69)</p></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>Florida State</p></td> <td><p>#15 Ohio State</p></td> <td><p>|Jerome Schottenstein Center • Columbus, OH</p></td> <td></td> <td><p>Ohio State (77–64)</p></td> <td><p>Big Ten (6–5)</p></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> ## Conference play The 2009–10 season marked the third consecutive year that every Big Ten men's basketball conference regular-season and tournament game was nationally televised. In excess of 100 games appeared nationally on CBS, ESPN, ESPN2 or the Big Ten Network every Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday and Sunday during conference play beginning on December 29. All ten games of the March 11 – 14, 2010 Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament were nationally televised. With an eighteen-game in-conference schedule, each team met eight teams twice (home and away) and the two other teams only once. The following were the one-time meetings for this season. ## Conference honors Two sets of conference award winners were recognized by the Big Ten - one selected by league coaches and one selected by the media. ### All-Big Ten Academic team The Big Ten Conference had 33 men's basketball letterwinners who were in at least their second academic year at their institution and who maintained a cumulative grade point average (GPA) of 3.0 or higher during the winter semester to earn Big Ten Academic All-Conference honors. Purdue's Mark Wohlford who was a senior economics major had a perfect Winter GPA. These student-athletes were eligible to be named Distinguished Scholar Awardees if they maintained a 3.7 GPA for the entire academic year. ## National awards & honors ### National awards Turner was named the winner of the Oscar Robertson Trophy by the United States Basketball Writers Association as the consensus choice by voters in all nine geographical districts. Fox and Sporting News selected Turner as National Player of the Year. He was also recognized the National Association of Basketball Coaches' Division I Player of the Year and was honored as the Naismith Award recipient. In addition to his basketball honors, Turner was selected as the male Big Ten Athlete of the Year for all sports. ### NABC The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All-District teams on March 16, recognizing the nation's best men's collegiate basketball student-athletes. Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC, 240 student-athletes, from 24 districts were chosen. The selection on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches' Division I All-America teams announced at the 2009 NABC Convention in Detroit. The following list represented the Big Ten players chosen to the list. (All Big Ten schools are within District 7 for the 2009–10 season.) First Team - Kalin Lucas Michigan State - Evan Turner Ohio State - Demetri McCamey Illinois - E'Twaun Moore Purdue - Robbie Hummel Purdue Second Team - John Shurna Northwestern - Trévon Hughes Wisconsin - DeShawn Sims Michigan - Talor Battle Penn. State - Manny Harris Michigan ### USBWA On March 9, the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2009–10 Men's All-District Teams, based on voting from its national membership. There were nine regions from coast to coast, and a player and coach of the year were selected in each. The following lists all the Big Ten representatives selected within their respective regions. District II (NY, NJ, DE, DC, PA, WV) None Selected District V (OH, IN, IL, MI, MN, WI) Player of the Year - Evan Turner, Ohio State Coach of the Year - Matt Painter, Purdue All-District Team - Trévon Hughes, Wisconsin - Robbie Hummel, Purdue - JaJuan Johnson, Purdue - Kalin Lucas, Michigan State - Demetri McCamey, Illinois - E'Twaun Moore, Purdue - Evan Turner, Ohio State District VI''' (IA, MO, KS, OK, NE, ND, SD) None Selected ### Academic honors #### CoSIDA On February 4, 2010, the College Sports Information Directors of America (CoSIDA) and ESPN the Magazine selected their Academic All-Americans from throughout college basketball. CoSIDA has selected Academic All American teams since 1952. To be nominated, a student-athlete must be a starter or important reserve with at least a 3.30 cumulative grade point average (on a 4.0 scale) at his/her current institution. Nominated athletes must have participated in at least 50 percent of the team's games at the position listed on the nomination form (where applicable). No student-athlete is eligible until he has completed one full calendar year at his current institution and has reached sophomore athletic eligibility. In the cases of transfers, graduate students and two-year college graduates, the student-athlete must have completed one full calendar year at the nominating institution to be eligible. Nominees in graduate school must have a cumulative GPA of 3.30 or better both as an undergrad and in grad school. Michigan's Zack Novak was a District 4 first-team 2009 Academic All-District Men's Basketball Team selection and Purdue's E'Twaun Moore was a District 5 selection, making them 2 of the 40 finalists for the 15-man Academic All-American team. On February 22, Moore was selected as a second-team Academic All-American. #### Big Ten Distinguished Scholar Award Purdue's senior economics major Mark Wohlford was the conference's only men's basketball distinguished scholar by achieving the minimum grade-point average (GPA) of 3.7 or higher. ### All-American Sporting News'' selected Evan Turner as a first-team All-American and Trevon Hughes as a fifth-team All-American. Turner was also a first team selection by Associated Press (AP), Fox Sports, United States Basketball Writers Association, National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC) and Yahoo! Sports. Yahoo! recognized E'Twaun Moore as a third-team selection and both Trevon Hughes and Kalin Lucas as honorable mentions. Fox recognized Robbie Hummel as a third-team selection, while the NABC recognized him as a second team selection. The AP recognized Moore, Hummel and Lucas as honorable mentions. As top 10 finalists for the Lowe's Senior CLASS Award, Chris Kramer (1st team) and Raymar Morgan (2nd team) were regarded as Senior All-Americans. ## Postseason ### Big Ten tournament Evan Turner of the champion Buckeyes was named Tournament Most Outstanding Player. He was joined on the All-Tournament team by Ohio State teammates William Buford and David Lighty, former high school teammate Demetri McCamey of Illinois and Devoe Joseph of Minnesota. Turner led Ohio State with late game heroics in the first two games and a championship game record total number of points in the finals. ### NCAA tournament In the NCAA tournament, the Big Ten Conference earned 5 invitations. These teams combined for 9 wins, and three teams reached the sweet sixteen round and Michigan State reached the final four. ### National Invitation tournament The Big Ten earned two postseason National Invitation Tournament invitations. Its teams combined for 2 wins and 2 losses, with Illinois earning both wins. ### Other tournaments The Big Ten did not have any entrants in the other post season tournaments. ### 2010 NBA draft Turner was the only Big Ten player selected in the 2010 Draft. The following All-Big Ten performers were listed as seniors: Trévon Hughes, Jason Bohannon, and DeShawn Sims. The following were All-Big Ten underclassmen, who declared early with the intent to hire agents: Evan Turner and Manny Harris. Neither withdrew his name from the draft-eligible list before the May 8 deadline. The following were All-Big Ten underclassmen who entered their name in the draft but who did not hire agents and opted to return to college: Talor Battle, Mike Davis, JaJuan Johnson, Demetri McCamey, and E'Twaun Moore. ## See also - 2009 Big Ten Conference football season

Nuts (soundtrack)

Nuts is the soundtrack album to the 1987 American film of the same name. It was released by Columbia Records on December 21, 1987, and features five instrumental compositions by American singer Barbra Streisand. Nuts is the singer's first release since her live album One Voice, earlier in 1987, and her first soundtrack since Yentl (1983). She insisted on creating the film's score after acquiring the movie through her production company, Barwood Films. The album contains four original songs written and produced by Streisand, in addition to "The Bar", which samples her collaboration with Richard Baskin titled "Here We Are at Last", originally included on her twenty-third studio album, Emotion (1984). Initial reviews for Nuts were negative, but Streisand claimed the criticism was on behalf of her role as a Renaissance woman, which she felt the world was not yet ready for. Modern reviews for the soundtrack were more positive. ## Background and songs The American drama film Nuts was released by Warner Bros. Pictures on November 20, 1987, to theaters in the United States. Its accompanying soundtrack was released as an LP, cassette, and CD on December 21 of the same year through Columbia Records. Nuts was Streisand's first physical release since her third live album, One Voice, earlier in 1987, and her first soundtrack since Yentl (1983). The singer's production company, Barwood Films, acquired the production rights to Nuts in 1987, which enabled her to personally choose the film's score. At this same time, an outside writer had been commissioned to create music for Nuts, but Streisand refused and decided to compose the film's score by herself instead. The soundtrack was recorded at Lorimar Studios in Culver City, California and serves as the singer's "first attempt at film-music composition". Nuts contains five instrumental compositions written and produced by Streisand, with the exception of "The Bar", which includes additional writing from Richard Baskin. All of the songs were recorded throughout 1987, excluding "The Bar", which was initially recorded in June 1984. Dan Wallin and Bob Fernandez served as recording engineers to the soundtrack, whereas Jeremy Lubbock arranged and conducted the score's four original compositions and Randy Waldman solely arranged and played on "The Bar". "The End Credits", the album's closing track, was featured on Streisand's fifth compilation album and first box set, Just for the Record..., in 1991. The version that appears on the record is titled "Theme" and is paired alongside Baskin's instrumental version of "The Bar", which contains an instrumental sample of Streisand's song "Here We Are at Last", taken from her twenty-third studio album, Emotion (1984). ## Reception Initial reviews for the film's soundtrack were mostly negative, with them targeting the singer's role as a composer. Acknowledging the album's poor reception, Streisand reacted: "I don't get angry. I get hurt. It's a strange phenomenon that our society is not ready for a Renaissance woman. It is only ready for a Renaissance man." Contemporary reviews leaned towards being more positive; due to its short length, author Allison J. Waldman described the soundtrack as a "minimalist score" and "mini-CD soundtrack" in her 2001 biographical book The Barbra Streisand Scrapbook. Although she considered the score to be "subtle and slight," she concluded: "to [Streisand's] credit, it was an effective complement to the movie." Tom Santopietro, author of The Importance of Being Barbra: The Brilliant, Tumultuous Career of Barbra Streisand, wrote that "Here We Are at Last" was originally meant for Nuts rather than Emotion and praised it, calling it the "only song [that] registers at all" with Streisand at this point in her career. ## Track listing All tracks produced by Streisand. On the cassette release of Nuts, "The Finale" and "The End Credits" are combined into one track, titled "The Finale / The End Credits", which has a duration of four minutes and 50 seconds. ## Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the original version of Nuts. Recording - Recorded and mastered at Lorimar Studios in Culver City, California Personnel - Barbra Streisand – writer, music - Richard Baskin – writer (track 2) - Bob Fernandez – recording engineer - Jeremy Lubbock – arranger, conductor - Randy Waldman – arranger, player (track 2) - Dan Wallin – recording engineer

Schwa (restaurant)

Restaurant in Chicago, Illinois, USA

Schwa is an upscale restaurant run by chef-owner Michael Carlson and chef de cuisine Papi Chulo. It is located on Ashland Avenue in Wicker Park, Chicago, and is known for its unconventional approach to foodservice. Simple table settings match the building's drab exterior and its tiny 26-seat interior. The restaurant employs no support staff of any kind. Chefs interact directly with customers and are encouraged to act as silly as they wish, as long as they produce top quality food. Opening in 2005, Schwa quickly drew local and national attention resulting in a large backlog of reservations. In 2007, Schwa was chosen to host the opening night of Charlie Trotter's 20th anniversary celebration. The evening was considered a success, but placed a great deal of stress on Carlson, causing him to close Schwa the following day for a four-month hiatus. Schwa's menu is known for unusual ingredients and innovative food combinations, such as Carlson's version of pad Thai made with jellyfish tentacles instead of noodles. The quail egg ravioli is considered the restaurant's signature dish. Schwa has received positive reviews from both local and national critics. It has received three star to three-and-a-half star ratings from the Chicago Tribune, Chicago magazine, and the Mobil Travel Guide. BlackBook Magazine says Schwa features "some of the best food you will ever consume", while famed chef Grant Achatz lists it among his personal favorite places to eat. Several critics have stated that below-average service prevents the restaurant from getting a higher rating. Schwa made Citysearch's Top 10 New Restaurants of 2006 and New York magazine's Grub Street blog ranked it among the five hardest reservations to score in the country. In 2009, Schwa made Frommer's international list of 500 exceptional restaurants. ## Description Schwa is a tiny, 825 square feet (76.6 m²) restaurant located in the Wicker Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. Seating 26, it features what chef Michael Carlson describes as a "pared-down" approach to food and has been described as being on the forefront of a new "molecular gastronomy" style of cooking. The menu is short and constantly changing. Writing for the Chicago Sun Times, Allecia Vemillion calls dinner at Schwa "a window into Carlson's own brain – laser-focused on food with little time for anything else." Unlike typical upscale restaurants, Schwa does not have a wine list, a liquor license, or even stemware. The pared-down approach can also be seen in the way the business is run. Carlson maintains a staff of only four people to run his restaurant – himself and three other chefs. Schwa has no receptionist, waiters, or other support staff. Schwa's chefs do every job in the restaurant ranging from taking orders to busing tables. Tables are small, simple, and have none of the usual restaurant amenities – no flowers, candles, salt, or pepper. The decor is minimalist, and the kitchen is viewable by patrons in the dining room. Even the building itself is minimalistic. One observer described it as "so understated that [it] is easy to miss even when one is looking for it", while another said "pass by and you might think it's the home of a batty husband and wife who rarely go outside". The building has a dirty awning and cheap blinds that give the impression the business is closed for remodeling. Schwa is surrounded by dingy buildings and a tire store featuring plastic palm trees. In line with its minimalistic tendencies, Schwa serves a maximum of 32 customers a night (often leaving the dining room half empty), with staggered seating so that only one table is ordering at any time. Arriving guests are typically greeted with Carlson's trademark salutation: "How you cats doing tonight?" He enjoys casual interaction with his customers, such as calling his dishes "awesome" and "badass". Instead of the soft background music typical of an upscale restaurant, guests are treated to loud hip-hop or heavy metal music. One customer called Schwa "a nice change from all the corporate restaurants". One complaint many customers have with Schwa is that it is exceedingly difficult to get a reservation. GQ magazine describes a typical customer as having spent weeks trying to get past the always full answering machine that serves as Schwa's primary reservation system. The restaurant attracts an estimated 60 requests for its 26 seats each day, and is notoriously slow at returning phone calls. One couple got so frustrated with the system that they drove down to the restaurant to make a reservation in person. Upon arrival, they were told they had to call it in. Despite their frustration, the couple kept trying and when they finally got in they remarked, "You know what? It was worth it." According to Carlson, most customers' first comment when they arrive at Schwa is either to complain about how difficult it was to get a reservation or to ask for another one. Schwa will not seat customers without a reservation, even if the restaurant is empty. The work environment at Schwa is also relaxed. Carlson allows his employees to act goofy and talk however they like, as long as they produce high-quality food. There is no dress code; one reporter remarked that the staff looked like a bunch of ecoterrorists. Carlson and his all-male staff work long hours (16- to 18-hour workdays) for below-average pay. The casual environment at Schwa attracts a diverse clientele, including many local chefs. Carlson says he does not care about etiquette or attire, but will not tolerate rudeness. "If anybody acts as though they expect to be catered to, they're in the wrong place," he says. Carlson adds that he is not afraid to tell a customer off if they deserve it. One reporter observed that Schwa couldn't possibly "do less to preselect customers or filter out undesirable ones." Schwa does not cater to families, offering no highchairs and few tables capable of seating more than two people. According to Carlson, Schwa struggles to break even in most weeks. Salaries at Schwa are modest, but food costs make up an astronomical 60% of the take-in. Carlson has said he would rather cook and run his restaurant the way he wants than make money, and has rejected buyout offers and calls for expansion. ## History In the fall of 2005, chef Michael Carlson was approached by an old friend who owned a small restaurant named Lovitt. The friend was moving out of state and offered to sell Carlson his location and equipment for a bargain price. With financial support from his father, Carlson took over Lovitt and renamed the restaurant after the neutral, unstressed vowel schwa (), a name he says reflects his "pared-down" approach to food. Schwa opened September 10, 2005, with Carlson promising unstressed food and a laid back attitude. Initially, the restaurant was staffed only by Carlson and his sous chef Nathan Klingbail. Carlson said his aim with Schwa was to "push the culinary envelope," while using seasonal, organic ingredients. The Chicago Tribune noted Schwa's initial menu did just that, featuring "a soft-boiled organic egg coated in brioche, served with potato puree and Illinois sturgeon caviar". Within weeks, the restaurant had garnered a strong buzz among local foodies. National press attention quickly followed, including Carlson receiving "Best New Chef" honors from Food & Wine magazine, as Schwa earned a reputation for great food and an innovative chef-customer relationship. By early 2007, Schwa was receiving 100 calls a day and had a three-month-long waiting list for reservations. One food critic attributed Schwa's early attention to its unusual combination of "culinary alchemy" and "straightforward Italian cuisine". Another observer said Schwa was "all about casual sophistication". A Metromix review called the restaurant "Alinea's punk-rock little brother." On October 5, 2007, Carlson hosted a gathering of world-famous chefs at Schwa as part of Charlie Trotter's 20th anniversary celebration. The evening was a success, but the next morning Carlson abruptly closed Schwa "indefinitely" and left town. He later said that he had burned out from working too hard – 18-hour days were not uncommon – and needed a break and explained that he and his crew had been "talking about closing for weeks, but [knew they] just had to do [the Trotter] dinner" first. Additionally, Schwa was low on cash and struggling to keep the bills paid. After Schwa closed, about ten different Chicago restaurant owners offered to help Carlson get back on his feet. Carlson declined their help, but reopened Schwa four months later in mid-February 2008, thanks in part to a cash infusion from his father. He hired an additional chef, allowing him to focus more of his attention on the dining room. The menu was redone, with only the three most popular dishes – the quail egg ravioli, the jellyfish pad Thai, and the "pine cone" dessert – returning. The decor was also tweaked. Customers with old, unfulfilled reservations were given the opportunity to try the new Schwa before new reservations were accepted. Schwa's buzz, and customers, quickly returned. By May 2008, it was routine for the restaurant's voice mail to reach capacity because of the large number of people trying to get reservations (and the restaurant's lack of a receptionist). Shortly after its relaunch, one food critic described Schwa as even better than before, saying it was an "Oscar-worthy redemption story." Later in 2008, Michelle Obama ate at the restaurant. Carlson joked that it was good thing that Barack did not join her: "I don't think the twenty extra Secret Service agents needed would have fit". ## Menu Schwa offers a three-course dinner for \$55 and an eight- to ten-course "degustation" (taster) menu for \$110. The latter option could be described as "chef's choice" – on any given night, Carlson prepares courses of his choosing which make up the degustation menu for that evening. Add-ons are also available. Approximately 85% of customers prefer the nine-course option, as it is officially called. Portions at Schwa are said to be "small and intentionally artful." Dishes available change frequently, as Carlson becomes bored and moves on to something new. "If he's bored with something, no matter how many people love it and demand it, he's done with it," notes his girlfriend. The menu at Schwa is hard to classify. Schwa chef Jonathan Ory describes it as "modern American", but sous-chef Gaetano Nardulli disagrees: "I don't think it's contemporary American, not at all." Food critic Alan Richman describes it as "one of a kind... earnest, innocent, irresistible, and imaginative". The menu is famous for using sophisticated ingredients to create, as one critic put it, "poetic courses". Surprising ingredients such as jellyfish, roe, tongue, and offal are found in a large number of dishes, as are unusual combinations such as oysters and oatmeal. No portion of the meal is spared from experimentation; tomato sorbet finds its way into the salad, while the consommé soup features melon pieces. Despite the large number of unusual dishes, Schwa is perhaps best known for Carlson's simple, modern interpretation of Italian classics. Among the most popular dishes is the quail egg ravioli, which has been on the menu since day one. Considered the restaurant's signature dish, it consists of a single ravioli stuffed with quail egg yolk and laced with truffle butter. Schwa is known for emphasizing locally grown produce, and many dishes feature organic ingredients. However, The Local Beet (a website that promotes eating locally grown food) questioned Schwa's commitment to the principle, noting the use of out-of-season strawberries and peas. Most dishes are served with purées. Also among Schwa's best known dishes is the sweetbread dessert. Combining caramelized sweetbreads with vanilla bean–parsnip custard, the dish has been described as "unequivocally adored". Other notable dishes include pad Thai made with jellyfish instead of noodles, antelope meat dusted with curry powder and coated with white chocolate pudding, "pine cones" (sea urchin ice cream served in pine-flavored cones), and something Carlson calls "onion glue". Innovative drinks, such as beet juice flavored with bacon, are also available. However, Schwa does not serve bread or wine. Customers wishing wine are required to bring their own, although Carlson will offer suggestions of what to bring upon request. ## Reputation Schwa has received positive reviews from the Chicago Sun-Times, Chicago Tribune, Frommer's, and GQ, among others. In 2006, Phil Vettel of the Chicago Tribune described the food as four-star quality, while giving the restaurant an overall rating of three stars (out of four) because of below-average service. Vettel added that nearly every item on the menu is "wonderful". Vettel returned to Schwa after the 2008 relaunch and concluded "Schwa is at least as good as it was in its early days, and probably better". He credited Carlson's increased focus on the dining room for the improvement, and maintained Schwa's three-star rating. In the Daily Herald, Jennifer Olvera wrote that Schwa's original menu was "a culinary affair" and that seafood-lovers would leave Schwa "gushing". She described dishes as "refreshing and interesting," "visually stunning", and "[begging] to be savored", but was not completely satisfied. She found the portions to be small and pricey, and the service to be rather poor, bordering on rude. "They need to get past the pomp and focus on the issue at hand", she said. A Chicago magazine reviewer remarked that the cooking was "superbly inventive" and that Carlson wowed him with "tasty stunts ... [that] knock your socks off". Writing about Schwa's post-relaunch menu, Metromix dining producer Chris LaMorte writes, "It's [even] better now – dishes are more focused, yet still inventive. Presentation is better. Quality is more consistent. Chef-servers are (slightly) more approachable." LaMorte did find some fault during his visit, describing the china as "monotonous" and saying the chef-waiters "always dash off too quickly." Martha Bayne of Chicago Reader, also writing about the post-relaunch menu, agreed saying, "the food is better than ever." Bayne called the food "legendary", but did say the jellyfish pad Thai did not "quite live up to their promise". Her favorite dish of the night was the sweetbreads dessert, which she described as "salty, savory, sweet, and deliriously complex, it shoots for the moon and succeeds by confounding every expectation." Chicago magazine gives Schwa three-and-a-half stars (out of four), saying "count on OK service but brilliant food" and an experience that "defies the norm." Alan Richman of GQ writes "I did not taste one bite of food ... that was prepared imprecisely ... plates are filled with flavors out to the edge of the rim," while BlackBook Magazine claims Schwa features "some of the best food you will ever consume." Schwa is known as a "chef's restaurant" where local chefs eat on their days off. Paul Kahan remarks, "I think it's so cool that the chefs serve the food", while Carrie Nahabedian emphatically declares "Everyone loves Schwa." Grant Achatz lists Schwa as one of his three favorite places to eat in Chicago. Locally grown product enthusiast Rob Gardner described Schwa as "a fun restaurant" and a "tremendous value" despite the price. He was, however, disappointed in the restaurant's use of out-of-season produce. "What you will not get... [is] enough local food", he wrote, adding that the out-of-season "pea dish was the worst of the offerings." In 2009, Schwa made Frommer's international list of 500 exceptional restaurants. Frommer's author Holly Hughes described Schwa's dishes as "miniature works of art" and Carlson's cooking as "innovative". She continued, "Carlson's food just plain tastes good" and "sometimes rises to the level of sheer poetry." That same year, Mobil Travel Guide awarded Schwa three stars (out of five) calling the menu "remarkably innovative" and "knockout" good. The Mobil reviewer did, however, conclude that the food was "a little pricey". Schwa made Citysearch's "Top 10 New Restaurants" of 2006, placing fourth nationwide, and was named best new restaurant by Newcity. Also in 2006, Schwa was listed as one of Chicago's hottest eating spots by Nation's Restaurant News. In January 2010, Schwa's caramelized sweetbreads made Alan Richman's top five desserts of the year. In 2008, The New York Times profiled Schwa as one of a handful of restaurants employing an innovative chef-client relationship. The next year, New York magazine's Grub Street blog ranked Schwa among the country's five toughest reservations. ## See also - List of New American restaurants

See You in My Nightmares

"See You in My Nightmares" is a song by American rapper Kanye West, featuring fellow rapper Lil Wayne, from the former's fourth studio album, 808s & Heartbreak (2008). The song was written by West, No I.D., Jeff Bhasker and Lil Wayne. with production from the former two. It was scheduled to be released as the album's third single on March 10, 2009, ultimately being canceled in favor of "Amazing". A club number with an electronic beat, it relies on strings and synths. Lyrically, West and Lil Wayne discuss relationship troubles. The song received mixed reviews from music critics, who were generally split in their feelings of Lil Wayne's appearance. Critical commentary was mostly focused on the rapper's vocal style, while a few reviewers were negative towards his lyricism. In 2008, "See You in My Nightmares" charted at number 21 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 27 on the US Pop 100, alongside reaching number 22 on the Canadian Hot 100. The song has since been certified gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). West performed it in February 2009 for his second live album, VH1 Storytellers (2010). In the former year, a remix of the song was used for Spike Jonze's film We Were Once a Fairytale, which stars a drunken West in a club. The song was later covered by Vida Sophia in December 2015. ## Background and recording In July 2007, Lil Wayne brought out West during his first show at the Beacon Theatre in New York City. West released his third studio album Graduation two months later, which features a guest appearance from Lil Wayne on "Barry Bonds"; this marked the first collaboration between the two. In the lyrics of fellow album track "The Glory", West makes a reference to him. Lil Wayne released a remix of his hit single "Lollipop" in May 2008, featuring West. The former released his sixth studio album Tha Carter III the following month, and West contributed production to its tracks "Comfortable" and "Let the Beat Build". On both of the tracks, Lil Wayne shouts out West. Prior to "See You in My Nightmares", West and Lil Wayne had both frequently used Auto-Tune. After Kanye's mother Donda West died, his mentor No I.D. was contacted by American rapper Malik Yusef, who told him to spend time with the artist. No I.D. initially rejected the decision due to their differing personalities, but later started to communicate with Kanye West more after persuasion from Malik Yusef. West and No I.D. then travelled to Hawaii to work with rapper Jay-Z on his eleventh studio album The Blueprint 3 (2009), before West decided on transferring to working on 808s & Heartbreak in the state. The recording took place at Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu, Hawaii, and at Glenwood Studios in Burbank, California. The song was produced by West, while co-produced by No I.D. The producers wrote the song alongside Jeff Bhasker and Lil Wayne. It experienced a leak on November 12, 2008, being reported to have the title of "Tell Everybody That You Know" at the time. Manny Marroquin served the role of mix engineer for "See You in My Nightmares", with engineering assistance from Christian Plata and Erik Madrid, and an 11-piece orchestra was also used for the song that was conducted by Larry Gold. "See You in My Nightmares" was recorded during the three week period that West worked on the entirety of the album in 2008. Reflecting on the album for its 10th anniversary in 2018, recording engineer Anthony Kilhoffer recalled the heavy amount of effort that was put into the song's production. He elaborated, specifying that it was tweaked across different studios in a perfectionist manner while West was in Asia and Europe on the Glow in the Dark Tour (2007–2008). ## Composition and lyrics Musically, "See You in My Nightmares" is a club number, with an electronic beat. Going against the composition of the other tracks on 808s & Heartbreak, no drum sounds are featured. The song is reliant on strings and electric synths, the former of which were arranged by Gold. The strings were engineered by Jeff Chestek, with assistance from Rick Friedrich, Montez Roberts, and John Stahl. In the background, the song features a cello, violas, bass, and violins. Keyboards are also included in the composition, which were contributed by Bhasker. Throughout the song, West's voice is Auto-Tuned as he sings in an aggressive tone. Lil Wayne raps in Auto-Tune, with him contributing the hook and a verse. In the lyrics of the song, West and Lil Wayne touch on relationship troubles with their ex-lovers. On the hook, the latter raps about a break-up: "I got the right to put up a fight/ But not quite cause you cut off my light/ But my sight is better tonight/ And I might see you in my nightmare." West dismisses his ex-lover during his performance, asserting that he has rid his mind of her. At the start of Lil Wayne's verse, he shouts "Baby girl, I'm finished" in his signature snarl. ## Release and reception West's fourth studio album 808s & Heartbreak was released on November 24, 2008, including "See You in My Nightmares" as the tenth track. The song had been set for release to US rhythmic crossover and top 40 radio stations as the album's third single on March 10, 2009. Instead, "Amazing" was sent to US radio stations as the third single on the scheduled date. However, "See You in My Nightmares" received airplay during March 2009. The song was met with mixed reviews from music critics, with them mostly being ambivalent about Lil Wayne's feature. Adam Conner-Simons from musicOMH stated that "See You in My Nightmares" demonstrates where the album "crystallises a distinct musical moment", giving the song the title of a "mesmering" duet between West and the rapper. Conner-Simons further commented that due to "two of the rap game's most respected MCs dropping the macho facade", utilizing Auto-Tune and putting out "a passionate club-banger about relationship troubles", West "is effectively ushering in a bizarre new emo-rap subgenre". Writing for PopMatters, Dave Heaton remarked that West's choice to guest Lil Wayne on the song was smart, appreciating his "tough" voice as a perfect fit for "the milieu". In his Consumer Guide MSN Music column, Robert Christgau observed that even though the quality of the songs deters in the second half of 808s & Heartbreak, "they come rushing back with the Lil Wayne ditty". The Los Angeles Times contributor Ann Powers opined that Lil Wayne's feature is "all swagger, no tears". USA Today's Steve Jones recommended the song as one of the tracks to download from the album. Expressing a divided opinion of "See You in My Nightmares" in No Ripcord, Cara Nash analyzed that while the song "may prove more commercially viable" with Lil Wayne's appearance, his "thug like vocals" are disruptive of the album's "introspective flow". Brandon Perkins from Urb admitted that despite the addition of Lil Wayne's "supersized ego", the song turns out to be "surprisingly flat and forgettable", believing certain lyrics from the rapper stick out for their "cringe-worthy absurdity". In a negative review for Spin, Charles Aaron characterized the song as a "disjointed oddity" that Lil Wayne raps foolish lyrics on in his typical Auto-Tuned style. Aaron continued, affirming that the combination of his rapping and "chintzy synth-strings sweep[ing] by" makes it "time to scan for an exit" from the album. James Reed of The Boston Globe complained about Lil Wayne's talent being "squandered on 'See You in My Nightmares'". Offering a similar viewpoint, Slant Magazine's Wilson McBee said the rapper's feature is representative of "the worst of his recent Auto-Tuned, soft-rock indulgences". Reviewing 808s & Heartbreak for Pitchfork, Scott Plagenhoef selected the song as one of its low points. ## Commercial performance Upon the release of 808s & Heartbreak, "See You in My Nightmares" debuted and peaked at number 21 on the US Billboard Hot 100, standing as the week's highest entry. The song spent four weeks on the Hot 100 in total. In the same week as its debut on the chart, the song entered the US Billboard Pop 100 at number 27, becoming the highest entry on another chart for the United States. "See You in My Nightmares" was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for amassing 500,000 certified units in the US on September 23, 2020. Elsewhere, the song entered two charts following the album's release. It opened at number 22 on the Canadian Hot 100, standing as the highest entry of the week. The song lasted for one week on the chart. In the United Kingdom, the song reached number 111 on the UK Singles Chart. ## Live performances In February 2009, West delivered a performance of the song as the opening number for his second live album VH1 Storytellers (2010). Prior to performing, West expressed disappointment in how most hip hop artists do not grow musically, differing from him. He segued from the performance into one of fellow 808s & Heartbreak track "RoboCop". West delivered a performance of the former for his headlining set at the 2009 Wireless Festival in Hyde Park, London, during which he rocked his customary aviator shades and black suit jacket. He was on a raised section of the stage for the performance, being surrounded by four topless dancers that wore tiaras and body paint. For West's two night concert of 808s & Heartbreak in full at the Hollywood Bowl in September 2015, he performed "See You in My Nightmares" solo as the set's 10th track. This stood as West's first performance of the track since July 2009, and he wore loose garments in white and off-white shades while performing. West was backed by a small band and a medium-sized orchestra, while the lights were off and the stage was covered in a bright blood red color. In the middle of the track, West requested to be accompanied by a piano after shouting: "Stop the track ... stop the track." He approached his band for a comment, before walking over to his string section to turn a page on the conductor's sheet music. West acknowledged the issues, jokingly characterizing the show as a dress rehearsal. ## Appearances in media American filmmaker Spike Jonze had talks in private with West about reuniting with him on a music video for "See You in My Nightmares" in February 2009, after they had previously collaborated on the video for the latter's "Flashing Lights" in 2007. During the week of March 23, 2009, news began to circulate publicly that West and Spike Jonze were working together on the former's music video. The following week, the latter's production partner Vincent Landay told MTV News that he and West had "teamed up again, but this time, it's for a short film". Landay continued, clarifying that the film was shot for fun and is "not necessarily [a video for 'Nightmares'], but the song is featured in it", while revealing that editing was ongoing at the time. West and Spike Jonze themselves had agreed on expanding the video into the short film We Were Once a Fairytale, which was directed by the latter and premiered at the 2009 Los Angeles Film Festival on June 24. The film takes its title from the song's lyrics, though does not star Lil Wayne. During a scene of the film that features a remix of "See You in My Nightmares" playing in the background through the speakers in a club, West portrays a drunken version of his public persona as he stumbles around. West becomes aggressive and desperate while his disruptive antics gather stares from surprised attendees, before he gropes some of them and shouts: "Do you like my song? This is my song!" West collaborator "The World Famous" Tony Williams released his single "Nightmares" on February 24, 2010, which is a rendition of "See You in My Nightmares" that features Cello Tha Black Pearl and Tada. The rendition was shared by West on his blog. On December 14, 2015, Vida Sophia of Danish dream pop project Bye Barat posted her cover version of the song to SoundCloud. The cover's production has psychedelic elements and heavily features reverberation, while Vida Sophia sings in a soft, calm voice. ## Credits and personnel Information taken from 808s & Heartbreak liner notes. Recording - Recorded at Glenwood Studios (Burbank, California) and Avex Recording Studio (Honolulu, Hawaii) Personnel - Kanye West – songwriter, producer - No I.D. – songwriter, co-producer - Jeff Bhasker – songwriter, keyboards - Dwayne Carter – songwriter - Andrew Dawson – recorder - Anthony Kilhoffer – recorder - Chad Carlisle – assistant recorder - Isha Erskine – assistant recorder - Gaylord Holomalia – assistant recorder - Christian Mochizuki – assistant recorder - Manny Marroquin – mix engineer - Christian Plata – assistant engineer - Erik Madrid – assistant engineer - Jeff Chestek – string engineer - Rick Friedrich – assistant string engineer - Montez Roberts – assistant string engineer - John Stahl – assistant string engineer Additional musicians - Larry Gold – string arrangement and conducting - Olga Konopelsky – violin - Emma Kummrow – violin - Luigi Mazzochi – violin - Charles Parker – violin - Igor Szwec – violin - Gregory Teperman – violin - Davis Barnett – viola - Alexandra Leem – viola - James J. Cooper, III – cello - Jennie Lorenzo – cello - Miles Davis – bass ## Charts ## Certifications

Fund accounting

An accounting system used for special reporting requirements

Fund accounting is an accounting system for recording resources whose use has been limited by the donor, grant authority, governing agency, or other individuals or organisations or by law. It emphasizes accountability rather than profitability, and is used by Nonprofit organizations and by governments. In this method, a fund consists of a self-balancing set of accounts and each are reported as either unrestricted, temporarily restricted or permanently restricted based on the provider-imposed restrictions. The label fund accounting has also been applied to investment accounting, portfolio accounting or securities accounting – all synonyms describing the process of accounting for a portfolio of investments such as securities, commodities and/or real estate held in an investment fund such as a mutual fund or hedge fund. Investment accounting, however, is a different system, unrelated to government and nonprofit fund accounting. ## Overview Nonprofit organizations and government agencies have special requirements to show, in financial statements and reports, how money is spent, rather than how much profit was earned. Unlike profit oriented businesses, which use a single set of self-balancing accounts (or general ledger), nonprofits can have more than one general ledger (or fund), depending on their financial reporting requirements. An accountant for such an entity must be able to produce reports detailing the expenditures and revenues for each of the organization's individual funds, and reports that summarize the organization's financial activities across all of its funds. Fund accounting distinguishes between two primary classes of fund.: those funds that have an unrestricted use, that can be spent for any purposes by the organization, and those that have a restricted use. The reason for the restriction can be for a number of different reasons. Examples include legal requirements, where the moneys can only be lawfully used for a specific purpose, or a restriction imposed by the donor or provider. These donor/provider restrictions are usually communicated in writing and may be found in the terms of an agreement, government grant, will or gift. When using the fund accounting method, an organization is able to therefore separate the financial resources between those immediately available for ongoing operations and those intended for a donor specified reason. This also provides an audit trail that all moneys have been spent for their intended purpose and thereby released from the restriction. An example may be a local school system in the United States. It receives a grant from its state government to support a new special education initiative, another grant from the federal government for a school lunch program, and an annuity to award teachers working on research projects. At periodic intervals, the school system needs to generate a report to the state about the special education program, a report to a federal agency about the school lunch program, and a report to another authority about the research program. Each of these programs has its own unique reporting requirements, so the school system needs a method to separately identify the related revenues and expenditures. This is done by establishing separate funds, each with its own chart of accounts. ## Nonprofit organizations Nonprofit organization's finances are broken into two primary categories, unrestricted and restricted funds. The number of funds in each category can change over time and are determined by the restrictions and reporting requirements by donors, board, or fund providers. Unrestricted funds are, as their name suggests, unrestricted and therefore organizations don't necessarily need more than a single General Fund, however many larger organizations use several to help them account for the unrestricted resources. Unrestricted funds may include: - General fund – This is the minimum fund needed for unrestricted resources and relates to current as well as non-current assets and related liabilities which can be used at the discretion of the organisation's governing board. - Designated fund – assets which have been assigned to a specific purpose by the organisation's governing board but are still unrestricted as the board can cancel the desired use. - Trading funds – Many large non-profit organisations now have shops and other outlets where they raise funds from selling goods and services. The profits from these are then used for the purpose of the organisations. - Plant (Land, building and equipment) fund – Some organizations hold their non-current assets and related liabilities in a separate fund from the current assets. - Current fund – unrestricted – If the organization holds his non-current assets in a plant fund then this is used to account for current assets that can be used at the discretion of the organization's governing board. Restricted funds may include: - Endowment funds – permanent are used to account for the principal amount of gifts or grants the organization is required, by agreement with the donor, to maintain intact in perpetuity or until a specific future date/event or has been used for the purpose for which it was given. - Endowment funds – temporary are similar to permanent endowment funds except that at a future time or after a specified future event the endowment become available for unrestricted or purpose-restricted use by the organization - Annuity and Life-Income Funds are resources provided by donors where the organization has a beneficial interest but is not the sole beneficiary. These may include charitable gift annuities or life income funds. - Agency or Custodian funds are held to account for resources before they are disbursed according to the donor's instructions. The organisation has little or no discretion over the use of these resources and always equal liabilities in agency accounts. - Current funds – restricted are current assets subject to restrictions assigned by donors or grantors. ### Accounting basis and financial reporting Like profit-making organizations, nonprofits and governments will produce Consolidated Financial Statements. These are generated in line with the reporting requirements in the country they are based or if they are large enough they may produce them under International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), an example of this is the UK based charity Oxfam. If the organization is small it may use a cash basis accounting, but larger ones generally use accrual basis accounting for their funds. Nonprofit organizations in the United States have prepared their financial statements using Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) guidance since 1993. The financial reporting standards are primarily contained in FAS117 and FIN43. FASB issued a major update in 2016 that changed reporting net assets from three primary categories to two categories, restricted and unrestricted funds and how these are represented on financial statements. Nonprofit and governments use the same four standard financial statements as profit-making organizations: - Statement of financial activities or statement of support, revenue and expenses. This statement resembles the income statement of a business, but may use terms like excess or deficit rather than profit or loss. It shows the net results, by each fund, of the organization's activities during the fiscal year reported. The excess or deficit is shown as a change in fund balances, similar to an increase or decrease in owner's equity. - Statement of financial position or balance sheet. Similar to the balance sheet of a business, this statement lists the value of assets held and debts owed by the organization at the end of the reporting period. - Statement of changes in equity – just as for profit-making organizations, this shows the change in the organization equity over the year. Under IFRS the nonprofit organization can choose if it wants to produce this statement or not; some do, and some don't. - Statement of cash flows identifies the sources of cash flowing into the organization and the uses of cash flowing out during the reported fiscal year. In the United States there may also be a separate Statement of functional expenses which distributes each expense of the organization into amounts related to the organization's various functions. These functions are segregated into two broad categories: program services and supporting services. Program services are the mission-related activities performed by the organization. Non-program supporting services include the costs of fund-raising events, management and general administration. This is a required section of the Form 990 that is an annual informational return required by the Internal Revenue Service for nonprofit organizations. ## United Kingdom governmental system The United Kingdom government has the following funds: - Consolidated Fund is the fund where all date-to-day revenues and expenses of the government are accounted. Each of the devolved government also have a consolidated fund. - Trading fund is a government organisation which has been established as such by means of a trading fund order. - The National Loans Fund is the government's main borrowing and lending account. it is closely linked to the consolidated fund, which is balanced daily by means of a transfer to, or from, the national loans fund. - The Exchange Equalisation Account is the government fund holding the UK's reserves of foreign currencies, gold, and special drawing rights. It can be used to manage the value of the pound sterling on international markets. - National Insurance Funds are accounts which holds the contributions of the National Insurance Scheme. - The Contingencies Fund is an account which may be used for urgent expenditure in anticipation that the money will be approved by Parliament, or for small payments that were not included in the year's budget estimates. ### Accounting basis and financial reporting The United Kingdom government produces the financial statements called the Whole of Government Accounts. They are produced using the annual basis and generated under the International Financial Reporting Standards like any other large organisation. ## United States governmental system ### State and local government funds State and local governments use three broad categories of funds: governmental funds, proprietary funds and fiduciary funds. Governmental funds include the following. - General fund. This fund is used to account for general operations and activities not requiring the use of other funds. - Special revenue (or special) funds are required to account for the use of revenue earmarked by law for a particular purpose. An example would be a special revenue fund to record state and federal fuel tax revenues, since by federal and state law the tax revenue can only be spent on transportation uses. - Capital projects funds are used to account for the construction or acquisition of fixed assets, such as buildings, equipment and roads. Depending on its use, a fixed asset may instead be financed by a special revenue fund or a proprietary fund. A capital project fund exists only until completion of the project. Fixed assets acquired and long-term debts incurred by a capital project are assigned to the government's General Fixed Assets and Long-Term Debts. - Debt service funds are used to account for money that will be used to pay the interest and principal of long-term debts. Bonds used by a government to finance major construction projects, to be paid by tax levies over a period of years, require a debt service fund (sometimes titled as "interest and sinking fund") to account for their repayment. The debts of permanent and proprietary funds are serviced within those funds, rather than by a separate debt service fund. - Permanent funds should be used to report resources that are legally restricted to the extent that only earnings, and not principal, may be used for purposes that support the reporting government's programs—that is, for the benefit of the government or its citizenry. Proprietary funds include the following. - Internal service funds are used for operations serving other funds or departments within a government on a cost-reimbursement basis. A printing shop, which takes orders for booklets and forms from other offices and is reimbursed for the cost of each order, would be a suitable application for an internal service fund. - Enterprise funds are used for services provided to the public on a user charge basis, similar to the operation of a commercial enterprise. Water and sewage utilities are common examples of government enterprises. Fiduciary funds are used to account for assets held in trust by the government for the benefit of individuals or other entities. The employee pension fund, created by the State of Maryland to provide retirement benefits for its employees, is an example of a fiduciary fund. Financial statements may further distinguish fiduciary funds as either trust or agency funds; a trust fund generally exists for a longer period of time than an agency fund. #### Fixed assets and long-term debts State and local governments have two other groups of self-balancing accounts which are not considered funds: general fixed assets and general long-term debts. These assets and liabilities belong to the government entity as a whole, rather than any specific fund. Although general fixed assets would be part of government-wide financial statements (reporting the entity as a whole), they are not reported in governmental fund statements. Fixed assets and long-term liabilities assigned to a specific enterprise fund are referred to as fund fixed assets and fund long-term liabilities. #### Accounting basis The accrual basis of accounting used by most businesses requires revenue to be recognized when it is earned and expenses to be recognized when the related benefit is received. Revenues may actually be received during a later period, while expenses may be paid during an earlier or later period. (Cash basis accounting, used by some small businesses, recognizes revenue when received and expenses when paid.) Governmental funds, which are not concerned about profitability, usually rely on a modified accrual basis. This involves recognizing revenue when it becomes both available and measurable, rather than when it is earned. Expenditures, a term preferred over expenses for modified accrual accounting, are recognized when the related liability is incurred. Proprietary funds, used for business-like activities, usually operate on an accrual basis. Governmental accountants sometimes refer to the accrual basis as "full accrual" to distinguish it from modified accrual basis accounting. The accounting basis applied to fiduciary funds depends upon the needs of a specific fund. If the trust involves a business-like operation, accrual basis accounting would be appropriate to show the fund's profitability. Accrual basis is also appropriate for trust funds using interest and dividends from invested principle amounts to pay for supported programs, because the profitability of those investments would be important. #### Financial reporting State and local governments report the results of their annual operations in a comprehensive annual financial report (CAFR), the equivalent of a business's financial statements. A CAFR includes a single set of government-wide statements, for the government entity as a whole, and individual fund statements. The Governmental Accounting Standards Board establishes standards for CAFR preparation. Governments do not use the terms profit and loss to describe the net results of their operations. The difference between revenues and expenditures during a year is either a surplus or a deficit. Since making a profit is not the purpose of a government, a significant surplus generally means a choice between tax cuts or spending increases. A significant deficit will result in spending cuts or borrowing. Ideally, surpluses and deficits should be small. ### Federal government funds Federal government accounting uses two broad groups of funds: the federal funds group and the trust funds group. #### Federal funds group - General fund. Technically, there is just one general fund, under the control of the United States Treasury Department. However, each federal agency maintains its own self-balancing set of accounts. The general fund is used to account for receipts and payments that do not belong to another fund. - Special funds are similar to the special revenue funds used by state and local governments, earmarked for a specific purpose (other than business-like activities). - Revolving funds are similar to the Proprietary funds used by state and local governments for business-like activities. The term, revolving, means that it conducts a continuing cycle of activity. There are two types of revolving funds in the Federal Funds Group: public enterprise funds and intragovernmental revolving funds. - Public enterprise funds are similar to the enterprise funds used by state and local governments for business-like activities conducted primarily with the public. The Postal Service Fund is an example of a public enterprise fund. - Intragovernmental revolving funds are similar to the internal service funds used by state and local governments for business-like activities conducted within the federal government. #### Trust funds group - Trust funds are earmarked for specific programs and purposes in accordance with a statute that designates the fund as a trust. Its statutory designation distinguishes the fund as a trust rather than a special fund. The Highway Trust Fund is an example of trust funds. - Trust Revolving Funds are business-like activities, designated by statute as trust funds. They are, otherwise, identical to public enterprise revolving funds. - Deposit funds are similar to the agency funds used by state and local governments for assets belonging to individuals and other entities, held temporarily by the government. State income taxes withheld from a federal government employee's pay, not yet paid to the state, are an example of deposit funds. #### Accounting basis and financial reporting The United States government uses accrual basis accounting for all of its funds. Its consolidated annual financial report uses two indicators to measure financial health: unified budget deficit and net operating (cost)/revenue. The unified budget deficit, a cash-basis measurement, is the equivalent of a checkbook balance. This indicator does not consider long-term consequences, but has historically been the focus of budget reporting by the media. Except for the unified budget deficit, the federal government's financial statements rely on accrual basis accounting. Net operating (cost)/revenue, an accrual basis measurement, is calculated in the "Statements of Operations and Changes in Net Position" by comparing revenues with costs. The federal government's net operating (cost)/revenue is comparable with the net income/(loss) reported on an income statement by a business, or the surplus/(deficit) reported by state and local governments. ## Fund accounting fiscal cycle (fictitious example) The following is a simplified example of the fiscal cycle for the general fund of the City of Tuscany, a fictitious city government. ### Opening entries The fiscal cycle begins with the approval of a budget by the mayor and city council of the City of Tuscany. For Fiscal Year 2009, which began on July 1, 2008, the Mayor's Office estimated general fund revenues of \$35 million from property taxes, state grants, parking fines and other sources. The estimate was recorded in the fund's general ledger with a debit to estimated revenues and a credit to fund balance. An appropriation was approved by the city council, authorizing the city to spend \$34 million from the general fund. The appropriation was recorded in fund's general ledger with a debit to fund balance and a credit to appropriations. In subsidiary ledgers, the appropriation would be divided into smaller amounts authorized for various departments and programs, such as: The complexity of an appropriation depends upon the city council's preferences; real-world appropriations can list hundreds of line item amounts. An appropriation is the legal authority for spending given by the city council to the various agencies of the city government. In the example above, the city can spend as much as \$34 million, but smaller appropriation limits have also been established for individual programs and departments. ### Recording revenues During Fiscal Year 2009, the city assessed property owners a total of \$37 million for property taxes. However, the Mayor's Office expects \$1 million of this assessment to be difficult or impossible to collect. Revenues of \$36 million were recognized, because this portion of the assessment was available and measurable within the current period. ### Payroll expenditures The city spent a total of \$30 million on its employee payroll, including various taxes, benefits and employee withholding. A portion of the payroll taxes will be paid in the next fiscal period, but modified accrual accounting requires the expenditure to be recorded during the period the liability was incurred. ### Other expenditures The Public Works Department spent \$1 million on supplies and services for maintaining city streets. ### Closing entries At the end of the fiscal year, the actual revenues of \$36 million were compared with the estimate of \$35 million. The \$1 million difference was recorded as a credit to the fund balance. The city spent \$31 million of its \$34 million appropriation. A credit of \$3 million was applied to the fund balance for the unspent amount. When the current fiscal period ended, its appropriation expired. The balance remaining in the general fund at that time is considered unexpended. City government agencies are not allowed to spend the unexpended balance, even if their expenditures during the now-ended fiscal period were less than their share of the expired appropriation. A new appropriation is necessary to authorize spending in the next fiscal period. (Liabilities incurred at the end of the fiscal period for goods and services ordered, but not yet received, are usually considered expended, allowing payment at a later date under the current appropriation. Some jurisdictions, however, require the amounts to be included in the following period's budget.) Instead of re-applying the unspent balance from the general fund to the same programs, the city council may choose to spend the money on other programs. Alternatively, they may use the balance to cut taxes or pay off a long-term debt. With a large surplus, reducing the tax burden will usually be the preferred choice. ## See also - International Financial Reporting Standards - United States Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board - United States Governmental Accounting Standards Board - Permanent fund

Anyte

Hellenistic poet

Anyte of Tegea (Ancient Greek: Ἀνύτη) was a Hellenistic poet from Tegea in Arcadia. Little is known of her life, but twenty-four epigrams attributed to her are preserved in the Greek Anthology, and one is quoted by Julius Pollux; nineteen of these are generally accepted as authentic. She introduced rural themes to the genre, which became a standard theme in Hellenistic epigrams. She is one of the nine outstanding ancient women poets listed by Antipater of Thessalonica in the Palatine Anthology. Her pastoral poetry may have influenced Theocritus, and her works were adapted by several later poets, including Ovid. ## Life No reliable information about Anyte's life survives, and she can only be approximately dated by the style of her work. Based on this, and on possible imitations of her works in the second half of the third century BC, she is generally thought to have been active around 300 BC. According to Julius Pollux, writing in the second century AD, she was from Tegea in Arcadia. An alternative tradition, recorded in the Greek Anthology, claimed that Anyte was from Mytilene on Lesbos. Anyte's use of a Doric dialect, and mentions in her poem of Tegea and the Arcadian god Pan, suggest that a Tegean origin is more likely, though Pollux may have simply assumed this on the basis of Anyte's mention of Tegea. The story of a Lesbian origin was likely a later invention to link Anyte to Sappho. Only one story about Anyte's life is preserved. Pausanias claims that she was once visited by the god Asclepius while she was asleep, and told to go to Naupactus to visit a certain blind man there. On doing so, the man was cured, and he built a temple to Asclepius. Though little is known about Anyte's life, more of her poetry survives than any other ancient Greek woman, with the exception of Sappho. ## Poetry Twenty-five epigrams attributed to Anyte in antiquity survive, one quoted by Julius Pollux and the remainder in the Palatine or Planudean Anthology. Of these, nineteen are generally agreed to be by Anyte. Of the remaining six, four are attributed to both Anyte and another author in either the Palatine or Planudean Anthology, and two epigrams are attributed to Anyte by the Palatine Anthology, but are included without an author named in the Planudean. Of these six uncertain poems, two (AP 7.190 and 7.232) are considered possibly or probably by Anyte; the others are generally doubted. It is likely that Anyte compiled a book of her poetry from her epigrams – she may have been the first to do so. The Greek Anthology twice refers to her as "the lyric poet", and Pausanias mentions her epic poetry, but neither lyric nor epic poetry by Anyte survive. Anyte's poetry is composed in a mixed dialect, with elements of Doric and epic language, as well as some Atticisms; it was common for Hellenistic poets to deliberately mix dialects in this way. It is often interested in women and children, and Kathryn Gutzwiller argues that it was deliberately composed in opposition to traditional epigrams, which were by anonymous authors and from a masculine and urban perspective. Accordingly, of five epitaphs written by Anyte which survive, only one marks the death of a young man, as was traditional in the genre; the remaining four all commemorate women who died young. She is most famous for her epitaphs for animals and pastoral epigrams describing idyllic landscapes. Two dedicatory epigrams by Anyte also survive. Anyte's poetry was, like that of her contemporaries, highly allusive, particularly referencing Homer. She imitates the structure and syntax of Homer's poetry, making use of Homeric vocabulary to write about personal and domestic themes. For instance, Anyte's epigram 6, an epitaph dedicated to the unmarried Antibia, repeatedly echoes phrases from the Iliad and Odyssey. She also echoes Homer in her frequent use of compound adjectives, such as her description of the poikilodeiros ("with a neck of many colours") snake in epigram 10. Her work references Hesiod, archaic Greek lyric and Attic drama, and shows evidence that she was familiar with the epigrams of Simonides of Ceos and Anacreon. Several of her epigrams allude to the works of Erinna, a female poet of the early Hellenistic period. ## Reception Anyte's pastoral poems and epitaphs for pets were important innovations, with both genres becoming standards in Hellenistic poetry. Her pastoral works may have influenced Theocritus, and both Ovid and Marcus Argentarius wrote adaptations of her poems; the epigrammatist Mnasalces produced an epigram collection in imitation of Anyte. An epigram by Posidippus on the death of a young woman references one of Anyte's poems as well as Sappho and Erinna. Antipater of Thessalonica lists her in his canon of nine women poets. According to Tatian, statues of Anyte were sculpted by Cephisodotus and Euthycrates. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Anyte's poetry was highly thought of by the Imagist poets, with Richard Aldington describing her in his translation of Greek and Latin poetry as the "woman-Homer". Modern scholars have been more critical of Anyte's work, considering her subjects frivolous. However, Josephine Balmer describes her poetry as "stunning", and argues that it demonstrates both education and technical skill. H.D. adapted one of Anyte's epigrams in her poem "Hermes of the Ways"; she is one of the women included on Judy Chicago's Heritage Floor, and has a crater on Mercury named after her.

Solomon Islands at the 1988 Summer Olympics

Solomon Islands sent a delegation to compete at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea from 17 September to 2 October 1988. This was the island nation's second time participating in a Summer Olympic Games, following their debut four years earlier. Solomon Islands competed at these games in track and field, archery, boxing, and weightlifting, with one competitor in each category. Only Benjamin Fafale, the weightlifter, completed an event final, finishing 22nd in the middleweight category. ## Background The National Olympic Committee of Solomon Islands was recognised by the International Olympic Committee on 31 December 1982. Having joined Olympic competition at the 1984 Summer Olympics, these Seoul Games were their second appearance at an Olympics. Solomon Islands competed at these games in track and field, archery, boxing, and weightlifting, with one competitor in each category. A second boxer was entered, but did not compete. ## Competitors The following is the list of number of competitors in the Games. ## Archery In the nation's Olympic archery debut, Solomon Islands was represented by one archer. Derrick Tenai was 20 years old at the time of these Olympics, and was making his Olympic debut. In the ranking round of the men's individual event, only the top 24 archers would advance to the second round. Tenai scored 505 points, which put him in 84th and last place, meaning he was eliminated. ## Athletics John Maeke was 26 years old at the time of these Olympics, and was making his only Olympic appearance. On 23 September, he took part in the first round of the Men's 10,000 metres, being drawn into heat two. He finished the race in a time of 35 minutes and 16.93 seconds, which was 22nd in the heat. As only the top eight in each heat, plus the next four fastest overall could advance to the finals, Maeke was eliminated. On 2 October, he failed to finish the men's marathon ### Track events ### Road events ## Boxing Tommy Bauro was 23 years old at the time of the Seoul Olympics, and was making his only Olympic appearance. On 21 September, he lost in the first round of the light heavyweight competition to Sione Vaveni Talia'uli of Tonga, due to a knockout in the first round. Basil Maelagi was listed in the official report of the Games, but did not compete, giving his opponent, Reiner Gies, a walkover in the first round of the light welterweight class on 19 September. ## Weightlifting Benjamin Fafale was 20 years old at the time of the Seoul Olympics, and was making his only Olympic appearance. He participated in the men's middleweight event on 22 September. In his three attempts at the snatch, he first lifted 80 kilograms, then failed at 85 kilograms, before using his third attempt to succeed at the same weight, making his final mark for that portion 85 kilograms, putting him in 24th place. In the clean and jerk, he lifted 100 and 105 kilograms in his first and second attempts, respectively. In his third attempt, he failed at lifting 107.5 kilograms, making his final mark for this portion of the event 105 kilograms, putting him in 22nd place. Fafale's final score for the event was 190 kilograms, which put him in 22nd place overall; the gold medal was won by Borislav Gidikov of Bulgaria with a mark of 375 kilograms.

Bristol Rovers F.C.

Association football club in England

Bristol Rovers Football Club are a professional football club in Bristol, England. They compete in League One, the third tier of the English football league system. The club's official nickname is "The Pirates", reflecting the maritime history of Bristol. The local nickname of the club is "The Gas", derived from the gasworks next to their former home, Eastville Stadium. Since 1996, the club has played home matches at the Memorial Stadium in Horfield. The club spent 89 years in the heart of North Bristol between 1897 and 1986 at the Eastville Stadium. Following a sale of the land they spent ten years at Twerton Park in Bath. The club's nickname: "The Gas" originally began as a derogatory term used by fans of their main rivals, Bristol City, but was affectionately adopted by the club and its supporters. Cardiff City and Swindon Town are considered their second and third biggest rivals. Other rivalries include; Cheltenham Town, Exeter City, Forest Green Rovers, Plymouth Argyle, Torquay United and Yeovil Town. These rivalries are considered West Country Derbies and are often heated encounters. The women's team play in the Gloucestershire County Women's League. The club was founded in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. and entered the Bristol & District League as Eastville Rovers in 1892. The club moved to the Birmingham & District League in 1897, then changed divisions to the Southern League as Bristol Rovers in 1899. They won the Southern League in 1904–05 and were admitted to the Football League in 1920. They were placed in the Third Division South the following year and remained there until winning promotion as champions in 1952–53. They recorded their highest finishing positions in 1956 and 1959, a sixth-place finish in the Second Division, before suffering relegation in 1962. Promoted in second-place in 1973–74, they spent another seven seasons in the second tier until relegation in 1981. They won the Third Division title in 1989–90, though this time lasted just three seasons in the second tier and were relegated back into the fourth tier by 2001. Rovers won the League Two play-off final in 2007, but relegations in 2011 and 2014 saw the club drop into the Conference Premier. They finished second in the Conference under the stewardship of Darrell Clarke and immediately regained their Football League status with victory in the 2015 play-off final. They followed up this success by securing promotion out of League Two at the end of the 2015–16 season. They were relegated from the third tier in 2020–21 but returned at the first attempt. Rovers have won the Gloucestershire Cup 32 times, the Third Division South Cup in 1932, the Watney Cup in 1972, and have been Football League Trophy finalists two times. ## History ### Early years The club was formed following a meeting at the Eastville Restaurant in Bristol in September 1883. It was initially called Black Arabs F.C., after the Arabs rugby team and the predominantly black kits in which they played. This name only lasted for the 1883–84 season, and in a bid to draw more fans from the local area the club was renamed Eastville Rovers in 1884. The club played only friendly games until the 1887–88 season, when it took part in the Gloucestershire Cup for the first time. In 1892 the club became a founder member of the Bristol and District League, which three years later was renamed the Western League. In 1897 Eastville Rovers joined the Birmingham and District League, and for two seasons played in both this league and the Western League. At the beginning of the 1897–98 season, the club turned professional and changed its name to Bristol Eastville Rovers, and on 17 February 1899 the name was officially changed to Bristol Rovers. In 1899 Bristol Rovers joined the newly formed Southern League, where they remained until 1920, winning the league title along the way in 1905. ### Into the Football League For the 1920–21 season, the Southern League teams were moved into the new Division Three of the Football League, which became Division Three (South) the following season. They remained in this division for over 30 years, before winning the league, and promotion in the 1952–53 season. The team has won promotion on six other occasions: in 1973–74 from the Third Division to the Second Division, again in 1989–90 as Division Three champions, in 2006–07 to the Football League One, in 2014–15 to League Two from the Conference Premier, in 2015–16 to League One and then in 2021-22 to League One from League Two. The club has been relegated seven times—in 1961–62, 1980–81, 1992–93, 2000–01, 2010–11, 2013–14 and most recently at the end of the 2020-21 season. The highest position in the football ladder achieved by Rovers at the end of season is sixth place in the second tier, which they did twice; once in 1955–56, and again in 1958–59. The closest they came to the top flight was in 1955–56, when they ended the season just four points below the promotion positions. The lowest league position achieved by the club is twenty-third out of twenty-four teams in the fourth tier, which has occurred twice. In the 2001–02 season, relegation from the Football League was narrowly avoided on two counts; firstly they ended just one league position above the relegation zone, and secondly the rules were changed the following season to increase the number of relegation places to two, meaning that if Rovers had finished in that position one year later they would have been relegated. This position was matched at the end of the 2013–14 season, which this time saw Rovers relegated to the Conference for the first time. They returned to the league at the end of their first Conference season, with a penalty shootout victory over Grimsby Town in the play-off final. In February 2016 it was announced that a 92% stake in the club had been bought by the Jordanian al-Qadi family and that Wael al-Qadi, a member of the Jordan Football Association, would become the president. The club is now owned by Dwane Sports Ltd with 92.6% of the shares with Bristol Rovers Supporters Club owning the remaining 7.4%. In May 2016 the club recorded a second consecutive promotion in dramatic fashion finishing third in League Two after a 92nd-minute goal secured victory over Dagenham and Redbridge and Accrington Stanley failed to beat Stevenage on the last day of the season. It marked the first time Rovers had reached the third tier of English Football since relegation in 2011. In June 2020 it was announced that president Wael al-Qadi had obtained a 90% stake in Dwane Sports Ltd after buying the shares of other members of his family it was also announced that the club's debt would be capitalised and a new training facility would begin construction at Hortham Lane, Almondsbury which is close to the M5 motorway. Rovers have owned the site known as 'The Colony' since 2017 and in June 2020 the club announced that it would be ready for the start of the 2020–21 season. On 3 August 2023, Kuwaiti businessman Hussain AlSaeed bought a controlling 55% share in Dwane Sports, the holding company for the football club, thus becoming chairman. As part of the takeover, all debt owed to the company was capitalised. ## Cup competitions The only major cup competition won by Bristol Rovers is the 1972 Watney Cup, when they beat Sheffield United in the final. The club also won the Division Three (South) Cup in 1934–35, as well as winning or sharing the Gloucestershire Cup on 32 occasions. The team has never played in European competition; the closest Rovers came was when they missed out on reaching the international stage of the Anglo-Italian Cup in the 1992–93 season on a coin toss held over the phone with West Ham United. In the FA Cup, Rovers have reached the quarter-final stage on three occasions. The first time was in 1950–51 when they faced Newcastle United at St James' Park in front of a crowd of 62,787, the record for the highest attendance at any Bristol Rovers match. The second time they reached the quarter final was in 1957–58, when they lost to Fulham, and the most recent appearance at this stage of the competition was during the 2007–08 season, when they faced West Bromwich Albion. They were the first Division Three team to win an FA Cup tie away to a Premier League side, when in 2002 they beat Derby County 3–1 at Pride Park Stadium. They have twice reached the final of the Football League Trophy, in 1989–90 and 2006–07, but finished runners-up on both occasions. On the second occasion they did not allow a single goal against them in the competition en route to the final, but conceded the lead less than a minute after the final kicked off. ## Rivalries Bristol Rovers main rivals are city neighbours Bristol City, with whom they contest the Bristol derby. This rivalry was deemed 8th fiercest rivalry in English football in an in-depth report by the Football Pools in 2008. The most recent encounter between the clubs took place on 4 September 2013, which saw Rovers beaten by City in a Football League Trophy tie at Ashton Gate Stadium by a 2–1 scoreline. Other rivals are Newport County and mainly teams from the West Country, such as Swindon Town, Cheltenham Town, Yeovil Town and Forest Green Rovers. In the past, rivalries also emerged with Severnside rivals Cardiff City known as the Severnside derby. Rovers most recent meeting against Cardiff was a League Cup match on 11 August 2016, which Rovers won 1–0 with Chris Lines scoring the winner. The last time Cardiff and Bristol Rovers were in the same league was in the 1999–2000 season. The first time Rovers encountered Yeovil was a Football League Trophy match which was played on 31 October 2001, which Rovers won via a penalty shoot-out. The most recent encounter between the teams was in a Football League Two match on 16 April 2016, which Rovers won 2–1. Because of the close proximity many players have also represented both the clubs, for example Adam Virgo, Gavin Williams, Dominic Blizzard and Tom Parkes. Rovers last played Swindon Town in the 2021–22 League Two season (a 1–1 draw) Cheltenham Town in the 2022–23 League One season (Rovers won 2–1), and Cheltenham 1 Rovers 4 earlier in the season, completing a 22/23 double, and Forest Green Rovers in the 2022–23 League One season (a 2–1 home defeat). Other clubs in the West country such as Plymouth Argyle and Exeter City have also been considered rivals despite being further away from Bristol (162 km for Plymouth and 104 km for Exeter). Bristol Rovers last played Plymouth in the 2022–23 League One season where Rovers drew 2–2 at home and they last played Exeter at home in the 2022–23 season when they lost 4–3. ## Colours and badge Bristol Rovers are known for their distinctive blue and white quartered shirts, which they have worn for most of their history. The current home kit consists of a light blue and white quartered shirt and white shorts, while the away kit is black and gold with the same colours as the trim. During the 2008–09 season a special third strip, which is black with a gold sash, and is a reproduction of the original Black Arab shirt, was used for a single match to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club. The team began playing in black shirts with a yellow sash from their foundation in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. until 1885, by which time they were called Eastville Rovers. For the next fourteen years, until 1899, the team wore blue and white hooped shirts. These were replaced by black and white striped shirts until 1919. When Rovers were admitted to The Football League in 1920 they wore white shirts with blue shorts. These remained the team colours until 1930, when the colours were reversed to blue shirts and white shorts for one season. The blue and white quarters were first worn in 1931, when they were introduced to try to make the players look larger and more intimidating. Rovers continued to wear the quarters for 31 years until they were replaced by blue pinstripes on a white background. Over the next ten years, Rovers went on to wear blue and white stripes, all blue, and blue shirts with white shorts before returning to the blue and white quarters in 1973, which have remained the colours ever since. During the 1996–97 season, Rovers wore an unpopular striped quartered design, prompting fans to refer to it as the Tesco bag shirts because of their similarity to the design used for the company's carrier bags. The change in design prompted the Trumpton Times fanzine to change its name to Wot, No Quarters? The black and gold shirts were also used as the away kit for the 2002–03 season, the club's 120th anniversary. In 2005, Rovers ran an April Fools' joke on their official website, stating that the team's new away strip would be all pink. Although this was intended to be a joke, a number of fans petitioned the club to get the kit made for real, and also suggested that funds raised through the sale of the pink shirts should be donated to a breast cancer charity. Although the pink shirts were never used in a competitive fixture, they were worn for a pre-season friendly against Plymouth Argyle in 2006. A pirate features on both the club badge and the badge of the supporters club, reflecting the club nickname of The Pirates. Previous club badges have featured a blue and white quartered design, based on the quartered design of the team's jerseys. ### Kit suppliers and sponsors Rovers first used Bukta as an official kit supplier in 1977, and Great Mills as the first kit sponsor followed 1981. Rovers' longest running kit supplier is Errea who supplied the club kits for eleven years (2005–16). The club's longest running kit sponsorship was from local company Cowlin Construction who sponsored the club for 11 years before ending the deal in 2009. Following the end of the Cowlin deal, sponsors were chosen by raffle, via the 1883 Club. This process lasted nine seasons before the club announced Football INDEX as new sponsors for both home and away kits. In 2019 Utilita become the main shirt sponsors of both the home and away kits for the 2019-2020 season, the deal was then extended in July 2020 to cover the 2020-2021 season marking the first time a shirt sponsor had lasted for more than one season since the end of the Cowlin sponsorship in 2009. ## Stadium ### Grounds - Purdown – 1883–1884 - Three Acres – 1884–1891 - Schoolmasters Cricket Ground – 1891–1892 - Durdham Down – 1892–1894 - Ridgeway – 1894–1897 - Eastville Stadium – 1897–1986 - Twerton Park – 1986–1996 - The Memorial Stadium – 1996–present ### History Rovers play their home games at the Memorial Stadium in Horfield, a ground they formerly shared with Bristol Rugby. The team moved to The Mem, as it is known informally, at the beginning of the 1996–97 season, initially as tenants but purchased it two years later. When Bristol Rovers were known as Black Arabs F.C. in 1883, they played their home games at Purdown, Stapleton. The following year they moved to Three Acres, the precise location of which is not known, but is believed to have been in the Ashley Down area of Bristol, where they remained for seven years. This was followed by brief stays at the Schoolmasters Cricket Ground, Durdham Down and Ridgeway. For the majority of their history, Bristol Rovers have played their home games at the Eastville Stadium, where they remained for a period of 89 years from 1897 to 1986. Financial problems led to the team being forced to leave Eastville, now it is an IKEA Store. Bristol Rovers found a temporary home at Twerton Park, the home of Bath City. They stayed in Bath for 10 years, before returning to Bristol in 1996. Rovers also played five home games at Ashton Gate Stadium, home of rivals Bristol City, following a fire which destroyed the South Stand of the Eastville Stadium on the night of the 16–17 August 1980. Rovers returned to Eastville in October 1980. During World War II, some friendly matches were played in Kingswood, and in their early history some games were played at Parson Street, Bedminster In January 2007 planning permission was granted for a new 18,500 capacity all-seater stadium to be built on the site of the Memorial Stadium. The project was abandoned after a series of delays. In June 2011, the club announced its intention to relocate the club to a new 21,700 all-seater stadium on the University of the West of England's Frenchay campus. The planned UWE Stadium was shelved in August 2017 due to disputes between the club and the university, and attention returned to redeveloping the Memorial Stadium. In 2017 there was a crowd recording for the 2018 Aardman film Early Man at the Memorial Stadium. In June 2020 the club began construction of a new training facility at a site on Hortham Lane, Almondsbury near the M5 motorway. The site is set to include two full size pitches, a goalkeeping area, a gym and a clubhouse building. Having owned the land since 2017, no work had previously been carried out before the club moved into the training ground for the start in October 2020. On 6 April 2023, Conygar Investment Company exchanged contracts with the Wholesale Bristol Fruit Market for the land at St. Philips Marsh, with the football club seeing it was a 'move in the right direction' with regards to a new stadium having been involved in discussions for two-and-a-half years prior. ## Supporter culture The team traditionally draws the majority of its support from north and east Bristol and South Gloucestershire. Many towns and villages in the surrounding area are also home to significant pockets of Rovers supporters. The nickname given to Bristol Rovers supporters is "Gasheads". "The Gas" was originally coined as a derogatory term by the supporters of Bristol Rovers' rivals Bristol City, and was in reference to the large gas works adjacent to the old Bristol Rovers stadium, in Eastville, Bristol which wafted the sometimes overpowering odour of town gas across the crowd. "Gasheads" was adopted as a name by a splinter group of Rovers supporters in the mid-1980s to early 1990s. The chant "Proud to be a Gashead" spread to regular fans, and a fanzine was produced called The Gashead. The term "Gasheads" is now universally accepted within the English media and football fraternity as referring to Bristol Rovers supporters. After the club's relegation to the Third Division in 2001, the club designated the squad number 12 to the Gasheads to signify them as the club's 12th Man in recognition of their loyal support. The retired Conservative MP for Hayes and Harlington Terry Dicks was a Bristol Rovers fan. He mentioned the club in parliament on 5 May 1994 when debating with Labour MP and Chelsea fan Tony Banks. Other notable fans are local musicians Roni Size and Geoff Barrow of Portishead and writer David Goldblatt. Former Bristol Rovers player and manager, Ian Holloway, who also managed QPR and Blackpool as well as featuring as a pundit, is still a big fan of the club. Based on September 2014 statistics released by the Home Office, the Rovers fan base were named the Most Dangerous English Football fan base for the 2013-2014 season, with 57 arrests on the season, of which 35% were for "violent disorder." Particularly dangerous was the scene on 3 May 2014 when the Rovers were assured relegation from the Football League for the first time. The Rovers fans have good relations with Spanish club CE Sabadell FC, which initially began due to several Rovers fans noticing that the club had the same colours. In July 2016 the clubs played each other in a pre-season match in Spain. One Bristol Rovers print fanzine is currently active and is entitled Last Saturday Night. There is also a fan-run podcast and blog called GasCast. ### Club song The song which is synonymous with Rovers is "Goodnight, Irene", which was written by Lead Belly. Opinions differ as to how this came about but it is thought to have become popular in the 1950s when a version of the song was in the British charts—the line "sometimes I have a great notion to jump in the river and drown"—seemed to be particularly apt when Rovers lost as the Bristol Frome flows alongside the old Eastville ground. It is believed that John Clapham is responsible for the song as he used to work at Eastville stadium for the greyhound racing and the last record he would play at the end of the night was "Goodnight Irene" also having a daughter called Irene, the record would then be left in the player and was played at the football. Another theory is that it was sung at a fireworks display at the Stadium the night before a home game against Plymouth Argyle in the 1950s. During the game the following day, Rovers were winning quite comfortably and the few Argyle supporters present began to leave early prompting a chorus of "Goodnight Argyle" from the Rovers supporters—the tune stuck and "Irene" became the club song. Another popular Bristol Rovers song is "Tote End Boys", which was written and sung by Ben Gunstone. The name derives from the section of Gasheads who stood in the Tote End terrace at Rovers' old home, Eastville Stadium. ## Players ### Current squad #### Development squad and Under-18s #### Out on loan ### Notable former players #### Hall of fame The football club launched its official Hall of Fame in 2021 in partnership with Retro Rovers podcast with the purpose of recognising the players and managers who had had the greatest impact. It was announced that ten people would be inducted in the Hall at a rate of one per week in the first half of 2021, with three added per year thereafter. The first inductee was the club's all-time record goalscorer Geoff Bradford. #### Other notable players This is a list of the other most noted former players at Bristol Rovers Football Club (excluding those listed in the Hall of Fame above) stating the period that each player spent at the club, their nationality and their reason for being listed. To be included in this list a player must have made over 400 league appearances for the club, scored over 100 league goals or hold a club record. Note: all details from Byrne & Jay (2003) unless otherwise stated ## Club staff ### Club personnel As of 22 March 2023 ### Board of directors ### Managerial history 36 men have been appointed as a manager of Bristol Rovers Football Club, excluding caretaker managers. Bobby Gould, Gerry Francis and John Ward are the only men to have been given the job on a permanent basis twice, although Garry Thompson had a spell as caretaker manager before later being appointed permanently, and Phil Bater was caretaker manager on two occasions. - Alfred Homer 1899–1920 - Ben Hall 1920–21 - Andrew Wilson 1921–26 - Joe Palmer 1926–29 - David McLean 1929–30 - Albert Prince-Cox 1930–36 - Percy Smith 1936–37 - Brough Fletcher 1938–50 - Bert Tann 1950–68 - Fred Ford 1968–69 - Bill Dodgin Sr. 1969–72 - Don Megson 1972–77 - Bobby Campbell 1977–79 - Harold Jarman 1979–80 - Terry Cooper 1980–81 - Ron Gingell 1981 (caretaker) - Bobby Gould 1981–83 - David Williams 1983–85 - Bobby Gould 1985–87 - Gerry Francis 1987–91 - Martin Dobson - Dennis Rofe - Malcolm Allison 1992–93 - Steve Cross 1993 (caretaker) - John Ward 1993–96 - Ian Holloway 1996–2001 (player-manager 1996–99) - Garry Thompson 2001 (caretaker) - Gerry Francis 2001 - Garry Thompson 2001–02 - Phil Bater 2002 (caretaker) - Ray Graydon 2002–04 - Phil Bater 2004 (caretaker) - Russell Osman & Kevan Broadhurst 2004 (joint caretakers) - Ian Atkins 2004–05 - Paul Trollope 2005–10 - Darren Patterson 2010–11 (caretaker) - Dave Penney 2011 - Stuart Campbell 2011 (caretaker) - Paul Buckle 2011–12 - Shaun North 2012 (caretaker) - Mark McGhee 2012 - John Ward 2012–14 - Darrell Clarke 2014–18 - Graham Coughlan 2018–19 (caretaker) - Graham Coughlan 2019 - Joe Dunne 2019 (caretaker) - Kevin Maher 2019 (caretaker) - Ben Garner 2019–20 - Tommy Widdrington 2020 (caretaker) - Paul Tisdale 2020–21 - Tommy Widdrington 2021 (caretaker) - Joey Barton 2021– ## Youth Academy The Bristol Rovers Academy currently operates at The City Academy Bristol and Sir Bernard Lovell School. Current first-team squad members Luca Hoole and Jed Ward all graduated from the Academy to earn professional contracts. In May 2021, U16s player Kyrie Pierre joined Aston Villa for an undisclosed six-figure fee, a record fee received by the Academy for a player. Perhaps the most successful former member of the academy is Scott Sinclair, who was signed by Chelsea in 2005 for £200,000, with further payments to the club possible, depending on performance. In October 2022, he returned to Bristol Rovers following his release from Championship club Preston North End. Other former Academy players currently contracted to teams in the Premier League or English Football League include Ryan Broom (Fleetwood Town), Ollie Clarke (Mansfield Town, Ellis Harrison (Port Vale), Alfie Kilgour (Mansfield Town), Tom Lockyer (Luton Town) and Matt Macey (Portsmouth). ## Women's team The club had a successful women's team, formed in 1998 as Bristol Rovers W.F.C. following a merger with Cable-Tel L.F.C.. This merger came about as Bristol Rovers only had girls teams up to the under 16 age group level, so when girls reached the age of 16 they were forced to leave the club. The merger with Cable-Tel meant that Bristol Rovers had a senior squad. The club's name was changed to Bristol Academy W.F.C. in 2005 to reflect the increased investment from the Bristol Academy of Sport. In 2016, Bristol Academy were re-branded as Bristol City following a sponsorship arrangement with Rovers' local rivals. In 2019 it was announced that Rovers were to reform their women's team. They have fielded two teams in the Gloucestershire County Women's Football League since the 2019–20 season. The relaunched Bristol Rovers Women's FC was founded by Matthew Davies and Nathan Hallett-Young. The first team currently play in Division One with a development team playing in Division Two. ## Honours Bristol Rovers have won the following honours: League - Third Division South / Third Division (level 3) - Champions: 1952–53 (South), 1989–90 - Runners-up: 1973–74 - Promoted: 1969–70 - Fourth Division / League Two (level 4) - Promoted: 2015–16, 2021–22 - Play-off winners: 2007 - National League (level 5) - Play-off winners: 2015 - Southern League - Champions: 1904–05 Cup - Associate Members' Cup / Football League Trophy - Runners-up: 1989–90, 2006–07 - Third Division South Cup - Winners: 1935 Minor - Watney Cup - Winners: 1972 - Gloucestershire Cup - Winners (32): 1888–89, 1902–03, 1904–05, 1913–14, 1924–25, 1927–28, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1937–38, 1947–48, 1948–49, 1950–51, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1955–56, 1958–59, 1962–63, 1963–64, 1964–65, 1965–66, 1967–68, 1973–74, 1974–75, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1984–85, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1994–95 ## Records ### Scorelines - Biggest League Win: - 7–0 (v Brighton & Hove Albion, Division Three (South), 29 November 1952) - 7–0 (v Swansea City, Division Two, 2 October 1954) - 7–0 (v Shrewsbury Town, Division Three, 21 March 1964) - 7–0 (v Alfreton Town, Conference Premier, 25 April 2015) - 7–0 (v Scunthorpe United, League Two, 7 May 2022) - Biggest Cup Win: - Competition proper: - 6–0 (v Merthyr Tydfil, FA Cup round 1, 14 November 1987) - 6–0 (v Darlington, FA Cup round 2, 29 November 2020) - Qualifying: 15–1 (v Weymouth, FA Cup Third Qualifying Round, 17 November 1900) - Biggest League Defeat: 0–12 (v Luton Town, Division Three South, 13 April 1936) ### Players - Most League Appearances: 546 – Stuart Taylor, 1966–1980 - Most Goals for club: 242 – Geoff Bradford, 1949–1964 - Most Goals in a season: 33 – Geoff Bradford, 1952–53 - Highest Transfer Fee Paid: £375,000 – Andy Tillson from Queens Park Rangers, November 1992 - Highest Transfer Fee Received: £2,600,000 – Barry Hayles to Fulham, November 1998 ### Other - Record Home Attendance: 38,472 (v Preston North End, FA Cup, 30 January 1960 - Furthest Football League Trophy place: Runners-up: 1989–90, 2006–07

Cornelio Saavedra

Argentine military officer and statesman (1759–1829)

Cornelio Judas Tadeo de Saavedra y Rodríguez (September 15, 1759 – March 29, 1829) was an Argentine military officer and statesman. He was instrumental in the May Revolution, the first step of Argentina's independence from Spain, and was appointed president of the Primera Junta. Saavedra was the first commanding officer of the Regiment of Patricians created after the ill-fated British invasions of the River Plate. The increased militarization of the city and the relaxation of the system of castas allowed him, as other criollo peoples, to become a prominent figure in local politics. His intervention was decisive to thwart the Mutiny of Álzaga and allow viceroy Santiago de Liniers to stay in power. Although he supported the establishment of a Junta similar those created in Spain during the Peninsular War, he desired that criollos had an important role in it (the mutiny of Álzaga was promoted by peninsulars). He advised against rushed actions as well, and as his regiment was crucial in any action against the viceroy, he denied his help until it was a good strategic moment to do so. The opportunity came in May 1810, and the May Revolution successfully ousted the viceroy. Saavedra was appointed president of the Primera Junta, which took government after it. The local politics were soon divided between him and the secretary Mariano Moreno. Saavedra wanted gradual changes, while Moreno promoted more radical ones. Saavedra encouraged the expansion of the Junta with deputies from the other provinces; this left Moreno in a minority, and he resigned. A later rebellion made on behalf of Saavedra forced the remaining supporters of Moreno to resign as well. He left the presidency after the defeat of the first Upper Peru campaign, and headed to lead the Army of the North. His absence was exploited by political opponents, who established the First Triumvirate and issued an arrest warrant against Saavedra. Saavedra stayed in exile until 1818, when all the charges against him were dropped. ## Biography ### Early life Saavedra was born at the hacienda "La Fombera", located in the town of Otuyo, near the former Imperial City of Potosí. The city was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru by that time, but would be annexed into the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata some years later. His father was Santiago Felipe de Saavedra y Palma, a native of Buenos Aires, whose ancestry reached to Hernando Arias de Saavedra. His mother was María Teresa Rodríguez Michel, a native of the Villa Imperial de Potosi. Santiago had left Buenos Aires and married María. They were a wealthy family, with many sons, Cornelio being the last one. The family moved to Buenos Aires in 1767. There, during his adolescence, Cornelio attended the Real Colegio de San Carlos. The school was only for the elite, and to attend it was required to be allowed by the viceroy, know reading and writing, be at least ten years old, be a legitimate son and have certified limpieza de sangre; Saavedra met all the requirements. He studied philosophy and Latin Grammar between 1773 and 1776. However, he could not graduate due to overwhelming duties in the management of the family ranch. Unlike other rich youths of the time, he did not go to university. In 1788, he married Maria Francisca Cabrera y Saavedra, his cousin. Francisca was rich, and it is likely that it was an arranged marriage. They had three sons, Diego, Mariano and Manuel. Francisca died in 1798. Saavedra began his political career in 1797, working at the Buenos Aires Cabildo, assuming various administrative roles. By then, the city had become the capital of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. His first political appointment was as fourth alderman, and third alderman the following year. In 1801, he was appointed Mayor of First Vote. That same year he married his second wife, Doña Saturnina Otárola del Rivero. In 1805, he was appointed to the position of Grain manager, within a local governmental body that dealt with the provision of wheat and other cereals in the city. It is considered that Saavedra supported the proposals of Manuel Belgrano at the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires, which promoted agriculture, education and industrialization, but there is no definitive evidence of it. ### British invasions Buenos Aires was involved in the British invasions of the River Plate in 1806, when a British expeditionary force led by William Carr Beresford captured the city. Saavedra was still a civilian by then. Santiago de Liniers organized a force in Montevideo to re-capture Buenos Aires, and Saavedra was among the civilians that joined Liniers, despite the lack of military instruction. His role in this battle was a minor one. Liniers successfully re-captured Buenos Aires, and organized the city's defences against a possible British counter-attack. All the male population of the city aged from 16 to 50 was drafted into the military, and divided in battalions by casta or origin. The largest one was the Regiment of Patricians, made up of volunteer infantrymen born in Buenos Aires. The regiment was composed of three infantry battalions, commanded by Esteban Romero, Domingo Urien and Manuel Belgrano, who would later pass that command to Juan José Viamonte. Each battalion could elect their own leaders, including their commander, and the Regiment of Patricians elected Saavedra. The British launched another invasion in 1807 led by John Whitelocke. Saavedra marched to Montevideo, but was informed at Colonia del Sacramento of the capture of the city of British, who intended to use it as a staging point for their planned invasion of Buenos Aires. To frustrate further British operations, Saavedra ordered the withdrawal of all military hardware from Colonia, considered indefensible at that point, and mobilized those troops and equipment to Buenos Aires to fortify the city. The renewed attack to Buenos Aires took place shortly afterwards, the British force consisting of 8,000 soldiers and 18 cannons—significantly more than the 1,565 men and 8 cannons used for the first invasion attempt. After defeating local forces at the pens of Miserere, the British entered the city of Buenos Aires on July 5. The British encountered an extremely hostile population, prepared to resist to the degree that even women, children and slaves voluntarily participated in the defense. The headquarters of the Regiment of Patricians were located at the Real Colegio de San Carlos, where Saavedra and Juan José Viamonte repulsed a British column under the command of Denis Pack and Henry Cadogan, composed of numerous infantrymen and a cannon. Pack subsequently united his remaining troops with Craufurd's men and made a last stand inside the Santo Domingo convent. Cadogan took the nearby house of Pedro Medrano, and fired at the British from the rooftop before Pack and Cadogan's men were finally overwhelmed by local troops. Finally, Whitelocke surrendered, pledging to withdraw all British forces from Montevideo, which brought the second invasion to an end. The victory against the British brought forth great changes in the politics of Buenos Aires. The viceroy Sobremonte was discredited by his management of the conflict, and the Cabildo increased its influence; as such, it removed the viceroy and appointed Liniers as replacement, an unprecedented action. The local criollos, who had limited chances of social promotion in the system of castas, got such a chance with the increased influence of the militias. Cornelio Saavedra, head of the biggest criollo militia, thus became a highly influential man in the politics of Buenos Aires. He resented the weak support from the Spanish monarchy to the war effort, compared with the strong one received from the cabildos of other cities in the Americas. As a result, he was loyal to the new viceroy, of French ancestry, considering him to be less subject to the internal disputes of the House of Bourbon. ### The mutiny of Álzaga The outbreak of the Peninsular War in Spain and the capture of the King Ferdinand VII by the French generated a political crisis in the Spanish colonies in America. The first project to maintain the monarchy was the short-lived Carlotism, which sought to crown Carlota Joaquina as regent. This project was supported by criollos like Manuel Belgrano and Juan José Castelli, but whether Saavedra supported it is disputed. The Carlotism was abandoned soon afterwards, and the people sought other projects. Francisco Javier de Elío established a Junta in Montevideo, similar to the ones established in Spain during the war, and his ally in Buenos Aires, Martín de Álzaga, sought to do a similar thing. The Mutiny of Álzaga took place on January 1, 1809. He accused Liniers of trying to appoint loyal members to the Cabildo, and gathered a small demonstration to request his resignation. The rebels, backed by some peninsular militias, occupied the Plaza. Liniers was about to resign, to prevent further conflicts. Cornelio Saavedra, who was aware of the conspiracy, considered it a plot by peninsulars to secure political power over the criollo peoples. He marched with the Regiment of Patricians swiftly to the Plaza, and thwarted the mutiny. There was no violence in the operation, as the criollos forced the rebels to give up just by the sheer force of numbers. Thus, Liniers stayed in office as viceroy. All the heads of the mutiny were sentenced to prison at Carmen de Patagones, and the militias that took part in it were dissolved. The only peninsular militias remaining were those of Andaluces and Montañeses, who did not join the mutiny; criollos obtained the military command, and the political power of Saavedra increased even more. A few months later, the Junta of Seville appointed a new Viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros. Some patriots proposed a self-coup to keep Liniers in power and resist the new viceroy, but Saavedra and Liniers himself did not accept it and the transition was performed without problems. Although Saavedra supported the plans of the criollos to seize power, he warned about taking rushed measures, considering that the ideal time to do so would be when the Napoleonic forces achieved a decisive advantage in the Spanish conflict. Until then, he forced the other revolutionaries to stay quiet by denying the help of his regiment. His usual quote was "Peasants and gentlemen, it is not yet time – let the figs ripen, and then we'll eat them." Although he was sometimes suspected of sympathy for Cisneros for his reluctance to take action against him, he maintained his strategy. Saavedra's political moderation may have been influenced by his previous career in the Cabildo. ### The May Revolution The chance expected by Saavedra came in May 1810, when two British ships arrived with the latest news of the Peninsular War. The previous January Seville was invaded, the Junta of Seville ceased working, and some members took refuge at Cadiz and Leon, the last undefeated Spanish provinces. The complete Spanish defeat seemed imminent. The viceroy tried to conceal the information by seizing all newspapers, but some of them were leaked into the possession of the revolutionaries. Colonel Viamonte called Saavedra and informed him of the news, requesting once again his military support. Saavedra agreed that it was a good context to proceed, and gave his famous answer: "Gentlemen: now I say it is not only time, but we must not waste a single hour." Cisneros called Saavedra and Martín Rodríguez, and requested their military support in the case of a popular rebellion. They refused to give such support, and Saavedra argued that Cisneros should resign because the Junta of Seville that had appointed him did not exist anymore. As a result, Cisneros gave in to the request of Juan José Castelli: to celebrate an open cabildo, an extraordinary meeting of the noteworthy peoples of the city, and discuss the situation. The next day an armed mob, led by Antonio Beruti and Domingo French, occupied the Plaza to demand the making of the open cabildo, doubting that Cisneros would actually allow it. Saavedra addressed the crowd and assured them that the Regiment of Patricians supported their claims. The open cabildo was held on May 22. The people discussed if Cisneros should stay in power and, in the case he was removed from office, which type of government should be established. Saavedra stayed silent for the most part, awaiting his turn to speak. The most important speakers were Bishop Benito Lue y Riega, Juan José Castelli, Ruiz Huidobro, Manuel Genaro Villota, Juan José Paso and Juan Nepomuceno de Sola, among others. Saavedra was the last one to speak, and suggested that the political control should be delegated to the Cabildo until the formation of a governing Junta, in the manner and form that the Cabildo deemed appropriate. In his speech, he pointed out the phrase: "(...) "And there be no doubt that it is the people that confers the authority or command." This statement was in line with the Retroversion of the sovereignty to the people, a political concept formulated by Castelli, stating that in the absence of the rightful governor the sovereignty returned to the peoples, who had then the power to give it to someone else. Castelli aligned his position with Saavedra's, becoming the common position which was eventually passed with 87 votes. However, the Cabildo appointed a Junta headed by Cisneros, who would stay in power, even if under a new office. Saavedra was appointed to this Junta, as well as Castelli and two peninsulars. They made the oath of office, but the Junta was received with strong popular unrest, as it was perceived as going contrary to the result of the open cabildo. By the night, Saavedra and Castelli resigned, convincing Cisneros to do the same. The Cabildo rejected Cisneros' resignation, and ordered the military to control the crowd and enforce the resolution of the previous day. The commanders pointed out that if they did so, their soldiers would mutiny. As the demonstration overran some sections of the cabildo, Cisneros' resignation was finally accepted. The members of the new Junta were the result of a document with hundreds of signatures, drafted among the people in the plaza. Cornelio Saavedra was the president of this Junta. He rejected this at first, fearing that he may be suspected of promoting the revolution for personal interest, but finally accepted at Cisneros' request. As the Junta was established on May 25, the other cities were invited to send deputies to a constituent assembly to discuss the type of government; on May 27, they were invited to send deputies to join the Junta. Both invitations were contradictory, but the consequences would take place some months later. The precise authorship of the aforementioned document is unclear, and so is the origin of the composition of the Junta. Saavedra said in his memoirs that it was "the people", without being more precise. As he protested being appointed president, he could not be part of the negotiations (Manuel Belgrano and Mariano Moreno, other members, are reported to have been appointed without their consent as well). It could not have been the Regiments of Patricians either: the Junta was not a military junta (only two of nine members were military), and the regiment would not have appointed Moreno, whose rivalry with Saavedra was known. A common accepted theory considers it to be a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists. The presidency of the Junta was the result of the high influence of the militias in general and Saavedra in particular in the local politics. From that time on, he spent most of his time at the fort of Buenos Aires, managing the government with Moreno, Belgrano and Castelli. It is likely that he left his business for this. ### The Primera Junta Cornelio Saavedra was aware that the Junta would be resisted by factions still loyal to the old authorities. It was resisted locally by the Cabildo and the Royal Audiencia; the nearby plazas of Montevideo and Paraguay did not recognize it; and Santiago de Liniers organized a counter-revolution at Córdoba. During this early period, the Junta worked united against the royalist threats. Mariano Moreno, the secretary of war, drafted the decrees and regulations to deal with royalists. First, a decree ordered punishment for anyone attempting to generate disputes, and for those concealing conspiracies against the Junta or other people. The Royal Audiencia swore loyalty to the Regency Council, in defiance to the Junta, so they were summoned, along with former viceroy Cisneros, and exiled to Spain with the pretext that there was a threat to their lives. The Junta appointed new members for the Audiencia loyal to the revolution. Moreno organized as well the Paraguay campaign and the First Upper Peru campaign, to the plazas that resisted the Junta. The second one, headed by Francisco Ortiz de Ocampo, would move to Córdoba and attack the counter-revolution; before marching to Upper Peru. Ocampo's initial orders were to capture the counter-revolutionary leaders and send them to Buenos Aires, so that they could be judged. When the counter-revolution became stronger Moreno called the Junta and proposed that the enemy leaders should be shot as soon as they were captured instead of brought to trial. The new orders were carried out by Juan José Castelli. Cornelio Saavedra supported all these measures. However, as time passed, Saavedra and Moreno distanced from each other. There was some initial distrust in the Junta towards Saavedra, but it was just the result of his desire for honours and privileges rather than an actual power struggle. When the initial difficulties were solved, Saavedra promoted an indulgent policy, while Moreno insisted on taking radical measures. For instance, the Junta discovered on October 16 that some members of the Cabildo secretly swore loyalty to the Regency Council. Moreno proposed executing them as a deterrent, and Saavedra replied that the government should promote leniency, and rejected the use of the Regiment of Patricians to carry out such executions. Saavedra prevailed, and the plotting members of the Cabildo were exiled instead of executed. Overall, Moreno was supported by "The Star" regiment, the other members of the Junta, and the activists of the May Revolution; Saavedra was supported by the merchants, the loyals to the old regime that saw him as a lesser evil, and the Regiment of Patricians, which was the largest one. To counter the power of Saavedra, Moreno sought to modify the military balance of power by reforming the promotion rules. Up until that point, the sons of officials were automatically granted the status of cadet and were promoted just by seniority; Moreno arranged that promotions were earned by military merits instead. However, in the short run this measure worked against him, as it antagonised members of the military who got promoted precisely because of such rules. Saavedra thought that the victory at the battle of Suipacha strengthened his perspective, as the Junta would have defeated its enemies. He considered that Moreno's animosity was rooted in the aforementioned mutiny of Álzaga, as Moreno took part in it. The victory was celebrated at the barracks of the Patricians, where the officer Anastasio Duarte, who was drunk, made a toast to Saavedra, as if he was America’s king. Moreno drafted the Honours Suppression decree when he knew about it, which suppressed the ceremonies and privileges of the president of the Junta inherited from the former office of viceroy. However, Saavedra signed it without complaint. The Regiment of Patricians resented Moreno because of this, but Saavedra considered that it was a disproportionated response to a trivial issue. The arrival of the deputies called months ago generated disputes about the role they should have. Mariano Moreno supported the May 25 invitation, and wrote at the Gazeta de Buenos Ayres newspaper that the deputies should create a constituent assembly. Most of them, however, were aligned with the more moderated style of Saavedra. Led by Gregorio Funes from Córdoba, they requested to join the Junta, as told in the second invitation. Saavedra and Funes thought that, with this change, Moreno would be left in a minority group, unable to advance his more radical measures. The deputies and the Junta met on December 18, to decide what to do. Funes, who was close to Saavedra, argued that Buenos Aires had no right to appoint national authorities by itself and expect obedience from the provinces. The nine deputies voted for their incorporation, as did Larrea, Azcuénaga, Matheu and Alberti, founding members of the Junta. Saavedra declared that the incorporation was not fully legal, but that he supported it for public convenience. Only Juan José Paso voted with Moreno against the incorporation of the deputies. Left in a minority within the Junta, Moreno resigned. He was appointed to a diplomatic mission in Europe, but died in high seas, in unclear circumstances. Some historians consider that Saavedra plotted to murder Moreno, others that it was a negligence of the captain, and others that it was because of Moreno's frail health. ### The Junta Grande With the new members, the Junta was renamed as Junta Grande. Cornelio Saavedra, who continued being president, had a clear control of it, together with Gregorio Funes. Although Moreno was no longer part of the Junta, his former supporters still plotted against Saavedra, meeting at the "Café de Marcos". They accused Funes and Saavedra of being carlotists. The regiment of Domingo French attempted to mutiny, but they were discovered and defeated. It is unknown if Moreno was involved in this attempted mutiny or not. The dispute was finally settled by the Revolution of the shoreline dwellers. The mayors Tomás Grigera and Joaquín Campana, supporters of Saavedra, led the "shoreline dwellers" (Spanish: orilleros, poor people living in the outskirts of Buenos Aires) to the Plaza, along with the Regiment of Patricians, and demanded the resignation of the morenists Hipólito Vieytes, Azcuénaga, Larrea and Rodríguez Peña, appointing the Saavedrists Juan Alagón, Atanasio Gutiérrez, Feliciano Chiclana and Campana as their replacements. It was requested as well that the government should not change its political style without voting it first. However, although the revolution was done in support of Saavedra, Saavedra denied having any involvement in it, and condemned it in his autobiography. Saavedra began to lose political power from this point. The decree of Mariano Moreno that changed the military promotions, which was never derogated, began to bear fruit, even if Moreno was not in the Junta anymore. The army became more professional, and less based on militias. Many of the new military authorities opposed Saavedra. The political crisis increased with the unfavourable military outcomes of the war: Belgrano was defeated at the Paraguay campaign, Castelli at the Upper Peru campaign, and the capture of Montevideo became increasingly difficult with the intervention of Portuguese troops supporting it. The many members of the Junta made the internal work difficult, as all measures were discussed by all members, hindering the swift reactions needed by the war. Saavedra left Buenos Aires at this point, and headed to the Upper Peru, to take command of the Army of the North. He thought that he could be of greater help as a military leader than facing the political struggles of Buenos Aires. ### Fall and persecution Saavedra was warned by fellow members of the Junta, military leaders and even the Cabildo that if he left Buenos Aires, the government would be prone to fall into a political crisis. He left anyway, convinced that he would be able to reorganize the Army of the North. The warnings were justified; shortly after his departure, the Junta was turned into a legislative power, while the executive would be managed by the First Triumvirate. This arrangement lasted for a short time, then the Junta was abolished. The Regiment of Patricians made a mutiny against the triumvirate, but failed. Saavedra received the news eight days after arriving in Salta. He was informed that he was deposed as president of the Junta, and that he should hand the command of the Army of the North to Juan Martín de Pueyrredón. Trying to avoid returning to Buenos Aires, he requested to be relocated at Tucumán or Mendoza. He was allowed to stay at the later city, rejoining his wife and children. The press of Buenos Aires was very harsh about him, so the Triumvirate asked the governor to capture Saavedra and send him to Luján, near Buenos Aires. The order, however, was never carried out because the triumvirate was deposed by the Revolution of October 8, 1812, and replaced by the Second Triumvirate. The appointment of the supreme director Gervasio Antonio de Posadas fostered further hostilities towards Saavedra. Posadas was among the people banished in 1811, and made him a trial of residence as a revenge. Saavedra, defended by Juan de la Rosa Alba, was accused of organizing the 1811 revolution, along with Campana. The sentence ruled that Saavedra should be exiled, but he avoided it by crossing the Andes with his son and seeking political asylum at Chile. Juan José Paso requested the extradition of Saavedra, but the Chilean supreme director Francisco de la Lastra denied it. Saavedra did not stay in Chile for long; a huge royalist attack to Chile (which would end in the Disaster of Rancagua and the royalist reconquest of Chile) made him cross the Andes again and seek refuge at Mendoza, along with Chilean expatriates. José de San Martín, ruling Mendoza at the time, allowed him to settle in San Juan. Saavedra settled in San Juan in 1814. He had a new son, Pedro Cornelio, and maintained a simple life growing grapes. He awaited the final decision of Posadas, but the supreme director had a political crisis at the time. The Spanish king Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and demanded the colonies to return to their former organization, the royalists at Upper Peru were still a threat, and José Gervasio Artigas opposed Buenos Aires as well, because of its high centralism. As a result, Carlos María de Alvear became the new supreme director, who would decide the final fate of Cornelio Saavedra. ### Last years Alvear ordered Saavedra to move immediately to Buenos Aires, to close the case. He arrived to the city in time, and Alvear was sympathetic to his situation. However, Alvear was forced to resign a few days later, before being able to rule the case. The Buenos Aires Cabildo, the interim government, restored Saavedra's military rank and honours, but the rule was abolished by Ignacio Álvarez Thomas, the following supreme director. He moved then to the countryside, to live with his brother Luis. He kept requesting to the government the restoration of his rank. Finally, the supreme director Juan Martín de Pueyrredón appointed a commission to discuss the case of Saavedra. By this time, the Congress of Tucumán had made the Argentine Declaration of Independence a couple of years before. The commission restored Saavedra with the military rank of brigadier, and ordered the payment of all the wages he did not receive during the time he was demoted. A second commission ratified the ruling. The payment was not enough to compensate Saavedra's losses, but he considered it a token of his restored prestige. He was appointed then to help with the protection of the frontier with the natives at Luján. Angered with the passivity of Buenos Aires during the Luso-Brazilian invasion of the Banda Oriental, Francisco Ramírez from Entre Ríos and Estanislao López from Santa Fe joined forces against the city. Saavedra fled to Montevideo, fearing that Buenos Aires would be obliterated if defeated. Ramírez and López won the battle of Cepeda, but the city was not destroyed, so Saavedra returned. He retired in 1822, and lived with his family in the countryside. He offered his services at the beginning of the War of Brazil, despite being 65 years old, but Balcarce declined the offer. He wrote his memoirs, Memoria autógrafa, in 1828. He died on March 29, 1829. He was taken to the cemetery by his sons. There was no state funeral at the time, because Juan Lavalle made a coup against the governor Manuel Dorrego and executed him, starting a period of civil war. Lavalle was defeated by Juan Manuel de Rosas, who was appointed governor. Once he restored peace, Rosas made a state funeral for Saavedra, on January 13, 1830. ## Legacy As president of the first government body created after the May Revolution, Saavedra is considered the first ruler of Argentina. However, as the Spanish juntas were not a presidential system, Saavedra was not the first President of Argentina; that office would be created a decade afterwards. The Casa Rosada, official residence of the President of Argentina, holds a bust of Saavedra at the Hall of busts. The Regiment of Patricians is still an active unit of the Argentine Army, currently as an air assault infantry. It is also the custodian of the Buenos Aires Cabildo, the welcoming party for visiting foreign dignitaries to Argentina and the escort and honor guard battalion for the City Government of Buenos Aires. As of September 22, 2010, the regiment's headquarters building has been declared as a National Historical Monument by the Argentine government, on the occasion of the country's bicentennial year. The historiography of Cornelio Saavedra is closely related to that of Mariano Moreno. As Saavedra had a conflict with him in the Junta, the perspectives towards him complement those about Moreno. The first liberal historians praised Moreno as the leader of the Revolution and a great historical man; Saavedra was treated either as a weak man overwhelmed by Moreno, or as a counter-revolutionary. This perspective did not acknowledge that Saavedra, as head of the Regiment of Patricians, was the most popular and influential man of the city since before the Revolution, and that he was reported to be staunch, cunning and ruthless. Subsequently, revisionist authors would formulate accusations against Moreno, depicting him as a British agent and a man of mere theoretical European ideas without a strong relation with the South American context. Saavedra is depicted instead as a popular caudillo, a predecessor of José de San Martín and Juan Manuel de Rosas. This perspective did not acknowledge that the wealthy citizens were aligned with Saavedra against Moreno, that Saavedra himself was wealthy and aristocratic, and that the 1811 revolution made no requests of a social nature, save for the removal of Morenist forces from the Junta. ## Descendants Among his most prominent descendants must be mentioned his son Mariano Saavedra, twice governor of the Province of Buenos Aires between 1862 and 1865, his grandson Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez, Chilean military officer in charge of the Occupation of Araucania, and his great-grandson Carlos Saavedra Lamas, politician and diplomat, Nobel Prize for Peace in 1936. The Saavedra neighbourhood was founded in honor of his nephew Luis María Saavedra, a prominent businessman of the late nineteenth-century. A descendant of his brother Luis Gonzaga Saavedra, León Ibáñez Saavedra, fathered Matilde Ibáñez Tálice, First Lady of Uruguay (1947–1951) and mother of Uruguayan President Jorge Batlle Ibáñez (2000–2005).

Lawrie Wilson

English association football player

Lawrie Robert Wilson (born 11 September 1987) is an English footballer who plays as a right-back. Wilson started his career at Charlton Athletic, and played regularly for the club's under-18 and reserve teams until he was released in 2006. He joined Colchester United ahead of the 2006–07 season, but did not make any first-team appearances during his one-year stay with the club. During his time at Colchester, he was loaned out to Conference South club Welling United, making four appearances during his one-month loan spell. Wilson signed for Hertfordshire club Stevenage in August 2007, and went on to make 190 appearances for the club over five seasons. During this time, he helped the club win the FA Trophy in May 2009, as well as being part of the team that earned back-to-back promotions from the Conference Premier into League One. He rejoined his first club, Charlton Athletic, for an undisclosed fee in July 2012. He stayed with the club for three seasons, making 96 appearances in the Championship. A move to Bolton Wanderers followed in August 2015, where he was loaned out to Peterborough United in January 2016, who were managed by former Stevenage manager Graham Westley. Bolton were relegated at the end of the 2015–16 season, before he played 26 times throughout the 2016–17 season as they won promotion out of League One at the first attempt. He signed with Port Vale in July 2017, before moving on to Ebbsfleet United six months later. He was loaned out to Maidstone United in September 2018. In July 2020, he joined Billericay Town of the National League South as he made the transition into coaching. ## Club career ### Early career Wilson began his career as a trainee with Charlton Athletic, and was a regular in the club's under-18 team, where he played in defence. He progressed through the club's youth system, and played in Charlton's reserve team throughout the club's 2005–06 season, making 16 appearances for the reserves as a second-year scholar. However, he did not make any first-team appearances and was subsequently allowed to search for a new club. In February 2006, he played for Luton Town's reserve team in a match against Stevenage Borough reserves at Kenilworth Road, although no transfer ultimately materialised. He was released by Charlton in April 2006. A month later, Wilson went on trial at League Two club Shrewsbury Town, and played the whole match in Shrewsbury's 2–1 pre-season friendly home win against Rotherham United, although he was unsuccessful in his attempt to earn a professional contract with the club. In August 2006, Wilson signed a one-year deal with Colchester United. Similarly to his time at Charlton, Wilson played regularly for the club's reserve team throughout the 2006–07 season, but did not make any first-team appearances. He was loaned out to Conference South club Welling United in December 2006. He made his debut for Welling in the club's 1–0 win away at Cambridge City, but was sent off after 27 minutes for violent conduct. He returned to the first team in Welling's 0–0 draw with Basingstoke Town at Park View Road in the FA Trophy, and went on to play four times for Welling during his one-month loan spell at the club. On returning to Layer Road, Wilson was released at the end of the 2006–07 season, without making a first-team appearance for Colchester. Ahead of the 2007–08 season, Wilson spent pre-season trialling at Brentford and Stockport County respectively, training with Stockport for a number of weeks and playing in several pre-season friendlies, but was ultimately not offered a contract. ### Stevenage Wilson signed for Stevenage of the Conference Premier on 16 August 2007, joining on a one-year contract. Manager Mark Stimson gave Wilson his Stevenage debut a day after signing for the club, coming on as an 86th-minute substitute in Stevenage's 3–0 win against Weymouth on 17 August 2007. Wilson played 27 times during his first season at Stevenage, with the majority of his appearances coming in the second half of 2007–08 season. The following season under the new management of Graham Westley, Wilson played regularly in both the full-back position and at right midfield. Wilson scored his first professional goal in Stevenage's 3–1 away win at Barrow on 30 August 2008, taking advantage of a goalkeeping error in the 75th minute of the match to secure Stevenage's first win of the 2008–09 season. Wilson played in both of Stevenage's Conference Premier play-off games against Cambridge United, as the club lost 4–3 on aggregate. He played in four different positions in six of Stevenage's FA Trophy fixtures that season and was deployed at left midfield in Stevenage's 2–0 victory against York City in the Final at Wembley Stadium on 9 May 2009. Wilson started in Stevenage's first game of the 2009–10 season in a 1–1 draw against Tamworth, adopting an attacking role on the right wing. He scored his first goal of the season in a 3–0 victory against Ebbsfleet United on 18 August 2009. Two weeks later, in Stevenage's 2–1 victory against Rushden & Diamonds, Wilson suffered a "career threatening injury" following a tackle from Michael Corcoran, which resulted in Wilson suffering a dislocated ankle and broken leg in three places. Wilson had a successful operation the following day and was expected to miss the rest of the 2009–10 season. Wilson returned earlier than anticipated, playing in a reserve match against Ipswich Town in March 2010, and he made his return to the first team a week later against Luton Town, coming on as a 65th-minute substitute. Two days later, Wilson started his first game in over eight months against AFC Wimbledon. He scored Stevenage's second goal, scoring a half-volley from Joel Byrom's chipped pass in Stevenage's 3–0 victory at Kingsmeadow. He also played in the club's 2–0 win against Kidderminster Harriers at Aggborough in April 2010, the game that secured Stevenage's place in Football League for the first time in the club's history. Wilson played 13 matches during the season, scoring twice. At the end of the season, Wilson signed a contract to keep him at the club until July 2011. Wilson played in Stevenage's first fixture of the 2010–11 season, playing 72 minutes in the club's 2–2 draw with Macclesfield Town. He signed a new contract with the club on 24 September 2010, keeping him at Stevenage until 2012. He scored his first goal of the 2010–11 season in Stevenage's 2–2 draw against Accrington Stanley on 5 February 2011. A month later, Wilson scored both of Stevenage's goals in a 2–1 home win against Lincoln City on 19 March 2011, his second goal coming from 25 yards (23 m) out after an interchange with John Mousinho. He scored five goals in 50 appearances during the club's 2010–11 season, as Stevenage earned promotion to League One for the first time in their history. Wilson was part of the starting eleven in Stevenage's first League One fixture at the start of the 2011–12 season, playing the whole game as the club drew 0–0 at home to Exeter City. He signed a contract extension at the club on 19 August 2011. Wilson scored his first goal of the 2011–12 season in a 5–1 home victory against Sheffield Wednesday, scoring Stevenage's fourth goal of the match just before half-time. Wilson scored six times during the season, and he was ever-present during the season under both Westley and new manager Gary Smith, playing in all 56 of the club's games, as Stevenage lost in the play-off semi-finals. ### Charlton Athletic Wilson was linked with a transfer to Peterborough United in the summer of 2012, as well as Charlton Athletic. Stevenage confirmed that they had received two bids for the player, both of which were from Championship clubs. Wilson signed for Charlton on 9 July 2012, the club he began his football career with, for an undisclosed fee. He debuted for Charlton in the club's opening game of the 2012–13 season, a 1–1 draw with Leyton Orient in the League Cup at The Valley on 14 August 2012, which Charlton went on to lose 4–3 on penalties after extra time. Wilson scored his first goal for the club in his 10th league appearance, scoring from close range to restore parity in a 1–1 draw with Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 27 October 2012. After a month out of first-team action, Wilson returned for Charlton's 2–2 home draw with Brighton & Hove Albion on 8 December, and scored the first goal of the match courtesy of a header from Dale Stephens' cross. It turned out to be Wilson's last goal of the season, a season in which he made 32 appearances as Charlton finished in ninth position in the Championship, three points behind the final play-off place. He made 49 appearances across the 2013–14 season as Charlton posted an 18th-place finish under new manager José Riga. He competed with Chris Solly and Joe Gomez at the start of the 2014–15 season. Wilson joined Championship rivals Rotherham United on an emergency-loan on 20 March 2015. Rotherham manager Steve Evans hinted that the loan move would allow him to evaluate whether or not to sign Wilson permanently in the summer. He played three games for Rotherham during his time there. ### Bolton Wanderers Wilson signed for Bolton Wanderers on 5 August 2015, joining on a two-year deal. Initially the club's first choice right-back, he was not selected by manager Neil Lennon after putting in a poor performance during a 4–1 defeat at Huddersfield Town on 19 September 2015. He joined League One club Peterborough United on 2 January 2016, on a one-month loan agreement. He said that re-uniting with former Stevenage manager Graham Westley was a factor in the move to the London Road Stadium. Wilson played four times during the loan, starting as a substitute in their game with Sheffield United, and made his final appearance in the 2–2 draw with West Bromwich Albion in the FA Cup. He returned to Bolton and was recalled to the first-team by interim manager Jimmy Phillips for the final two games of the 2015–16 season. Wilson regained his first-team place at Bolton following an injury to Lewis Buxton in September, and then established himself at right-back under manager Phil Parkinson. He was ruled out of first-team action for 10 weeks with a hamstring injury that he picked up during a 1–1 draw at Milton Keynes Dons on 4 February 2017. Bolton went on to secure promotion at the end of the 2016–17 season, though Wilson was released after the club decided not to offer him a new contract. ### Port Vale Following his departure from Bolton, Wilson signed a two-year contract with newly-relegated League Two club Port Vale on 15 July 2017, after manager Michael Brown needed to replace departing right-back and club captain Ben Purkiss. He was not included in the first-team under new manager Neil Aspin, and was not in the matchday squad despite suspensions for James Gibbons and injuries to Adam Yates and Joe Davis. ### Ebbsfleet United Having not played for Port Vale in over three months, Wilson joined National League club Ebbsfleet United on 9 January 2018. He was signed by manager Daryl McMahon, his former teammate at Stevenage. He made his Ebbsfleet debut on the same day his signing was announced, playing the whole match in a 2–1 victory at Maidstone United. He made 17 appearances for the club during the second half of the season, including playing twice in the National League play-offs as Ebbsfleet lost at the semi-final stage. He made two appearances for Ebbsfleet in the opening two months of the 2018–19 season. He subsequently joined fellow National League club Maidstone United on a month-long loan in order to get game-time. He made his Maidstone debut in a 1–0 away victory at Aldershot Town on 25 September 2018, making four appearances during the loan spell. Wilson returned to Ebbsfleet upon the expiry of his loan agreement with Maidstone, and went on to make 28 appearances throughout the season. He made 21 appearances for Ebbsfleet during the 2019–20 season, which was permanently suspended on 26 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England, with Ebbsfleet in the relegation zone in 21st-place. Wilson left Ebbsfleet on 29 June 2020, upon the expiry of his contract. ### Billericay Town Wilson joined National League South club Billericay Town on 4 August 2020. He made 14 appearances before the 2020–21 season was curtailed due to restrictions associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Manager Kevin Watson was sacked in October 2021, and as captain Wilson was tasked with assisting caretaker manager Danny Brown in preparing the team for future matches. Wilson played 15 times as Billericay were relegated in last place at the end of the 2021–22 season. Brown stayed on as manager though, and speaking in May 2022 said that Wilson would combine his role of being a squad player alongside his coaching roles at the club. He played six times in all competitions during the 2022–23 season. ## International career Wilson was called up to play for the England C team on 27 August 2009, who represent England at non-League level, in a game against Hungary C in Budapest. However, he withdrew from the squad after suffering a dislocated ankle and broken leg just three days later. ## Style of play Wilson is primarily a right-back, but is also adept at playing on the right-side of midfield, and can also play at left-back, central midfield or the left-hand side of midfield if needed. Describing himself, he has said that "I might not be this 9/10 every week player, but I become reliable". ## Career statistics ## Honours Stevenage - FA Trophy: 2008–09; runner-up: 2009–10 - Conference Premier: 2009–10 - League Two play-offs: 2010–11 Bolton Wanderers - League One second-place promotion: 2016–17

Sigurd the Stout

Viking Earl of Orkney

Sigurd Hlodvirsson (c. 960 – 23 April 1014), popularly known as Sigurd the Stout from the Old Norse Sigurðr digri, was an Earl of Orkney. The main sources for his life are the Norse Sagas, which were first written down some two centuries or more after his death. These engaging stories must therefore be treated with caution rather than as reliable historical documents. Sigurd was the son of Hlodvir Thorfinnsson and (according to the Norse sagas) a direct descendant of Torf-Einarr Rognvaldson. Sigurd's tenure as earl was apparently free of the kin-strife that beset some other incumbents of this title and he was able to pursue his military ambitions over a wide area. He also held lands in the north of mainland Scotland and in the Sudrøyar, and he may have been instrumental in the defeat of Gofraid mac Arailt, King of the Isles. The Annals of Ulster record his death at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, the earliest known reference to the earldom of Orkney. The saga tales draw attention to Sigurd's conversion to Christianity and his use of a totemic raven banner, a symbol of the Norse God Odin. This ambiguous theme and the lack of detailed contemporary records of his life have led to a variety of interpretations of the saga material by modern scholars. ## Family background The Orkneyinga Saga reports that Sigurd was the son of Hlodvir, one of the five sons of Thorfinn Skull-Splitter, and Eithne. She is said to be a daughter of a "King Kjarvalr". The period after Earl Thorfinn's death was one of dynastic strife; three of Earl Hlodvir's brothers ruled before him, although he died in his bed before being succeeded by Sigurd, probably in the 980s. Sigurd's patronymic is an unusual one and there would appear to be a connection with this name and the early roots of the modern French name "Louis". ## Rule Sigurd was in the fortunate position that on his accession to the earldom there seem to have been no other serious contenders. In this respect his rule was unlike that of the earlier generation of the sons of Earl Thorfinn and of the next generation in that it avoided the bitter feuding that beset the earldom during both of those periods. Sigurd's great-grandfather, Torf-Einarr, lost the udal rights of the Orkney and Shetland farmers as part of a deal he brokered with the Norwegian crown. These rights were restored by Sigurd. The Burray hoard of silver ring-money has been dated to the period 997–1010, during Earl Sigurd's reign. ### Mainland Scotland Sigurd's domain included not just Orkney itself but also Shetland, which formed part of the earldom and also extensive lands on mainland Scotland. For the latter his overlords were the Kings of Scotland rather than of Norway. The extent of these mainland dominions is uncertain. According to the rather dubious source, Njal's Saga, they included Ross, Moray, Sutherland and the Dales. At the time Moray would have included districts on the west coast including Lochaber. Smyth (1984) notes the density of dalr placenames on Scotland's west coast and it has even been suggested that "the Dales" is a reference to Dalriada, although it is more likely that it means Caithness. During Sigurd's tenure the earldom approached its high point and his influence was perhaps only exceeded by that of his son Thorfinn. Sigurd's uncle Ljot had been killed in war against the Scots, and Sigurd soon faced trouble from his southern neighbours. According to the Orkneyinga saga "Earl Finnleik" (Findláech of Moray) led an army against him which outnumbered Sigurd's forces by seven to one. The saga then records Sigurd's mother's reply when he went to her for advice: > Had I thought you might live for ever I'd have reared you in my wool-basket. But lifetimes are shaped by what will be, not by where you are. Now, take this banner. I've made it for you with all the skill I have, and my belief is this: it will bring victory to the man it's carried before, but death to the one who carries it. The Raven banner worked just as Sigurd's mother said: he was victorious but three standard-bearers in succession were killed. A battle was fought between Norwegian forces and Malcolm II of Scotland at Mortlach c. 1005 which may have involved or been led by Sigurd. Although victory went to the Scots, the Norwegians had clearly spent some considerable time encamped in Moray and came equipped with a large fleet. However, Orcadian influence in this part of Scotland is likely to have been temporary and on other occasions, such as during his uncle Ljot's earldom, Scottish forces had pushed north into Caithness. ### The Hebrides Sigurd the Stout also took control of the Hebrides, and placed a jarl called Gilli in charge. Njal's Saga records an expedition that took place c. 980 in which Kari, Sigurd's bodyguard, plundered the Hebrides, Kintyre and "Bretland" (probably Strathclyde). On another occasion Kari sailed through The Minch in order to collect tribute from Gilli, whose base may have been either Colonsay or Coll. The Annals of Ulster record a raid by "the Danes" on Iona on Christmas Night in which the abbot and fifteen of the elders of the monastery were slaughtered and this may have been connected with the successful conquering of the Isle of Man by Sigurd and Gilli between 985 and 989. Njal's Saga records a victory for Sigurd over Gofraid mac Arailt, King of the Isles with the former returning to Orkney with the spoils. The contemporary Annals of Ulster record a similar event in 987 although with the reverse outcome. Here it is claimed that 1,000 Norsemen were killed, among them the Danes who had plundered Iona. Two years later Njal's Saga reports a second campaign in the southern Hebrides, Anglesey, Kintyre, Wales and a more decisive victory in Man. Irish sources report only the death of King Gofraid in Dál Riata, an event that Thomson (2008) ascribes to Earl Gilli's Gall-Ghàidheil forces. The Eyrbyggja saga records the payment of silver tribute from Man to Sigurd, and, although this is a rather unreliable source, there is corroboration of such an event occurring in 989 in a Welsh source, with payment being made of a penny each from the local population to "the black host of the Vikings". It has been suggested that the much later use of ounceland and pennyland assessments in the Gàidhealtachd may date from the time of Earl Sigurd and his sons. By 1004 the western isles' independence from Orkney had been re-asserted under Ragnal mac Gofraid, who died in that year. It is possible the rules overlapped, with Gilli's zone of influence to the north and Ragnal's to the south. On Ragnal's death Sigurd re-asserted control, which he held until his own death a decade later after which the islands may have been held by Håkon Eiriksson. ### Religion According to the Orkneyinga saga, the Northern Isles were Christianised by King Olaf Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way back to Norway from Dublin. The King summoned jarl Sigurd and said "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke. This tale is repeated in St Olaf's Saga, (although here Olaf lands at South Ronaldsay) as is a brief mention of Sigurd's son "Hunde or Whelp" who was taken as a hostage to Norway by King Olaf. Hunde was held there for several years before dying there. "After his death Earl Sigurd showed no obedience or fealty to King Olaf." ## Death and succession The Orkneyinga Saga blandly reports that "five years after the Battle of Svolder" Earl Sigurd went to Ireland to support Sigtrygg Silkbeard and, after taking up the raven banner, was killed in a battle that took place on Good Friday. (The chronology is slightly awry in that Sigurd's death is known to have taken place 14 years after Svolder.) Njal's Saga provides a little more detail, alleging that Gormflaith ingen Murchada prompted her son Sigtrygg into getting Sigurd to fight against her former husband, Brian Ború: "She sent him to Earl Sigurd to beg for help ... Then King Sigtrygg fared south to Ireland, and told his mother that the Earl had undertaken to come." The 12th-century Irish source, the Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh, records the events of the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. The "foreigners and Leinstermen" were led by Brodir of the Isle of Man and Sigurd, and the battle lasted all day. Though Brian was killed in the battle, the Irishmen ultimately drove back their enemies into the sea, and Sigurd himself was killed. His death is corroborated by the Annals of Ulster, which record that amongst the dead was "Siuchraid son of Loduir, iarla Innsi Orcc" (i.e. of Sigurd, son of Hlodvir, Earl of Orkney). This is the earliest known contemporary reference to the earldom of Orkney. Sigurd left four sons: Brusi, Sumarlidi, Einar and Thorfinn, each of whom would also bear the title Earl of Orkney; the lands were initially divided amongst the three older brothers, Thorfinn being only five years old at the time. Thorfinn's mother is specifically stated to be a daughter of Malcolm II, the Norsemen's foe at Mortlach. Njal's Saga provides the names of various other relatives of Sigurd's. Havard, who was killed at Thraswick (the modern Freswick in Caithness) is referred to as his brother-in-law. Sigurd is said to have given his sister Nereida (also called Swanlauga) in marriage to Earl Gilli. ## Issue Sigurd is believed to have married twice, the name of his first wife is not recorded, however she is the mother of his four oldest sons: - Sumarlidi, jointly Earl of Orkney with his brothers Brusi and Einar from 1014 until his death in 1018. - Brusi, jointly Earl of Orkney with his brothers Sumarlindi and Einar from 1014 to 1018 and Einar until 1020. (died 1030/35) - Einar, jointly Earl of Orkney with his brothers Sumarlindi and Brusi from 1014 to 1018 and Brusi until his own death in 1020. - Hunde, predeceased his father, taken as a hostage in 995 by King Olaf of Norway, died several years later while in Olaf's custody. Sigurd married second, Olith, youngest daughter of Malcolm II of Scotland, together they had one son: - Thorfinn, Earl of Orkney, born c. 1009 and died c.1065. ## Interpretations Sigurd's earldom "exerted a magnetic attraction for high-born Icelanders" and inspired many tales of military prowess in their own family sagas. "King Kjarvalr", Sigurd's supposed grandfather, appears as Kjarvalr Írakonungr in the Landnámabók and has been identified as Cerball mac Dúnlainge, King of Osraige who died in 888. There is clearly a chronological problem with Sigurd's mother being the daughter of a king who died more than 70 years before the death of his own grandfather, Earl Thorfinn. Furthermore, Thorstein "the Red" Olafsson (fl. late 9th century and Hlodvir's great-grandfather) was apparently married to a granddaughter of Kjarvalr. Woolf (2007) concludes that the saga writers may have confused this story about the provenance of Sigurd Hlodvirsson with one about Thorstein, a close ally of Sigurd Eysteinsson. Drawing on Adam of Bremen's assertion that Orkney was not conquered until the time of Harald Hardrada, who ruled Norway from 1043 to 1066, Woolf (2007) speculates that Sigurd may have been the first Earl of Orkney. He also offers the hypothesis that the earldom was a created by the Danish king Harald Bluetooth, circa 980 rather than in the time of Harald Fairhair one hundred years earlier. He concludes that "If there were no earls in Orkney before Sigurð's time it might help to explain the islands' low profile in the annals since these, for the most part, record only the deaths of great men." However, the absence of comment on this subject by Irish sources prior to Sigurd's death there is hardly surprising. Irish sources of the period were not well informed about and "not much concerned" with Orkney. Smyth (1984) is more sympathetic to the claims of the sagas and argues that Torf-Einarr "may be regarded as the first historical earl of Orkney". The conflict between Sigurd and Olaf Tryggvasson probably predates their chance meeting at Kirk Hope as the latter is known to have been raiding in the Sudrøyar during the period 991–94. His motives for a determined pursuit of Christian obedience are likely to have been essentially political rather than religious. His journey back to Norway was in order to bid for the kingship there, and securing a passive Orkney in advance of this was therefore greatly to his advantage. Although Sigurd's marriage to an unnamed daughter of Malcolm of Scotland is mentioned in the Orkneyinga Saga immediately after the death of Hunde and the earl's consequent break with Olaf Tryggvasson, Thomson (2008) views this nuptial arrangement as a joint attempt by the Orcadians and Scots to align themselves against the "common threat from Moray" rather than as a slight to Norway. When the sagas were written down Orkney had been Christian for 200 years or more and the conversion tale itself is "blatantly unhistorical". When the Norse arrived in the Northern Isles they would have found organised Christianity already thriving there, although there is no mention of this at all in the sagas. Furthermore, the Norse dragon motif of the whale-bone plaque found at the Scar boat burial was found in conjunction with the grave of an elderly woman who had died by 950 AD at the latest, and the weight of archaeological evidence suggests that Christian burial was widespread in Orkney by Sigurd's time. The intention may have been to disown the influence of indigenous elements of Orcadian and Shetland culture and emphasise that positive cultural developments came from Scandinavia, whilst at the same time critiquing the unduly blunt method of Norwegian interference in this case. The inclusion of the tale of the raven banner in the saga material may convey the idea of a revival of heathenism in Orcadian society and a reaction to Norwegian attempts to control the islands. However, in the Orkneyinga Saga there is a vivid contrast between Sigurd's death clutching the raven banner and the later career of his son Thorfinn, who is credited with several achievements in bringing Orkney into mainstream Christendom. Taken as a whole the intention may be to draw attention to this transition. ## See also - Brodir and Ospak of Man - Siward, Earl of Northumbria

52nd Rocket Division

The 52nd Rocket Division (Russian: 52-я ракетная дивизия) was a division of the Soviet and Russian Strategic Rocket Forces, active from 1961 to 2002. The division traced its lineage to the formation of the Red Army's 23rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division during World War II in January 1943. In the spring of that year it served on the Northwestern Front with the 27th Army, then was transferred to the Steppe Front with the army in May. The 23rd provided air defense for the army in the Belgorod–Kharkov Offensive, the Battle of the Dnieper, and the Battle of Kiev. In December it transferred to the 60th Army, with which it spent most of the rest of the war. The division fought in the Proskurov–Chernovitsy Offensive, the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive, the Sandomierz–Silesian Offensive, and the Battle of Berlin. For helping to capture Ternopol and Berlin, the division received the cities' names as honorifics, and was awarded the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky and the Order of the Red Star for fighting in Silesia. At the end of the war in May 1945 the division fought in the capture of Dresden with the 3rd Guards Tank Army. Postwar, the 23rd was stationed near Vienna, and after the Soviet withdrawal from Austria in 1955 was stationed in western Ukraine and renumbered as the 97th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division before being disbanded in 1960. Two of its regiments were used to form the 206th Rocket Brigade of the new Strategic Rocket Forces at Bershet, Perm Oblast. In 1961, the 206th was expanded into the 52nd Rocket Division, which inherited the honors of the 97th Division. Until 2002, as part of the 31st Rocket Army, the division successively operated R-16, UR-100, and RT-23 intercontinental ballistic missiles. It was disbanded in 2002 and its lineage inherited by a base for storage and transshipment which was tasked with dismantling the division's missile facilities. The base was disbanded in 2007 after the completion of its task. ## World War II The 23rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command (RVGK) began forming on 15 January 1943 in Moscow at the Anti-Aircraft Artillery Training Center, part of the Moscow Military District. It was formed from personnel of the Sevastopol Anti-Aircraft Artillery School and VNOS (Air Warning, Observation, and Communications) troops, and was commanded by Colonel Nikolay Sitnikov. Writer Sergey Smirnov served with the division from its formation. The 23rd completed its formation on 21 February, and included the 1064th, 1336th, 1342nd, and the 1348th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiments. The 1354th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment was part of the division on 1 February, but was replaced by the 1064th after being transferred to the 27th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division by the time formation was completed. The 1064th was armed with heavier 85 mm guns, while the other three regiments had 37 mm guns. Two days later the 23rd joined the Northwestern Front, and was transported by rail to Kresttsy station, arriving there on 26 February. The division was tasked with providing air defense for 27th Army's supply stations in the Staraya Russa area and the airfields of the 6th Air Army in the areas of Zhernovka, Vypolzovo, Kresttsy, and Guzatino. It was spread out along 110 kilometers of railway line and up to 120 kilometers in the rear area, creating considerable command and control problems. The 1064th and 1336th Regiments were closer to the front in the 27th Army's sector while the 1342nd and 1348th Regiments were directly subordinated to the Northwestern Front headquarters in this arrangement. German aviation became more active from 1 March, and He 111 and Ju 88 bombers, as well as Bf 109 and Fw 190 fighters overflew locations defended by the 23rd multiple times a day at an altitude of five to six kilometers. The newly formed units of the division, which had previously conducted training, began combat operations. On 5 March the 2nd and 3rd Batteries of the 1064th Regiment repulsed multiple air attacks in the Parfino area. During April, the division repulsed seventeen German air raids, of which seven included several aircraft and ten of lone aircraft. Later that month the 23rd was transferred from the Northwestern Front to the RVGK and relocated to Voronezh Oblast. On 25 May it became part of the Steppe Front, providing air defense to the 27th Army, which had also relocated from the Northwestern Front. In early August, with the 27th Army, the division advanced towards Grayvoron in the Belgorod-Kharkov Offensive. It engaged in fierce fighting in the crossing of the Vorskla River. Grayvoron was captured on 7 August; during the battles in the area the 23rd claimed twelve enemy aircraft and 60 of its men were decorated. For most of the rest of the month, the division fought stubbornly fought for the Vorskla crossings near Akhtyrka; the crossings changed hands multiple times. During these actions the men of the 23rd often had to use their guns in direct fire mode against German tanks and infantry. In the Akhtyrka fighting the division claimed 29 German aircraft and 72 of its men were decorated. The 23rd then fought in the Battle of the Dnieper in the fall, responsible for providing air defense for the advance and supply lines of ground forces in the area of Zarubintsy and Grigoriyevka in the battles for the Bukrin bridgehead. After the capture of Kiev in early November, the 23rd was transferred from the 27th Army to the 60th Army in December; it would serve with the latter for most of the rest of the war. On 18 January 1944, Sitnikov was killed in fighting near Polonne; he was replaced by Colonel Yakov Lyubimov, who would command the division for the rest of the war. In early 1944, the division fought in heavy fighting for Shepetovka, claiming seven enemy aircraft before the town was captured on 11 February. For their actions in the Shepetovka fighting, 32 soldiers of the 1342nd Regiment were decorated. By 1 March the 1064th Regiment was detached from the main body of the division and directly subordinated to 1st Ukrainian Front command. During the Proskurov–Chernovitsy Offensive, the division helped capture Ternopol on 19 April, and was awarded the name of the city as an honorific for its actions. By 1 June the 1064th had rejoined the rest of the division with the 60th Army. The division was split again by 1 July when the 1342nd and 1348th Regiments were directly subordinated to the front headquarters, though it was reunited by 1 August. In the summer, the 23rd fought with the 60th Army, tasked with the initial breakthrough in the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive. The offensive began in mid-July, with the division covering the breakthrough of the 3rd Guards Tank Army and the 4th Guards Tank Army in the attack on Lvov, which was captured on 27 July. It claimed eighteen enemy aircraft downed and 4,745 German soldiers captured during the offensive, and for "exemplary fulfillment of command tasks" its 1064th Regiment was awarded the honorific Lvov. By the same decree, dated 10 August, the 1342nd and 1348th Regiments received the Order of the Red Banner. In early January 1945, the division advanced out of the Sandomierz bridgehead, where it had ended the summer fighting, in the Sandomierz–Silesian Offensive. The 1st Ukrainian Front's attack was directed towards Kraków and southern Silesia. The former city was taken on 19 January, with the division claiming 32 enemy aircraft downed and capturing 2,280 soldiers in the offensive. For its actions, the 1064th Regiment received the Order of Kutuzov, 3rd class. After the capture of Kraków, the division continued advancing towards Ratibor, reaching the Oder on 2 February. Between 21 February and 14 March it helped defend the Dabrowskie Coal Basin region from German counterattack. For participating in the capture of the coal basin and of southern Upper Silesia, the 23rd was awarded the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, 2nd class. In the subsequent attack on Ratibor, the division provided air defense for the crossing of the Oder by Soviet troops. Ratibor was captured on 30 March, and the division claimed 28 enemy aircraft downed in the fighting. For "exemplary performance of command tasks" in the attack on Ratibor the 23rd Division was awarded the Order of the Red Star. From 16 April, the division fought in the Battle of Berlin. Between 21 and 30 April it provided air defense for the ground troops. The soldiers of the division also fought in urban warfare in the streets of Berlin, participating in the capture of eight city blocks. During the battle, the 23rd claimed sixteen aircraft downed and killed numerous German soldiers. For "courage and valor" in the capture of Berlin, the 23rd was awarded the name of the city as an honorific. Between 3 and 5 May, it moved to the Dresden area as part of the 3rd Guards Tank Army, where the surrounded German 9th Army was attempting to break out to the west. It helped capture Meissen on 6 May and Dresden on 7 May; the latter was its last combat of the war. For actions in the capture of Dresden, the 1336th Regiment received the honorific Dresden and the 1342nd Regiment the Order of Alexander Nevsky. During the war, the 23rd was credited with downing 352 enemy aircraft, killing 3,695 enemy soldiers, capturing 12,090, destroying ten artillery batteries and seventeen tanks. 2,966 soldiers of the division were decorated, with 26 receiving the Order of the Red Banner, one the Order of Kutuzov, 3rd class, one the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, 2nd class, four the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, 3rd class, two the Order of Alexander Nevsky, 65 the Order of the Patriotic War, 1st class, 116 the Order of the Patriotic War, 2nd class, 645 the Order of the Red Star, 169 the Order of Glory, 3rd class, 1,022 the Medal "For Courage", and 915 the Medal "For Battle Merit". ## Postwar After the capture of Dresden, the division was relocated to Korneuburg and Stockerau near Vienna. Until 1955, the division served there as part of Soviet occupation forces in Austria in the Central Group of Forces. In May 1955, the Soviet troops were ordered to withdraw from Austria, and in September the 23rd was relocated to Shepetovka in the Carpathian Military District. On 1 September it was renumbered as the 97th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division in accordance with a directive dated 28 August. In 1958, it was rearmed with new Surface-to-air missiles. Around that time the division began disbanding, a process completed by 1960. ### Strategic Rocket Forces With the introduction of intercontinental ballistic missiles into service beginning in 1959, the Strategic Rocket Forces (SRF) were formed to operate the missile launch facilities. In accordance with a directive of May 1960, the 206th Rocket Brigade was formed at Bershet, Perm Oblast, from the 1170th and 1208th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiments of the 97th Division, the 35th Air Force School, and the 15th Tank Training Regiment. On 10 August, the first brigade commander, Colonel Georgy Stoppe, was assigned; he assumed command on 27 August. The formation of the 206th was completed by 19 November. The retraining of its personnel on missiles began in October, starting with training launches of the older R-2 missile. It was initially placed under command of the 24th Artilley Range Administration, but from 10 May 1961 it joined the 5th Independent Rocket Corps. On 30 May the 52nd Rocket Division began forming from the 206th, with its headquarters 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) from Bershet in a camp that became known as Perm-76. The formation of the division was completed on 27 June, which became its annual holiday. It included the 721st, 723rd, 730th, and 734th Rocket Regiments, along with support units. On 22 July, the first division commander, Colonel Zinovy Ivanov, took command. Around this time the construction of the division's combat launch positions and other facilities began, delayed by wooded and swampy terrain until a concrete-surfaced road was completed. The first combat launch position was completed in December. In 1962 it began training with the new R-16 ballistic missile. The first rocket battalion went on alert duty on 13 March of that year, and by 1965 all of its rocket battalions were on alert duty. On 27 July 1962 the 52nd received the battle flag of the 23rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Division; it had previously inherited the honors of the 97th Division. Beginning in May 1964, the battalions were expanded into separate rocket regiments. Around the same time, the division began receiving updated UR-100 missiles, and on 24 November 1966 the first UR-100-armed regiment went on alert duty. On 8 June 1970, the 52nd became part of the 31st Rocket Army when the corps was expanded. By late 1970, the last of seven more UR-100 regiments had been placed on alert duty. These regiments were the 176th, 263rd, 598th, 608th, 684th, 721st, 723rd, and 730th Rocket Regiments. By the same time, the division had conducted a total of 20 R-16 training launches. The 52nd also added division and regimental command posts with automated command and control equipment in 1967, and in 1971 received satellite communications systems. Its separate rocket regiments became unified rocket regiments in 1967, and were completely rearmed with UR-100K missiles by 1975. Between 1976 and 1978, the R-16 silos were dismantled, with some of the equipment being sent to other divisions. In 1988, the 52nd began reequipping with the RT-23 Molodets rail-mobile ballistic missile, launched from railway strategic missile trains [ru]. The first RT-23 regiment, the 161st Rocket Regiment, went on alert duty on 22 April 1989; by 1991, three more RT-23 regiments (the 174th, 223rd, and the 721st Rocket Regiments) were on alert duty. Simultaneously the UR-100Ks were withdrawn from the division and their regiments disbanded, a process completed by 1994. On 26 November 1966, the 161st Regiment conducted a successful RT-23 training launch at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome; this was the division's only RT-23 training launch in its career. In 1994 the Perm-76 camp received the municipal designation Zvyozdny, Perm Krai. The disbandment of units started in February 2002 as part of reforms of the Strategic Rocket Forces. One of the 52nd's four regiments was taken off alert duty and the first section of its ballistic missile trains were sent to be scrapped. The division's last commander, Major General Boris Sinenko, expressed his colleagues' misgivings at the time, wondering whether the "decision was timely." On 1 December, the division's honors were transferred to the 1328th Base for Storage and Transshipment of BZhRK Components, under the command of Sinenko, who led it for the duration of its existence. The base supervised the removal of the division's equipment until it was disbanded on 1 September 2007. During the five years of its existence, it shipped 37 missiles to Strategic Rocket Forces storage bases and arsenals, and drained rocket fuel from 40 missiles. #### Commanders The following officers commanded the division during its existence: - Colonel (promoted to Major General) Zinovy Ivanov (22 July 1961 – 1 April 1966) - Colonel Pavel Parshin (1 April 1966 – 7 May 1969) - Major General Pavel Kabanov (7 May 1969 – 26 February 1973) - Major General Anatoly Drukayev (26 February 1973 – 20 September 1976) - Major General Valery Kozlov (20 September 1976 – 20 December 1980) - Major General Veniamin Belousov (20 December 1980 – 21 June 1984) - Major General Ivan Balabolkin (21 June 1984 – 29 June 1989) - Major General Yury Kirillov (29 June 1989 – 4 November 1993) - Major General Alexey Subbotin (4 November 1993 – 16 June 1999) - Major General Boris Sinenko (16 June 1999 – 30 November 2002)

National Airlines Flight 2511

1960 airplane crash

National Airlines Flight 2511 was a United States domestic passenger flight from New York City to Miami, Florida. On January 6, 1960, the Douglas DC-6 serving the flight exploded in midair. The National Airlines aircraft was carrying 5 crew members and 29 passengers, all of whom perished. The Civil Aeronautics Board investigation concluded that the plane was brought down by a bomb made of dynamite. No criminal charges were ever filed, nor was the blame for the bombing ever determined, though a suicide bombing is suspected. The investigation remains open. One of the victims was retired U.S. Navy Vice Admiral Edward Orrick McDonnell, a Medal of Honor recipient and veteran of both World Wars. ## Flight history National Airlines' New York-Miami route was usually flown by a Boeing 707 as Flight 601. On January 5, 1960, the 707 aircraft scheduled to fly to Miami was grounded due to cracks that were discovered in the cockpit windshield. The windshield replacement procedure would take eight hours to perform, so National Airlines transferred the passengers of Flight 601 to two propliner aircraft it had in reserve. Passengers were boarded on these two replacement planes on a first-come, first-served basis. Seventy-six passengers boarded a Lockheed L-188 Electra. This aircraft flew to Miami and arrived safely. The remaining 29 passengers boarded a Douglas DC-6B, which departed Idlewild Airport for Miami as Flight 2511. They were accompanied by two stewardesses, pilot Dale Southard (45), copilot Richard L. Hentzel (31), and flight engineer Robert R. Halleckson (34). The plane departed New York at 11:52 p.m. and was scheduled to arrive in Miami at 4:36 a.m. on January 6. The aircraft, registration was described as being in good condition. It had four Pratt and Whitney R-2800 CB-16 engines and had accumulated 24,836 hours of flight time. 2511's flight plan called for it to fly south from New York to Wilmington, North Carolina, where it would continue south over the Atlantic Ocean. It would fly south 550 miles (890 km) over the ocean to Palm Beach, Florida. The crew maintained radio contact with National Airlines' radio controllers and air traffic control, reporting clouds and instrument flying conditions. The crew checked in with Wilmington Airport at 2:07 a.m., and later reported flying over the Carolina Beach radio beacon at 2:31 a.m. This was the last radio contact with the airplane. ## Crash and recovery After losing contact with the DC-6 aircraft, National Airlines, the United States Coast Guard, and the United States Navy began an intensive search along the southeastern coast of the United States. The search was called off the following day, when National Airlines received word that there was a plane down in North Carolina. At about 2:45 a.m. a farmer, Richard Randolph, heard the sound of an engine cutting in and out, followed by tearing metal and an explosion. Later that morning, after his teenage son McArthur Randolph found airplane wreckage in one of his father's fields, Richard Randolph drove to Bolivia, North Carolina, which had the nearest phone. He called Wilmington Airport to report the downed plane at approximately 7:00 a.m. When Highway Patrol officers responded, he led them to the crash site. Bodies and wreckage were scattered over an area of 20 acres (8 ha) covering farm fields, marshland, and pine forests. During the first day of search and rescue, investigators located 32 bodies of the 34 persons on board. One of the missing bodies was later found at the main crash site. The remaining body was found at Snow's Marsh, approximately 16 miles (26 km) from the main site. Initial reports speculated that the aircraft had disintegrated in mid-flight. One newspaper reporter indicated that the largest piece of wreckage he observed was a portion of the wing. A fragment of aluminum, believed to be a piece of the airplane's skin, was found on Kure Beach, 25 miles (40 km) from the rest of the wreckage. ## Investigations The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), part of the Department of Transportation, were the primary investigators into the crash of Flight 2511. The wreckage of the DC-6 was taken to a hangar at nearby Wilmington Airport, where the fuselage was reassembled on a wood-and-chicken-wire frame. Investigators recovered approximately 90% of the fuselage, which was then assembled on the frame in the Wilmington hangar. Investigators identified the point of origin of the disintegration as an area immediately ahead of the leading edge of the aircraft's right wing. The material recovered from Kure Beach, including a portion of the wing fillet, was from this general area. Investigators did not recover material from an irregular, triangularly shaped area positioned above the leading edge and extending forward ahead of the wing. The bodies were taken to the local high school gymnasium to await autopsy and identification by a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) fingerprinting team. The Brunswick County coroner ordered autopsies of the passengers and crew to determine the specific cause of death for each. One of the victims was Vice Admiral Edward Orrick McDonnell, U.S. Navy (retired), a recipient of the Medal of Honor and a veteran of both World Wars. Other victims included a vice president of the Continental Bank of Cuba, a pharmacist, a student at the University of Miami, and an insurance adjuster. Three of the victims had been standby passengers and only made the flight due to others cancelling their reservations. ### Julian Frank The only body not found at the main crash site was that of Julian Frank, a New York City lawyer. His body was recovered from Snow's Marsh, located on the west side of the Cape Fear River. Frank's body had sustained significant injuries, including the amputation of both legs, and debris was embedded in his body. Frank's injuries were significantly different from and much more extensive than the other passengers'. Furthermore, Frank's injuries were inconsistent with the type of injury usually incurred in an aircraft accident. Frank was autopsied twice, the second time to recover debris embedded in his body. The autopsy revealed that his lower extremities had been ripped off; his muscle tissue was extensively mutilated and torn; small pieces of wire, brass, and miscellaneous articles including a hat ornament were embedded in various limbs; the fingers of his right hand were fractured and the bones splintered; and the distal phalanx of each finger on his left hand was missing. The coroner also observed numerous patches of blackened areas, similar to close-range gunshot residue. Four human finger bones were discovered among the wreckage at the primary crash site. At the time of the crash, Frank had been accused of running a charity scam and was under investigation by the Manhattan district attorney's office. It was alleged that he had misappropriated up to a million dollars (roughly equivalent to \$ million in dollars) in a series of scams. ### Bombing The crash of National Airlines Flight 2511 came shortly after the crash of another National Airlines plane. National Airlines Flight 967 exploded over the Gulf of Mexico on November 16, 1959. The cause of the explosion was believed to be a bomb in the luggage of one of the passengers, Robert Vernon Spears, who enlisted a substitute to board the plane in his place. Spears was heavily insured, and the FBI indicated that his motive was insurance fraud. Similarly, Julian Frank was covered by almost \$900,000 (roughly equivalent to \$ million in dollars) in life insurance policies, including some purchased the day of the crash. The CAB sent the material recovered from Frank's body to the FBI laboratories for testing and analysis. Analysis determined that the many wire fragments that were found embedded in Frank's body, in the seats on the right-hand side, and in the carpeting, were low-carbon steel wire, 0.025 inches (0.64 mm) in diameter. One of the dismembered fingers recovered from the wreckage had been embedded in the face plate of a travel alarm clock. A life jacket from Kure Beach, found with parts of a flight bag embedded in it, tested positive for nitrate residue. A black "crusty" residue on Frank's right hand was found to be manganese dioxide, a substance found in dry cell batteries. In addition to the evidence collected from Frank's body, there were also samples of residue taken from the air vents and hat rack located on the right side of the aircraft near the leading edge of the wing. These samples contained sodium carbonate, sodium nitrate, and mixtures of sodium-sulfur compounds. The Civil Aeronautics Board concluded the severity of Frank's injuries and the numerous particulates found embedded in his body could only be attributed to his proximity to an explosion. Furthermore, the chemical compounds detected in the area around the explosion's point of origin were consistent with those generated by a dynamite explosion. The manganese dioxide samples collected from the seats near the focal point and from Frank's body indicated a dry cell battery was located very near the explosive. The CAB determined, based on the blast pattern, a dynamite charge had been placed underneath the window seat of row 7. The CAB's chief investigator, Oscar Bakke, testified before the Senate Aviation subcommittee to this effect on January 12, 1960. The same day, the FBI formally took over the criminal aspects of the investigation. ### Other theories One of the first theories considered by investigators was that Flight 2511 was involved in a collision with another airliner, given the crash site's proximity to Wilmington Airport. Investigators reviewed the flight plan and other documents to determine if other aircraft were in the area. There was no record of any other aircraft, or of any military missiles having been fired. Furthermore, wreckage of Flight 2511 was confined to two general locations, namely the primary crash scene near Bolivia and the secondary scene in Kure Beach. All debris was accounted for as belonging to the DC-6. Another theory presented by an expert shortly after the crash theorized that an engine fire could have been the catalyst of the accident. Under this theory, one of the two engines on the right wing may have caught fire. Shrapnel from the engine may have punctured the fuselage, causing explosive decompression. Alternatively, Julian Frank, who was known to be desperately afraid of flying, may have panicked and hit the window, weakening it in such a manner it subsequently blew out. Under this theory, the pilots and passengers would have been aware of an emergency aboard, which would have allowed them to begin making preparations for an emergency landing. This theory was supported by the wide right turn the aircraft appeared to make prior to disintegrating and crashing, as well as the fact some of the passengers were found wearing life jackets. Though the bombing and engine fire theories were the most commonly held, other theories were advanced during the investigation as well. Several days after the explosion, National Airlines pilots who were members of the Airline Pilots Association sent a telegram to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In the telegram, they made a claim that the routine proficiency flights performed by pilots caused unnecessary stress on the aircraft. These test flights, which pilots underwent every six months, required the pilots to put their aircraft through "violent maneuvers" which could damage the aircraft. In their final report, the Civil Aeronautics Board indicated it had investigated a variety of alternative theories, including: - metal fatigue failure of the cabin leading to explosive decompression - a propeller blade failing, striking, and rupturing the cabin - a malfunction in the cabin pressurization system leading to structural failure - a foreign object striking the plane and penetrating the cabin - lightning strike - fuel vapor explosion - oxygen bottle explosion The CAB ruled out each of these theories during the course of their investigation. ### Conclusions The Civil Aeronautics Board concluded Flight 2511 was brought down by a dynamite explosion in the passenger cabin. The explosive charge was located "beneath the extreme right seat of seat row No. 7." The report also pointed out that Julian Frank was close to the explosion, though it assigned no blame to him. The explosion occurred at approximately 2:33 a.m., significantly damaging the structural integrity of the aircraft and forcing it into a wide right-hand turn. As it descended, it suffered an in-flight disintegration and crashed at 2:38 a.m. The CAB concluded in their final report: > No reference is made in this report concerning the placing of the dynamite aboard the aircraft or of the person or persons responsible for its detonation. The malicious destruction of an aircraft is a Federal crime. After the Board's determination that such was involved, the criminal aspects of this accident were referred to the Department of Justice through its Federal Bureau of Investigation ... > > The Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the detonation of dynamite within the passenger cabin. — Civil Aeronautics Board File No. 1-0002, pp. 1,12 The FBI assumed control of the criminal investigation on January 20, 1960. The case remains open and unsolved. ## See also - Comair Flight 206 - Continental Airlines Flight 11 - List of accidents and incidents involving airliners in the United States - List of unsolved deaths - National Airlines Flight 967

1920 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean

The 1920 Atlantic hurricane season featured tropical storms and hurricanes only in the month of September. (The present-day delineation of the Atlantic hurricane season is June 1 to November 30.) The first system, a hurricane, developed on September 7 while the last, a tropical depression, transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 27. Of note, four of the six cyclones co-existed with another tropical cyclone during the season. Of the season's six tropical cyclones, five became tropical storms and four strengthened into hurricanes. Furthermore, none of these strengthened into a major hurricane—Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale—marking the seventh such occurrence since 1900. The strongest hurricane of the season peaked as only as a strong Category 2 with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). The second hurricane caused one death and \$1.45 million (1920 USD) in damage in Louisiana, the third left one fatality in North Carolina, and the fifth storm indirectly killed one person in Florida. The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 30, below the 1911–1920 average of 58.7. ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed, so storms that last a long time, as well as particularly strong hurricanes, have high ACEs. It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm status. ## Timeline ## Systems ### Hurricane One The first known storm of the season was initially identified on September 7 as a 40 mph (65 km/h) tropical storm over Atlantic Ocean. Traveling towards the northwest, the storm gradually intensified, attaining hurricane-status late on September 9. The following day, a ship in the vicinity of the storm recorded a pressure of 985 mbar (hPa), the lowest pressure recorded in relation to the storm. Around 1200 UTC, the hurricane turned towards the north and intensified into a modern-day Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale early on September 11. The storm continued to intensify through September 12 when it reached its peak intensity with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). After maintaining this intensity for 18 hours, the hurricane began to weaken as it turned towards the northwest. By 0000 UTC on September 14, the storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane. The system began to undergo an extratropical transition, completing the process early the next day. The system tracked nearly due east before dissipating on September 16 to the north of the Azores islands. ### Hurricane Two The Louisiana Hurricane of 1920 An area of disturbed weather developed into a tropical depression northwest of Colombia on September 16. The system remained a weak tropical depression as it made landfall on Nicaragua, but later intensified to tropical storm strength as it moved across the Gulf of Honduras, prior to making a second landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula. Once in the Gulf of Mexico, the storm quickly intensified as it moved towards the north-northwest, reaching its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h) prior to making landfall near Houma, Louisiana with no change in intensity. Afterwards, it quickly weakened over land, before dissipating on September 23 over eastern Kansas. As it approached the United States Gulf Coast, the hurricane forced an estimated 4,500 people to evacuate off of Galveston Island, and numerous other evacuations and precautionary measures to occur. At landfall, the hurricane generated strong winds along a wide swath of the coast, uprooting trees and causing damage to homes and other infrastructure. Heavy rainfall associated with the storm peaked at 11.9 in (300 mm) in Robertsdale, Alabama. The heavy rains also washed out railroads, leading to several rail accidents. Across the Gulf Coast, one death was associated with the hurricane and damage from the storm totaled to \$1.45 million (1920 USD). ### Hurricane Three A low-pressure area developed into a tropical depression on September 19, while located about 245 mi (395 km) southeast of Awendaw, South Carolina. The system, which had an "extremely small diameter", moved in a slow cyclonic loop. Around 1200 UTC on September 20, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm. By midday on September 22, it continued the cyclonic loop while moving northwestward. The storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane around that time. Maximum sustained winds peaked at 85 mph (140 km/h) late on September 22. However, the hurricane then began to weakened and fell to a strong tropical storm early the following day, at which time it made landfall near Cape Fear, North Carolina. The cyclone quickly weakened after moving inland and dissipated over western Virginia early on September 24. Offshore Bald Head Island, North Carolina, a lightship was carried several miles from its original location and observed winds of 72 mph (116 km/h). Inland, a house in Wilmington was blown off its foundation and destroyed in, potentially a small tornado spawned by the cyclone. Many small severe windstorms were reported in Pitt County, where one person was killed, a number of people were injured, and several buildings were demolished. ### Tropical Storm Four A tropical depression developed from a weak low-pressure area along a decaying stationary front about 450 mi (720 km) east of Bermuda around 1200 UTC on September 23. Based on ship observations, the system is estimated to have become a tropical storm early on September 24. The drifted slowly eastward for a few days and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph (75 km/h) later that day. Eventually, the system curved east-southeastward, but later continued its generally eastward motion at a faster forward speed. Around 1200 UTC on September 27, the storm weakened to a tropical depression, hours before being absorbed by a cold front. This storm was not operationally tracked in real time, but was later added to HURDAT based on weather maps and ship reports. ### Hurricane Five A low-pressure area centered the Gulf of Mexico on September 25 and was designated as a tropical depression hours later. Turning west-southwestward, the storm gradually intensified, attaining tropical storm-status on September 27. The next day, the system nearly stalled close to the center of the Gulf of Mexico. On September 28, further development of the storm took place and ships in the vicinity of the storm reported a strong gale. The next day, the storm strengthened into a hurricane. Several hours later, nearby ship reported a pressure of 987 mbar (29.1 inHg), the lowest pressure associated with the hurricane. Around this time, the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 85 mph (140 km/h); the storm also began to turn northeastward at this time. The hurricane then accelerated and began weakening. Early on September 30, the storm made landfall near Cedar Key, Florida, with winds up to 65 mph (100 km/h) before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone over Florida. Later that day, the remnants dissipated over the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Although the storm weakened significantly before landfall, it caused severe damage along the immediate coastlines of western Florida. Low lands along the coast were inundated by storm surge and heavy rains, peaking at 8 in (203.2 mm). Crop lands were flooded, causing substantial damage to the fruit industry. One person was killed after being electrocuted by a downed wire in St. Petersburg. Several ships were also destroyed by the storm while docked along the coast. ### Tropical Depression On October 20, a westward moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression about 165 mi (265 km) north-northeast of Barbuda. Trekking northwestward over the next three days, before curving northward in advance of an approaching frontal boundary. The depression peaked with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph (55 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1,010 mbar (30 inHg). By October 25, it began merging with a cold front, finally being absorbed on October 27 about 590 mi (950 km) east-northeast of Bermuda. ## See also - 1900–1940 South Pacific cyclone seasons - 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons - 1920s Australian region cyclone seasons

King Albert Park MRT station

Mass Rapid Transit station in Singapore

King Albert Park MRT station is an underground Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station on the Downtown Line (DTL) in Bukit Timah, Singapore. Located at the western end of Bukit Timah Road at the junction of Blackmore Drive, this station serves the private residential estates along the Bukit Timah corridor. Sites surrounding the station include the Methodist Girls' School and the preserved Bukit Timah Railway Station. First announced as Blackmore MRT station in July 2008, the station was constructed as part of DTL Stage 2 (DTL2). Construction was briefly delayed due to residents' concerns of the tunnel launch shaft near their estate, and the sudden dissolution of Alpine Bau contracted to construct the station. Initially forecast to open in mid-2016, the station opened earlier on 27 December 2015 along with the other DTL2 stations. In September 2022, the station was announced to interchange with the future Cross Island line (CRL). The station features an Art-in-Transit artwork The Natural History of Singapore's Mythical Botanic Creatures by the Artists Caravan. ## History ### Downtown Line The station was first announced as "Blackmore" station when the stations on Downtown Line Stage 2 (DTL2) were revealed in July 2008. The station name was finalised as "King Albert Park" through a public poll in July 2009. Contract 917 for the design and construction of the station and the adjacent tunnels was awarded to Alpine Bau GmbH (Singapore Branch) in September 2009. The contract included the construction of the adjacent Sixth Avenue station. Construction was targeted to begin in 2010. Construction works had to be suspended for two months over Maplewood residents' concerns about the tunnel boring machine (TBM) launch shaft located right outside the condominium. The construction space required pedestrians to take an alternative route which residents considered "dangerous" and "inconvenient" especially for Methodist Girls' School (MGS) students due to the movement of construction vehicles. Motorists exiting the condominium had to watch out and give way to fast-moving traffic along Bukit Timah Road. The new construction site also limited access for service and emergency vehicles to the condominium. Unhappy that they were not consulted, the residents launched a petition to prime minister Lee Hsien Loong while some appealed to the local Member of Parliament (MP) Christopher de Souza to change the construction plans. Residents had suggested relocating the TBM launch shaft to Sixth Avenue station. However, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) explained that would require demolishing the shophouses. Another suggestion to drill the tunnels from Tan Kah Kee station would delay construction by another four years. Souza and the LTA, through engagements with the Maplewood residents, offered to rebuild a new direct pathway between the condominium and MGS and reconfigure the traffic to and from the condominium. Eventually, road markings and traffic lights were implemented along Bukit Timah Road so traffic on the road would have to slow down near the condo. Noise barriers were erected to minimise construction noise and the construction site was regularly washed to minimise dust accumulation. The traffic scheme was revised so construction vehicles do not have to pass by the condominium. Construction resumed in the middle of July 2011. A 14 m (46 ft) precast segment of the Bukit Timah canal wall near the junction of Bukit Timah Road and Clementi Road was dislodged, which prompted a halt in construction works and the closure of the rightmost two lanes on Bukit Timah Road on 17 January 2012. Cement had to be injected to stabilise the ground. #### Bankruptcy of main contractor On 19 June 2013, the main contractor for the station Alpine Bau went bankrupt. The sudden insolvency caught the LTA by surprise, as the construction was going well by then. An "unprecedented situation", the LTA immediately took action. A security firm was employed to protect the sites and the incomplete structures, while the LTA worked with experts to preserve the tunnel boring machines and recharge wells. As the LTA sought a new contractor, McConnell Dowell South East Asia, the contractor for Beauty World station, was temporarily appointed as the caretaker contractor to carry on tunnelling works. Through engagement with the Ministry of Manpower, the 400 affected workers were reassigned or sent home. On 29 August 2013, the LTA announced the appointment of two new contractors for King Albert Park and the two other stations. The contract for the completion of the King Albert Park and Sixth Avenue stations and associated tunnels was awarded to McConnell Dowell at a contract sum of \$254 million (US\$ million). The contractors were appointed just eight weeks after the insolvency, whereas usually, a tender needed at least six months for evaluation and processing. The quick appointment was to reduce the delay in the completion of DTL2. To speed up the construction as much as possible, manpower for the construction of these stations increased by 25%, with workers taking up additional graveyard shifts so that work could continue throughout the day and night. To reduce inconvenience to residents, rather than using conventional breakers, quieter wire saws were utilised to break up the concrete struts. On 28 June 2015, Transport Minister Lui Tuck Yew announced that the DTL2 would be opened earlier, with the works 95% complete. The LTA managed to bring forward the completion as the staff worked through many weekends and "sleepless nights". The engineers were reported to be "equally proud and relieved" of the achievement and they were credited for their cooperation and hard work. In August that year, Lui announced that the DTL2 segment would open on 27 December. Prior to the station's opening, passengers were offered a preview of the station during the DTL open house on 5 December. ### Cross Island line The station was first announced to interchange with the Cross Island line (CRL) on 20 September 2022 by Transport Minister S Iswaran. The CRL platforms will be constructed as part of CRL Phase 2, a 15 km (9.3 mi) segment spanning six stations from Turf City station to Jurong Lake District station. The station is expected to be completed in 2032. ## Details King Albert Park station serves the Downtown line (DTL) and is situated between the Beauty World and Sixth Avenue stations. The official station code is DT6. Being part of the DTL, the station is operated by SBS Transit. The station is located along Bukit Timah Road at the junction with Blackmore Drive. Surrounding landmarks of the station include: Bukit Timah Railway Bridge, the preserved Bukit Timah Railway Station, Covenant Community Methodist Church, Methodist Girls' School and Sime Darby Centre. ### Design The designs of King Albert Park station and the adjoining stations, Tan Kah Kee and Sixth Avenue, are intended to represent the natural elements. The blue and turquoise panels in the station, arranged in ripple patterns, is intended to reflect the water surfaces. The station is wheelchair-accessible. A tactile system, consisting of tiles with rounded or elongated raised studs, guides visually impaired commuters through the station, with dedicated routes that connect the station entrances to the platforms or between the lines. Wider fare gates allow easier access for wheelchair users into the station. King Albert Park station is a designated Civil Defence (CD) shelter. To be activated in times of national emergency, the station features the reinforced steel blast doors and decontamination chambers to protect against chemical attacks. ### Art-in-Transit King Albert Park station features The Natural History of Singapore's Mythical Botanic Creatures by Chan Mei Hsien, Long Ying Han and Soh Pei Ling Joey of the Artists Caravan. The work was commissioned as part of the MRT network's Art-in-Transit (AiT) Programme, a public art showcase which integrates artworks into the MRT network. The artwork depicts bronze statues of fantasy creatures placed at corners of the station, along with a "Nature Notebook" by MGS students printed on glass panes along the station's pedestrian bridge. Referencing the wildlife that resides in the nearby Bukit Timah Nature Reserve, the artwork is intended as a "whimsical narrative", depicting contrasts between natural and manmade environmental features through the revelation of the "secret lives" of these mystical creatures.

Dimitri Marick

Fictional character from the American ABC soap opera All My Children

Dimitri Marick is a fictional character from the American ABC soap opera All My Children. The role has been most notably portrayed by Michael Nader, previously famed for his role on Dynasty. Former head writers Agnes Nixon and Lorraine Broderick created the character in 1991, designing him as a brooding and mysterious character based on heroes from gothic literature, such as Maxim de Winter from Daphne du Maurier's novel Rebecca and Heathcliff from Emily Brontë's novel Wuthering Heights. The character's introduction raised All My Children in the Nielsen ratings and was credited as the "saving grace" of the unpopular Natalie and Janet storyline. Soon after his debut on the soap opera, Dimitri became a complex leading man and took part in some of the most notable plots of the 1990s. He had a very popular romance with Erica Kane (Susan Lucci). Dimitri and Erica's storylines include a tumultuous romance leading to two failed marriages and a miscarriage. One of the biggest obstacles in their relationship was Erica's vindinctive and manipulative daughter, Kendall Hart (Sarah Michelle Gellar). Dimitri also had a popular romance with Alexandra Devane (Finola Hughes) and a loving yet antagonistic relationship with his half-brother, Edmund Grey (John Callahan). In July 1999, Nader was let go from All My Children due to budgetary considerations, however, he later returned in May 2000. The following year, the actor's arrest brought him and the character to the center of a large fan campaign organized by a group called the Loyalists, as well as a highly publicized lawsuit catching the attention of People and Entertainment Tonight, among other media outlets. As a result, Nader was let go again by the soap opera, with an official statement saying they would be prepared to consider having him return once he had addressed the lawsuit issues. The role was temporarily recast with actor Anthony Addabbo, who was negatively received by viewers, and let go shortly after his debut. Nader later stated in an interview that ABC had informed him that they had no intention of ever bringing him or the character back due to a lack of storyline. In 2004, Nader's suit was subsequently thrown out. In May 2013, after a twelve-year absence from All My Children, Nader was announced to be reprising the role, with his return airing on June 12, 2013. ## Casting Casting the role of Dimitri gave All My Children difficulty. The series' casting director, Judy Blye Wilson, tested between fifteen and twenty actors, and could not find the right actor for the job. Wilson then learned that the former Dynasty star, Michael Nader was available and suggested the show offer him the part. Before All My Children offered him the role of Dimitri Marick, Nader already planned on working in both Los Angeles and New York. "My fiancee, Beth Windsor, had literally just worked into being bicoastal," he said. "She had an apartment here and I had been seeking out some theater here in New York and would have been spending time both here and in L.A. So after we made the decision to go ahead with that game plan, this offer (Dimitri) came on the table and when we worked out all the figures moneywise it was a great opportunity." Despite Nader's prime time success as Dynasty's Dex Dexter, he did not look down on daytime television. "The fact of the matter is we're in a different era," he said. "And if you look at the cutbacks in Hollywood, being on a soap is not of any less or more value than being in any other medium at this time." Another factor that contributed to his decision to join All My Children was the actors strike. He intended to stay on All My Children for a year. That year turned into more because the actor fell in love with New York. Since finding the right actor to play Dimitri took such a long time, the show had already begun taping around the character for two weeks. Nader spent his first weeks on All My Children working overtime to catch up. "By the time we had resolved some of the terms," he said, "they were really against the wall in terms of back story.... In retrospect, I should have just slept on the set because it was like sixty or seventy pages a day!" Nader also taped his scenes out of sequence while dealing with sixteen different scripts from different points in the story. To keep each scene straight he gave them each a name that described the scene's main action. After those scenes were taped, they were spliced into the otherwise completed episodes. This went on for two weeks until the episodes were all caught up. Another complication Nader dealt with was the wardrobe. He said, "They had devised this sort of 'tapestry' layered look for Dimitri and it was like doing scenes inside a sauna." This was eventually rectified, but not before the actor lost around twelve pounds in the two weeks. Michael Nader was fired from All My Children in July 1999, due to budget considerations, and Dimitri was killed off. This led to a fan outcry from viewers who campaigned for the actor's return. To partially appease them, the show's executive producer, Jean Dadario Burke, offered Nader his job back on a recurring basis. He rejected this offer because "after being a major character for so long, it didn't make any sense to me. So I declined. But if the network was interested in seriously discussing Dimitri's return on a contract basis I would love to go back." In May 2000, he was rehired and brought back into the role with a multi-year contract. The return story scripted for the Dimitri character centered on the romance between his brother Edmund and his wife Alex. Dimitri was revealed to be alive just as his wife, Alex, and brother, Edmund, had sex for the first time. Nader said he wanted to create a deeper layer in the character instead of focusing solely on the love triangle between Dimitri, Alex, and Edmund. "I do hope to pursue some sort of subtle spiritual change, some perception that Dimitri is different," he said. He questioned the writers' storyline choice in not exploring the popular Dimitri and Erica romance again. "I found it sort of odd that they'd move me so far away from Susan[Lucci, Erica]," Nader said. "They're trying to explore these other themes." Nader lost the role again in February 2001 as a result of the actor getting arrested for allegedly selling cocaine to an undercover police officer. All My Children released an official statement saying, "If Mr. Nader gets the help that he needs and addresses his problem, and it makes sense for the show, we would be prepared to speak with Michael in the future." The network put Nader on probation and ordered him to seek help for his problem. Anthony Addabbo temporarily took over the role, first airing on April 6, 2001. To prepare for the role, he watched tapes of Nader's portrayal of Dimitri in order to see the relationships between Dimitri and other characters. Despite the fan protest against the role being recast, Addabbo told Soap Opera Digest he was not worried. "I don't find it intimidating," he said. "I know how they can come to love a certain actor portraying a role and how he plays the role and everything, but this happens in daytime so frequently that I didn't find it intimidating at all." Soap Opera Digest considered him an odd choice for a Dimitri recast since Addabbo usually portrayed "all-American good guys" such as Generations Jason Craig and Guiding Lights Jim LeMay. A large number of All My Children fans rejected Addabbo in the role and continued to campaign for Nader's return. The controversy forced the writers to lessen Dimitri's role on the show until July 2001 when Addabbo was let go "for storyline reasons", according to ABC's official statement. During an interview, Nader told Soap Opera Digest that in late September 2001, ABC called a meeting with him to inform him that, though he resolved his personal problems, they had no intention of ever bringing him or the character back due to lack of story. Nader argued that other storyline possibilities existed since he and Dimitri received "a tremendous response" from viewers. "For years, Dimitri and Erica were a popular coupling," he said. "A good friend of mine, Jack Scalia (Chris), is on...that alone would be a dynamic triangle." In May 2013, following a twelve-year absence from All My Children, Nader was announced to be reprising the role of Dimitri, scheduled to begin in June. Initially his first airdate was 3 June, however, due to Prospect Park's decision to reduce the number of episodes made available each week, he did not air until 12 June. ## Development Former head writers Agnes Nixon and Lorraine Broderick created the character Dimitri Marick in 1991. His original purpose was to rescue Natalie Marlowe from the well her sister, Janet Green, trapped her in. He was also designed as a rival for Natalie's current love interest, Trevor Dillon. Trevor and Natalie were a popular couple at that point and the writers wanted to create a viable obstacle for them. eally exciting, romantic, handsome leading man, so that there would be a real impediment; you know we'd have a really exciting love story between Trevor and somebody as different from Trevor as we could get...because Trevor is a wonderful, warm, teddy bear, lovable, down-to-earth, right-out-there guy- and Dimitri is very much opposite from that." Broderick characterized the character in an interview with Soap Opera Update, stating: > He's certainly a man who wants to be in control. He's a very strong man, he's a very passionate man. He's had a troubled, tragic background, and is just beginning to come out into the world again after being quite reclusive for the past fifteen years. He is guarded, and he plays everything close to the vest. He is very slow to let other people in- except Natalie, with whom he feels a special and unique bond, because he rescued her and because he fell in love with her very quickly, which we hope will be part of the mystery. Nixon and Broderick also crafted the character as a darkly brooding and mysterious man in the same vein as gothic literary heroes such as Heathcliff from Wuthering Heights, Edward Rochester from Jane Eyre, and Maxim de Winter from Rebecca. Nixon used these characters as inspiration for Dimitri because, as she told Soap Opera Weekly, "In doing the 'stolen life' story, I felt that we needed something to follow that was also a little larger than life, very romantic, and gothic." The characters played a part in shaping Dimitri as well as his environment and storylines. Maxim de Winter's estate, Manderley, provided the inspiration for Dimitri's Pine Valley estate, Wildwind. The design was taken from both the description in Du Maurier's book and the depiction from the film Rebecca, a 1940 adaptation of the novel by Alfred Hitchcock. Like Mr. Rochester, the wife Dimitri falsely claims died years ago is revealed to be alive just before his marriage to another woman. Nixon infused elements of those literatures into the Dimitri and Natalie romance with as well. "There's a gothic quality to it", she said, referring to the couple. "It's Wuthering Heights or Jane Eyre. Everybody loves somebody who has a past and a secret- and certainly Dimitri does- which we haven't divulged yet. That heightens ones interest and suspense. It's a special situation but what really makes it special is the actor's talent, personalities, good looks, and chemistry." Since the writers created Dimitri as a very mysterious character, Michael Nader mostly stayed away from the press in order to help maintain that image. Whenever he did do an interview, he discussed the character in such a way as to add more mystery. Nader compared Dimitri to the Dynasty character he once portrayed, Dex Dexter. On Dynasty, "John James (Jeff Colby) played the 'aw, shucks;' nice guy, and I played the guy who was on the edge, who would take care of business and not take any bull", he said. "Dimitri is sort of a darker Dex. Though I don't know exactly how dark to make him yet." Nader, as an actor, also provided the writers with more inspiration on the character. "The more we see of him, the more he inspires us", Broderick said. "It's just a wonderful marriage of actor and character[...] He's giving us so many levels and such depth, that it's a challenge. But it's exciting. Dimitri is one of the characters that is so much fun to write." ## Storylines ### Backstory To further the mystery element and add an international twist to the story, Nixon scripted Dimitri as having close European roots, though he is an American. He is the son of Hungarian parents, Hugo and Anna. Originally, his wealth comes from all the land around Pine Valley and the One Life to Live city Llanview, which he inherits from his parents. That is also where his fictional estate, Wildwind, is located. Later, during Dimitri's 1992 story with Erica Kane, he is revealed to also be Hungarian nobility as Count Andrassy. He inherited his title and his Hungarian castle, Vadzel, from his father's side. Both of his parents were dead by the time Dimitri first appears on All My Children. He spends his childhood years growing up in Europe and on the Wildwind estate. He has a complicated relationship with Edmund Gresham, the son of two of his family's employees, unknown to Dimitri to be his half-brother. His childhood sweetheart was Angelique Voynitzeva, the daughter of his nanny, Helga. Helga later becomes his housekeeper. Fifteen years prior to Dimitri's appearance on-screen, he and Angelique married. Angelique becomes pregnant but suffers a miscarriage which devastates both of them. Angelique has a riding accident which leaves her in a coma. Dimitri tries to find a cure, but is unable to and sends her to a clinic in Austria. He becomes reclusive for the next decade because of the guilt he feels over her condition. Finding Natalie in 1991 brings him out into society again. ### 1991–2001 Dimitri Marick first appears in Pine Valley in 1991 when he rescues Natalie Marlowe from the well her identical twin sister, Janet Green, trapped her in on the Wildwind estate. She resembles his comatose wife, Angelique, which attracts him to her. While he nurses her back to health, Dimitri becomes obsessively in love with her. His housekeeper, Helga, who is also Angelique's mother, is not pleased about this. He lies to Natalie that his wife died years ago. Once Natalie recovers and everyone learns what happened to her at Janet's hand, Natalie's fiancé, Trevor Dillon, tries to reconcile with her. Natalie rejects her fiancé, Trevor Dillon, because Janet fooled him into thinking she was Natalie and he slept with her. Dimitri and Natalie become engaged. Unbeknown to Dimitri, Angelique has awoken from her coma and Helga brings her to Dimitri and Natalie's engagement party. Natalie leaves Dimitri and reunites with Trevor. Dimitri reconciles with his wife. Dimitri begins an affair with Erica Kane. He falls in love with her, but feels he must stay with Angelique. Edmund Grey, the son of a Marick family maid and gardener, returns to town to see Angelique, his close childhood friend. Dimitri is furious to see Edmund again since he had stolen money from Dimitri's father to pay for his education. Dimitri is stunned when Edmund informs him that they are half-brothers. Edmund had discovered this when he found Hugo Marick's will that states he is not only his illegitimate son, but that he is the lawful heir to Wildwind. Helga had planted the will as revenge for Dimitri's affair with Erica, but when Dimitri assures Helga he is now completely devoted to Angelique, she destroys the will in order to keep the estate for her daughter. Edmund files a lawsuit to have Hugo's body exhumed, which causes the hatred between him and Dimitri to deepen even more. Eventually, the truth about what Helga did is revealed and she dies. Dimitri and Edmund agree to put the past behind them and they bond as brothers. They develop an extremely close and loving relationship, but they also continue to have a standing rivalry. Dimitri ends his marriage to Angelique and marries Erica. The newlyweds settle into Wildwind and Dimitri develops a close relationship with Erica's daughter, Bianca Montgomery. Dimitri's happiness with Erica is disrupted by Erica's vengeful older daughter, Kendall Hart. Kendall tells Dimitri she is in love with him, but he immediately rejects her. As revenge, Kendall implies to Erica that Dimitri sexually assaulted her and Erica, who was raped by Kendall's father Richard Fields, stabs Dimitri in the neck. Erica is charged with attempted murder, but is acquitted. Another bombshell is dropped in Dimitri's life when he finds out that Anton Lang, who he believed to be brother of his maid Corvina (Margaret Sophie Stein), is actually his son with Corvina. Dimitri had had a drunken one-night stand with Corvina which he had no memory of. Dimitri is happy to finally be a father and attempts to forge relationship with Anton without telling him about his parentage. When the truth finally comes out, Anton is devastated and wants nothing to do with Dimitri. Anton later marries Kendall to throw it in Dimitri's face. Eventually, Anton sees Kendall for the manipulator that she is and divorces her. Anton and Dimitri make peace with each other before Anton leaves town. During a time when they are both particularly vulnerable, Dimitri and Edmund's wife, Maria, sleep together. When Maria finds out she is pregnant, the baby's paternity is in question. They have a DNA test done and Skye Chandler, who is in love with Edmund, tampers with test so it will show Dimitri is the father when it is in fact Edmund. After Maria confesses everything, a devastated Edmund tells Dimitri that he is dead to him and he will be bringing the child up as his own. Erica also finds out she is pregnant around this time, but miscarries. Maria gives birth to a baby girl with Erica's help. Maria's daughter is presumed dead after a car accident, but she has actually been kidnapped by Erica and named Sonya. Erica eventually returns the baby to Maria and she is renamed Maddie. Maria is later presumed dead in a plane crash. Dimitri discovers that Edmund is Maddie's father when he finds out their blood types do not match. He takes her to Vadzel, but Edmund tracks them down and takes back custody of Maddie. The brothers remain estranged for quite some time, but eventually manage to reconcile. Dimitri leaves Pine Valley permanently in 2001 with his current wife, Alex Devane. ### 2013 In June 2013, Dimitri received an email from his old friend and former lover Brooke English. Brooke was shocked when Dimitri responded by showing up at her door, and told him that she thought she'd never see him again. Dimitri revealed that he and Alex had divorced, and that he had not bothered remaining in touch with his family and had reverted to his reclusive ways, but that Europe was beginning to bore him and her timing couldn't have been better. Upon returning to town, he stopped by his former residence, Wildwind, only to find that the place was empty. Brooke explained that after its last occupant, Caleb Cortlandt, had moved out, Sam and Maddie, Edmund's children, had not bothered to rent the mansion out again. Dimitri told Brooke that, while at Wildwind, he stopped by the mausoleum and made amends to Edmund, who had died in a fire 8 years earlier. Brooke explained to Dimitri that she needed someone to oversee the online division of Chandler Media, and she felt Dimitri would be perfect for the job. Dimitri eagerly accepted. Later, Brooke re-introduced Dimitri to J.R. Chandler, who, although appeared happy to see Dimitri, was nonetheless jealous of the fact that Dimitri, and not him, would be overseeing Chandler Media. As Dimitri and Brooke worked more and more closely together, Dimitri developed feelings for her, which came to a head when he kissed her shortly after the Chandler Media Gala. Brooke told Dimitri that can never happen again, because she is engaged to marry Adam. ## Post Cancellation During a March 2019 episode of General Hospital the character Robert Scorpio tells Anna Devane that he has been in touch with Dimitri related to an investigation into ex-wife Alex's activities, and that Dimitri has handed over records relating to Alex for Anna to review. In February 2021, Dimitri (with only his hands being seen) mails a letter containing Alex's last will and testament, as well as a USB thumb drive to Peter August (Wes Ramsey). This led to rumors that Dimitri might be making an appearance on General Hospital. However, Michael Nader's death later that same year prevented this from occurring. ## Reception Dimitri became a popular leading man soon after his debut on All My Children in 1991 and "was prominent in some of the show's most memorable tales of that decade." The character and his portrayer, Michael Nader, were credited with lifting the Nielsen ratings as well as saving the Natalie, Trevor, and Janet storyline. In that storyline, the character Janet Green imprisons her sister Natalie in a well and masquerades as Natalie to seduce her fiancé Trevor. Fans and soap opera press criticized the story. In Soap Opera Weekly, Marlena De Lacroix said, "Dimitri was the saving grace of the storyline I'd earlier called an artistic disaster: the Janet and Natalie body switch." She described Dimitri as a "cross between Rudolph Valentino's Sheik and the gothic Maxim de Winter from Rebecca." Viewers found the character "irresistible"; so much so that Soap Opera Digest questioned whether the character was a diversion from the failed storyline. All My Children'''s head writer Agnes Nixon denied this. "We expected to get negative mail on Janet/Nat," she said, "they [the viewers] don't like it but they [keep] watching." The character gained further success with the popular Dimitri and Erica pairing. In 1993, viewers named them a supercouple, along with One Life to Live's Bo and Nora and Days of our Lives Roman and Marlena. In 2008, Entertainment Weekly listed them among the top seventeen supercouples. Soap Opera Digest compared them to the real life couple Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton because of their tumultuous nature. The romance between Dimitri and Finola Hughes' Alexandra Devane Marick also rose in popularity. Soap Opera Update named them the best couple of the year in 1999 for All My Children despite the fact that their love story played out through brief flashbacks. The magazine compared the couple's relationship to the television series Once and Again. Soap Opera Update also referred to them as the "break out supercouple of the year". The Dimitri character took a darker turn in 1997, in what Soap Opera Digest considered an effort to make Erica more sympathetic after her role in the kidnapping of the baby Maddie Grey (then known as Sonya). Soap Opera Digest praised the move in an article naming Nader Performer of the Week, saying, "Nader has been surprisingly effective as a meanie, and nothing short of brilliant taking an already complex character and making him more compelling." Soap Opera Weekly's Gabrielle Winkel expressed similar sentiments, saying, "Michael Nader is far more entertaining and compelling now that Dimitri is out for himself than when he was as Erica's devoted husband...AMC was right on target when it developed Dimitri's dark side. Nader's brooding looks and raspy voice have always given Dimitri that evil edge. Nader, though, wisely keeps Dimitri's obsessiveness sufficiently in check to make it believable." At the conclusion of the storyline Soap Opera Digest again named him Performer of the Week for "unleashing the sort of go-for-broke fury and fray that actors are usually reluctant to release unless they're certain their character is about to be killed off." Soap Opera Digest noted the rarity of brothers like Edmund Grey and Dimitri Marick. In the soap opera genre, brothers with a standing rivalry as well as a strong fraternal bond are considered to be a rarity. Sisters on soap operas were usually the ones who shared "men, makeup, and misery." Dimitri and Edmund's relationship was scripted as complicated, transitioning between loving and antagonistic. Their relationship gained positive feedback from both viewers and the soap opera media. Soap Opera Digest named them Best Brothers of 1994, saying, "In Michael Nader (Dimitri) and John Callahan (Edmund), AMC has charismatic performers with chemistry, and they're making the most of it." Complications in the brothers' relationship included childhood jealousies, the revelation that they were brothers, Dimitri's one-night stand with Edmund's wife Maria and subsequent question of the paternity of Maddie Grey, and the Dimitri, Alex, and Edmund triangle. Along with the conflict, they displayed a loving relationship where they stood by each other. In describing the relationship, Nader said, "The storyline with Edmund and Dimitri, the Marick brothers, there wasn't a brother duo on television that had the sort of power that John and I could bring to that relationship." Storylines they featured in met with both praise and negative reactions. With the plot centering on Maddie Grey's paternity and kidnappings, All My Children "fans revolted en masse." Yet Soap Opera Digest hailed the plot as "one of the best told, most fascinating storylines of the year." In the Dimitri, Alex, and Edmund triangle, viewers took two opposing views on which brother should end up with Alex. Soap Opera Weekly proclaimed the triangle a hit, while Soap Opera Update rated it a ten out of ten. In the storyline, Alex and Edmund fall in love while her husband Dimitri is presumed dead. They eventually become engaged. When he returns and witnesses their happy relationship, Dimitri decides not to interfere. "The dilemma for Dimitri is his brother's happiness," Nader said. "As much as he loves Alex, he's made the choice to give her to Edmund." Alex discovers Dimitri alive first. They reunite and engage in sex. Edmund finds out and feels betrayed by them both. The scenes of the confrontation between all three characters was written to express the views of both the Dimitri and Alex and the Edmund and Alex fans. The viewers who rooted for Edmund argued that Dimitri and Alex betrayed him by having sex immediately after reuniting. Viewers who supported Dimitri argued that the reunion was not a betrayal since Dimitri was Alex's husband. Alex ends up with Dimitri, which changes "Edmund from a jaded, one-note character into a far more multidimensional and intriguing hero." Soap Opera Weekly praised All My Children for not dragging the triangle out and instead using it as a catalyst for character development. Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows put Addabbo's portrayal of the character on his list of the worst soap opera temporary recasts, commenting that "Addabbo lacked the air of Old World regality that Nader exuded, fans balked, and the recast was sent packing before he'd even had time to finish nibbling his Welcome to All My Children gift basket." ## Controversy In what Soap Opera Digest named the year's Dumbest Male Axing in 1999, Nader was fired from the role of Dimitri and the character was killed off. The firing "set off a firestorm of protest from devoted fans." Those fans came together to form a group called the Loyalists and campaigned for the actor's return. They "bombarded" All My Children with letters centering on three major complaints concerning Nader's dismissal, as summarized in Soap Opera Digest: "1) They have waited two years for a Dimitri/Erica reunion, which they won't get now that he's leaving. 2) They adore Nader's chemistry with on-screen brother John Callahan (Edmund) and don't want to lose it. 3) They fear that Nader has been sacrificed to make room in the budget for new- and younger- cast members." In response to the last complaint, an All My Children spokesperson pointed out the storylines planned for characters over thirty years old such as Tad, Dixie, Erica, David, Edmund, and Alex. Nader thanked the Loyalists for their support and expressed his surprise at the size of the response. "[T]he expanse and impact were quite astounding to me," he said. "In my years of doing this, I never experienced this kind of support." Susan Lucci commented on the fan response, saying, "So many people stop me on the street and ask me, 'Will Dimitri ever come back and will he and Erica ever get together.'" At a fan luncheon, the Loyalists confronted All My Children's executive producer Jean Dadario Burke with a petition asking for Nader's return. They also organized a tune-out of the show on November 5, 1999. To appease them at least in part, Burke offered Nader his job back on a recurring basis, which he refused. In 2000, All My Children rehired him on a contract basis. His co-star, Hughes was happy about the news, saying his return would "give a huge injection of 'fuel'" to the Alex and Edmund romance. In 2001, Nader was arrested for cocaine possession. All My Children suspended him and demanded he get treatment. They cast Addabbo in the role as a temporary replacement. Fans of Nader, the Loyalists in particular, rejected the recast. Though the majority of the viewers did not take to him, Addabbo gained an amount of support from fans who wanted him to continue in the role or portray a different character once Nader returned. Soap Opera Digest criticized the casting of Addabbo because the actor usually portrayed "all-American good guys", the opposite of the Dimitri Marick role. In July of that year, Addabbo was let go and Dimitri was officially written out. After Nader got help for his drug addiction at Hazelton Clinic in Minnesota, All My Children opted not to bring him back. Nader filed a \$31.7 million lawsuit against ABC for breach of contract under the Americans with Disabilities Act. ABC's lawyers cited Nader's violation of the morals clause in his contract as justification for not rehiring him. The firing and lawsuit caught the attention of non-soap opera medias such as TV Guide, Inside Edition, People, Celebrity Justice, Extra, Entertainment Tonight, and Larry King Live''. Manhattan Federal Judge Jed S. Rakoff threw out the suit in 2004. ## See also - Dimitri Marick and Erica Kane

Kepler-6

G-type star in the constellation Cygnus

Kepler-6 is a G-type star situated in the constellation Cygnus. The star lies within the field of view of the Kepler Mission, which discovered it as part of a NASA-led mission to discover Earth-like planets. The star, which is slightly larger, more metal-rich, slightly cooler, and more massive than the Sun, is orbited by at least one extrasolar planet, a Jupiter-sized planet named Kepler-6b that orbits closely to its star. ## Nomenclature and history Kepler-6 was named for the Kepler Mission, a NASA project launched in 2009 that aims to discover Earth-like planets that transit, or cross in front of, their home stars with respect to Earth. Unlike stars like the Sun or Sirius, Kepler-6 does not have a common and colloquial name. The discovery of Kepler-6b was announced by the Kepler team on January 4, 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society along with planets around Kepler-4, Kepler-5, Kepler-7, and Kepler-8. It was the third planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft; the first three planets to be verified by data from Kepler had been previously discovered. These three planets were used to test the accuracy of Kepler's measurements. The discovery of Kepler-6 was confirmed by follow-up observations made using the Hobby–Eberly and Smith telescopes in Texas; the Keck 1 telescope in Hawaii; the Hale and Shane telescopes in southern California; the WIYN, MMT, and Tillinghast telescopes in Arizona; and the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands. ## Characteristics Kepler-6 is a star that is approximately 1.209 M_sun, or some five-fourths the mass of the Sun. It is also wider than the sun, with a radius of 1.391 R_sun, or seven-fifths of that of the Sun. The star is approximately 3.8 billion years old, and has an effective temperature of 5647 K (9,705 °F). In comparison, the Sun has a slightly warmer temperature of 5778 K. Kepler-6 has a metallicity of [Fe/H] = +0.34, making it 2.2 times more metallic than the Sun. On average, metal-rich stars tend to be more likely to have planets and planetary systems. The star, as seen from Earth, has an apparent magnitude of 13.8. It is not visible with the naked eye. In comparison, Pluto's apparent magnitude at its brightest is slightly brighter, at 13.65. ## Planetary system Kepler-6 has one confirmed extrasolar planet; it is a gas giant named Kepler-6b. The planet is approximately .669 M_J, or some two-thirds the mass of planet Jupiter. It is also slightly more diffuse than Jupiter, with a radius of approximately 1.323 R_J. Kepler-6b orbits at an average distance of .0456 AU from its star, and completes an orbit every 3.234 days. The eccentricity of the planet's orbit is assumed to be 0, which is that of a circular orbit. ## See also - List of extrasolar planets - Kepler Mission

Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets

1998 fantasy novel by J. K. Rowling

Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is a fantasy novel written by British author J. K. Rowling and the second novel in the Harry Potter series. The plot follows Harry's second year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, during which a series of messages on the walls of the school's corridors warn that the "Chamber of Secrets" has been opened and that the "heir of Slytherin" would kill all pupils who do not come from all-magical families. These threats are found after attacks that leave residents of the school petrified. Throughout the year, Harry and his friends Ron and Hermione investigate the attacks. The book was published in the United Kingdom on 2 July 1998 by Bloomsbury and later in the United States on 2 June 1999 by Scholastic Inc. Although Rowling says she found it difficult to finish the book, it won high praise and awards from critics, young readers, and the book industry, although some critics thought the story was perhaps too frightening for younger children. Much like with other novels in the series, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets triggered religious debates; some religious authorities have condemned its use of magical themes, whereas others have praised its emphasis on self-sacrifice and the way one's character is the result of one's choices. Several commentators have noted that personal identity is a strong theme in the book and that it addresses issues of racism through the treatment of non-human, non-magical, and non-living people. Some commentators regard the story's diary that writes back as a warning against uncritical acceptance of information from sources whose motives and reliability cannot be checked. Institutional authority is portrayed as self-serving and incompetent. The film adaptation of the novel, released in 2002, became (at the time) the sixth highest-grossing film ever and received generally favourable reviews. Video games loosely based on Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets were also released for several platforms, and most obtained favourable reviews. ## Plot While spending the summer at the Dursleys, twelve-year-old Harry Potter is visited by Dobby, a house-elf. He says Harry is in danger and must not return to Hogwarts. Harry refuses, so Dobby magically ruins Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon's dinner party. Furious, Uncle Vernon locks Harry into his room. The Ministry of Magic sends a notice accusing Harry of performing underage magic and threatening dismissal from Hogwarts. Three brothers Weasly, Ron, Fred and George, arrive in their father's flying Ford Anglia and rescue Harry, taking him to their home. Harry and the Weasley family travel to Diagon Alley for school supplies. They run into Hermione Granger and meet Lucius Malfoy, father of Draco, and also Gilderoy Lockhart, a conceited autobiographer and adventurer who is the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor. At King's Cross station, Harry and Ron cannot enter Platform 93⁄4 and miss the Hogwarts Express. They fly in Mr Weasley's car to Hogwarts, crashing into the Whomping Willow on school grounds and damaging Ron's wand. The car then escapes into the forest. Later, Harry is the only one who hears a strange voice emanating from the castle walls. Soon after, Mr Filch's cat, Mrs Norris, is found petrified, along with a bloody warning scrawled on a wall: "The Chamber of Secrets has been opened. Enemies of the heir, beware". Salazar Slytherin, one of the school's founders, created the Chamber after a dispute with fellow founders on admitting Muggle-born students. Some in the wizarding community disdain Muggle-born wizards like Hermione, believing pure-bloods are superior. The Chamber supposedly houses a monster that only the Heir of Slytherin can control. During a Quidditch game, a rogue Bludger strikes Harry, breaking his arm. Lockhart blunders an attempt to repair it, sending Harry to the hospital overnight. Dobby visits Harry and reveals he jinxed the Bludger and sealed the portal at King's Cross. He says the Chamber of Secrets was once opened years before. After another attack, students attend a defensive duelling class, during which Harry exhibits a rare ability to speak 'Parseltongue', the language of snakes. Harry, Ron, and Hermione suspect Draco is the Heir, given his hostility toward Muggle-borns. Hermione brews Polyjuice Potion, allowing Harry and Ron to impersonate Draco's lackeys Crabbe and Goyle. They learn that Draco knows nothing about the heir. Meanwhile, Moaning Myrtle, a ghost that haunts a girls' bathroom, shows the trio a diary left in her stall. It belonged to Tom Riddle, a student who witnessed another student's death during the Chamber's previous opening. Riddle's consciousness within the diary claims that Hagrid was responsible. Hermione is petrified in the next attack. The school is put on lockdown and may close. Headmaster Albus Dumbledore is forced out and Hagrid is sent to Azkaban prison. Following instructions left by Hagrid, Harry and Ron follow spiders into the Forbidden Forest. They encounter Aragog, a gigantic Acromantula which denies its involvement, and claims spiders fear the real monster. Aragog attempts to feed Harry and Ron to its progeny, but Mr Weasley's car rescues them. Harry and Ron discover that Hermione deduced the monster is a basilisk – a gigantic snake whose direct gaze kills and petrifies victims when seen in a reflection. The basilisk is the voice in the walls, and it travels through the plumbing. Moaning Myrtle was the student that was killed. Ron's sister Ginny is abducted and taken into the Chamber. Harry and Ron discover the entrance in Myrtle's bathroom, and force Lockhart to enter it with them. Lockhart confesses he is a fraud who made up all of his stories and attempts to erase the boys' memories after stealing Ron's damaged wand. The spell backfires, obliterating his own memory, and causes a rockfall; Ron is separated from Harry and stays behind to help Lockhart. Harry proceeds to the Chamber and finds an unconscious Ginny. A manifestation of Tom Riddle reveals he is Lord Voldemort and the Heir of Slytherin. He opened the Chamber and framed Hagrid. He has been using the diary to possess and control Ginny, who had been behaving strangely. The basilisk appears to kill Harry. Dumbledore's phoenix Fawkes arrives, bringing Harry the Sorting Hat. Fawkes blinds the basilisk and Harry pulls the Sword of Godric Gryffindor from the Hat. He slays the basilisk but is poisoned by its venom. As Riddle taunts the dying Harry, Fawkes' tears heal Harry. Harry stabs Riddle's diary with a severed basilisk fang, destroying it and Riddle's body, and reviving Ginny. Harry, Ron, Ginny, and Lockhart return to the castle. Harry gives the diary to Dumbledore. Lucius bursts in, furious that Dumbledore returned. He is accompanied by Dobby, who is the Malfoys' house-elf and was working to protect Harry. Harry realizes that Lucius slipped the diary into Ginny's cauldron when in Diagon Alley to open the Chamber. Harry tricks Lucius into freeing Dobby from servitude by giving him a sock; Lucius attempts to attack Harry in revenge, but Dobby repels him. The petrified students are cured, Gryffindor wins the House Cup again, Hagrid is released, Lockhart is confined to St. Mungo's Hospital, and Harry returns to Privet Drive in high spirits. ## Publication and reception ### Development J.K Rowling found it difficult to finish Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets because she was afraid it would not live up to the expectations raised by Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. After delivering the manuscript to Bloomsbury on schedule, she took it back for six weeks of revision. In early drafts of the book, the ghost Nearly Headless Nick sang a self-composed song explaining his condition and the circumstances of his unknown death. This was cut because the book's editor did not care for the poem, which has been subsequently published as an extra on J. K. Rowling's official website. The family background of Dean Thomas was removed because Rowling and her publishers considered it an "unnecessary digression," and she considered Neville Longbottom's own journey of discovery "more important to the central plot." ### Publication Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. It immediately took first place in UK bestseller lists, displacing popular authors such as John Grisham, Tom Clancy and Terry Pratchett, and making Rowling the first author to win the British Book Awards Children's Book of the Year for two years in succession. In June 1999, it went straight to the top of three US bestseller lists, including in The New York Times. First edition printings had several errors, which were fixed in subsequent reprints. Initially, Dumbledore said Voldemort was the last remaining ancestor of Salazar Slytherin instead of his descendant. Gilderoy Lockhart's book on werewolves is entitled Weekends with Werewolves at one point and Wanderings with Werewolves later in the book. ### Critical response Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was met with near-universal acclaim. In The Times, Deborah Loudon described it as a children's book that would be "re-read into adulthood" and highlighted its "strong plots, engaging characters, excellent jokes and a moral message which flows naturally from the story". Fantasy author Charles de Lint agreed, and considered the second Harry Potter book to be just as good as Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, a rare achievement among series of books. Thomas Wagner regarded the plot as very similar to that of the first book, based on searching for a secret hidden under the school. However, he enjoyed the parody of celebrities and their fans that centres round Gilderoy Lockhart, and approved of the book's handling of racism. Tammy Nezol found the book more disturbing than its predecessor, particularly in the rash behaviour of Harry and his friends after Harry withholds information from Dumbledore, and in the human-like behaviour of the mandragoras used to make a potion that cures petrification. Nevertheless, she considered the second story as enjoyable as the first. Mary Stuart thought the final conflict with Tom Riddle in the Chamber was almost as scary as in some of Stephen King's works, and perhaps too strong for young or timid children. She commented that "there are enough surprises and imaginative details thrown in as would normally fill five lesser books." Like other reviewers, she thought the book would give pleasure to both children and adult readers. According to Philip Nel, the early reviews gave unalloyed praise while the later ones included some criticisms, although they still agreed that the book was outstanding. Writing after all seven books had been published, Graeme Davis regarded Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as the weakest of the series, and agreed that the plot structure is much the same as in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. He described Fawkes's appearance to arm Harry and then to heal him as a deus ex machina: he said that the book does not explain how Fawkes knew where to find Harry; and Fawkes's timing had to be very precise, as arriving earlier would probably have prevented the battle with the basilisk, while arriving later would have been fatal to Harry and Ginny. ### Awards and honours Rowling's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was the recipient of several awards. The American Library Association listed the novel among its 2000 Notable Children's Books, as well as its Best Books for Young Adults. In 1999, Booklist named Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as one of its Editors' Choices, and as one of its Top Ten Fantasy Novels for Youth. The Cooperative Children's Book Center made the novel a CCBC Choice of 2000 in the "Fiction for Children" category. The novel also won Children's Book of the Year British Book Award, and was shortlisted for the 1998 Guardian Children's Award and the 1998 Carnegie Award. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize 1998 Gold Medal in the 9–11 years division. Rowling also won two other Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes for Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. The Scottish Arts Council awarded their first ever Children's Book Award to the novel in 1999, and it was also awarded Whitaker's Platinum Book Award in 2001. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 23 on the BBC's survey The Big Read. ## Main themes Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets continues to examine what makes a person who he or she is, which began in the first book. As well as maintaining that Harry's identity is shaped by his decisions rather than any aspect of his birth, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets provides contrasting characters who try to conceal their true personalities: as Tammy Nezol puts it, Gilderoy Lockhart "lacks any real identity" because he is nothing more than a charming liar. Riddle also complicates Harry's struggle to understand himself by pointing out the similarities between the two: "both half-bloods, orphans raised by Muggles, probably the only two Parselmouths to come to Hogwarts since the great Slytherin." Opposition to class, death and its impacts, experiencing adolescence, sacrifice, love, friendship, loyalty, prejudice, and racism are constant themes of the series. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Harry's consideration and respect for others extends to the lowly, non-human Dobby and the ghost Nearly Headless Nick. According to Marguerite Krause, achievements in the novel depend more on ingenuity and hard work than on natural talents. Edward Duffy, associate professor at Marquette University, says that one of the central characters of Chamber of Secrets is Tom Riddle's enchanted diary, which takes control of Ginny Weasley – just as Riddle planned. Duffy suggests Rowling intended this as a warning against passively consuming information from sources that have their own agendas. Although Bronwyn Williams and Amy Zenger regard the diary as more like an instant messaging or chat room system, they agree about the dangers of relying too much on the written word, which can camouflage the author, and they highlight a comical example, Lockhart's self-promoting books. Immorality and the portrayal of authority as negative are significant themes in the novel. Marguerite Krause states there are few absolute moral rules in Harry Potter's world, for example Harry prefers to tell the truth, but lies whenever he considers it necessary – very like his enemy Draco Malfoy. At the end of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Dumbledore retracts his promise to punish Harry and Ron if they break any more school rules – after Professor McGonagall estimates they have broken over 100 – and lavishly rewards them for ending the threat from the Chamber of Secrets. Krause further states that authority figures and political institutions receive little respect from Rowling. William MacNeil of Griffith University, Queensland, Australia states that the Minister for Magic is presented as a mediocrity. In his article "Harry Potter and the Secular City", Ken Jacobson suggests the Ministry as a whole is portrayed as a tangle of bureaucratic empires, saying that "Ministry officials busy themselves with minutiae (e.g. standardising cauldron thicknesses) and coin politically correct euphemisms like 'non-magical community' (for Muggles) and 'memory modification' (for magical brainwashing)." This novel implies it begins in 1992: the cake for Nearly-Headless Nick's 500th deathday party bears the words "Sir Nicholas De Mimsy Porpington died 31 October 1492". ### Connection to Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince Chamber of Secrets has many links with the sixth book of the series, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. In fact, Half-Blood Prince was the working title of Chamber of Secrets and Rowling says she originally intended to present some "crucial pieces of information" in the second book, but ultimately felt "this information's proper home was book six". Some objects that play significant roles in Half-Blood Prince first appear in Chamber of Secrets: the Hand of Glory and the opal necklace that are on sale in Borgin and Burkes; a Vanishing Cabinet in Hogwarts that is damaged by Peeves the Poltergeist; and Tom Riddle's diary, which is later revealed to be a Horcrux. Additionally, these two novels are the ones with the most focus on Harry's relationship with Ginny Weasley. ## Adaptations ### Film The film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was released in 2002. Chris Columbus directed the film, and the screenplay was written by Steve Kloves. It became the third film to exceed \$600 million in international box office sales, preceded by Titanic, released in 1997, and Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, released in 2001. The film was nominated for a Saturn Award for the Best Fantasy Film, According to Metacritic, the film version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets received "generally favourable reviews" with an average score of 63%, and another aggregator, Rotten Tomatoes, gave it a score of 82%. ### Video games Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2002 and 2003 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:

1903 Jamaica hurricane

Category 3 Atlantic hurricane in 1903

The 1903 Jamaica hurricane devastated Martinique, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands in August 1903. The second tropical cyclone of the season, the storm was first observed well east of the Windward Islands on August 6. The system moved generally west-northwestward and strengthened into a hurricane on August 7. It struck Martinique early on August 9, shortly before reaching the Caribbean. Later that day, the storm became a major hurricane. Early on August 11, it made landfall near Morant Point, Jamaica, with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h), with would be the hurricane's maximum sustained wind speed. Early on the following day, the storm brushed Grand Cayman at the same intensity. The system weakened before landfall near Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, early on August 13, with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h). The system emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 14 after weakening while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula, but failed to re-strengthen. Around 00:00 UTC on August 16, the cyclone made landfall north of Tampico, Tamaulipas, with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). The hurricane soon weakened to a tropical storm and dissipated over San Luis Potosí late on August 16. In Martinique, hundreds of homes were deroofed in Fort-de-France, while about 5,000 people were left homeless in the villages of Fond, Fourniols, La Haye, Recluce, and Tivoli, all of which were established after the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902. The hurricane also left extensive damage to crops and eight fatalities. In Jamaica, several communities were completely or nearly destroyed, including Manchioneal, Port Antonio, and Port Maria. Thousands of homes also suffered damage in the capital city of Kingston. Banana crops were devastated so severely that many growers were forced into bankruptcy. Numerous ships were wrecked, particularly on the north coast of the island. There were at least 65 deaths and about \$10 million (1903 USD) in damage. In the Cayman Islands, more than 200 houses and seven of eight churches on Grand Cayman were destroyed or heavily damaged. Of the 23 ships in the harbor, only the Governor Blake survived. Most of the crews on board those ships were reported killed, but loss of life onshore was minimal. The storm also caused heavy damage on the Yucatán Peninsula. Many ships were wrecked and communications were cut off in several places. In the Tampico area, there was considerable damage to the port and many ships were sunk or driven ashore. Much of the land between Tampico and Cárdenas in San Luis Potosí was submerged due to flooding. In all, the storm is believed to have killed at least 149 people. ## Meteorological history A tropical storm was first observed by a ship about 835 mi (1,345 km) northeast of Cayenne, French Guiana, early on August 6, according to historic weather maps. However, the scarcity of observations means that its genesis may have occurred earlier than this time and been undetected operationally. With initial winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), the system moved generally west-northwestward and strengthened into Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale about 24 hours later. The first indication of the storm to the east of Barbados was on August 8 via telegraph reports. Early on August 9, the cyclone struck Martinique as either a strong Category 1 or a weak Category 2 hurricane. The storm entered the Caribbean shortly thereafter. Around 12:00 UTC, the cyclone intensified into a Category 3 hurricane, becoming the first major hurricane in the Atlantic basin since the second storm of 1900 and the first in the Caribbean since the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane. After 06:00 UTC on August 11, the cyclone struck Jamaica near Morant Point with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h). At 06:00 UTC on August 12, while brushing Grand Cayman, the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of the same intensity and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar (28.3 inHg), observed by the Governor Blake. The system weakened to a Category 2 around the time of landfall near Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, early on August 13, with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h). By 12:00 UTC, the storm further weakened to a Category 1, based on the Empirical Inland Wind Decay Model. After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula and emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 14, the hurricane failed to re-strengthen. Around 00:00 UTC on August 16, it made landfall north of Tampico, Tamaulipas, with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). The hurricane soon weakened to a tropical storm and dissipated over San Luis Potosí late on August 16. ## Impact Telegraph reports of "a disturbance probably of dangerous strength" approaching Barbados from the east were sent to stations throughout the Lesser Antilles on August 8. Shipping interests in the Gulf of Mexico and in parts of the western Atlantic were alerted daily of the progress of the hurricane until August 14. Additionally, hurricane warnings were issued by the Weather Bureau for Florida and the Gulf Coast of the United States as the storm approached the western Caribbean, due to the possibility of the storm curving northward. In the Windward Islands, Martinique suffered the worst damage. At Fort-de-France, hundreds of homes were unroofed. Streets were covered in roof tiles and impassible due to uprooted trees, which tore up the roads. Several vessels were severely damaged. Additionally, the towns of La Trinité, Le Carbet, Le François, Saint-Joseph, and Sainte-Marie "suffered considerably". About 5,000 people were left homeless in the destroyed villages of Fond, Fourniols, La Haye, Recluce, and Tivoli, all established after the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902. Throughout the island, there was extensive damage to crops. Eight deaths were reported, with one in Fort-de-France and seven in La Trinité. The storms severely damaged crops on Dominica, particularly cocoa. After several years of increasing amounts of exported cocoa, there was a decrease of approximately 1.86% in pounds between 1902–03 and 1903–04. In Puerto Rico, there was high winds and heavy rainfall along the north coast of the island. The northern shore of Jamaica was devastated, with many ships being washed ashore. There was a storm surge about 20 ft (6.1 m) in height at Falmouth. This implies that the storm surge along Jamaica's northern coast may have reached that height. Numerous ships were also wrecked along the coast. Only six homes remained standing at Port Antonio. The hotel, offices, plantations, and wharves owned by the United Fruit Company were nearly destroyed. Additionally, the company's five vessels were beached, including the Alfred Dumois, Brighton, and Simon Dumois. In Port Maria, which was almost obliterated, "it was impossible to find where streets had been after the storm." Homes were destroyed in such a way that "how anyone escaped alive is a mystery." At Manchioneal, all but a few dwellings suffered destruction from the wind or were swept out to sea. The Norwegian steamship Salvatore di Giorgio was swept ashore at Annotto Bay. In the eastern portions of the island, entire villages were demolished, leaving thousands of peasants without shelter or food. Thousands of homes were damaged in Kingston, while the electrical works building was deroofed, disabling the machinery. Local railroad traffic and streets cars stopped. Waves damaged wharves and capsized several vessels in the harbor. Some areas on the south side of the island were left completely devoid of crops. Although the western areas of Jamaica were not as devastated as other portions of the island, some banana plantations there were partially destroyed and there was a loss to orange and coffee crops. Throughout Jamaica, devastation to the banana crop was "complete", forcing many growers into bankruptcy. It was estimated that the fruit trade would be paralyzed for as much as a year. Damage reached \$10 million and there were at least 65 deaths, while other reports indicate as many as 90 fatalities. At the Cayman Islands, wind gusts reached as high as 110–120 mph (180–190 km/h). More than 200 houses and seven of eight churches on Grand Cayman were destroyed or heavily damaged. In George Town, a number of dwellings were destroyed. Of the 23 ships in the harbor, only the Governor Blake survived. Most of the crews on board those ships were reported killed but loss of life on shore was minimal. Throughout the islands, all trees and crops were destroyed. In Cuba, the hurricane knocked out telegraphic communications in the eastern portions of the island, but the connection to Santiago de Cuba was quickly restored. A number of dwellings were damaged there, some were deroofed, while other homes were reduced to fragments. Pieces of sheet iron also became airborne. East of the city, all small ports received impact from the storm. Cienfuegos was "ravaged by the storm", while extensive damage occurred in Cárdenas and Matanzas. In the outskirts of Havana, thatch houses were blown away. Farther west in Pinar del Río Province, some crops and small buildings were demolished. In the Gulf of Mexico, the British steamship Rosina encountered the hurricane. The storm damaged the pipes and smokestacks, ripped out the ventilator, and washed 30,000 oranges into the sea. Additionally, a Greek sailor was swept overboard and presumably drowned. The storm sunk or drove many ships ashore along the Yucatán Peninsula. Communications were disrupted in many areas after telegraph lines fell, while a number of roads were left impassible after trees toppled. In the Tampico area, there was considerable damage to the port and many ships being sunk or driven ashore. All of the bridges along Monterey and Mexican Gulf Railroad were destroyed. The roof at the general market was almost completely torn off. Many of the businesses suffered serious losses after rain subsequently poured in the building, with damage reaching at least \$4,200 (10,000 pesos). The chamber of commerce building collapsed with people inside, though no injuries or deaths occurred. Much of the land between Tampico and Cárdenas in San Luis Potosí was submerged due to flooding. In Barra, a city in Tamaulipas, the hospital was nearly destroyed, as was the marketplace. In San Luis Potosí, the casino and restaurant in Tamasopo were demolished. Twenty bridges were destroyed in San Luis Potosí. Railroad traffic between San Luis Potosí and Monterrey, the capital of Nuevo León, was completely disrupted. Overall, the storm is believed to have killed between 149 and 188 people. ## Aftermath After the storm, thousands in Jamaica were left destitute, without food or shelter. Committees were formed in each parish affected to assess the damage, with Governor Augustus Hemming later visiting the areas of destruction. On September 17, the Parliament of Jamaica passed the Hurricane Loans Law, which provided low interest loans to planters impacted by the storm. The Secretary of State of Jamaica authorized just over \$241,000 (50,000 £) to be used for the loans. A total of 2,983 people applied for a loan, 1,477 of whom were granted. During a meeting in Port Antonio, the citizens issued an appeal to Americans for aid, after receiving approval from Governor Hemming. Relief efforts originated both locally and from other British possessions via the West India Committee. The Daily Gleaner newspaper was credited for its efforts in obtaining considerable amounts of food and building materials. Trinidad, then a colony of the United Kingdom, donated almost \$5,000 (£1,000). ## See also - List of Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes - Hurricane Gilbert (1988) - Hurricane Dean (2007)

Atari video game burial

1983 burial of unsold video games

The Atari video game burial was a mass burial of unsold video game cartridges, consoles, and computers in a New Mexico landfill site, undertaken by the American video game and home computer company Atari, Inc. in 1983. Before 2014, the goods buried were rumored to be unsold copies of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), one of the largest commercial video game failures and often cited as one of the worst video games ever released, and the 1982 Atari 2600 port of Pac-Man, which was commercially successful but critically maligned. Since the burial was first reported, there had been doubts as to its veracity and scope, and it was frequently dismissed as an urban legend. The event became a cultural icon and a reminder of the video game crash of 1983; it was the end result of a disastrous fiscal year which saw Atari, Inc. sold off by its parent company Warner Communications. Though it was believed that millions of copies of E.T. were buried, Atari officials later verified the numbers to be around 700,000 cartridges of various games, including E.T. In 2014, Fuel Industries, Microsoft, and others worked with the New Mexico government to excavate the site as part of a documentary, Atari: Game Over. On April 26, 2014, the excavation revealed discarded games and hardware. Only a small fraction, about 1,300 cartridges, were recovered, with a portion given for curation and the rest auctioned to raise money for a museum to commemorate the burial. ## Circumstances ### Financial difficulty Atari, Inc. had been purchased by Warner Communications in 1976 for \$28 million, and had seen its net worth grow to \$2 billion by 1982. By this time, the company accounted for 80% of the video gaming market and was responsible for over half of its parent company's revenues, earning some 65–70% of their operating profits. By the last quarter of 1982, its growth in the following year was expected to be in the region of 50%. However, on December 7, 1982, the company reported that its earnings had only increased by 10–15%, rather than the predicted figure. The next day saw Warner Communications' share prices fall by a third, and the quarter ended with Warner's profits falling by 56%. In addition, Atari's CEO, Ray Kassar, was later investigated for possible insider trading charges as a result of selling some five thousand shares in Warner less than half an hour before reporting Atari's lower-than-expected earnings. Kassar was later cleared of any wrongdoing, although he was forced to resign his position the following July. Atari, Inc. would go on to lose \$536 million in 1983, and was sold off by Warner Communications the following year. ### Failed games Atari's tendency to port arcade games for its home console had led to some of its most commercially successful games, including the port of its own coin-op Asteroids, as well as the licensed versions of Taito's Space Invaders and Namco's Pac-Man. When the latter game received its official port to the Atari 2600, Atari was confident that sales figures would be high, and manufactured 12 million cartridges—despite having sold only around 10 million Atari 2600 consoles. It was believed that the game would be successful enough not only to earn an estimated \$500 million, but also to boost sales of the console itself by several million as gamers sought to play the home conversion. However, the finished product, released in March 1982, was critically panned for its poor gameplay, and although it became the console's best-selling game after shipping 7 million units, it left Atari with over 5 million unsold cartridges—a problem compounded by the high rate of customers returning the game for refunds. Further to the problems caused by Pac-Man's underwhelming sales, Atari also faced great difficulty as a result of its video game adaptation of the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. The game was a result of a deal between Warner Communications and the film's director Steven Spielberg, and was an attempt to follow the success of Atari's Raiders of the Lost Ark, another film-based game. It was later reported that Warner had paid \$20–25 million for the rights, which was at the time a high figure for video game licensing. The task of developing the game fell on Howard Scott Warshaw, the programmer for Raiders, but due to lengthy delays in the licensing rights, Warshaw had only five weeks to make a full game to make sure Atari could sell it during the upcoming holiday period. The rushed development resulted in lackluster gameplay; the game was critically panned, and is now seen as one of the worst ever made. Atari manufactured 5 million cartridges for the game; however, upon its release in December 1982, only 1.5 million copies were sold, leaving Atari with half of the cartridges. Billboard writer Earl Paige reported that the large number of unsold E.T games, along with an increase in competition, prompted retailers to demand official return programs from video game manufacturers. The failures of these games were further compounded by Atari's business dealings from 1981. Confident in strong sales, the company had told its distributors to place their 1982 orders all at once. However, video game sales in 1982 had slowed, and distributors who had ordered en masse in expectation of high turnover were left to simply return large quantities of unsold stock to Atari. As a result, the company soon found itself in possession of several million essentially useless video game cartridges, which it would be entirely unable to sell. ## Burial In September 1983, the Alamogordo Daily News of Alamogordo, New Mexico reported in a series of articles, that between 10 and 20 semi-trailer truckloads of Atari boxes, cartridges, and systems from an Atari storehouse in El Paso, Texas, were crushed and buried at the landfill within the city. It was Atari's first dealings with the landfill, which was chosen because no scavenging was allowed and its garbage was crushed and buried nightly. Atari's stated reason for the burial was that it was changing from Atari 2600 to Atari 5200 games, but this was later contradicted by a worker who claimed that this was not the case. Atari official Bruce Enten stated that Atari was mostly sending broken and returned material to the Alamogordo dump and that it was "by-and-large inoperable stuff." On September 27, 1983, the news service UPI reported that "people watching the operation said it included cassettes [sic] of the popular video games E.T., Pac-Man, Ms. Pac-Man, the consoles used to convey the games to television screens and high-priced personal computers." The news service Knight Ridder further reported on the looting of the dump on September 28 by local kids, stating "kids in this town of 25,000 began robbing the Atari grave, coming up with cartridges of such games as E.T., Raiders of the Lost Ark, Defender, and Berzerk." On September 28, 1983, The New York Times reported on the story of Atari's dumping in New Mexico. An Atari representative confirmed the story for the newspaper, stating that the discarded inventory came from Atari's plant in El Paso, which was being closed and converted to a recycling facility. The reports noted that the site was guarded to prevent reporters and the public from affirming the contents. The Times article did not specify the games being destroyed, but subsequent reports generally linked the story of the dumping to the well-known failure of E.T. Additionally, the headline "City to Atari: 'E.T.' trash go home" in one edition of the Alamogordo News seems to imply some of the cartridges were E.T., but then follows with a humorous interpretation of E.T. meaning "Extra-territorial" and never specifically mentions the game. Starting on September 29, 1983, a layer of concrete was poured on top of the crushed materials, a rare occurrence in waste disposal. An anonymous workman's stated reason for the concrete was: "There are dead animals down there. We wouldn't want any children to get hurt digging in the dump." Eventually, the city began to protest the large amount of dumping Atari was doing, with one commissioner stating that the area did not want to become "an industrial waste dump for El Paso." The local manager ordered an end to the dumping shortly afterwards. Due to Atari's unpopular dumping, Alamogordo later passed an Emergency Management Act and created the Emergency Management Task Force to limit the future flexibility of the garbage contractor to secure outside business for the landfill for monetary purposes. Alamogordo's then-mayor, Henry Pacelli, commented that, "We do not want to see something like this happen again." ### Cultural symbolism and speculation All of these factors led to wide speculation that most of the 3.5 million unsold copies of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial ultimately wound up in this landfill, crushed and encased in concrete. It had also been reported that prototypes for the proposed Atari Mindlink controller system were disposed of at the site, which only further fueled speculation, since Atari Museum owner Curt Vendel actually currently owns the Mindlink prototypes. Writing for the Pacific Historical Review, John Wills speculated that location's place in the public psyche—its proximity to the sites of both the Trinity nuclear test and Roswell UFO incident—aided the popularity of the story. The conflicting information surrounding the burial led to the claim of it being an "E.T. Dump" being referred to as an urban legend, which in turn led to a degree of skepticism and doubt over the veracity of the dumping story itself, and the relevance of conflating the event with the later industry downturn. In October 2004, Howard Scott Warshaw, the programmer responsible for the E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial game, expressed doubts at the time that the destruction of millions of copies of the game ever took place. Warshaw also believes that Atari's downfall was more a result of their business practices—including alleged block booking of poorly selling games with successful ones when dealing with distributors—than any specific failed games. This latter view has been echoed by Travis Fahs of IGN, who believes that Atari's problems, including their huge surplus of unsold stock, arose from the company's overestimation of the sustainability of Atari 2600 sales, rather than being due to the individual quality of games being released. The incident has also become something of a cultural symbol representative of the video game crash of 1983, often cited as a cautionary tale about the hubris of poor business practices, despite suggestions that the burial allowed the company to write off the disposed-of material for tax relief purposes. ### In popular culture The legacy of the burial has led it to be referenced in popular culture. The music video for the song "When I Wake Up" by Wintergreen depicts the band traveling to the landfill site and proceeding to dig up the abandoned cartridges; the video's director Keith Schofield had worked with video game-based music videos before. The novel Lucky Wander Boy by D.B. Weiss features a scene which takes place outside of Alamogordo, in which two of the characters discuss a parking lot which has been built over the site of the burial. The 2014 film Angry Video Game Nerd: The Movie features a plot centered on the burial. The episode "The Games Underfoot" of the procedural drama Elementary featured a fictional version of the Atari (renamed "Emeryvision") video game burial. ## Excavation On May 28, 2013, the Alamogordo City Commission granted Fuel Industries, a Canadian entertainment company, six months of access to the landfill to film a documentary, Atari: Game Over, about the burial and to excavate the dump site. Xbox Entertainment Studios planned to air this documentary series as an exclusive to the Xbox One and Xbox 360 in 2014 as part of a multi-part documentary series being produced by Lightbox, a US/UK production company. Though the excavation was momentarily stalled due to a complaint by the New Mexico Environmental Protection Division Solid Waste Bureau citing potential hazards, the issues were resolved in early April 2014 to allow the excavation to proceed. Excavation started on April 26, 2014 as an open event to the public. E. T. the Extra-Terrestrial designer Howard Scott Warshaw, Ready Player One author Ernest Cline and film director Zak Penn attended the event as part of a documentary about the burial, as did local residents such as Armando Ortega, a city official who was reportedly one of the original children to raid the dump in 1983. Ortega stated that although he and his friends found dozens of quality games, they gave the E.T. cartridges away because the "game sucked ... you couldn't finish it". James Heller, the former Atari manager in charge of the original burial, was also on hand at the excavation. Heller revealed that he had originally ordered the site to be covered in concrete. Contrary to the urban legend that claims millions of cartridges were buried there, Heller stated that only 728,000 cartridges were buried. Remnants of E.T. and other Atari games were discovered in the early hours of the excavation, as reported by Microsoft's Larry Hryb. A team of archaeologists was present to examine and document the Atari material unearthed by excavation machinery: Andrew Reinhard (American School of Classical Studies at Athens), Richard Rothaus (Trefoil Cultural and Environmental), Bill Caraher (University of North Dakota), with support from video game historian Raiford Guins (Stony Brook University) and historian Bret Weber (University of North Dakota). Only about 1178 cartridges of the estimated 700,000 were removed from the burial, as the remaining materials were deeper than expected, which made them more difficult to access, according to Alamogordo mayor Susie Galea. The burial was refilled following this event. Joseph Lewandowski, who had worked to arrange the unearthing with the city, said that this was a one-time shot to recover materials from the site, as they do not expect the city to agree to a similar event again. The documentary Atari: Game Over, which features the burial site and its excavation, was released on November 20, 2014. ### Curation and auction Of the recovered materials, a fraction has been given to the New Mexico Museum of Space History for display, and another 100 to the documentary producers Lightbox and Fuel Entertainment. The Centre for Computing History in Cambridge, England also received some artifacts from the desert, which are on permanent display in the museum gallery. Galea believes the remaining cartridges can be sold by the city of Alamogordo through the Museum of Space History. She hopes that the sale of these games can help fund recognition of the burial site as a tourist attraction in the future. The City of Alamogordo approved the auction of the games in September 2014, to be sold through eBay and the Alamogordo Council website. As of September 2015, over \$107,000 has been raised through the sales of about 880 unearthed cartridges, with one E.T. copy selling for more than \$1,500. About 300 cartridges remain to be sold at a later date given the historical value of the cartridges. One of the E.T. cartridges that had been dug up was taken by the Smithsonian Institution for its records, calling the cartridge both representative of the burial site but also in terms of video games, how the cartridge represents "the ongoing challenge of making a good film to a video game adaptation, the decline of Atari, the end of an era for video game manufacturing, and the video game cartridge life cycle". ## See also - List of commercial failures in video games - Second generation of video game consoles

Farm River State Park

State park in East Haven, United States

Farm River State Park is a privately operated, publicly owned recreation area on the western shore of the Farm River estuary in the town of East Haven, Connecticut. Public access to the 62-acre state park is limited and boating is restricted to those with passes obtained from Quinnipiac University, which manages the park for the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection. Park activities include nature trail hiking, bird watching, and fishing. ## Ecology The park sits along the estuarine portion of the Farm River, which begins as a freshwater stream 16 miles (26 km) to the north in North Branford. The park contains marshland, tidal wetlands and a rocky shore that hosts bird species including ducks, gulls, snowy egrets, and blue herons. The unique geology of the uplands and bedrock outcrops provide landscape diversity and allow tidal marsh flooding to separate the park into upper and lower portions. ## History To create the park, the State of Connecticut, in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Trust for Public Lands, purchased a 57-acre parcel and another 15-acre parcel for \$1.75 million in 1998. The land was obtained and designated a state park before luxury condominiums were constructed along the river. In 2006, Quinnipiac University installed a wireless network communication system to be used for educational purposes. A trail from the D.C. Moore School through Farm River State Park was cleared by Boy Scout Troop 401 in 2012, as part of the development of the Shoreline Greenway. ## Activities and amenities Park activities include hiking, fishing, bird watching, and car-top boating. The boat launch and docks are managed by a private concessionaire contracted by the state. Trails lead to scenic vistas and a self-guided nature trail. The main access points are off Connecticut Route 142 (Short Beach Road) and via an electrically controlled gate off Mansfield Grove Road. Access to the park is restricted to trailheads with limited parking.

K-1 (Kansas highway)

State highway Kansas

K-1 is a 13.363-mile-long (21.506 km), north-south state highway in southern Comanche County, Kansas, United States, that connects Oklahoma State Highway 34 (SH‐34),with U.S. Route 160/U.S. Route 183 (US‐160/US‐183). ## Route description K-1 begins at the Oklahoma state line, where it is a continuation of Oklahoma State Highway 34. From its southern terminus it heads in north, turning slightly to the northwest before heading directly north again. It passes through the unincorporated community of Buttermilk, which is the only community on the route. From Buttermilk, K-1 continues north until it reaches it northern terminus at an intersection with US‐160/US‐183, south of Coldwater. US‐160/US‐183 continues north to Coldwater and west to Protection. The entire route of K-1 is paved with partial design bituminous pavement, a type of bituminous pavement that is not designed or constructed to carry the highway's expected traffic. Annual average daily traffic values for the highway rise slowly from 600 over the southernmost 4.000 miles (6.437 km) of the route to 645 over the northernmost 5.363 miles (8.631 km) of the route. K-1 highway is not a part of the United States National Highway System. ## History K‐1 highway was originally established sometime between 1918 and 1932. Originally, it ran much farther to the north than its current terminus, passing from the Oklahoma–Kansas border south of Coldwater north through Greensburg, Kinsley, western sections of Pawnee County, La Crosse, Hays, Plainville, Stockton, and Phillipsburg to a northern terminus just northeast of the town of Woodruff. It terminated at K-22, which was later known as U.S. Route 83, close to the border with Nebraska. In 1941, the majority of K‐1 (except the southernmost section) began to be replaced with US‐183, beginning with the section between Rozel and Plainville. By 1950, US‐183 had replaced all but the current alignment of K‐1. It was not until 1953 that the entirety of K-1 was paved, as the section of K-1 that comprises the current alignment was not paved until between 1950 and 1953. Since 1953, K-1 has remained at its current alignment. ## Major intersections ## See also - List of state highways in Kansas - List of highways numbered 1

Transcriptomics technologies

Study of RNA transcripts

Transcriptomics technologies are the techniques used to study an organism's transcriptome, the sum of all of its RNA transcripts. The information content of an organism is recorded in the DNA of its genome and expressed through transcription. Here, mRNA serves as a transient intermediary molecule in the information network, whilst non-coding RNAs perform additional diverse functions. A transcriptome captures a snapshot in time of the total transcripts present in a cell. Transcriptomics technologies provide a broad account of which cellular processes are active and which are dormant. A major challenge in molecular biology is to understand how a single genome gives rise to a variety of cells. Another is how gene expression is regulated. The first attempts to study whole transcriptomes began in the early 1990s. Subsequent technological advances since the late 1990s have repeatedly transformed the field and made transcriptomics a widespread discipline in biological sciences. There are two key contemporary techniques in the field: microarrays, which quantify a set of predetermined sequences, and RNA-Seq, which uses high-throughput sequencing to record all transcripts. As the technology improved, the volume of data produced by each transcriptome experiment increased. As a result, data analysis methods have steadily been adapted to more accurately and efficiently analyse increasingly large volumes of data. Transcriptome databases getting bigger and more useful as transcriptomes continue to be collected and shared by researchers. It would be almost impossible to interpret the information contained in a transcriptome without the knowledge of previous experiments. Measuring the expression of an organism's genes in different tissues or conditions, or at different times, gives information on how genes are regulated and reveals details of an organism's biology. It can also be used to infer the functions of previously unannotated genes. Transcriptome analysis has enabled the study of how gene expression changes in different organisms and has been instrumental in the understanding of human disease. An analysis of gene expression in its entirety allows detection of broad coordinated trends which cannot be discerned by more targeted assays. ## History Transcriptomics has been characterised by the development of new techniques which have redefined what is possible every decade or so and rendered previous technologies obsolete. The first attempt at capturing a partial human transcriptome was published in 1991 and reported 609 mRNA sequences from the human brain. In 2008, two human transcriptomes, composed of millions of transcript-derived sequences covering 16,000 genes, were published, and by 2015 transcriptomes had been published for hundreds of individuals. Transcriptomes of different disease states, tissues, or even single cells are now routinely generated. This explosion in transcriptomics has been driven by the rapid development of new technologies with improved sensitivity and economy. ### Before transcriptomics Studies of individual transcripts were being performed several decades before any transcriptomics approaches were available. Libraries of silkmoth mRNA transcripts were collected and converted to complementary DNA (cDNA) for storage using reverse transcriptase in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, low-throughput sequencing using the Sanger method was used to sequence random transcripts, producing expressed sequence tags (ESTs). The Sanger method of sequencing was predominant until the advent of high-throughput methods such as sequencing by synthesis (Solexa/Illumina). ESTs came to prominence during the 1990s as an efficient method to determine the gene content of an organism without sequencing the entire genome. Amounts of individual transcripts were quantified using Northern blotting, nylon membrane arrays, and later reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) methods, but these methods are laborious and can only capture a tiny subsection of a transcriptome. Consequently, the manner in which a transcriptome as a whole is expressed and regulated remained unknown until higher-throughput techniques were developed. ### Early attempts The word "transcriptome" was first used in the 1990s. In 1995, one of the earliest sequencing-based transcriptomic methods was developed, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), which worked by Sanger sequencing of concatenated random transcript fragments. Transcripts were quantified by matching the fragments to known genes. A variant of SAGE using high-throughput sequencing techniques, called digital gene expression analysis, was also briefly used. However, these methods were largely overtaken by high throughput sequencing of entire transcripts, which provided additional information on transcript structure such as splice variants. ### Development of contemporary techniques The dominant contemporary techniques, microarrays and RNA-Seq, were developed in the mid-1990s and 2000s. Microarrays that measure the abundances of a defined set of transcripts via their hybridisation to an array of complementary probes were first published in 1995. Microarray technology allowed the assay of thousands of transcripts simultaneously and at a greatly reduced cost per gene and labour saving. Both spotted oligonucleotide arrays and Affymetrix high-density arrays were the method of choice for transcriptional profiling until the late 2000s. Over this period, a range of microarrays were produced to cover known genes in model or economically important organisms. Advances in design and manufacture of arrays improved the specificity of probes and allowed more genes to be tested on a single array. Advances in fluorescence detection increased the sensitivity and measurement accuracy for low abundance transcripts. RNA-Seq is accomplished by reverse transcribing RNA in vitro and sequencing the resulting cDNAs. Transcript abundance is derived from the number of counts from each transcript. The technique has therefore been heavily influenced by the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies. Massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS) was an early example based on generating 16–20 bp sequences via a complex series of hybridisations, and was used in 2004 to validate the expression of ten thousand genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. The earliest RNA-Seq work was published in 2006 with one hundred thousand transcripts sequenced using 454 technology. This was sufficient coverage to quantify relative transcript abundance. RNA-Seq began to increase in popularity after 2008 when new Solexa/Illumina technologies allowed one billion transcript sequences to be recorded. This yield now allows for the quantification and comparison of human transcriptomes. ## Data gathering Generating data on RNA transcripts can be achieved via either of two main principles: sequencing of individual transcripts (ESTs, or RNA-Seq) or hybridisation of transcripts to an ordered array of nucleotide probes (microarrays). ### Isolation of RNA All transcriptomic methods require RNA to first be isolated from the experimental organism before transcripts can be recorded. Although biological systems are incredibly diverse, RNA extraction techniques are broadly similar and involve mechanical disruption of cells or tissues, disruption of RNase with chaotropic salts, disruption of macromolecules and nucleotide complexes, separation of RNA from undesired biomolecules including DNA, and concentration of the RNA via precipitation from solution or elution from a solid matrix. Isolated RNA may additionally be treated with DNase to digest any traces of DNA. It is necessary to enrich messenger RNA as total RNA extracts are typically 98% ribosomal RNA. Enrichment for transcripts can be performed by poly-A affinity methods or by depletion of ribosomal RNA using sequence-specific probes. Degraded RNA may affect downstream results; for example, mRNA enrichment from degraded samples will result in the depletion of 5’ mRNA ends and an uneven signal across the length of a transcript. Snap-freezing of tissue prior to RNA isolation is typical, and care is taken to reduce exposure to RNase enzymes once isolation is complete. ### Expressed sequence tags An expressed sequence tag (EST) is a short nucleotide sequence generated from a single RNA transcript. RNA is first copied as complementary DNA (cDNA) by a reverse transcriptase enzyme before the resultant cDNA is sequenced. Because ESTs can be collected without prior knowledge of the organism from which they come, they can be made from mixtures of organisms or environmental samples. Although higher-throughput methods are now used, EST libraries commonly provided sequence information for early microarray designs; for example, a barley microarray was designed from 350,000 previously sequenced ESTs. ### Serial and cap analysis of gene expression (SAGE/CAGE) Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) was a development of EST methodology to increase the throughput of the tags generated and allow some quantitation of transcript abundance. cDNA is generated from the RNA but is then digested into 11 bp "tag" fragments using restriction enzymes that cut DNA at a specific sequence, and 11 base pairs along from that sequence. These cDNA tags are then joined head-to-tail into long strands (\>500 bp) and sequenced using low-throughput, but long read-length methods such as Sanger sequencing. The sequences are then divided back into their original 11 bp tags using computer software in a process called deconvolution. If a high-quality reference genome is available, these tags may be matched to their corresponding gene in the genome. If a reference genome is unavailable, the tags can be directly used as diagnostic markers if found to be differentially expressed in a disease state. The cap analysis gene expression (CAGE) method is a variant of SAGE that sequences tags from the 5’ end of an mRNA transcript only. Therefore, the transcriptional start site of genes can be identified when the tags are aligned to a reference genome. Identifying gene start sites is of use for promoter analysis and for the cloning of full-length cDNAs. SAGE and CAGE methods produce information on more genes than was possible when sequencing single ESTs, but sample preparation and data analysis are typically more labour-intensive. ### Microarrays #### Principles and advances Microarrays usually consist of a grid of short nucleotide oligomers, known as "probes", typically arranged on a glass slide. Transcript abundance is determined by hybridisation of fluorescently labelled transcripts to these probes. The fluorescence intensity at each probe location on the array indicates the transcript abundance for that probe sequence. Groups of probes designed to measure the same transcript (i.e., hybridizing a specific transcript in different positions) are usually referred to as "probesets". Microarrays require some genomic knowledge from the organism of interest, for example, in the form of an annotated genome sequence, or a library of ESTs that can be used to generate the probes for the array. #### Methods Microarrays for transcriptomics typically fall into one of two broad categories: low-density spotted arrays or high-density short probe arrays. Transcript abundance is inferred from the intensity of fluorescence derived from fluorophore-tagged transcripts that bind to the array. Spotted low-density arrays typically feature picolitre drops of a range of purified cDNAs arrayed on the surface of a glass slide. These probes are longer than those of high-density arrays and cannot identify alternative splicing events. Spotted arrays use two different fluorophores to label the test and control samples, and the ratio of fluorescence is used to calculate a relative measure of abundance. High-density arrays use a single fluorescent label, and each sample is hybridised and detected individually. High-density arrays were popularised by the Affymetrix GeneChip array, where each transcript is quantified by several short 25-mer probes that together assay one gene. NimbleGen arrays were a high-density array produced by a maskless-photochemistry method, which permitted flexible manufacture of arrays in small or large numbers. These arrays had 100,000s of 45 to 85-mer probes and were hybridised with a one-colour labelled sample for expression analysis. Some designs incorporated up to 12 independent arrays per slide. ### RNA-Seq #### Principles and advances RNA-Seq refers to the combination of a high-throughput sequencing methodology with computational methods to capture and quantify transcripts present in an RNA extract. The nucleotide sequences generated are typically around 100 bp in length, but can range from 30 bp to over 10,000 bp depending on the sequencing method used. RNA-Seq leverages deep sampling of the transcriptome with many short fragments from a transcriptome to allow computational reconstruction of the original RNA transcript by aligning reads to a reference genome or to each other (de novo assembly). Both low-abundance and high-abundance RNAs can be quantified in an RNA-Seq experiment (dynamic range of 5 orders of magnitude)—a key advantage over microarray transcriptomes. In addition, input RNA amounts are much lower for RNA-Seq (nanogram quantity) compared to microarrays (microgram quantity), which allows finer examination of cellular structures down to the single-cell level when combined with linear amplification of cDNA. Theoretically, there is no upper limit of quantification in RNA-Seq, and background noise is very low for 100 bp reads in non-repetitive regions. RNA-Seq may be used to identify genes within a genome, or identify which genes are active at a particular point in time, and read counts can be used to accurately model the relative gene expression level. RNA-Seq methodology has constantly improved, primarily through the development of DNA sequencing technologies to increase throughput, accuracy, and read length. Since the first descriptions in 2006 and 2008, RNA-Seq has been rapidly adopted and overtook microarrays as the dominant transcriptomics technique in 2015. The quest for transcriptome data at the level of individual cells has driven advances in RNA-Seq library preparation methods, resulting in dramatic advances in sensitivity. Single-cell transcriptomes are now well described and have even been extended to in situ RNA-Seq where transcriptomes of individual cells are directly interrogated in fixed tissues. #### Methods RNA-Seq was established in concert with the rapid development of a range of high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies. However, before the extracted RNA transcripts are sequenced, several key processing steps are performed. Methods differ in the use of transcript enrichment, fragmentation, amplification, single or paired-end sequencing, and whether to preserve strand information. The sensitivity of an RNA-Seq experiment can be increased by enriching classes of RNA that are of interest and depleting known abundant RNAs. The mRNA molecules can be separated using oligonucleotides probes which bind their poly-A tails. Alternatively, ribo-depletion can be used to specifically remove abundant but uninformative ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) by hybridisation to probes tailored to the taxon's specific rRNA sequences (e.g. mammal rRNA, plant rRNA). However, ribo-depletion can also introduce some bias via non-specific depletion of off-target transcripts. Small RNAs, such as micro RNAs, can be purified based on their size by gel electrophoresis and extraction. Since mRNAs are longer than the read-lengths of typical high-throughput sequencing methods, transcripts are usually fragmented prior to sequencing. The fragmentation method is a key aspect of sequencing library construction. Fragmentation may be achieved by chemical hydrolysis, nebulisation, sonication, or reverse transcription with chain-terminating nucleotides. Alternatively, fragmentation and cDNA tagging may be done simultaneously by using transposase enzymes. During preparation for sequencing, cDNA copies of transcripts may be amplified by PCR to enrich for fragments that contain the expected 5’ and 3’ adapter sequences. Amplification is also used to allow sequencing of very low input amounts of RNA, down to as little as 50 pg in extreme applications. Spike-in controls of known RNAs can be used for quality control assessment to check library preparation and sequencing, in terms of GC-content, fragment length, as well as the bias due to fragment position within a transcript. Unique molecular identifiers (UMIs) are short random sequences that are used to individually tag sequence fragments during library preparation so that every tagged fragment is unique. UMIs provide an absolute scale for quantification, the opportunity to correct for subsequent amplification bias introduced during library construction, and accurately estimate the initial sample size. UMIs are particularly well-suited to single-cell RNA-Seq transcriptomics, where the amount of input RNA is restricted and extended amplification of the sample is required. Once the transcript molecules have been prepared they can be sequenced in just one direction (single-end) or both directions (paired-end). A single-end sequence is usually quicker to produce, cheaper than paired-end sequencing and sufficient for quantification of gene expression levels. Paired-end sequencing produces more robust alignments/assemblies, which is beneficial for gene annotation and transcript isoform discovery. Strand-specific RNA-Seq methods preserve the strand information of a sequenced transcript. Without strand information, reads can be aligned to a gene locus but do not inform in which direction the gene is transcribed. Stranded-RNA-Seq is useful for deciphering transcription for genes that overlap in different directions and to make more robust gene predictions in non-model organisms. Legend: NCBI SRA – National center for biotechnology information sequence read archive. Currently RNA-Seq relies on copying RNA molecules into cDNA molecules prior to sequencing; therefore, the subsequent platforms are the same for transcriptomic and genomic data. Consequently, the development of DNA sequencing technologies has been a defining feature of RNA-Seq. Direct sequencing of RNA using nanopore sequencing represents a current state-of-the-art RNA-Seq technique. Nanopore sequencing of RNA can detect modified bases that would be otherwise masked when sequencing cDNA and also eliminates amplification steps that can otherwise introduce bias. The sensitivity and accuracy of an RNA-Seq experiment are dependent on the number of reads obtained from each sample. A large number of reads are needed to ensure sufficient coverage of the transcriptome, enabling detection of low abundance transcripts. Experimental design is further complicated by sequencing technologies with a limited output range, the variable efficiency of sequence creation, and variable sequence quality. Added to those considerations is that every species has a different number of genes and therefore requires a tailored sequence yield for an effective transcriptome. Early studies determined suitable thresholds empirically, but as the technology matured suitable coverage was predicted computationally by transcriptome saturation. Somewhat counter-intuitively, the most effective way to improve detection of differential expression in low expression genes is to add more biological replicates rather than adding more reads. The current benchmarks recommended by the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) Project are for 70-fold exome coverage for standard RNA-Seq and up to 500-fold exome coverage to detect rare transcripts and isoforms. ## Data analysis Transcriptomics methods are highly parallel and require significant computation to produce meaningful data for both microarray and RNA-Seq experiments. Microarray data is recorded as high-resolution images, requiring feature detection and spectral analysis. Microarray raw image files are each about 750 MB in size, while the processed intensities are around 60 MB in size. Multiple short probes matching a single transcript can reveal details about the intron-exon structure, requiring statistical models to determine the authenticity of the resulting signal. RNA-Seq studies produce billions of short DNA sequences, which must be aligned to reference genomes composed of millions to billions of base pairs. De novo assembly of reads within a dataset requires the construction of highly complex sequence graphs. RNA-Seq operations are highly repetitious and benefit from parallelised computation but modern algorithms mean consumer computing hardware is sufficient for simple transcriptomics experiments that do not require de novo assembly of reads. A human transcriptome could be accurately captured using RNA-Seq with 30 million 100 bp sequences per sample. This example would require approximately 1.8 gigabytes of disk space per sample when stored in a compressed fastq format. Processed count data for each gene would be much smaller, equivalent to processed microarray intensities. Sequence data may be stored in public repositories, such as the Sequence Read Archive (SRA). RNA-Seq datasets can be uploaded via the Gene Expression Omnibus. ### Image processing Microarray image processing must correctly identify the regular grid of features within an image and independently quantify the fluorescence intensity for each feature. Image artefacts must be additionally identified and removed from the overall analysis. Fluorescence intensities directly indicate the abundance of each sequence, since the sequence of each probe on the array is already known. The first steps of RNA-seq also include similar image processing; however, conversion of images to sequence data is typically handled automatically by the instrument software. The Illumina sequencing-by-synthesis method results in an array of clusters distributed over the surface of a flow cell. The flow cell is imaged up to four times during each sequencing cycle, with tens to hundreds of cycles in total. Flow cell clusters are analogous to microarray spots and must be correctly identified during the early stages of the sequencing process. In Roche’s pyrosequencing method, the intensity of emitted light determines the number of consecutive nucleotides in a homopolymer repeat. There are many variants on these methods, each with a different error profile for the resulting data. ### RNA-Seq data analysis RNA-Seq experiments generate a large volume of raw sequence reads which have to be processed to yield useful information. Data analysis usually requires a combination of bioinformatics software tools (see also List of RNA-Seq bioinformatics tools) that vary according to the experimental design and goals. The process can be broken down into four stages: quality control, alignment, quantification, and differential expression. Most popular RNA-Seq programs are run from a command-line interface, either in a Unix environment or within the R/Bioconductor statistical environment. #### Quality control Sequence reads are not perfect, so the accuracy of each base in the sequence needs to be estimated for downstream analyses. Raw data is examined to ensure: quality scores for base calls are high, the GC content matches the expected distribution, short sequence motifs (k-mers) are not over-represented, and the read duplication rate is acceptably low. Several software options exist for sequence quality analysis, including FastQC and FaQCs. Abnormalities may be removed (trimming) or tagged for special treatment during later processes. #### Alignment In order to link sequence read abundance to the expression of a particular gene, transcript sequences are aligned to a reference genome or de novo aligned to one another if no reference is available. The key challenges for alignment software include sufficient speed to permit billions of short sequences to be aligned in a meaningful timeframe, flexibility to recognise and deal with intron splicing of eukaryotic mRNA, and correct assignment of reads that map to multiple locations. Software advances have greatly addressed these issues, and increases in sequencing read length reduce the chance of ambiguous read alignments. A list of currently available high-throughput sequence aligners is maintained by the EBI. Alignment of primary transcript mRNA sequences derived from eukaryotes to a reference genome requires specialised handling of intron sequences, which are absent from mature mRNA. Short read aligners perform an additional round of alignments specifically designed to identify splice junctions, informed by canonical splice site sequences and known intron splice site information. Identification of intron splice junctions prevents reads from being misaligned across splice junctions or erroneously discarded, allowing more reads to be aligned to the reference genome and improving the accuracy of gene expression estimates. Since gene regulation may occur at the mRNA isoform level, splice-aware alignments also permit detection of isoform abundance changes that would otherwise be lost in a bulked analysis. De novo assembly can be used to align reads to one another to construct full-length transcript sequences without use of a reference genome. Challenges particular to de novo assembly include larger computational requirements compared to a reference-based transcriptome, additional validation of gene variants or fragments, and additional annotation of assembled transcripts. The first metrics used to describe transcriptome assemblies, such as N50, have been shown to be misleading and improved evaluation methods are now available. Annotation-based metrics are better assessments of assembly completeness, such as contig reciprocal best hit count. Once assembled de novo, the assembly can be used as a reference for subsequent sequence alignment methods and quantitative gene expression analysis. Legend: RAM – random access memory; MPI – message passing interface; EST – expressed sequence tag. #### Quantification Quantification of sequence alignments may be performed at the gene, exon, or transcript level. Typical outputs include a table of read counts for each feature supplied to the software; for example, for genes in a general feature format file. Gene and exon read counts may be calculated quite easily using HTSeq, for example. Quantitation at the transcript level is more complicated and requires probabilistic methods to estimate transcript isoform abundance from short read information; for example, using cufflinks software. Reads that align equally well to multiple locations must be identified and either removed, aligned to one of the possible locations, or aligned to the most probable location. Some quantification methods can circumvent the need for an exact alignment of a read to a reference sequence altogether. The kallisto software method combines pseudoalignment and quantification into a single step that runs 2 orders of magnitude faster than contemporary methods such as those used by tophat/cufflinks software, with less computational burden. #### Differential expression Once quantitative counts of each transcript are available, differential gene expression is measured by normalising, modelling, and statistically analysing the data. Most tools will read a table of genes and read counts as their input, but some programs, such as cuffdiff, will accept binary alignment map format read alignments as input. The final outputs of these analyses are gene lists with associated pair-wise tests for differential expression between treatments and the probability estimates of those differences. Legend: mRNA - messenger RNA. ### Validation Transcriptomic analyses may be validated using an independent technique, for example, quantitative PCR (qPCR), which is recognisable and statistically assessable. Gene expression is measured against defined standards both for the gene of interest and control genes. The measurement by qPCR is similar to that obtained by RNA-Seq wherein a value can be calculated for the concentration of a target region in a given sample. qPCR is, however, restricted to amplicons smaller than 300 bp, usually toward the 3’ end of the coding region, avoiding the 3’UTR. If validation of transcript isoforms is required, an inspection of RNA-Seq read alignments should indicate where qPCR primers might be placed for maximum discrimination. The measurement of multiple control genes along with the genes of interest produces a stable reference within a biological context. qPCR validation of RNA-Seq data has generally shown that different RNA-Seq methods are highly correlated. Functional validation of key genes is an important consideration for post transcriptome planning. Observed gene expression patterns may be functionally linked to a phenotype by an independent knock-down/rescue study in the organism of interest. ## Applications ### Diagnostics and disease profiling Transcriptomic strategies have seen broad application across diverse areas of biomedical research, including disease diagnosis and profiling. RNA-Seq approaches have allowed for the large-scale identification of transcriptional start sites, uncovered alternative promoter usage, and novel splicing alterations. These regulatory elements are important in human disease and, therefore, defining such variants is crucial to the interpretation of disease-association studies. RNA-Seq can also identify disease-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), allele-specific expression, and gene fusions, which contributes to the understanding of disease causal variants. Retrotransposons are transposable elements which proliferate within eukaryotic genomes through a process involving reverse transcription. RNA-Seq can provide information about the transcription of endogenous retrotransposons that may influence the transcription of neighboring genes by various epigenetic mechanisms that lead to disease. Similarly, the potential for using RNA-Seq to understand immune-related disease is expanding rapidly due to the ability to dissect immune cell populations and to sequence T cell and B cell receptor repertoires from patients. ### Human and pathogen transcriptomes RNA-Seq of human pathogens has become an established method for quantifying gene expression changes, identifying novel virulence factors, predicting antibiotic resistance, and unveiling host-pathogen immune interactions. A primary aim of this technology is to develop optimised infection control measures and targeted individualised treatment. Transcriptomic analysis has predominantly focused on either the host or the pathogen. Dual RNA-Seq has been applied to simultaneously profile RNA expression in both the pathogen and host throughout the infection process. This technique enables the study of the dynamic response and interspecies gene regulatory networks in both interaction partners from initial contact through to invasion and the final persistence of the pathogen or clearance by the host immune system. ### Responses to environment Transcriptomics allows identification of genes and pathways that respond to and counteract biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. The non-targeted nature of transcriptomics allows the identification of novel transcriptional networks in complex systems. For example, comparative analysis of a range of chickpea lines at different developmental stages identified distinct transcriptional profiles associated with drought and salinity stresses, including identifying the role of transcript isoforms of AP2-EREBP. Investigation of gene expression during biofilm formation by the fungal pathogen Candida albicans revealed a co-regulated set of genes critical for biofilm establishment and maintenance. Transcriptomic profiling also provides crucial information on mechanisms of drug resistance. Analysis of over 1000 isolates of Plasmodium falciparum, a virulent parasite responsible for malaria in humans, identified that upregulation of the unfolded protein response and slower progression through the early stages of the asexual intraerythrocytic developmental cycle were associated with artemisinin resistance in isolates from Southeast Asia. The use of transcriptomics is also important to investigate responses in the marine environment. In marine ecology, "stress" and "adaptation" have been among the most common research topics, especially related to anthropogenic stress, such as global change and pollution. Most of the studies in this area have been done in animals, although invertebrates have been underrepresented. One issue still is a deficiency in functional genetic studies, which hamper gene annotations, especially for non-model species, and can lead to vague conclusions on the effects of responses studied. ### Gene function annotation All transcriptomic techniques have been particularly useful in identifying the functions of genes and identifying those responsible for particular phenotypes. Transcriptomics of Arabidopsis ecotypes that hyperaccumulate metals correlated genes involved in metal uptake, tolerance, and homeostasis with the phenotype. Integration of RNA-Seq datasets across different tissues has been used to improve annotation of gene functions in commercially important organisms (e.g. cucumber) or threatened species (e.g. koala). Assembly of RNA-Seq reads is not dependent on a reference genome and so is ideal for gene expression studies of non-model organisms with non-existing or poorly developed genomic resources. For example, a database of SNPs used in Douglas fir breeding programs was created by de novo transcriptome analysis in the absence of a sequenced genome. Similarly, genes that function in the development of cardiac, muscle, and nervous tissue in lobsters were identified by comparing the transcriptomes of the various tissue types without use of a genome sequence. RNA-Seq can also be used to identify previously unknown protein coding regions in existing sequenced genomes. #### A transcriptome based aging clock Aging-related preventive interventions are not possible without personal aging speed measurement. The most up to date and complex way to measure aging rate is by using varying biomarkers of human aging is based on the utilization of deep neural networks which may be trained on any type of omics biological data to predict the subject's age. Aging has been shown to be a strong driver of transcriptome changes. Aging clocks based on transcriptomes have suffered from considerable variation in the data and relatively low accuracy. However an approach that uses temporal scaling and binarization of transcriptomes to define a gene set that predicts biological age with an accuracy allowed to reach an assessment close to the theoretical limit. ### Non-coding RNA Transcriptomics is most commonly applied to the mRNA content of the cell. However, the same techniques are equally applicable to non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that are not translated into a protein, but instead have direct functions (e.g. roles in protein translation, DNA replication, RNA splicing, and transcriptional regulation). Many of these ncRNAs affect disease states, including cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases. ## Transcriptome databases Transcriptomics studies generate large amounts of data that have potential applications far beyond the original aims of an experiment. As such, raw or processed data may be deposited in public databases to ensure their utility for the broader scientific community. For example, as of 2018, the Gene Expression Omnibus contained millions of experiments. Legend: NCBI – National Center for Biotechnology Information; EBI – European Bioinformatics Institute; DDBJ – DNA Data Bank of Japan; ENA – European Nucleotide Archive; MIAME – Minimum Information About a Microarray Experiment; MINSEQE – Minimum Information about a high-throughput nucleotide SEQuencing Experiment. ## See also - omics - Genomics - Proteomics - Metabolomics - Venomics

Tropical Storm Alice (1953)

Atlantic tropical storm in 1953

Tropical Storm Alice was the first tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean to receive a female name. It was a rare off-season tropical cyclone that hit Central America, Cuba, and Florida in late May to early June 1953. Alice formed on May 25 in the western Caribbean, and executed a large loop over Central America. It passed over western Cuba, causing heavy rainfall and possibly several casualties from drowning. It then executed another loop in the Gulf of Mexico, reached a peak intensity of 70 mph (110 km/h), and weakened before hitting the Florida panhandle on June 6. Although heavy rainfall occurred in Florida, there was little damage. ## Meteorological history In May and June 1953, an unusually long-lasting upper-level low persisted across Mexico and Central America. On May 25, a weak warm-core surface circulation developed east of Nicaragua. It moved around the upper-level low, bringing it to the northwest and later looping to the south through Honduras and Central America. The system weakened over land, but it re-intensified over the western Caribbean Sea, moving over western Cuba as a 50 mph (80 km/h) tropical storm on May 31. Advisories for Alice did not begin until June 1, when the storm entered the Gulf of Mexico. Around the time of the cyclone's naming, reconnaissance aircraft reported winds of around 65 mph (105 km/h), and subsequently Alice executed another loop off the northwest coast of Cuba. Alice weakened quickly to minimal tropical storm status, due to interaction with a cold front off Florida. It deteriorated so much that advisories were discontinued, with Miami Weather Bureau meteorologist James George remarking that "no danger [existed there] whatsoever." After again passing near the Cuban coast, Alice turned to the northwest and began re-strengthening. On June 5, reconnaissance aircraft estimated 70 to 75 mph (113 to 121 km/h) winds in brief squalls northeast of the center, along with a pressure of 997 hectopascals (29.4 inHg); this would be its peak intensity. The storm again weakened as it approached the Florida peninsula, and Alice made landfall just west of Panama City Beach on June 6 as a minimal tropical storm. It dissipated shortly thereafter. ## Impact and records While the storm was in the vicinity of western Cuba, it produced heavy rainfall, which broke a nine-month drought. The rainfall caused flooding, and there were unconfirmed reports of several deaths due to drowning. When advisories first began on the storm, the National Hurricane Center issued storm warnings from Key West through Tarpon Springs on the west coast of Florida; at the same time, the agency posted small craft warnings for the east coast up through Palm Beach. Alice brought heavy rainfall to Florida, peaking at 13.48 inches (342 mm) in Lake Placid in the central portion of the state. The rains ended a dry spell in the state. Along the Florida panhandle, workers tied down planes in local Air Force and Naval bases. No evacuations were ordered, and the primary impact was in the form of light rain. There were no reports of damage in the state. From 1950 to 1952, Atlantic hurricanes were named using the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet. Before the 1953 season, officials changed the system to using female names; hence, Alice was the first in the new format. Male names would not be used until 1979. The name "Alice" was later reused twice in 1954 for a hurricane in June and December, as well as for a hurricane in 1973. ## See also - 1953 Atlantic hurricane season

Vanilla production in French Polynesia

Crop production in French Polynesia

Vanilla production contributes to the local economy of French Polynesia. Although it was a major export crop after its introduction by the French in 1848, vanilla is no longer a significant export product. Vanilla was first introduced to French Polynesia by French colonizers as an export crop. Later, it became an important cash crop in the development of the island's economy. In the early 20th century, production was much greater than it is today, with 150-200 tons produced annually and plantations employing a sizable percentage of the population. Over the years, its production has been influenced by several factors and has declined from a high of 200 tons to a 2013 yield of 60 tons. The largest concentration of the vanilla variety Vanilla tahitensis (Tahitian vanilla) is situated in the Society Islands. The island of Taha'a, known as the "Vanilla Island" because of its pervasive aroma of vanilla, produces about 80% of all French Polynesia's vanilla. ## Background Vanilla tahitensis (Tahitian vanilla), which is a cross-strain of Vanilla planifola (Mexican vanilla and Bourbon vanilla) and Vanilla odorata, is produced in French Polynesia, especially in Tahiti, and also Hawaii. Its pods have fewer seeds than Vanilla planifolia, which is not a direct competitor. Mexican vanilla is used almost exclusively as the base of vanilla extract, due to higher vanillin levels. Tahitian vanilla is used primarily in perfume because of its coumarin-like scent. Other Tahitian vanilla products include vanilla green tea, vanilla oil, vanilla powder, vanilla rum, and vinegar-based vanilla. ## History Vanilla, originally a crop endemic to South America, was introduced in French Polynesia in 1848 by Admiral Ferdinand-Alphonse Hamelin, a French commander in the Pacific. The admiral delivered several dozen specimens of the plant to the Tahitian Governor's garden in Papeete. A new variety of vanilla was subsequently developed in the area and came to be popularly known as Tahitian vanilla. This has special characteristics compared to the varieties such as Vanilla planifolia grown in other parts of the world, particularly in respect to taste and scent. It has resulted in a separate vanilla classification and market for the Tahitian variety. The introduction occurred only one year after France made French Polynesia its protectorate, and over the next 40 years it became a major export to the United States, France, and Britain. Initially the vanilla plantations were owned by French mainland transplants; later, the local Tahitians learned the processes and became major producers of the crop, with native families involved in its growth from "seed to pod." However, in the 20th century, the Chinese, who came initially as labor for the plantations, became the primary actors in processing the crop for, marketing to, and making the crop available to the international market, though still some farms are owned by people of French and native origins. ## Production Vanilla is grown on small patches of land both as a single crop as well as an inter crop. As it needs a lot of water for growth, it is largely grown on the rainier windward side of the island. Initially, vanilla is planted next to small trees until its vines grow to some height, at which point it is cut down closer to the soil so that it spreads across the ground. It starts to flower when about three years old; the flowering period is from July to August. The government of French Polynesia sets the mandate for the final humidity level of the vanilla beans which is currently 55 percent. This distinguishes vanilla from Tahiti from all other vanillas worldwide. Production, initially for export, reached a high of 200 tons in 1939. But it decreased to about 125 tons (metric) due to the onset of World War II in 1945. Exports gradually increased after the war to 300 tons by 1949 but then started to decline with about four tons of export in 1985 as it became ineffective to produce vanilla due to international competition, the costs of transportation of processed vanilla, exchange rates, state protectionism, plant pathology, varying global economics, and availability of cheaper varieties, which all affected the economics of vanilla production in the area. The Centre d’Experimentation du Pacifique (CEP) was established with the goal of reviving the economy. It was launched in 1962 to overcome the drawbacks faced by the economy at large, with vanilla production being the economy's cornerstone at the time. In an effort to spark innovation and new growing techniques, emphasis was shifted to "shade house cultivation", with less-intensive labour required (due to the controlled indoor climate), and reduction in chemicals necessary for outdoor farming. Controlled growth resulted in an export record of 12 tons in 2010. In the present day, the production is largely locally utilized in view of Tahitian vanilla becoming a "status symbol of cultural identity and pride in Polynesia." Promotional actions instituted by the government to act upon this pride and boost vanilla production are many; even a dessert served by an airline in the on-board meal is infused with Tahitian vanilla. As of 2013, vanilla production (FAO records for 2013) in French Polynesia (specifically Tahiti) accounted to only about 0.07% of the total world production; it was 60 tons from an area of 7 hectares (17 acres) with a yield of 13 hectograms per ha, comparative to the 3,500 tons yielded by plantations in Madagascar, and 3,400 tons yielded in Indonesia. Some plantations are open to tourists; Maison de la Vanille for instance, near Haamene, permits visitors to view the vanilla preparation and drying processes. The island of Tahaa offers a tour, conducted by a private outfit, that takes visitors to one of the older and more voluminous plantations, situated on Hurepiti Bay.

Doctor Who (series 6)

2011 series of Doctor Who

The sixth series of British science fiction television programme Doctor Who was shown in two parts. The first seven episodes were broadcast from April to June 2011, beginning with "The Impossible Astronaut" and ending with mid-series finale "A Good Man Goes to War". The final six episodes aired from August to October, beginning with "Let's Kill Hitler" and ending with "The Wedding of River Song". The main series was preceded by "A Christmas Carol", the 2010 Christmas special. The series was led by head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat, alongside executive producers Beth Willis and Piers Wenger. Sanne Wohlenberg, Marcus Wilson, and Denise Paul served as producers. The series was the sixth to air following the programme's revival in 2005 after the classic era aired between 1963 and 1989, and is the thirty-second season overall. The series stars Matt Smith as the eleventh incarnation of the Doctor, an alien Time Lord who travels through time and space in his TARDIS, a spacecraft whose exterior resembles a British police box. It also stars Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill as his companions, newlyweds Amy Pond and Rory Williams. Alex Kingston also returns as River Song, a mysterious woman from the Doctor's future who is revealed throughout the series to be Amy and Rory's part-Time Lord daughter and the Doctor's wife. In addition to Song, the series continues story threads from the fifth series, most notably the Silence and the cause of the TARDIS exploding in "The Big Bang". ## Episodes This series was the first to include a mid-season broadcast break since Season 18, with twelve weeks between the transmissions of "A Good Man Goes to War" and "Let's Kill Hitler". ### Supplemental episodes Two three-minute mini-episodes titled "Space" and "Time", directed by Richard Senior, were released on 18 March 2011, filmed under the sixth series' production cycle as part of BBC One's Red Nose Day telethon for the charity Comic Relief. The episodes form a two-part story, set entirely within the TARDIS, starring Matt Smith as the Doctor, Karen Gillan as Amy Pond and Arthur Darvill as Rory Williams, and were written by the programme's head writer Steven Moffat. ### Prequels A number of short prequel videos were released online prior to selected episodes' airings. ## Casting Matt Smith, Karen Gillan and Arthur Darvill continued their roles as the Doctor, Amy Pond, and Rory Williams. Darvill had appeared in the previous series in a recurring role in seven episodes, acting as a companion in six of them, but became a regular in this series, having had his "fingers crossed" that this would happen. Alex Kingston returned as River Song. Although Kingston did not expect to return before the fifth series, Moffat always intended for River to return to the series. James Corden also reprised his role as Craig Owens from "The Lodger" in "Closing Time", and Simon Callow briefly reprised his role as Charles Dickens from the first series episode "The Unquiet Dead", as did Ian McNeice who briefly reprised his role as Winston Churchill from the fifth series episode "Victory of the Daleks". A young version of Amy was played by Gillan's eleven-year-old cousin, Caitlin Blackwood, in the episodes "Let's Kill Hitler" and "The God Complex". Gillan and Blackwood first met on the set of the fifth series, but, although Blackwood had to audition, Gillan recommended her for the role. "A Christmas Carol" guest-starred Michael Gambon and Katherine Jenkins as Kazran Sardick and Abigail respectively. Guest stars of the main series included Michael Sheen (voice) as "House" in "The Doctor's Wife", Imelda Staunton (voice) as "Interface" in "The Girl Who Waited", Suranne Jones as Idris in "The Doctor's Wife", David Walliams as Gibbis in "The God Complex", Hugh Bonneville and Lily Cole as Henry Avery and the "Siren" respectively in "The Curse of the Black Spot", Mark Sheppard as Canton in "The Impossible Astronaut" and "Day of the Moon", and Daniel Mays as Alex in "Night Terrors". ## Production ### Development The sixth series was commissioned in March 2010, before the fifth series aired. Neither Peter Bennett nor Tracie Simpson returned as producers, with Sanne Wohlenberg covering the role for "A Christmas Carol" and the first two episodes filmed for the main series ("The Doctor's Wife" and "Night Terrors"). Marcus Wilson produced every other episode except "Closing Time", where Denise Paul produces and Wilson is credited as "series producer". Production designer Edward Thomas was replaced by Michael Pickwoad. Lead writer and executive producer Steven Moffat stated that the purpose of the previous series was to "reassure" the audience that the show was the same, despite the many production changes. However, he wanted this series to be more of a "ghost train" and "worry" the audience. The series is much more serialised than previous ones; the arc-driven nature was inspired by positive reactions from fans when the Doctor from the fifth series finale "The Big Bang" appeared in the earlier episode "Flesh and Stone". Moffat decided to "rest" the Doctor's arch-enemies the Daleks for the series, as being the "most frequent" enemies of the show made them "the most reliably defeatable enemies in the universe". The series continues to build the mystery of the Silence, which had been introduced in the fifth series. Moffat did not wish to end the arc in the previous series, as he felt it would be "more fun" to continue it. Moffat had planned the revelation about River Song "for a long time"; when creating Amy's character, he chose "Pond" for her last name to create a link. Moffat intended for the "answer to be as complicated as the question". Moffat informed Kingston of the secrets of her character at the end of the previous series and she was not allowed to tell anyone; Smith, Gillan, and Darvill were unaware of the identity of her character. Song's identity was kept in top secrecy; the script read at the read-through of "A Good Man Goes to War" had a false ending, and only a select few were issued the real script. ### Writing Matthew Graham was not able to write an episode as he was slated to for the fifth series because he did not believe he would have enough time. Moffat then asked him to write the two-part episode "The Rebel Flesh"/"The Almost People". Neil Gaiman had written "The Doctor's Wife" for the previous series, but due to budget constraints it was replaced with "The Lodger". This necessitated changes to the script, including the addition of Rory as a companion. During the production process the order of the third, fourth and ninth episodes was changed. "The Curse of the Black Spot" was swapped with "Night Terrors" because Moffat felt that the second half of the series was too dark. This necessitated minor changes for the episodes to fit into the storyline, most notably in "Night Terrors". Moffat wanted to start the series with a two-parter that had gravity and a wider scope in plot. He also aimed to make them some of the darkest episodes. In contrast, the following episode, "The Curse of the Black Spot", would allow the characters to "kick back and have some fun". Gaiman's episode was based around the TARDIS, and allowing the Doctor and the TARDIS to speak to each other. Graham's two-parter was intended to lead into "A Good Man Goes to War", the mid-series finale, but have a main plot about "avatars that rebel". Graham took Moffat's pitch and added many of his own aspects, such as the monastery setting and the Flesh. Then, in addition to revealing who River Song is, "A Good Man Goes to War" presented the situation of the Doctor, who was typically a pacifist, being provoked enough to assemble an army. Moffat described the ending as "game-changing cliffhanger" and split the series in two because such a climax could not be done at the end of a series, as it would be "too long before it came back". The mid-series premiere, "Let's Kill Hitler", was intended to be the opposite of the "grim and dark" tone of the series premiere. Mark Gatiss wrote "Night Terrors" to be a scary episode, surprised that dolls had not been used in Doctor Who before. "The Girl Who Waited" is a "Doctor-lite" episode, an episode in which the actor playing the Doctor is not required for much of the shooting, which allowed Tom MacRae to explore Amy and Rory's characters and relationship. The concept of "The God Complex" was originally pitched by Toby Whithouse for the fifth series, but it was pushed back as Moffat felt that it was too similar to the stories in that series. The penultimate episode, "Closing Time", is a sequel to series five's "The Lodger" and allows the Doctor to have some fun while building up to the finale. Writer Gareth Roberts also wanted to bring back the Cybermen, as there were no other returning monsters in the series and he thought "there should be a sense of history about the Doctor's final battle to save Earth before he heads off to meet his death". The finale was described by Moffat as "a big roller coaster ride of Doctor Who madness" and concludes the Doctor's death arc, though it intentionally leaves some mysteries. ### Music Murray Gold composed the soundtrack to this series, with orchestration by Ben Foster. ### Filming "Night Terrors" was the first episode of the series to be filmed in September 2010. It was mainly filmed on a council estate in Bristol, with some scenes filmed in Dyrham Park. Production of "The Doctor's Wife" also occurred in September, with some in October. The two-part opening story was partially filmed in the United States, a first for the programme. This production was done in Utah in November 2010. The story was co-produced by BBC America, who provided extra money for filming in the States. "The Rebel Flesh" and "The Almost People" was filmed in late November 2010 to January 2011, with much location shooting at Caerphilly Castle. "The Curse of the Black Spot" was filmed in Cornwall as well as the Upper Boat Studios, while some of "A Good Man Goes to War" was filmed in a hangar in Cardiff and began shooting mid-January 2011. "The God Complex" was mostly filmed on constructed hotel sets, and the low-budget "The Girl Who Waited" was intentionally set in "big white boxes". "Closing Time" was filmed at night in a department store, as well as a private home in Cardiff, with some filming reports in March 2011. "Let's Kill Hitler" featured Swansea and Cardiff's Temple of Peace as locations in Berlin. Filming concluded on 29 April 2011 with "The Wedding of River Song", though a scene from "Let's Kill Hitler" was delayed and filmed on 11 July 2011. Production blocks were arranged as follows: ## Release ### Promotion The first trailer for the sixth series was shown directly after "A Christmas Carol". In December 2010, BBC America began airing promotions for the new series with Smith and Gillan in character, announcing that they have landed in America. A 15-second teaser trailer was shown on BBC One at 9pm, 22 March 2011. This was followed by a one-minute trailer on 30 March 2011. BBC America followed with a one-minute trailer on 1 April. In addition, two radio trailers were broadcast in the UK in April. On 10 June 2011, the BBC released a short 30-second teaser trailer for the second half of the series. Smith and Gillan, alongside executive producers Piers Wenger and Beth Willis and "The God Complex" writer Toby Whithouse, attended the 2011 San Diego Comic-Con International in late June to promote the second half of the series. There a one-minute trailer and a clip of "The God Complex" was shown. A 40-second trailer was released on 4 August 2011 for BBC One. A 30-second trailer from BBC America was released on 12 August 2011. An alternative trailer aired on CBBC in August 2011. In addition, the BBC released prequels on the Doctor Who official website to promote some of the episodes. The first, for "The Impossible Astronaut", was released on 25 March 2011. Prequels were subsequently released to promote "The Curse of the Black Spot", "A Good Man Goes to War", "Let's Kill Hitler", and "The Wedding of River Song". ### Broadcast The series was split into two halves, primarily for storytelling reasons, with the first seven episodes airing in early 2011 and the final six airing later in the year. The first half aired in the United Kingdom on BBC One from 23 April 2011, and the second half from 27 August. In the United States, the sixth series began airing on BBC America on 23 April; following "A Christmas Carol", this was the first full series to air on the same day in the US as the UK. However, "The Almost People" and "A Good Man Goes to War" were delayed by one week due to expected low numbers of TV viewers during the Memorial Day weekend. Space aired the premiere on 23 April for Canadian viewers, and "The Impossible Astronaut" was broadcast in Australia on ABC1 on 30 April. The series started screening in New Zealand on Prime on 19 May 2011. The second half of the series, beginning with "Let's Kill Hitler", was broadcast on 27 August 2011 on BBC America and on Space. ABC1 began the second run on 3 September. Some international broadcasts, including BBC America, contained a special introductory narration by Amy explaining the concept of the series before the opening credits. Moffat was asked to write the sequence; he called it a "bloody good idea" because it would make it accessible to new audiences, despite noting that diehard fans would not like it. Previous showrunner Russell T Davies was also a fan of the sequence. ### Home media All of the episodes from the first half of the series ("The Impossible Astronaut" to "A Good Man Goes to War") were released on 11 July 2011 on DVD and Blu-ray, entitled Doctor Who: Series Six, Part 1. This set included two featurettes called "Monster Files", which looked into the Silence and the Gangers. Doctor Who: Series Six, Part 2, covering episodes from "Let's Kill Hitler" to "The Wedding of River Song", was released on DVD and Blu-ray on 10 October 2011. It also contained two "Monster Files" on the Antibodies and the Cybermats. A 6-disc boxset containing all 13 episodes of the series and "A Christmas Carol" was released on 21 November 2011 in Region 2, 22 November in Region 1, on 1 December 2011 in Region 4. A limited edition box set was also released in the UK with a lifted image of a Silent on the cover and including five 3-D art cards. Special features included in the box sets are commentaries on five episodes, "Space" and "Time", the prequels, trailers, "Monster Files", and the cut-down versions of the accompanying Doctor Who Confidential episodes. Also included is Night and the Doctor, which comprises five made-for-DVD mini-episodes. ## Reception ### Ratings "A Christmas Carol" received final ratings of 12.11 million UK viewers, the fourth highest rated Christmas special behind "Voyage of the Damned", "The Next Doctor", and Part Two of "The End of Time". The ratings for the series dramatically increased once time-shifted viewers were taken into account. "The Impossible Astronaut" premiered with a consolidated figure of 8.86 million viewers in the UK, and was reportedly the most recorded television event of all time. It also received 1.379 million requests on BBC's online iPlayer for the month of April. The series held a consistent viewership in the seven millions, with the lowest-rated episode being "The Almost People" with 6.72 million. The series also received a strong Appreciation Index, with all episodes aside from "A Christmas Carol" in the "excellent" category of a score of 85 or more. While "The Impossible Astronaut" and "A Good Man Goes to War" reached 88, the finale only scored 86, compared to 88, 89, and 91 of the previous finales of the revived series. In Canada on Space, "The Impossible Astronaut" was viewed by 538,000, the most-watched Doctor Who episode for the channel and its most-watched telecast thus far in 2011. On BBC America in the United States, "The Impossible Astronaut" was the channel's highest-rated telecast with 1.3 million viewers, increasing to 1.8 million when DVR recordings were taken into account. The second half of the series, with Top Gear and Luther, contributed to the third quarter of 2011 being BBC America's highest rated. Doctor Who also became the most-downloaded show of 2011 on iTunes in the US, with the sixth series specifically topping the chart. ### Critical reception The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series a score of 100 per cent, with a weighted average of 9.04 out of 10. Reviewing the first half, Dave Golder of SFX praised the change in direction Moffat had taken with the show, calling it "more visually impressive and more narratively rewarding than anything we've had before". The Guardian's Dan Martin was positive towards the first six episodes, despite calling "The Curse of the Black Spot" a "wasted opportunity" and noting that it would be a risk to serialise the story too much. He particularly praised the way Amy, Rory, and the Doctor had developed since the last series. Sam McPherson of Zap2it said that, despite a few "duds", the sixth series was the "strongest" since Doctor Who's revival in 2005. Despite disliking the finale as a conclusion, The Independent's Neela Debnath praised the character development seen in the series as well as the "cinematic quality". She also was positive to the dynamic between the Doctor, Amy, and Rory, as it was different from other characters seen previously on the show, and continuing with the same character allowed the series to feel more "multi-layered". Charlie Jane Anders of io9 described it as "of the most unusual, and structurally ambitious, eras in Doctor Who's history" and praised the way the story revolved around the Doctor. Anders commented in a review of the DVD release that the "inventiveness and cleverness" was an integral part of the sixth series, and the episodes such as "The Doctor's Wife" and "The God Complex" would be considered classics. She praised Moffat's writing, while commenting on the fact that the series' primary storylines, including Amy's pregnancy, River Song's childhood and assassination plot on the Doctor were not satisfying enough when re-watching the series. Anders did not consider Amy and River particularly "plausible characters". DVD Talk's John Sinnott gave the series four out of five stars, feeling that it "[didn't] quite hit the heights" of the fifth series but was "still pretty good (and light years past any other SF show currently in production)". Despite finding the solution "witty, unpredictable ... and very satisfying", he stated that the subplots were "a bit convoluted" and potentially confusing, and they "seem to drop the mystery of the person in the space suit for a large part of the season and [focus] on other odd events". He also noted that the plots of the consecutive episodes "Night Terrors", "The Girl Who Waited", and "The God Complex" were similar. Reviewing the whole series, SFX's Ian Berriman was more critical, giving it three and a half out of five stars. He criticised the story arc, finding it too complicated and the solution unsatisfying, and noted that it lacked "emotional impact". Anders felt that the story arc, especially the finale, suffered from Amy and River not being portrayed as believable characters. Digital Spy named Doctor Who the eighth best show of 2011, feeling that the series was "something of a mixed bag" with episodes of varying quality but generally praised the acting of the cast: "Matt Smith was firing on all cylinders – there's a confidence that comes with knowing you're a hit with viewers – while Arthur Darvill's Rory excelled in his first year as a series regular". Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph wrote that "The Wedding of River Song" was "an uneven ending to a slightly uneven series which at times has been in danger of overcomplicating itself, but still has been one of the most creative and distinctive series on television". The series was also criticised by viewers and the press for being "too scary" for young children, "too complicated", and running the risk of alienating casual viewers. Arnold T. Blumburg of IGN stated that the sixth series "inspired seriously divided reactions in fandom" and, in his opinion, "the show has never been more unevenly written or emotionally distant". ### Awards and nominations ## Soundtrack Selected pieces of score from this series (from "The Impossible Astronaut" to "The Wedding of River Song"), as composed by Murray Gold, was released on 19 December 2011 by Silva Screen Records. The music from "A Christmas Carol" was released separately on its own soundtrack.

Video Phone (song)

"Video Phone" is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her third studio album I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008). It was written and produced by Beyoncé, Shondrae Crawford and Sean Garrett. A crunk song, it consists of simple lyrics and hidden innuendos. The lyrics refer to putting up a sexy display to be recorded on a video phone. The song was released as the eighth single from I Am... Sasha Fierce on September 22, 2009, with its remix featuring Lady Gaga being released on November 17. "Video Phone" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. Some noted that Gaga's featured appearance on the song's remix failed to add anything to the tune. The original version charted in the lower regions of charts in Australia, Spain, the United Kingdom, while the remix peaked at number 65 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and atop the US Dance Club Songs. An accompanying music video for "Video Phone" was filmed for the remix. It portrayed Beyoncé and Gaga in a number of costumes, brandishing colorful guns towards men and paying homage to the film Reservoir Dogs (1992) and pin-up legend Bettie Page. It received mixed feedback from critics, who called it uninteresting and felt that it did not present anything new. However, they complimented the costumes and the cinematic homage of the video. The video went on to win the BET Award for Video of the Year. ## Background and composition "Video Phone" was written by Beyoncé Knowles, Shondrae Crawford, Sean Garrett and Lady Gaga in the remixed version. It was produced by Bangladesh, The Pen and Knowles. Initially, "Video Phone" was sent to US urban contemporary radios on September 22, 2009. The release was later recalled and in October 2009, Life & Style reported that Knowles and pop singer Lady Gaga were collaborating for a remixed version of the song. The remixed version featured both Knowles and Lady Gaga trading verses with one another. The remixed version of the song that features Lady Gaga was included on the 2009 deluxe edition of I Am... Sasha Fierce. Musically, "Video Phone" is a crunk song. According to the sheet music published at Sheetmusicplus.com by Hal Leonard Corporation, the song is set in the time signature of common time, with a moderate groove tempo of 79 beats per minute and in the key of Eb minor. It consists of simple lyrics, with hidden innuendos, and is backed by thin-spread beats; Knowles and Gaga uttering gasps and groans while singing the song. Chris Willman from Yahoo! said that the lyrics are a "celebration of Skype sex and putting on a solo show, on camera, for a guy you just met at the club." The female protagonist sings how she will dance for a man, while he is filming her with his videophone, this being illustrated in the line, "Press 'record' and I'll let you film me", and "You want me naked? If you like this position you can tape it". According to James Reed of The Boston Globe the lines "What? You want me naked/ If you likin' this position, you can tape it" are sung with an accent which was "part Long Island, part Barbados". Michaelangelo Matos of The A.V. Club commented that "Video Phone" is very similar to Missy Elliott's songs. Rolling Stone's Christian Hoard and The Washington Post's J. Freedom du Lac found similarities between "Video Phone" and the songs by rock band Nine Inch Nails. San Francisco Chronicle's Aidin Vaziri noted that the song sounded like it was swiped from Björk. ## Critical reception The song received mixed reviews. Alexis Petridis from The Guardian compared the song to "Diva", stating that "Video Phone" is "Almost equally weird, but much better, [and it] introduces us to the unlikely figure of Beyoncé Knowles, amateur pornographer: 'You want me naked? If you like this position you can tape it.' She doesn't make for the world's most believable Reader's Wife, but it doesn't matter, because the spare, eerie backdrop of groans and echoing electronics is so thrilling." A writer of Rolling Stone said that Knowles sings in a "dirty groove on the slippery" song. Colin Mcguire from PopMatters wrote that "'Video Phone' is sexy enough to the point where it almost becomes uncomfortable to think of her listening back to this with her father in the room." Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that the song ended the album abruptly. Daniel Brockman of The Phoenix noted that the song was "smutty" for an artist like Knowles. J. Freedom du Lac of The Washington Post chose the song as a highlight on I Am... Sasha Fierce saying, "The moaning, groaning 'Video Phone' positions Beyoncé as the star of a sex tape set to a thrillingly spare soundtrack that sounds like a Nine Inch Nails instrumental." A negative review for the song was given by Bernard Zuel of The Sydney Morning Herald who described it as "awful". For the collaboration, Fraser McAlpine from BBC Radio 1 reviewed the song negatively, writing: "So anyway, this brings me to 'Video Phone' – and what exactly is the point of Gaga featuring in this song? I know Beyoncé fans won't like me saying this, but I can't help but think that in this instance it's a case of 'if you can't beat em, join em' [...] For someone as naturally brilliant as Beyoncé (and a better singer than Gaga and Rihanna put together), perhaps she should actually stop trying so hard and do what she does best - singing proper songs." Chris Willman from Yahoo! compared the song to Gaga's "Telephone", where Knowles appears as a featured artist, and wrote that "Maybe it's because the lack of a video for Gaga's 'Telephone' leaves more to the imagination, but if this were a contest, I'd have to say her tune trumps Beyoncé's. [...] [Her] greatest promises of unbridled exhibitionism can't quite make the genre feel fresh." The New York Times' Jon Caramanica commented that "Video Phone" and "Telephone", "promised a new direction, but all Beyoncé did was show up to prove she could out-Gaga Gaga, then return to her comfort zone." Kyle Anderson of MTV, felt that "Gaga got a bit lost in the mix" of "Video Phone". David Balls of the website Digital Spy gave a negative review for the remix version, grading it two out of five stars. He further commented, > "Needless to say, the pair work their superstar pulling power for all it's worth. Over sparse and eerie beats, they deliver innuendo-laced lyrics, groan near-orgasmically and generally tease us with the prospect of doing all sorts of naughty things on, well, your video phone. While the promo clip offers some of the intended thrill, the track itself - single number eight from I Am... - lacks the sparkle of previous offerings. It may provide a brief rush of excitement to the loins, but ultimately leaves you feeling fluffed rather than fully-serviced by the twosome." On The Village Voice's 2009 Pazz & Jop singles list, "Video Phone" was ranked at number 307. ## Chart performance Upon release as a single in 2009, "Video Phone" debuted at number 70 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and eventually peaked at 37. I Am... Sasha Fierce became the first album of the 21st century to have seven entries on this chart, following "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", "If I Were a Boy", "Diva", "Halo", "Ego" and "Sweet Dreams". On the week ending December 12, 2009, the extended remix of "Video Phone" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 65, due to digital downloads. The song sold 28,000 copies in its first week, 93% of which were for the extended remix though radio stations preferred to spin the original album version. "Video Phone" also became Knowles' fourteenth number-one Hot Dance Club Songs chart-topper. It is also her sixth consecutive chart-topper. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the combined versions of "Video Phone" has sold 287,000 copies as of June 2010. In Australia, the original version of the song debuted at 89 and peaked at 66 on the ARIA Singles Chart. The remixed version debuted at 40 on November 30, 2009 and peaked at 31 the next week. The original and the remixed version, respectively, both peaked at 29 on the ARIA Urban Chart. In New Zealand, the remixed version debuted at 33 and peaked at 32 after two weeks. In the United Kingdom, the original version of "Video Phone" debuted on the UK Singles Chart at 91, and peaked at 58. The original and remixed version peaked on the UK R&B Chart at 21 and 36 respectively. Across Europe, the remixed version of the song charted outside the official charts in Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia). In the Czech Republic, the extended remix of "Video Phone" debuted at thirty-nine on issue date February 17, 2010. ## Music video ### Background and concept A music video for the extended remix of "Video Phone" was directed by Hype Williams, along with producer Cisco Newman and art director Lenny Tso. On October 15, 2009, a spokesperson for Williams confirmed to MTV, that reports of Gaga and Beyoncé working on the music video together were true. It was shot at Brooklyn's Greenpoint neighborhood, under tight security. The artists were reported to be wearing fashionable dresses, with Knowles in "a feathered dress" and Gaga sporting "something wild". In an interview with New York's Z100 radio station, Gaga further commented on her collaboration with Knowles, for the music video. She said, "When I was doing her video with her, she called me and she said, 'What do you want to do?' [...] And I'm like, 'I don't want to show up in some frickin' hair bow and be fashion Gaga in your video.' I said, 'I want to do you.' [...] I want to do my version of Beyoncé. So the whole time I was learning the choreography they were calling me Gee-yoncé." Later, during an interview with MTV News, she explained: > "What I was excited about is with B[eyoncé], I had no ego. Neither of us had an ego. It wasn't about competition. It was about, like, 'Man let's give the world what they want. Let's do a real girl-power collaboration where we support one another.' I said, 'I want to do you in your video, and I want to tribute you. I want to dress up like you'. And Hype Williams ... was so excited. He was like, 'Gaga I want no makeup on your face.' It was really stripped down — real Beyoncé hair, and we wore the same outfit in the video, and I [paid tribute to] her. [...] I wanted to [work with her] because this was an era for her in her career where she defined herself aesthetically. And that should be applauded that a woman did that. She's so great at what she does." The video was initially set to premiere on November 5, 2009 but did not actually premiere until November 17, 2009. Two previews of the video were posted online one day before its official release, on November 16, 2009. ### Synopsis The video begins with Knowles walking down an alley, accompanied by several men in suits, an homage to Quentin Tarantino's 1992 film Reservoir Dogs. As the main section of the song begins, cameras zoom in on Knowles as she dances in a black and white latex leotard while holding sunglasses with hand signals on them. When the first verse begins, Knowles seductively dances for two men who have cameras as heads. Another scene shows her teasing men with futuristic toy guns while wearing a skin-colored latex top. During Gaga's verse, she and Knowles appear wearing white leotards; they both sing to the camera while shooting more toy guns in open fire. Knowles next brandishes a bow and fires arrows at a cameraman who's strapped to a rotating dart board. She and Gaga, now in front of a white backdrop, perform a synchronized dance together, with Gaga wearing a pair of yellow Louboutins heels. Knowles then appears dressed as an homage to Bettie Page, while handling several different firearms. Throughout the video, the two singers fire their guns and arrows at men. The video ends with Knowles shooting a gun while perched upon a stationary motorcycle and surrounded by images from the start of the video. ### Reception James Montgomery from MTV commented that "it's a little surprising that the just-released clip for Beyoncé's 'Video Phone' has nary a flame or fish-eye shot (there are, of course, plenty of outlandish costumes). However, don't make the mistake of thinking this video is by any means straightforward — it's plenty WTF! [...] It's definitely not the Gaga we're used to seeing, but her appearance isn't exactly run-of-the-mill, either. And neither is this video, for that matter. Especially not when you're watching Beyoncé snap her gum and shake her hips and grope an AK-47 while the screen pops from electric green to Kool-Aid red." Jocelyn Vena of the same publication noted, "The clip is charged with energy, and the cynics out there might wonder if putting two sizzling divas in a room together created any kind of rivalry." Jim Farber from New York's Daily News compared Knowles' look to that of pin-up model Bettie Page, and said "The clip for 'Video Phone' [...] doesn't offer much in the way of chemistry or even interaction between the two divas. [The] clip seems about as innovative as a rotary dial up." Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone commented that the video was an "almost seizure-inducing parade of cinematic homages and wardrobe changes." He also compared Knowles' look to Page, as well as Katy Perry and rapper M.I.A. New York magazine's Amy Odell commented that "The intricacy of her [Knowles'] wardrobe [in the video] suggests she's feeling the Gaga pressure." She further added: "In a burgeoning phenomenon we might call the Gaga Effect, divas everywhere may feel the pressure to push avant-garde fashion to the max to keep up with the pantsless wonder. Beyoncé's fashion efforts in 'Video Phone' — which make her epic diva money fan a mere distant memory — deserve a look-by-look analysis, because she tried really hard." In another review, she said "Together they play with colored fire-spitting water guns and look like the best of diva friends." Entertainment Weekly's Leah Greenblatt commented that the video was "B[eyoncé]'s show—La[dy] Gaga's just guesting in it." Greenblatt also praised the fashion designs used in the video and the Bettie Page "vibes". Spin's Chris Zakorchemny felt that Gaga "does her best Beyonce impression" in the video for the song. However, he said that "Even with Gaga involved, the Hype Williams-produced video doesn't veer too much into the weird; it's certainly not Gaga-setting-men-on-fire weird." Margaret Wappler of The Arizona Republic praised the video saying that it had "electrifying color schemes and high-shine lighting, resulting in a fantastical pop mirage between Lady Gaga and Beyonce". She further called it a "kinetic spectacle to behold, with enough guns to make Ted Nugent weep with jealousy and some hot Bettie Page bangs on Beyonce that should prompt plenty of ladies to run to the hairdresser". Wappler finished her review by concluding that "the whole video has a distinct and not unpleasant 90s vibe." Francesca Stabile of The Village Voice gave a positive review for the video praising the outfits used in the video and the "oversized sequined sweater that makes an appearance toward the end". ### Achievements The music video ranked at ninety-nine on BET: Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown. In 2010, the music video of "Video Phone" received a nomination at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards Japan, in the category of "Best Collaboration Video". The video received two nominations at the BET Awards 2010 for "Video of the Year" and for "Best Collaboration", winning the former category on April 27, 2010. On August 3, 2010, the video received five nominations at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, in the categories of Best Choreography, Best Collaboration, Best Pop Video, Best Female Video and Best Art Direction. ## Track listing and formats - US/UK CD single 1. "Video Phone" (Album Version) – 3:35 2. "Video Phone" (Instrumental) – 3:27 - International download bundle 1. "Video Phone" – 3:35 2. "Video Phone" (Extended remix featuring Lady Gaga) – 5:04 3. "Poison" – 4:04 - UK digital download Remix Bundle 1. "Video Phone" (Extended remix featuring Lady Gaga) – 5:04 2. "Video Phone" (Gareth Wyn remix) – 7:53 3. "Video Phone" (Oli Collins & Fred Portelli remix) – 7:02 4. "Video Phone" (Doman & Gooding Playhouse Vocal Remix) – 6:33 5. "Video Phone" (My Digital Enemy remix) – 7:00 6. "Video Phone" (Gareth Wyn remix radio edit) – 3:57 ## Credits and personnel Credits are taken from I Am... Sasha Fierce liner notes. - Beyoncé – Primary artist, producer - Lady Gaga – Featured artist, extended remix - Tom Coyne – Mastering - Mark "Spike" Stent - Mixing Engineer - Jim Caruana – Vocal Engineer - Eddy Schreyer – Mastering, extended remix - William "Vybe Chyle" Burke – Mixing Engineer, extended remix - Mathew Knowles – Executive producer - Miles Walker – Engineer - Bangladesh – Producer - Phlex – choreographer ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end chart ## Certifications and sales ## Release history

Garry Moore

American entertainer, comedian, and game show host (1915–1993)

Garry Moore (born Thomas Garrison Morfit; January 31, 1915 – November 28, 1993) was an American entertainer, comedic personality, game show host, and humorist best known for his work in television. He began a long career with the CBS network starting in radio in 1937. Beginning in 1949 and through the mid-1970s, Moore was a television host on several variety and game shows. After dropping out of high school, Moore found success first as a radio host and later moved to the medium of television. He hosted several daytime and prime time programs titled The Garry Moore Show, and the game shows I've Got a Secret and To Tell the Truth. He was instrumental in furthering the career of comedic actress Carol Burnett. He became known early in his career for his bow ties and his crew cut fashion. After being diagnosed with throat cancer in 1976, Moore retired from the broadcasting industry, making only a few rare television appearances. He spent the last years of his life in Hilton Head, South Carolina and at his summer home in Northeast Harbor in Maine. He died on November 28, 1993, at the age of 78. ## Early life and radio career Moore was born on January 31, 1915, in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Mason P. Morfit and Mary L. (née Harris) Morfit. He attended Baltimore City College (actually a high school), but dropped out to pursue a career in radio and writing. Beginning in 1937, he worked for Baltimore radio station WBAL as an announcer, writer and actor/comedian. He used his birth name until 1940, when, while on the air announcing Club Matinee hosted by Ransom Sherman at NBC, Chicago, Sherman held a radio contest to find a more easily pronounceable one. "Garry Moore" was the winning entry, which was submitted by a woman from Pittsburgh who received a prize of \$100. It was on Club Matinee where he met his long-time friend and broadcasting partner Durward Kirby. Moore headed Talent, Ltd., a variety program on Sunday afternoons in 1941. In the years that followed, Moore appeared on numerous network radio shows. He started out as an announcer and then as support for broadcast personalities, one of whom was Jimmy Durante. From 1943 to 1947, Durante and Moore had a joint show with Moore as the straight man. Impressed with his ability to interact with audiences, CBS offered him his own show. Starting in 1949, the one-hour daytime variety show The Garry Moore Show aired on CBS. Moore briefly returned to radio as host of NBC's Monitor in 1969. ## Television career Between 1947 and 1950, Moore began to make tentative steps into the new medium as a panelist and guest host on quiz and musical shows. On June 26, 1950, he was rewarded with his own 30-minute CBS early-evening talk-variety TV program, The Garry Moore Show, which was a shorter version of his radio show. Until September 1950, it was also simulcast on radio. During 1950 and 1951, he hosted prime-time variety hour summer replacements for Arthur Godfrey and his Friends. He appeared as a guest star on other programs including CBS's Faye Emerson's Wonderful Town. During his run as a variety-show host, Moore was tapped to host CBS' weekly prime-time TV panel show I've Got a Secret. It premiered on June 19, 1952. On this show, Moore began his friendships with comedian Henry Morgan and game show host and panelist Bill Cullen, with whom he had a long working relationship. Morgan later stated that Moore had helped him keep his job as a television host. Moore became known for his involvement in the variety of stunts and demonstrations of the show's contestants. The popularity of I've Got a Secret led to a cameo in the 1959 film It Happened to Jane. In the film, Doris Day's character was a contestant on the show, with Moore and all the panelists playing themselves. Moore's variety program was moved to the daytime slot, where it ran until June 27, 1958. Within three months of the end of the daytime show, Moore and his longtime colleague Durward Kirby moved the revived The Garry Moore Show into prime time as a Tuesday night comedy and variety hour that ran from September 30, 1958, to June 14, 1964. Although the show was a bigger hit in prime time, Moore always preferred the daytime housewife audience. He thought it gave lonely housewives something to listen to and watch while they worked. The show provided a break into show business for many performers, including Alan King, Jonathan Winters, Carol Burnett, and Dorothy Loudon. The Garry Moore Show featured regular supporting cast members Durward Kirby, Marion Lorne, Denise Lor, and Ken Carson, as well as a mixture of song-and-dance routines and comedy skits. The show also introduced the public to comedienne Carol Burnett. After the show ended, Burnett became a star in her own right, hosting The Carol Burnett Show, from September 1967 through the spring of 1978. During preparations for an episode of his variety show, Moore and his writing team knew it wasn't going to be a good episode despite staying up late the night before to do rewrites. So, at the start of the show, Moore went out in front of the live audience and flat out told the audience as well as the audience at home that it wasn't going to be a good show and recommended to the home viewing audience to tune in to what was airing on the rival networks that night. Every time a joke would bomb with the audience, Moore would turn to the camera and say, "it's your fault for still watching this!" The home audience was so fascinated by the frank honesty of Moore that they stuck with the episode, and it was one of the highest-rated episodes of the season. The Garry Moore Show was cancelled in 1964, and in the summer of that year, after having been on radio and television for 27 uninterrupted years, Moore decided to retire, saying he had "said everything [he] ever wanted to say three times already." He gave up hosting I've Got a Secret and was replaced by comedian Steve Allen, who would host the show until the end of its run in 1967 (although Moore had ended his retirement before I've Got a Secret left the air, he never returned to the series as host and Allen helmed a subsequent, one-season syndicated revival in 1972). Moore's main activity during his hiatus was a trip around the world with his wife. In 1961, during an episode with French magician Michel de la Vega, Garry Moore was tied up and placed into a trunk. Garry proved to be a very good assistant to the magician and the act went smoothly before the cameras. Audience reaction was so great and immediate that a repeat performance was scheduled. The second presentation brought an even greater flood of mail and telegrams praising the act. By popular demand, Michel was brought back to "l've Got a Secret" for the third time. In 1962, Moore was hypnotized live in "I've Got A Secret" by Michel de la Vega. The French hypnotizer set Moore's body stretched out over 2 chairs. Michel de la Vega then stood on top of Moore's body showing how rigid it had become in a matter of minutes. It was the first performance of hypnosis on American television. On the tenth anniversary broadcast of I've Got a Secret, on June 19, 1962, Moore announced that he had recently had an operation on his right hand, and so that was why he was seen shaking hands with his left hand for a few months, protecting his hand from strong handshakes. On an episode of the show that September, guests Viola and Stephen Armstrong appeared with the secret that their son Neil had been selected as an astronaut by NASA that day. Speaking with the Armstrongs after the panel guessed their secret, Moore asked them "How would you feel if it turns out, because nobody knows, that your son is the first man to land on the moon?" After an absence of two years, The Garry Moore Show returned to the CBS prime-time lineup in the fall of 1966. It was canceled mid-season because of low ratings against NBC's highly rated western Bonanza. The successful Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour replaced The Garry Moore Show in the CBS time slot. Moore then made sporadic television guest appearances such as cameos on Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In, reunions with Carol Burnett on her program, and serving as a panelist on various game shows, before Mark Goodson asked him to host another series. That show was a revival of To Tell the Truth, which had ended its run on CBS in 1968. Moore was asked to host a revival of the series for syndication, which launched in September 1969. When To Tell the Truth was planned to be revived for syndication, producers Mark Goodson and Bill Todman originally wanted Bud Collyer to host the show once again. But when they called Collyer he declined, citing his poor health. When Goodson and Todman called Moore about the job, he immediately contacted Collyer, who told Moore, "I am just not up to it." Moore often took part in the show's silly and goofy stunts, as he had done on I've Got a Secret, performing magic tricks and cooking. This led to this version of To Tell the Truth'''s being compared to I've Got a Secret. Moore hosted the series from its premiere until the midway point of the 1976–77 season, the revival's eighth. ## Recording In 1944, Moore recorded six of his radio monologues for Decca, including his classic “Hugh, the Blue Gnu”, his triple-time speed reading of “Little Red Riding Hood”, and a calamity-filled version of “In the Good Old Summertime”. They were released two years later as Decca 444, an album of three 78rpm records titled “Culture Corner”. In 1956, Moore recorded a Columbia LP record album for children. It featured tales by Rudyard Kipling, including "The Elephant's Child" and "How the Camel Got His Hump." Also in 1956, Moore recorded a Columbia LP record album titled "Garry Moore Presents My Kind Of Music," with contributions by jazz musicians George Barnes, Ernie Caceres, Wild Bill Davison, Randy Hall, Mel Henke, and Sonny Terry. In 1965, he also narrated two children's classics for orchestra back-to-back on a single Westminster LP, Saint-Saens' Carnival of the Animals and Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf. ## Retirement and death Moore became ill in 1976 and was diagnosed with throat cancer. He left To Tell the Truth shortly before Christmas 1976 to undergo surgery, turning the show over to panelist Bill Cullen. Semiregular panelist Joe Garagiola also acted as the host for several weeks, claiming he was "pinch-hitting" for Moore. Moore returned in September 1977 to begin To Tell the Truth's ninth season, to explain his sudden absence and to announce his permanent retirement, explaining that while recovering from his surgery, he believed his throat cancer was a sign that continuing beyond his 42-year career would be "just plain greed". Moore later explained in another interview that he felt comfortable moving on from the world of entertainment. Joe Garagiola hosted the program for the rest of the season, which proved to be its last. After his showbiz retirement, Moore kept getting various offers for more work that he continued to turn down, including frequent phone calls from the producers of The Love Boat. Moore retired to Hilton Head, South Carolina, where he spent his time sailing, and also at his summer home in Northeast Harbor, Maine. Moore also became a regular humor columnist for the local newspaper The Island Packet with a column titled "Mumble, Mumble", later releasing a book of his columns under the same name in the early 1980s. He made two rare television appearances during his retirement, in a 1984 special on game-show bloopers, hosted by William Shatner, and in a 1990 television tribute to Carol Burnett on Sally. Moore, a constant smoker, died of emphysema at Hilton Head on November 28, 1993, at the age of 78. He was buried in Forest Hill Cemetery in Northeast Harbor, Maine. He was named one of the 15 greatest game-show hosts of all time by Time''.

5th Mechanised Corps (Soviet Union)

Red Army designation used for multiple formations

The 5th Mechanised Corps was a mechanised corps of the Red Army, formed on three occasions. It was first formed in 1934 and was converted into the 15th Tank Corps in 1938. It was reformed in the Far East in 1940 and moved west before the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It fought in the First Battle of Smolensk, losing large numbers of tanks in the Lepel counterattack. The corps was encircled in the Smolensk pocket and after breaking out was disbanded in late August 1941. Its third formation, from elements of the 22nd Tank Corps, occurred in September 1942. The corps fought in: Operation Little Saturn, Operation Gallop, the Second Battle of Smolensk, the Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive, and the Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive. In September 1944, it became the 9th Guards Mechanised Corps. ## First formation The 5th Mechanised Corps was formed in 1934 at Naro-Fominsk from the 1st Mechanised Brigade and the 50th Rifle Division in the Moscow Military District, commanded by Komdiv Nikolai Rakitin. On 11 June the corps was given the honorific "named for Kalinovsky" in honor of Konstantin Kalinovsky, a Soviet military theorist. The corps included the 13th Mechanised Brigade at Kaluga, the 14th Mechanised Brigade at Naro-Fominsk, and the 50th Rifle and Machine Gun Brigade at Stalinogorsk. On 15 December 1934 the corps had 525 tanks, including: 159 BT tanks, 181 T-26s, 57 T-37/41, and 6 Vickers Medium Mark II tanks. The remainder were command or flamethrower tanks. On 1 January 1936 the corps had 436 tanks. Around this time, Kombrig Alexander Grechanik became the corps commander. In June 1937, Komdiv Mikhail Petrovich Petrov became corps commander. In September 1937 the 13th Mechanised Brigade was transferred to the 11th Mechanised Corps in the Transbaikal Military District and renamed the 32nd Mechanised Brigade. In October, a new 13th Mechanised Brigade was formed in Kaluga. On 7 May 1938, the corps' Separate Tank Battalion became the Moscow Military District's 4th Light Tank Regiment. In August 1938, the corps was converted into the 15th Tank Corps when the Red Army reorganized its mechanized forces to make them more tank-heavy. ## Second formation The 5th Mechanised Corps (Military Unit Number 4664) began forming on 1 July 1940 as part of the 16th Army in the Transbaikal Military District. The corps' headquarters and the 17th Tank Division were formed at Crossing 77 and the 13th Tank Division at Crossing 76 of the Molotov Railway. It was commanded by Lieutenant General Makar Teryokhin. The corps' headquarters was formed from the headquarters of the 51st Rifle Corps. The 13th Tank Division was formed from the 15th Light Tank Brigade. The 17th Tank Division was formed from the 37th Light Tank Brigade and included the 199th Flamethrower and 526th Transport Battalions. The 109th Motorised Division, formerly of the 12th Rifle Corps, joined the corps at Kharanor. On 11 March 1941 Major General Ilya Alekseyenko, the 17th Tank Division commander, became the corps' commander. The corps was ordered to redeploy west with the 16th Army on 25 May. It was loaded onto trains with the 57th Tank Division and moved west. On 12 June the corps arrived in the Kiev Military District and was unloaded from the trains. Corps headquarters, the 13th Tank Division, and the 109th Motorised Division were located at Berdichev. The 17th Tank Division was located at Isyaslav. When the German invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June, the corps was equipped with 1,070 tanks, including 59 flamethrower tanks and 10 BT-2 tanks, and at least 493 BT-7s. On 26 June, it was ordered to move with the 16th Army to the Orsha and Smolensk area. After reaching Smolensk, it was subordinated to the 20th Army on 4 July for a counterattack to recapture Senno and Lepel in conjunction with the 7th Mechanised Corps. On 6 July the corps had 974 tanks, including: 7 KV tanks, 10 T-34 tanks, 595 BT tanks, 242 T-26 tanks, 61 flamethrower tanks, and 59 T-37/38 amphibious tanks. The corps was to advance 135 kilometres (84 mi), reaching Lepel through Senno. By the time it went into battle at Lepel on 6 July, the corps was at two-thirds of its strength due to breakdowns. The corps also attacked without air support and with a shortage of anti-aircraft guns, fuel, and ammunition. Alekseyenko deployed the corps in two echelons: the 13th and 17th Tank Divisions attacked first, with the 109th Motorised Division in the second echelon. The 17th Tank Division ran into the 17th Panzer Division at Senno on 6 July at the beginning of the counterattack. The 13th Tank Division was attacked on its left flank by the 18th Panzer Division after advancing farther west than the 17th Tank Division. By 10 July the corps had been mostly destroyed. In the Orsha area the retreating corps was given replacement tanks and ordered to resume the attack the next day. The corps counterattacked toward Vitebsk from the south in conjunction with the 7th Mechanised Corps. Running into the 7th and 12th Panzer Divisions, the combined losses of both corps totalled 100 tanks. By the end of 15 July the corps was in the Smolensk pocket. From 17 July the remnants of the corps fought against the 12th Panzer Division and the 35th Infantry Division northeast of Orsha until forced to retreat by lack of ammunition to the Liubovichi area. Also, a detachment of remnants of the corps led by Colonel Alexander Lizyukov enabled elements of the 16th and 20th Armies to escape the Smolensk Pocket by defending the Solovevo gap in the German encirclement. On 18 July the corps was ordered to attack German troops in the Krasny region. On the same day, the corps was reported to be fighting in the Liady and Syrokorenye region, 60 kilometres (37 mi) west of Smolensk, while retreating to the Gusino crossing, 45 kilometres (28 mi) west of the city. On 19 July the 109th Motorised Division became the 109th Rifle Division. The 13th and 17th Tank Divisions fought against the 17th and 18th Panzer Divisions in the southern part of the pocket. The corps was moved to the northeastern sector of the pocket to attack towards Dukhovshchina with orders to keep the Solovevo corridor open. On 26 July it was reported to have 58 tanks left. The 1st Motor Rifle Division was attached to the corps in the Smolensk Pocket by 1 August. On the night of 31 July to 1 August, the corps escaped the Smolensk Pocket through a gap in the German encirclement. Corps deputy commander Major General Yevgeny Zhuravlev took command after Alekseyenko died of wounds on 2 August. On 5 August, after escaping the Smolensk pocket, the corps was ordered to concentrate southeast of Yartsevo. On 7 August the corps was ordered to concentrate southeast of Gzhatsk with the 57th Tank Division. On the night of 7 to 8 August, the corps was ordered to move southeast of Gzhatsk in front reserve. On 10 August the 13th Tank Division was disbanded as a result of heavy losses it had suffered in the pas month of fighting. The corps was disbanded on or around 24 August 1941 due to the Soviet reorganization of their mechanised forces into smaller units. The 17th Tank Division was converted into a tank brigade days later. ## Third formation The 5th Mechanised Corps was reformed on 8 September 1942 on the basis of the 22nd Tank Corps. It was formed in the Moscow Military District under the command of Major General Mikhail Volkov. The corps was mostly equipped with British Lend-Lease tanks, and on 31 October consisted of 2 T-34 tanks, 78 Matilda II infantry tanks, and 117 Valentine tanks, for a total of 197 tanks. On 1 November it included the 45th, 49th, and 50th Mechanised Brigades, and the 188th Separate Tank Brigade. At the time it was part of the Bryansk Front. By December it was part of the Southwestern Front. From 6 December the corps was part of the 5th Tank Army. At the time it had a strength of 193 tanks. The corps was to exploit the breakthrough in Operation Little Saturn. From 12 to 18 December, the corps and the 321st Rifle Division crossed the Chir River against strong resistance from the 11th Panzer Division and the 336th Infantry Division of XXXXVIII Panzer Corps. The corps captured a bridgehead 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) wide and 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) deep near Dalnepodgorovsky, but could not advance further. On 28 December the corps attacked towards Chernyshkovsky with the army, pushing Group Stahel back to the city outskirts, but the corps was thrown back by German reinforcements. By 30 December the Soviet attack had stalled, marking the end of Operation Little Saturn. Almost immediately afterwards, the corps was committed to fight in Operation Gallop from 1 January to 10 February 1943. After the operation, it was withdrawn to the Volga Military District with only the 45th Mechanised Brigade assigned on 1 March. On 31 March the corps' 168th and 188th Tank Regiments were combined into the 233rd Tank Brigade. By 1 April the 49th Mechanised Brigade was re-subordinated to the corps after being directly subordinated to the Volga Military District in March. The 49th was transferred to the Reserve of the Supreme High Command in April. On 1 May the corps was part of the Steppe Military District with the 2nd, 9th, and 45th Mechanised Brigades assigned and the 233rd Tank Brigade also joined the corps. On 1 June the corps was in the Reserve of the Supreme High Command. By 1 August it was part of the Western Front. The corps fought in the Second Battle of Smolensk and in the Spas–Demensk Offensive of the battle to exploit the Soviet breakthrough on 13 August. It was relocated from Kirov to the 10th Army's sector of the breakthrough towards Vorontsovo and was attached to the army for the operation. By the time it attacked, the German troops' resistance had stiffened, and the corps became bogged down in heavy fighting in the Tyagaevo area, under air attacks which destroyed many of its Lend-Lease tanks. The corps had advanced 5–10 kilometres (3.1–6.2 mi) by 16 August, when a heavy air raid resulted in significant losses, and it was withdrawn to the front reserve. It was returned to the front for the Yelnya–Dorogobuzh Offensive and became part of the 33rd Army on 20 August. The offensive began on 28 August, and the corps was committed to exploit the breakthrough, advancing 6–10 kilometres (3.7–6.2 mi) on that day. The offensive resulted in the capture of Yelnya. The corps fought in the last stage of the battle, the Smolensk–Roslavl Offensive. On 1 October the corps was part of the Western Front, and by 1 November it was back in the Reserve of the Supreme High Command. On 1 January 1944 it was part of the Moscow Military District. They were moved back to Ukraine after being resupplied and reinforced at Naro-Fominsk in December 1943. Between 1 and 12 January 1944 the corps was sent forward by rail to the Fastiv and Kazantin area. Marching 60 kilometres (37 mi), the corps concentrated 60 kilometres (37 mi) south of Bila Tserkva. The 233rd Tank Brigade and 45th Mechanised Brigade were sent into combat after the march and lost a number of tanks. At this point most of their tanks were American M4 Sherman medium tanks. On 21 January it became part of the new 6th Tank Army. The corps fought in the Korsun–Shevchenkovsky Offensive from 26 January. At the beginning of the offensive, the corps had 106 tanks and 46 self-propelled guns and was almost at full strength. It was to break through south of Tinovka in conjunction with the 104th Rifle Corps, then advance towards Shubennyi Stav, which was to be taken on 26 January with Zvenigorodka. The Shpola region was to be reached on 27 January. For the attack, a tank brigade and a self-propelled gun regiment were held in the 6th Tank Army reserve. The advance of the corps and the 104th Rifle Corps bogged down and made little progress capturing the first German line. On 28 January the corps, without the 233rd Tank Brigade, was attached to the 40th Army and moved west because of a German counterattack. It marched from Malyi Vinograd to Staryi Zhibotin to repulse predicted German counterattacks. The German counterattacks did not materialise and the corps achieved "limited success" (according to a later Soviet General Staff study) with its own attacks. Three days later, the corps was ordered to march back to Malyi Vinograd. By the end of 31 January, it held positions in the Vinograd region. In early February, the corps attacked from the east towards Lysianka, Bosovka, and Malyi Vinograd against counterattacking German troops, pushing them back. On the evening of 3 February the corps was in positions between Zhabinka and Yablonovka. 10 days later, German troops captured Malyi Vinograd, pushing back the corps and other units. The front stabilized and the corps with the 6th Tank Army was moved back to the second echelon of the front. In March and April 1944, the corps fought in the Uman–Botoșani Offensive. A tank regiment from the corps reached Mohyliv-Podilskyi on the morning of 19 March and by the end of the day the city had been captured. On the next night the Dniester had been crossed and by 21 March the corps was on the west bank of the river. On 4 August the corps was awarded the honorific "Dniester" for its actions in crossing the river and capturing Bălți during the Uman–Botoșani Offensive. In August and September, the corps fought in the Second Jassy–Kishinev Offensive. In accordance with Stavka order number 0306 the 5th Mechanised Corps was transformed into the 9th Guards Mechanised Corps on 12 September for its actions. On the same day the corps was awarded the honorific "Rymnik" for its actions in the capture of Rymnik. ## Commanders The following officers commanded the corps' first formation: - Komdiv Nikolai Rakitin (May 1934 – 1936) - Kombrig Alexander Grechanik (1936) - Komdiv Mikhail Petrovich Petrov (June 1937 – August 1938) The following officers commanded the corps' second formation: - Lieutenant General Makar Teryokhin (July 1940 – March 1941) - Major General Ilya Alekseyenko (March – August 1941) - Major General Yevgeny Zhuravlev (August 1941) The following officer commanded the corps' third formation: - Major General (promoted to Lieutenant General 5 November 1943) Mikhail Volkov (2 November 1942 – 12 September 1944) ## Structure The corps' first formation included the following units: - 13th Mechanised Brigade (1st formation) (to September 1937) - 13th Mechanised Brigade (2nd formation) (from October 1937) - 14th Mechanised Brigade - 50th Rifle and Machine Gun Brigade - Separate Reconnaissance Battalion (became Separate Tank Battalion June 1937) (to 7 May 1938) The corps' second formation included the following units: - 13th Tank Division - 17th Tank Division - 109th Motorised Division - 8th Motorcycle Regiment - 255th Separate Communications Battalion - 55th Separate Road Battalion - 105th Corps Aviation Squadron - 484th Field Cash Office of the State Bank The corps' third formation included the following units: - 45th Mechanised Brigade - 49th Mechanised Brigade (to April 1943) - 50th Mechanised Brigade (to February 1943) - 2nd Mechanised Brigade (from April 1943) - 9th Mechanised Brigade (from April 1943) - 233rd Tank Brigade (from April 1943) - 188th Tank Regiment (October 1942 to March 1943) - 168th Tank Regiment (November 1942 to March 1943) - 1827th Heavy Self-Propelled Artillery Regiment (from July 1943) - 1700th Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiment (from June 1943) - 64th Separate Motorcycle Battalion (from October 1942) - 45th Armored Car Battalion (from October 1942 to November 1943) - 657th Separate Communications Battalion (from 27 July 1943) - 39th Separate Sapper Battalion (from 30 October 1942) - 81st Repair and Recovery Battalion (from 30 October 1942) - 159th Separate Chemical Defence Company (from 27 July 1943) - 6th Separate Engineer-Mine Company (from 30 October 1942)

All I Want Is You (album)

2010 album by Miguel

All I Want Is You is the debut studio album by American R&B singer and songwriter Miguel. It was released on November 30, 2010, by the Jive Records-imprint label ByStorm Entertainment, operated by music executive Mark Pitts, who had signed Miguel to the label. After signing to ByStorm in 2007, Miguel recorded the album with producers Dre & Vidal, Fisticuffs, Happy Perez, State of Emergency, and Salaam Remi. It was shelved by Jive for two years after legal issues with the singer's former production company. Selling poorly upon its release, it became sleeper hit on the Billboard 200 with the help of singles such as the title track and "Sure Thing". By September 2012, it had sold 404,000 copies. All I Want Is You received positive reviews; critics found some of the music inconsistent but praised Miguel's singing and songwriting abilities while drawing comparisons to Prince. Miguel toured in promotion of the album as a supporting act for fellow R&B singers Usher and Trey Songz. ## Background As a burgeoning songwriter, Miguel had written the R&B song "Sure Thing", which was pitched to music executive Mark Pitts as a candidate for the singer Usher's tentative album. Pitts was impressed by both "Sure Thing" and "Quickie", as well as Miguel's performance in-person, and signed him to a recording contract instead of offering the songs to Usher. "He came and performed and just had no fear. I loved him," Pitts later said of Miguel. "He was like Elvis. He was all over the place at the time, but it was just different. With a little tweaking, this could be special." After signing in 2007 to Pitts' Jive Records-imprint label, ByStorm Entertainment, Miguel began recording his first album, All I Want Is You. Recording sessions took place at Black Mango Studios in Van Nuys, California, Germano Studios in New York City, Glenwood Studios and Instrument Zoo in Miami, Florida, Studio 609 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and The Gym in Los Angeles, California. ## Music and lyrics According to Jason Newman from MTV Buzzworthy, All I Want Is You is "a diverse album rooted in R&B and hip-hop, thoughtfully laced with elements of classic rock, funk and electro". Marc Hogan from Spin said it featured neo soul music, while AllMusic critic David Jeffries described it as a "slick" and "sexy" synthesis of influences from Prince, Kanye West, and electro. "Girls Like You" and "Hard Way" feature aggressive hip hop beats, while "Pay Me" and "To the Moon" explore European electronic music and EDM, respectively. According to Tom Hull, the album is an attempt at R&B's "love man" archetype, set against "slinky, marginally funky rhythm[s]". The album's first half features two romantic songs, an interlude, a song about a prostitute, and another about a quickie. The closing track "My Piece" uses a "piece"-"peace" homonym. Jeffries said the album featured Miguel's "sly sense of humor". On "Sure Thing", Miguel sang about loyalty in a passionate committed relationship. ## Marketing and sales After the recording's completion, legal issues with Miguel's former production company prevented the album from being released for two years. During this period, Miguel continued working with various underground acts and writing songs for mainstream recording artists, including Johnson&Jonson, Asher Roth, Jaheim, and Usher. ByStorm Entertainment and Jive eventually released the album on November 30, 2010. It sold poorly at first, with first-week sales of 11,000 copies and a chart debut of number 109 on the Billboard 200. After falling off the chart for three weeks, it re-entered and climbed the Billboard 200 for 22 weeks, before peaking at number 37 on May 14, 2011. The album became a sleeper hit, and by September 2012, it had sold 404,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The album has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). According to Miguel, Jive marketed him as a "typical R&B artist" during their promotion of All I Want Is You: "That album was a huge learning experience. I left the marketing of my album and me as an artist up to the discretion of the label ... I can't really blame them for [that], because that's what they know. But that's not what my lifestyle was." Four singles were released from the album: the title track "All I Want Is You", "Sure Thing", "Quickie", and "Girls Like You". As the title track gradually received radio airplay, Miguel began touring as a supporting act for Usher and Trey Songz. By May 2011, "All I Want Is You" and "Sure Thing" had reached a combined digital/mobile sales of over 825,000 units. ## Critical reception Reviewing for About.com in November 2010, Mark Edward Nero said Miguel "somehow managed to vocally glide across each" of the different styles he explored on All I Want Is You, which was nonetheless rooted in R&B. He deemed the record imperfect but devoid of a poor song. B. Wright from Vibe found the music inconsistent and "schizophrenic" but praised Miguel's singing and songwriting abilities while determining the record was "worth the purchase price". Slant Magazine's Matthew Cole said the second half of songs was "less stimulating" on an album that "blends slick, radio-friendly R&B with Prince-aping theatrics, both refracted around a sense of humor that, surreal and sexually unsubtle, would have to make [Prince] proud". Cole also compared Miguel to singer Kelis, "whose work has an undeniably commercial cunning to it, but who never fails to imbue her pop confections with real personality". Writing in MSN Music a few years later, Robert Christgau said Miguel "front-loaded his Prince-channeling debut" with "five hooky tracks" that were "followed by six pleasant tracks and capped by two hooky novelties". He viewed the song "Teach Me" as "a treasure hidden in the middle" and "supplicant's" song, "unprecedented" in "a genre that makes its nut promising untold pleasures". He credited Miguel for "laying out the truth that, as Norman Mailer put it in one of the few useful sex tips in his orgasm-mad canon, 'the man as lover is dependent upon the bounty of the woman.' Who knows what pleases her? She does, she alone, and Miguel craves to be let in on that shifting and enthralling secret." He nonetheless critiqued that the song lacked a first-rate hook that would have made it an R&B classic in the vein of Marvin Gaye's "Sexual Healing" and "Use Me" by Bill Withers. ## Track listing Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. ## Personnel - Raymond Angry – keyboards, strings - Wayne Barrow – executive producer - Anita Marisa Boriboon – art direction, design - Alex Chiegger – instrumentation - Tom Coyne – mastering - Kumi Craig – grooming - Vidal Davis – instrumentation, mixing, producer - Daniel DeLuna – 12-string bass guitar - Gleyder "Gee" Disla – engineer - Vince Dlorinzo – engineer - Ryan Evans – engineer - Andre Harris – instrumentation, producer - Kasey Phillips – engineer - Erik Madrid – assistant - Manny Marroquin – mixing - Miguel – engineer, vocals - Happy Perez – drums, keyboards, producer, programming - Miguel Pimentel – executive producer - Mark Pitts – A&R, executive producer - Christian Plata – assistant - Kai Regan – photography - Salaam Remi – bass, drums, guitar - Anthony Saleh – production coordination - Wendell "Pops" Sewell – guitar - State of Emergency – producer - Steve Bruner – bass - Tim Stewart – guitar - Jahi Sundance – programming - Mike Tsarfati – engineer - Harry Zelnick – instrumentation ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications

All I Ask of You

1986 single by Sarah Brightman and Cliff Richard

"All I Ask of You" is a song from the 1986 English musical The Phantom of the Opera, between characters Christine Daaé and Raoul, originally played on stage by Sarah Brightman and Steve Barton, respectively. It was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber, Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe, and solely produced by Lloyd Webber. An operatic pop piece, its lyrics serve as dialogue between the two characters and discuss themes such as commitment and romance. Like Lloyd Webber's song "The Music of the Night", "All I Ask of You" was compared to the music found in Giacomo Puccini's 1910 opera La fanciulla del West. Critically, the song has generally been regarded as one of the finest cuts made for The Phantom of the Opera. It was released as a single by Polydor Records on 26 September 1986 on 7-inch and 12-inch, performed by Brightman and Cliff Richard. The song achieved commercial success in several territories, including in Ireland and South Africa, where it topped the charts and the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number three. It was later certified Silver in the latter country for shipments of 250,000 copies. "All I Ask of You" has been covered by multiple artists, including The Shadows, Lloyd Webber's brother Julian, Elaine Paige, and Jackie Evancho. Susan Boyle and Donny Osmond, Josh Groban and Kelly Clarkson, and Marina Prior and Mark Vincent have also continued with duet versions of the song. A notable cover of "All I Ask of You" was recorded by Barbra Streisand for her studio album Till I Loved You (1988). It was released as the record's second single on 15 December 1988 by Columbia Records as a 7-inch, 12-inch, and CD. It was generally noted as a standout track on Till I Loved You and was commercially successful, entering the charts in the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and on the United States' Adult Contemporary chart. ## Background and release "All I Ask of You" was written and produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber, while Charles Hart and Richard Stilgoe provided the lyrics for the track. It was created specifically for the 1986 English musical The Phantom of the Opera, which was developed by Lloyd Webber and served as a live adaptation of Gaston Leroux's 1910 novel of the same name. It is performed by characters Christine Daaé and Raoul, where the former protests and asks for love of the latter. The song appears towards the end of Act I, immediately after it is revealed that the two characters "have met again and felt a sexual attraction". The single version of "All I Ask of You" is performed by Cliff Richard and Sarah Brightman, although Richard's vocals are replaced by Steve Barton's during the musical production and its accompanying inclusion on the live album. In the early 2000s, Lloyd Webber was sued by the estate of Giacomo Puccini for similarities between the former's song "The Music of the Night" (1986), also from The Phantom of the Opera, and a melody titled "Quello che tacete" which was used in Puccini's 1910 opera La fanciulla del West. The matter was settled out of court between the two parties soon after the lawsuit was revealed. However, author John Snelson, who wrote a biography on Lloyd Webber in 2009, further compared "All I Ask of You" to the same aforementioned melody, citing similar "motivic connections" and "operatic and emotional cross-references" as his evidence. Polydor, an English-based record label, first released "All I Ask of You" as a single on 26 September 1986. It was distributed in several formats. The 7-inch single features the track plus B-side "The Phantom of the Opera Overture (Act II)", which is performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. The 12-inch version features the same two aforementioned songs, but it includes a second B-side "Only You", which was featured in Lloyd Webber's 1984 musical Starlight Express. Along with its placement as the 13th track on the album for The Phantom of the Opera, a reprise of "All I Ask of You" follows on the track listing. During the reprise, lead character the Phantom, voiced by Michael Crawford, provides vocals. Besides the accompanying live album to the musical, Richard and Brightman's version of "All I Ask of You" was not featured on any compilation album or greatest hits album until Richard released Private Collection: 1979–1988 in November 1988. Brightman did not include "All I Ask of You" on any albums either until her compilation titled The Andrew Lloyd Webber Collection was released in the United States in 1997. ## Composition and lyrics Personnel working on the album for The Phantom of the Opera included recording engineer Martin Levan, conductor Michael Reed, Steve Pierce on clarinet, and Richard Wall on trumpet. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was headed by Lloyd Webber and David Cullen whereas the musical direction was led by Harold Prince and David Caddick. "All I Ask of You" is a piano ballad; according to the official sheet music published by Alfred Publishing, it is written in the key of D♭ major with the partners' vocals ranging from A♭₃ to A♭₅. It contains a common time with a "heartfelt" tempo consisting of 60 beats per minute. Author Ethan Mordden described the track's genre as operatic pop and noted the high vocals achieved by the singers. Lyrically, Daaé's character is singing about her desire for romance when she demands, "Say you love me every waking moment". In exchange, Raoul claims that he can fulfill her wants as long as she will "let [him] be [her] freedom". In an additional comparison to Puccini's opera, John Snelson claimed that the song's lyrics contained similar symbolism to the music found in La fanciulla del West; however, he stated that there were several differences between the two works. Although they both featured romantic symbolism, Snelson wrote that Puccini's work was much longer and contained a vocal-heavy delivery when compared to Lloyd Webber's work. ## Reception Author and music historian Ethan Mordden stated that the song contains "lyrical magnificence" and noted that its brilliance helped it "accomplish wonderful things" on stage. The song was described as one of the biggest and most commercially successful hits from The Phantom of the Opera by the staff at Show Music. "All I Ask of You" was commercially successful in several territories internationally. In the United Kingdom, it became Richard's 52nd top ten single by peaking at number three on 4 October 1986. Its success allowed it to be listed on the year-end chart in that country, where it was ranked at number 31. The song was later certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry on 1 October 1986 for shipments of 250,000 physical copies. It topped the Irish Singles Chart for one week, replacing Status Quo's cover of "In the Army Now" (1986). The song reached the same peak in South Africa on the country's Springbok Radio chart, while in Australia, it peaked at number 24, according to the Kent Music Report. ## Track listings 7-inch single - A1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:11 - B1 "The Phantom of the Opera Overture (Act II)" (performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) – 2:42 12-inch single - A1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:11 - B1 "The Phantom of the Opera Overture (Act II)" (performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) – 2:42 - B2 "Only You" – 3:37 ## Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Cover versions Several musicians have created their own versions of "All I Ask of You". The Shadows created an instrumental version of the song in 1989 for their covers album, Steppin' to the Shadows. As a duet, Stephanie Lawrence and Carl Wayne included it on The Andrew Lloyd Webber Collection in 1991. It is covered by Webber's younger brother and cello player Julian on the 2001 album, Lloyd Webber Plays Lloyd Webber. A separate choral arrangement of "All I Ask of You" appears on The King's Singers's Chanson d'Amour (1992). Elaine Paige released a solo version for Essential Musicals in 2006. American vocalist Jackie Evancho's version of "All I Ask of You" was included on her 2011 studio album Dream with Me and peaked at number four on Billboard's Classical Digital Songs component chart following its release. On Susan Boyle's album Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage (2012), she and featured artist Donny Osmond recorded a cover of "All I Ask of You"; in addition, Boyle also recorded two other Lloyd Webber compositions. American singers Josh Groban and Kelly Clarkson performed the duet for the former's musical-influenced seventh studio album, Stages (2015). After its release, it entered and peaked on the Pop Digital Songs in the United States at number 32. Groban had previously performed "All I Ask of You" to David Foster during an audition to sing "The Prayer" live at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards with Celine Dion. Marina Prior and Mark Vincent, both Australian vocalists, covered it for their 2016 collaborative effort, Together. ## Barbra Streisand version ### Background and release American singer Barbra Streisand recorded a cover of "All I Ask of You" for her 29th studio album, Till I Loved You (1988). It was released as the album's second single on 15 December 1988 by Columbia Records. Till I Loved You is a concept album chronicling the different stages during a romantic relationship, where the beginning songs detail the good times and the final tracks discuss a painful breakup; accordingly, "All I Ask of You" was placed as the record's sixth track. It was produced by frequent Streisand collaborator Phil Ramone. Considering its placement on Till I Loved You, it was noted by The New York Times's Stephen Holden as the only song that is not a "nontheatrical pop tune". Streisand would later include her cover on two of her greatest hits albums: A Collection: Greatest Hits...and More in 1989 and The Essential Barbra Streisand in 2002. Streisand's cover was released physically in several formats by Columbia Records. The standard edition 7-inch release featured B-side track "On My Way to You" while the promotional version used "All I Ask of You" as both the A-side and B-side. In Spain, a 7-inch record with no B-side was distributed. Three different extended plays (EPs) were released in the United Kingdom. The 7-inch and 12-inch varieties included tracks such as "Somewhere", "Memory", "Send In the Clowns, "On My Way to You", "Life Story", and "Emotion"; both of these editions were also released on CD. The limited edition EP featured "On My Way to You", "Make No Mistake, He's Mine", "Since I Fell for You", and a large colored poster of Streisand from the Till I Loved You photoshoots. ### Reception Stephen Holden called the song one of the "moments of sweeping majesty" on Till I Loved You. He stated that Streisand "makes a powerful case [by] negotiating its octave vocal dives with a grand finesse while taking the song at a pleasingly brisk pace". Los Angeles Times's Paul Grein highlighted the song as the greatest track on the album. He compared its dramatics to Streisand's 1981 single "Memory" and later wrote, "but [it] is much warmer and less grandiose. It's one of Streisand's greatest recordings". The single did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States, but it did reach the same publication's Adult Contemporary chart. "All I Ask of You" also entered the charts in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. In the former country, it peaked at number 56 after entering at number 79. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at number 77 and spent five weeks charting. ### Track listings and formats Standard 7-inch single - A1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 - B1 "On My Way to You" – 3:43 Promotional 7-inch single - A1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 - B1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 Spain 7-inch single - A1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 United Kingdom 7-inch and CD EP - A1/1. "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 - A2/2. "Somewhere" – 4:51 - B1/3. "Memory" – 3:52 - B2/4. "Send In the Clowns" – 4:39 United Kingdom 12-inch and CD EP - A1/1. "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 - A2/2. "On My Way to You" – 3:43 - B1/3. "Life Story" – 5:02 - B2/4. "Emotion" – 4:59 United Kingdom 12-inch limited edition EP - A1 "All I Ask of You" – 4:02 - A2 "On My Way to You" – 3:43 - B1 "Make No Mistake, He's Mine" – 4:12 - B2 "Since I Fell for You" – 3:23 ### Charts ## See also - List of number-one singles of 1986 (Ireland)

Mississippi Highway 198

Highway in Mississippi

Mississippi Highway 198 (MS 198) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Mississippi. The highway is the designation for six former segments of U.S. Highway 98 (US 98) that have been bypassed by newer alignments. These six segments are located in Tylertown, Columbia, Hattiesburg, Beaumont, McLain, and Lucedale. Five of the six sections of MS 198 are two-lane undivided roads that pass through small towns; the exception is the Hattiesburg section which is a four-lane divided highway running through developed areas of the city. The total length of the six sections of MS 198 is 24.937 miles (40.132 km). What is now MS 198 originally existed as gravel and earth roads by the 1920s. The portions of the current road became parts of MS 24 and MS 15 in the 1930s and were all paved by the 1940s. US 98 was designated on these segments in 1955. Between the 1970s and 1990s, US 98 was rerouted to bypass Tylertown, Columbia, Hattiesburg, Beaumont, McLain, and Lucedale. By 1998, MS 198 was designated onto the former alignment of US 98 through these communities. The McLain section was truncated from US 98 east of town to MS 57 in 2005. ## Route description MS 198 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65-3-3 as the designation for former sections of US 98 that have been relocated by the completion of new alignments. ### Tylertown The Tylertown section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 northwest of Tylertown in Walthall County, heading southeast on two-lane undivided Beluah Avenue. The road passes through wooded areas with some homes and businesses. After passing to the south of Walthall County General Hospital, MS 198 comes to an intersection with MS 48, at which point that highway begins a concurrency with MS 198. The two highways continue southeast into Tylertown, curving east into residential areas. The road heads into the commercial downtown and comes to an intersection with MS 27. The highway passes more businesses before leaving the downtown and heading into wooded areas with some homes. MS 48 splits from MS 198 by heading southeast, with MS 198 continuing east past residences and commercial establishments on Old Highway 98 East. The road leaves Tylertown and heads northeast through wooded areas with some homes. This section of MS 198 ends at another intersection with US 98. ### Columbia The Columbia section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 southwest of Columbia in Marion County, heading northeast on two-lane undivided South High School Avenue. The road passes through woodland, curving north into Columbia. Here, the highway heads past several businesses before turning east onto Broad Street. MS 198 heads through residential areas before passing through wooded areas with some homes and businesses as Old Highway 98 East, ending at an intersection with US 98 east of Columbia. ### Hattiesburg The Hattiesburg section begins at an interchange with Interstate 59 (I-59) and US 98 in Hattiesburg, Lamar County, where the road continues west as part of US 98. From this interchange, MS 198 heads east into Forrest County on Hardy Street, a four-lane divided highway that passes several businesses. The highway passes to the south of the University of Southern Mississippi before ending at an intersection with US 49. Past this intersection, Hardy Street continues east as a four-lane undivided city street. ### Beaumont The Beaumont section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 within the DeSoto National Forest northwest of Beaumont in Perry County, heading east on a two-lane undivided road. The highway heads through dense forests, curving southeast near a few homes as it runs a short distance to the southwest of Canadian National's Beaumont Subdivision railroad line. The road passes through more forests before entering Beaumont, where it heads near a mix of residences and businesses. MS 198 turns northeast to cross the railroad line and come to an intersection with MS 15. At this point, MS 198 turns southeast to form a concurrency with MS 15, leaving Beaumont for dense forests and running to the northeast of the Canadian National line. The road curves south and ends at an interchange with US 98 southeast of Beaumont. ### McLain The McLain section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 northwest of McLain in Greene County, heading southeast on two-lane undivided West Main Street. The road heads through wooded areas with some homes, entering McLain. The highway passes through residential and commercial areas in the town. MS 198 continues through woodland with some development a short distance to the northeast of Canadian National's Beaumont Subdivision railroad line, ending at an intersection with MS 57. ### Lucedale The Lucedale section of MS 198 begins at an intersection with US 98 northwest of Lucedale in George County, heading southeast on two-lane undivided Main Street. The road heads through dense forests with some homes, passing under Canadian National's Beaumont Subdivision railroad line. The highway continues through more rural areas, heading more to the east and passing under MS 63, at which point the railroad tracks run immediately to the north of the road. MS 198 curves southeast away from the tracks into more forests, eventually entering Lucedale. The road heads through wooded areas of homes before turning east and passing through the commercial downtown. In this area, the highway intersects the eastern terminus of MS 26 and the northern terminus of MS 613. The road leaves Lucedale, crossing the Canadian National line and heading into a mix of farmland and woodland with some development. This section of MS 198 ends at another intersection with US 98 east of Lucedale. ## History The current alignments of MS 198 existed by 1928 as unnumbered roads. The sections in Tylertown, Columbia, Hattiesburg, and Beaumont were gravel roads and the sections in McLain and Lucedale were unimproved roads. By 1932, what is now MS 198 in Tylertown, Columbia, Hattiesburg, Beaumont, and McLain became a part of MS 24, which ran east-west across the southern part of the state. The section of road in McLain became a gravel road by 1933. In 1935, the road west of Tylertown became paved. MS 15 was designated onto MS 24 east of Beaumont and in McLain and what is now the Lucedale portion of MS 198 in 1936. A year later, the portion of road east of Lucedale was paved. In 1938, the portion of current MS 198 southwest of Columbia was paved. The road east of Tylertown was paved by 1939. In 1940, a new alignment of MS 24 between McComb and Tylertown was under construction, which included what is now MS 198 northwest of Tylertown. Also by this time, the road between Columbia and MS 44 was paved. In 1941, the portions of road in Hattiesburg, east of Beaumont, in McLain, and northwest of Lucedale were paved. The road west of Beaumont was paved in 1943. The portion of MS 24 between McComb and Tylertown was completed as a paved road in 1944. In 1955, US 98 was extended into Mississippi, replacing the MS 24 and MS 15 designations on what is now MS 198. By 1973, the road bypassed Columbia. In 1984, US 98 was routed to bypass Hattiesburg on I-59 and a new freeway. A bypass to the north of Tylertown was built for US 98 in 1985. US 98 was moved to a new alignment to bypass Lucedale in 1988. In 1996, US 98 was routed out of Beaumont and McLain as a result of the construction of a new alignment on a divided highway. By 1998, MS 198 was marked on the six former alignments of US 98 in Tylertown, Columbia, Hattiesburg, Beaumont, McLain, and Lucedale. In 2005, the eastern terminus of the McLain section of MS 198 was truncated from US 98 to MS 57 due to the closing, and subsequent demolition, of a bridge across the Leaf River. ## Major intersections ### Tylertown ### Columbia ### Hattiesburg ### Beaumont ### McLain ### Lucedale ## See also

Ryan Grant (running back)

American football player (born 1982)

Ryan Brett Grant (born December 9, 1982) is a former American football running back in the National Football League (NFL). Grant played college football at Notre Dame where he rushed for over 1,000 yards in his only year as the starting running back. He originally signed with the New York Giants as an undrafted free agent in 2005 but never played a game for them. Shortly before the 2007 season, Grant was traded to the Green Bay Packers in exchange for a future sixth-round draft pick. He would go on to play for the Packers for six seasons. Grant had a successful first season with the Packers, rushing for almost 1,000 yards, including five 100+ yard games. He set franchise records with 201 rushing yards and three touchdowns in the Packers' divisional playoff game win against the Seattle Seahawks, as the Packers went on to reach the NFC Championship Game. Grant was also a member of the Packers Super Bowl XLV championship team that beat the Pittsburgh Steelers in 2010. He played for the Washington Redskins for one month during the 2012 season before returning to the Packers to finish out the year and his NFL career. ## Early years Ryan Grant was born in Suffern, New York, but grew up in Nyack, New York, and attended Don Bosco Prep in Ramsey, New Jersey. He transferred to Clarkstown South High School near his hometown for one year before returning to Don Bosco. In 2000, his senior year, USA Today named him New Jersey Player of the Year. He rushed for nearly 1,000 yards and six touchdowns in Don Bosco Prep's run to an 11–1 record and the state championship game, which they lost to Holy Cross High School. That season Grant played cornerback as well, recording 61 tackles and 7 interceptions. In high school, Grant also played basketball and competed in track and field, where he was timed at 10.7 seconds in the 100 meter dash. ## College career In 2001, Grant went to the University of Notre Dame to play football for the Fighting Irish while majoring in sociology and computer applications. He made just a few appearances during his freshman year, playing in five games as the back-up to Julius Jones under coach Bob Davie during a 5–6 season. Tyrone Willingham was named head coach for Grant's sophomore season and praised Grant for his attitude and desire to excel. With Jones suspended for the 2002 season due to academic violations, Grant started all twelve games in 2002. He rushed for over 1,000 yards with nine touchdowns, including four games with over 100 yards. Grant's best game during his time at Notre Dame came against \#15 ranked Air Force, as he gained 190 yards rushing and a touchdown in a 21–14 win. Notre Dame lost to North Carolina State 28–6 in the Gator Bowl. After peaking at \#4 in late October, the team finished the season at 10–3 and ranked \#17 on both the AP Poll and Coaches' Poll. The 2003 season saw Grant split time with Julius Jones. After starting the first five games, Grant only managed 242 rushing yards before being benched. Jones took over in the fifth game and ran for 262 yards and two touchdowns against Pitt, a school record, in a 20–14 victory. After Jones' performance, Grant lost the starting job. He played as the backup in the final seven games, rushing for 268 yards; he finished his junior year with 510 yards and three touchdowns. Notre Dame finished the season 5–7. During his senior year, Grant was named a team captain, but he split time with running back, Darius Walker. Playing in nine games, Grant only gained over 100 yards once, with 112 yards and two touchdowns in a 27–9 win over Navy. After injuring his hamstring, Grant's playing time was limited and Walker took over the starting job. Grant finished the year with 515 yards and 5 touchdowns, and Notre Dame finished with a record of 6–6. For his collegiate career, Grant ran for a total of 2,220 yards and 18 touchdowns. ### College statistics ## Professional career Grant applied for the 2005 NFL Draft after his senior year and was invited to the 2005 NFL Scouting Combine, a week-long showcase for NFL hopefuls. Scouts did not credit Grant with exceptional speed, but he was clocked at 4.43 seconds in the 40-yard dash at the Combine. ### New York Giants Signing as an undrafted free agent, Grant spent 2005 on the New York Giants practice squad. He missed the entire 2006 season, however, after a non-football related injury threatened his career and never played a regular season game for the Giants. Grant was at a nightclub when someone bumped into him; when he went to brace himself, his left arm went through several champagne glasses, severing an artery, a tendon and the ulnar nerve in his left arm. Grant was at risk of bleeding to death and doctors at the time told him he might not regain the use of his left hand, although he did recover. ### Green Bay Packers Grant was traded to the Packers on September 1, 2007 in exchange for a future sixth-round draft pick, and he played as the third-string running back behind Brandon Jackson and DeShawn Wynn for the first six games of the season. After Wynn suffered a shoulder injury in week 8, Grant took over in the second quarter against the Denver Broncos and ran for 104 yards in a 19–13 overtime win. He scored his first rushing touchdown on November 11 in a 34–0 win against the Minnesota Vikings. With these performances, Grant became the starting running back for the last seven weeks of the season. For the season, he averaged 5.1 yards per rush, had five 100+ yard games and eight rushing touchdowns. His mark of 929 yards in the final ten games of the season was second in the NFL for that time period to LaDainian Tomlinson, who had 944 yards. Grant was voted the FedEx Ground NFL Player of the Week twice in weeks 10 and 14. In the Packers' divisional playoff game against the Seattle Seahawks, Grant fumbled twice in the first four minutes; both of the resulting drives led to touchdowns for the Seahawks. Despite the early deficit, the Packers were able to stage a comeback. Grant went on to rush for 201 yards and three touchdowns, both of which set franchise records for Packers' post-season games, as the Packers were 42–20 winners. The following week, Grant rushed for only 29 yards in a 23–20 overtime loss to the New York Giants in the NFC Championship game. He finished second overall for rushing yards in the 2007–08 playoffs with 230 yards, behind Laurence Maroney. At the end of the 2007 season, Grant became an exclusive rights free agent. On August 4, 2008, he signed a four-year deal with the Packers worth up to \$30 million. His first season under his new contract saw him run for 1,203 yards and score 5 total touchdowns. Even though he rushed for over a 1,000 yards, he averaged only 3.9 yards per attempt, the lowest figure of his career. After the trade of longtime quarterback Brett Favre before the start of the season, the Packers went 6–10 in 2008 and failed to qualify for the playoffs. In 2009, Grant had a more productive year rushing for 1,253 yards, third in the National Football Conference (NFC), and scoring 11 touchdowns, second in the NFC. His average yards per carry rose to 4.4 and he added 25 catches for 197 yards. Under starting quarterback Aaron Rodgers, the Packers qualified for the playoffs, but lost their Wild Card game to the Arizona Cardinals in overtime 51–45. Grant rushed for 64 yards on 11 carries in the game, and caught 2 passes for 18 yards. During the 2010 season opener against the Philadelphia Eagles on September 12, 2010, Grant suffered a season-ending ankle injury and was placed on injured reserve after rushing for just 45 yards on eight carries. He underwent ankle surgery on September 21, 2010, but was expected to be fully healthy by the start of the 2011 season. The Packers would go on to win the Super Bowl that season against the Pittsburgh Steelers. During the playoffs and Super Bowl, rookie running back James Starks emerged as a new rushing threat for the Packers. In four playoff games, Starks rushed for 315 yards and a touchdown. Grant returned to the Packers healthy after his ankle surgery in time for the 2011 season. After Starks' success in the playoffs, the Packers chose to use both running backs equally throughout the year. Grant would go on to run for 559 yards and 2 touchdowns in 2011. The Packers went 15–1 during the regular season and made the playoffs as the top-seeded team in the NFC; however, they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the New York Giants. Grant became a free agent at the expiration of his contract at the end of the season. ### Washington Redskins After a workout with the Chicago Bears, Grant signed with the Washington Redskins on September 25, 2012, a few weeks into the season after Roy Helu was placed on injured reserve. He was released just a month later on October 23, 2012. With the Redskins, Grant had just one rushing attempt for five yards and no receptions. ### Return to Green Bay On December 5, 2012, Grant re-signed with the Packers following a season-ending knee injury to James Starks. Grant was back in uniform with the Packers the following week for their home game against the Detroit Lions. Upon his return to the Packers, Grant rushed for 132 yards on 32 carries for a 4.1 yard average during the regular season. He added two rushing touchdowns and one reception for 34 yards. At the end of the season he became a free agent. Although at least one team expressed interest, Grant ended up never signing with another team and retired from the NFL. ### Career statistics Regular season Playoffs ## Personal life After his NFL career, Grant opened a cafe that he co-owns in Brooklyn, New York, called AP Coffee. Grant has also taken part in Packers alumni activities, including visiting troops at Fort McCoy in 2019 during the 14th annual Packers Tailgate Tour.

John Woods (baseball)

American baseball player

John Fulton Woods (January 18, 1898 – October 4, 1946) was a professional baseball pitcher and police officer. He appeared in one game in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Boston Red Sox during the 1924 season. Listed at 6 feet 0 inches (1.83 m), 175 lb (79 kg). During his career, Woods batted and threw right-handed. Born in Princeton, West Virginia, Woods played college baseball at West Virginia University for the Mountaineers. After briefly attending law school, he was signed by the Red Sox and pitched one inning in his only MLB game, an 8–4 loss to the Chicago White Sox on September 16, 1924. He gave up no runs but walked three batters. Woods then played minor league baseball before joining the Norfolk Police Department in 1929. He became the chief of the department in 1939, serving in that capacity for the rest of his life until he was killed while responding to an auto accident in 1946. ## Early life John Fulton Woods was born to Judge John Hugh Gordon Woods and Margaret Peck Woods on January 18, 1898, in Princeton, West Virginia. He and his twin brother, Carl, had three older siblings and one younger sister. Raised near the East River, he went to the Knob Street School for eight years and graduated from the East River District High School. In 1970, his widow told the Cleveland Plain Dealer that Woods starred in baseball, basketball, and track and field while in high school. ## College After completing high school, Woods worked as a timekeeper for the Virginian Railway while living in Princeton in 1918, then served briefly in the United States Army through a collaboration with Washington and Lee University. Woods enrolled at West Virginia University in 1920, playing college baseball for the Mountaineers from his freshman year through the 1923 season. His father wanted him to study law, and he began law school but stopped in 1924 in order to pursue a professional baseball career by attending spring training with the Boston Red Sox. According to Russo, Woods spent most of 1924 pitching for Charleston. The city did not have a minor league baseball team at this time, so the team was likely a semipro team. The Red Sox purchased his contract that September. ## Boston Red Sox Woods's only Major League Baseball (MLB) game came on September 16, 1924, when the Red Sox played the Chicago White Sox at Comiskey Park. It was late in the regular season, and both teams were over 20 games out of first place in the American League. With Boston trailing Chicago 8–4, the right-handed Woods relieved Red Ruffing to begin the eighth inning. He issued a walk to Frank Naleway, then got Buck Crouse to fly out to right fielder Ike Boone. Then, he issued another walk to Ted Blankenship before getting Johnny Mostil to pop out to third baseman Homer Ezzell in foul territory. He issued his third walk of the inning to Harry Hooper, loading the bases, before he induced Eddie Collins to fly out to center fielder Ira Flagstead to end the inning. The Red Sox failed to score in the ninth, losing 8–4. Though Woods allowed three base runners to reach in the game, he never allowed a run, giving him a lifetime earned run average of 0.00. Woods kept a baseball from the game as a souvenir; it was autographed by all of his teammates. ## Minor league career After the 1924 season, the Spartanburg Spartans of the Class C South Atlantic League acquired Woods's contract, then sold it back to the Red Sox on March 20, 1925. Woods would not pitch in the major leagues for Boston again, spending most of 1925 with the Dover Dobbins of the Class D Eastern Shore League. Baseball-Reference.com credits him with 22 appearances for Dover, though the statistics are incomplete. According to baseball historian Frank Russo, Woods also played for the Binghamton Triplets of the Class B New York-Penn League in 1925. He played for the Easton Farmers of the Eastern Shore League in 1927. After tearing tendons and ligaments in his left shoulder while helping move a car out of a ditch, he retired. ## Norfolk Police Department Following his retirement, Woods became a policeman in 1927 and joined the Norfolk Police Department (NPD) in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1929. Part of the reason he was hired was that the department desperately needed a pitcher for its baseball team. Woods progressed through the ranks of the department and attended the FBI National Academy. In 1939, he became the NPD's Chief of Police. He served as the president of the Virginia Association of Chiefs of Police in 1943. The second vice president of the International Chiefs of Police Association, he was in line to take over as the organization's president in 1947. On October 4, 1946, Woods was responding to a car crash on Cottage Toll Road (now known as Tidewater Drive). When he arrived at the scene at 12:20 AM, he crashed into a parked tow truck. Suffering a broken neck and crushed right side of his chest, he died instantly. Only 48 years old, Woods was buried in Block 9, Lot 19, Space W of the Forest Lawn Cemetery in Norfolk on October 6. ## Personal life Woods married Sarah Elizabeth Charlton, a North Carolina resident, on July 12, 1922. They lived with Sarah's sister, M. Kathleen Wickers, and her children in Norfolk. The Woodses had three children: John Jr., George, and Robert. According to his widow, Woods was "a very capable person, and a fine Christian gentleman". Though Woods was listed at 6 feet 0 inches (1.83 m), 175 pounds (79 kg) during his career, his widow said that he weighed just 150 pounds (68 kg) in later years.

Haldane Reforms

Reforms of the British Army from 1906 to 1912

The Haldane Reforms were a series of far-ranging reforms of the British Army made from 1906 to 1912, and named after the Secretary of State for War, Richard Burdon Haldane. They were the first major reforms since the "Childers Reforms" of the early 1880s, and were made in the light of lessons newly learned in the Second Boer War. The major element of the reforms was the creation of an expeditionary force, specifically prepared and trained for intervening in a major war. This had existed before, but it had not been well-prepared for overseas service; the newly organised force was to have a permanent peacetime organisation and a full complement of supporting troops. At the same time, the reserve forces were restructured and expanded so as to ensure that overseas forces could be expanded, supplied with new recruits and to provide for home defence. The Volunteer Force and the Yeomanry were reorganised into a new Territorial Force and the Militia was formed into the Special Reserve; these latter two reforms were grouped together in the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907. To encourage the development of military skills, an Officer Training Corps was established in public schools and universities. Taken together these measures were designed to bring the Army and wider public closer together, to deliver Haldane's vision of a 'nation in arms'. Military strategy was revitalised by a new Imperial General Staff, which would ensure a common doctrine and common strategic aims among the various military forces of the British Empire, including the Dominions as well as British India. Finally, the Regular Army itself would be reformed by the development of a new operational and training doctrine, laid down in Douglas Haig's new Field Service Pocket Book. The outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 saw the bulk of the changes put to the test; the Expeditionary Force was quickly sent to the Continent, whilst the Territorial Force and Reserves were mobilised and several divisions deployed, as Haldane had envisaged, to provide a second line. ## Background In the middle of the 19th century, the British Army had seen two major operations in close succession – the Crimean War and the Indian Mutiny – and it had become apparent that the existing organisation of the forces was not sufficient for large-scale modern warfare. The first wave of reforms was from 1858 to 1860. This period saw the creation of the Staff College, which helped to turn officers in the upper reaches of the Army into professional soldiers; the transformation of the old East India Company army into the Indian Army to better control the forces in India; and the creation of the Volunteer Force to help with home defence whilst the Regular Army was overseas. The second wave was from 1868 to 1872, comprising a collection of administrative changes popularly known as the "Cardwell Reforms" after the then Secretary of State for War, Edward Cardwell. The purchase of commissions by officers was abolished, and recruits were now taken on for a short enlistment in a specified regiment or corps rather than the (unpopular) system of twenty-one-year general service enlistments. These measures at a stroke increased the quality of the manpower of the Army, and provided for a trained and efficient reserve of veterans which could be recalled to the colours in an emergency. A further part of the reforms was the reorganisation of the regimental system, linking "territorial" (line) regiments in paired regimental depots with a territory-based recruiting area for simplified recruitment and training and bringing volunteer regiments into the regimental structure. The third set of reforms was the "Childers Reforms" (again named after the Secretary of State who carried them out) of the early 1880s, which carried through the Cardwell regimental reorganisations to their logical end by completing the amalgamation of linked regiments into single two-battalion regiments along with the local units of militia and volunteers. The result of these reforms was to provide a sizeable, well-trained force in the British Isles, which could be sent overseas in time of crisis, with a system of reservists and home-service volunteers to support it. On the outbreak of the South African War in October 1899, Britain was able rapidly to assemble and effect the biggest deployment of British troops since the Crimea, eventually involving half a million soldiers, including volunteers from Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Nevertheless, the system immediately began to show some strain; by the end of the first year of fighting, the Regular Reserve and the Militia Reserve had been entirely exhausted. (Regular reservists were members of the Regular Army who had retired from the active-duty portion of their service but remained available for callout. The Militia Reserve was a pool of individuals within the Militia, who accepted an overseas service liability, numbering over 31,000 on the eve of the South African War). Various novel measures, including the extensive use of auxiliary forces, were experimented with for the remainder of the war; the Militia provided garrison units to free up regulars, the Volunteers sent service companies to be attached to regular battalions, and the Imperial Yeomanry was created to supply much-needed mounted infantry. Substantial detachments, mainly auxiliary forces, were provided by the dominions, with soldiers from Canada, Australia and New Zealand as well as South Africa itself. A number of half-hearted attempts were made at reform during the war and in its immediate aftermath, but with little effect. Two important Royal Commissions were established in 1902 – the Esher Committee and the Norfolk Commission – and reported in 1904. The Esher Report called for wide-ranging reforms in the administration of the Army and the War Office, whilst the Norfolk Commission, which had studied the auxiliary forces, declared them "unfit for service" and recommended various practical reforms alongside the much more sensational suggestion of universal military service. Some of these reforms were instituted under the Conservative Secretary of State for War, Hugh Arnold-Forster, in 1904–5, but the broad thrust of his reform plans were strongly opposed. Attempts to reorganise the home forces into six Army Corps had begun, but only one of these had actually been organised, and even that lacked many of its support units and staff. ## Haldane's reforms The Balfour government collapsed in December 1905, and Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman became Prime Minister, leading a minority Liberal government. Richard Haldane was appointed Secretary of State for War, an almost accidental selection – he himself had been aiming to be Lord Chancellor, whilst Campbell-Bannerman offered him the post of Attorney-General, then the Home Office, and had offered the War Office to two other men before Haldane offered to take it. Despite this inauspicious beginning, he would become, in the words of Douglas Haig, "the greatest Secretary of State for War England has ever had". Haldane took the post with well hidden preconceived ideas as to the role of the Army having realised that the reform-weary Generals in the War Office, after St John Brodrick, would not want another Secretary of State for War who was intent on changing things yet again. Haldane's success was that he got the Generals on side having gained their trust and respect, then expunged the War Office of those officers who did not support his reforms and with the support of Lord Esher, Maj.-Gen. Haig and Colonel Ellison, finally designed and implemented a set of reforms that would go some way to preparing the British Army for the opening salvos of the First World War. ### Creation of an Expeditionary Force After a brief hiatus during the 1906 general election, which the Liberals won by a landslide, obtaining a majority of 126 seats in the House of Commons, Haldane turned his attention to the Tangier Crisis, which had almost brought France and Germany to war in December. Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign Secretary, had privately agreed to commit the Army to the aid of France, if attacked, and Haldane began to consider how best to accomplish this. He quickly concluded that there was a need for a regular expeditionary force, specifically prepared and trained for use as a continental intervention force. The question now became how to provide this force, and after a short period Haldane settled on a strength of six infantry divisions and their supporting units. They would need to be organised in peacetime and prepared to mobilise in the United Kingdom, as they would be committed into action as soon as they reached the Continent. As the Army was now geared to a specific purpose, it could be reorganised to fit this role; any elements which did not fit could be discarded to help pay for the changes; this was to include the disbandment of ten infantry battalions and a number of surplus artillery batteries, and the withdrawal of some overseas garrisons. The Army at home was reorganised into six divisions by a Special Army Order dated 1 January 1907, with one "heavy" four-brigade Cavalry Division and two mounted brigades for reconnaissance, along with some Army troops. In February 1907, Haldane announced the coming year's spending estimates; despite the creation of the new force, the disbanded units and other minor efficiencies had managed to reduce overall spending by two to three million pounds. ### Creation of the Territorial Force Once the Regular Army had been organised as a continental Expeditionary Force, experience from the Second Boer War suggested that it would be necessary to reinforce it with a larger second line. Haldane had taken a great deal of trouble to win over Lord Esher, whose commission had recommended conscription for this purpose but he still faced a determined and influential campaign by the National Service League, led by Field Marshal Lord Roberts, to introduce conscription. This was supported by a combination of retired generals and some Conservative politicians and writers. In making his case that Territorials could not man 'all arms' brigades and divisions, Lord Roberts even persuaded King Edward that Territorials could never be competent in areas like artillery until Haldane managed to secure Esher's support in lobbying him. Haldane originally designed the Territorial force both for home defence and as a second line for the expeditionary force, saying in November 1906 ‘... at the end of ...[six months’ training], ...they would be ready, finding themselves in their units, to say ‘we wish to go abroad and take our part in the theatre of war...’ and describing the planned Territorial Force as 'the sole means of support and expansion of the professional army'. He repeated this view in similar words in his Army Estimates speech in February 1907. Besides opposition from Lord Roberts and the conscription lobby, his proposals were also under fire from the other side of the political spectrum – more radical elements of his own party who raised concerns about building up a potentially large expeditionary force and Labour members worried about militarism. A third set of pressures came from within the various existing volunteer reserve organisations, resenting a loss of independence and, in the case of the militia, leading to outright opposition to the plans. In delivering his Territorial and Reserve Forces Bill to Parliament, in March 1907, Haldane abruptly changed the nominal purpose of the Territorial Force to head off the opposition, legislating only for compulsory service for Home Defence. He watered down his original vision to saying that ‘they could go abroad if they wish.’ Under this proposal, the Volunteers and Yeomanry would be transformed into the Territorial Force administered by County Territorial Associations. Meanwhile, the Militia would be disbanded and its depots used for a new, all infantry Special Reserve, which would contain men who had not served in the regular Army but agreed to be liable for service with the regular forces in wartime. The Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, passed the Commons with little opposition save for a dispute over the future status of Militia regiments. The new Territorial Force was to consist of fourteen infantry divisions, fourteen cavalry brigades, and a large number of support units, all raised, organised and financed by local organisations but liable for service under War Office command. The design of the Territorial Force remained well beyond the obvious needs of home defence: fully established divisions, provided with field artillery, companies of engineers and crucial supply services, including medical provision. ### Training and doctrine In November 1906, Douglas Haig was appointed Director of Staff Duties at the War Office, and took up the task of providing a new training doctrine for the Army. The Esher Report had suggested a new scheme for two sets of training manuals, but these had not been fully implemented. In 1907, the new provisional "Field Service Pocket Book" was produced, revised the following year, and finally standardised as "Field Service Regulations, Part I – Operations" in 1909. This was to serve as the training manual for all branches of the service, and was the synthesis of the generally agreed tactical and strategic principles which had emerged from the South African War. Part II, "Administration", however, was more contentious. Haig was strongly in favour of an entirely new system, where the manual would cover the whole organisation of a field army, including base and lines-of-communication troops as well as field units. This was strongly opposed by the Adjutant-General and Quartermaster-General staff, who felt that it was unnecessary, and resented such an imposition on their 'territory' by what they saw as an outsider. However, with Haldane's support, Haig was able to push this through and ensure its adoption. ### Officer Training Corps One issue that was foreseen as a potential problem was the supply of skilled officers to the Army in wartime and there was an immediate requirement to provide trained officers for the Territorial Force in peacetime. A committee was established in 1906 under Sir Edward Ward to study the matter. It issued two reports, one focusing on university and school corps, and one on the Special Reserve. The main recommendation of the former was to reorganise the existing school Cadet Corps and university Rifle Corps, which had been formed on an ad-hoc basis as part of the broader Volunteer movement, into a uniform force, administered and supported by the War Office. Under Army Order 160 of 1908, contingents of the "Senior Division" were established in universities, and contingents of the "Junior Division" in public schools. Army Order 178, later the same year, provided a standard set of regulations, stating that the scheme was intended to provide "a standardized degree of elementary military training with a view to providing candidates for commissions". The scheme was popular; by the end of 1910, there were 19 contingents of the "Senior Division" and 152 of the "Junior Division", and one year later, at the start of 1912, this had risen to 55 and 155 respectively. A total of 23,700 cadets were enrolled as of 1 January 1912, with 630 officers, and 830 former cadets had already gone on to take commissions in the auxiliary forces. ### Imperial General Staff In the later part of the nineteenth century, the emphasis of Imperial defence policy had shifted from a single centralised Army and Navy to an approach whereby the self-governing Dominions began to provide forces for their own defence, and to begin to take responsibility for strategic interests and bases in their own geographic areas. In all four of the then dominions, these consisted of a tiny professional core, embedded in much larger volunteer forces – this was to remain the case in peacetime up to the Second World War. The culmination of this was the South African War, where contingents from the Dominion militaries had played a significant role. However, whilst the forces were developing locally, the goals of a comprehensive Imperial defence policy remained constant. A proposal was made to a conference of Dominion leaders in 1907, which recommended that all Imperial forces be organised along a standard model, similar to the recent divisional reorganisation of the British Army and the Army in India (the combined British Army units in India and the Indian Army units). The conference approved this concept, but carried the idea further, and recommended the creation of a general staff drawn from the forces of the entire Empire. This Imperial General Staff would serve as a common link between the national forces, and could oversee the development of a single uniform defence scheme. It would also be able to help ensure greater consistency between the forces, though it was carefully laid down that the Imperial General Staff could only offer "guidance" to the local government and General Staff, and would not have any binding authority over the national forces. The new system was approved by an Imperial conference in July 1909, which confirmed the support for the new structure, and the principle of standardisation, as well as emphasising that it was not to limit "the autonomy of the self-governing Dominions". ## First World War The outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 saw the bulk of the changes put to the sternest of tests; the Expeditionary Force of six divisions was quickly sent to the Continent, where, facing overwhelming odds, they secured the left flank of the French Army. Of the 90,000 members of the original BEF deployed in August, four-fifths were dead or wounded by Christmas. Meanwhile, a Territorial Force of 14 divisions and Reserves was mobilised as Haldane had envisaged to provide a second line. The mobilisation was carried out punctually and the divisions were armed. By April 1915, six complete Territorial divisions had deployed to France. According to BEF commander in chief, Field Marshal (then) Sir John French, "Without the assistance which the Territorials afforded between October 1914 and June 1915, it would have been impossible to hold the line in France and Belgium." Douglas Haig, French's successor described Haldane as 'The greatest Secretary of State for War England has ever had.' Haldane's remarkable work was, however heavily based on the foundations which Viscount Cardwell and his principal military adviser Garnet Wolseley had laid down.

Shadowland (The Lion King)

"Shadowland" is a song written by Lebo M, Hans Zimmer, and Mark Mancina for the musical The Lion King (1997), a stage adaptation of Disney's 1994 animated feature film of the same name. Based on the song "Lea Halalela (Holy Land)", a track featured on Lebo's Lion King-inspired concept album Rhythm of the Pride Lands (1995), Lebo composed the track with Zimmer, while both Lebo and Mancina contributed new lyrics to its melody. Lebo based the song's lyrics on his own experiences having been exiled from South Africa during apartheid, therefore imbuing "Shadowland" with themes about refugeeism and survival. Originally performed by Trinidadian-American singer and actress Heather Headley as Nala, and South African actress Tsidii Le Loka as Rafiki, roles both performers originated on stage, "Shadowland" narrates Nala's decision to leave the Pride Lands in search of a more habitable environment upon realizing that her homeland has grown dry and barren in the midst of Scar's reign. Taking place shortly after Nala rejects Scar's romantic advances, director Julie Taymor used the song to develop Nala into a stronger character for the stage adaptation, and identified "Shadowland" as her favorite among the production's original songs, believing its message and themes to be universal. Musically, "Shadowland" is a soul power ballad. Sung in both English and African languages, its instrumentation combines African percussion with European orchestration to create a more exotic sound while accompanying pop vocals and African chants; some critics have observed political themes such as feminism, injustice and the ecosystem throughout the song's lyrics. "Shadowland" has been mostly positively received by music and theatre critics; both Headley and actresses who replaced her in subsequent productions of the musical have been praised for their vocals and performances. ## Background Disney decided that the five pop-oriented songs composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice had written for the animated film would be augmented by more exotic-sounding, percussive and African-influenced musical numbers for its stage adaptation. "Shadowland" was written by songwriters Lebo M, Hans Zimmer, and Mark Mancina, with Lebo and Zimmer composing its music, while both Lebo and Mancina wrote the song's lyrics. "Shadowland" is based on "Lea Halalela (Holy Land)", a song Zimmer and Lebo had originally written for the film that debuted on the Lion King-inspired concept album Rhythm of the Pride Lands (1995). The track itself is inspired by an orchestral theme used in the film. Based on both an excerpt from Zimmer's film score and "Lea Halalela (Holy Land)", "Shadowland" was the fifth of the musical's original songs to be directly adapted from a Rhythm of the Pride Lands track. Meanwhile, Lebo and Mancina contributed new lyrics to the song's pre-existing music, with Lebo basing his lyrics on his own experience being exiled from South Africa during apartheid. Mancina arranged and produced the track himself. In the animated film, Nala contributes to two duets: "I Just Can't Wait to be King" and "Can You Feel the Love Tonight". Director Julie Taymor found herself drawn to the South African musical influences Lebo introduced to the production during rehearsals. Acknowledging the film's lack of prominent female roles, the director was interested in expanding Nala's role into that of a more complex, three dimensional character for the musical, and believed "Shadowland" would help develop her into a stronger heroine. Will Albrittonat of the University of South Florida's The Oracle agreed that the song strengthens Nala's character, allowing her a greater significant role. Taymor explained, "When you talk about lions, the females do all of it ... So I threw out a lot of the soft stuff in the film and made Nala very strong", giving the character "one of the best songs in the show, 'Shadowland,' which is about being a refugee," a subject the director believes remains "very topical". Furthermore, Taymor cited the song as a "perfect" example of music that "has a narrative force of its own", via which "Nala's feelings are transmitted". Calling the ballad "extraordinary", Taymor identified "Shadowland" as one of her favorite songs in the musical, second to "Circle of Life", and continues to get emotional when she hears it. In addition to originating the role of Nala, Trinidadian-American singer and actress Heather Headley recorded "Shadowland" for The Lion King: Original Broadway Cast Recording. ## Context and use in The Lion King "Shadowland" is performed by Nala before she leaves the Pride Lands in search of a better home, once she decides she can no longer tolerate Scar's treacherous rule. Set during the musical's second act, the song takes place shortly after "The Madness of King Scar", in which Nala rebukes Scar's lecherous attempt to make her his queen. Nala is forced to choose between surviving or remaining with her pride. Seeking permission from them before she leaves in search of a fertile land to where they can possibly relocate, Nala bids an emotional farewell to her fellow lionesses and homeland, which has grown dry and barren due to famine and drought under Scar's reign. Performed against a background of "jungle fauna", the lionesses join Nala in chanting while mourning the decrepit state of what was once their ancestors' home, voicing their dissatisfaction with the condition of its ecosystem. Ultimately, Nala promises to eventually return with hope, and "always remember [her] pride". Rafiki also bestows her personal, sacred blessings upon the young lioness. Featuring exclusively females, the sequence features feline-influenced movements and choreography. According to Sarah O'Hara of Lowdown Magazine, the performance "demonstrate[s] all the desperation the lionesses faced in the hunt for food". John Moore of The Denver Post believes that by preceding “Endless Night" and "He Lives in You", "Shadowland" initiates a climax that becomes a "stampede of ongoing powerful moments". Everett Evans, writing for the Houston Chronicle, agreed that the song is one of the show's ballads that supply the musical with "emotional clout". Actress Kissy Simmons described the musical number as the moment "her character has to do something to help her pride of lionesses". Simmons believes that, at this point in the musical, most of the lionesses have already either been raped or sexually harassed by Scar by the time Nala realizes how dangerous the Pride Lands have become, forcing her to leave in search help. Depicting Nala's "fierce drive", the ballad further demonstrates the heroine's loyalty, beauty, and strength. Nala experiences several different emotions during the song, beginning reserved as she observes how barren her homeland has become, a feeling that transitions into sadness and vulnerability, before she ultimately accepts that she must "fight for this land, and get things to where they used to be”, according to actress Noxolo Dlamini. Miyako Singer of The Daily Californian wrote that, in addition to providing Nala with "her big solo moment", the song "showcases ... Nala’s strength and determination". Several critics and performances have observed feminist motifs in the staging of the musical number. Due to the musical performance depicting lionesses fighting back against "a male-dominated regime", the Houston Chronicle's Wei-Huan Chen likened the song to a women's march, comparing its use of black feminism to the music video for singer Beyonce's "Formation" (2016). Furthermore, Chen said Nala sings in response to Scar's insistence "that she, as his property, will bear his children without her consent". Citing "Shadowland" as her favorite moment from the show, ensemble singer Lindiwe Dlamini, who had sung the song for over 8,000 performances by 2017, agreed that "There’s something about the strength of a woman in that moment". Ensemble actress Pia Hamilton agreed with Taymor's conscious decision to make certain scenes, such as "Shadowland", particularly "female heavy", believing that the song is used to depict "women in power". Kieran Jonson of WhatsOnStage.com wrote that "Shadowland" offers Nala a moment to "shine". ## Music and lyrics Sung slowly, emotionally, and dramatically, "Shadowland" is performed in the key of A minor at a tempo of 70 beats per minute, and lasts four minutes and thirty seconds in duration. The Disney Song Encyclopedia author Thomas S. Hischak described "Shadowland" as a "hauntingly beautiful ballad", while I. Herbert, author of Theatre Record, called it "hauntingly expressive". Several critics and media publications have acknowledged the song's "haunting" nature and sentiment. Musically, the ballad begins sad in tone, before growing more determined and hopeful as it progresses. The song combines Zimmer's original melody with both English and African phrases that result in "a beguiling tribal flavor". Seth Kubersky of Orlando Weekly identified "Shadowland" as one of the musical's original songs lifted from the film's score. Theatre Histories: An Introduction author Phillip B. Zarrilli agreed that "Shadowland" fuses "African and European rhythms and orchestration". According to the book The Oxford Handbook of The American Musical, "Shadowland"'s prominent use of African sounds is a strong example of Non-Western musical styles occasionally appearing in theater. Due to its African and South African influences, WhatsOnStage.com's Richard Forrest cited the composition as one of the few songs written specifically for the musical that "express most fully the show’s African roots", featuring African percussion and "soul-searching lyrics". Martin Brady, writing for the Nashville Scene, observed that African folk rhythms, melodies and choral harmonies are particularly "omnipresent" throughout "Shadowland". Lowdown Magazine's Sarah O'Hara described "Shadowland" as a soul song performed "with power ballad emotion". The song also incorporates pop rock influences. Instrumentally, "Shadowland" makes use of synthesizer strings. NewsOK's Brandy McDonnell described the ballad as an "understated ode". Described by Thesauro Cultural of The Cult as an "evocative ballad", the song begins with an African-language chant: "Fatshe leso lea halalela". Lyrically, the song is about "losing [one's] home and finding solace elsewhere", according to Taymor, and alludes to themes about surviving as a refugee. Writing for the Houston Chronicle, Wei-Huan Chen agreed that "Shadowland" explores several political themes and subtexts that include feminism, believing its title is "applicable to any period in history shrouded by injustice". Taymor agreed that, in addition to being "reminiscent of Africa", the ballad boasts several additional interpretations that can be understood by virtually any culture "without understanding what is being said". Janice M. Nargi, writing for JMN Publications, agreed that the song "fuse[s] contemporary messages of courage and empowerment with insistent cadences that suggest universality and timelessness". "Shadowland" also features an ecology-themed message, demonstrated by its lyric "“The river's dry, the ground has broken". Michael Billington, arts critic for The Guardian, believes the song's use of grassland chants "pays homage to Africa". Billboard music critic Larry Flick said Headley and actress Tsidii Le Loka exchange "smooth pop vocals and traditional tribal chants"; the soloists are augmented by a choir who "gradually builds the song to anthemic proportions". Describing Headley's vocals as "sung achingly", The New York Times Stephen Holden recognized "Shadowland" among the musical's three original ballads that serve as "potent vocal showcases" while contributing "genuine emotional depth" to the production, alongside "They Live in You" and "Endless Night". Headley's vocal range on the song spans approximately two octaves, from E₃ to A₅. Vocally, the ballad is believed to be best-suited for a mezzo-soprano/belter vocalist, according to the book Singer's Musical Theatre Anthology - Volume 4: Mezzo-Soprano/Belter. ## Critical reception To promote the musical, Headley performed "Shadowland" with Le Loka live on the Late Show with David Letterman in 1997, which Headley believes greatly showcased her voice. Critical reception towards "Shadowland" has been positive, with Headley consistently earning praise for her live renditions during her tenure as Nala. In August 1997, Chris Hewit of the St. Paul Pioneer Press commended Headley's "passionate" interpretation, while Playbill'''s Robert Simonson reported that the singer's performance "draws applause every night". Richard Forrest of WhatsOnStage.com ranked "Shadowland" among the musical's standout songs. Variety's Matt Wolf said the ballad "stops the second act". Lisa Martland, writing for The Stage, described the song as a highlight that offers a poignancy she found lacking throughout the rest of the show. Michael Portantiere, author of The Theatermania Guide to Musical Theater Recordings, ranked "Shadowland" among the best new additions to the show's score. Rex Smith, writing for Newsweek, called the song "beautiful", while Mark Collins of the Reporter-Herald described it as "show stopping and mournful". Describing "Shadowland" as a "glorious ballad", Billboard's Larry Flick opined that both pop and R&B radio stations should be appreciate the track. Carrie Ruth Moore of the Daily Trojan believes “Shadowland" is one of the main reasons the original cast album won a Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album in 1999.Since Headley's departure, actresses who replaced her in subsequent productions continued to receive praise for their renditions. When actress Kissy Simmons auditioned for the role in 2002, she auditioned using "Shadowland"; Taymor enjoyed her rendition to the point where she remarked "where have you been all of these years?" Jay Handelman, contributing to the Sarasota Herald-Tribune, said Simmons "shines during 'Shadowland'." Laura Sternberg of About.com's Detroit Travel Guide praised Syndee Winters' performance at the Detroit Opera House, calling both her voice and the song "memorable". Praising actress Ta'Rea Campbell's performance at the Bass Concert Hall in 2007, Robert Faires of The Austin Chronicle wrote that she "fills 'Shadowland' with such urgency as to make it a potent dramatic statement as well as a lovely ballad." Describing "Shadowland" as both "inspiring" and "lovely", The San Diego Union-Tribune critic Pam Kragen wrote that actress Marja Harmon sung the song "with great beauty". Actress Nia Holloway has also garnered strong reviews, whose rendition Shannon McLoud of Motif Magazine deemed worth "The price of admission". The Daily Californian's Miyako Singer commended Holloway's rendition of "Shadowland" for "showcas[ing] her incredible vocal chops", while the Toronto Star's Kelly Cameron called the actress' vocals "stunning". Recognizing Holloway's performance as a standout, the News and Tribune contributor Claire White said her "combination of vocals and movement gave a great display of emotion to the audience". Describing the song itself as "beautifully understated", Brandy McDonnell of NewsOK wrote that Holloway "provided the night's musical highlight" in review of a performance at the Civic Center Music Hall. The Capital Times' Lindsay Christians agreed that the actress sings the musical number "well". K103-FM called the ballad a second act showstopper, writing, "You really feel [Holloway's] presence on the stage" throughout the song. In a less positive review, Susan Haubenstock of the Richmond Times-Dispatch dismissed "Shadowland" as one of the new songs that resemble "filler", accusing it of slowing down the pace of the production and causing "the action and the energy peter out in the second act." Similarly, Erin Gleeson of the Baltimore City Paper felt "Shadowland" was "unmemorable", writing that it "drag[s] down an otherwise lively and spirited production." Alan Morrison of the Herald Scotland found the song's use of synthesizers dated. ## Impact "Shadowland" is still considered to be one of Headley's signature songs. In October 2014, Disney Theatrical Group released an official lyric video for the song and uploaded it to YouTube. Emily Brandon of Oh My Disney remarked that the song "is one of those songs that sticks with us long after we hear it" due to a combination of its moving lyrics, references to the film's score and appreciation for Nala's and her story". Actor Michael Crawford covered the song in a medley of songs from The Lion King. In 2016, Simmons performed the song live on the Disney Wonder cruise ship as part of the Disney Theatrical Group's "Stars Set Sail" live concert series. After Disney announced that singer Beyoncé had been cast as Nala in John Favreau's upcoming CGI remake of The Lion King'' in November 2017, fans started hoping Beyoncé would be recording a version of "Shadowland" for the film. WLCK's Ray Cornelius speculated, "While this tune was not in the original movie, I’m sure the film’s producers will make an exception and allow Beyoncé to perform it or create a new song for her. Let’s keep our fingers crossed."

Arjen Robben

Dutch association football player

Arjen Robben (; born 23 January 1984) is a Dutch former professional footballer who played as a winger. Known for his dribbling skills, speed, ball control and long-range shots, Robben is widely regarded as one of the greatest wingers and players of his generation. Robben first came to prominence with Groningen, for whom he was player of the year for the 2000–01 Eredivisie season. Two years later he signed for PSV, where he became the Netherlands' Young Player of the Year and won an Eredivisie title. The following season Robben's signature was pursued by leading clubs, and after protracted transfer negotiations, he joined Chelsea in 2004. Robben's Chelsea debut was delayed through injury, but upon returning to fitness, he helped Chelsea bring home two consecutive Premier League titles, and was the Premier League Player of the Month in November 2004. After a third season in England which was punctuated by injury, Robben signed for Real Madrid in a transfer worth €35 million. In August 2009, Robben transferred to Bayern Munich for a fee of around €25 million. In his first season in Munich, Bayern won the league title, Robben's fifth league title in eight years. Robben scored the winning goal in the 2013 UEFA Champions League final, being named to the Squad of the Season. In 2014, he was named to the FIFPro World XI and the UEFA Team of the Year, and fourth place in the Ballon d'Or. In Germany, he won 20 trophies, including eight Bundesliga titles and five DFB Pokals. During his long tenure at Bayern, Robben was also known for his fruitful partnership with fellow winger Franck Ribéry – together they were affectionately referred to by the nickname Robbery. On 15 July 2021, Robben announced his retirement from professional football. Robben started in the 2010 FIFA World Cup Final, which the Netherlands lost to Spain. He also appeared at the 2004, 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships, and the 2006 and 2014 FIFA World Cups. In the latter, he won the Bronze Ball and was named to the All-Star Team. ## Early life Robben was born in Bedum, in the northeastern Netherlands. He took to football from an early age, becoming an adherent of the Coerver Method. Robben's skill in ball control and technical footwork made him a valuable player, and he was quickly signed by regional club FC Groningen. Here, he developed his distinctive style of cutting inside from the right onto his left foot to score some quite spectacular goals. ## Club career ### Groningen Groningen placed Robben in their first team for the 1999–2000 season. He scored three goals in league play. Manager Jan van Dijk added the winger to the first team before Groningen's November 2000 away game against Twente, but he did not play until 3 December 2000 against RKC Waalwijk as a substitute for the injured Leonardo dos Santos in the 79th minute. During the winter, Robben managed to play himself into the starting lineup. In 18 starts for Groningen over the 2000–01 season, he scored two goals. Robben was named player of the year for his first season with the club, and with teammate Jordi Hoogstrate, he demonstrated the strength of the Groningen youth academy. Robben stayed with Groningen and improved steadily during the 2001–02 season, playing in 28 matches and scoring six goals. Robben transferred to PSV for €3.9 million before the 2002–03 season. ### PSV During his first season for PSV, the 2002–03 season, Robben played 33 matches and scored 12 goals. He was named "PSV co-player of the year" along with striker Mateja Kežman, with whom he formed an attacking partnership still fondly referred to by PSV fans as "Batman and Robben". He helped lead PSV to their 17th Dutch title, and won the Talented Player of the Year award. After this good start, PSV could not keep up with rival Ajax and were forced into a fight for second place in the Eredivisie. Robben travelled to London and met with Manchester United coach Sir Alex Ferguson. Ferguson's offer came in much too low for PSV's and Robben's liking; PSV chairman Harry van Raaij told Manchester United the most that their €7 million offer would buy them was a shirt with Robben's autograph. Almost immediately, Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich offered €18 million (£12.1 million), and PSV accepted. The rest of his season with PSV was disappointing: he injured his hamstring twice and missed several games. By the end of the season, Robben scored five times in 23 Eredivisie matches. ### Chelsea #### 2004–05 season Robben did not make his competitive debut for Chelsea until 23 October 2004 against Blackburn Rovers, as he was injured in a pre-season friendly match against Roma, breaking a metatarsal bone in his right foot in a challenge from Olivier Dacourt. During this time, he told club doctors that he had noticed an unfamiliar growth on one of his testicles. The medical team quickly did tests to check for testicular cancer, but he was subsequently given the all clear. Robben proved to be a crucial player for the 2004–05 season; in November 2004, he was awarded the Premier League Player of the Month award. Robben ended the 2004–05 season with seven goals, his second highest professional total. He was shortlisted for the PFA Young Player of the Year, but was beaten by Manchester United's Wayne Rooney. Robben was badly injured in a Premier League match away to Blackburn Rovers and forced to sit out the 2005 Football League Cup Final, Chelsea's title run-in and progress to the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League. Back to fitness for 2005–06, Robben was an integral part of the Chelsea left wing. In 28 matches, Robben contributed six goals as Chelsea won a second consecutive Premier League championship, the first back-to-back titles for the west London club. #### 2006–07 season Robben was later named man of the match on 23 December 2006 against Wigan Athletic, a match where he got two assists and the winning goal. Robben was inflicted with yet another injury in a match against Liverpool on 20 January 2007. Robben made his return in a 3–0 victory against Middlesbrough in February, driving in a shot that took a deflection past Mark Schwarzer for an own goal by Abel Xavier. He came on as a substitute for Claude Makélélé in the 2007 League Cup final against Arsenal and set up the winning goal for Didier Drogba. Robben scored a goal in the second round of the Champions League against Porto, which led to Chelsea winning the tie 3–2 on aggregate. At the end of March 2007, Robben underwent a knee operation after sustaining a knee injury upon returning from international duty that was expected to rule him out for at least four weeks. He only made two further appearances for Chelsea, both of which were as a substitute and both of which would prove to be key games for the club. His first appearance since returning from injury was against Liverpool in the Champions League semi-final second leg which went to penalties. Robben went on to have his penalty saved by Pepe Reina, and Chelsea ultimately lost. Robben's final appearance for the club came against Manchester United in the 2007 FA Cup Final. Robben replaced Joe Cole at half-time, but was then substituted himself for Ashley Cole in extra time as Chelsea emerged victorious. Spanish club Real Madrid were interested in two of Chelsea's players. Then manager Bernd Schuster is said to have demanded Michael Ballack, while Real Madrid's then president Ramón Calderón was known to favour Robben. Robben said to reporters of Spanish newspaper AS, "I do not know when a deal will be reached. I would like to send a message to the Madrid fans, but I can't until my future is sorted." Real Madrid eventually secured Robben's services in August 2007. He told Chelsea's official club website: > It was difficult to leave because I had a great time in my three years at Chelsea and I made a lot of friends. There was no time to say goodbye because the deal was closed on the Wednesday at 10 o'clock in the evening and the following morning I had to fly. If I have one day off I would want to come back and say goodbye because to the fans I owe a big thank you because they were always good to me. In my three years I won all the prizes there are to win in England. ### Real Madrid Robben completed his move to Real Madrid on a five-year deal on 22 August 2007, with the transfer fee reported as £24 million (€35 million). He made his debut on 18 September as a substitute for Raúl during a Champions League match against Werder Bremen, which Real Madrid won 2–1. His La Liga debut came on 23 September, as a substitute for Royston Drenthe in a 1–1 away draw against Real Valladolid. On 10 February 2008, Robben scored his first goal, coming at home in a 7–0 victory against Valladolid. Robben proved crucial for many Real Madrid matches, making his famous runs down the left wing and quickly became a first choice for the left midfield position, making 28 appearances during his debut season and scoring five goals. Real Madrid won the Liga title with multiple games to spare, and were already the champions of Spain when they played their arch-rivals Barcelona on 7 May 2008. The Barcelona players formed a guard of honour as the Madrid team came onto the pitch at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, and Robben played an important part in Real Madrid's subsequent 4–1 victory, scoring the champions' second goal. Robben retained his key role in the Real Madrid midfield during the 2008–09 season, playing 35 times and scoring 8 goals. Although the Dutchman was one of the Spanish side's most important players in the pre-season games leading up to the 2009–10 season, having scored three goals and help set up another four, he was among the players whose place in the first team became threatened following the arrival of Florentino Pérez and the signings of Cristiano Ronaldo and Kaká. Real Madrid accepted a bid of around €25 million for Robben from Bayern Munich. Robben claimed he was "forced" to leave Real Madrid, saying that he "didn't want to go, but the club wanted to sell him". ### Bayern Munich #### 2009–10 season On 28 August 2009, Robben moved to Bayern Munich for around €25 million. He was given the number 10 jersey, last worn by his fellow Dutchman, Roy Makaay. On 9 March 2010, Robben scored the deciding goal in Bayern's 2–3 defeat (4–4 on aggregate over two legs) against Fiorentina, taking them through to the quarter-finals of the 2009–10 Champions League on away goals. On 7 April 2010, Robben sent Bayern into the semi-finals of the Champions League with a stunning volley against Manchester United from the edge of the area into the corner of the net. The game ended 3–2 to United (4–4 on aggregate), with Bayern advancing again due to away goals. On 17 April 2010, he scored his first hat-trick in the Bundesliga against Hannover 96 in the Allianz Arena. The game ended 7–0 to the Bavarians. On 8 May 2010, he won his first Bundesliga title with Bayern after scoring two goals in their 3–1 victory over Hertha BSC, finishing as Bayern's top scorer in the process. A week later, Bayern played in the DFB-Pokal final against the previous champions of the tournament, Werder Bremen, in Berlin's Olympiastadion. Bayern won the game 4–0, with Robben scoring the first of his team's goals from a penalty kick. Robben thus helped the Bavarians achieve their 15th DFB-Pokal title. On 25 May 2010, Robben was named Footballer of the Year in Germany for 2010. He was the fourth foreigner and the first Dutchman to win the title. He finished the 2009–10 season with 23 goals in 37 appearances. #### 2010–11 season The 2010–11 season started poorly for Robben, after medical tests confirmed that his hamstring had not properly healed and that he would be out for two months. Bayern chairman Karl-Heinz Rummenigge stated that "Of course, Bayern Munich are very angry" with the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB), and would be seeking compensation from them, continuing, "Once again we must pay the bill as a club after a player is seriously injured playing for a national team." On 15 January 2011, he returned to first team action, coming on as a substitute in the 1–1 away draw with VfL Wolfsburg. Robben was nominated for the UEFA Champions League Best Midfielder award, but the award went to his international compatriot Wesley Sneijder. He has also been nominated for the prestigious Ballon d'Or award and the FIFA Puskás Award, which goes to the best goal of the year, and he has also been nominated for FIFA's FIFPro World XI 2010 squad thanks to his season with Bayern Munich. He finished the 2010–11 season with 13 goals in 17 appearances. #### 2011–12 season In the second leg of the semi-finals of the 2011–12 Champions League, against his former club Real Madrid, which was then managed by José Mourinho (who had been his manager at Chelsea), after Bayern fell behind 2–0, Robben converted a penalty to level the tie at 3–3. Bayern advanced to the final after winning the resulting penalty shootout. On 3 May 2012, it was reported that Robben had signed a new contract with Bayern which would last until 2015. Robben had an extra-time penalty saved by former teammate Petr Čech in the 2012 Champions League final at the Allianz Arena against Chelsea. Had he scored, Bayern Munich would have led Chelsea 2–1. The match, however, ended in a penalty shootout which Chelsea won. That was the fourth major cup final that he had been on the losing side during the last two years (FIFA World Cup final, two Champions League finals and the DFB-Pokal). Three days later in the same stadium, and while playing as a second-half substitute for the Netherlands in a friendly against Bayern Munich, he was jeered by some disgruntled Bayern fans every time he touched the ball (due to his penalty miss in the Champions League final, and as he did not play on Bayern's side during that match due to a decision taken by Netherlands coach Bert van Marwijk). The match had been organised to compensate Bayern, since Robben aggravated an injury playing for the Netherlands at the 2010 World Cup, and went on to miss several months of the 2010–11 season. He finished the 2011–12 season with 19 goals in 36 appearances. #### 2012–13 season In the 2012–13 season, played in the German Super Cup. Robben had started the season on the bench, as manager Jupp Heynckes preferred to start Thomas Müller on the right wing, with Toni Kroos at the attacking midfielder position. Robben had played through the season as a substitute, but earned his chance to start again after Kroos was injured during the Champions League tie against Juventus. He started on the right wing for the rest of the season, having moved Müller back to the middle. Robben started against Borussia Dortmund in the quarter-finals of the DFB-Pokal and scored the game's lone goal in the 43rd minute. In the Champions League semi-final against Barcelona, Robben started both games and scored in both games, including the go-ahead goal in the second leg. Bayern would then go on to return to the final in Wembley Stadium. Robben atoned for his penalty miss the previous season by setting up teammate Mario Mandžukić's goal to open the scoring in the 60th minute then netting an 89th-minute winner in a 2–1 victory over Borussia Dortmund to give Bayern their fifth Champions League/European Cup title. During the presentation, he was named Man of the Match by UEFA. Hence, he has been called "Mr. Wembley" since then. He finished the 2012–13 season with 13 goals in 31 appearances. #### 2013–14 season Robben scored his first goals of the 2013–14 season in the 2013 DFL-Supercup, a 4–2 defeat to Borussia Dortmund. On 9 August 2013, his opening goal helped Bayern to a 3–1 win over Borussia Mönchengladbach in their first match of the 2013–14 Bundesliga campaign. On 17 September, he scored in Bayern's Champions League opener against CSKA Moscow at the Allianz Arena. He went on to score two further goals during the Champions League group stage; in away wins against Manchester City and CSKA as Bayern finished as group winners. On 23 November, Robben was one of three scorers as Bayern beat title rivals Borussia Dortmund 3–0 at the Westfalenstadion. On 4 December, Robben was substituted with a deep cut on his right knee in a 2–0 DFB-Pokal win away to FC Augsburg which prevented him from taking part in the 2013 FIFA Club World Cup. On 1 March 2014, Robben scored a hat-trick in Bayern's 5–1 win over Schalke 04. On 19 March, he signed a contract extension with Bayern which will keep him at the club until 2017. On 9 April, Robben scored Bayern's third goal in a 3–1 Champions League quarter-final against Manchester United, to secure qualification to the semi-finals. On 17 May, Robben scored Bayern's opening goal in a 2–0 extra-time defeat of Borussia Dortmund in the 2014 DFB-Pokal Final, giving him his third league and cup double in five seasons with the club. His goal also made him the first player to score in three separate DFB-Pokal finals. On 13 July, after winning the third place match at the 2014 World Cup, Louis van Gaal invited Robben to follow him to Manchester United, but the latter ruled out the move. He finished the 2013–14 season with 21 goals in 45 appearances. #### 2014–15 season In Bayern's opening match of the 2014–15 Bundesliga season, Robben scored one goal and assisted the other as the team defeated VfL Wolfsburg 2–1 on 22 August 2014. On 1 November, he scored the winning goal from a penalty kick against Borussia Dortmund in Der Klassiker. On 16 December 2014, Robben scored his 100th competitive goal for Bayern Munich in a home match against SC Freiburg. On 21 February 2015, Robben scored twice in a 6–0 win against SC Paderborn, giving him the record of having scored against every Bundesliga team he had faced. He ended 2014–15 alongside teammate Robert Lewandowski as joint second-top goalscorer in the Bundesliga with 17 goals. This was in spite of the player missing the last two months of the season through injury. He finished the 2014–15 season with 19 goals in 30 appearances. #### 2015–16 season Robben started his 2015–16 season by scoring the opening goal of the DFL-Supercup against VfL Wolfsburg. The match finished in a 1–1 draw, and Robben scored in the subsequent shootout, however Bayern were defeated. Robben's first goal of the Bundesliga season came from a penalty kick in a 3–0 defeat of Bayer Leverkusen on 29 August. However, an injury suffered six days later when playing for the Netherlands against Iceland in qualification for UEFA Euro 2016 kept him out of Bayern's next nine fixtures. On 24 October, Robben returned to the Bayern team, playing 65 minutes and scoring the opening goal of a 4–0 win against 1. FC Köln, the club's 1,000th Bundesliga victory. He made his first Champions League appearance of the season on 4 November, scoring after coming on as a substitute in Bayern's 5–1 win over Arsenal. He finished the 2015–16 season with seven goals in 22 appearances. #### 2016–17 season Robben, recovering from his injury, was chosen for a friendly against SV Lippstadt 08. He scored a goal, shortly before being substituted because of another injury in the 36th minute. Robben's six-week injury caused him to miss several matches. He returned to training and remained on the bench until 21 September Bundesliga match against Hertha BSC, where he came on instead of Thomas Müller and scored in the 3–0 victory. Robben scored in both first and second leg of the round-of-sixteen tie against Arsenal as Bayern won 10–2 on aggregate. He finished the 2016–17 season with 16 goals in 37 appearances. #### 2017–18 season On 16 January 2017, Robben signed a one-year extension with Bayern, keeping him at the club until the end of the 2017–18 season. He scored a goal with his right foot for the first time since February 2015 in a 4–0 victory over 1. FSV Mainz 05 on 16 September. On 18 October, Robben made his 100th Champions League appearance in a 3–0 victory over Celtic F.C. in the group stage match of the competition. On 4 November, Robben scored a stunning goal in a 3–1 away win over their Borussia Dortmund in Der Klassiker which made him Bayern's most successful non-German scorer in the Bundesliga and the most successful Dutch goal scorer in the Bundesliga. He managed to score twice in a 6–0 away victory over SC Paderborn as Bayern went on through to the semi-final of DFB-Pokal on 6 February 2018. Robben won his seventh Bundesliga title and set a Dutch record by winning his 11th career domestic league title surpassing Dutch legend Johan Cruyff's 10 career domestic league titles. He finished the 2017–18 season with seven goals in 34 appearances. On 11 May 2018, Robben signed a one-year contract; extending his stay until the end of the 2018–19 season. #### 2018–19 season On 12 August, he started the season by playing in the 2018 DFL-Supercup for 58 minutes and won the title as Bayern defeated Eintracht Frankfurt with a 5–0 victory. On 27 November, Robben scored two goals in a 5–1 win against S.L. Benfica in the Champions League. On 2 December, Robben said in an interview "I can say that this is my last year [at Bayern] and it is good like that. I think it is the right moment after ten years. The club moves on and I may move on. It is the end of a very good and long period." On 18 May 2019, he scored his last league goal for Bayern in Bundesliga making it a 5–1 victory against Frankfurt, which meant Bayern winning their 28th Bundesliga title and Robben winning his eighth. On 25 May 2019, Robben won his fifth DFB-Pokal as Bayern defeated RB Leipzig 3–0 in the 2019 DFB-Pokal Final. He finished the 2018–19 season with six goals in 19 appearances. In 201 Bundesliga matches he scored 99 goals. On 4 July 2019, Robben announced his decision to retire from football. ### Return to Groningen On 27 June 2020, Robben announced his return to the game, signing with FC Groningen, the club he started his career with, in an effort to help the team recover from COVID-19 setbacks. He scored his first goal for Groningen in a pre-season friendly against Arminia Bielefeld. On 13 September 2020, he made his league debut for Groningen against PSV, but he was substituted after only 28 minutes due to injury. After a nearly seven-month absence, he made his return as a substitute in a loss to SC Heerenveen on 11 April 2021. Robben returned in Groningen's starting line-up on 9 May; he provided two assists in a 4–0 win at Emmen. On 15 July 2021, Robben announced his second and final retirement from professional football. ## International career In April 2003, he made his Netherlands international debut in a friendly match against Portugal at age 19. ### Euro 2004 Robben's first participation at an international tournament came at UEFA Euro 2004 when manager Dick Advocaat called up younger players, such as Wesley Sneijder and John Heitinga. During the group stage of the tournament, Advocaat substituted Robben in the 66th minute to defend a 2–1 lead over the Czech Republic. The Czechs, however, then scored two goals and won 3–2, which led to criticism about Advocaat's decision. In the quarter-finals, Robben scored the deciding kick in the penalty shootout between the Netherlands and Sweden, which ensured that at the fifth attempt, the Dutch finally won a shootout. ### 2006 World Cup Robben played in his first 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier in 2006. In six games for the Netherlands, Robben scored two goals. The Netherlands qualified for the 2006 World Cup and in their opening match against Serbia and Montenegro, Robben scored the winning goal in the 18th minute, and was named the Player of the match. In the match against the Ivory Coast, Robben received this award the second time, thus becoming one of the eight players in the tournament to have won multiple Man of the Match awards. ### Euro 2008 During Euro 2008, new Dutch manager Marco van Basten changed the side's formation to 4–2–3–1, preferring the midfield trio of Rafael van der Vaart, Wesley Sneijder and Dirk Kuyt, with Robben left to battle for a position with Robin van Persie on the wing. In the group match against France, which the Netherlands won 4–1, Robben was brought on at half-time. He dragged the ball out of reach of a defender near the half-way line and paced his way ahead of three defenders, then crossed straight to Van Persie, who powered a shot into the goal past France goalkeeper Grégory Coupet. At 2–0, Thierry Henry scored a goal for France, making it 2–1, but almost directly after the restart, Robben was played through by Sneijder and he ran at the France goal and was forced into an acute angle, but despite the angle, he shot the ball into the net past Coupet. ### 2010 World Cup Robben was selected by new manager Bert van Marwijk for the final 23-man Dutch squad for the 2010 World Cup. In the team's last friendly match against Hungary, just before its flight to South Africa on 4 June, Robben fell awkwardly and picked up a hamstring injury, causing concern over his fitness for the tournament. On 5 June, Van Marwijk announced that he had "decided not to summon any substitute for Arjen. I want to give him every chance to still participate in the World Cup". On 12 June, Robben arrived in South Africa to join the team. He was an unused substitute for the opening match against Denmark as they coasted to a 2–0 victory, and again in the 1–0 victory against Japan. He came on in the 73rd minute against Cameroon in their 2–1 victory, hitting the post from which Klaas-Jan Huntelaar scored from the rebound. On 28 June 2010, Robben started his first match against Slovakia in which he went on to score the first goal in the second round as the Netherlands won 2–1. He also won the man of the match award. Robben scored the third goal with a well-placed header in the semi-finals against Uruguay which the Netherlands won 3–2 to reach the final. Robben played for the full match in the final as the Netherlands lost 1–0 to Spain. Robben had Netherlands's best opportunity of the match when played in on goal by Wesley Sneijder in the 62nd minute of the match, but was denied by Iker Casillas. Robben was nominated for the 2010 World Cup Golden Ball, the tournament's best player, which was won by Diego Forlán. ### Euro 2012 Robben was selected to play for the Netherlands at Euro 2012. He started in the first group stage match, a 1–0 loss to Denmark, in which he hit the post with a curled effort. In the next match, a 2–1 loss to Germany, he hopped over the advertising boards and walked the long way round after being subbed off for Dirk Kuyt because he thought he could have inspired the Netherlands to a win. After a 2–1 loss to Portugal, the Netherlands were knocked out with three straight defeats. ### 2014 World Cup In the Netherlands' first match of the 2014 World Cup, Robben scored two goals in a 5–1 win over Spain. In the Netherlands' second group stage match, a 3–2 win over Australia, Robben scored the team's opening goal as they qualified for the knockout stage. In the round of 16 knock-out match with Mexico, the Netherlands won on a penalty awarded after Robben went down following a challenge from Rafael Márquez. The Associated Press said that Robben's "theatrical" fall "did little to defuse the debate about his reputation for diving". Robben maintained that the penalty was correct but admitted to falling easily earlier in the match, telling a Dutch TV channel that "the one [at the end] was a penalty, but the other one was a dive in the first half. I shouldn't be doing that". In the quarter-final, Robben scored the Netherlands' second kick in a 4–3 penalty shootout defeat of Costa Rica. On 11 July, Robben was named on the ten-man shortlist for FIFA's Golden Ball award for the tournament's best player. On 28 August 2015, Robben was named captain of the Netherlands, replacing Robin van Persie. ### 2018 World Cup On 10 October 2017, Robben retired from international football after the team's unsuccessful 2018 World Cup qualifying campaign. He collected 96 caps between 2003 and 2017 for the Oranje and scored 37 goals. ## Style of play Throughout most of his career, Robben was regarded as one of the best wingers in the world, with ESPN stating he is "able to take on and beat defenders at the drop of a hat, Robben's ability to get to the byline and deliver in accurate crosses instils fear into any defence". Usually deployed on the right wing, Robben often cuts inside on his left foot to move to a more central attacking position, and uses his speed and dribbling skills to take on defenders until he finds the space to make an attempt on goal. He is predominantly a left-footed player. During a match he will often drift to the left wing, with his teammate, in the case of Bayern Munich, Franck Ribéry, switching over to the right. Another factor in his playing style is his relationship with the right-fullback. At Bayern, this partnership with Philipp Lahm had benefits for the team's efficiency and chemistry. Robben's defensive work improved when he went to Bayern where he often tracked back and covered for his partner when he pushed forward and became a temporary right back. Robben has been often accused of diving, and he has at times openly admitted to the charges. In December 2011, Robben apologised for a dive against VfL Bochum in a DFB-Pokal match which earned him a yellow card, saying, "I must not do things like this." In July 2014, Robben admitted to diving in the first half of Netherlands' match against Mexico in the last 16 round of the 2014 World Cup, but maintained that he had not dived for the decisive penalty he won in stoppage time which Netherlands converted to win 2–1. Following the incident, Robben's former manager at Chelsea, José Mourinho, said that Robben's speed and creativity cause opponents who cannot stop him to foul him, but "sometimes [Robben] tries to get an advantage, or to get a penalty". ## Personal life Robben married his girlfriend Bernadien Eillert on 9 June 2007 in Groningen. The two met while in high school in the city, at the Kamerlingh Onnes, and have two sons, Luka (born 2008) and Kai (born 2012) and a daughter, Lynn (born 2010). Robben's father, Hans, works as his agent. ## Sponsorship Robben has a sponsorship deal with German sportswear and equipment supplier Adidas. Robben features in EA Sports' FIFA video game series, and was the third-highest-rated player in FIFA 15. ## Career statistics ### Club - 1.Includes KNVB Cup, FA Cup, Copa del Rey and DFB-Pokal. - 2.Includes UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League. - 3.Includes Eredivisie playoff, English League Cup, FA Community Shield, Spanish Super Cup, German Super Cup, and UEFA Super Cup. ### International Robben scored his first ever international goal in October 2003 during a UEFA Euro 2004 qualifier against Moldova. He ultimately decided to retire from international duty in 2017 following their unsuccessful qualifying campaign for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Scores and results list Netherlands' goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Robben goal. ## Honours PSV - Eredivisie: 2002–03 - Johan Cruyff Shield: 2003 Chelsea - Premier League: 2004–05, 2005–06 - FA Cup: 2006–07 - Football League Cup: 2004–05, 2006–07 - FA Community Shield: 2005 Real Madrid - La Liga: 2007–08 - Supercopa de España: 2008 Bayern Munich - Bundesliga: 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19 - DFB-Pokal: 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2015–16, 2018–19 - DFL-Supercup: 2012, 2018 - UEFA Champions League: 2012–13 - UEFA Super Cup: 2013 Netherlands - FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2010; third place: 2014 Individual - Johan Cruyff Trophy: 2002–03 - Premier League Player of the Month: November 2004 - PFA Team of the Year: 2004–05 Premier League - ESM Team of the Year: 2004–05, 2009–10, 2014–15 - Bravo Award: 2005 - Goal of the Month in Germany: January 2010, March 2010, April 2010, February 2013 - VDV Bundesliga Player of the Season: 2009–10 - The kicker Man of the Year: 2010 - Footballer of the Year in Germany: 2010 - UEFA Team of the Year: 2011, 2014 - UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2013–14 - FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball: 2014 - FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 2014 - FIFA FIFPro World XI: 2014 - Dutch Sportsman of the year: 2014 ## See also - List of footballers with 100 or more UEFA Champions League appearances - List of athletes who came out of retirement

Joseph B. O'Hagan

Irish-American Jesuit

Joseph B. O'Hagan SJ (August 15, 1826 – December 15, 1878) was an Irish-American Catholic priest and Jesuit who was the president of the College of the Holy Cross from 1873 to 1878. Born in Ireland, he emigrated to Nova Scotia, Canada, at a young age and entered the seminary. While in Boston, Massachusetts, he decided to enter the Society of Jesus. He studied at Georgetown University and the Catholic University of Louvain before returning to the United States and becoming a chaplain in the Union Army during the Civil War. After the end of the war, he engaged in pastoral work in Boston before becoming president of the College of the Holy Cross. He fell ill in 1878 and sailed for California to recuperate. While at sea, he died off the Pacific coast of Nicaragua. ## Early life Joseph B. O'Hagan was born on August 15, 1826, in Clogher, County Tyrone, Ireland. In his youth, he emigrated to Nova Scotia, Canada, to join his brother. He completed his schooling there before entering the seminary in the Diocese of Halifax, where he befriended Archbishop William Walsh. In the summer of 1847, he was in Boston, Massachusetts, where he met John McElroy and decided to enter the Society of Jesus. He entered the Jesuit novitiate in December of that year, and studied rhetoric and philosophy at Saint John's College in Maryland. In 1852, O'Hagan became a teacher at the Washington Seminary in Washington, D.C. After three years, he left the seminary to teach at Georgetown University. In 1857, he began his theological studies at Georgetown and two years later, was sent to continue his higher studies in Belgium. He continued his theological education at the Catholic University of Louvain and was ordained a priest there in 1861. ## Civil War chaplaincy O'Hagan returned to the United States just before the outbreak of the Civil War. The provincial superior of the Jesuit Maryland Province, Angelo M. Paresce, appointed him as a chaplain in the Union Army. He was assigned to the Excelsior Brigade, under the command of Major General Daniel Sickles, just after the unit arrived in Washington, D.C in July 1861. While at first O'Hagan viewed the soldiers as lacking moral character, as some had joined the army as a condition of their release from prison on Blackwell's Island in New York City, his opinion of them changed by the end of his first year as chaplain. He had a small chapel built and prepared many of the men for their First Communion and Confession. When the Excelsior Brigade became a part of Major General Joseph Hooker's command in the fall of 1861, O'Hagan was made chaplain to the 73rd New York Infantry Regiment. During this time, he became good friends with the unit's Protestant chaplain, Joseph Twichell. He was briefly captured by the Confederate Army during the Peninsula campaign but was soon released and returned to his regiment. O'Hagan remained as an army chaplain until September 1863, when he was directed to finish his Jesuit formation in Frederick, Maryland. He was then at Georgetown when he was sent back to the Union Army during the academic year of 1864–1865 for the final year of the war. He marched with the army during its capture of Richmond, Virginia, and during the Battle of Appomattox Court House. ## Pastoral work For the next 8 years, O'Hagan worked at various churches in Boston, primarily St. Mary's and the Immaculate Conception Churches. In July 1872, he was named to succeed Anthony F. Ciampi as the president of the College of the Holy Cross, and assumed office in 1873. In the spring of 1878, O'Hagan's health began to decline and his physicians recommended that he recuperate by spending the winter months in the warm weather of San Francisco, California. Accordingly, he resigned the presidency and was succeeded by Edward D. Boone. He traveled to New York City and on November 30 of that year, he set sail for California. He was accompanied by the president of Georgetown University, Patrick Francis Healy. After passing over the Isthmus of Panama, he boarded the steamer Granada. His condition quickly worsened and he began showing signs of apoplexy. On December 15, 1878, he died off the Pacific coast of Nicaragua, at approximately . O'Hagan was initially buried on December 19 in Acapulco, Mexico. At the request of the Maryland provincial superior, his body was eventually disinterred in 1879 and taken to San Francisco and then overland to Worcester, Massachusetts, where it was reinterred in the Holy Cross college cemetery.

Helen Rollason

British television presenter (1956–1999)

Helen Frances Rollason MBE (; 11 March 1956 – 9 August 1999) was a British sports journalist and television presenter, who in 1990 became the first female presenter of the BBC's sports programme Grandstand. She was also a regular presenter of Sport on Friday, and of the children's programme Newsround during the 1980s. Born in London, Rollason studied to become a PE teacher before entering radio broadcasting in 1980. After directing sport related content for Channel 4, where she helped to bring American football to British television, she anchored coverage of the 1987 World Student Games and 1988 Summer Olympics for ITV. Her work on Grandstand proved popular with viewers, and led to a number of other sports presenting roles for Rollason throughout the 1990s. As well as covering mainstream events such as the 1996 Summer Olympics, she became a champion of disability sports, helping to raise its profile and change its public and media perception. She presented sports bulletins for BBC Breakfast News and BBC News, and in 1996 was named as Sports Presenter of the Year. Rollason was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1997, and fought a two-year battle with the disease. A 1998 documentary, Hope for Helen, followed her treatment, and won her much public support for her courage. She continued to work throughout her illness, and shortly before her death was awarded an MBE in the 1999 Birthday Honours. Later that year, the BBC established an award in her memory which is presented at the annual BBC Sports Personality of the Year awards ceremony. A cancer charity was also founded in her name. Rollason's television career also helped to open up the way for other women to enter the world of sports broadcasting, with presenters such as Sue Barker and Gabby Logan following in her footsteps. ## Early life Helen Grindley was born in London on 11 March 1956, and adopted at the age of nine months. Raised in a family where she was the second of three children, she spent her childhood in Northamptonshire and Bath. Her father was an engineer who later became a lecturer at Bath College, and her mother a biology teacher. She attended the Bath High School for Girls, and after developing an early interest in sport, was a member of Bath Athletics Club, as well as playing hockey for Somerset. Although she was keen to follow a career in broadcasting, careers advisors at school steered her towards teaching instead. After leaving school she studied at the University of Brighton's Chelsea College of Physical Education in Eastbourne, where she became Vice-President of the Students Union. During her second year at the college she spent a term as an exchange student at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. She graduated in 1977. After completing her studies she became a PE teacher, and spent three years teaching the subject to secondary school students. She worked initially at Henry Beaufort School in Winchester, Hampshire, before moving to Essex, where she was a supply teacher. It was while she was teaching PE that she met her future husband, a fellow teacher named John Rollason. The couple married in 1980, a daughter, Nikki, was born in 1983. The couple divorced in 1991. ## Broadcasting career Rollason continued to aspire to a career in broadcasting, and while still teaching did screen tests for BBC Wales and BBC South, but she was unsuccessful in both auditions. In 1980, she took a holiday job as a volunteer presenter at Basildon Community Radio after seeing an advertisement in Basildon town centre and offering her services to them. A year later she joined the team of Essex Radio as a sports reporter when the commercial station began to broadcast. She was subsequently appointed as the station's deputy sports editor. Three years later, she became a producer-director for Cheerleader Productions, making sports content for Channel 4. Among the events for which she helped to provide coverage were the final of the 1984 Davis Cup, held in Sweden, and Super Bowl XIX, which took place in 1985. Additionally, she worked on the US Masters and US Open. After just over a year with Cheerleader, Rollason left the company to concentrate on her broadcasting career, and became a freelance reporter. She covered the 1987 World Student Games from Zagreb for Thames Television, and then presented the 1988 World Junior Athletics championships from Sudbury, Ontario for Channel 4. Later, in 1988, she provided coverage of that year's Summer Olympics, held in Seoul, for ITV. During the mid-1980s, she also joined the presenting team of the BBC children's news programme, Newsround, with a view to increasing its sports coverage, and presented several features on topics such as gymnastics and female jockeys, as well as presenting Newsround Extra, a show that covered a specific issue in more detail. One such programme was a report on the street children of Bogotá, a subject that deeply moved her and reduced her to tears on screen. In 1990, Rollason joined BBC Sport and became the first female presenter of Grandstand, where her down-to-earth presenting style quickly made her popular with viewers, and earned her a regular presenting role on BBC Two's Sport on Friday, as well as a raft of other sporting programmes. Among her credits with the BBC are coverage of the Wimbledon Championships, the 1992 Summer Olympics from Barcelona and 1996 Summer Olympics from Atlanta, together with the 1994 Commonwealth Games, which were held in Victoria, British Columbia. She was an advocate of disability sports, and helped to alter its public and media perception with her coverage of the 1996 Summer Paralympics. Britain's Olympic team had been fairly unsuccessful at that year's Olympics, prompting Rollason to urge viewers and the media to support what she called the "real" Olympics. Jane Swan, General Secretary of the British Paralympic Association later described how Rollason's support for the event had helped to change its image. "Until then, the Paralympics had been treated as documentary material, focusing mainly on disability. Helen made people realise that it was sport." Other disability sporting events she covered include the 1990 World Disabled Championships, 1991 Blind Golfers' Championships, and the 1992 Summer Paralympics. She also fronted sports bulletins for BBC Breakfast News. In 1996, she was named as the Television and Radio Industries Sports Presenter of the Year. ## Later career, illness and death Rollason began feeling unwell in 1996 during an eight-week assignment to the US, where she was covering that year's Olympic and Paralympic Games. She was diagnosed with cancer of the colon in August 1997, which she was told had also spread to her liver. She was initially given three months to live, but confounded medical opinion by fighting the disease long after that. She underwent treatment with chemotherapy, but also used a combination of holistic therapies and diet to treat her condition. The cancer later metastasised to her lungs. Rollason continued to work throughout her illness, despite sessions of chemotherapy that left her feeling weak, and cited her work as the thing that had kept her going throughout her treatment. "I stay working because I love it, and because I feel best on the days when I'm busy. I'd far rather work than hang around the house – even though there are days when I can hardly get out of bed." She presented sports bulletins for BBC News, wrote a weekly column about her illness for the Sunday Mirror Magazine and worked on a book about her experience that she hoped would help others diagnosed with the disease. She cited the determination of the many disabled athletes she had got to know through her work as having given her the strength of mind to fight her illness. In October 1998, the BBC aired a special edition of its QED documentary series titled Hope for Helen, which followed her as she underwent a course of treatment. The film earned her much support from the public for her courage. in December 1998, colleagues paid tribute to an emotional-looking Rollason during the BBC's Sports Review of the Year, a compliment that produced mixed feelings for the presenter. She later wrote of the incident, "I felt a mixture of horror, embarrassment and incredible warmth towards my colleagues that they should think of doing this". In April 1999, the BBC announced plans to overhaul its Six O'Clock News bulletin, and that an in-depth sports preview fronted by Rollason would be included in the programme's Friday edition. She began presenting the slot in May, and made her last onscreen appearance on 18 June. Rollason was awarded an MBE in the 1999 Birthday Honours for her services to broadcasting and charities, and in July 1999 attended a ceremony at Buckingham Palace to be presented with the honour by the Queen. Speaking about the occasion, Rollason said, "I cried when I received the news. I don't feel I deserve it but I'm very thrilled that so many women are coming through in sport broadcasting now." Also in July, she received an honorary degree from the University of Brighton, which was presented to her at her home after she became too ill to attend the ceremony. Shortly before that she was honoured with an award for courage at the 1999 Pride of Britain Awards. Rollason became involved in charity work, raising £5 million for a cancer wing at North Middlesex Hospital, which was named in her honour. She died on 9 August 1999 at the age of 43, in Brentwood, Essex. On 17 August, a service of thanksgiving was held for Rollason at a church near her home, and attended by friends and colleagues. Later that month, the BBC aired Helen Rollason: The Bravest Fight, a 30-minute documentary presented by Peter Sissons in which friends and colleagues paid tribute to her. Her autobiography, Life's Too Short, was published posthumously in 2000. ## Legacy As the first female presenter of Grandstand, Helen Rollason was a pioneer of British sports broadcasting, an industry that was predominantly male at the time, and she established a precedent that allowed others to follow. Sue Barker, Hazel Irvine, Gail McKenna, Shelley Webb and Gabby Logan all followed in Rollason's footsteps to become noted UK sports presenters, with Logan joining ITV as their first female sports presenter in the late 1990s, where she co-hosted the football show On the Ball and was a contributor to The Premiership. Logan paid tribute to Rollason shortly after her death, saying she would be "an icon for young girls who want to go into that field because she showed what could be done. She was a great example to everyone." On 4 November 1999, the BBC announced the establishment of a Helen Rollason Award, to be given at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year ceremony in recognition of "outstanding achievement in the face of adversity". Its first recipient was retired National Hunt trainer Jenny Pitman, who was herself diagnosed with cancer, and was presented with the award at that year's ceremony on 12 December. Other Helen Rollason Award recipients include yachtswoman Ellen MacArthur in 2001 for her courage in becoming the fastest woman to circumnavigate the globe, footballer Geoff Thomas in 2005 for raising in excess of £150,000 for the Leukaemia Research charity by cycling, following his own battle with the disease, and in 2014, the competitors of the inaugural Invictus Games, a multi-sport event for sick and injured service personnel, which made its debut that year. The 2016 award was presented to Ben Smith, who completed 401 marathons in 401 days in support of the anti bullying charities. The Sunday Times created the Helen Rollason Award for Inspiration as part of their Sportswomen of the Year Awards. Jenny Pitman was its first recipient in 1999. Others to receive the award include student Joanna Gardiner in 2007 for her work with Football for Peace, a charity that provides football coaching to children from Jewish and Palestinian communities in Israel, Claire Lomas in 2012 who, having been paralysed following a riding accident completed that year's London Marathon with the aid of a robotic suit, and Mel Woodards in 2014, chair of the Somerset-based Milton Nomads junior football club who established a local football league for children. The Helen Rollason Cancer Charity was established in her name in 1999. The charity funds and operates three cancer support centres – in Essex, Hertfordshire and London. Lord Coe, who had known Rollason since her days in radio broadcasting, is the charity's patron. The first Helen Rollason Cancer Care Centre was opened in Chelmsford, Essex in April 2002. in 2011, a new research centre named after Rollason and offering treatment for patients as part of clinical trials of new cancer therapies was opened at Chelmsford's Broomfield Hospital. In April 2006, Brentwood Borough Council announced that a new housing development would include a road named Rollason Way in her memory. Additionally, eleven apartment blocks within the development would be named after people associated with Rollason or winners of the BBC Sports Personality of the Year. The building names on Rollason Way include Adlington House, Boardman Place, Radcliffe House, Christie Court, Redgrave Court, Botham House, Faldo Court, Whitbread Place, Torvill Court, and MacArthur Place. ## Publications

Mine (Taylor Swift song)

2010 single by Taylor Swift

"Mine" is a song written and recorded by American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift for her third studio album Speak Now (2010). Produced by Swift and Nathan Chapman, it combines country pop and pop rock and has lyrics about the ups and downs of a young love, inspired by Swift's tendency to run away from love for fears of heartbreak. Big Machine Records released "Mine" for download as Speak Now's lead single on August 4, 2010, two weeks earlier than intended because of an unauthorized internet leak. In the United States, the single impacted country radio on August 16, 2010. Music critics praised "Mine" for its narrative and mature perspective on love, although some deemed the song formulaic and likened it to Swift's previous country pop songs. The single was a top-ten hit and received recording certifications in Australia, Canada, and Japan. In the United States, "Mine" peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, number two on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart, and number one on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the single triple platinum for crossing three million units based on sales and streaming. Swift and Roman White directed the music video for "Mine", which chronicles a romance with a happy ending between Swift and her love interest (played by English actor Toby Hemingway). The video received media praised for its narrative and won Video of the Year at the 2011 CMT Music Awards. During promotion of Speak Now, Swift performed "Mine" on televised events in the United States and Japan, and she included the song on the set list of her Speak Now World Tour (2011–2012). She also performed it on select dates of the Red Tour (2013–14), the 1989 World Tour (2015), the Reputation Stadium Tour (2018), and the Eras Tour (2023–24). A re-recorded version, titled "Mine (Taylor's Version)", was released as part of Swift's third re-recorded album Speak Now (Taylor's Version) on July 7, 2023. ## Background and release In an interview with Rolling Stone, Swift revealed that "Mine" was inspired by an unnamed crush in mind, saying "I was reflecting back on a boy I liked at a certain time." She also told MTV that the song is about what it would be like if she actually let her guard down. During a live Ustream chat with fans on July 20, 2010, Swift explained that the song is about "her tendency to run from love" after seeing many relationships end in goodbye and breakups. She continued, "I think I've developed this pattern of sort of running away when it comes time to fall in love and to stay in a relationship. The song is sort of about finding the exception to that and finding someone who would make you believe in love and realize that it could work out." "Mine" was one of the fourteen tracks in Speak Now that was written solely by Swift. She also co-produced the song with Nathan Chapman, who co-produced all of Swift's studio albums. It was originally planned to be released on August 16, 2010, however, after the leak of an unauthorized low-quality mp3 file of the song, Big Machine Records decided to ship the song to country radio and iTunes twelve days earlier than planned on August 4, 2010. Swift commented that "a leak is so out of my comfort zone, but it ended up good in the end. It made me so emotional that I started crying." ## Composition "Mine" is an uptempo country pop song with elements of mainstream pop music. In the Los Angeles Daily News, Sam Gnerre characterized the song as a blend of country and pop rock. KILT-FM described "Mine" as "an uptempo song that's unmistakably Taylor" with "a big chorus and [is] very singable." Blake Boldt of Engine 145 explained that the song "is a mishmash of ideas bolted together by a terrific power-pop chorus that will stick in your brain after the second or third listen." The song is set in the time signature of common time, and has a moderate tempo of 121 beats per minute. It is written in the key of G major and Swift's vocals span one octave, from G₃ to D₅. It follows the chord progression of C₂–G₅–D₅–C₂–D₅. In the track, Swift sings with a slight country twang. Alan Macpherson of The Guardian noted that the song "reprises the joyous rush of Swift's breakthrough hit, "Love Story", but depicts love as an adult process rather than a teenage dream." Dave Heaton of PopMatters described the song as a "song of rebirth" with a "fairly complex" narrative. He summarized the content of the lyrics, writing "[i]t starts in the past, at the start of a relationship, and then lets us know it's a flashback. They’re sitting on the couch reminiscing. It then jumps back to the beginning and steps us through the couple’s years together, but all the while shifting perspective, jumping between their separate memories." James Dinh of MTV noted that the song "features an uplifting country/pop melody and a big chorus" and it talks about "the wonders of being in a happy relationship after surviving a rocky past." Priya Elan of The Guardian believed that "Mine" depicts "a stop-start relationship between a normal guy and girl". Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly interpreted the song's message to be about "young love blossoming — in this specific case, young college love." ## Critical reception The song received mostly positive reviews by music critics. Billboard gave the single a four-and-a-half rating. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone praised Swift's lyrical craftsmanship, calling the song's couplets "You made a rebel of a careless man's careful daughter" as a "brilliant throwaway detail." Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song three-and-a-half stars out of five, lauding its catchy yet melodious hook. However, he pointed out that the song reflects her earlier works in the first two albums and he wished that Swift would "try something a little more out of the ordinary." Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four stars out of five, commenting that although the song was "formulaic," the formula was executed convincingly. Chrissie Dickinson of the Chicago Tribune noted that "Mine" is an epitome of Swift's classic song-craft, calling it "simple but honest expressions of emotion." Anthony Benigno of the Daily News said that although the track is reminiscent of Swift's previous hits, he added, "the song's origins are grounded more in failed relationships than storybook ones." Blake Boldt of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs-down, criticizing Swift's failure to deliver an expected "big payoff" through the song. He contended that this failure proves that "Swift's songwriting skills are still raw, still needing that one last polish in order to shine." ## Accolades ## Commercial performance Two days after its official release, it was estimated that "Mine" would sell approximately 350,000 digital downloads with a possible debut in the top three on the Billboard Hot 100. On the week ending August 21, 2010, the song debuted at number one on the Hot Digital Songs chart due to 297,000 digital downloads, which led to its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 at number three. This consequently made Swift the second female artist in the history of the Hot 100 to have multiple tracks debut in the top five during a calendar year (the first being Mariah Carey). With 297,000 downloads, "Mine" became the eighth-biggest debut sales week ever for a digital song, and the fourth-best of 2010. The song also debuted at number 26 on the Hot Country Songs on the week ending August 21, 2010, where it peaked at number two, having been blocked by Darius Rucker's "Come Back Song" at number one on the week ending November 13, 2010. "Mine" also reached number one on Adult Contemporary, number seven on Adult Pop Songs and number 12 on Pop Songs. "Mine" ranked at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 year-end chart. On August 21, 2014, the song was certified triple platinum by the RIAA. As of November 2017, "Mine" has sold 2.3 million copies in the United States. "Mine" achieved moderate success outside the United States. The song debuted and peaked at number seven in Canada with 15,000 digital downloads sold in the week of August 2, 2010. It was certified platinum by Music Canada. On the week ending August 22, 2010, the song entered in Australia and peaked at number nine. It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments exceeding 35,000 copies. On the week ending August 9, 2010, it debuted at number 30 in New Zealand, and peaked at number 16 the following week after its release. The song debuted and peaked at number 30 on the week ending October 30, 2010, in the United Kingdom. In Europe, "Mine" peaked at number 38 in Ireland, 70 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles Chart, number 48 in Belgium (Flanders), and number 48 in Sweden. ## Music video ### Development and release The accompanying music video for "Mine" was directed by Swift and Roman White, who had directed Swift's previous music videos such as "You Belong with Me" and "Fifteen", and this making Swift's first time to be the director for her music video." White explained that the video features "a lot of time travel, which would explain how those two crazy kids end up with kids of their own in the end." He further added that "the song has a lot of dark elements, but it also has a lot of happy elements" and he praised Swift for her involvement with the production of the music video. Swift chose her friend Jaclyn Jarrett, the daughter of professional wrestler Jeff Jarrett, to play the younger version of herself in the video. Kyra Angle, the daughter of professional wrestler Kurt Angle, also made an appearance in the music video. The music video was shot in Kennebunkport, Maine, where several scenes took place in Ram Island Farm, Cape Elizabeth, and Christ Church on Dane Street. Christ Church served as the venue for the wedding scene. The video features Swift marrying a groom played by British actor Toby Hemingway, who was cast by Swift after watching Feast of Love. She was impressed with Hemingway and thought "it would be perfect to put him in the video." The video premiered on August 27, 2010, on CMT, in a live half-hour special event which included a behind-the-scenes look of the video. Swift returned to Kennebunkport, Maine to share the premiere with local residents, which attracted approximately 800 people, including former President George H. W. Bush, who brought his grandchildren to see Swift. ### Synopsis The video begins with Swift entering the coffee shop. As she sits down, she notices that a couple, opposite where she is sitting, is arguing, reminding Swift about her parents arguing when she was very young. A waiter (Toby Hemingway) comes by, just to take Swift's order, who looks up and she infatuates him, resulting in a romantic relationship between the two. They are seen moving in together and unpacking boxes. After some time of dating, Swift's lover proposes to her on a rowboat and she cheerfully accepts. Later, the two are seen arguing, resulting in Swift running away from the house, crying, just like she did when she was younger as she saw her parents arguing. He follows her, and the two reconcile the relationship. They get married and have two sons. In the end, time returns to when Swift was ordering her food at the coffee shop. Throughout the video, there are some scenes of Swift singing the verses of the song while walking barefoot on a green pasture amongst photos of her and her family. The photos are hanging on a white string in between two large trees. Swift is seen with her hair loose and wearing a white dress with a thin belt around the waist. ### Reception Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly felt the video was "rather sweet" and "heartwarming" in a sense that the song "seems to have a happy ending." Leah Collins of the Dose.ca lamented the video for its typical fairytale element even though the plot ended with a blissful marriage. She concluded her review by writing, "Swift happens to include dirty diapers and recreating scenes from The Notebook." Tamar Anitai of MTV described the video as "a coming-of-age story" where Swift is depicted to endure "many adult life cycle events and major milestones." In a different perspective, James Montgomery of MTV compared the music video with Katy Perry's "Teenage Dream," writing that although both videos are "essentially about the same thing: the fantasies of young, thoroughly modern women," the fantasies are "about as different as the women presenting them." A reviewer from The Improper Bostonian also compared the music video with Perry's "Teenage Dream" and noticed that the two music videos presented two contrasting end points, writing "for Swift, it’s a marriage, a home and babies. For Perry, its independence and the ability to define your own life." ## Live performances On June 11, 2010, Swift performed the song for the first time at a small, intimate concert that aired as a part of CMA Music Festival: Country’s Night to Rock on ABC on September 1, 2010. She also performed "Mine" and "You Belong With Me" at the 2010 NFL Opening Kickoff event. On October 5, 2010, Swift performed the song live on the Italian X Factor. On October 9, 2010, she performed an acoustic version of "Mine" during Grand Ole Opry's 85th birthday celebration. She later performed the song as well as an acoustic cover of Coldplay's "Viva la Vida" in the BBC Radio 2 studio on October 21, 2010. Swift sang "Mine" on several other occasions. On October 24, 2010, Swift appeared on The Paul O'Grady Show, where she performed the song. On October 25, 2010, Swift sang "Mine" with two other songs from Speak Now on Speak Now: Taylor Swift Live From New York City, a special programme which was streamed live on CMT.com, MTV.com, VH1.com and other MTV Networks websites in Europe, Asia, Australia and Latin America to celebrate the release of her new album. She performed the song on Today show concert on October 26, 2010. She was scheduled to give a live performance at JetBlue's T5 Terminal at New York John F. Kennedy International Airport where she sang "Mine" and several songs from Speak Now. On October 27, 2010, she visited Scholastic Corporation headquarters to talk about the importance of reading and writing and perform the song to a 200 grade-schoolers and middle-schoolers at the publisher's downstairs auditorium. She later performed the song on Live With Regis and Kelly. On November 2, 2010, Swift made an appearance on Dancing with the Stars where she performed "Mine" and "White Horse" for the show's 200th episode. Swift was invited to perform in BBC Radio 1's first Teen Awards in London, where she sang "Mine", "Love Story" and "Speak Now." On November 19, 2010, she performed the song on the Japanese program Music Station. "Mine" was the second song on the set for the Speak Now World Tour (2011–12). "Mine" was performed as the "surprise song" for the concerts in Indianapolis and Saitama during The Red Tour; and on December 8, 2015, Swift dedicated an acoustic performance of the song to 17-year old Rachel Erlandsen, who had died in a car crash before she was able to attend Swift's Australian leg of her 1989 World Tour in Brisbane. She also sang "Mine" as a "surprise song" on the Reputation Stadium Tour in Louisville on June 30, 2018, and on the Eras Tour in Nashville on May 7, 2023. ## Personnel Personnel are adapted from Tidal. - Taylor Swift – vocals, songwriter, producer, acoustic guitar - Nathan Chapman – producer, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, banjo, digital piano, piano, synthesizer - Brian Sutton – acoustic guitar - John Gardner – drums - Nick Buda – drums - Shannon Forrest – drums - Grant Mickelson – electric guitar - Mike Meadows – electric guitar - Paul Sidoti – electric guitar - Rob Hajacos – fiddle - Tim Lauer – hammond B3 - Al Wilson – percussion - Eric Darken – percussion - Tim Lauer – piano - Smith Curry – steel guitar ## Charts ### Weekly charts ### Year-end charts ## Certifications ## Release history ## "Mine (Taylor's Version)" After signing a new contract with Republic Records, Swift began re-recording her first six studio albums in November 2020. The decision came after a 2019 public dispute between Swift and talent manager Scooter Braun, who acquired Big Machine Records, including the masters of Swift's albums the label had released. By re-recording her catalog, Swift had full ownership of the new masters, including the copyright licensing of her songs, devaluing the Big Machine-owned masters. A re-recorded version of "Mine", titled "Mine (Taylor's Version)", was released on July 7, 2023, via Republic Records as part of Speak Now (Taylor's Version), Swift's third re-recorded album. Prior to the album's release, Swift teased a snippet of "Mine (Taylor's Version)" via social media on June 24. "Mine (Taylor's Version)" retains the original recording's lyrics and country-influenced arrangement, but it is more pop-oriented and has an enhanced production quality with richer vocals. In the re-recorded track, Swift sings without the country twang that existed in the original. ### Personnel Adapted from Speak Now (Taylor's Version) digital album inline notes - Taylor Swift – vocals, background vocals, songwriter, producer - Christopher Rowe – producer, vocal engineer - David Payne – recording engineer - Lowell Reynolds – assistant recording engineer, editor - Derek Garten – engineer, editor, programming - Serban Ghenea – mixing - Bryce Bordone – mix engineer - Randy Merrill – mastering - Matt Billingslea – drums, percussion - Amos Heller – bass guitar - Paul Sidoti – slide guitar - Mike Meadows – acoustic guitar, Hammond B-3, background vocals - Max Bernstein – electric guitar, synthesizer ### Charts

I Am... Yours

2009 concert residency by Beyoncé

I Am... Yours was the first concert residency by American singer Beyoncé. It was held four consecutive nights in July and August 2009 in support of her third studio album, I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008). The residency was held at the Encore at Wynn Las Vegas in Las Vegas, Nevada. Beyoncé performed over thirty songs backed by an orchestra and her all-female band, the Suga Mamas, to an audience of 1,500. The residency was deemed "an intimate encounter" as Beyoncé portrayed a more raw and uninhibited show versus her previous concert performances. The concept of the shows revolves around Beyoncé's recording career. I Am... Yours received positive response from music critics who praised the intimate performances and Beyoncé's vocals as well as the jazz, funk and orchestral arrangements of the songs. The success of I Am... Yours has led Wynn Resorts to ask Beyoncé to return as a residency act. A double disc CD and DVD, I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas, was released in November 2009, featuring the performance recorded on August 2, 2009. It contained the full concert, a behind-the-scenes feature, along with an audio CD of the concert. I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas was aired on several TV Networks as a special. ## Background and development When Beyoncé's I Am... Tour (2009–2010), was announced in 2008 by Entertainment Weekly, the article mentioned Beyoncé would perform a week-long Las Vegas showcase. As tour dates were announced, it was later revealed that Beyoncé would perform four shows in Las Vegas. The concerts were held at the Encore Theatre in Las Vegas, Nevada to a standing room-only audience of 1,500. Tickets for the first three shows were sold out after they were made available, but the ones for the fourth night were sold slowly with Las Vegas Sun reporting that ninety percent of the tickets were sold. The prices for the tickets were from \$250 to \$1,000. According to Beyoncé, the show is an "unplugged" version of her normal concerts; she removed all the elaborate costumes and theatrics of her latest tour and performed with her band, Suga Mama, and a small team of dancers. Regarding the concerts, she told ABC News, > "I've always wanted to perform in Las Vegas, I've always wanted to do my own show there, because a lot of the icons that I look up to had amazing shows in Las Vegas. I thought if I'm going to have my own Las Vegas show, it has to be right and it has to have heart and soul and it has to be something memorable... My whole objective here is for people to see what they don't get to see. Just give me my band, give me a stage, some cool smoke and lights and you see the sweat, you see the pain, you see the love, you see the soul and it's about music." During the documentary, "What Happens in Vegas...", Beyoncé stated that when the idea of a Vegas show was presented to her, she wanted the show to be a complete 180 from her current tour. Also, she did not want it to be the typical Las Vegas showcase. She wanted to remove the theatrics and "consciously show that I don't need any of that stuff. Just give me my band, a stage and some cool smoke and lights." Beyoncé and her production quickly organized the show in seven days, based on a script provided by filmmaker Matthew Dickens. She often rehearsed during sound checks of her 2009 tour. The concept of the shows revolves around Beyoncé's recording career, from her early childhood beginnings to the star she is today. She revealed, "In the beginning, I'm gonna start out, sing and make it about my songwriting, my arrangements, my band and my love for music. Then, I'm gonna tell my story. This way, I can sing all of the hit songs, the songs that people want. But, it's a deeper meaning... these songs meant more than just the chorus that's catchy... it's my life." Since the show was created last minute, there were many changes. Originally, the set list included, "Ego", "At Last", "Listen", "Ring the Alarm", and "Upgrade U". These songs were later removed from the set list and a new one was added with additional instruments. The success of the show has led Wynn Resorts to ask Beyoncé to return as a residency act. ## About the show ### Fashion and stage The stage contained wind machines, lasers, arena lighting, a teleprompter on the back and a retro, mood-lit platform during the performances of the songs. According to Nate Chinen of The New York Times, "the stagecraft... keeps a viewer at a worshipful remove". During a statement before the show, Beyoncé revealed, "We have designed an elegant and beautiful stage and we will have new costumes that are being designed especially for this show." Beyoncé is accompanied by an orchestra and her 18-member all-female band on stage "whose satin interpretations pump lush over pomp" according to Mike Ragogna of The Huffington Post. She is also backed by several dancers during the performances of several songs and also appears alone during some performances. The choreography for the show was developed by Beyoncé's collaborator Frank Jr. Gatson. The set list included performances of over thirty songs, both from Beyoncé's solo career and as part of the girl group Destiny's Child. During the show, one major costume change was made. Beyoncé first appeared in beaded Jean Paul Gaultier couture and then in a cape-like jacket for the first half of the show. Both pieces were worn on top of a figure-flaunting grey bodysuit. For the second part, Beyoncé traded the bodysuit for a black sequined, bathing suit-like number. Several costumes for the stage during the show were also designed by Beyoncé's mother Tina Knowles, who was her designer for many years. Arseniuk of Las Vegas Weekly praised the costumes of the show, saying that Beyoncé "sparkled from beginning to end". She noted that the first costume "left little to the imagination" while the second one "left no curve unnoticed". ### Show synopsis The show begins with a narrator introducing Beyoncé to the audience. She appears from the back of the theater performing "Hello". She greets the audience and makes her way towards the stage as she continues to perform. At the stage, Beyoncé sings "Halo". Next, she performs "Irreplaceable" and interacts with the audience. She later moves into an acoustic medley, performing a down-tempo version of "Sweet Dreams", "Dangerously in Love 2" and "Sweet Love" (originally recorded by Anita Baker). The medley leads into "If I Were a Boy" (which contains excerpts from "You Oughta Know") and "Scared of Lonely". The show continues with a performance of "That's Why You're Beautiful", intertwined with excerpts from "The Beautiful Ones" (originally recorded by Prince), "Satellites", and "Resentment". The first act concludes with Beyoncé performing a jazz-fused "Déjà Vu". Before the next act begins, three dancers appear and perform a tap sequence called "Bebop". Beyoncé begins the second act by telling the story of her career, starting from when she was nine years old when she auditioned for the talent show Star Search to her then-latest album I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008). Beyoncé highlights that one of the first songs she remembers learning was Michael Jackson's "I Wanna Be Where You Are". She continues with a medley of Destiny's Child's hits songs, including "No No No", "Bug a Boo", "Bills, Bills, Bills", and "Say My Name" whilst in between the songs, she talks about the story behind them. The medley leads into "Work It Out" and "'03 Bonnie & Clyde", as she now begins to talk about the start her solo career. As the set continues, Beyoncé explains how her record company felt her debut album did not have "one" hit song. She sarcastically remarks, "I guess they were kinda right... I had five." Beyoncé goes on to perform "Crazy in Love" (reminiscent of "Proud Mary" by Tina Turner), "Naughty Girl" and "Get Me Bodied". As the show draws to a close, Beyoncé performs "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)"; she then exits the stage after thanking the audience for their presence. ## Critical reception Overall, the show received a positive response from many music critics. Mike Weatherford of the Las Vegas Review-Journal wrote, "The spectacle rivals Celine Dion's 'A New Day' as the singer transforms from fragile soul to the rock warrior alter ego of her album title, I Am ... Sasha Fierce." Melissa Arseniuk of Las Vegas Weekly wrote in her review of the show, "Once Beyoncé took to the stage, she hardly left it. Appearing both on her own and with back-up dancers, she worked the theater from left to right throughout the showcase. She sang, danced, and looked good while she did it... Indeed, the mezzo-soprano is as easy on the eyes as she is on the ears." John Griffiths of Us Weekly described the concert as "lavish". Andy Kellman from Allmusic wrote, "The show is certainly a theatrical production worthy of Vegas, with Beyoncé and her large backing band energetically rolling through the singer's back catalog." Darryl Sterdan of the website Jam! commented: "Only Beyonce would think an 'intimate' theatre gig should include her massive all-girl band, an orchestra, lasers, dancers, costume changes and a wind machine to keep her hair blowing majestically. And only Beyonce could pull it all together as superbly as she does in this 98-minute... show". A writer of The Boston Globe praised I Am... Yours, comparing it with Sin City. He commended the jazz interlude, the acoustic rearrangements of the songs, and the "charming B[eyoncé] telling her life story in [the] song[s]". Mike Ragogna of The Huffington Post compared Beyoncé with Diana Ross during the show and added: "This 'concert' is a staged, stripped-down reconfiguration by Beyoncé... of her current touring extravaganza that covers her biggest hits... as she whisks us through her career highlights in two tidy acts plus an 'intermission' that is nothing of the sort (it's a jazz medley with a dance payoff)." He finished his review by saying, "Beyoncé's I Am...Yours is a satisfying decade-and-then-some retrospective that reveals the artist's interesting back story with a personal warmth". Mike Diver of BBC Online reviewed the show positively and said, "this is an entirely second-guessable affair, each movement telegraphed and every realigned arrangement (bombast turned down, jazz and funk switched up) meeting the listener's expectations head on." The writer of People magazine described the show as a "magic". Nate Chinen of The New York Times positively noted that I Am... Yours documents a smaller show than the other ones Beyoncé usually makes. A less favorable review came from Margaret Lyons of Entertainment Weekly. She writes, "I just wish this special had the balls to call itself 'I Am...Mine' and admit that among the many things we admire about Beyonce is that she's not ours. In fact the opposite's true. We're hers". ## Broadcasts and recordings A double disc CD and DVD, titled I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas, was released in November 2009, featuring the performance recorded on August 2, 2009. The collection featured the full concert (though her cover of "The Beautiful Ones" was not present), a behind-the-scenes feature, along with an audio CD of the concert. The collection was very successful, debuting at number 1 on the US Billboard Top Music Video chart. The album was also successful on the other DVD and albums charts across the world. The live performance of "Halo" during the show, which is featured on the album, was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards. ABC Network aired a one-hour Thanksgiving television special called Beyoncé – I Am... Yours on November 26, 2009. A one-minute trailer of the special was posted online on November 12, 2009; it showed Beyoncé's during her I Am... Tour, behind-the-scenes footage including rehearsals, as well as personal videos. The special featured various songs from the show, as well as backstage footage, showing Beyoncé and her team preparing for the shows. The show was a success, drawing in nearly five million viewers. Black Entertainment Television aired the entire concert including songs that were not featured on the ABC special. In the United Kingdom, I Am... Yours was broadcast on Channel 4 on December 25, 2009, (Christmas Day morning), following an hour-long documentary named Beyoncé: For The Record. Several videos of the live performances of "Halo", "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" and "Scared of Lonely" were released at MTV Latin America in 2010 and 2011. These videos were used to promote the album in Latin America and the television special "MTV World Stage: Beyoncé Live from Las Vegas". ## Set list 1. "Hello" 2. "Halo" 3. "Irreplaceable" 4. "Sweet Dreams" / "Dangerously in Love 2" / "Sweet Love" 5. "If I Were a Boy" 6. "You Oughta Know" 7. "Scared of Lonely" 8. "That's Why You're Beautiful" / "The Beautiful Ones" 9. "Satellites" 10. "Resentment" 11. "Déjà Vu" 12. "I Wanna Be Where You Are" 13. "No, No, No" / "Bug a Boo" / "Bills, Bills, Bills" 14. "Say My Name" 15. "Jumpin', Jumpin'" 16. "Independent Women" / "Bootylicious" 17. "Survivor" 18. "Work It Out" 19. "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" 20. "Crazy in Love" 21. "Naughty Girl" 22. "Get Me Bodied" Encore 1. <li value=23> "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)"

Treehouse of Horror VII

"Treehouse of Horror VII" is the first episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 27, 1996. In the seventh annual Treehouse of Horror episode, Bart discovers his long-lost twin, Lisa grows a colony of small beings, and Kang and Kodos impersonate Bill Clinton and Bob Dole in order to win the 1996 presidential election. It was written by Ken Keeler, Dan Greaney, and David X. Cohen, and directed by Mike B. Anderson. Phil Hartman provided the voice of Bill Clinton. This is the first Treehouse of Horror episode to be a season premiere. ## Plot ### Opening In the kitchen, Homer Simpson lights a jack-o'-lantern but ends up lighting his arm on fire. He runs off screaming while the title, "The Simpsons Halloween Special VII" is shown on screen. ### "The Thing and I" Bart Simpson and Lisa Simpson hear strange noises coming from the attic. They investigate and discover that there is a monster. Homer Simpson and Marge Simpson realize that the creature has escaped, prompting Marge to call Dr. Hibbert. He explains that Bart has an evil twin named Hugo. The two were originally conjoined but were separated at birth. Hugo was deemed too evil to live in society, so they chained him in the attic, where they feed him fish-heads. Bart stays behind as the others leave to search for Hugo, but Bart realizes that Hugo never left the house. Hugo takes Bart to the attic and ties him up, so that he can reattach himself, but Hibbert returns and knocks out Hugo. He then realizes that Hugo's scar is on the wrong side, therefore Bart is technically the evil twin. To make amends for their error, Hibbert and the Simpson family sit down to a turkey dinner with Hugo, leaving Bart locked in the attic with only Hugo's fish-heads to eat. ### "The Genesis Tub" In preparation for the school science fair, Lisa performs an experiment in a petri dish to see if cola will dissolve her baby tooth. Bart gives Lisa a static electric shock, claiming it is part of his project to prove that "nerd s conduct electricity". The electric charge is then passed on to the tooth when Lisa tries to touch it, causing it to undergo an unusual reaction which creates a race of miniature beings. Lisa discovers this when inspecting the contents of the tub with a microscope, noting that their rate of evolution is accelerated. Bart destroys some of the ecosystem in Lisa's tub universe with his finger, and the tub people retaliate by sending a squadron of spaceships to attack him. The inhabitants of the tub then shrink Lisa to their size with a miniaturization ray and beam her down into the tub, where they explain that they regard her as God, and Bart as the Devil. She says she can protect them from Bart if they return her to normal size, but they lack the necessary technology. Suddenly, Bart takes the tub to the science fair to the tub people's horror and submits the tiny universe as his own project, and now Lisa is forced to watch from within as Bart wins first prize. Now stuck in the tub for the rest of her life, Lisa starts to order around the tub people. ### "Citizen Kang" While out fishing, Homer is abducted by Kang and Kodos. They demand that Homer take them to Earth's leader, but Homer informs them of the 1996 United States presidential election and says the winner could be either Bill Clinton or Bob Dole. Kang and Kudos kidnap both Dole and Clinton and place them in suspended animation, assuming their forms through "bio-duplication" to ensure that one of them will become the next leader. Before returning Homer to Earth, the aliens soak him in rum, so nobody will believe him. Most voters seem to be oblivious to the strange behaviors of Kang and Kodos in disguise, much to Homer's vexation. On the day before the election, Homer stumbles upon the badly hidden spaceship, hijacks it and releases Dole and Clinton from suspended animation. Both candidates agree they should put aside their differences and join forces to defeat the aliens and bring about a new age of bipartisanship, but Homer accidentally ejects them into space. Homer crashes the spaceship into the Capitol and unmasks the aliens, revealing the candidates' true identities to the public. However, despite being exposed, Kang and Kudos declare to the people that the two-party system means they still have to choose one of them, mocking a bystander's suggestion of voting for a third-party candidate instead. Kang is subsequently elected President of the United States, ruling as a monarchical tyrant and enslaving the American population in order to build a giant death ray. Marge complains about the work, but Homer remarks, "Don't blame me, I voted for Kudos!" ## Production Like the previous two Treehouse of Horror episodes, "Treehouse of Horror VII" does not feature any wraparound segments. "The Thing and I" was written by Ken Keeler, "The Genesis Tub" was written by Dan Greaney, and "Citizen Kang" was written by David X. Cohen. Despite the similarities, "The Thing and I" was not based on the plot of the 1982 film Basket Case. "The Genesis Tub" was originally pitched by Cohen, and it was later referenced in the South Park episode "Simpsons Already Did It", when they pointed out that The Simpsons had gotten the idea from the 1962 Twilight Zone episode called "The Little People". The sequence where tiny spaceships attack Bart in "The Genesis Tub" marks one of the first uses of computers in The Simpsons animation. The computer was used to build models for reference and the animators later retraced it. The 1996 Presidential election occurred a few days after the airing of this episode. According to Cohen, the "Citizen Kang" short violated every rule of The Simpsons as it locked the episode in one time and named specific candidates. ## Cultural references In "The Thing and I", Homer sings "Fish Heads", a 1978 novelty song by Barnes & Barnes. Homer crashing the flying saucer into Capitol dome in the "Citizen Kang" segment is a reference to Earth vs. the Flying Saucers, ## Reception In its original broadcast, "Treehouse of Horror VII" finished 31st in ratings for the week of October 21–27, 1996, with a Nielsen rating of 10.5, equivalent to approximately 10.2 million viewing households. It was the third highest-rated show on the Fox network that week, following Millennium and The X-Files. In 2017, IGN called "Citizen Kang" the best segment of the entire anthology, and placed the episode itself as number one in its ranking of all "Treehouse of Horror" episodes. The A.V. Club named Kang/Bob Dole's line, "Abortions for some, miniature American flags for others!", one of the best lines in the history of the show. The ska punk band named I Voted for Kodos takes its name from Homer's line, "Don't blame me, I voted for Kodos", at the end of "Citizen Kang". In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article, Matt Groening ranked this episode as his seventh favorite in the history of the show.

Apothecaries' system

Historical system of mass and volume units used by physicians and apothecaries

The apothecaries' system, or apothecaries' weights and measures, is a historical system of mass and volume units that were used by physicians and apothecaries for medical prescriptions and also sometimes by scientists. The English version of the system is closely related to the English troy system of weights, the pound and grain being exactly the same in both. It divides a pound into 12 ounces, an ounce into 8 drachms, and a drachm into 3 scruples of 20 grains each. This exact form of the system was used in the United Kingdom; in some of its former colonies, it survived well into the 20th century. The apothecaries' system of measures is a similar system of volume units based on the fluid ounce. For a long time, medical recipes were written in Latin, often using special symbols to denote weights and measures. The use of different measure and weight systems depending on the purpose was an almost universal phenomenon in Europe between the decline of the Roman Empire and metrication. This was connected with international commerce, especially with the need to use the standards of the target market and to compensate for a common weighing practice that caused a difference between actual and nominal weight. In the 19th century, most European countries or cities still had at least a "commercial" or "civil" system (such as the English avoirdupois system) for general trading, and a second system (such as the troy system) for precious metals such as gold and silver. The system for precious metals was usually divided in a different way from the commercial system, often using special units such as the carat. More significantly, it was often based on different weight standards. The apothecaries' system often used the same ounces as the precious metals system, although even then the number of ounces in a pound could be different. The apothecaries' pound was divided into its own special units, which were inherited (via influential treatises of Greek physicians such as Dioscorides and Galen, 1st and 2nd century) from the general-purpose weight system of the Romans. Where the apothecaries' weights and the normal commercial weights were different, it was not always clear which of the two systems was used in trade between merchants and apothecaries, or by which system apothecaries weighed medicine when they actually sold it. In old merchants' handbooks, the former system is sometimes referred to as the pharmaceutical system and distinguished from the apothecaries' system. ## English-speaking countries The traditional English apothecaries' system of weights is as shown in the table, the pound, ounce and grain being identical to the troy pound, ounce and grain. In the United Kingdom, a reform in 1826 made the troy pound the primary weight unit (a role in which it was superseded half a century later by the Avoirdupois pound), but this had no effect on apothecaries' weights. However, the Medicinals Act of 1858 completely abolished the apothecaries' system in favour of the standard Avoirdupois system. The confusing variety of definitions and conversions for pounds and ounces is covered elsewhere in a table of pound definitions. In the United States, the apothecaries' system remained official until it was abolished in 1971 in favour of the metric system. From the pound down to the scruple, the English apothecaries' system was a subset of the Roman weight system except that the troy pound and its subdivisions were slightly heavier than the Roman pound and its subdivisions. Similar systems were used all over Europe, but with considerable local variation described below under Variants. The English-speaking countries also used a system of units of fluid measure, or in modern terminology volume units, based on the apothecaries' system. A volume of liquid that was approximately that of an apothecaries' ounce of water was called a fluid ounce, and was divided into fluid drachms and sometimes also fluid scruples. The analogue of the grain was called a minim. The Imperial and U.S. systems differ in the size of the basic unit (the gallon or the pint, one gallon being equal to eight pints), and in the number of fluid ounces per pint. Apothecaries' systems for volumes were internationally much less common than those for weights. Before introduction of the imperial units in the U.K., all apothecaries' measures were based on the wine gallon, which survived in the US under the name liquid gallon or wet gallon. The wine gallon was abolished in Britain in 1826, and this system was replaced by a new one based on the newly introduced imperial gallon. Since the imperial gallon is 20% more than the liquid gallon, the same is true for the imperial pint in relation to the liquid pint. This explains why the number of fluid ounces per gallon had to be adjusted in the new system so that the fluid ounce was not changed too much by the reform. Even so, the modern U.K. fluid ounce is 4% less than the US fluid ounce, and the same is true for the smaller units. For some years both systems were used concurrently in the U.K. There were also commonly used, but unofficial divisions of the Apothecaries' system, consisting of: - Glass-tumbler 8 fl. oz. - Breakfast-cup about 8 fl. oz. - Tea-cup 5 fl. oz. - Wine-glass 2 fl. oz. - Table-spoon 1⁄2 fl. oz. - Dessert-spoon 2 fl. dr. (same as 1⁄4 fl. oz.) - Tea-spoon 1 fl. dr. (same as 1⁄8 fl. oz.) In the United States, similar measures in use were once: - Tumblerful — ƒ℥ viii (8 fl oz/ 1 cup/ 240 mL) - Teacupful — ƒ℥ iv (4 fl oz/ 1 gill/ 120 mL) - Wineglassful — ƒ℥ ij (2 fl oz/ 60 mL) - Tablespoonful — ƒ℥ ss (1⁄2 fl oz/ 3 tsp/ 1 Tbsp; 15 mL as once codified in the ninth edition of the United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P. IX)) - Dessertspoonful — ƒʒ ij (≡ ƒ℈ viij or 2+2⁄3ƒʒ/ 2 tsp; 10 mL as once codified in the U.S.P. IX) - Teaspoonful — ƒʒ j (≡ ƒ℈ iv or 1+1⁄3ƒʒ/ 1 tsp; 5 mL as once codified in the U.S.P. IX) The cited book states, "In almost all cases the modern teacups, tablespoons, dessertspoons, and teaspoons, after careful test by the author, were found to average 25 percent greater capacity than the theoretical quantities given above, and thus the use of accurately graduated medicine glasses, which may be had now at a trifling cost, should be insisted upon." Apothecaries' measures eventually fell out of use in the U.K. and were officially abolished in 1971. In the U.S., they are still occasionally used, for example with prescribed medicine being sold in four-ounce (℥ iv) bottles. ## Medical prescriptions Until around 1900, medical prescriptions and most European pharmacopoeias were written in Latin. Here is a typical example from the middle of the 19th century. The use of Latin ensured that the prescriptions could be read by an international audience. There was a technical reason why 3 ʒ was written ʒiij, and 1⁄2 ʒ as ʒss: Writing iii as iij would prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it is written. The letters "ss" are an abbreviation for the Latin "semis" meaning "half", which were sometimes written with a ß. In Apothecaries' Latin, numbers were generally written in Roman numerals, immediately following the symbol. Since only the units of the apothecaries' system were used in this way, this made it clear that the civil weight system was not meant. ## Variants ### Diversity of local standards The basic form of the apothecaries' system is essentially a subset of the Roman weight system. An apothecaries' pound normally consisted of 12 ounces. (In France this was changed to 16 ounces, and in Spain, the customary unit was the marco, a mark of 8 ounces.) In the south of Europe and in France, the scruple was generally divided into 24 grains, so that one ounce consisted of 576 grains. Nevertheless, the subdivision of an ounce was somewhat more uniform than that of a pound, and a common feature of all variants is that 12 ounces are roughly 100 drachms (96–128 drachms) and a grain is roughly the weight of a physical grain. It is most convenient to compare the various local weight standards by the metric weights of their ounces. The actual mass of an ounce varied by ±17% (5 g) around the typical value of 30 g. The table only shows approximate values for the most important standards; even the same nominal standard could vary slightly between one city and its neighbour. The range from 25 g to 31 g is filled with numerous variants, especially the Italian range up to 28 g. But there is a relatively large gap between the troy ounces of 31 g and the Habsburg ounce of 35 g. The latter is the product of an 18th-century weight reform. Even in Turkey a system of weights similar to the European apothecaries' system was used for the same purpose. For medical purposes the tcheky (approx. 320 g) was divided in 100 drachms, and the drachm in (16 kilos or) 64 grains. This is close to the classical Greek weight system, where a mina (corresponding roughly to a Roman libra) was also divided into 100 drachms. With the beginning of metrication, some countries standardized their apothecaries' pound to an easily remembered multiple of the French gramme. E.g. in the Netherlands the Dutch troy pound of 369.1 g was standardized in 1820 to 375.000 g, to match a similar reform in France. The British troy pound retained its value of 373.202 g until in 2000 it was legally defined in metric terms, as 373.2417216 g. (At this time its use was mainly confined to trading precious metals.) ### Basic variants In the Romance speaking part of Europe the scruple was divided in 24 grains, in the rest of Europe in 20 grains. Notable exceptions were Venice and Sicily, where the scruple was also divided in 20 grains. The Sicilian apothecaries ounce was divided into 10 drachms. Since the scruple was divided into only 20 grains, like in the northern countries, an ounce consisted of 600 grains. This was not too different from the situation in most of the other Mediterranean countries, where an ounce consisted of 576 grains. In France, at some stage the apothecaries' pound of 12 ounces was replaced by the larger civil pound of 16 ounces. The subdivisions of the apothecaries ounce were the same as in the other Romance countries, however, and were different from the subdivisions of the otherwise identical civil ounce. ## Origins ### Roman weight system The basic apothecaries' system consists of the units pound, ounce, and scruple from the classical Roman weight system, together with the originally Greek drachm and a new subdivision of the scruple into either 20 ("barley") or 24 ("wheat") grains (Latin: grana). In some countries other units of the original system remained in use, for example in Spain the obolo and siliqua. In some cases the apothecaries' and civil weight systems had the same ounces ("an ounce is an ounce"), but the civil pound consisted of 16 ounces. Siliqua is Latin for the seed of the carob tree. Many attempts were made to reconstruct the exact mass of the Roman pound. One method for doing this consists in weighing old coins; another uses the fact that Roman weight units were derived from Roman units of length similar to the way the kilogramme was originally derived from the metre, i.e. by weighing a known volume of water. Nowadays the Roman pound is often given as 327.45 g, but one should keep in mind that (apart from the other uncertainties that come with such a reconstruction) the Roman weight standard is unlikely to have remained constant to such a precision over the centuries, and that the provinces often had somewhat inexact copies of the standard. The weight and subdivision of the pound in the Holy Roman Empire were reformed by Charlemagne, but in the Byzantine Empire it remained essentially the same. Since Byzantine coins circulated up to Scandinavia, the old Roman standard continued to be influential through the Middle Ages. ### Weight system of Salerno The history of mediaeval medicine started roughly around the year 1000 with the school of medicine in Salerno, which combined elements of Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Jewish medicine. Galen and Dioscorides (who had used the Graeco-Roman weight system) were among the most important authorities, but also Arabic physicians, whose works were systematically translated into Latin. According to De ponderibus et mensuris, a famous 13th-century text that exists in numerous variations and is often ascribed to Dino di Garbo, the system of weights used in Salerno was different from the systems used in Padua and Bologna. As can be seen from the table, it was also different from the Roman weight system used by Galenus and Dioscorides and from all modern apothecaries' systems: The ounce was divided into 9 drachms, rather than 8 drachms. Centuries later, the region around Salerno was the only exception to the rule that (except for skipping units that had regionally fallen out of use) the apothecaries' ounce was subdivided down to the scruple in exactly the same way as in the Roman system: It divided the ounce into 10 drachms. ## Romance countries While there will naturally have been some changes throughout the centuries, this section only tries to give a general overview of the situation that was recorded in detail in numerous 19th-century merchants' handbooks. Iberian Peninsula On the Iberian Peninsula, apothecaries' weights in the 19th century were relatively uniform, with 24 grains per scruple (576 grains per ounce), the standard in Romance countries. The weight of an apothecaries' pound was 345.1 g in Spain and 344.2 g in Portugal. As in Italy, some of the additional subdivisions of the Roman system, such as the obolo, were still in use there. It was standard to use the marco, defined as 8 ounces, instead of the pound. France In 18th century France, there was a national weight standard, the marc de Paris of 8 ounces. The civil pound of 16 ounces was equivalent to 2 marks, and it was also used as the apothecaries' pound. With 30.6 g, the ounces were considerably heavier than other apothecaries ounces in Romance countries, but otherwise, the French system was not remarkable. Its history and connections to the English and Flemish standards are discussed below under Weight standards named after Troyes. Italy Due in part to the political conditions in what would become a united Kingdom of Italy only in 1861, the variation of apothecaries' systems and standard weights in this region was enormous. (For background information, see History of Italy during foreign domination and the unification.) The libbra (pound) generally consisted of the standard twelve ounces, however. The civil weight systems were generally very similar to the apothecaries' system, and since the libbra (or the libbra sottile, where different systems were in use for light and heavy goods) generally had a suitable weight for an apothecaries' pound it was often used for this purpose. Extreme cases were Rome and Genoa, where the same system was used for everything, including medicine. On the other hand, there were relatively large differences even between two cities in the same state. E.g. Bologna (in the Papal States) had an apothecaries pound that was less than the local civil pound, and 4% lighter than the pound used in Rome. The weight of an apothecaries' pound ranged generally between 300 g and 320 g, slightly less than that of a pound in the Roman Empire. An important exception to this rule is that the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was under the rule of the Habsburg monarchy 1814–1859 and therefore had the extremely large Habsburg apothecaries' pound of 420 g. (See below under Habsburg standard.) E.g. in the large city of Milan the apothecaries' system based on a pound of 326.8 g was officially replaced by the metric system as early as 1803, because Milan was part of the Napoleonic Italian Republic. Since the successor of this little state, the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy, fell to Habsburg in 1814 (at a time when even in France the système usuel had been introduced because the metric system was not accepted by the population), an apothecaries' system was officially introduced again, but now based on the Habsburg apothecaries' pound, which weighed almost 30% more. The apothecaries' pound in Venice had exactly the same subdivisions as those in the non-Romance countries, but its total weight of 301 g was at the bottom of the range. During the Habsburg reign of 1814–1859 an exception was made for Venice; as a result, the extreme weights of 301 g and 420 g coexisted within one state and in immediate proximity. The Venice standard was also used elsewhere, for example in Udine. In Dubrovnik (called "Ragusa" until 1909) its use was partially continued for a long time in spite of the official Habsburg weight reform. The measure and weight systems for the large mainland part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were unified in 1840. The area consisted of the southern half of the Italian Peninsula and included Naples and Salerno. The subdivision of apothecaries' weight in the unified system was essentially the same as that for gold, silver, coins, and silk. It was the most excentric variant in that the ounce was divided in 10 drachms, rather than the usual 8. The scruple, like in Venice but unlike in the rest of the Romance region, was divided into 20 grains. The existence of a unit called aureo, the equivalent of 1+1⁄2 dramme, is interesting because 6 aurei were 9 dramme. In the original Salerno weight system an ounce was divided into 9 drachms, and so an aureo would have been 1⁄6 of an ounce. ## Troyes, Nuremberg, and Habsburg ### Weight standards named after Troyes As early as 1147 in Troyes in Champagne (in the Middle Ages an important trading town) a unit of weight called marc de Troyes was used. The national French standard until 1799 was based on a famous artifact called the Pile de Charlemagne, which probably dates back to the second half of the 15th century. It is an elaborate set of nesting weight pieces, with a total metric weight of 12.238 kg. The set is now shown in the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris. The total nominal value of the set is 50 marcs de Troyes or marcs de Paris, a mark being 8 ounces. The ounce poids de marc had therefore a metric equivalent of 30.59 g. The poids de marc was used as a national French standard for trading, for gold, silver, and jewels, and for weighing medicine. It was also used in international communications between scientists. In the time before the French Revolution, the civil pound also played the role of the apothecaries' pound in the French apothecaries' system, which otherwise remained a standard system of the Romance (24 grains per scruple) type. In Bruges, Amsterdam, Antwerp and other Flemish cities, a "troy" unit ("trooisch pond") was also in use as a standard for valuable materials and medicine. As in France, the way in which the Flemish troy ounce was subdivided depended on what was weighed. Unlike the French, the Flemish apothecaries divided the scruple into 20 grains. The Flemish troy pound became the standard for the gold and apothecaries' system in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands; it was also used in this way in Lübeck. (The London troy pound was referred to as the 'trooisch pond', after metrification.) The Dutch troy mark consisted of 8 Flemish troy ounces, with each ounce of 20 engels, and each engel divided into 32 assen. The Amsterdam Pound of two marks, used in commerce, weighed 10,280 assen, while the Amsterdam Troy pound weighed 10,240 assen, i.e. exactly two troy marks. In 1414, six years before the Treaty of Troyes, a statute of Henry V of England gave directions to the goldsmiths in terms of the troy pound. (In 1304 it had apparently not yet been introduced, since it did not appear in the statute of weights and measures.) There is evidence from the 15th century that the troy pound was used for weighing metals and spices. After the abolishment of the Tower pound in 1527 by Henry VIII of England, the troy pound was the official basis for English coin weights. The British apothecaries' system was based on the troy pound until metrication, and it survived in the United States and Australia well into the 20th century. Since the modern (English, American and Imperial) troy ounces are roughly 1.5% heavier than the late Paris ounce, the exact historical relations between the original marc de Troyes, the French poids de marc, the Flemish trooisch pond and the English troy pound are unclear. It is known, however, that the numerical relation between the English and French troy ounces was exactly 64:63 in the 14th century. ### Nuremberg standard In the Middle Ages the Imperial Free City of Nuremberg, an important trading place in the south of Germany, produced large amounts of nesting weight pieces to various European standards. In the 1540s, the first pharmacopoeia in the modern sense was also printed there. In 1555, a weight standard for the apothecaries' pound of 12 ounces was set in Nuremberg. Under the name Nuremberg pharmaceutical weight (German: Nürnberger Medizinalgewicht) it would become the standard for most of the north-east of Europe. However, some cities kept local copies of the standard. As of 1800 all German states and cities except Lübeck (which had the Dutch troy standard) followed the Nuremberg standard. It was also the standard for Denmark, Norway, the Russian Empire, and most cantons of Switzerland. Poland and Sweden had their own variants of the standard, which differed from each other by 0.6%. In 1811, Bavaria legally defined the apothecaries' pound as 360.00 g (an ounce of 30.00 g). In 1815, Nuremberg lost its status as a free city and became part of Bavaria. From now on the Nuremberg apothecaries' pound was no longer the official apothecaries' pound in Nuremberg; but the difference was only 0.6%. In 1836 the Greek apothecaries' pound was officially defined by this standard, four years after Otto, the son of the king of Bavaria, became the first king of Greece. But only few German states followed the example of Bavaria, and with a long delay. The apothecaries' pound of 360 g was also adopted in Lübeck, where it was official as of 1861. Austria and the states of the Habsburg monarchy officially had a different standard since 1761, and Prussia, followed by its neighbours Anhalt, Lippe and Mecklenburg, would diverge in the opposite direction with a reform in 1816. But in both cases apothecaries continued to use the Nuremberg standard unofficially for a long time after it became illegal. In Russia the apothecaries' system survived well into the 20th century. The Soviet Union officially abolished it only in January 1927. ### Habsburg standard Empress Maria Theresia of Austria reformed the measures and weights of the Habsburg monarchy in 1761. The weight of an apothecaries' pound of 12 ounces was increased to a value that was later (after the kilogramme was defined) found to be 420.009 g; this was called the libra medicinalis major. It was defined as 3⁄4 of the unusually heavy Habsburg civil pound (defined as 6⁄5 of the civil pound of Cologne) and corresponded to a record ounce weight of 35 g. Before the reform, in the north of the empire, the Nuremberg standard had been in effect, and in Italy, the local standards had been even lighter. It is not surprising that an increase of 17% and more met with some inertia. The 1770 edition of the pharmacopoeia Dispensatorium Austriaco-Viennense still used the Nuremberg standard libra medicinalis minor, indicating that even in the Austrian capital Vienna it took some time for the reform to become effective. In 1774, the Pharmacopoea Austriaco-provincialis used the new standard, and in 1783 all old apothecaries' weight pieces that were still in use were directed to be destroyed. Venice was not part of these reforms and kept its standard of approximately 25 g per ounce. When Austria started producing scales and weight pieces to the new standard with an excellent quality/price ratio, these were occasionally used by German apothecaries as well. ## Metrication ### Early metrication At the time of the Industrial Revolution, the fact that each state had its own system of weights and measures became increasingly problematic. Serious work on a "scientific" system was started in France under Louis XVI, and completed in 1799 (after the French Revolution) with its implementation. The French population, however, was initially unhappy with the new system. In 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte reintroduced some of the old measurements, but in a modified form that was defined with respect to the metric system. This système usuel was finally abolished in 1837 and became illegal in 1840. Due to the large expansion of the First French Empire under Napoleon I, French metrication also affected what would be (parts of) France's neighbour countries after the Congress of Vienna. The Netherlands were partially metricated when they were French, in the years 1810–1813. With full metrication, effective January 1821, the Netherlands reformed the trooisch pond. The apothecaries' new pound was 375.00 g. Apart from rounding issues concerning the subdivisions, this corresponded exactly to the French système usuel. (The reform was not followed in the north German city of Lübeck, which continued to use the trooisch pond.) In Belgium, apothecaries' weight was metricated effective 1856. From 1803 to 1815, all German regions west of the River Rhine were French, organised in the départements Roer, Sarre, Rhin-et-Moselle, and Mont-Tonnerre. As a result of the Congress of Vienna these became part of various German states. A large part of the Palatinate fell to Bavaria, but having the metric system it was excepted from the Bavarian reform of weights and measures. ### Prussia's path to metrication In Prussia, a reform in 1816 defined the Prussian civil pound in terms of the Prussian foot and distilled water. It also redefined the apothecaries' pound as 12 ounces, i.e. of the civil pound: 350.78 g. This reform was not popular with apothecaries, because it broke the uniformity of the apothecaries' pound in Germany at a time when a German national state was beginning to form. It seems that many apothecaries did not follow this reduction by 2%. Another reform in 1856 increased the civil pound from 467.711 g to 500.000 g (the German civil pound defined by the Zollverein), as a first step towards metrication. As a consequence the official apothecaries' pound was now 375.000 g, i.e. it was increased by 7%, and it was now very close to the troy standards. §4 of the law that introduced this reform said: "Further, a pharmaceutical weight deviating from the civil weight does not take place." But this paragraph was suspended until further notice. The abolishment of the apothecaries' system meant that doctors' prescriptions had to take place in terms of the current civil weight: grammes and kilograms. This was considered unfeasible by many, and the state received numerous protests and asked for expertises. Nevertheless, by 1868 §4 of the earlier reform was finally put into force. ### Metrication in countries using the troy and avoirdupois systems Britain was initially involved in the development of the metric system, and the US was among the 17 initial signatories of the Metre Convention in 1875. Yet in spite of enthusiastic support for the new system by intellectuals such as Charles Dickens, these two countries were particularly slow to implement it. To unify all weight systems used by apothecaries, the Irish pharmacopœia of 1850 introduced a new variant of the apothecaries' system which subdivided a new apothecaries' pound of 12 avoirdupois ounces instead of the troy pound. To allow effective use of the new system, new weight pieces were produced. Since an avoirdupois ounce corresponds to 28.35 g, the proposed system was very similar to that in use in Portugal and Spain, and in some locations in Italy. But it would have doubled the value of the avoirdupois drachm (an existing unit, but by then only used for weighing silk). Therefore, it conflicted with other non-standard variations that were based on that nearly obsolete unit. The Irish proposal was not widely adopted, but British legislation, in the form of the Medicinals Act 1858, was more radical: it prescribed the use of the avoirdupois system for the United Kingdom (then including Ireland), with none of the traditional subdivisions. This innovation was first used in the United British pharmacopœia of 1864. In practice the old apothecaries' system based on the troy pound was still widely used, however, until it was abolished by the Weights and Measures Act of 1976, since when it may only be used to measure precious metals and stones. (The troy pound had already been declared illegal for most other uses by the Weights and Measures Act of 1878.) In the US, the metric system replaced the apothecaries' system in the United States Pharmacopeia of 1971. ## See also - List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions - List of Latin abbreviations

XTC

English rock band

XTC were an English rock band formed in Swindon in 1972. Fronted by songwriters Andy Partridge (guitars, vocals) and Colin Moulding (bass, vocals), the band gained popularity during the rise of punk and new wave in the 1970s, later playing in a variety of styles that ranged from angular guitar riffs to elaborately arranged pop. Partly because the group did not fit into contemporary trends, they achieved only sporadic commercial success in the UK and US, but attracted a considerable cult following. They have since been recognised for their influence on post-punk, Britpop and later power pop acts. Partridge and Moulding first met in the early 1970s and subsequently formed a glam outfit with drummer Terry Chambers. The band's name and line-up changed frequently, and it was not until 1975 that the band was known as XTC. In 1977, the group debuted on Virgin Records and were subsequently noted for their energetic live performances and their refusal to play conventional punk rock, instead synthesising influences from ska, 1960s pop, dub music and avant-garde. The single "Making Plans for Nigel" (1979) marked their commercial breakthrough and heralded the reverberating drum sound associated with 1980s popular music. Between 1979 and 1992, XTC had a total of 10 albums and 6 singles that reached the UK top 40, including "Sgt. Rock (Is Going to Help Me)" (1980) and "Senses Working Overtime" (1982). After 1982's English Settlement, the band stopped concert touring and became a studio-based project centred on Partridge, Moulding and guitarist Dave Gregory. A spin-off group, the Dukes of Stratosphear, was invented as a one-off excursion into 1960s-style psychedelia, but as XTC's music evolved, the distinctions between the two bands lessened. XTC continued to produce more progressive records, including the albums Skylarking (1986), Oranges & Lemons (1989) and Nonsuch (1992). In the US, "Mayor of Simpleton" (1989) was their highest-charting single, while "Dear God" (1986) was controversial for its anti-religious message. Due to poor management, XTC never received a share of profits from record sales (of which there were millions), nor from touring revenue, forcing them into debt throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In 1993, they went on strike against Virgin, citing an unfair recording contract, and soon extricated themselves from the label. Gregory left the band during the making of Apple Venus Volume 1 (1999), after which the XTC name briefly served as a banner for what were effectively solo efforts by Partridge and Moulding. In 2006, Partridge announced that his creative partnership with Moulding had disintegrated, leaving XTC "in the past tense". Moulding and Chambers briefly reunited as the duo TC&I in the late 2010s. Partridge and Gregory remain musically active. ## 1972–1982: early years and touring ### Formation Andy Partridge and Colin Moulding grew up on Penhill council estate in Swindon. Partridge jokingly characterised the community as being populated almost entirely by people with physical, mental or emotional defects. In the 1960s, he was a fan of contemporary pop groups like the Beatles, but was intimidated by the process of learning guitar. When the Monkees grew popular, he became interested in joining a music group. He recalled watching local guitarist Dave Gregory performing Jimi Hendrix-style songs at churches and youth clubs: "Sort of acid-skiffle. I thought, 'Ah, one day I'll play guitar!' But I didn't think I would be in the same band as this kid on the stage." Partridge eventually obtained a guitar and taught himself how to play it with no formal training. At the age of 15, he wrote his first song, titled "Please Help Me", and attracted the nickname "Rocky" for his early guitar mastery of the Beatles' "Rocky Raccoon" (1968). By the early 1970s, his music tastes had transitioned "from the Monkees to having a big binge on this Euro-avant-garde stuff. I got really in deep." One of his first bands was called "Stiff Beach", formed in August 1970. In early 1972, Partridge's constantly evolving group settled into "Star Park", a four-piece that featured himself with guitarist Dave Cartner, drummer Paul Wilson, and a bassist nicknamed "Nervous Steve". In 1972, Partridge became closer acquainted with Gregory, a diabetic then suffering from a bout of depression, while working as an assistant at the Bon Marche record shop in Swindon. Gregory was playing the Mahavishnu Orchestra's album The Inner Mounting Flame (1971), which he later called "one of the watershed moments in my musical education." Partridge met Colin Moulding at the Stage Bar on Swindon's Old Town's Union Row, later known as Long's. Moulding had been playing bass since 1970 "because I liked music [and] I thought that playing a bass, with four strings, would be infinitely easier than playing a guitar, with six strings. That was a horrible misconception!" At the end of 1972, Moulding and drummer Terry Chambers joined Partridge's band, replacing Nervous Steve and Paul Wilson, and the group was renamed "Star Park (Mark II)". Other members would frequently join and leave the group. ### Local popularity, rise of punk and label signing After Star Park opened for Thin Lizzy in May 1973, the band renamed themselves the Helium Kidz. Partridge's musical conceptions were "blown away" upon hearing the New York Dolls: "I suddenly just wanted to play three chords again and get out my mum's makeup and stuff." He subsequently wrote hundreds of songs for the Helium Kidz, and some demo tapes were sent to Decca Records. NME ran a small profile on the "up and coming" band, which consisted of Partridge, Moulding, Chambers and guitarist Dave Cartner: "They aspire to attain the impossible dream of being able to throw a TV or two out of the window of an American hotel and have no one complain." This version of the group lasted until 1975, when the Helium Kidz decided to rebrand themselves and change their music to "three-minute pop songs that were fast and inventive." Gregory auditioned for the band at this juncture, but did not end up joining. His musicianship was determined to be "too good". It was decided that the band have another name change. "The Dukes of Stratosphear" was considered, but Partridge thought it was too "flowery" and "psychedelic". He derived "XTC" from Jimmy Durante's exclamation upon discovering the lost chord: "That's it! I'm in ecstasy!" The name was chosen mainly for its emphatic appearance in print. Meanwhile, owing to creative differences with Partridge, synthesizer player Jonathan Perkins quit the band. In search of his replacement, Partridge found Barry Andrews through a "keyboard player seeks band" advertisement. Instead of a formal audition, the two went out drinking together. Andrews was immediately hired. During the first band rehearsal, Partridge recalled, "He sounded like Jon Lord from Deep Purple; fuzz box, wah wah pedal, bluesy runs. I said, You don't have to play like that, you can play like us if you want. The next rehearsal, he was like a maniac, like if Miró had played electric organ. Fantastic." December 1976 officially marked the beginning of the Partridge–Moulding–Chambers–Andrews line-up. The members cut their long hair and, for a time, wore "kung-fu mechanic" outfits on stage. Ian Reid, owner of a Swindon club named The Affair, was their third manager and brokered deals for the group to perform at more popular venues such as the Red Cow in Hammersmith, The Nashville Rooms and Islington's Hope and Anchor. By this time, the punk rock movement had emerged, which opened an avenue for the group in terms of record label appeal, even though the band did not necessarily fit in the punk dogma. Partridge remembered hearing the Sex Pistols' "Anarchy in the U.K." (1976) and feeling underwhelmed by its similarity to the Monkees or the Ramones: "That sort of spurred me on – watching this stuff that I thought was rather average." Soon, John Peel saw the band perform at Upstairs at Ronnie Scott's and asked them to appear on his BBC Radio 1 block. Partridge credited him as "responsible for us getting a recording contract. ... As soon as we recorded that session for the BBC, suddenly three or four record labels wanted to sign us up." After declining CBS, Harvest and Island, they signed with Virgin Records. ### White Music and Go 2 In August 1977, XTC made their first commercially released studio recordings with producer John Leckie at Abbey Road, which appeared on their debut album 3D EP in October. Their first full-length record, White Music, was then recorded in less than two weeks, and released for January 1978. Partridge characterized the album as "Captain Beefheart meets the Archies" shrouded in 1950s-style retrofuturism. He reflected that the album was the sum of everything the band enjoyed, including the Beatles, Sun Ra, and Atomic Rooster, but dismissed the contents as premature songs "built around this electric wordplay stuff". White Music reached number 38 on the UK Albums Chart. Although the album was well received by the press (Melody Maker, NME, Sounds, and Record Mirror all gave positive reviews), none of its singles managed to chart. They rerecorded "This Is Pop" as a lead single. Its follow-up, "Statue of Liberty", was banned on BBC Radio due to the lyric "I sail beneath her skirt". With each member placed on a £25 weekly salary, the band toured for the next five years. The group also made appearances on the children's television shows Tiswas and Magpie, which meant they would occasionally play for under-16 crowds on these early tours. Partridge enjoyed these early shows, but would later resent touring as the band's audience numbers grew and the performing experience became more impersonal. By August 1978, XTC were prepared to record their next album. The band had contacted Brian Eno to produce after they learned that he was a fan, but he declined, telling them that they were good enough to produce themselves. Virgin rejected Eno's advice, and the group instead returned to Abbey Road with Leckie. Andrews appeared at the sessions with several original songs, but Partridge did not feel they were right for the band. He began taking Moulding and Chambers out for drinks without inviting Partridge, allegedly in an attempt to take over the group. After most of Andrews' songs were dropped from the final track list, the keyboardist told journalists that he foresaw the band "explod[ing] pretty soon". Go 2, a more experimental venture, was released in October to positive reviews and a number 21 chart peak. Like White Music, it was given praise in Sounds, Melody Maker, and the NME. One of the tracks, "Battery Brides (Andy Paints Brian)", was written in tribute to Eno. The album also included a bonus EP, Go+, which consisted of five dub remixes of XTC songs. Andrews left the band in December 1978, while they were on their first American tour, and went on to form the League of Gentlemen with Robert Fripp of King Crimson. Partridge said: "He enjoyed undermining what little authority I had in the band. We were bickering quite a lot. But when he left I thought, Oh shit, that's the sound of the band gone, this space-cream over everything. And I did enjoy his brain power, the verbal and mental fencing." XTC went through a "silly half-hearted" process of auditioning another keyboardist. Although Thomas Dolby was rumoured as a replacement, Partridge said that Dolby was never actually considered. Rather than hiring a replacement keyboardist, Dave Gregory of the covers band Dean Gabber and His Gaberdines was invited to join as a second guitarist. Partridge remembered holding a "pretend audition" where Gregory was asked to play "This Is Pop", only for Gregory to inquire whether they wanted the album version or the single version: "We thought, 'Bloody oh, a real musician.' But he was in the band before he even knew." Gregory was anxious of whether the fans would accept him as a member, characterizing himself as "the archetypal pub-rocker in jeans and long hair. But the fans weren't bothered. Nobody was fashionable in XTC, ever." He grew more comfortable with the group after playing a few shows, he said, "and things got better and better". ### Drums and Wires and Black Sea XTC were impressed by Steve Lillywhite's work on Ultravox's 1977 debut, and Siouxsie and the Banshees' The Scream, and he was contacted to produce their third album with a drum sound that would "knock your head off". With engineer Hugh Padgham, the band embarked to the newly built Townhouse Studios, "with its now world-famous stone room"; Gregory later recalled that Padgham had "yet to develop his trade-mark 'gated ambience' sound". Coinciding with Gregory's arrival, the band recorded "Life Begins at the Hop" (1979), a Moulding composition. By this time, Moulding "wanted to ditch [our] quirky nonsense and do more straight-ahead pop." He was surprised to learn that the label chose his song as a single over Partridge's. Upon release, it was the first charting single for the band, rising to number 54 on the UK Singles Chart. For a period, most of the group's singles were not placed on their albums. Moulding explained that this was because of an industry convention in the 1960s and the 1970s, and that when "we wanted to shift albums later on, that approach got blown out of the water." Drums and Wires, released in August 1979, was named for its emphasis on guitars and expansive drums. AllMusic reviewer Chris Woodstra wrote that it signalled "a turning point ... with a more subdued set of songs that reflect an increasing songwriting proficiency. The aimless energy of the first two albums is focused into a cohesive statement with a distinctive voice that retains their clever humor, quirky wordplay, and decidedly British flavor. ... driven by the powerful rhythms and angular, mainly minimalistic arrangements." The distinctive drum pattern of its lead single, Moulding's "Making Plans for Nigel", was an attempt to invert drum tones and accents in the style of Devo's cover of the Rolling Stones' "Satisfaction". The song became a number 17 hit and helped propel the album to number 37 in the UK. Before "Nigel", XTC had struggled to fill more than half the seats of the small club circuits they played. Afterward, the single was playlisted at the BBC, which helped the band secure two appearances on Top of the Pops. When touring resumed in November, every date was sold out. In later years, the album became the best-known of XTC's discography and Moulding and Partridge would look back on this point as the symbolic start of the band's career. To follow up "Nigel", the band released "Wait Till Your Boat Goes Down" (1980), a reggae-influenced Partridge song with production by Phil Wainman of Bay City Rollers fame. It was their lowest-selling single to date. Concurrently, Virgin issued Moulding's "Ten Feet Tall" as the band's first US single. According to Gregory, "Colin began to fancy himself as the 'writer of the singles'". In response to "the fuss made over Colin's songs", Partridge attempted to exert more authority in the group: "I thought I was a very benevolent dictator." Gregory disagreed, recalling that the band was "pretty tired" and that Partridge "could be a little bit of a bully." Partridge at this point released a side project with Take Away / The Lure of Salvage in early 1980; a one-off record that appeared without much notice, except in Japan, where it was hailed as a work of "electronic genius" and outsold all other XTC albums. Black Sea, released in September 1980, reunited the group with Lillywhite and Padgham and was well-received critically. Singles "Generals and Majors", "Towers of London" and "Sgt. Rock (Is Going to Help Me)" returned them to the charts at numbers 32, 31 and 16, respectively. "Sgt. Rock" provoked feminist hate-mail for the lyric "keep her stood in line". Partridge regretted the song, calling it "crass but not enjoyably crass". "Respectable Street" was banned from BBC radio due to its references to abortion and a "Sony Entertainment Centre". Partridge believed Black Sea was the closest the group had come to representing their live sound in the studio. It remains XTC's second-highest charting British album, placing at number 16, and the most successful album in the U.S. of their career, peaking at number 41 on the Billboard 200. That October, the documentary XTC at the Manor, which featured the band faking a studio session for "Towers of London", was broadcast on BBC2. ### English Settlement and Partridge's breakdown From 1980 to 1981, XTC toured Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US in support of Black Sea as the opening act for the Police. At this point, they were playing in arena stadiums while Partridge's mental state was beginning to deteriorate, and he requested to cease touring, but was opposed by Virgin, his bandmates, and the band's management. He would occasionally experience moments of memory lapse to the extent that he would forget who he was. His then-wife Marianne blamed his illness on his longtime dependency on Valium, which he had been prescribed since the age of 12. She threw away the tablets, and over the next year, he experienced intense withdrawal effects that he later described as "brain melt". XTC became their own producers for their next album project. Until this point, Partridge had insisted that every part of the band's arrangements on record could be replicated live. He believed that "if I wrote an album with a sound less geared towards touring then maybe there would be less pressure to tour." As such, the new music showcased more complex and intricate arrangements, song lengths were longer, and subject matter covered broader social issues. Much of the new material also featured acoustic instruments. Gregory bought a Rickenbacker 12-string and began contributing to the records as a keyboardist. In February 1982, English Settlement was released as the group's first double album. The hook of its lead single, "Senses Working Overtime", was based on Manfred Mann's "5-4-3-2-1" (1964), Both the album and single became the highest-charting records they would ever have in the UK, peaking at number five and number 10, respectively. In several territories outside the UK, (including the U.S.), the album was released as only a single LP. The group scheduled television appearances and an international tour in support of English Settlement. During a live-broadcast gig in Paris on March 18, Partridge stopped playing and ran off the stage during the opening song 'Respectable Street', and afterward, took a flight back to Swindon for treatment, which amounted to hypnotherapy. He described feeling nausea and stomach pains while on stage: "My body and brain said, You're hating this experience I'm going to make it bad for you. When you go on stage I'm going to give you panic attacks and stomach cramps. You're not enjoying this and you haven't got the heart to tell anyone you can't carry on so I'm gonna mess you up." The band's remaining tour dates in England were cancelled. After recovering from the episode, Partridge rejoined the group for their first tour of the US as a headlining act. The band played the first date in San Diego. Gregory said that they were "totally unrehearsed" during the performance because "we'd not played together for two weeks. ... It was obvious that he was ill, but exactly what it was, no-one knew." On 4 April 1982, XTC were scheduled to headline a sold-out show at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles. Partridge woke up that morning, he said, and "couldn't get off the bed. My legs wouldn't function. Walked to Ben Frank's coffee shop, where we'd all agreed to meet, in slow motion like I had both legs in plaster, trying not to throw up. I got in there, they knew what I was going to say." The tour ceased. He continued his hypnotherapy treatment, fearing that he was turning into the archetypal rock burn-out (such as Syd Barrett). "It got to the point where if I touched the front door knob, I wanted to throw up." For a period afterward, it was rumoured among fans and industry insiders that the group stopped performing because Partridge had died, and some American bands put on XTC tribute shows in his remembrance. ## 1982–1992: studio years ### Financial issues and start of managerial litigation The cancelled American tour incurred XTC with a £20,000 debt, and since it left them unable to record new material, they decided to reexamine their financial affairs. Confused as to where their earnings had gone, the group requested that manager Ian Reid help pay for the debts, but he refused, saying that they had owed him money. They tried distancing themselves from Reid by renegotiating their contract with Virgin. Six more albums were promised to the label in exchange for covering their debts, as well as a guarantee that subsequent royalty and advancement cheques be redirected into the band's own deposit account. Royalty rates were still kept relatively low, as the group's A&R man Paul Kinder explained, they had "appalling management for a number of years. Usually if a manager has got any kind of business acumen he will renegotiate the contract to get a better royalty. A record company expects this, which is why they keep royalties low initially. It's just business really. Nobody addressed the contract for XTC." Reid remained XTC's manager until January 1983 (according to the book Chalkhills and Children) or a couple years afterward (according to Partridge). He legally retained the title of XTC's manager until near the end of the decade. In April 1984, the group learned that he had incurred them an outstanding value-added taxes [VAT] bill and that he had significantly mishandled their revenue stream. A lawsuit was filed by the band, while he counter-sued for "unpaid commission on royalties". Virgin were then "legally required to freeze royalty and advance payments and divert publishing income into a frozen deposit account." For the next decade, the entirety of the band's earnings would be invested in the continued litigation. The group supported themselves mostly through short-term loans from Virgin and royalty payments derived from airplay. At one point, Moulding and Gregory were working at a car rental service for additional income. Partridge was eventually left with "about £300 in the bank", he said, "which is really heavy when you've got a family and everyone thinks you're 'Mr Rich and Famous'." A court-enforced gag order restricts the band from speaking publicly on the alleged improprieties. According to Partridge, Reid was "very naughty" and left the band with roughly £300,000 in unpaid VAT. Music journalist Patrick Schabe elaborates: > ... what is known is that [Reid] inked a deal with Virgin that wound up working out primarily for Reid, secondarily for Virgin, and not at all for XTC. Throughout their first five years of existence, XTC never saw a penny of profits from either album sales or touring revenue. Reid, on the other hand, took out large loans from Virgin, borrowing against XTC's royalties, to the tune of millions of pounds by some estimates. Even after the band settled out of court with Reid, because of the terms of the contract, Virgin was able to hold XTC liable for the sum. Because of XTC's failure to tour, the likelihood of ever repaying Virgin dwindled further and further away. Over the course of a 20-year contract with Virgin Records, and after achieving gold and platinum status in album sales on a number of discs, XTC never saw any publishing royalties. ### Mummer and faltered popularity During the middle months of 1982, Partridge spent his time in convalescence and writing songs. He later surmised that relinquishing Valium inadvertently gave him a new sense of creative direction: "I was thinking clearer and wanted to know stuff. Life's big questions." In the interim, Chambers moved to Australia and started a family. Feeling dismayed by Partridge's decision not to tour, he had to be persuaded to return to Swindon for the next album's rehearsals in September. At one rehearsal, Partridge recalled asking Chambers for "tiny, cyclical, nattering clay pots", which he replied sounded "a bit fucking nancified". The newly-wed Chambers soon left the band to be with his wife in Australia. Drummer Pete Phipps, formerly of the Glitter Band, was quickly hired as a session musician to continue the recording sessions—XTC would never again employ a permanent drummer after Chambers' departure. In the meantime, Virgin released a greatest hits compilation, Waxworks: Some Singles 1977–1982, to underwhelming sales. The group's new material was rejected by Virgin executive Jeremy Lascelles, who suggested that they write something more commercial. Partridge remembered, "He asked me to write something a bit more like The Police, with more international flavour, more basic appeal." Lascelles said that he had actually named Talking Heads, not the Police: "Andy likes to portray us as the strict, stern schoolmasters, but we never wanted him to compromise at anything we thought he was good at. Here were very talented songwriters – surely, surely, surely they can come up with that elusive thing that is a hit single. That was our psyche." After some remixing and additional songs at Virgin's behest, Mummer, the first product of the studio-bound XTC, appeared in August 1983. Virgin did little to promote the album and delayed its release by several months. At number 58, it was their lowest-charting album to date. The one single that did chart, "Love on a Farmboy's Wages", did find significant airplay on BBC Radio 1. It was the first of a handful of XTC songs written over the years that reflected their poor financial state. Virtually every contemporary review of Mummer accused the band of falling out of touch with the contemporary music climate. Journalist Serene Dominic retrospectively wrote that the album was seen as "something of a disappointment at the time of release ... [It was] devoid of silly songs like 'Sgt. Rock' that had heretofore been the band's stock-in-trade and didn't rock out until the last song, 'Funk Pop a Roll.' ... Mummer signaled a strange rebirth for XTC." Moulding thought that "when we came back from America after our aborted tour of 1982 ... people like Spandau Ballet had moved onto the scene; new groups were coming up and there was no place for us." Mojo journalist Chris Ingham summed up the period: "In 18 months, XTC had gone from Top 10 hits and critical superlatives to being ignorable, arcane eccentrics. Partridge later said "Your average English person probably thinks we split up in 1982". ### The Big Express and 25 O'Clock XTC released the 1983 holiday single "Thanks for Christmas" under the pseudonym Three Wise Men. It was produced by David Lord, owner of Crescent Studios in Bath, and they subsequently negotiated a deal that allowed them to work as much as they wanted on their next album at his studio. Some of the album was recorded using a Linn LM-1 Drum Computer, and extensive time was spent on its programming. Partridge envisioned the work as "industrial pop" inspired by Swindon, a "railway town". The result, The Big Express, returned the group to a brighter and uptempo sound marked by studio experimentation and denser arrangements, setting a template that they would develop on subsequent albums. He jokingly referred to some parts of the album as the only time the group were befallen with stereotypical 1980s-style production. It was released in October 1984, reaching a higher chart position than Mummer, but was "virtually ignored" by critics. Virgin invested £33,000 into the music video for "All You Pretty Girls" to little effect. The band were charged for the sum. When Gregory joined the band in 1979, Partridge learned that they both shared a longtime enthusiasm for 1960s psychedelic music. An album of songs in that style was immediately put to consideration, but the group could not go through with it due to their commercial obligations to Virgin. In November 1984, one month after The Big Express's release, Partridge and John Leckie traveled to Monmouth to produce the album Miss America by singer-songwriter Mary Margaret O'Hara, who had recently signed with Virgin. Partridge and Leckie were dismissed due to conflicts related to their religious affiliations or lack thereof (O'Hara was a devout Catholic). Partridge was feeling inspired by Nick Nicely's 1982 psychedelic single "Hilly Fields 1892", and devised a recording project to fill the newfound gap in his schedule. The rules were as follows: songs must follow the conventions of 1967 and 1968 psychedelia; no more than two takes allowed; use vintage equipment wherever possible. After receiving a £5,000 advance from a skeptical Virgin Records, the group devoted two weeks to the sessions. Calling themselves "the Dukes of Stratosphear", the spin-off group consisted of Partridge and Moulding with Dave and his drummer brother Ian. Each adopted a pseudonym: Sir John Johns, The Red Curtain, Lord Cornelius Plum and E.I.E.I. Owen. At the sessions, the band dressed themselves in Paisley outfits and lit scented candles. With "nothing to live up to" as the Dukes, Partridge looked back on the project as the "most fun we ever had in the studio ... We never knew if it would sell ... We could never [subvert everybody's expectations] with XTC, as there was too much money involved and we were expected to be mentally honest and 'real.' Too much financial pressure." Released on April Fools' Day 1985, the album was presented as a long-lost collection of recordings by a late 1960s group. When asked about the album in interviews, XTC initially denied having any involvement. In England, the six-track mini-album sold twice as many copies as The Big Express, even before the Dukes' identity was made public. The album also achieved considerable sales in the US. ### Skylarking and Psonic Psunspot During a routine meeting in early 1986, Virgin executives threatened to drop the band from the label if their next album failed to sell more than 70,000 units. One reason why the group was not selling enough records, Virgin reportedly concluded, was that they sounded "too English". The label forced the group to work with one of their selected American producers. When shown a list of their names, they recognised none except for Todd Rundgren. Gregory was a fan of Rundgren's music, particularly since hearing the 1978 album Hermit of Mink Hollow. His bandmates were not as familiar with Rundgren, but Gregory urged the group to work with him: "I reminded Andy that Todd had produced one of his favourite New York Dolls records [New York Dolls, 1973]. In the absence of any better alternatives, he agreed." Once contacted, Rundgren offered to handle the album's entire recording for a lump sum of \$150,000, and the band agreed. In January 1986, Partridge and Moulding mailed Rundgren a collection of more than 20 demo tapes they had stockpiled in advance. Compared to previous XTC albums, much of the material contrasted significantly with its mellower feel, lush arrangements, and "flowery" aesthetic. Rundgren responded with the idea of a concept album to bridge "Colin's 'pastoral' tunes and subject matter and Andy's 'pop anthems' and sly poetry. ... The album could be about a day, a year, or a lifetime. ... Using this framework, I [Rundgren] came up with a sequence of songs and a justification for their placement and brought it to the band." After the group arrived at Utopia Sound recording studio in upstate New York, Rundgren played a large role in the album's sound design and drum programming, providing them with string and brass arrangements, as well as an assortment of gear. However, the sessions were fraught with tension, especially between him and Partridge, and disagreements arose over drum patterns, song selections, and other details. Partridge likened the power struggle to "two Hitlers in the same bunker". He expressed resentment toward Rundgren's contributions when sessions concluded, but later softened his view and praised the result. Rundgren said that in spite of all the difficulties, the album "ultimately ... sounds like we were having a great time doing it. And at times we were having a good time." Skylarking spent one week on the UK album charts, reaching number 90 in November 1986, two weeks after its release. Moulding's "Grass" was chosen as lead single. It was issued exclusively in the UK with the B-side "Dear God", an outtake. "Dear God" became so popular with American college radio stations who imported the record that Geffen Records (XTC's US distributor) recalled and re-pressed Skylarking with the track included. Controversy also broke out over the song's anti-religious lyrics, which inspired some violent incidents. In Florida, a radio station received a bomb threat, and in New York, a student forced their school to play the song over its public-address system by holding a faculty member at knife-point. Nonetheless, the commercial success of "Dear God" propelled Skylarking to sell more than 250,000 units, and it raised the band's profile among American college youth. In the US, the album spent 29 weeks on the Billboard 200 and reached its peak position of number 70 in June 1987. The music video for "Dear God" received the 1987 Billboard Best Video award and was also nominated for three categories at the MTV Video Music Awards. Skylarking ultimately became XTC's best-known album and is generally regarded as their finest work. Partridge was reluctant to make another Dukes album, but to appease requests from his bandmates and Virgin Records, Psonic Psunspot (1987) was recorded. This time, 10 songs and a £10,000 budget was supplied, while John Leckie returned as producer. Once again, the Dukes' record outsold XTC's previous album in the UK (Skylarking in this case). Partridge felt it was "a bit upsetting to think that people preferred these pretend personalities to our own personalities ... But I don't mind because we have turned into the Dukes slowly over the years." Likewise, Moulding felt that the "psychedelic element was being more ingratiated into the pie" since 25 O'Clock. When issued on CD, Psonic Psunspot was combined with 25 O'Clock and given the title Chips from the Chocolate Fireball (1987). ### Oranges & Lemons and Nonsuch For their next album Oranges & Lemons, XTC traveled to Los Angeles to make use of a cheap studio rate arranged by Paul Fox, who was recruited by the band for his first production gig. Another reason for recording in the US with an American producer, said Gregory, was that "America was our biggest market". Mr. Mister (and later longtime King Crimson) member Pat Mastelotto was the drummer for the entire album. The album was released in February 1989 with music that was in a similar psychedelic vein as the Dukes. In a retrospective review, The Quietus' Nick Reed notes: "Nearly every instrument is mixed to the forefront; it's too well-arranged to be cacophonous, but there's a degree of sensory overload, especially given the band's newfound tendency to blast synthesizers in our faces. ... whether or not this album holds up for you depends on how much you like the band's boisterous side." It became the highest album they had in the charts since 1982's English Settlement, rising to number 28 in the UK and number 44 in the US. Additionally, it combined with Skylarking for the group's best-selling albums to date. "Mayor of Simpleton" reached number 46 in the UK and number 72 in the US, making it their only American single to chart. To support the album, XTC embarked on an acoustic-guitar American radio tour that lasted for two weeks in May. The shows were carried out without financial compensation for the band. Gregory commented that it was an "interesting" style of promotion, but "incredibly hard work", as the band performed at about four radio stations a day for three weeks: "We also did a live acoustic set for MTV in front of an audience which worried Andy a bit but he got through it." This inspired the network to invite more artists to perform stripped-down sets, calling the series "unplugged". XTC's performance of "King for a Day" on Late Night with David Letterman marked the first time the group played in front of a live audience in seven years. A similar acoustic tour was planned for Europe, but cancelled when Partridge discovered that the Paris date would be broadcast from a sold-out 5,000 seater venue. After an unsuccessful attempt was made to coax Partridge back into regular touring, they took a short break. Partridge produced And Love for All (1990), the third album by the Lilac Time, and compered for an unbroadcast children's game show named Matchmakers. Gregory played for Johnny Hates Jazz, Marc Almond and Francesco Messina whilst producing for Cud. Moulding performed a special event concert with David Marx and the Refugees, a Swindon-based band that reunited him with Barry Andrews. Tarquin Gotch, who served as XTC's manager for a short time, helped the band reach a legal settlement with Ian Reid in 1989. However, they were again left with a six-figure debt. Virgin Records advanced the group enough money to cover their debt in exchange for the promise of four additional albums. Having written more than two dozen songs by 1991, some difficulties prolonged the start of recording sessions for the next album. Initially, the band had issue with the musical director of Virgin, who, after seeing the songs, was convinced the band "could do better" and asked them to write more material. With the band sitting on the material, the director left the label a year later, and his replacement liked the band's content, hurrying them to record the album. Gus Dudgeon produced, even though Partridge felt he was the wrong choice, and Fairport Convention's Dave Mattacks was brought in as drummer. Nonsuch was received with critical acclaim when released in April 1992, and like Oranges & Lemons, peaked at number 28 in the UK, becoming their second consecutive and final Top 40 album. Rolling Stone's Michael Azerrad reviewed: "Emphasizing wonder and wit in opposition to the rage of most college rock, XTC makes alternative music for people who don't like 'alternative music.'" Lead single "The Disappointed" reached number 33 in the UK and was nominated for an Ivor Novello Award. Its follow-up "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" reached number 71. "Wrapped in Grey" was intended as the third single, and about 5,000 copies were pressed before being withdrawn from sale. Partridge remembered thinking, "that's it, they've suffocated one of our kids in the cot, they've murdered the album, basically through ignorance." In 1993, the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album, but lost to Tom Waits' Bone Machine. ## 1993–present: legal entanglement, return and breakup ### Strike period In 1993, Partridge conceived XTC's next project to be an album of bubblegum pop songs disguising itself as a retrospective compilation featuring 12 different groups from the early 1970s. The lyrics were also heavily sexual, with song titles such as "Lolly (Suck It and See)" and "Visit to the Doctor". Partridge recalled playing some demos for Virgin agents, and compared their reaction to the "Springtime for Hitler" scene from the 1967 film The Producers. The label rejected his idea. Virgin denied Partridge's requests to renegotiate or revoke XTC's contract. Paul Kinder believed that the label and the group were "poles apart" and that "the contract was so old it got to the point where Andy wanted the moon and Virgin weren't prepared to give it him." Whatever new music the band recorded would have been automatically owned by Virgin, and so the band enacted strike action against the label. Prince and George Michael also went on a strike against their respective labels that was heavily publicized at about the same time. XTC's strike, however, received little press. In the meantime, Partridge produced Martin Newell's 1993 album The Greatest Living Englishman and early sessions for Blur's second album. "I thought I did sterling work. ... Next day, [David Balfe from the Teardrop Explodes said], 'Quite frankly, Andy, this is shit.'" Other complications arose; he developed some health issues while his wife divorced him. In 1997 (also reported as in late 1994), XTC found themselves freed from financial debt and from Virgin after "making some heavy concessions". Partridge fantasised that people from the label "met in the dark and thought, 'These blokes are not making a living. We've had 'em all these years and we've got their catalogue and the copyright to their songs for evermore and we've stitched 'em up real good with a rotten deal so, erm, maybe we should let them go.' I like to think that it was a guilt thing." One of the group's first new recordings since the strike was released for the tribute album A Testimonial Dinner: The Songs of XTC (1995). "The Good Things", a Moulding song originally demoed for Oranges & Lemons, was credited under the pseudonym Terry and the Lovemen. In 1998, Song Stories, an authorized overview of the band's catalog by journalist and longtime friend Neville Farmer was published. Partridge said the book was badly edited and "used the crappiest quotes". ### Apple Venus and Wasp Star By late 1997, Partridge and Moulding had amassed a large stockpile of material. The former's songs were an elaboration on the more orchestral style he developed with Nonsuch tracks "Omnibus", "Wrapped in Grey", and "Rook". Moulding felt that "something a bit different" was appropriate for the band at this juncture, and shared Partridge's desire for a cohesive LP similar to soundtracks such as My Fair Lady and "stuff that Burt Bacharach wrote for various [films]". Partridge thought the new songs were "some of the best stuff, if not the best stuff, ever. It's even more intensely passionate than before." The group elected to divide the album into two parts: one of rock songs, and the other of orchestral/acoustic songs augmented by a 40-piece symphony. They found a label, Cooking Vinyl, and a producer, Haydn Bendall, who had engineered XTC's debut EP back in 1977 and had significant experience in recording orchestras. Prairie Prince, who drummed on Skylarking, returned for the sessions. It soon became apparent that the band did not have the funds to record all the material they had. Gregory, Moulding, and Bendall wanted to reduce the project to one disc, but Partridge insisted on spreading it over two LPs. It was decided that they release one album with the orchestral portions ("volume 1") and leave the rock songs for its follow-up ("volume 2"). A session was booked at Abbey Road, but the recording was rushed, lasting one day, and had to be edited over a three-month period. Gregory quit the band whilst in the middle of sessions due to personal issues and discord with his bandmates. Partridge told journalists that Gregory left because he grew impatient with the recording of the orchestral material and wanted to quickly move on to the second project, which would have consisted of rock songs. He attributed Gregory's frustration to diabetic mood swings, as did Moulding. Gregory denied that his leaving pertained to "musical differences", and that it was moreso "personal problems" related to Partridge. Released in February 1999, Apple Venus Volume 1 was met with critical acclaim and moderate sales. It had minimal promotion. Comparing the album to the group's earlier work, Pitchfork reviewer Zach Hooker wrote: "Apple Venus finds them picking up pretty much where they left off. Or maybe even a little bit before they left off: this record bridges the gap between the ambitiously poppy Oranges and Lemons and the pastoral Skylarking. ... The music is built on simple phrases, but the relationships between those phrases becomes tremendously complex." In contrast, the companion album Wasp Star (Apple Venus Volume 2) (2000), consisting of more guitar-based material, was assumed as one of the band's "weakest" albums. Upon release, its British chart peak was higher than Volume 1, at number 40 in the UK, while in the US it was lower, at number 108. Partridge believed that some parts of the album was when "the [artistic] slope started to go down". ### Fuzzy Warbles and disintegrated partnership After Wasp Star, newly recorded XTC material was released sporadically. The four-disc hits and rarities boxed set Coat of Many Cupboards (2002) included "Didn't Hurt a Bit", a rerecording of a Nonsuch outtake. The Dukes of Stratosphear—with Dave and Ian Gregory—were reunited for the charity single "Open a Can (of Human Beans)" (2003). Another set, Apple Box (2005), included two new tracks: "Spiral", written by Partridge and "Say It", by Moulding. These songs were available to purchasers of the box set in digital format only, with the use of a special download code. This followed with a digital-exclusive track, Moulding's "Where Did the Ordinary People Go?", released in December 2005. From 2002 to 2006, Partridge simultaneously released volumes in the multi-album Fuzzy Warbles series, a set dedicated to unreleased solo demos and other material. Moulding was initially attached to the project, but opted out because "I just wouldn't have found it very inspiring. Maybe a couple of volumes would've been okay, or just one. But he [Andy] wanted to do twelve, which kind of put the wind up me a little bit. We had a bit of an argument about it." He felt that such "petty" arguments about XTC's finances precipitated the band's unofficial break-up, as he said in reference to the Fuzzy Warbles collection, "I got the impression he was going for broke ..." Partridge said that the impetus for the project was the proliferation of bootleggers who were selling low-quality copies of the material and that the Fuzzy Warbles set earned him more money than XTC's back catalog on Virgin. He also did not feel that XTC were a band anymore: "It's more of a brand. It's more HP Sauce than ever. [Colin and I are] two selfish middle-aged gits who make the music we make." In 2006, Partridge recorded an album, Monstrance, with Barry Andrews and drummer Martyn Barker. During one of the sessions, some of his hearing was destroyed following a studio mishap, which caused him to develop severe and permanent tinnitus. Near the end of the year, he told an interviewer that Moulding recently ("a couple of months back") lost interest in writing, performing or even listening to music. He remained hopeful that the situation was temporary and assured that they had "not killed off the XTC head. I mean, we still have the head cryogenically frozen. ... It's no good making a record and calling it XTC, certainly, if Colin isn't involved." In November, he stated that he had been forced to regard the group "in the past tense," with no likelihood of a new project unless Moulding should have a change of heart. Months later, Partridge intimated that Moulding had moved and changed his phone number, effectively ending all contact between the two and reducing their correspondence to emails exchanged via their manager to discuss the division of the band's assets. Partridge also said he and Gregory—their differences now resolved—had considered working together again. In July 2008, Partridge wrote in the Swindon Advertiser that he believed his "musical partnership with Colin Moulding has come to an end. For reasons too personal and varied to go into here, but we had a good run as they say and produced some real good work. No, I won't be working with him in the future." In December, Moulding resurfaced for a live radio interview where he confirmed his recent disillusionment with music, but revealed that he was thinking of working on solo material. His given reasons for the break-up were financial discord, disagreement over the extent of the Fuzzy Warbles project, and a "change in mindset" between him and Partridge. He also stated that he and Partridge were once again communicating directly by email. ### Reissue programme and TC&I XTC did not technically break up in a legal sense. As of 2014, the group still existed as a trademark controlled by Partridge and Moulding. Throughout the 2010s, selected albums from the band's catalog were reissued as deluxe packages centred on new stereo and surround sound mixes by Steven Wilson. Partridge said that he did not "insist on any mastering or messing with XTC 5.1" and that his involvement with Wilson's mixes goes only as far as authorizing them. The official XTC Twitter account @xtcfans was originally managed by writer Todd Bernhardt. According to Partridge, after some time, "I sort of took it over, because I thought it was weird that there was another person in the way." In 2016, Partridge and Bernhardt released a book, Complicated Game: Inside the Songs of XTC, that contains discussions between the two about 29 XTC songs, one Partridge solo track, and an overview of his approach to songwriting. It was published by Jawbone Press. Until 2016, Moulding remained largely inactive as a musician. In October 2017, he and Terry Chambers issued a four-song EP, Great Aspirations (credited to "TC&I"). Its release coincided with a televised documentary film of the band's career, XTC: This Is Pop, which premiered on Sky Arts on 7 October. The documentary featured new interviews with Partridge, Gregory, Moulding and Chambers. Moulding praised the film and commented on the possibility of a full-fledged XTC reunion: "They say never say never, don't they? It would seem unlikely, put it that way." As of January 2018, Partridge maintained that the group would "not be recording together again." From 29 October to 1 November, TC&I performed four sold-out shows at Swindon's Art's Centre, in Old Town. It was the first time Moulding and Chambers had played a live gig in decades. In 2021, Moulding told Mojo that he and Partridge had recently become on good terms with each other. "[Andy and I] didn't speak for a long time, except about business, and then it was quite terse. But we're quite cordial with each other now, it's probably as good as it's been for quite some time. Would we do XTC again? (laughs) I don't think we would, because I'm not sure whether I could put up with his dictatorial ways any more, or whether he could put up with me." ## Musical style and development ### Group dynamic #### Partridge and Moulding XTC's principal songwriters were guitarist Andy Partridge and bassist Colin Moulding. Partridge, who wrote the majority of XTC's songs, was the group's frontman and de facto leader. He drove the band's image, designed many of their record sleeves, and handled most of their interviews. His involvement with XTC's record sleeves stemmed from his disappointment with the sleeve for the "Statue of Liberty" single, which depicted a poorly cropped photo of the statue and the XTC logo in red. He was less successful in his attempts to involve himself in the band's music videos, as he said, the woman in charge of Virgin's video department rebuked all his ideas, some of which other groups later adopted in award-winning videos. Partridge and Moulding did not write together. Of their partnership, Moulding stated in 1992: "There's a lot of freedom to do what each of us likes with the other's songs, however. ... Each person puts his little prints on them." They did collaborate on arrangements, with "horn lines and harmonies, that sort of thing." He also lent praise to Partridge as "a real ideas man, and I love good ideas. It's not hard contributing bass parts when you have such good songs to contribute to." Discussing Moulding's songs, Partridge said that few were included on XTC albums because Moulding was not a prolific writer. Gregory said that all of Moulding's proposed songs would be recorded to preserve democracy in the band, and "occasionally at the expense of some of Andy's often superior offerings. This didn't always go down well, either with Andy or the band, but Colin did have some killer melodies and a sweeter sound to his voice that made a welcome diversion when listening to an album as a whole." Partridge opined that Moulding's songs initially "came out as weird imitations of what I was doing", but by the time of Drums and Wires, "he really started to take off as a songwriter." He was more effused with Moulding's offerings for Skylarking, which included the highest ratio of Moulding songs for any XTC album. On Moulding's bass-playing, Partridge praised his "old-fashioned" tendency to match notes to the bass drum. In Song Stories, Neville Farmer comments that Partridge "is the boss—erratic but willful [and] runs the band on instinct", while Moulding "is the voice of calm ... a foil to Andy's radical side." Music journalist Peter Paphides felt that the songwriters' personalities "couldn't seem more different," with Moulding "phlegmatic, shy, and heartbreakingly pretty" and Partridge an "art-school dropout ... uptight, dominating and extrovert." In Moulding's view, Partridge also typically acted as an "executive producer" for albums while frequently undermining the authority of the actual credited producer. Their recording approaches differed in that Moulding sometimes preferred spontaneous or imperfect performances, whereas Partridge working method was to refine a song through repeated takes. The band occasionally took to the term "Andy-ness" to describe Partridge's studio indulgences. Despite this, they rarely found themselves encumbered by serious creative differences. In 1997, Moulding called one dispute over a Skylarking bass part the "only real argument" between him and Partridge in the band's history. #### Andrews, Gregory and drummers Barry Andrews, XTC's keyboard player for their first two albums, emerged as a third solo songwriter on the group's second album Go 2, and left the band shortly thereafter. His replacement, guitarist Dave Gregory, did not contribute songs, but was the only one in the band who could score music, and frequently contributed orchestral arrangements. Moulding said that when Andrews was in the band, Partridge had "no kind of foil" to work with, as both musicians were drawn to dissonant harmonies: "[Andy] used to like the real kind of angular, spiky, upward-thrusting guitar ... if one is angular, the other has to kind of straighten him out ... So when Dave came in, and was a much straighter player, it seemed to make more sense, I think." Starting in 1982, Gregory extended his talents to keyboards as well, since Partridge and Moulding were not adept with the instrument. Gregory never presented a completed idea for a song to the band partly because he felt intimidated by Partridge's scrutiny. Since he "couldn't continue grinding out old blues clichés and power chords," he decided to "think more in terms of the songs as the masters and the instruments as the servants." Discussing Gregory's contributions to the group, Farmer writes of "a precision and correctness that carries through from his prerehearsal of guitar solos to ... his encyclopedic knowledge of guitars and who-played-what-on-which-instrument-with-which-amplifier-in-which-studio-on-which-record-under-the-influence-of-what-star-sign-or-guru-or-drug." Terry Chambers was the band's original drummer. He was described by Partridge as "the [drummer] that's been the most primitive, but probably the most thrilling for inventiveness, because he would blunder into [different ideas]." One of his characteristic techniques was the use of hi-hat chokes. After he left in 1983, the group employed a succession of session drummers for their studio recordings. This included Pete Phipps (Mummer and The Big Express), Prairie Prince (Skylarking and Apple Venus), Pat Mastelotto (Oranges & Lemons), and Dave Mattacks (Nonsuch). Drum machines also began to be incorporated into the group's sound. None of the studio drummers were accepted as official members of the band. Partridge explained that this was because the group did not tour and because "There's lots of local, interpersonal language that means nothing to anybody outside the band and is very difficult to bring people into." ### Genres and influences In the mid 1970s, XTC played in London punk scenes and were consistent with music of the new wave, albeit with a heavy ska influence. Partridge felt that their music was pop from the beginning, not punk or new wave as is often suggested, and that the terms in themselves are redundant of "pop". As they became more of a studio band, their material grew progressively more complex. Later, XTC were sometimes suggested as being a prog band. Partridge did not feel the band were prog and expressed hesitancy with the word "progressive", saying that he preferred to call the band "exploratory pop" in the same vein as the Beatles or the Kinks. In his words, "Prog is just longer pop songs." The band's early influences included disco, dub reggae, music hall, the Beatles, Free, the Kinks, Captain Beefheart, the Stooges, the New York Dolls, Cockney Rebel, Motown, Can, David Bowie, the Groundhogs, Black Sabbath, and the organ-dominated records of Johnny and the Hurricanes. The New York Dolls' single "Jet Boy" was a particular favorite for XTC. Partridge denied in 2019 that the Velvet Underground were an influence, but in 1984 expressed a fondness for "things with pounding piano, everything from Velvet Underground's 'I'm Waiting for My Man', to things that people like the Beatles or the Rolling Stones did at any time I just love banana-fingers piano." Moreso than Partridge, Moulding was fond of heavy metal groups such as Black Sabbath and Uriah Heep, as well as Deep Purple, Cream, and Free. XTC were not initially public with their influences due to the punk scene's anathema toward stating one's influences. Pitchfork writer Chris Dahlen characterised the band's original sound as punk meets "Buddy Holly-on-amphetamines ... danceable enough for the crowds at the clubs, and suspiciously poppy thanks to the catchy hooks and their trademark verse-chorus-verse-chorus-explode pattern." Partridge said that he adopted a vocal style out of "fear that we weren't going to make another record ... and people weren't going to be left with any impression of the singer". He described it as a "walrus" or "seal bark" that amalgamated Buddy Holly's "hiccup", Elvis Presley's vibrato, and "the howled mannerisms of Steve Harley." In reference to the energy of the band's performances (which drew comparisons with Talking Heads), Partridge remembered how they "used to fucking kill ourselves. I think it was fear. It was fear manifested in ludicrously high energy music. It was like 1000% whaaahh! All of the songs were run together and it was really uptempo stuff." According to Moulding, "any kinship [XTC had] with punk" was gone after 1979's Motown-influenced "Life Begins at the Hop". Of his guitar technique, Partridge said that it evolved from his desire to be a drummer, to "chop and slash and try to work between what the drums were doing, a) so I could be heard, and b) because I liked the funk and I liked working the holes that the drums left." He was particularly influenced by John French, the drummer for Captain Beefheart's Magic Band, although he disliked that the drummer's groove would change every few bars. Gregory attributed XTC's unorthodox drum patterns to Partridge's affinity for dub and reggae; "He's got a great innate sense of rhythm. He'll say 'No, don't put that beat there, why don't you come down on 3 instead of 2 on this part here?' ... He never put [cymbal crashes] where you'd expect to find them." Producer Chris Hughes likened the band's fashion of playing guitar to an automated music sequencer. Over the next few years, XTC began showcasing their vintage psychedelic influences through the use of Mellotron and backwards tape recordings on the albums Mummer and The Big Express. In 1987, he acknowledged that the group had "really changed personality. We didn't notice it bit by bit but over 10 years, suddenly it seems, wow, we're different." The Beach Boys' 1968 rendition of "Bluebirds Over the Mountain" was one of the first records Partridge bought with his own money. Although it is widely assumed that the Beach Boys influenced XTC throughout their career, Partridge stated that he was originally only familiar with singles such as "I Get Around" (1964) and "Good Vibrations" (1967) which were an enormous influence for him. It was not until 1986 that he discovered that the Beach Boys had an album career, when he first heard Smiley Smile (1967) in its entirety. Moulding credited the arrival of Dave Gregory with reviving Partridge's interest in 1960s bands like the Kinks. However, Partridge similarly only knew of the Kinks through the group's 1960s singles, and did not listen to any of their albums until the late 1980s. Partridge also claimed that "the Beatles were the farthest thing from my mind" until 1982; at another time he stated that the opening F chord on XTC's 1978 single "This Is Pop" was directly based on the opening chord from the Beatles' "A Hard Day's Night" (1964). Discussing the recording of the Mummer track "Ladybird", Partridge recalled that he told producer Steve Nye that he was afraid people would think he was copying the Beatles, to which Nye's response was "Who gives a fuck?" Partridge said that "from that moment onward, I started to recognise that those songwriters—the Ray Davieses, the Lennons and McCartneys, the Brian Wilsons—had gone into my head really deeply. He later considered "Rook" (1992), "Wrapped in Grey" (1992) and "Easter Theatre" (1999) to be the "perfect songs" of his career, feeling that he had "exorcized a lot of those kind of Lennon-and-McCartney, Bacharach-and-David, Brian Wilson type ghosts out of my system by doing all that." Reportedly, when Brian Wilson was played the Dukes' "Pale and Precious", a pastiche of the Beach Boys, he thought it was styled after Paul McCartney. ## Lyricism and English culture XTC are noted for their "Englishness". Partridge denied that this was conscious on his part: "I don't try to be English. I guess because I am English, it comes out English. But I don't sit down and think, "Cor blimey, can I put a union jack and a beefeater's outfit on, Mary?" British music critic John Harris identified Partridge's XTC compositions as within the same "lineage" of rural English songwriting invented by Ray Davies of the Kinks, and followed by the Jam, the Specials, "scores of half-forgotten punk and new wave bands," the Smiths and mid 1990s Britpop. In Partridge's opinion, the band "never got beyond Swindon." He also felt that XTC being described as "pastoral" was a compliment: "'Pastoral' to me means being more in touch with the country than the city, which I think we are. London gives me the willies." Lyrically, he cited Ray Davies, John Lennon, and Paul McCartney as his biggest influences. According to biographer Neville Farmer, Partridge and Moulding tended to write about "more general aspects of their lives and their attitudes". Farmer added that "Colin nor Andy handle political or religious matters with subtlety. If they have an idea about something, they say it straightforwardly. They are no more embarrassed about their view on the world than Andy is about his sex life. That makes them easy targets for criticism." For Partridge, other popular subject matter included financial shortage, factory work, comic book characters, seafaring, war, and ancient rituals. He described himself as an atheist and said he did not become interested in politics until circa 1979, when he voted for Margaret Thatcher "purely because she was a woman. I was that naive. Now I'm very left." ## Recognition and influence Writing for AllMusic, music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine recognises the group thusly: > XTC was one of the smartest – and catchiest – British pop bands to emerge from the punk and new wave explosion of the late '70s. ... While popular success has eluded them in both Britain and America, the group has developed a devoted cult following in both countries that remains loyal over two decades after their first records. ... XTC's lack of commercial success isn't because their music isn't accessible – their bright, occasionally melancholy, melodies flow with more grace than most bands – it has more to do with the group constantly being out of step with the times. However, the band has left behind a remarkably rich and varied series of albums that make a convincing argument that XTC is the great lost pop band. XTC were one of the progenitors of Britpop, were influential to later power pop acts such as Jellyfish and the Apples in Stereo, and anticipated the indie/art pop bands of the 2000s. They also inspired tribute bands, tribute albums, fan conventions, and fansites. Dave Gregory said that he became aware of XTC's "huge" influence on American acts through his interactions with musicians in the late 1980s. They Might Be Giants paid tribute to them in their song, "XTC vs. Adam Ant". XTC also had a significant influence and cult following in Japan. By the late 1980s, they were supported by three dedicated fanzines in as many countries. Between 1979 and 1992, they had a total of 10 albums and 6 singles that reached the UK top 40. The band are often compared reverentially to 1960s acts such as the Who, the Kinks, and most frequently, the Beatles. In a 1991 article that focused on a resurgence of power pop groups, members of Jellyfish and the Posies reflected that they were drawn to 1960s artists because of the 1980s music they influenced. As the Posies' Jon Auer said: "our '60s-ish-ness is actually early-'80s-ish-ness, a pop sensibility that came from listening to Squeeze and XTC". According to Chris Ingham, acts such as Kula Shaker, the Shamen and the Stone Roses recruited engineer John Leckie chiefly because of his productions for the retro-psychedelic Dukes of Stratosphear records. According to Neville Farmer, the name XTC inspired the names of U2, R.E.M., and INXS. Japanese band Seagull Screaming Kiss Her Kiss Her was named after the XTC song of similar title. Peter Gabriel is quoted: "I've always looked to XTC for inventive songwriting, innovative production, and a sense of humor. It's their strong blend of personalities that make them one of the great British bands." Kurt Cobain of Nirvana said in 1991: "There’s a lot of good pop music. I’ve always liked it...bands like the Beatles, XTC, stuff like that." Discussing the band's relative obscurity and lack of financial success, Schabe said that "it's difficult to justify claims of greatness without trying to understand exactly why they never managed to rise above the status of cult band. Respect and recognition are the real validation of such claims". Andy Partridge characterized the band as "quietly influential" and thought that the decision to quit touring "definitely affected our popularity later on". Schabe disagreed that the lack of touring had an effect and wrote that "XTC suffered more from the hands of industry forces than they did from failure to find an audience." Partridge also estimated that XTC's fan demographic had a male/female ratio of about 60–40, which was "reassuring" to him, as he thought the band only appealed to "computer nerds". In the 1981 edition of Rolling Stone's Book of Rock Lists, XTC were ranked number 15 for its list of the "17 Loudest Bands in the World", ahead of Queen and Kiss. XTC were the only group besides the Stranglers to emerge from the punk scene with a keyboardist. Journalist Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club wrote that their style of "post-punk guitar pop" became popular in the early 2000s among bands such as Kaiser Chiefs, Franz Ferdinand, Hot Hot Heat, and Bloc Party. During the decade, there was a reevaluation of post-punk: Shabe wrote that it "led to XTC being revered in association with the groundbreakers of that era." Musicologist Alex Ogg listed XTC as one of several "unheralded" events in the history of post-punk, while Eric Klinger of PopMatters posited: "You might not hear of bands talking about XTC as a big influence the way they talk about, say, Gang of Four, but they were certainly in the mix that became the music that was to come." ### British reception Despite their "Englishness", the group's fanbase has been more concentrated in the US than the UK. They refused to conform to punk's simplicity, a point that the British press initially criticised. Partridge believed "we were trying to push music into a new area. And so we had to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous name calling because we refused to just play stupid." He recalled that when he played at a jam session with punk bands in the late 1970s, the drummer from X-Ray Spex shouted "Oh, you can fucking play, can you? Oh, listen to him, he can play." In 1988, writer Chris Hunt observed that "XTC have largely not found favour in their homeland. To a nation that judges success in terms of tabloid coverage and appearances on Top of the Pops, the retiring bards of rural olde England didn't really strike too loud a chord with the record buying public. XTC had just become 'too weird' for their own good." Musician and journalist Dominique Leone argued that they "deserved more than they ever got. From the press, the public, their label, and various managers, XTC have been a tragically under-appreciated band in every sense." Swindon did not have a respected music scene as other places in Britain. Partridge cited the group's origins as the main reason for their ill-repute: "if we came from a big city like London or Manchester, we would have probably have been heralded as more godlike." In another interview, he suggested that both their small-town origins and the British class system were reasons for a lack of appreciation in their native country: "XTC were clever and came from Swindon, so therefore we were crap ... I was always jealous of bands like Talking Heads, who were doing similar things to us but were from New York, and therefore cool. But the English don't like normal people doing intelligent things." He remembered the group being advised by their early management to change their accents and deny their Swindon origins, but "we thought it was a badge of honour, coming from the comedy town." ## Members Principal members - Terry Chambers – drums (1972–1982) - Colin Moulding – vocals, bass guitar (1972–2006) - Andy Partridge – vocals, guitar (1972–2006) - Barry Andrews – keyboards, vocals (1976–1978) - Dave Gregory – guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1979–1998) Early members (pre-1975 Star Park and Helium Kidz era) - Dave Cartner – guitar (1972–1974) - Nervous Steve – bass guitar (1972) - Paul Wilson – drums (1972) - Steve Hutchins – vocals (1974–1975) - Jon Perkins – keyboards (1975–1976) Timeline ## Discography Studio albums See also - Take Away / The Lure of Salvage (1980, XTC dub remixes credited to "Mr. Partridge") - Rag and Bone Buffet: Rare Cuts and Leftovers (1990) - Transistor Blast: The Best of the BBC Sessions (1998) - Coat of Many Cupboards (2002) - Fuzzy Warbles (2002–2006, Andy Partridge demos of solo and XTC tracks) - Great Aspirations (2017, Colin Moulding and Terry Chambers reunion EP) ## Filmography Documentary films - XTC at the Manor (1980, staged studio recording of "Towers of London" and interviews) - Urgh! A Music War (1982, contains live performance of "Respectable Street") - XTC Play at Home (1984, interviews and promotional videos) - XTC: This Is Pop (2017, interviews, archival footage and animations) Music videos - "Science Friction" (1977) - "Statue of Liberty" (1978) - "This is Pop?" (1978) - "Heatwave" (1978) - "Are You Receiving Me?" (1978) - "Making Plans For Nigel" (1979) - "Life Begins at the Hop" (1979) - "Towers of London" (1980) - "Generals and Majors" (1980) - "Respectable Street" (1981) - "Ball and Chain" (1982) - "All of A Sudden (It's Too Late) (1982) - "Senses Working Overtime" (1982) - "Beating of Hearts" (1983) - "Funk Pop A Roll" (1983) - "Love on a Farmboy's Wages" (1983) - "Wonderland" (1983) - "Human Alchemy" (1983) - "In Loving Memory of a Name" (1983) - "All You Pretty Girls" (1984) - "This World Over" (1984) - "The Mole from the Ministry" (1985, The Dukes of Stratosphear) - "Grass" (1986) - "Dear God" (1987) - "The Meeting Place" (1987) - "You're a Good Man Albert Brown (Curse You Red Barrel)" (1987, The Dukes of Stratosphear) - "Spirit of the Forest" (1989) (featured guest) - "Mayor of Simpleton" (1989) - "King for a Day" (1989) - "The Ballad Of Peter Pumpkinhead" (1992) - "The Disappointed" (1992) The band were not allowed creative input for their music videos, except for "The Mole from the Ministry".

1926 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean

The 1926 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of major hurricanes at the time. At least eleven tropical cyclones developed during the season, all of which intensified into a tropical storm and eight further strengthened into hurricanes. Six hurricanes deepened into a major hurricane, which is Category 3 or higher on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. It was a fairly active and deadly season. The first system, the Nassau hurricane, developed near the Lesser Antilles on July 22. Moving west-northwest for much of its duration, the storm struck or brush several islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles. However, the Bahamas later received greater impact. At least 287 deaths and \$7.85 million (1926 USD) in damage was attributed to this hurricane. The next cyclone primarily affected mariners in and around the Maritimes of Canada, with boating accidents and drownings resulting in between 55 and 58 fatalities. In late August, the third hurricane brought widespread impact to the Gulf Coast of the United States, especially Louisiana. Crops and buildings suffered \$6 million in damage and there were 25 people killed. The strongest and most damaging storm of the season was Hurricane Seven, nicknamed the Miami hurricane. Peaking as a Category 4 hurricane, the hurricane struck the Bahamas and Florida at a slightly weaker intensity. Much of the Miami metropolitan area was devastated by the storm. Inland, a storm surge on Lake Okeechobee flooded towns such as Clewiston and Moore Haven. The storm was a factor in ending the Florida land boom of the 1920s. Overall, the Miami hurricane resulted in at least 372 deaths and \$125 million in damage. However, adjusted for wealth normalization in 2010, the damage toll would be \$164.8 billion – far higher than Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The eight, ninth, and eleventh tropical storms left only minor or not impact on land. However, a powerful hurricane in October devastated Cuba, the Bahamas, and ships in the vicinity of Bermuda. At least 709 deaths were linked to the system, with 600 in Cuba alone. Damage to towns on the island exceeded \$100 million. Collectively, the storms of this season left over \$247.4 million in damage and at least 1,448 fatalities. ## Season summary The season featured twelve named storms and eight of which strengthened into hurricanes. With six of those storms reaching major hurricane intensity, this was the highest number in a season on record, until being tied in 1933 and 1950 and then being surpassed in 1961. There were several cyclones that brought devastating effects, including the Nassau hurricane, the Louisiana hurricane, the Miami hurricane, and the Havana-Bermuda. Collectively, the storms of this season left over \$247.4 million in damage and at least 1,448 fatalities. Tropical cyclogenesis began on July 22 with Nassau hurricane, followed by the second storm on July 29. Only one system, the Louisiana hurricane, developed in the month of August. September was much more active, featuring the forth, fifth, six, seventh (Miami hurricane), and eighth storms of the season. On September 17, four tropical cyclones existed simultaneously in the Atlantic Ocean, three of which, in an uncommon occurrence, were then hurricanes. The Miami hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season, peaking as a 150 mph (240 km/h) Category 4 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale with a minimum barometric pressure of 930 mbar (27 inHg). In October, the ninth and tenth (Havana-Bermuda) storms formed. One final tropical cyclone formed in November and existed until November 16. The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 230, the fourth highest value on record, behind only the 1893, 2005, and 1933 seasons, and far above the 1921–1930 average of 76.6. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here. ## Systems ### Hurricane One The Nassau Hurricane of 1926 or The Great Bahamas Hurricane of 1926 or Hurricane San Liborio of 1926 The first storm of the season formed early on July 22 about 200 mi (320 km) east of the island of Barbados and gradually strengthened into a hurricane a day later. At 00:00 UTC on July 24, the hurricane made landfall at Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico, with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h). Weakening as it crossed Puerto Rico, the cyclone quickly regained strength on July 25 as it moved through the Bahamas; rapidly reaching maximum sustained winds of 130 mph (210 km/h), it attained the equivalence of Category 4 intensity—one of only four Atlantic hurricanes to have done so in or before the month of July. After peaking at 140 mph (230 km/h) with an estimated central pressure of 967 mb (28.56 inHg). With such high pressure, it was the least intense Category 4 Atlantic hurricane on record. Based on ship observations, the cyclone struck the island of New Providence, the seat of the Bahamian capital Nassau, on the morning of July 26, with sustained winds of 135 mph (217 km/h). Weakening thereafter, the storm moved northwestward, paralleling the east coast of Florida, but came ashore near New Smyrna Beach early on July 28 with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h). Thereafter, the cyclone quickly diminished in intensity, becoming a tropical depression on July 29, as it curved west-northwestward over Georgia; three days later, it became an extratropical cyclone and dissipated over Ontario, Canada, on August 2. In Puerto Rico, the storm produced hurricane-force winds and heavy rainfall that flooded all the rivers in the southern half of the island; crops in the western portion of the island were greatly damaged, and the entire island was affected by strong winds. At least 25 people were reported to have died as a result. In the Bahamas, the cyclone killed at least 146 people and produced severe damage to the capital Nassau; it was called the worst storm to affect Nassau since the 1866 Nassau hurricane, also a Category 4 cyclone that struck New Providence and caused major flooding throughout the Bahamas. More than a week after the storm, 400 people were reported to be missing. On the east coast of Florida, the hurricane produced a large storm tide that damaged boats, docks, and coastal structures, and damaging winds destroyed barns and crops well inland; severe damage to structures and communications wires was reported at New Smyrna Beach, where the storm struck the state. The storm also produced heavy rainfall along the coast, peaking at 10.02 inches (254.51 mm) at Merritt Island. One person died from the effects of the storm in Florida. In all, the hurricane caused at least 287 deaths—the fourth deadliest July hurricane since 1492— and \$16.4 million (1926 USD) in losses, at least \$8 million of which were in the Bahamas. It remains only the second of three recorded hurricanes since 1851 to have struck the east coast of Florida north of Cape Canaveral from the Atlantic Ocean, the others being a hurricane in 1915 and Hurricane Dora in 1964. ### Hurricane Two The Nova Scotia Hurricane of 1926 Early on July 29, a tropical depression formed more than 1,200 mi (1,930 km) east of the Leeward Islands. Over the next few days, it moved west-northwest, becoming a tropical storm by 00:00 UTC on July 31. On August 1, the cyclone turned northwestward and began strengthening rapidly, reaching hurricane intensity by the early afternoon. The next day, it attained major hurricane intensity—winds of at least 115 mph (185 km/h), equivalent to the modern-day classification of Category 3 intensity—and over the next few days its track varied between north-northwest and northwest. Early on August 5, it reached a peak intensity of 120 mph (190 km/h), based on the pressure–wind relationship. It curved to the north and weakened, then passed about 80 mi (130 km) west of Bermuda on August 6. A few days later, it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and then struck near Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia, with winds of 75 mph (121 km/h) and a central pressure at or below 1,000 mb (29.5 inHg). Several ships recorded hurricane-force winds and pressures as low as 968 mb (28.59 inHg), though none entered the eye of the hurricane and sampled the lowest pressure in the storm. The system produced winds of 54 mph (87 km/h) on Bermuda as it passed very close to that island. About this time, five ocean liners near each other encountered the storm; some portholes on the Orca were damaged and 15 passengers were treated for cuts, bruises, and contusions. Off Nova Scotia, the cyclone produced an unspecified number of casualties, including the sinking of the schooners Sylvia Mosher and Sadie Knickle. Between 55 and 58 deaths occurred, including 49 from two ships crashing ashore Sable Island. In Nova Scotia, the storm downed trees and electrical poles, damaging some homes and leaving telephone service outages. Crops and fruit trees were also damaged. High winds also interrupted telegraph communications in Newfoundland. ### Hurricane Three The Louisiana hurricane of 1926 On August 20, a low pressure area producing unsettled weather in the western Caribbean Sea, and centered about 400 mi (645 km) west-northwest of Maracaibo, Venezuela, was determined to have become a tropical depression. However, prior to scientific reanalysis in April 2012 based upon a 1975 report, it was not believed to have done so until two days later. Moving west-northwest, the depression strengthened to a tropical storm on August 21, and then turned northwestward while strengthening steadily. After brushing Cape San Antonio at the western tip of Cuba on August 22, the cyclone then veered to the west-northwest. Early on August 23, the storm became a hurricane over the southern Gulf of Mexico. Later that day, the cyclone continued to intensify and began curving northwestward. By August 24, with winds of 100 mph (160 km/h), it turned north. Early on August 25, the cyclone peaked as a modern-day 115 mph (185 km/h) Category 3, based on the pressure–wind relationship. In the afternoon, it struck west of Houma, Louisiana, at that intensity. Less than 24 hours later, the storm rapidly weakened to a moderate tropical storm and curved west-northwestward, weakening to a tropical depression on August 27 and dissipating over Texas. No known effects were reported from the Caribbean due to the cyclone. On the morning of August 24, the United States Weather Bureau in Washington, D.C., advised that the storm was likely to make landfall between Galveston, Texas, and Burrwood, Louisiana. Late that day, hurricane warnings were issued from Morgan City, Louisiana, to Mobile, Alabama. Although small in size at landfall, the storm caused a storm surge of 15 feet (4.6 m) south of Houma and hurricane-force winds in a small area near the center. The lowest recorded pressure was 959 mb (28.32 inHg) at Houma, though this was taken inland and is not believed to have been in the exact center, as recent estimates place the central pressure slightly lower at 955 mb (28.20 inHg). Along the Gulf Coast of the United States, the storm caused \$6 million (1926 USD) in damage to crops and buildings, with substantial damage to vegetation. In all, 25 deaths were reported, although extensive ship reports and timely warnings by mail, telephone, radio, and telegraph reduced the number of casualties. ### August tropical depression A low-pressure area previously associated with an occluded frontal system gradually organized into a tropical system, becoming a tropical depression about halfway between Bermuda and North Carolina on August 23. The depression moved northeastward and dissipated on the following day. ### Hurricane Four At 00:00 UTC on September 1, an area of low pressure about 1,000 mi (1,610 km) west of the Cape Verde islands organized into a tropical depression, though prior to hurricane reanalysis it was estimated to have formed a day later as a tropical storm. Moving generally west-northwest over the next three days, the cyclone gradually intensified, first into a tropical storm on September 2 and later, based upon a report from the ship Stornest of hurricane-force winds and 990.5 mb (29.25 inHg), a minimal hurricane by 00:00 UTC on September 5. Late on September 7, the cyclone strengthened to a major hurricane with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) and turned northwest; early the next day, the steamship Narenta passed through the eye of the storm and recorded a central pressure of 957 mb (28.26 inHg), the lowest associated with the cyclone. Thereafter, the storm for two days maintained its intensity while resuming a west-northwest track. Late on September 10, the storm abruptly turned north-northwest. On September 12, while centered about 400 mi (645 km) southwest of Bermuda, the cyclone briefly peaked at 130 mph (210 km/h)—equivalent to Category 4 intensity—though the cyclone was rather small and observations near the center were scarce. Over the next two days, the cyclone headed north-northwest again and slowly weakened to Category 2 strength with winds of 110 mph (180 km/h), then afterward curved west-northwest for about a day. As the storm passed west of Bermuda on September 13, the island recorded a pressure of 1,006 mb (29.71 inHg). As a trough approached, the hurricane suddenly turned northeast late on September 16, and over the next three days, while located about 500 mi (805 km) south-southeast of Halifax in Nova Scotia, it executed a counterclockwise, S-shaped curve. It then weakened to a tropical storm, recurved northeast, and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 22, whence it reacquired hurricane-force winds. The next day, the system weakened and hit Cape St. Mary's, Newfoundland, with winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). As an extratropical storm it continued north-northeastward until dissipating near Greenland on September 24. The storm produced a pressure of 994.2 mb (29.36 inHg) at St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador on September 23, along with gale-force winds along the coast of Newfoundland that affected an Arctic expedition led by George P. Putnam of the American Museum of Natural History. Strong winds in the province downed telegraph lines and demolished a post office in the town of Lamaline. ### Hurricane Five This hurricane was the least intense Category 2 hurricane on record. By 06:00 UTC on September 10, a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) was first observed over the open Atlantic Ocean about 1,000 mi (1,610 km) southeast of Bermuda, but likely formed earlier and remained undetected due to a lack of ship observations. Over the next two days it headed north-northwestward and strengthened, remaining approximately 730 mi (1,170 km) east of Hurricane Four. Based upon a ship report of hurricane conditions—80 mph (130 km/h) from the east-southeast along with a pressure of 1,000 mb (29.53 inHg)—the cyclone was ascertained to have peaked at 105 mph (169 km/h), equivalent to Category 2 intensity, early on September 12, although no meteorological data were available near the eye. Shortly thereafter, the system began turning north and then north-northeast on September 13, followed by steady weakening. At 00:00 UTC on September 14, the cyclone diminished in intensity to a tropical storm and moved southeast, dissipating less than 24 hours later. ### Tropical Storm Six Early on September 11, a weak tropical depression formed in the western Caribbean Sea about 200 mi (320 km) east-southeast of the Swan Islands, Honduras. Without strengthening substantially, the depression moved west-northwest for the next day and a half, passing north of the Swan Islands based upon weather reports, and then curved northward. On September 13, the depression gradually curved to the northeast, and on the afternoon of September 14 it made landfall southeast of Cienfuegos, Cuba. The cyclone then crossed the central region of Cuba, entering the Bahamian islands in the evening. Shortly thereafter, by 00:00 UTC on September 15 the depression became a tropical storm and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph (64 km/h). The cyclone then turned north, passing about 15 mi (24 km) west of Nassau in the afternoon. The weak storm then turned abruptly to the northwest, having been trapped by a building ridge, and early the next day, while centered north of Andros Island, it assumed a gradual curve to the southwest. Late that day, it degenerated into a tropical depression and dissipated over the Straits of Florida on September 17, as the Great Miami hurricane approached from just 550 mi (885 km) to the east-southeast. In Cuba, impacts were minimal. The cyclone produced sustained winds up to 43 mph (69 km/h) and pressures as low as 1,004 mb (29.65 inHg) in the Bahamas. In South Florida, the cyclone did not produce tropical storm-force winds, although thunderstorms produced 1.20 in (30 mm) of rainfall in Miami on September 16. No severe effects occurred and the storm was not mentioned in the monthly notations of the local U.S. Weather Bureau office in Miami. However, its presence and that of the Great Miami hurricane, then of Category 4 intensity and in the South-Central Bahamas, caused confusion in the local press. On the morning of September 17, one day before the Miami hurricane struck, the Miami Herald published a front-page story on the weak tropical storm in the Straits of Florida and included statements by the editors that it was not anticipated to strike Florida; news articles on the hurricane, which was expected to deliver "destructive winds" to the area, were not published by other local newspapers until the afternoon, leaving Miami residents confused as to the extent of the danger. ### Hurricane Seven The Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 By 12:00 UTC on September 11—just twelve hours after the formation of the preceding cyclone—a new tropical storm formed in the Atlantic about 1,100 mi (1,770 km) east of the island of Martinique, though it probably originated earlier and was undetected; operationally, the storm was not tracked until September 14. Steadily moving north of due west, the cyclone quickly became a hurricane the next day, and over the next three days, while bypassing the Greater Antilles to the north, it continued to intensify to a major hurricane, with maximum sustained winds of at least 111 mph (179 km/h), yet few ships were near the eye with which to determine its path. On the afternoon of September 16, the cyclone peaked at 150 mph (240 km/h), near the upper threshold of the modern-day classification of Category 4, and shortly thereafter passed just 10 mi (16.1 km) north of the island of Grand Turk, striking Mayaguana at peak intensity early the next day. Continuing over the South-Central Bahamas and Andros Island on September 17–18, the cyclone, with winds of 145 mph (233 km/h), then struck South Florida near Perrine, 15 mi (24 km) south of Downtown Miami, shortly before 12:00 UTC on September 18, with its large eye passing over the Miami metropolitan area. Swiftly crossing southernmost Florida, the potent hurricane weakened slightly before entering the Gulf of Mexico near Punta Rassa in the afternoon, and its path gradually curved northwest on September 19. Late on September 20, its path slowed drastically and curved west, making landfall near Perdido Beach, Alabama, with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h) and a measured pressure of 954.9 mb (28.20 inHg) in the calm eye. Quickly weakening thereafter, the cyclone paralleled the coasts of Alabama and Mississippi, dissipating over Louisiana on September 22. Throughout the Bahamas, reports of damage were relatively scarce despite the intensity with which the storm struck the region. However, numerous structures were completely destroyed. The storm was attributed to 372 deaths in the Southeastern United States, 114 of which took place in Miami and at least 150 at Moore Haven, where a storm surge estimated as high as 15 ft (4.57 m) overtopped portions of a levee on Lake Okeechobee. Many people in Miami, transients who knew little of hurricanes, perished after examining damage during the passage of the eye, unaware that the back end of the storm was approaching. Flimsy structures built to house workers during the Florida land boom of the 1920s were completely leveled. The hurricane partially contributed to the end of the land boom, which was in decline by early 1926. In terms of monetary losses, damage from the hurricane was estimated to be as high as \$125 million (1926 USD). Up to 4,725 structures throughout southern Florida were destroyed and 8,100 damaged, leaving at least 38,000 people displaced. A storm surge of 14 ft (4.27 m) occurred south of Miami and winds on Miami Beach were recorded at 130 mph (210 km/h) before the anemometer blew away. The lowest pressure was estimated at 930 mb (27.46 inHg), the seventh most intense in a storm to strike the United States. The storm also produced significant damage, rainfall up to 16.2 in (411.48 mm), and a storm surge up to 14.2 ft (4.33 m) in the Florida Panhandle. The entire state of Florida lost 35% of its grapefruit and orange crops combined, including nearly 100% losses in the Miami area. In a study of hurricane damage statistics conducted in 2008, it was estimated that if a storm similar to that of the Miami hurricane were to occur in 2005 it would result in over \$140–157 billion in damage. In all, the storm caused at least 372 deaths along its path accounting for the revised toll in the United States since 2003. The storm's slow movement caused it to produce substantial effects to coastal regions between Mobile and Pensacola; these areas experienced heavy damage from wind, rain, and storm surge. Wind records at Pensacola indicate that the city encountered sustained winds of hurricane force for more than 20 hours, including winds above 100 mph (160 km/h)} for five hours. The storm tide destroyed nearly all waterfront structures on Pensacola Bay and peaked at 14 ft (4.3 m) near Bagdad, Florida. Rainfall maximized at Bay Minette, Alabama, where 18.5 in (470 mm) fell. ### Hurricane Eight Twelve hours after the Great Miami hurricane struck Alabama, the eighth tropical storm of the season formed in the east-central Atlantic about 2,000 mi (3,220 km) southwest of Horta in the Azores on September 21. Over the next three days, it moved north of due east and rapidly strengthened, becoming a minimal hurricane by 12:00 UTC on September 22 and later peaking at 105 mph (169 km/h)—equivalent to a moderately strong Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale—on the morning of September 24. For about 24 hours thereafter, the cyclone briefly curved to the northeast before turning sharply to the east early on September 26. Late that day, the cyclone swerved precipitously to the north, making landfall on the island of São Miguel near Ponta Delgada at peak intensity. Curving northwest and then south of due west, the cyclone weakened after striking São Miguel and reverted to a minimal hurricane late on September 27. It gradually completed a counter-clockwise loop through the western Azores, curving due south as a tropical storm, though its cool surface temperatures and enlarged size suggest it might have been a subtropical cyclone then. Just afterward, late on September 28, it hit Faial Island near Horta with sustained winds near 70 mph (110 km/h). Over the next two days, it moved generally south-southeast and slowly weakened, curving suddenly east-southeast beginning on September 30. Turning south of due east, it dissipated by 18:00 UTC on October 1. ### September tropical depression Another tropical depression formed north of the Virgin Islands on September 26. The depression tracked west-northwestward, until curving sharply east-northeastward on September 29. The depression transitioned into an extratropical cyclone early on October 1 and merged with a frontal system while situated near Bermuda. A ship recorded sustained winds of 40 mph (64 km/h) on September 28. However, with no other reports of gale-force winds, the system was not reclassified as a tropical storm. ### Tropical Storm Nine Early on October 3, a tropical depression developed in the South-Central Caribbean about 100 mi (160 km)/h) east of Serrana Bank and the Miskito Cays. It quickly intensified into a minimal tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph (64 km/h), the strongest in its life span. Curving west-northwest without further intensification, the weak cyclone made landfall near Barra Patuca in Gracias a Dios Department, Honduras, shortly before 12:00 UTC on October 4. Shortly thereafter, the storm gradually turned just north of due west, and early on October 5, after degenerating into a tropical depression, it made a second landfall over Belize just south of Alabama Wharf in Toledo District. Less than 12 hours later, the cyclone dissipated over eastern Guatemala. ### Hurricane Ten The Great Havana-Bermuda Hurricane of 1926 On October 14 a tropical depression developed in the southern Caribbean Sea about 350 mi (565 km) north-northwest of Colón, Panama. Strengthening into a minimal tropical storm the next day, it gradually curved to the north-northwest over the next four days, becoming a hurricane on October 18. It then quickly intensified to a major hurricane early on October 19 as it turned northward toward western Cuba. Shortly before striking the Isla de la Juventud south of Nueva Gerona, it attained maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (233 km/h) on October 20. The cyclone then continued strengthening, peaking at 150 mph (240 km/h) before making landfall on the Cuban mainland south of Güira de Melena. The center passed just 10 mi (16 km) east of the capital Havana before entering the Straits of Florida about 80 mi (130 km) south of Key West, Florida. The cyclone then weakened and turned to the northeast on October 21, passing within 20 mi (30 km) of the Florida Keys while remaining east of Florida. Nearly two days later, about 48 hours after turning east-northeast, the cyclone passed over Bermuda late on October 22 with sustained winds up to 120 mph (190 km/h); Hamilton, Bermuda, recorded calm winds and 963.4 mb (28.45 inHg) in the eye, along with sustained winds up to 102 mph (164 km/h) with gusts to 138 mph (222 km/h) afterward. Three days thereafter, on October 25 the storm executed a clockwise, semicircular loop to the south-southwest, and a day later it lost hurricane intensity. Gradually curving to the west, the cyclone dissipated early on October 28, though it was once believed to have been an extratropical cyclone as early as October 23. The hurricane inflicted devastation along its path, causing at least 709 deaths in Cuba and Bermuda. Upon striking Cuba, the hurricane caused catastrophic damage and as many as 600 deaths. Several small towns in the storm's path were completely destroyed and damage estimates exceeded \$100 million (1926 USD). In the upper Florida Keys and on Key Biscayne, minimal hurricane conditions occurred, causing minor damage in South Florida. In Bermuda, 40% of the structures were damaged and two homes destroyed, but otherwise damage was light in the harbor. While weather forecasters knew of the storm's approach on Bermuda, it covered the thousand miles from the Bahamas to Bermuda so rapidly it apparently struck with few warning signs aside from heavy swells. On October 21, with the eye of the storm still 700 mi (1,130 km) from Bermuda, weather forecasts from the United States called for the hurricane to strike the island on the following morning with gale force. The Arabis-class sloop HMS Valerian, based at the HMD Bermuda, was returning from providing hurricane relief in the Bahamas and was overtaken by the storm shortly before she could make harbor. Unable to enter through Bermuda's reefline, she fought the storm for more than five hours before she was sunk with the loss of 85 men. The British merchant ship Eastway was also sunk near Bermuda. When the centre of the storm passed over Bermuda, winds increased to 114 mph (183 km/h) at Prospect Camp, whereupon the Army took down its anemometer to protect it. The Royal Naval Dockyard was being hammered and never took its anemometer down. It measured 138 mph (222 km/h) at 13:00 UTC, before the wind destroyed it. ### October tropical depression A trough organized into a tropical depression just east-northeast of Bermuda on October 17. Atmospheric pressures as low as 1,000 mbar (30 inHg) were observed as the system moved eastward. However, by October 18, the depression degenerated back into an open trough. ### Tropical Storm Eleven Around 06:00 UTC on November 12, a tropical depression developed about 115 mi (185 km) north of El Porvenir, Kuna Yala, Panama. Moving northwest, the cyclone rapidly attained peak winds of 40 mph (64 km/h) early on November 13 but failed to intensify further over the next three days. Passing less than 50 mi (80.47 km) west of the Swan Islands, Honduras, early on November 14, the cyclone gradually turned north by the afternoon. Curving parabolically to the northeast on November 15, it weakened to a tropical depression early the next day before hitting the Isla de la Juventud in Cuba. 12 hours later, after striking mainland Cuba, it dissipated over the southern Straits of Florida. ### Other systems Reports from the government of the Mexican state of Veracruz indicate that in late September 1926 a tropical disturbance formed in the northwest Caribbean Sea, then moved across the Yucatán Peninsula and the Bay of Campeche to strike Veracruz as a hurricane on September 28. The storm reportedly began with sudden fury at 16:00 UTC and produced unspecified winds as high as 124 mph (200 km/h)—if sustained, equal to those of a strong Category 3 hurricane—causing boats to be stranded, roofs to be torn off, and trees and electric cables to be blown down, though the worst conditions reportedly lasted only two hours. The reported storm ruined most of the seashore as a storm tide destroyed the local breakwater, including at the historic Hotel Villa del Mar in the city of Veracruz, demolishing most of the hotel as well as the yacht club there, and forced train service to be suspended. The city was flooded to a depth of 5 feet (1.52 m), but well constructed buildings in the city center survived the wind. Several ships were sunk in the harbor, and several sailors were feared drowned. However, a peer-reviewed publication in 2012, which reanalyzed the 1926 Atlantic hurricane season, did not confirm its supposed existence. ## Seasonal effects \|- \| One \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Turks and Caicos Islands, The Bahamas, Northern Florida \|\| \|\| \> \|\| \|- \| Two \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Bermuda, Nova Scotia \|\| Unknown \|\| \~55 \|\| \|- \| Three \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Louisiana \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Unnumbered \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| None \|\| Unknown \|\| None \|\| \|- \| Four \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Bermuda, Nova Scotia \|\| Unknown \|\| Unknown \|\| \|- \| Five \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| None \|\| None \|\| None \|\| \|- \| Six \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Cuba, The Bahamas \|\| Unknown \|\| Unknown \|\| \|- \| Seven \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Puerto Rico, Turks and Caicos Islands, The Bahamas, Florida, United States Gulf Coast \|\| \|\| \> \|\| \|- \| Eight \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Azores \|\| Unknown \|\| Unknown \|\| \|- \| Unnumbered \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| None \|\| Unknown \|\| None \|\| \|- \| Nine \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Spanish Honduras, British Honduras \|\| Unknown \|\| Unknown \|\| \|- \| Ten \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Cuba, Southern Florida, The Bahamas, Bermuda \|\| \> \|\| \|\| \|- \| Unnumbered \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| None \|\| Unknown \|\| None \|\| \|- \| Eleven \|\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| bgcolor=#\| \|\| Cuba \|\| Unknown \|\| Unknown \|\| \|- ## See also - 1900–1940 South Pacific cyclone seasons - 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons - 1920s Australian region cyclone seasons

1900 Galveston hurricane

Category 4 Atlantic hurricane in 1900

The 1900 Galveston hurricane, also known as the Great Galveston hurricane and the Galveston Flood, and known regionally as the Great Storm of 1900 or the 1900 Storm, is the deadliest natural disaster in United States history. The strongest storm of the 1900 Atlantic hurricane season, it left between 6,000 and 12,000 fatalities in the United States; the number most cited in official reports is 8,000. Most of these deaths occurred in and near Galveston, Texas, after the storm surge inundated the coastline and the island city with 8 to 12 ft (2.4 to 3.7 m) of water. It remains among the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes on record. In addition to the number killed, the storm destroyed about 7,000 buildings of all uses in Galveston, which included 3,636 demolished homes; every dwelling in the city suffered some degree of damage. The hurricane left approximately 10,000 people in the city homeless, out of a total population of fewer than 38,000. The disaster ended the Golden Era of Galveston, as the hurricane alarmed potential investors, who turned to Houston instead. In response to the storm, three engineers designed and oversaw plans to raise the Gulf of Mexico shoreline of Galveston Island by 17 ft (5.2 m) and erect a 10 mi (16 km) seawall. On August 27, 1900, a ship east of the Windward Islands detected a tropical cyclone, the fourth observed that year. The system proceeded to move steadily west-northwestward and entered the northeastern Caribbean on August 30. It made landfall in the Dominican Republic as a weak tropical storm on September 2. It weakened slightly while crossing Hispaniola, before re-emerging into the Caribbean Sea later that day. On September 3, the cyclone struck modern-day Santiago de Cuba Province and then slowly drifted along the southern coast of Cuba. Upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico on September 6, the storm strengthened into a hurricane. Significant intensification followed and the system peaked as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph (235 km/h) on September 8. Early on the next day, it made landfall to the south of Houston. The cyclone weakened quickly after moving inland and fell to tropical storm intensity late on September 9. The storm turned east-northeastward and became extratropical over Iowa on September 11. The extratropical system strengthened while accelerating across the Midwestern United States, New England, and Eastern Canada before reaching the Gulf of Saint Lawrence on September 13. After striking Newfoundland later that day, the extratropical storm entered the far North Atlantic Ocean and weakened, with the remnants last observed near Iceland on September 15. The great storm brought flooding and severe thunderstorms to portions of the Caribbean, especially Cuba and Jamaica. It is likely that much of South Florida experienced tropical storm-force winds, though mostly minor damage occurred. Hurricane-force winds and storm surge inundated portions of southern Louisiana, though the cyclone left no significant structural damage or fatalities in the state. The hurricane brought strong winds and storm surge to a large portion of east Texas, with Galveston suffering the brunt of the impact. Farther north, the storm and its remnants continued to produce heavy rains and gusty winds, which downed telegraph wires, signs, and trees in several states. Fatalities occurred in other states, including fifteen in Ohio, two in Illinois, two in New York, one in Massachusetts, and one in Missouri. Damage from the storm throughout the U.S. exceeded US\$34 million. The remnants also brought severe impact to Canada. In Ontario, damage reached about C\$1.35 million, with CAD\$1 million to crops. The remnants of the hurricane caused at least 52 deaths – and possibly as many as 232 deaths – in Canada, mostly due to sunken vessels near Newfoundland and the French territory of Saint-Pierre. Throughout its path, the storm caused more than \$35.4 million in damage. (\$1.3 billion in 2023) ## Meteorological history The storm is believed to have originated from a tropical wave which moved off the west coast of Africa and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean. However, this is not completely certain because of the limited observational methods available to contemporary meteorologists, with ship reports being the only reliable tool for observing hurricanes. The first formal sighting of the tropical storm occurred on August 27, about 1,000 mi (1,600 km) east of the Windward Islands, when a ship encountered an area of unsettled weather. Over the next couple of days, the system moved west-northwestwards and is thought to have maintained its intensity as a weak tropical storm, before it passed through the Leeward Islands and entered the Caribbean Sea on August 31. On September 1, Father Reese Gangoite, the director of the Belen College Observatory in Havana, Cuba, noted that the storm was in its formative stages, with only vague indications of a small tropical cyclone to the southwest of Saint Croix. During that day, the system passed to the south of Puerto Rico before it made landfall near Baní, Dominican Republic, early on September 2. Moving west-northwestward, the storm crossed the island of Hispaniola and entered into the Windward Passage near Saint-Marc, Haiti, several hours later. The system made landfall on Cuba near Santiago de Cuba during September 3, before it moved slowly west-northwestward across the island and emerged into Straits of Florida as a tropical storm on September 5. As the system emerged into the Straits of Florida, Gangoite observed a large, persistent halo around the moon, while the sky turned deep red and cirrus clouds moved northwards. This indicated to him that the tropical storm had intensified and that the prevailing winds were moving the system towards the coast of Texas. However, the United States Weather Bureau (as it was then called) disagreed with this forecast, as they expected the system to recurve and make landfall in Florida before impacting the American East Coast. An area of high pressure over the Florida Keys ultimately moved the system northwestward into the Gulf of Mexico, where favorable conditions such as warm sea surface temperatures allowed the storm to intensify into a hurricane. In the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 6, the ship Louisiana encountered the hurricane, and its captain, T. P. Halsey, estimated that the system had wind speeds of 100 mph (160 km/h). The hurricane continued to strengthen significantly while heading west-northwestward across the Gulf. On September 7, the system reached its peak intensity with estimated sustained wind speeds of 145 mph (235 km/h), which made it equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane on the modern-day Saffir–Simpson scale. That day, the Weather Bureau realized that the storm was continuing west-northwestward across the Gulf of Mexico, rather than turning northward over Florida and the East Coast as it had predicted. However, Weather Bureau director Willis Moore insisted that the cyclone was not of hurricane intensity. The hurricane weakened slightly on September 8 and recurved to the northwest as it approached the coast of Texas, while the Weather Bureau office in Galveston began observing hurricane-force winds by 22:00 UTC. The cyclone made landfall around 8:00 p.m CST on September 8 (02:00 UTC on September 9) to the south of Houston as a Category 4 hurricane. While crossing Galveston Island and West Bay, the eye passed southwest of the city of Galveston. The hurricane quickly weakened after moving inland, falling to tropical storm intensity late on September 9. The storm lost tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Iowa by 12:00 UTC on September 11. Moving rapidly east-northeastward, the extratropical system re-intensified, becoming the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane over Ontario on September 12. The extratropical remnants reached the Gulf of Saint Lawrence early the following day. After crossing Newfoundland and entering the far northern Atlantic hours later, the remnants of the hurricane weakened and were last noted near Iceland on September 15 where the storm finally dissipated. ## Background The city of Galveston, formally founded in 1839, had weathered numerous storms, all of which the city survived with ease. In the late 19th century, Galveston was a boomtown with the population increasing from 29,084 people in 1890 to 37,788 people in 1900. The city was the fourth largest municipality in terms of population in the state of Texas in 1900, and had among the highest per capita income rates in the U.S. Galveston had many ornate business buildings in a downtown section called The Strand, which was considered the "Wall Street of the Southwest". The city's position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas, and one of the busiest ports in the nation. With this prosperity came a sense of complacency, as residents believed any future storms would be no worse than previous events. In fact, Isaac Cline, director of the Weather Bureau's Galveston office, wrote an 1891 article in the Galveston Daily News that it would be impossible for a hurricane of significant strength to strike Galveston Island. A quarter of a century earlier, the nearby town of Indianola on Matagorda Bay was undergoing its own boom. Then in 1875, a powerful hurricane blew through and nearly destroyed the town. Indianola was rebuilt, though a second hurricane in 1886 caused most of the town's residents to move elsewhere. Many Galveston residents took the destruction of Indianola as an object lesson on the threat posed by hurricanes. Galveston is built on a low, flat island, little more than a large sandbar along the Gulf Coast. These residents proposed a seawall be constructed to protect the city, but the majority of the population and the city's government dismissed their concerns. Cline further argued in his 1891 article in the Daily News that a seawall was not needed due to his belief that a strong hurricane would not strike the island. As a result, the seawall was not built, and development activities on the island actively increased its vulnerability to storms. Sand dunes along the shore were cut down to fill low areas in the city, removing what little barrier there was to the Gulf of Mexico. ## Preparations On September 4, the Weather Bureau's Galveston office began receiving warnings from the Bureau's central office in Washington, D.C., that a tropical disturbance had moved northward over Cuba. At the time, they discouraged the use of terms such as "hurricane" or "tornado" to avoid panicking residents in the path of any storm event. The Weather Bureau forecasters had no way of knowing the storm's trajectory, as Weather Bureau director Willis Moore implemented a policy to block telegraph reports from Cuban meteorologists at the Belen Observatory in Havana – considered one of the most advanced meteorological institutions in the world at the time – due to tensions in the aftermath of the Spanish–American War. Moore also changed protocol to force local Weather Bureau offices to seek authorization from the central office before issuing storm warnings. Weather Bureau forecasters believed that the storm had begun a northward curve into Florida and that it would eventually turn northeastward and emerge over the Atlantic. As a result, the central office of the Weather Bureau issued a storm warning in Florida from Cedar Key to Miami on September 5. By the following day, a hurricane warning was in effect along the coast from Cedar Key to Savannah, Georgia, while storm warnings were displayed from Charleston, South Carolina, to Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, as well as from Pensacola, Florida, to New Orleans, Louisiana. Cuban forecasters adamantly disagreed with the Weather Bureau, saying the hurricane would continue west. One Cuban forecaster predicted the hurricane would continue into central Texas near San Antonio. In Galveston on the morning of September 8, the swells persisted despite only partly cloudy skies. Largely because of the unremarkable weather, few residents saw cause for concern. Few people evacuated across Galveston's bridges to the mainland, and the majority of the population was unconcerned by the rain clouds that began rolling in by midmorning. According to his memoirs, Isaac Cline personally traveled by horse along the beach and other low-lying areas to warn people of the storm's approach. However, these accounts by Cline and his brother, Galveston meteorologist Joseph L. Cline, have been in dispute since. Although Isaac Cline is credited with issuing a hurricane warning without permission from the Bureau's central office, author Erik Larson points to his earlier insistence that a seawall was unnecessary and his notion that an intense hurricane could not strike the island, with Cline even considering it "simply an absurd delusion" to believe otherwise. Further, according to Larson, no other survivors are known to have corroborated these accounts. ## Impact ### Caribbean Antigua reported a severe thunderstorm passing over on August 30, with lower barometric pressures and 2.6 in (66.0 mm) of rain on the island. In Puerto Rico, the storm produced winds up to 43 mph (69 km/h) at San Juan. In Jamaica, heavy rainfall from the storm caused all rivers to swell. Floodwaters severely damaged banana plantations and washed away miles of railroads. Damage estimates ranged in the thousands of British pounds. Heavy rains fell in Cuba in association with the cyclone, including a peak 24-hour total of 12.58 in (319.5 mm) in the city of Santiago de Cuba. The city experienced its worst weather since 1877. The southern end of the city was submerged with about 5 ft (1.5 m) of water. Firefighters and police rescued and aided stranded residents. St. George, a German steamer, ran aground at Daiquirí. A telegraph from the mayor of Trinidad, who was asking for assistance from the U.S. occupation government, indicated that the storm destroyed all crops and left many people destitute. ### United States The Great Galveston hurricane made landfall on September 8, 1900, near Galveston, Texas. It had estimated winds of 140 mph (225 km/h) at landfall, making the cyclone a Category 4 storm on the modern day Saffir–Simpson scale. The hurricane caused great loss of life, with a death toll of between 6,000 and 12,000 people; the number most cited in official reports is 8,000, giving the storm the third-highest number of deaths of all Atlantic hurricanes, after the Great Hurricane of 1780 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998. The Galveston hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster to strike the United States. This loss of life can be attributed to the fact that officials for the Weather Bureau in Galveston brushed off the reports and they did not realize the threat. More than US\$34 million in damage occurred throughout the United States, with about US\$30 million in Galveston County, Texas, alone. If a similar storm struck in 2010, damage would total approximately US\$104.33 billion (2010 USD), based on normalization, a calculation that takes into account changes in inflation, wealth, and population. In comparison, the costliest United States hurricanes – Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Harvey in 2017 – both caused about US\$125 billion in damage. The hurricane occurred before the practice of assigning official code names to tropical storms was instituted, and thus it is commonly referred to under a variety of descriptive names. Typical names for the storm include the Galveston hurricane of 1900, the Great Galveston hurricane, and, especially in older documents and publications, the Galveston Flood. It is often referred to by Galveston locals as the Great Storm of 1900 or the 1900 Storm. #### Florida to Louisiana Portions of South Florida experienced tropical storm-force winds, with a sustained wind speed of 48 mph (77 km/h) in Jupiter and 40 mph (64 km/h) in Key West. The hurricane left "considerable damage" in the Palm Beach area, according to The New York Times. Many small boats were torn from their moorings and capsized. The bulkhead of the pier was washed away, while docks and several seawalls were damaged. Rainfall in the state peaked at 5.7 in (140 mm) in Hypoluxo. High winds in North Florida downed telegraph lines between Jacksonville and Pensacola. In Mississippi, the city of Pass Christian recorded winds of 58 mph (93 km/h). Tides produced by the storm inundated about 200 ft (61 m) of railroad tracks in Pascagoula (then known as Scranton), while a quarantine station on Ship Island was swept away. In Louisiana, the storm produced gale-force winds as far inland as DeRidder and as far east as New Orleans, with hurricane-force winds observed in Cameron Parish. Along the coast, storm surge inundated Johnson Bayou, while tides at some locations reached their highest level since the 1875 Indianola hurricane. Winds and storm surge caused severe damage to rice crops, with at least 25% destroyed throughout the state. The community of Pointe à la Hache experienced a near-total loss of rice crops. Farther east, roads were flooded by storm surge in the communities of Gretna and Harvey near New Orleans, leaving the streets impassable via horses. Winds downed telegraph lines in the southeastern Louisiana in the vicinity of Port Eads. Two men were initially presumed to have drowned after sailing away from Fort St. Philip and not returning in a timely manner, but they were both later found alive. #### Texas Nearly all of the damage in the United States occurred in Texas, with much of the damage in Galveston. However, many communities outside of Galveston also suffered serious damage, with several cities reporting a near or complete loss of all buildings or homes, including Alta Loma, Alvin, Angleton, Brazoria, Brookshire, Chenango, El Campo, Pearland, and Richmond. Throughout Texas – in areas other than Galveston – at least \$3 million in damage occurred to cotton crops, \$75,000 to telegraph and telephone poles, and \$60,000 to railroads. At Alvin, 8.05 in (204 mm) of rain fell on September 8, the highest 24-hour total for that city in the month of September. The city suffered nine fatalities and about \$50,000 in damage. In West Columbia, the storm destroyed the old capitol building of the former Republic of Texas. Eight deaths occurred in the city. In Quintana, the city experienced extensive damage during this storm and a flood in 1899, causing portions of the community to be abandoned. Throughout Brazoria County alone, the hurricane caused nearly \$200,000 in damage and 47 deaths. Houston also experienced significant damage. The hurricane wrought damage to many buildings, including a Masonic temple, a railroad powerhouse, an opera house, a courthouse, and many businesses, churches, homes, hotels, and school buildings. Streets were littered with branches from shade trees and downed electrical wires, leaving several roads completely impassable to cars. The city of Houston suffered about \$250,000 in damage and two deaths, one of which occurred when a man was struck by falling timber. A train heading for Galveston left Houston on the morning of September 8 at 9:45 a.m. CST (15:45 UTC). It found the tracks washed out, and passengers were forced to transfer to a relief train on parallel tracks to complete their journey. Even then, debris on the track slowed the train's progress to a crawl. The 95 travelers on the train from Beaumont found themselves at the Bolivar Peninsula waiting for the ferry that would carry them to the island. When it arrived, the high seas forced the ferry captain to give up on his attempt to dock. The train crew attempted to return the way they had come, but rising water blocked the train's path. Ten refugees from the Beaumont train sought shelter at the Point Bolivar lighthouse with 190 residents of Port Bolivar who were already there. The 85 who stayed with the train died when the storm surge overran the tops of the cars, while every person inside the lighthouse survived. ##### Galveston At the time of the 1900 hurricane, the highest point in the city of Galveston was only 8.7 ft (2.7 m) above sea level. The hurricane brought with it a storm surge of over 15 ft (4.6 m) that washed over the entire island. Storm surge and tides began flooding the city by the early morning hours of September 8. Water rose steadily from 3:00 p.m. (21:00 UTC) until approximately 7:30 p.m. (01:30 UTC September 9), when eyewitness accounts indicated that water rose about 4 ft (1.2 m) in just four seconds. An additional 5 ft (1.5 m) of water had flowed into portions of the city by 8:30 p.m. (02:30 UTC September 9). The cyclone dropped 9 in (230 mm) of precipitation in Galveston on September 8, setting a record for the most rainfall for any 24-hour period in the month of September in the city's history. The highest measured wind speed was 100 mph (160 km/h) just after 6:15 p.m. on September 8 (00:15 UTC September 9), but the Weather Bureau's anemometer was blown off the building shortly after that measurement was recorded. Contemporaneous estimates placed the maximum sustained wind speed at 120 mph (190 km/h). However, survivors reported observing bricks, slate, timbers, and other heavy objects becoming airborne, indicating that winds were likely stronger. Later estimates placed the hurricane at the higher Category 4 classification on the Saffir–Simpson scale. The lowest recorded barometric pressure was 964.4 mbar (28.48 inHg), but this was subsequently adjusted to the storm's official lowest measured central pressure of about 936 mbar (27.6 inHg). Few streets in the city escaped wind damage and all streets suffered water damage, with much of the destruction caused by storm surge. All bridges connecting the island to the mainland were washed away, while approximately 15 mi (24 km) of railroad track was destroyed. Winds and storm surge also downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires. The surge swept buildings off their foundations and dismantled them. Many buildings and homes destroyed other structures after being pushed into them by the waves, which even demolished structures built to withstand hurricanes. Every home in Galveston suffered damage, with 3,636 homes destroyed. Approximately 10,000 people in the city were left homeless, out of a total population of nearly 38,000. Portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White who moved from Galveston the day before the hurricane and survived, had his studio and much of his portfolio destroyed.The Tremont Hotel, where hundreds of people sought refuge during the storm, was severely damaged. All public buildings also suffered damage, including city hall – which was completely deroofed – a hospital, a city gas works, a city water works, and the custom house. The Grand Opera House also sustained extensive damage, but was quickly rebuilt. Three schools and St. Mary's University were nearly destroyed. Many places of worship in the city also received severe damage or were completely demolished. Of the 39 churches in Galveston, 25 experienced complete destruction, while the others received some degree of damage. During the storm, the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum, owned by the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word, was occupied by 93 children and 10 sisters. As tides began approaching the property, the sisters moved the children into the girl's dorm, as it was newer and sturdier. Realizing they were under threat, the sisters had the children repeatedly sing Queen of the Waves to calm them. As the collapse of the building appeared imminent, the sisters used a clothesline to tie themselves to six to eight children. The building eventually collapsed. Only three of the children and none of the sisters survived. The few buildings that survived, mostly solidly built mansions and houses along the Strand District, are today maintained as tourist attractions. Early property damage estimates were placed at \$25 million. However, itemized estimates from 1901 based on assessments conducted by the Galveston News, the Galveston chamber of commerce, a relief committee, and multiple insurance companies indicated that the storm caused just over \$17 million in damage throughout Galveston, including about \$8.44 million to residential properties, \$500,000 to churches, \$656,000 to wharves and shipping properties, \$580,000 to manufacturing plants, \$397,000 to mercantile buildings, \$1.4 million to store merchandise, \$670,000 to railroads and telegraph and telephone services, \$416,000 to products in shipment, \$336,000 to municipality properties, \$243,000 to county properties, and \$3.16 million to United States government properties. The total also included \$115,000 in damage to schools and approximately \$100,000 in damage to roads. The area of destruction – an area in which nothing remained standing after the storm – consisted of approximately 1,900 acres (768.9 ha) of land and was arc-shaped, with complete demolition of structures in the west, south, and eastern portions of the city, while the north-central section of the city suffered the least amount of damage. In the immediate aftermath of the storm, a 3 mi (4.8 km) long, 30 ft (9.1 m) wall of debris was situated in the middle of the island. As severe as the damage to the city's buildings was, the death toll was even greater. Because of the destruction of the bridges to the mainland and the telegraph lines, no word of the city's destruction was able to reach the mainland at first. On the morning of September 9, one of the few ships at the Galveston wharfs to survive the storm, the Pherabe, set sail and arrived in Texas City on the western side of Galveston Bay with a group of messengers from the city. When they reached the telegraph office in Houston early on September 10, a short message was sent to Texas Governor Joseph D. Sayers and U.S. President William McKinley: "I have been deputized by the mayor and Citizen's Committee of Galveston to inform you that the city of Galveston is in ruins." The messengers reported an estimated five hundred dead; this was initially considered to be an exaggeration. The citizens of Houston knew a powerful storm had blown through and had prepared to provide assistance. Workers set out by rail and ship for the island almost immediately. Rescuers arrived to find the city completely destroyed. A survey conducted by the Morrison and Fourmy Company in early 1901 indicated a population loss of 8,124, though the company believed that about 2,000 people left the city after the storm and never returned. On this basis, the death toll is no less than 6,000, while estimates range up to 12,000. It is believed 8,000 people—20% of the island's population—had lost their lives. Most had drowned or been crushed as the waves pounded the debris that had been their homes hours earlier. A number of fatalities also occurred after strong winds turned debris into projectiles. Many survived the storm itself but died after several days being trapped under the wreckage of the city, with rescuers unable to reach them. The rescuers could hear the screams of the survivors as they walked on the debris trying to rescue those they could. More people were killed in this single storm than the total of those killed in at least the next two deadliest tropical cyclones that have struck the United States since. The Galveston hurricane of 1900 remains the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history. The disaster did not even spare the buried dead; a number of coffins, including reportedly that of actor-playwright Charles Francis Coghlan who had died in Galveston the previous year, were washed out of the local cemetery to sea by the tidal storm surge. #### Midwest After moving northward from Texas into Oklahoma, the storm produced winds of near 30 mph (48 km/h) at Oklahoma City. The extratropical remnants of the cyclone then re-intensified to the equivalence of a tropical storm and continued to strengthen, bringing strong winds to the Midwestern United States. High winds in Missouri toppled a brick wall under construction in St. Joseph, killing a man and severely injuring another. In Illinois, particularly hard hit was the city of Chicago, which experienced wind gusts up to 84 mph (135 km/h). Thousands of dollars in damage occurred to roofs, trees, signs, and windows. Several people were injured and two deaths occurred in the city, one from a live wire and the other was a drowning after a boat capsized in Lake Michigan. In Wisconsin, many weather stations in the northern and central portions of the state recorded at least 1 in (25 mm) of rainfall, including a peak total of 4.25 in (108 mm) in Shawano. Heavy rains fell in parts of Minnesota. The Minneapolis–Saint Paul area recorded 4.23 in (107 mm) of precipitation over a period of 16 hours. Farther north, several washouts occurred, especially in the northern areas of the state. A bridge, along with a few train cars, were swept away during a washout in Cold Spring. In Michigan, the storm produced winds around 60 mph (97 km/h) at Muskegon. Tides from Lake Michigan were the highest in several months. According to The Times Herald, the city of Marshall experienced "the severest windstorm of the season", which uprooted trees and damaged several buildings. Throughout the state, winds left at least \$12,000 in losses to peach orchards, with many peach trees uprooted. Significant losses to apples and pears also occurred. Rough seas in Lake Erie resulted in several maritime incidents offshore Ohio. The John B. Lyon, a 255 ft (77.7 m) steamer, capsized about 5 mi (8.0 km) north of Conneaut. Fourteen out of sixteen crew members drowned. A survivor suggested that the ship being overloaded may have been a factor in its sinking. About 10 mi (16 km) farther north, the schooner Dundee sank, causing at least one death. In another incident nearby, the steamer City of Erie, with about 300 passengers aboard, was hit by a wave that swept over the bulwarks. The engine slowed and the steamers later reached safety in Canada with no loss of lives. In Toledo, strong winds disrupted telegraph services. Winds also blew water out of parts of the Maumee River and Maumee Bay to such an extent that they were impassable by vessels due to low water levels. A number of vessels were buried in mud several feet deep, while about 20 others were beached. #### New York Of the many cities in New York affected by the remnants of the hurricane, Buffalo was among the hardest hit. There, winds peaked at 78 mph (126 km/h), downing hundreds of electrical, telegraph, and telephone wires, while numerous trees toppled and some branches fell onto roadways. An oil derrick blew away and landed on the roof of a house, crushing the roof and nearly killing the occupants. A newly built iron works building was virtually destroyed, causing a loss of about \$10,000. At the Pan-American Exposition, the storm damaged several structures, including part of the government building, while two towers were destroyed. Losses at the exposition alone were conservatively estimated at \$75,000. One death occurred in Buffalo after a woman inadvertently touched a downed electrical wire obscured by debris. Several nearby resorts received extensive damage. At Woodlawn Beach, several dozens of small boats and a pier were destroyed. Nearly all vessels owned by the Buffalo Canoe Club suffered severe damage or destruction at Crystal Beach. A toboggan slide and a restaurant were also destroyed. Losses in Crystal Beach reached about \$5,000. Heavy crop losses occurred over western New York, with fallen apples and peaches completely covering the ground at thousands of acres of orchards. Losses reportedly ranged in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The rapidly moving storm was still exhibiting winds of 65 mph (105 km/h) while passing well north of New York City on September 12. The New York Times reported that pedestrian-walking became difficult and attributed one death to the storm. A sign pole, snapped by the wind, landed on a 23-year-old man, crushing his skull and killing him instantly, while two others were knocked unconscious. Awnings and signs on many buildings broke and the canvas roofing at the Fire Department headquarters was blown off. Closer to the waterfront, along the Battery seawall, waves and tides were reported to be some of the highest in recent memory of the fishermen and sailors. Spray and debris were thrown over the wall, making walking along the waterfront dangerous. Small craft in New York Harbor were thrown off course and tides and currents in the Hudson River made navigation difficult. In Brooklyn, The New York Times reported that trees were uprooted, signs and similar structures were blown down, and yachts were torn from moorings with some suffering severe damage. Because of the direction of the wind, Coney Island escaped the fury of the storm, though a bathing pavilion at Bath Beach suffered damage from wind and waves. #### New England In Connecticut, winds gusted up to about 40 mph (64 km/h). The apple crops, already endangered by drought conditions, suffered severe damage, with The Boston Globe noting that there was, "hardly an apple left on a tree in the entire state". In the town of Orange, twelve large tents at a fair were ripped. At another fair in New Milford, fifteen tents collapsed, forcing closure of the fair. Along the coast, the storm produced abnormally high tides, with tides reaching their highest heights in six years at Westbrook. Water reached the bulkheads and remained there for several hours. In Rhode Island, the storm left damage in the vicinity of Providence. Telegraph and telephone services were interrupted, but not to such a large extent. Some small crafts in Narragansett Bay received damage, while apple orchards experienced slight losses. Lightning produced by the storm ignited several brush fires in Massachusetts, particularly in the southeastern portions of the state, with winds spreading the flames. In Plymouth and other nearby towns, some residents evacuated from the fires by boat. Most cottages around the Big Long, Gallows, Halfway, and Little Long ponds were reduced to burning coals. In Everett, orchards in the Woodlawn section suffered complete losses of fruit. Two wooden frame building were demolished, while winds also toppled fences throughout the city. Winds damaged many telephone and electric wires in Cambridge. A lineman sent to fix the electrical wires nearly died when a pole snapped during a fierce wind gust. Orchards in the city suffered near complete loss and many shade trees were also damaged. At least a few chimneys toppled and several others were left leaning. A bathhouse at Harvard University lost a portion of its tin roof and its copper cornices. At Cape Cod, a wind speed of 45 mph (72 km/h) was observed at Highland Light in North Truro. Waves breached the sand dunes at multiple locations along the cape, with water sweeping across a county road at Beach Point in North Truro. A number of fishing boats sank and several fish houses received severe damage. One man drowned in a lake near Andover while canoeing during the storm. Strong winds in Vermont generated rough seas in Lake Champlain. Early reports indicated that a schooner sunk near Adams Ferry with no survivors, but the vessel was later found safely anchored at Westport, New York. According to a man near the lake, all water from the New York portion of the lake was blown to the Vermont side, crashing ashore in waves as high as 15 to 20 ft (4.6 to 6.1 m). In the state capital of Montpelier, several large trees at the state house were uprooted. Within Montpelier and vicinity, farmers suffered some losses to apples and corn. Telephone and telegraph services were almost completely cut off. In Vergennes, a number of telephone wires snapped, while many apples, pears, and plums were blown off the trees. Additional damage to fruit and shade trees occurred in Middlebury and Winooski. The city of Burlington experienced its worst storm in many years. Winds downed all telephone and telegraph wires, whereas many trees had severe damage. Some homes were deroofed. In New Hampshire, the storm left wind damage in the city of Nashua. Winds tore roofs off a number of buildings, with several roofs landing on the streets or telephone wires. Chimneys in each section of the city collapsed; many people narrowly escaped injury or death. In Nashua and the nearby cities of Brookline and Hollis, thousands of dollars in losses occurred to apple crops, described as "practically ruined". The city of Manchester was affected by "one of the most furious windstorms which visited this city in years". Telephone and telegraph communications were nearly completely out for several hours, while windows shattered and trees snapped. Street railway traffic experienced delays. In Maine, the storm downed trees and chimney and caused property damage in the vicinity of Biddeford. ### Canada From September 12–September 14, the extratropical remnants of the Galveston hurricane affected six Canadian provinces, resulting in severe damage and extensive loss of life. In Ontario, storm surge in Lake Ontario ranged from 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m), wreaking havoc on vessels, beaching several boats, destroying a number of boats, and setting some others adrift. Many other vessels canceled or postponed their departures. Winds reached as high as 77 mph (124 km/h) in Toronto, breaking windows throughout the city. A fire broke out at a flour mill in Paris, and the flames were fanned by the storm, resulting in \$350,000 in damage to the mill and 50 other stores and offices. High winds downed electrical, telegraph, and telephone lines in many areas. Total crop damage in Ontario alone amounted to \$1 million. Impact to crops was particularly severe at St. Catharines, where many apple, peach, pear, and plum orchards were extensively damaged, with a loss of thousands of dollars. One person died in Niagara Falls, when a man attempted to remove debris from a pump station, but he was swept away into the river instead. Maximum rainfall in Canada reached 3.9 in (100 mm) in Percé, Quebec. In Nova Scotia, damage was reported in the Halifax area. A plethora of fences and trees fell over, while windows shattered and a house under construction collapsed. Two schooners were driven ashore at Sydney and a brigantine was also beached at Cape Breton Island. Another schooner, known as Greta, capsized offshore Cape Breton Island near Low Point, with the fate of the crew being unknown. On Prince Edward Island, a few barns, a windmill, and a lobster factory were destroyed. Falling trees downed about 40 electrical wires. A house suffered damage after its own chimney fell and collapsed through the roof. Strong winds also tossed a boxcar from its track. A bridge and wharf at St. Peters Bay were damaged. Fruit crops were almost entirely ruined throughout Prince Edward Island. The majority of loss of life in Canada occurred due to numerous shipwrecks off the coasts of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island. The overall death toll in Canadian waters is estimated to be between 52 and 232, making this at least the eighth deadliest hurricane to affect Canada. The large discrepancy between the fatality figures is due to the fact that many people were reported missing. Thus, the exact number of deaths is unknown. ## Aftermath The city of Galveston was effectively obliterated. With the city in ruins and railroads to the mainland destroyed, the survivors had little to live on until relief arrived. On September 9, Galveston city officials established the Central Relief Committee for Galveston Storm Sufferers (CRC), chaired by Mayor Walter C. Jones. The CRC was composed of subcommittees for specifics aspects of relief efforts, including burial of the deceased, correspondence, distribution of food and water, finances, hospitalization and rehabilitation for the injured, and public safety. The dead bodies were so numerous that burying all of them was impossible. Initially, bodies were collected by "dead gangs" and then given to 50 African American men – who were forcibly recruited at gunpoint – to load them onto a barge. About 700 bodies were taken out to sea to be dumped. However, after gulf currents washed many of the bodies back onto the beach, a new solution was needed. Funeral pyres were set up on the beaches, or wherever dead bodies were found, and burned day and night for several weeks after the storm. The authorities passed out free whiskey to sustain the distraught men conscripted for the gruesome work of collecting and burning the dead. With thousands dead and roughly 2,000 survivors leaving the city and never returning according to a Morrison and Fourmy Company survey, Galveston initially experienced a significant population decline. Between 1907 and 1914, Congregation B'nai Israel rabbi Henry Cohen and philanthropist Jacob Schiff spearheaded the Galveston Movement. Cohen, Schiff, and others created the movement to draw Jewish immigrants away from the crowded area along the East Coast and toward cities farther west, such as Galveston. Although approximately 10,000 Jewish immigrants arrived in Galveston during this period, few settled in the city or the island, but about one-fourth of them remained in Texas. The 1910 Census reported a population of 36,891 people in Galveston. Although a decline from the 1900 Census, the population loss of thousands of people was nearly reversed. In the months prior to the hurricane, valet Charles F. Jones and lawyer Albert T. Patrick began conspiring to murder wealthy businessman William Marsh Rice in order to obtain his wealth. Patrick fabricated Rice's legal will with the assistance of Jones. Rice's properties in Galveston suffered extensive damage during the storm. After being informed of the damage, Rice decided to spend \$250,000, the entire balance of his checking account, on repairing his properties. With the duo realizing that they would fail to obtain Rice's wealth, Patrick convinced Jones to kill Rice with chloroform as he slept. Immediately after murdering Rice, Jones forged a large check to Patrick in Rice's name. However, Jones misspelled Patrick's name on the check, arousing suspicion and eventually resulting in their arrests and convictions. Rice's estate was used to open an institute for higher learning in Houston in 1912, which was named Rice University in his honor. ### Rebuilding Survivors set up temporary shelters in surplus United States Army tents along the shore. They were so numerous that observers began referring to Galveston as the "White City on the Beach". In the first two weeks following the storm, approximately 17,000 people resided in these tents, vacant storerooms, or public buildings. Others constructed so-called "storm lumber" homes, using salvageable material from the debris to build shelter. The building committee, with a budget of \$450,000, opened applications for money to rebuild and repair homes. Accepted applicants were given enough money to build a cottage with three 12 by 12 ft (3.7 by 3.7 m) rooms. By March 1901, 1,073 cottages were built and 1,109 homes had been repaired. Winifred Bonfils, a young journalist working for William Randolph Hearst, was the first reporter on the line at the hurricane's ground zero in Galveston. She delivered an exclusive set of reports and Hearst sent relief supplies by train. By September 12, Galveston received its first post-storm mail. The next day, basic water service was restored, and Western Union began providing minimal telegraph service. Within three weeks of the storm, cotton was again being shipped out of the port. A number of cities, businesses, organizations, and individuals made monetary donations toward rebuilding Galveston. By September 15, less than one week after the storm struck Galveston, contributions totaled about \$1.5 million. More than \$134,000 in donations poured in from New York City alone. Five other major cities – St. Louis, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia – had also donated at least \$15,000 by September 15. By state, the largest donations included \$228,000 from New York, \$67,000 from Texas, \$56,000 from Illinois, \$53,000 from Massachusetts, and \$52,000 from Missouri. Contributions also came from abroad, such as from Canada, Mexico, France, Germany, England, and South Africa, including \$10,000 each from Liverpool and Paris. Andrew Carnegie made the largest personal contribution, \$10,000, while an additional \$10,000 was donated by his steel company. Clara Barton, the founder and president of the American Red Cross and famous for her responses to crises in the latter half of the 19th century, responded to the disaster and visited Galveston with a team of eight Red Cross workers. This would be the last disaster that Barton responded to, as she was 78 years old at the time and would retire in 1904. After Barton and the team observed the catastrophe, the Red Cross set up a temporary headquarters at a four-story warehouse in the commercial district. Her presence in Galveston and appeals for contributions resulted in a substantial amount of donations. Overall, 258 barrels, 1,552 pillow cases, and 13 casks of bedding, clothing, crockery, disinfectants, groceries, hardware, medical supplies, and shoes were received at the warehouse, while \$17,341 in cash was donated to the Red Cross. Contributions, both monetary gifts and supplies, were estimated to have reached about \$120,000. Before the hurricane of 1900, Galveston was considered to be a beautiful and prestigious city and was known as the "Ellis Island of the West" and the "Wall Street of the Southwest". However, after the storm, development shifted north to Houston, which reaped the benefits of the oil boom, particularly after the discovery of oil at Spindletop on January 10, 1901. The dredging of the Houston Ship Channel began by 1909, which opened in 1914, ending Galveston's hopes of regaining its former status as a major commercial center. The Galveston city government was reorganized into a commission government in 1901, a newly devised structure wherein the government is made of a small group of commissioners, each responsible for one aspect of governance. This was prompted by fears that the existing city council would be unable to handle the problem of rebuilding the city. The apparent success of the new form of government inspired about 500 cities across the United States to adopt a commission government by 1920. However, the commission government fell out of favor after World War I, with Galveston itself switching to council–manager government in 1960. ### Protection To prevent future storms from causing destruction like that of the 1900 hurricane, many improvements to the island were made. The city of Galveston hired a team of three engineers to design structures for protection from future storms – Alfred Noble, Henry Martyn Robert, and H. C. Ripley. The three engineers recommended and designed a seawall. In November 1902, residents of Galveston overwhelmingly approved a bond referendum to fund building a seawall, passing the measure by a vote of 3,085–21. The first 3 mi (4.8 km) of the Galveston Seawall, 17 ft (5.2 m) high, were built beginning in 1902 under the direction of Robert. In July 1904, the first segment was completed, though construction of the seawall continued for several decades, with the final segment finished in 1963. Upon completion, the seawall in its entirety stretched for more than 10 mi (16 km). Another dramatic effort to protect Galveston was its raising, also recommended by Noble, Robert, and Ripley, and similar to the earlier raising of Chicago and Sacramento, California. Approximately 15,000,000 cu yd (11,000,000 m³) of sand was dredged from the Galveston shipping channel to raise the city, some sections by as much as 17 ft (5.2 m). Over 2,100 buildings were raised in the process of pumping sand underneath, including the 3,000-st (2,700-t) St. Patrick's Church. According to historian David G. McComb, the grade of about 500 blocks had been raised by 1911. The seawall was listed among the National Register of Historic Places on August 18, 1977, while the seawall and raising of the island were jointly named a National Historical Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers on October 11, 2001. In 1915, a storm similar in strength and track to the 1900 hurricane struck Galveston. The 1915 storm brought storm surge up to 12 ft (3.7 m), testing the integrity of the new seawall. Although 53 people on Galveston Island lost their lives in the 1915 storm, this was a great reduction from the thousands who died in 1900. Other powerful tropical cyclones would test the effectiveness of the seawall, including Hurricane Carla in 1961, Hurricane Alicia in 1983, and Hurricane Ike in 2008. Carla primarily caused severe coastal flood-related damage to structures unprotected by the seawall. Following Hurricane Alicia, the Corps of Engineers estimated that the seawall prevented about \$100 million in damage. Despite the seawall, Ike left extensive destruction in Galveston due to storm surge, with preliminary estimates indicating that up to \$2 billion in damage occurred to beaches, dwellings, hospitals, infrastructure, and ports. Damage in Galveston and surrounding areas prompted proposals for improvements to the seawall, including the addition of floodgates and more seawalls. ### Open Era and beyond In historiography, the hurricane and the rebuilding afterward divide what is known as the Golden Era (1875–1900) from the Open Era (1920–1957) of Galveston. The most important long-term impact of the hurricane was to confirm fears that Galveston was a dangerous place to make major investments in shipping and manufacturing operations; the economy of the Golden Era was no longer possible as investors fled. However, the city experienced a significant economic rebound beginning in the 1920s, when Prohibition and lax law enforcement opened up new opportunities for criminal enterprises related to gambling and bootlegging in the city. Galveston rapidly became a prime resort destination enabled by the open vice businesses on the island. This new entertainment-based economy brought decades-long prosperity to the island. To commemorate the hurricane's 100th anniversary in 2000, the 1900 Storm Committee was established and began meeting in January 1998. The committee and then-Mayor of Galveston, Roger Quiroga, planned several public events in remembrance of the storm, including theatrical plays, an educational fundraising luncheon, a candlelight memorial service, a 5K run, the rededication of a commemorative Clara Barton plaque, and the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument. At the dedication of the Place of Remembrance Monument, the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word sang "Queen of the Waves" and placed 10 roses and 90 other flowers around the monument to commemorate the 10 nuns and 90 children who perished after the hurricane destroyed the St. Mary's Orphans Asylum. Speakers at the candlelight memorial service included U. S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison, who was born in Galveston; Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration D. James Baker; and CBS Evening News anchor Dan Rather, who gained fame for his coverage during Hurricane Carla in 1961. The Daily News published a special 100th anniversary commemorative edition newspaper on September 3, 2000. The last reported survivor of the Galveston hurricane of 1900, Maude Conic of Wharton, Texas, died November 14, 2004, at the claimed age of 116, although the 1900 census and other records indicate she was about 10 years younger than that. The Galveston Historical Foundation maintains the Texas Seaport Museum at Pier 21 in the port of Galveston. Included in the museum is a documentary titled The Great Storm, that gives a recounting of the 1900 hurricane. ## See also - History of Galveston, Texas - Hurricane Harvey (2017) - Took a similar track and devastated southeastern Texas. - Hurricane Laura (2020) — Took a nearly identical track in 2020. - 1775 Newfoundland hurricane – Deadliest Canadian hurricane on record - Great Hurricane of 1780 – Deadliest Atlantic hurricane recorded - 1959 Mexico hurricane – The deadliest hurricane in Mexico - 1970 Bhola cyclone – The deadliest tropical cyclone on record, worldwide - Isaac's Storm – Erik Larson's non-fiction book recounting the hurricane and the life of Galveston meteorologist Isaac Cline - "Wasn't That a Mighty Storm" – An American folk song about the 1900 Galveston hurricane, later popularized by musicians such as Eric Von Schmidt and Tom Rush

Krypton

Krypton (from Ancient Greek: κρυπτός, romanized: kryptos 'the hidden one') is a chemical element with the symbol Kr and atomic number 36. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas that occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent lamps. Krypton is chemically inert. Krypton, like the other noble gases, is used in lighting and photography. Krypton light has many spectral lines, and krypton plasma is useful in bright, high-powered gas lasers (krypton ion and excimer lasers), each of which resonates and amplifies a single spectral line. Krypton fluoride also makes a useful laser medium. From 1960 to 1983, the official definition of meter was based on the wavelength of one spectral line of krypton-86, because of the high power and relative ease of operation of krypton discharge tubes. ## History Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by William Ramsay, a Scottish chemist, and Morris Travers, an English chemist, in residue left from evaporating nearly all components of liquid air. Neon was discovered by a similar procedure by the same workers just a few weeks later. William Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble gases, including krypton. In 1960, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures defined the meter as 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of light emitted in the vacuum corresponding to the transition between the 2p₁₀ and 5d₅ levels in the isotope krypton-86. This agreement replaced the 1889 international prototype meter, which was a metal bar located in Sèvres. This also obsoleted the 1927 definition of the ångström based on the red cadmium spectral line, replacing it with 1 Å = 10⁻¹⁰ m. The krypton-86 definition lasted until the October 1983 conference, which redefined the meter as the distance that light travels in vacuum during 1/299,792,458 s. ## Characteristics Krypton is characterized by several sharp emission lines (spectral signatures) the strongest being green and yellow. Krypton is one of the products of uranium fission. Solid krypton is white and has a face-centered cubic crystal structure, which is a common property of all noble gases (except helium, which has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure). ### Isotopes Naturally occurring krypton in Earth's atmosphere is composed of five stable isotopes, plus one isotope (⁷⁸Kr) with such a long half-life (9.2×10²¹ years) that it can be considered stable. (This isotope has the second-longest known half-life among all isotopes for which decay has been observed; it undergoes double electron capture to ⁷⁸Se). In addition, about thirty unstable isotopes and isomers are known. Traces of ⁸¹Kr, a cosmogenic nuclide produced by the cosmic ray irradiation of ⁸⁰Kr, also occur in nature: this isotope is radioactive with a half-life of 230,000 years. Krypton is highly volatile and does not stay in solution in near-surface water, but ⁸¹Kr has been used for dating old (50,000–800,000 years) groundwater. ⁸⁵Kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half-life of 10.76 years. It is produced by the fission of uranium and plutonium, such as in nuclear bomb testing and nuclear reactors. ⁸⁵Kr is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors. Concentrations at the North Pole are 30% higher than at the South Pole due to convective mixing. ### Chemistry Like the other noble gases, krypton is chemically highly unreactive. The rather restricted chemistry of krypton in the +2 oxidation state parallels that of the neighboring element bromine in the +1 oxidation state; due to the scandide contraction it is difficult to oxidize the 4p elements to their group oxidation states. Until the 1960s no noble gas compounds had been synthesized. Following the first successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962, synthesis of krypton difluoride (KrF ₂) was reported in 1963. In the same year, KrF ₄ was reported by Grosse, et al., but was subsequently shown to be a mistaken identification. Under extreme conditions, krypton reacts with fluorine to form KrF₂ according to the following equation: Kr + F2 -\> KrF2 Krypton gas in a krypton fluoride laser absorbs energy from a source, causing the krypton to react with fluorine gas, producing the exciplex krypton fluoride, a temporary complex in an excited energy state: 2Kr + F2 -\> 2KrF The complex can undergo spontaneous or stimulated emission, reducing its energy state to a metastable, but highly repulsive ground state. The ground state complex quickly dissociates into unbound atoms: 2KrF -\> 2Kr + F2 The result is an exciplex laser which radiates energy at 248 nm, near the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum, corresponding with the energy difference between the ground state and the excited state of the complex. Compounds with krypton bonded to atoms other than fluorine have also been discovered. There are also unverified reports of a barium salt of a krypton oxoacid. ArKr⁺ and KrH⁺ polyatomic ions have been investigated and there is evidence for KrXe or KrXe⁺. The reaction of KrF ₂ with B(OTeF ₅) ₃ produces an unstable compound, Kr(OTeF ₅) ₂, that contains a krypton-oxygen bond. A krypton-nitrogen bond is found in the cation [HC≡N–Kr–F], produced by the reaction of KrF ₂ with [HC≡NH][AsF] below −50 °C. HKrCN and HKrC≡CH (krypton hydride-cyanide and hydrokryptoacetylene) were reported to be stable up to 40 K. Krypton hydride (Kr(H₂)₄) crystals can be grown at pressures above 5 GPa. They have a face-centered cubic structure where krypton octahedra are surrounded by randomly oriented hydrogen molecules. ### Natural occurrence Earth has retained all of the noble gases that were present at its formation except helium. Krypton's concentration in the atmosphere is about 1 ppm. It can be extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation. The amount of krypton in space is uncertain, because measurement is derived from meteoric activity and solar winds. The first measurements suggest an abundance of krypton in space. ## Applications Krypton's multiple emission lines make ionized krypton gas discharges appear whitish, which in turn makes krypton-based bulbs useful in photography as a white light source. Krypton is used in some photographic flashes for high speed photography. Krypton gas is also combined with mercury to make luminous signs that glow with a bright greenish-blue light. Krypton is mixed with argon in energy efficient fluorescent lamps, reducing the power consumption, but also reducing the light output and raising the cost. Krypton costs about 100 times as much as argon. Krypton (along with xenon) is also used to fill incandescent lamps to reduce filament evaporation and allow higher operating temperatures. Krypton's white discharge is sometimes used as an artistic effect in gas discharge "neon" tubes. Krypton produces much higher light power than neon in the red spectral line region, and for this reason, red lasers for high-power laser light-shows are often krypton lasers with mirrors that select the red spectral line for laser amplification and emission, rather than the more familiar helium-neon variety, which could not achieve the same multi-watt outputs. The krypton fluoride laser is important in nuclear fusion energy research in confinement experiments. The laser has high beam uniformity, short wavelength, and the spot size can be varied to track an imploding pellet. In experimental particle physics, liquid krypton is used to construct quasi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeters. A notable example is the calorimeter of the NA48 experiment at CERN containing about 27 tonnes of liquid krypton. This usage is rare, since liquid argon is less expensive. The advantage of krypton is a smaller Molière radius of 4.7 cm, which provides excellent spatial resolution with little overlapping. The other parameters relevant for calorimetry are: radiation length of X₀=4.7 cm, and density of 2.4 g/cm³. Krypton-83 has application in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for imaging airways. In particular, it enables the radiologist to distinguish between hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces containing an airway. Although xenon has potential for use in computed tomography (CT) to assess regional ventilation, its anesthetic properties limit its fraction in the breathing gas to 35%. A breathing mixture of 30% xenon and 30% krypton is comparable in effectiveness for CT to a 40% xenon fraction, while avoiding the unwanted effects of a high partial pressure of xenon gas. The metastable isotope krypton-81m is used in nuclear medicine for lung ventilation/perfusion scans, where it is inhaled and imaged with a gamma camera. Krypton-85 in the atmosphere has been used to detect clandestine nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities in North Korea and Pakistan. Those facilities were detected in the early 2000s and were believed to be producing weapons-grade plutonium. Krypton-85 is a medium lived fission product and thus escapes from spent fuel when the cladding is removed. Krypton is used occasionally as an insulating gas between window panes. SpaceX Starlink uses krypton as a propellant for their electric propulsion system. ## Precautions Krypton is considered to be a non-toxic asphyxiant. Being lipophilic, krypton has a significant anaesthetic effect (although the mechanism of this phenomenon is still not fully clear, there is good evidence that the two properties are mechanistically related), with narcotic potency seven times greater than air, and breathing an atmosphere of 50% krypton and 50% natural air (as might happen in the locality of a leak) causes narcosis in humans similar to breathing air at four times atmospheric pressure. This is comparable to scuba diving at a depth of 30 m (100 ft) and could affect anyone breathing it.

Ich lasse dich nicht, du segnest mich denn, BWV 157

Church cantata by J. S. Bach

Ich lasse dich nicht, du segnest mich denn (I will not let you go, unless you bless me), BWV 157, is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach. He composed it in Leipzig in 1726/27 to a libretto by Picander. The first known performance was on 6 February 1727 during a memorial service for Johann Christoph von Ponickau in Pomßen near Leipzig. The work was later assigned to the feast of the Purification celebrated on 2 February. Picander included a quotation from in the first movement, and the last stanza of Christian Keymann's "Meinen Jesum laß ich nicht" in the closing chorale. The contemplation begins with the Old Testament quotation being applied to Jesus, and leads to the last aria expressing an eager wish for death to arrive soon. The closing chorale picks up the first line. Bach structured the cantata in five movements. The original "chamber music" version (as reconstructed by Klaus Hofmann) was scored for two vocal soloists, tenor and bass, a four-part choir, and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of flauto traverso, oboe d'amore and continuo. In the later version, there are parts also for oboe, two violins and violetta. ## History and text The cantata appears to have been commissioned as a funeral cantata for Johann Christoph von Ponickau, a Saxon chamberlain. Picander, Bach's librettist, clearly linked the cantata to Ponickau, publishing an extended funeral ode followed by the text of the cantata. The first known performance was during a memorial service for Ponickau on 6 February 1727 in the church of his home village of Pomßen, 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Leipzig. A printed commemoration sermon survived, with some information about the music performed which included a second Bach cantata, the now lost Liebster Gott, vergißt du mich, BWV Anh. 209. That work was written to a libretto published by Georg Christian Lehms in his Gottgefälliges Kirchenopfer for the seventh Sunday after Trinity. For Ich lasse dich nicht, du segnest mich denn, Picander included a quotation from in the first movement, but the line from Jacob wrestling with the angel is understood as a believer addressing Jesus. The closing chorale is the last stanza of Christian Keymann's "Meinen Jesum laß ich nicht". The cantata appears to have been adapted for performance as part of Leipzig's church music, specifically for the Feast of the Purification of Mary celebrated on 2 February. The existence of more than one version is implied in the earliest surviving manuscripts, from after Bach's death, copied by Christian Friedrich Penzel. The primary surviving score dates from 1755, and there are parts from the 1760s. The prescribed readings for the feast day were from the book of Malachi, "the Lord will come to his temple" (), and the Gospel of Luke, the purification of Mary and the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, including Simeon's canticle Nunc dimittis (). The idea from Simeon's canticle to depart in peace has often been used as an image for the death of a Christian. Only copies of parts of the later version are extant. In 1962, the musicologist Klaus Hofmann" reconstructed the original version, which he described as chamber music using "an exquisite combination of solo instruments". ## Structure and scoring Bach structured the cantata in five movements, and scored it for two vocal soloists, tenor (T) and bass (B), a four-part choir only in the closing chorale, and a Baroque instrumental ensemble. According to the 1760 set of parts, the ensemble comprised flauto traverso (Ft), oboe (Ob), oboe d'amore (Oa), two violin parts (Vl), violetta (Vt) and basso continuo. Hofmann derived a version from the 1755 score for a smaller ensemble of flauto traverso, oboe and viola d'amore which may be closer to the one used for the first performance. The duration of the cantata is given as 21 minutes. In the following table of the movements, the scoring, keys and time signatures are taken from Dürr. The continuo, which plays throughout, is not shown. ## Music The opening movement sets a single line: the biblical quotation from Genesis which became the title of the cantata: "Ich lasse dich nicht, du segnest mich denn" (I will not let you go, unless you bless me). The movement has an eight-measure ritornello that opens, ends and bisects it, featuring a prominent imitative motif to the words "Ich lasse dich nicht". The two solo voices sing the theme, which was introduced by the continuo, in a canon. The movement is in six-part polyphony of the voices, flute, oboe d'amore and continuo. The counter subject is assigned to the blessing. The second movement, "Ich halte meinen Jesum feste" (I hold my Jesus tightly), is a tenor aria accompanied by continuo and obbligato oboe d'amore, which perform a long ritornello serving much the same structural function as in the first movement. Craig Smith suggests that this is "perhaps the single most difficult tenor aria in the whole repertoire", with "wild and extremely ornate melismas". The aria, in a mellow triple metre, rests on two motifs, one with long resting notes, illustrating faith, and coloraturas standing for "mit Gewalt" ("with force"). The difficulty of this vocal part is even higher as no orchestra helps or covers the voice. The tenor recitative, "Mein lieber Jesu du, wenn ich Verdruß und Kummer leide, so bist du meine Freude" (My dear Jesus, when I suffer oppression and torment, then You are my joy), is "lushly" accompanied by strings. It recalls some of the motivic material from the first movement. According to Julian Mincham, "these details serve to remind the modern listener, armed with a score, of Bach′s integrated approach to cantata architecture". The fourth movement, for bass, "Ja, ja, ich halte Jesum feste, so geh ich auch zum Himmel ein" (Yes, yes, I hold Jesus tightly, therefore I will also enter into heaven), combines elements of aria and recitative. The mood, in contrast to the earlier movements, turns to joyful, even exuberant expectation. The scoring of flute, violin and continuo evokes countless trio sonatas by George Frideric Handel, Georg Philipp Telemann and others. The music opens with a ritornello. Structurally, the movement completes most of a da capo aria before a recitative episode interrupts the reprise of the A section. The music moves between aria and recitative twice more before a final aria section ends the movement. The cantata ends with a four-part setting of the chorale, "Meinen Jesum laß ich nicht, geh ihm ewig an der Seiten" (I will not let go of my Jesus, I will walk beside Him forever), with a conjunct melody and active continuo line. The last line is the same as the first, connecting to the beginning of the cantata. ## Recordings Recordings of Ich lasse dich nicht, du segnest mich denn include: - Gächinger Kantorei Stuttgart / Bach-Collegium Stuttgart, Helmuth Rilling. Die Bach Kantate. Hänssler, 1983. - Kurt Equiluz, Max van Egmond, Leonhardt-Consort, Gustav Leonhardt, Bach cantatas (Teldec), vol. 38. 1986 - Holland Boys Choir / Netherlands Bach Collegium, Pieter Jan Leusink. Bach Edition Vol. 14. Brilliant Classics, 2001. - Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra & Choir, Ton Koopman. J. S. Bach: Complete Cantatas Vol. 18. Antoine Marchand, 2005. - Christoph Genz, Peter Kooy, Bach Collegium Japan, Masaaki Suzuki. J. S. Bach: Cantatas Vol. 51. BIS, 2012. - Georg Poplutz, Stephan MacLeod, Orchester der J. S. Bach-Stiftung, Rudolf Lutz. J. S. Bach: Cantatas Vol. 51. BIS, 2019.

Malta at the 2012 Summer Paralympics

Malta sent a delegation to compete at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, United Kingdom, from 29 August to 9 September 2012. This was the country's eighth appearance in a Summer Paralympic Games. The Maltese delegation consisted of a single short-distance swimmer: Matthew Sultana. In his three events, the men's 50 metres freestyle S10, the men's 100 metre butterfly S10 and the men's 100 metre breaststroke SB9, he failed to qualify beyond the first round. ## Background Malta debuted in the Paralympic movement at the 1960 Summer Paralympics. Excepting the period between 1988 and 2004, the island country had participated in eight Summer Paralympic Games and medalled a total of seven times in athletics, lawn bowls, snooker and table tennis. The 2012 Summer Paralympics were held from 29 August to 9 September 2012 with a total of 4,237 athletes representing 164 National Paralympic Committees. Matthew Sultana, a short-distance swimmer, was the sole athlete to represent Malta at the London Summer Paralympics; he was chosen as the country's flag bearer for the parade of nations during the opening ceremony. He and his coach Ebi Mohammadpour travelled to London on 30 August. Marathon runner Derren Fenech met the minimum qualifying standards for his event; a number of athletes who had times lower than three hours created an upper limit on participants and forced him to withdraw. ## Disability classification Every participant at the Paralympics has their disability grouped into one of five disability categories: amputation, which may be congenital or sustained through injury or illness; cerebral palsy; wheelchair athletes, though there is often overlap between this and other categories; visual impairment, including blindness; and Les autres, which is any physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other categories, like dwarfism or multiple sclerosis. Each Paralympic sport then has its own classifications, dependent upon the specific physical demands of competition. Events are given a code, made of numbers and letters, describing the type of event and classification of the athletes competing. Some sports, such as athletics, divide athletes by both the category and severity of their disabilities. Other sports, for example swimming, group competitors from different categories together, the only separation being based on the severity of the disability. ## Swimming At the time of the London Paralympics Matthew Sultana was 15 years old and was the only athlete to compete for Malta. He attained qualification to the Games by winning three age-group medals at an international meet in Berlin. Sultana has an upper limb deformity, and is classified S10 by the International Paralympic Committee. He trained with the non-government organisation Inspire for two and a half years and entered a classification race on 28 August to enable his participation. Sultana said his young age was unimportant and he entered the Paralympics to improve his personal best, "I want to shave off one second to 29 seconds in the 50m freestyle and possibly finish the 100m butterfly race in 1.20 or 1.19 instead of the present 1.24. I am here and it’s more than enough. I want to continue training to be ready for the next Paralympics in four years’ time." On 31 August, he competed in the men's 50 metres freestyle S10 competition and was assigned to take part in heat two. Sultana completed the heat in seventh place in a new personal best time of 31.12 seconds. This put him 21st (and last) overall and he did not qualify for the final—the eight overall fastest swimmers made that stage of the competition. Sultana took part in the men's 100 metre butterfly S10 event the following day, being drawn into heat three. He finished the race in a time of 1 minute and 16.94 seconds and placed eighth in his heat. As only the top eight overall finishers could advance to the final, Sultana was eliminated from the competition. On 8 September, he participated in the men's 100 metre breaststroke SB9 contest. Sultana was drawn into heat two and completed the race in sixth position in a time of 1 minute and 36.89 seconds. His competition ended since he was slowest overall and only the top eight swimmers progressed to the final. ### Men ## See also - Malta at the 2012 Summer Olympics

2013 Monaco GP2 Series round

Motor race

The 2013 Monaco GP2 Series round was a pair of motor races held on 24 and 25 May 2013, at the Circuit de Monaco, Monte Carlo, Monaco as part of the GP2 Series. It was the fourth round of the 2013 GP2 Series and was run in support of the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix. The first race, a 42-lap feature event, was won by Russian Time driver Sam Bird who started from third position. Kevin Ceccon finished second for the Trident Racing team and Arden International driver Mitch Evans took third. Stefano Coletti of the Rapax team won the shorter 30-lap sprint race from MP Motorsport's Adrian Quaife-Hobbs in second and Evans third. Johnny Cecotto Jr. won the pole position for the feature race by setting the fastest lap in qualifying. His lost the lead to teammate Evans heading into the first corner and understeered into the barrier while holding off Fabio Leimer. Jolyon Palmer spun in avoidance blocking passage to the turn and the race was stopped because 15 cars were stranded. Evans led the restarted race but Bird passed him after the pit stop phase. Bird opened up a lengthy advantage over the rest of the field to win. Quaife-Hobbs started from pole position in the sprint race and kept the lead until Coletti passed him on the third lap. Although his lead diminished because of tyre wear Coletti led the event's remaining laps to claim the victory. Bird's feature race victory was his—and Russian Time's—second of the season and Coletti's sprint race win meant he became the first Monegasque driver to win on the streets of Monaco since Louis Chiron in 1931. The race results increased Coletti's Drivers' Championship lead to 24 points over Felipe Nasr. Bird's feature race win gained him two positions to move to third while Leimer fell to fourth. Rapax took the Teams' Championship lead from Carlin and Russian Time moved to third with Racing Engineering fourth with seven rounds left in the season. ## Background The 2013 Monaco GP2 Series round was the fourth of eleven scheduled events in 2013. It was held on 24 and 25 May at the Circuit de Monaco in Monte Carlo and supported the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix. Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the red-banded supersoft and yellow-banded soft dry tyres to the race. Before the two races, Rapax driver Stefano Coletti led the Drivers' Championship with 93 points, 17 ahead of Felipe Nasr in second, who in turn, was a further 18 points in front of Fabio Leimer in third. Robin Frijns was fourth on 33 points and Sam Bird was four points behind him in fifth place. Carlin led the Teams' Championship on 107 points; Rapax had a small deficit of six points in second and Racing Engineering were third with 64 points. Hilmer Motorsports were fourth on 56 points and Russian Time were one point in fifth. For the round, there were 26 drivers were entered and all of them piloted the Dallara GP2/11 car fielded by 13 teams of two competitors each. After a strong start to the season, Frijns confirmed on Twitter that he would contest the Monaco round as his contract with Hilmer Motorsports was on a race-by-race basis. ## Practice and qualifying One 30-minute practice session was held on Thursday before the two races. Bird, who called the Circuit de Monaco his favourite track in the GP2 Series, lapped fastest at 1 minute, 21.512 seconds on super-soft tyres, 0.057 seconds faster than Russian Time teammate Tom Dillmann in second. Mitch Evans, Carlin's Jolyon Palmer, Marcus Ericsson of DAMS, Arden International's Johnny Cecotto Jr., Leimer, Nasr, Rio Haryanto of Addax and James Calado made up positions two to ten. Only minor off-track excursions were reported with DAMS's Stéphane Richelmi spinning at La Rascasse corner and stalled in his attempt to continue driving. Nasr narrowly avoided hitting the barrier at the Swimming Pool complex and Coletti, Leimer, Calado and Kevin Giovesi for Lazarus all ran deep onto the run-off areas at various points during practice. Friday afternoon's qualifying session ran for 30-minutes. As in 2012, qualifying was divided into two groups of 13 cars, with odd numbered vehicles in Group A and even numbered cars in Group B. The starting order was determined by the fastest overall driver in either group. Most cars had the soft types equipped at the start and most made pit stops for set-up alterations with some installing supersoft tyres. Cecotto clinched his first pole position of the season, the second of his career, and at Monte Carlo with a time of 1 minute, 21.141 seconds. He was joined on the grid's front row by teammate Evans who led Group B; his best time was 0.016 seconds slower than Cecotto. On his final timed lap, Bird was fastest in the first of the lap, but lost six tenths in the final and was third. Leimer drifted sideways at the final corner on his fastest lap but avoided hitting the barrier en route to fourth. Kevin Ceccon (Trident) took fifth. Sixth-placed Palmer's first attempt at going faster proved unsuccessful as he encountered Richelmi in the final sector but took it at his next attempt before Leimer demoted him down the order. Julián Leal (Racing Engineering) took seventh after encountering traffic on his final lap and needed to pass one car to record his fastest time. Dillmann qualified in eighth place. Nasr set the early pace in Group B before settling for ninth and Frijns took tenth. Ericsson in 11th was the fastest driver not to qualify in the top ten. He led Group B early on but was demoted as the session progressed. He was followed by Sergio Canamasas (Caterham Racing) in 12th and Rossi in 13th. Coletti was another Group B early pace setter but began from 14th position. Haryanto qualified in 15th but was demoted ten places on the grid for causing an avoidable accident at the season's previous round in Catalunya. Hence Nathanaël Berthon (Trident) inherited the place and was followed by Calado, Richelmi and Daniël de Jong (MP Motorsport). 20th place qualifier René Binder (Lazarus) incurred a three-place grid penalty for impeding Canamasas during qualifying. Giovesi began in 20th with Daniel Abt (ART Grand Prix), Simon Trummer (Rapax) and Jake Rosenzweig (Addax) in 21st to 23rd positions. Lancaster started from 24th after a spin at Sainte Dévote turn necessitated yellow flags to be waved in the area. The final position in the field was taken by Adrian Quaife-Hobbs (MP Motorsport) whose fastest time was 2.2 seconds slower than Cecotto. ### Qualifying classification Group A Group B Notes: - — Rio Haryanto received a ten-place grid penalty for causing a collision at the previous race. - — René Binder was penalised three places for impeding Canamasas during qualifying. ## Races The first race was held over 140 km (87 mi) or 60 minutes (whichever came first) and the regulations required drivers to make one pit stop. The first ten finishers scored points, with two given to the fastest lap holder. The grid for the second race was determined by the finishing order of the first but with the first eight drivers in reverse order of where they finished. It was run for 100 km (62 mi) or 45 minutes (whichever came first). In contrast to the prior race drivers were not required to make pit stops. The top eight finishers earned points towards their respective championships. ### Feature race The feature race was due to start at 11:15 Central European Summer Time (UTC+02:00) on 24 May, but was delayed by 15 minutes due to an incident during qualifying for the Porsche Supercup race in which several cars crashed at Massenet corner. Repairs were required to the barriers at the turn as they had been dislodged, and oil laid on the track surface at the same turn was covered with cement dust. When the race began under overcast and cool weather of 18 °C (64 °F) and a track temperature of 26 °C (79 °F), wheelspin from Cecotto allowed his teammate Evans to lead the field into Sainte Dévote turn. Soon after a 15-car crashed at the first corner forced a stoppage. After losing the lead Cecotto was holding off Leimer through Sainte Dévote, it became impossible for Cecotto to maintain his line and he understeered straight into the barrier. Leimer was trapped and mounted the left-hand corner of Cecotto's car. Palmer took avoiding action by spinning on the inside, blocking the turn. Palmer avoided injury when Leal's front wing almost struck his helmet. Coletti, Leal, Dillmann, Frijns, Ericsson, Rossi, Berthon, Binder, Giovesi, Haryanto, Rosenzweig and Abt were all trapped in the blockade with varying degrees of car damage. Nasr was near Bird and Ceccon and avoided the collision between Leal and Palmer. Drivers ran back to their cars and remonstrated with marshals to allow them to take the restart. A 40-minute delay was necessitated for track clearing before the race could be restarted. Nine drivers had enough damage to warrant their retirement: Cecotto, Leimer, Palmer, Leal, Frijns, Ericsson, Rossi, Berthon and Giovesi. The running order was determined by where the drivers were in the first sector with others assigned their starting positions. This gave Evans the lead behind the safety car followed by Bird, Ceccon, Nasr and Calado. The safety car was withdrawn at the end of lap two and racing resumed. Evans and Bird opened up a two-second lead over Ceccon, Nasr, Calado and Richelmi. Although Evans had switched to the supersoft tyres during the stoppage Bird set consecutive fastest laps on the soft tyres. As they had been compromised by the first lap pileup and were at the back of the field, Dillmann and Coletti chose to make their mandatory pit stops when the window opened at the end of lap seven for rear soft compound tyres. Haryanto and Abt made their stops on the next lap and Calado and Lancaster followed on lap nine. Coletti's early pit stop caused him to lap faster than other drivers by two seconds. Other drivers became aware of the significance and Nasr entered the pit lane to keep his position from Calado. Ceccon and Richelmi did the same on the 11th lap, putting pressure on race leader Evans who was at this point three seconds a lap slower than Ceccon. Evans made his own pit stop on lap 12 for soft compound tyres but lost the lead to Ceccon, who made up enough time to pass him. Evans could not keep close to Ceccon and was three seconds behind after one lap and his diminishing pace hurt the delayed Bird who became the leader following Evans' pit stop. On lap 15, De Jong made a problematic pit stop: a rear jack failure delayed him and he crossed the yellow line at the pit lane exit twice, incurring a drive-through penalty. Bird set fast laps and maintained the lead after his pit stop at the conclusion of the 16th lap ahead of the yet-to-stop Binder, Ceccon and Evans. Bird was pushing when he slid clipping a kerb and glanced a barrier leaving Portier turn on lap 18. Abt went to the outside of Haryanto on lap 28 and braked later than him for 13th. The resulting manoeuvre meant Abt put Haryanto into an inside barrier and damaging his car's nose cone. The need for the safety car was avoided as Haryanto's car was moved away from the track quickly. The stewards deemed Abt too aggressive towards Haryanto and imposed a drive-through penalty on him showed him a black flag with an orange disc to instruct him to repair his car. Dillmann attempted to pass Rosenzweig but ran deep at the Novelle Chicane, requiring him to relinquish the position to Rosenzweig. Binder made his pit stop on the 29th lap and emerged in seventh behind Coletti. Bird continued to lead by 17 seconds over Ceccon who held off the faster Evans in third who himself had Nasr and Calado close behind. Bird then opened up a 22 second lead over the rest of the field and maintained it to win the race. Ceccon finished second with a second covering Evans in third and Nasr in fourth; Evans narrowly held off Nasr for the final podium place. Calado secured fifth with Coletti and Binder sixth and seventh. Quaife-Hobbs passed Richemi for eighth in the final stages for the sprint race pole position. Richelmi and De Jong were ninth and tenth. Dillmann, Lancaster, Trummer, Rosenzweig, Canamasas and Abt were the final classified finishers. It was Bird's third GP2 Series win, his second of 2013 for Russian Time, and repeated his 2012 Formula Renault 3.5 Series win in Monaco. After the race, the stewards deemed Cecotto responsible for causing the first lap stoppage and barred him from competing in the following day's sprint race. #### Feature race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. ### Sprint race The second race began at 16:10 local time on 25 May. The weather at the start were cooler than the previous day's race with light rain falling. The air temperature was 17 °C (63 °F) and the track temperature was 25 °C (77 °F). Most cars started on the soft compound tyres. When the race started, pole sitter Quaife-Hobbs maintained the lead into Sainte Dévote corner while Coletti moved into second as Binder made a slow start and fell to sixth. Calado initially held third, but Evans overtook him on the outside at Mirabeau turn for third. Nasr passed Calado at the start of the following lap at Sainte Dévote corner for fourth position. Having been close behind Quaife-Hobbs in the race's opening stages, Coletti pressured him by using his local knowledge to apply pressure on the latter. Coletti lined up an overtake on Quaife-Hobbs on the third lap leaving the tunnel and into the Novelle Chicane. He steered right onto the inside and braked later than Quaife-Hobbs to pass him for the lead. Coletti began to pull away from Quaife-Hobbs, setting the race's fastest lap at that point on the fourth lap to be 2.1 seconds ahead. Quaife-Hobbs focused himself on holding off the closing Evans, Nasr and Calado. Dillmann was forced to go two laps behind the leader on the seventh lap after he sustained car damage. Bird in seventh was challenged by Ceccon entering the Novelle Chicane forcing Bird to overshoot the corner to avoid a collision. Bird was aware that his move would entail a drive-through penalty and yielded seventh to Ceccon. Richelmi immediately attacked Bird but it became evident that Bird's car had a major problem. Bird lost further positions before entering the pit lane for technical assistance that put him one lap behind the race leader. He thus set the race's fastest lap on supersoft tyres; as he was outside the top ten he did not score the point entailed by the achievement. Palmer overtook Canamasas on lap 13 in a near-identical move to Abt's pass on Haryanto in the previous day's race. But on this occasion, both drivers continued without significant damage. Quaife-Hobbs held off the three-car train and appeared stronger as the race progressed and the tyres degraded. As the field became tightly packed, no driver had the advantage of getting the edge for moving up the field. This was the case until Rosenzweig stuck the front of his car down the inside of Lancaster through the Lowe's hairpin and tapped him into a half-spin. Rosenzweig moved into tenth as Lancaster could not recover sufficiently from the incident and lost five places in two corners. Coletti's hold on first waned because tyre degradation removed some of his earlier speed and handling, lowering his lead over Quaife-Hobbs to a second. Less than four seconds covered the first five with a 14-second gap over a battle for sixth between Binder, Ceccon and Richelmi. Coletti had help from Quaife-Hobbs who defended from Evans. By this point, the track was completely dry with no rainfall. Evans tried again to take second on the final lap, almost hitting the rear of Quaife-Hobbs's car as the pair left the Novelle Chicane. Coletti maintained the lead for the rest of the race to win, making him the first Monegasque driver to win on the streets of Monaco since Louis Chiron in the 1931 Monaco Grand Prix. Quaife-Hobbs finished in second position, three-tenths of a second ahead of Evans in third. Nasr, Calado, Binder, Ceccon and Richelmi made up positions four through ten. De Jong, Rosenzweig, Canamasas, Palmer, Leimer, Leal, Frijns, Haryanto, Lancaster, Ericcson, Rossi, Giovesi, Berthon, Abt, Trummer, Bird and Dillmann were the final classified finishers. #### Sprint race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. Notes: - — Johnny Cecotto Jr. was excluded from the race for causing a pile-up at the beginning of the feature race. ### Post-race The top three drivers in both races appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Although Bird spoke of his satisfaction of controlling the pace of the feature race, he believed he was fortunate because of a new rear wing after Ceccon hit his car at the first start, "It’s an amazing to be able to win my first GP2 race in Monaco. Maybe I should have done it already in the past in GP2, but it felt pretty right today." Ceccon stated he was "happy" to finish second and praised his team for a strategy that allowed him to pass Evans, "It’s my first GP2 podium and it’s two years in a row that I finish on the podium here since I finished third last year in GP3 here as well. Today, I finished in P2 in race 1. It’s good." When asked if he was disappointed to finish third, Evans replied yes as he struggled with grip on the supersoft compound tyres at the restart and was being pressured by Bird on the harder compounds. Evans spoke of his belief that had he overtaken Ceccon he could have had similar pace levels to Bird and felt the best possible result he could have achieved was second but said he would accept the result. After the sprint race, Coletti spoke of his childhood dream of hearing the Monegasque national anthem while standing atop the podium, "It feels great I mean I’ve seen all the drivers winning here since I was a kid. I’m really, really happy especially that with this win I’ve consolidated my lead in the standings." He said for the season's next race at Silverstone his team need to improve his car for qualifying and then aim to win the feature race. Quaife-Hobbs said it felt "amazing" to achieve his first career podium, "Today, it’s a great reward for the team and how hard they’ve worked. We are a new team. Now every new team have had a podium." He believed had he defended from Coletti on the third lap both drivers would not have entered the Novelle Chicane and said he chose to follow Coletti with the view for an attack later on. Third-place finisher Evans revealed he struggled to get the optimum rear tyre temperature on the formation lap especially since the start was the best time to pass drivers and was aware that a podium finish was probably unrealistic. Nevertheless, he was happy to have finished on the podium again after altering his car. Cecotto's driving in the feature race received much attention. It was third such incident in the season that Cecotto had courted controversy and criticism from drivers: he was disqualified from qualifying for the Sepang round when he forced Bird off the track but avoided a penalty in the Catalunya sprint race when he swerved across Canamasas in a battle for fifth. Leimer claimed that Cecotto solely concentrated on himself rather than making the corner, "It's really, really disappointing as a lot was possible today and I could have scored a lot of points. But once more due to another driver I lost out, while my competitors in the battle for the championship are scoring." Palmer was more vocal in his criticism in Cecotto, remarking he would rather start from the pit lane than within two rows of Cecotto. Peter Allen of Formula Scout argued that while Cecotto's manoeuvre was not clearly malicious in intent, the driver deserved the ban to help him realise he needed to control his aggression. The result increased Coletti's lead atop of the Drivers' Championship with 120 points. Nasr remained in second place, 24 points behind Coletti, while Bird's feature race victory moved him to third position. Because he scored no points in both races, Leimer fell to fourth and Calado moved from eighth to fifth. Rapax took the lead of the Teams' Championship by one point ahead of previous leaders Carlin. Russian Time moved to third place on 80 points and were a further 16 ahead of fourth-placed Racing Engineering. Arden took over fifth place with seven rounds left in the season. ## Standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Teams' Championship standings - Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings.

Storm Coaster

Roller coaster

Storm Coaster is a Water Coaster located at the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast, Australia. The ride is designed by Mack Rides of Germany and combines the flume and splashdown elements of a log flume, with the chain lift hill and drops of a steel roller coaster. Original plans for a Water Coaster at Sea World were released by the local council in 2008; however, they were put on hold. In 2010, the Bermuda Triangle ride closed, sitting dormant until mid-2012 when construction for the Storm Coaster began. After demolition works were completed, track for the Storm Coaster arrived at Sea World, taking five months to erect. Storm Coaster officially opened to the public on 6 December 2013. Storm Coaster is themed to the effects of a Category 5 Tropical Cyclone at a coastal shipping port. The 470-metre-long (1,540 ft) ride stands 28 metres (92 ft) tall and features a top speed of 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph). The ride has not been well received, with park goers missing the old Bermuda Triangle ride that was on the same site. ## History In January 2008, the Gold Coast City Council released plans for a Mack Rides Water Coaster at Sea World. The ride would have been located at the front of the park, with the ride's station situated where the Penguin Encounter exhibit exists and the main track extending out and over the car park. These plans were shelved. In December 2008, Sea World opened Jet Rescue, an Intamin JetSki Coaster. In June 2012, Sea World applied for a permit to demolish the Bermuda Triangle water ride system and the interior of its show building. The Bermuda Triangle had been sitting dormant since its closure in October 2010 and had been earmarked by the park as a site for a future attraction. On 12 July 2012, Christian von Elverfeldt from Mack Rides revealed Australia would be receiving a water roller coaster in 2013; leading to speculation that Sea World might have revived its plans. Further development application filings, and reports by the Roller Coaster DataBase and the Gold Coast Bulletin, confirmed this speculation. In September 2012, Sea World asked Austrian firm Dynamic Motion Rides (DyMoRides) to develop a theming and show design concept for the yet-to-be-announced Storm Coaster. DyMoRides was ultimately contracted for the full turnkey project in April 2013. DyMoRides subsequently contracted PEL Creative for creative direction, Full-On Lighting for lighting design, Volume One for audio and visual effects, and Sculpt Studios for theming design. Prior to the commencement of construction, Sea World announced a new attraction for 2013 and released a promotional image on their Facebook page which read "The storm is building. It's gonna be a big one.". Demolition works began in August 2012. Due to this construction, nearby attractions, including Viking's Revenge Flume Ride, Jet Rescue and the Skyway, were intermittently closed throughout the latter part of 2012 and into 2013. The first pieces of ride track arrived on site in April 2013, with vertical construction commencing in the following month. An official announcement for Storm Coaster made by Sea World in May 2013 detailed the ride would feature 470 metres (1,540 ft) of track and a series of water and fire effects. Although an opening date of September 2013 was initially set, Sea World later revised this to be Summer 2013. By September 2013, the ride's track was complete, with focus moving towards theming and testing the ride. On 2 December 2013, Storm Coaster soft opened to the public, with an official opening held four days later. ## Characteristics Storm Coaster is a Water Coaster designed by Mack Rides. The 470-metre-long (1,540 ft) track layout is identical to Skatteøen at Djurs Sommerland in Denmark. The ride stands 28 metres (92 ft) tall and features a top speed of 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph). Unlike most roller coasters which have two rails and a wheel assembly to wrap around the track, Storm Coaster features six rails where the wheels run within the track. The ride features six Coast Guard-themed vehicles that each seat eight riders in four rows of two. Riders are restrained through the use of both lap bars and seat belts. Storm Coaster is reported to have cost \$20 million, making it the single biggest investment in an Australian theme park attraction. ## Experience Storm Coaster is themed around the effects of a Category 5 Tropical Cyclone at a coastal shipping port. Theming surrounding the ride depicts a path of destruction from the storm, with boats, cars, shipping containers and other debris strewn throughout. However, the port is in the eye of the storm and everyone must evacuate via Coast Guard rescue boats. Riders enter the queue area by passing through a shipping container with a rusty Storm Coaster sign on it. A short outdoor path leads riders towards a stack of containers. Riders enter the containers through a series of black rubber flaps, before emerging into a warehouse. Once at the station riders board one of the Coast Guard boats. After departing the station, the boats travel through a short flume section before emerging from the building and ascending a 28-metre-tall (92 ft) chain lift hill. Once at the top of the hill, the track dips and turns 180 degrees to the right, entering a mid-course brake run. A sweeping 180 degree downward turn to the right is followed by an upward turn into another brake run. The ride then drops below ground, passing under the queue path before emerging over an air-time hill, where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness. This hill drops into the hull of an upturned boat and is followed by the ride's splashdown. On the boat's return path to the station it passes a variety of lighting, fire, and water effects. Riders exiting Storm Coaster pass alongside the ride's finale, with the chance to get soaked by other boats in the splashdown area. ## Reception The reception of Storm Coaster has been negative. The Bermuda Triangle which was situated on the same site and was demolished for the Storm Coaster was a fan favourite among Sea World visitors and had a cult following. Other negatives include riders calling it one dimensional due to the same 2 turns being the bulk of the ride and it not being thrilling compared to other roller coasters on the Gold Coast. . ## See also - Journey to Atlantis - 2013 in amusement parks